:w 


\m 


m% 


Hp 


HBQfl 


weSeST 

¥9HGBr 


JBHIHB1 

IMS        S? 


S^-^- 


/ 


LIBEAEY 

OF   THE 

Theological   Semin 

ry, 

PRINCETON,    N.  J. 

Case, 

^     .... I 

Shelf, 
Booh, 

- 

•\» 

.W37 


A  BIBLICAL   AND   THEOLOGICAL 

DICTIONARY: 

EXPLANATORY  OF  THE 

HISTORY,  MANNERS,  AND  CUSTOMS  OF  THE  JEWS, 

AND  NEIGHBOURING  NATION& 

WITH  AN  ACCOUNT  OF  THE  MOST  REMARKABLE  PLACES  AND  PERSONS 
MENTIONED   IN   SACRED   SCRIPTURE; 

3Bn  4Bipo$ition 


PRINCIPAL  DOCTRINES  OF  CHRISTIANITY: 

AND  NOTICES  OF  JEWISH  AND  CHRISTIAN  SECTS  AND  HERESIES. 
BY   RICHARD   WATSON. 

[REVISED  BY  THE  AMERICAN  EDITORS.] 

AIM'HN  Z?iv  aKijiavTOi,  Kal  tuxos  appayk,  Kal  avpyos  bazifos,  Kal  Sd%a  avaipaipcTos,  Kal  8  ttXh 
arpiara,  Kal  thQvjiia  audpavro;,  Kal  t]5ovfj  Sitjvenri;,  Kal  rsdvra  oaa  av  liiroi  rl$  xaXii,  tZv  Selwv 
ypcup&v  r)  avvuala. — Chrysostom. 

[An  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  Holy  Scriptures  is  a  secure  haven,  and  an  impregnable  bulwark, 
and  an  immovable  tower,  and  imperishable  glory,  and  impenetrable  armour,  and  unfading  joy,  and 
perpetual  delight,  and  whatever  other  excellence  can  be  uttered.] 


NEW-YORK, 


PUBLISHED  BY  B.  WAUGH  AND  T.  MASON, 

FOR  THE  METHODIST   EPISCOPAL   CHURCH,  AT   THE   CONFERENCE 

OFFICE,   14  CROSBY-STREET. 


J.  Collord,  Printer. 

1833. 


"  Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1832,  by  B.  Waugh  and  T.  Mason,  in 
the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  Southern  District  of  New- York." 


PBIKG' 


BIBLICAL    AND    THEOLOGICAL    DICTION AKY, 


ft  ■  rfi^ 


AAR 

AARON,  the  son  of  Amram  and  Jochebed, 
of  the  tribe  of  Levi.  Aaron  was  three  years 
older  than  his  brother  Moses;  and  when  God 
appeared  in  the  burning  bush,  Moses  having 
excused  himself  from  the  undertaking  commit- 
ted to  him,  by  urging  that  he  was  slow  of  speech, 
Aaron,  who  was  an  eloquent  man,  was  made 
his  interpreter  and  spokesman  ;  and  in  effecting 
the  deliverance  of  the  Hebrews  we  therefore  find 
them  constantly  associated.  During  the  march 
of  the  children  of  Israel  through  the  wilderness, 
Aaron  and  his  sons  were  appointed  by  God  to 
exercise  for  ever  the  office  of  priests  in  the 
tabernacle. 

Moses  having  ascended  the  mountain  to  re- 
ceive the  law  from  God,  Aaron,  his  sons,  and 
seventy  elders,  followed  him,  Exod.  xxiv,  1,  2, 
9-11 ;  not  indeed  to  the  summit,  but  "  afar  off," 
"  and  they  saw  the  God  of  Israel,"  that  is,  the 
glory  in  which  he  appeared,  "as  it  were  the 
paved  work  of  a  sapphire  stone,  and  as  it  were 
the  body  of  heaven  for  clearness ;" — a  clear  and 
dazzling  azure,  a  pure,  unmingled  splendour 
like  that  of  the  heavens.  "  And  upon  the  nobles 
of  Israel,"  Aaron,  his  sons,  and  the  seventy 
elders,  "he  laid  not  his  hand," — they  were  not 
destroyed  by  a  sight  which  must  have  over- 
whelmed the  weakness  of  mortal  men  had  they 
not  been  strengthened  to  bear  it;  "and  they 
did  eat  and  drink," — they  joyfully  and  devoutly 
feasted  before  the  Lord,  as  a  religious  act,  upon 
the  sacrifices  they  offered.  After  this  they  de- 
parted, and  Moses  remained  with  God  on  the 
very  summit  of  the  mount  forty  days. 

During  this  period,  the  people,  grown  impa- 
tient at  the  long  absence  of  Moses,  addressed 
themselves  to  Aaron  in  a  tumultuous  manner, 
saying,  "  Make  us  gods  which  shall  go  before 
us  :  for,  as  for  this  Moses,  the  man  that  brought 
us  up  out  of  the  land  of  Egypt,  we  wot  not  what 
is  become  of  him."  Aaron  sinfully  yielded  to 
the  importunities  of  the  people ;  and  having 
ordered  them  to  bring  the  pendants  and  the  ear- 
rings of  their  wives  and  children,  he  melted 
them  down,  and  then  made  a  golden  calf,  pro- 
bably in  imitation  of  the  Egyptian  Apis,  an  ox 
or  calf  dedicated  to  Osiris.  In  this  instance  the 
image  was  dedicated  to  Jehovah  the  true  God  ; 
but  the  guilt  consisted  in  an  attempt  to  establish 
image  worship,  which,  when  even  ultimately 
referring  to  God,  he  has  forbidden.  Neither  are 
images  to  be  worshipped,  nor  the  true  God  by 
images ; — this  is  the  standing  unrepealed  law 
of  Heaven.  The  calf  was  called  a  golden  calf, 
as  being  highly  ornamented  with  gold.  Having 
finished  the  idol,  the  people  placed  it  on  a  pedes- 


AAR 

tal,  and  danced  around  it,  saying,  "  These  be  thy 
gods,  O  Israel ;"  or,  as  it  is  expressed  in  Nehe. 
miah,  "  This  is  thy  God,"  the  image  or  symbol 
of  thy  God,  "which  brought  thee  up  out  of  the 
land  of  Egypt."  Moses,  having  hastened  from 
the  mount  by  the  command  of  God,  testified  to 
the  people,  by  breaking  the  tables  of  the  law 
in  their  presence,  that  the  covenant  between 
God  and  them  was  now  rendered  of  none  effect 
through  their  offence.  He  also  indignantly  re- 
proved Aaron,  whose  sin  indeed  had  kindled 
against  him  the  anger  of  the  Lord,  so  that  he 
would  "have  destroyed  him  but  that  Moses 
prayed  for  him." 

After  the  tabernacle  was  built,  Moses  conse- 
crated Aaron  to  the  high  priesthood  with  the 
holy  oil,  and  invested  him  with  his  priestly 
robes, — his  garments  "  of  glory  and  beauty  ;" 
but  Aaron's  weakness  was  again  manifested  in 
concurring  with  Miriam,  his  sister,  to  censure 
and  oppose  Moses,  through  envy.  Aaron,  as 
being  the  elder  brother,  could  not  perhaps  brook 
his  superiority.  What  the  motive  of  Miriam 
might  be  does  not  appear ;  but  she  being  struck 
with  leprosy,  this  punishment,  as  being  imme- 
diately from  God,  opened  Aaron's  eyes ;  he  ac- 
knowledged his  fault,  and  asked  forgiveness  of 
Moses  both  for  himself  and  his  sister. 

Aaron  himself  became  also  the  object  of  jeal, 
ousy;  but  two  miraculous  interpositions  con- 
firmed him  in  his  office  of  high  priest,  as  of 
Divine  appointment.  The  first  was  the  destruc- 
tion of  Korah,  who  sought  that  office  for  him- 
self, and  of  the  two  hundred  and  fifty  Levites 
who  supported  his  pretensions,  Num.  xvi.  The 
second  was  the  blossoming  of  Aaron's  rod, 
which  was  designed  "  to  cause  the  murmurings 
of  the  Israelites  against  him  to  cease,"  by  show- 
ing that  he  was  chosen  of  God.  Moses  having, 
at  the  command  of  God,  taken  twelve  rods  of 
an  almond  tree  from  the  princes  of  the  twelve 
tribes,  and  Aaron's  separately,  he  placed  them 
in  the  tabernacle  before  the  sanctuary,  after 
having  written  upon  each  the  name  of  the  tribe 
which  it  represented,  and  upon  the  rod  of  Aaron 
the  name  of  Aaron.  The  day  following,  when 
the  rods  were  taken  out,  that  of  Aaron  "was 
budded,  and  brought  forth  buds,  and  bloomed 
blossoms,  and  yielded  almonds."  This  rod 
therefore  was  laid  up  by  the  ark,  to  perpetuate 
the  remembrance  of  the  miracle,  and  to  be  a 
token  of  Aaron's  right  to  his  office. 

Aaron  married  Elisheba,  the  daughter  of 
Amminadab,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  by  whom  he 
had  four  sons,  Nadab  and  Abihu,  Eleazar  and 
Ithamar,  Exodus  vi,  23.     The  two  first  were 


AAR 


AAR 


killed  by  fire  from  heaven,  as  a  punishment  for 
presuming  to  offer  incense  with  strange  fire  in 
their  censers,  Lev.  x,  1,  2.  From  the  two  others 
the  succession  of  high  priests  was  continued  in 
Israel. 

The  account  of  the  death  of  Aaron  is  pecu- 
liarly solemn  and  afFecting.  As  he  and  Moses, 
in  striking  the  rock  at  Meribah,  Num.  xvi,  had 
not  honoured  God  by  a  perfect  obedience  and 
faith,  he  in  his  wrath  declared  unto  them  that 
they  sbould  not  enter  into  the  promised  land. 
Soon  after,  the  Lord  commanded  Moses,  "  Take 
Aaron,  and  Eleazar  his  son,  and  bring  them  up 
to  mount  Hor ;  and  strip  Aaron  of  his  garments," 
— his  splendid  pontifical  vestments, — "and  put 
them  upon  Eleazar,  his  son ;  and  Aaron  shall 
be  gathered  unto  his  people,  and  shall  die  there." 
This  command  was  carried  into  effect  in  the 
presence  of  all  Israel,  who  were  encamped  at 
the  foot  of  the  mountain ;  and  his  son  being 
invested  with  the  father's  priestly  dress,  Aaron 
died,  and  all  the  people  mourned  for  him  thirty 
days.  His  sepulchre  was  left  unmarked  and 
unknown,  perhaps  to  prevent  the  superstitious 
reverence  of  future  ages.  In  Deuteronomy  it 
is  said  that  Aaron  died  at  Mosera ;  because  that 
was  the  name  of  the  district  in  which  mount 
Hor  was  situated. 

2.  The  priesthood  being  established  in  Aaron 
and  his  family,  the  nature  of  this  office  among 
the  Israelites,  and  the  distinction  between  the 
high  priest  and  the  other  priests,  require  here 
to  be  pointed  out. 

Before  the  promulgation  of  the  law  by  Moses, 
the  fathers  of  every  family,  and  the  princes  of 
every  tribe,  were  priests.  This  was  the  case  both 
before  and  after  the  flood ;  for  Cain  and  Abel, 
Noah,  Abraham,  Job,  Abimelech,  Laban,  Isaac, 
and  Jacob,  themselves  offered  their  own  sacri- 
fices. But  after  the  Lord  had  chosen  the  family 
of  Aaron,  and  annexed  the  priesthood  to  that 
line,  then  the  right  of  sacrificing  to  God  was 
reserved  to  that  family  only.  The  high  priest- 
hood was  confined  to  the  first-born  in  succes- 
sion ;  and  the  rest  of  his  posterity  were  priests 
simply  so  called,  or  priests  of  the  second  order. 
Both  in  the  high  priest  and  the  second  or  in- 
ferior priests,  two  tilings  deserve  notice, — their 
consecration  and  their  office.  In  some  things 
they  differed,  and  in  others  agreed.  In  their 
consecration  they  differed  thus  :  the  high  priest 
had  the  chrism,  or  sacred  ointment,  poured  upon 
his  head,  so  as  to  run  down  to  his  beard,  and 
the  skirts  of  his  garment,  Exod.  xxx,  23;  Lev. 
viii,  12 ;  Psa.  exxxiii,  2.  But  the  second  priests 
■were  only  sprinkled  with  this  oil,  mixed  with 
the  blood  of  the  sacrifice,  Lev.  viii,  30.  They 
differed  also  in  their  robes,  which  were  a  neces- 
sary adjunct  to  consecration.  The  high  priest 
wore  at  the  ordinary  times  of  his  ministration 
in  the  temple,  eight  garments ; — linen  drawers 
— a  coat  of  fine  linen  close  to  his  skin — an  em- 
broidered girdle  of  fine  linen,  blue  and  scarlet, 
to  surround  the  coat — a  robe  all  of  blue  with 
seventy-two  bells,  and  as  many  embroidered 
pomegranates  upon  the  skirts  of  it;  this  was 
put.  over  the  coat  and  girdle — an  ephod  of  gold, 
and  of  blue,  purple,  scarlet,  and  fine  linen, 
curiously  wrought,  on  the  shoulders  of  which 


were  two  stones  engraved  with  the  names  of 
the  twelve  tribes ;  this  was  put  over  the  robe, 
and  girt  with  a  curious  girdle  of  the  same — a 
breastplate,  about  a  span  square,  wrought  with 
gold,  blue,  purple,  scarlet,  and  fine  linen,  and 
fastened  upon  the  ephod  by  golden  chains  and 
rings ;  in  this  breastplate  were  placed  the  urim 
and  thummim,  also  twelve  several  stones,  con- 
taining the  names  of  the  twelve  tribes — a  mitre 
of  fine  linen,  sixteen  cubits  long,  to  wrap  round 
his  head — and  lastly,  a  plate  of  gold,  or  holy 
crown,  two  fingers  broad,  whereon  was  engrav- 
ed, "  Holiness  to  the  Lord  ;"  this  was  tied  with 
blue  lace  upon  the  front  of  the  mitre.  Besido 
these  garments,  which  he  wore  in  his  ordinary 
ministration,  there  were  four  others,  which  he 
wore  only  upon  extraordinary  occasions,  viz. 
on  the  day  of  expiation,  when  he  went  into  the 
holy  of  holies,  which  was  once  a  year.  These 
were  :  linen  drawers — a  linen  coat — a  linen 
girdle — a  linen  mitre,  all  white,  Exod.  xxviii ; 
Lev.  xvi,  4.  But  the  inferior  priests  had  only 
four  garments  :  linen  drawers — a  linen  coat^ 
a  linen  girdle — a  linen  bonnet.  The  priest  and 
high  priest  differed  also  in  their  marriage  re- 
strictions;  for  the  high  priest  might  not  marry 
a  widow,  nor  a  divorced  woman,  nor  a  harlot, 
but  a  virgin  only  ;  whereas  the  other  priests 
might  lawfully  marry  a  widow,  Lev.  xxi,  7. 

In  the  following  particulars  the  high  priest 
and  inferior  priests  agreed  in  their  consecra- 
tion :  both  were  to  be  void  of  bodily  blemish — 
both  were  to  be  presented  to  the  Lord  at  the 
door  of  the  tabernacle — both  were  to  be  washed 
with  water — both  were  to  be  consecrated  by 
offering  up  certain  sacrifices — both  were  to 
have  the  blood  of  a  ram  put  upon  the  tip  of  the 
right  ear,  the  thumb  of  the  right  hand,  and  the 
great  toe  of  the  right  foot,  Exod.  xxix,  20.  In 
the  time  of  consecration,  certain  pieces  of  the 
sacrifice  were  put  into  the  priest's  hand,  which 
was  called  "filling  his  hand;"  hence  the  He- 
brew phrase,  "to  fill  the  hand,"  signifies  con- 
secration. 

In  the  discharge  of  their  offices,  the  high 
priest  differed  from  the  other  priests  in  these 
particulars :  the  high  priest  only,  and  that  but 
once  a  year,  might  enter  into  the  holy  of  holies 
— the  high  priest  might  not  mourn  for  his  near- 
est relations  by  uncovering  his  head,  or  tearing 
any  part  of  his  garments,  except  the  skirt ; 
whereas  the  priest  was  allowed  to  mourn  for 
these  six, — father,  mother,  son,  daughter,  bro- 
ther, and  sister  if  she  had  no  husband,  Lev. 
xxi,  2, 10, 11 ;  but  they  agreed  in  these  respects: 
they  both  burnt  incense  and  offered  sacrifices — 
they  both  sounded  the  trumpet,  cither  as  an 
alarm  in  war,  or  to  assemble  the  people  and 
their  rulers — they  both  slew  the  sacrifices — 
both  instructed  the  people — and  both  judged 
of  leprosy. 

For  the  more  orderly  performance  of  these 
offices,  the  high  priest  had  his  sagan,  who,  in 
case  of  the  high  priest's  pollution,  performed 
his  duty.  The  high  priest  and  his  sagan  re- 
sembled our  bishop  and  his  suffragan. 

3.  Aaron  was  a  tvpe  of  Christ,  not  personally, 
but  as  the  high  priest  of  the  Jewish  church. 
All  the  priests,  as  offering  gifts  and  sacrifices, 


ABA 


ABE 


were  in  their  office  types  of  Christ ;  but  Aaron 
especially,  1.  As  the  high  priest.  2.  In  entering 
into  the  holy  place  on  the  great  day  of  atone- 
ment, and  reconciling  the  people  to  God;  in 
making  intercession  for  them,  and  pronouncing 
upon  them  the  blessing  of  Jehovah,  at  the  ter- 
mination of  solemn  services.  3.  In  being  anoint- 
ed with  the  holy  oil  by  effusion,  which  was  pre- 
figurative  of  the  Holy  Spirit  with  which  our 
Lord  was  endowed.  4.  In  bearing  the  names  of 
all  the  tribes  of  Israel  upon  his  breast  and  upon 
his  shoulders,  thus  presenting  them  always  be- 
fore God,  and  representing  them  to  him.  5.  In 
being  the  medium  of  their  inquiring  of  God  by 
urim  and  thummim  ;  and  of  the  communication 
of  his  will  to  them.  But  though  the  offices  of 
Aaron  were  typical,  the  priesthood  of  Christ  is 
of  a  different  and  higher  order  than  his,  name- 
ly, that  of  Melchizedeck.  See  Calf,  Priest, 
Type.  Ephod,  Breastplate,  Urim. 

AB,  in  the  Hebrew  chronology,  the  eleventh 
month  of  the  civil  year,  and  the  fifth  of  the 
ecclesiastical  year,  which  began  with  Nisan. 
This  month  answered  to  the  moon  of  July, 
comprehending  part  of  July  and  of  August,  and 
contained  thirty  days. 

The  first  day  of  this  month  is  observed  as  a 
fast  by  the  Jews,  in  memory  of  Aaron's  death  ; 
and  the  ninth,  in  commemoration  of  the  de- 
struction of  the  temple  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  in 
the  year  before  Christ  587.  Josephus  observes, 
that  the  burning  of  the  temple  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar happened  on  the  same  day  of  the  year 
on  which  it  was  afterward  burned  by  Titus. 
The  same  day  was  remarkable  for  Adrian's 
edict,  which  prohibited  the  Jews  to  continue  in 
Judea,  or  to  look  toward  Jerusalem  and  lament 
its  desolation.  The  eighteenth  day  is  also  kept 
as  a  fast,  because  the  sacred  lamp  was  extin- 
guished on  that  night,  in  the  reign  of  Ahaz. 
On  the  twenty-first,  or,  according  to  Scaliger, 
the  twenty-second  day,  was  a  feast  called  Xylo- 
phoria,  from  their  laying  up  the  necessary  wood 
in  the  temple  :  and  on  the  twenty-fourth,  a  feast 
in  commemoration  of  the  abolishing  of  a  law  by 
the  Asmoneans,  or  Maccabees,  which  had  been 
introduce  1  by  the  Sadducees,  and  which  enact- 
ed, that  both  sons  and  daughters  should  alike 
inherit  the  estate  of  their  parents. 

ABADDON,  Heb.  corresponding  to  Apollyon, 
Gr.  that  is,  Destroyer,  is  represented,  Rev.  ix, 
11,  as  king  of  the  locusts,  and  the  angel  of  the 
bottomless  pit.  Le  Clerc  and  Dr.  Hammond 
understand  by  the  locusts  in  this  passage,  the 
zealots  and  robbers  who  infested  and  desolated 
Judea  before  Jerusalem  was  taken  by  the  Ro- 
mans ;  and  by  Abaddon,  John  of  Gischala,  who 
having  treacherously  left  that  town  before  it 
was  surrendered  to  Titus,  came  to  Jerusalem 
and  headed  those  of  the  zealots  who  acknow- 
ledged him  as  their  king,  and  involved  the  Jews 
in  many  grievous  calamities.  The  learned 
Grotius  concurs  in  opinion,  that  the  locusts  are 
designed  to  represent  the  sect  of  the  zealots, 
who  appeared  among  the  Jews  during  the  siege, 
and  at  the  time  of  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem. 
But  Mr.  Mcde  remarks,  that  the  title  Abaddon 
alludes  to  Obodas,  the  common  name  of  the 
ancient  monarchs  of  that  part  of  Arabia  from 


which  Mohammed  came ;  and  considers  the 
passage  as  descriptive  of  the  inundation  of  the 
Saracens.  Mr.  Lowman  adopts  and  confirms 
this  interpretation.  He  shows  that  the  rise  and 
progress  of  the  Mohammedan  religion  and  em- 
pire exhibit  a  signal  accomplishment  of  this 
prophecy.  All  the  circumstances  here  recited 
correspond  to  the  character  of  the  Arabians, 
and  the  history  of  the  period  that  extended  from 
A.  D.  568  to  A.  D.  675.  In  conformity  to  this 
opinion,  Abaddon  may  be  understood  to  denote 
either  Mohammed,  who  issued  from  the  abyss, 
or  the  cave  of  Hera,  to  propagate  his  pretended 
revelations,  or,  more  generally,  the  Saracen 
power.  Mr.  Bryant  supposes  Abaddon  to  have 
been  the  name  of  the  Ophite  deity,  the  worship 
of  whom  prevailed  very  anciently  and  very 
generally. 

ABANA.  Naaman,  the  leper,  on  being  di- 
rected to  wash  in  the  river  Jordan,  says,  2  Kings 
v,  12,  "Are  not  Abana  and  Pharpar,  rivers  of 
Damascus,  better  than  all  the  waters  of  Israel  V 
Probably  the  Abana  is  a  branch  of  the  Barrady, 
or  Chrysorrhoas,  which  derives  its  source  from 
the  foot  of  mount  Libanus,  eastward;  runs  round 
and  through  Damascus,  and  continues  its  course 
till  lost  in  the  wilderness,-  four  or  five  leagues 
south  of  the  city.  Benjamin  of  Tudela  will  have 
that  part  of  Barrady  which  runs  through  Damas- 
cus to  be  the  Abana,  and  the  streams  which 
water  the  gardens  without  the  city,  to  be  Phar- 
par ;  but  perhaps  the  Pharpar  is  the  same  with 
Orontes,  the  most  noted  river  of  Syria,  which, 
taking  its  rise  a  little  to  the  north  or  north-east 
of  Damascus,  glides  through  a  delightful  plain, 
till,  after  passing  Antioch,  and  running  about 
two  hundred  miles  to  the  north-west,  it  loses 
itself  in  the  Mediterranean  sea,  2  Kings  v,  12. 

ABBA,  a  Syriac  word,  which  signifies/a^ec. 
The  learned  Mr.  Selden,  from  the  Babylonian 
Gemara,  has  proved  that  slaves  were  not  allowed 
to  use  the  title  abba  in  addressing  the  master 
of  the  family  to  which  they  belonged.  This 
may  serve  to  illustrate  Rom.  viii,  15j  and  Gal. 
iv,  6,  as  it  shows  that  through  faith  in  Christ  all 
true  Christians  pass  into  the  relation  of  sons ; 
are  permitted  to  address  God  with  filial  con- 
fidence in  prayer ;  and  to  regard  themselves  as 
heirs  of  the  heavenly  inheritance.  This  adop- 
tion into  the  family  of  God,  inseparably  follows 
our  justification ;  and  the  power  to  call  God  our 
Father,  in  this  special  and  appropriative  sense, 
results  from  the  inward  testimony  given  to  our 
forgiveness  by  the  Holy  Spirit.  St.  Paul  and 
St.  Mark  use  the  Syriac  word  abba,  a  term  which 
was  understood  in  the  synagogues  and  primitive 
assemblies  of  Christians  ;  but  added  to  it  when 
writing  to  foreigners  the  explanation,  father. 
Figuratively,  abba  means  also  a  superior,  in 
respect  of  age*  dignity,  or  affection.  It  is  more 
particularly  used  in  the  Syriac,  Coptic,  and 
Ethiopic  churches  as  a  title  given  to  their 
bishops.  The  bishops  themselves  bestow  the 
title  abba  more  eminently  upon  the  bishop  of 
Alexandria,  which  occasioned  the  people  to 
give  him  the  title  of  baba,  or  papa,  that  is, 
grandfather ;  a  title  which  he  bore  before  the 
bishop  of  Rome. 

ABEDNEGO,  the  Chaldee  name  given  by 


ABE 


ABE 


the  king  of  Babylon's  officer  to  Azariah,  one 
of  Daniel's  companions,  Dan.  i,  7.  This  name 
imports  the  servant  of  Nago,  orNego,  which  is 
supposed  to  signify  the  sun,  or  morning  star,  so 
called  from  its  brightness.  Abednego  was 
thrown  into  a  fiery  furnace,  at  Babylon,  with 
his  two  companions  Shadrach  and  Meshach, 
for  refusing  to  adore  the  statue  erected  by  the 
command  of  Nebuchadnezzar.  God  suffered 
them  not  to  be  injured  by  the  flames  ;  but  made 
the  whole  to  redound  to  his  own  glory,  and  the 
shame  of  the  idols  of  Babylon.  One  like  unto 
the  Son  of  God,  or  a  Divine  person,  probably 
the  Angel  of  the  Divine  presence  himself,  ap- 
peared in  the  midst  of  them ;  and  they  came 
out  of  the  furnace,  which  had  been  heated 
seven  times  hotter  than  usual,  so  completely 
preserved  from  the  power  of  the  flames,  that 
not  even  "  the  smell  of  fire  had  passed  upon 
them."  This  was  an  illustrious  instance  of  the 
courageous  and  hallowed  spirit  of  martyrdom  ; 
and  the  interposition  was  no  doubt  designed  to 
encourage  the  Jews  while  in  captivity,  living 
among  idolaters,  to  hold  fast  their  religion.  It 
is  an  instance  also  of  those  gracious  visitations 
to  the  old  Heathen  world,  by  which  it  was 
loudly  called  from  its  idolatries,  and  aroused 
to  the  acknowledgment  of  the  true  and  only 
Jehovah,  who,  in  various  ways,  "left  not  him. 
self  without  witness"  among  them.  A  great 
temporary  effect  was  produced  by  this  and  other 
miracles  related  in  the  book  of  Daniel;  but  the 
people  relapsed  again  into  idolatry,  and  justly 
brought  upon  themselves  all  those  wasting 
judgments  which  in  succession  swept  over  the 
mightiest  and  most  ancient  states. 

ABEL.  He  was  the  second  son  of  Adam 
and  Eve,  and  born  probably  in  the  second  or 
third  year  of  the  world ;  though  some  will  have 
it  that  he  and  Cain  were  twins.  His  name 
signifies  vapour,  vanity,  and  might  be  given 
either  because  our  first  parents  now  began  so 
to  feel  the  emptiness  and  vanity  of  all  earthly 
things,  that  the  birth  of  another  son  reminded 
them  painfully  of  it,  although  in  itself  a  matter 
of  joy ;  or  it  was  imposed  under  prophetic  im- 
pulse, and  obscurely  referred  to  his  premature 
death.  His  employment  was  that  of  a  shepherd ; 
Cain  followed  the  occupation  of  his  father,  and 
was  a  tiller  of  the  ground.  Whether  they  re- 
mained in  their  father's  family  at  the  time  when 
they  brought  their  offerings  to  the  Lord,  or  had 
establishments  separate  from  that  of  Adam, 
does  not  clearly  appear.  Abel  was  probably 
unmarried,  or  had  no  children ;  but  Cain's  wife 
is  mentioned.  "At  the  end  of  the  days," — 
which  is  a  more  literal  rendering  than  "in 
process  of  time,"  as  in  our  translation,  that  is, 
on  the  Sabbath, — both  brothers  brought  an  offer- 
ing to  the  Lord.  Cain  "  brought  of  the  fruit  of 
the  ground;"  Abel  "the  firstlings  of  his  flock, 
and  of  the  fat  thereof."  "And  the  Lord  had 
respect  to  Abel  and  to  his  offering  ;  but  unto 
Cain  and  his  offering  he  had  not  respect."  As 
Cain  afterward  complains  that  "he  should  be 
hid  from  the  face  or  presence  of  the  Lord,"  it  is 
probable  that  the  worship  of  the  first  family  was 
performed  before  some  visible  manifestation  of 
the  glory  of  God,  which  thus  consecrated  a  par- 


ticular place  for  their  services.  Some  have 
thought  that  this  was  at  the  east  gate  of  Eden, 
where  "Cherubim  and  a  flaming  sword  were 
placed  ;"  but  this  was  a  vengeful  manifestation, 
and  could  only  have  inspired  a  dread  of  God 
inconsistent  with  the  confidence  and  hope  with 
which  men  through  the  promise  of  redemption  * 
were  now  encouraged  to  draw  nigh  to  him. 
The  respect  which  God  was  pleased  to  show  to 
Abel's  offering,  appears  from  the  account  to 
have  been  sensibl)'  declared ;  for  Cain  must 
have  known  by  some  token  thai  the  sacrifice 
of  Abel  was  accepted,  the  absence  of  which 
sign,  as  to  his  own  offering,  showed  that  it  was 
rejected.  Whether  this  was  by  fire  going  forth 
from  "the  presence  of  the  Lord,"  to  consume 
the  sacrifice,  as  in  later  instances  recorded  in 
the  Old  Testament,  or  in  some  other  way,  it  is 
in  vain  to  inquire ; — that  the  token  of  accept- 
ance was  a  sensible  one  is  however  an  almost 
certain  inference.  The  effect  of  this  upon  Cain 
was  not  to  humble  him  before  God,  but  to  ex- 
cite anger  against  his  brother;  and,  being  in 
the  field  with  him,  or,  as  the  old  versions  have 
it,  having  said  to  him,  "Let  us  go  out  into  the 
field,"  "he  rose  up  against  Abel  his  brother, 
and  slew  him  ;"  and  for  that  crime,  by  which 
the  first  blood  of  man  was  shed  by  man  upon 
the  earth, — a  murder  aggravated  by  the  rela- 
tionship and  the  "righteous"  character  of  tho 
sufferer,  and  having  in  it  also  the  nature  of  re 
ligious  persecution, — he  was  pronounced  by  the 
Lord  "  cursed  from  the  earth." 

2.  As  the  sacrifice  of  Abel  is  the  first  on  re- 
cord, and  has  given  rise  to  some  controversy,  it 
demands  particular  attention.  It  was  offered, 
says  St.  Paul,  "  in  faith,"  and  it  was  "  a  more 
excellent  sacrifice"  than  that  of  Cain.  Both 
these  expressions  intimate  that  it  was  expiatory 

and  r-REFIGURATIVE. 

As  to  the  matter  of  the  sacrifice,  it  was  an  ani- 
mal offering.  "  Cain  brought  of  the  fruit  of  the 
ground;  and  Abel  also  brought  of  the  firstlings 
of  his  flock,  and  of  the  fat  thereof;"  or,  more 
literally,  "the  fat  of  them,"  that  is,  according 
to  the  Hebrew  idiom,  the  fattest  or  best  of  his 
flock ;  and  in  this  circumstance  consisted  its 
specific  character  as  an  act  of  faith.  This  is  sup- 
ported by  the  import  of  the  phrase,  zz\clova  Svotav, 
used  by  the  Apostle  in  the  Epistle  to  the  He- 
brews, when  speaking  of  the  sacrifice  of  Abel. 
Our  translators  have  rendered  it,  "  a  more  ex- 
cellent sacrifice."  Wickliffe  translates  it,  as 
Archbishop  Magee  observes,  uncouthly,  but  in 
the  full  sense  of  the  original,  "a  much  more 
sacrifice  ;"  and  the  controversy  which  has  arisen 
on  this  point  is,  whether  this  epithet  of  "much 
more,"  or  "  fuller,"  refers  to  quantity  or  quality ; 
whether  it  is  to  be  understood  in  the  sense  of  a 
more  abundant,  or  of  a  better,  a  more  excellent 
sacrifice.  Dr.  Kennicott  takes  it  in  the  sense 
of  measure  and  quantity,  as  well  as  quality ;  and 
supposes  that  Abel  brought  a  double  offering  of 
the  firstlings  of  his  flock,  and  of  the  fruit  of  the 
ground  also.  His  criticism  has  been  very  satis- 
factorily refuted  by  Archbishop  Magee.  The 
sacrifice  of  Abel  was  that  of  animal  victims,  and 
it  was  indicative  not  of  gratitude  but  of  "faith :" 
a  quality  not  to  be  made  manifest  by  the  quan. 


ABE 


ABE 


tity  of  an  offering,  for  the  one  has  no  relation 
to  the  other. 

3.  This  will  more  fully  appear  if  we  consider 
the  import  of  the  words  of  the  Apostle, — "By 
faith  Abel  offered  unto  God  a  more  excellent 
sacrifice  than  Cain,  by  which  he  obtained  wit- 
ness that  he  was  righteous,  God  testifying  of  his 
gifts ;  and  by  it,  he,  being  dead,  yet  speaketh." 
Now  what  is  the  meaning  of  the  Apostle,  when 
he  says  that  it  was  witnessed  or  testified  to  Abel 
that  he  was  righteous?  His  doctrine  is,  that 
men  are  sinners;  that  all,  consequently,  need 
pardon ;  and  to  be  declared,  witnessed,  and  ac- 
counted righteous,  are,  according  to  his  style  of 
writing,  the  same  as  "  to  be  justified,  pardoned, 
and  dealt  with  as  righteous."  Thus  he  argues 
that  Abraham  believed  God,  "  and  it  was  ac- 
counted to  him  for  righteousness," — "  that  faith 
was  reckoned  to  Abraham  for  righteousness," — 
"that  he  received  the  sign  of  circumcision,  a 
seal,"  a  visible  confirmatory,  declaratory,  and 
witnessing  mark  "of  the  righteousness  which 
he  had  by  faith."  In  these  cases  we  have  a 
similarity  so  striking,  that  they  can  scarcely  fail 
to  explain  each  other.  In  both,  sinful  men  are 
placed  in  the  condition  of  righteous  men ;  the 
instrument,  in  both  cases,  is  faith;  and  the  trans- 
action is,  in  both  cases  also,  publicly  and  sensi- 
bly witnessed, — as  to  Abraham,  by  the  sign  of 
circumcision ;  as  to  Abel,  by  a  visible  accept- 
ance of  his  sacrifice,  and  the  rejection  of  that 
of  Cain. 

Abel  had  faith,  and  he  expressed  that  faith  by 
the  kind  of  sacrifice  he  offered.  It  was  in  this 
way  that  his  faith  "  pleased  God ;"  it  pleased 
him  as  a  principle,  and  by  the  act  to  which  it  led, 
which  act  was  the  offering  of  a  sacrifice  to  God 
different  from  that  of  Cain.  Cain  had  not  this 
faith,  whatever  might  be  its  object ;  and  Cain, 
accordingly,  did  not  bring  an  offering  to  which 
God  had  "  respect."  That  which  vitiated  the 
offering  of  Cain  was  the  want  of  this  faith ;  for 
his  offering  was  not  significant  of  faith :  that 
which  "pleased  God,"  in  the  case  of  Abel,  was 
his  faith;  and  he  had  "respect"  to  his  offering, 
because  it  was  the  expression  of  that  faith ;  and 
upon  his  faith  so  expressing  itself,  God  wit- 
nessed to  him  "that  he  was  righteous."  So 
forcibly  do  the  words  of  St.  Paul,  when  com- 
menting upon  this  transaction,  show,  that  Abel's 
sacrifice  was  accepted,  because  of  its  immediate 
connection  with  his  faith,  for  by  faith  he  is  said 
to  have  offered  it;  and  whatever  it  might  be, 
which  made  Abel's  offering  differ  from  that  of 
Cain,  whether  abundance,  or  kind,  or  both,  this 
was  the  result  of  his  faith.  So  evident  also  is 
it  from  the  Apostle,  that  Abel  was  witnessed  to 
be  "  righteous,"  not  with  reference  to  any  pre- 
vious "  habit  of  a  religious  life,"  as  some  say, 
but  with  reference  to  his  faith;  and  to  this  faith 
as  expressing  itself  by  his  offering  "  a  more  ex- 
cellent sacrifice." 

4.  If,  then,  the  faith  of  Abel  had  an  immedi- 
ate connection  with  his  sacrifice,  and  both  with 
his  being  accepted  as  "righteous," — that  is,  jus- 
tified, in  St.  Paul's  use  of  the  term, — to  what  had 
his  faith  respect?  The  particular  object  of  the 
faith  of  the  elders,  celebrated  in  Hebrews  xi,  is 
to  be  deduced  from  the  circumstances  mention- 


ed by  St.  Paul  as  illustrative  of  the  existence  and 
operation  of  this  great  principle,  and  by  which 
it  manifested  itself  in  them.  Let  us  explain  this, 
and  then  ascertain  the  object  of  Abel's  faith  also 
from  the  manner  of  its  manifestation, — from 
the  acts  in  which  it  embodied  and  rendered  itself 
conspicuous. 

Faith,  in  this  chapter,  is  taken  in  the  sense 
of  affiance  in  God,  and,  as  such,  it  can  only  be 
exercised  toward  God,  as  to  all  its  particular 
acts,  in  those  respects  in  which  we  have  some 
warrant  to  confide  in  him.  This  supposes  revela- 
tion, and,  in  particular,  promises  or  declarations 
on  his  part,  as  the  ground  of  every  act  of  affiance. 
When,  therefore,  it  is  said  that  "  by  faith  Enoch 
was  translated  that  he  should  not  see  death,"  it 
must  be  supposed  that  he  had  some  promise  or 
intimation  to  this  effect,  on  which,  improbable 
as  the  event  was,  he  nobly  relied ;  and  in  the 
result  God  honoured  his  faith  in  the  sight  of  all 
men.  The  faith  of  Noah  had  immediate  respect 
to  the  threatened  flood,  and  to  the  promise  of 
God  to  preserve  him  in  the  ark  which  he  was 
commanded  to  prepare.  The  chapter  is  filled 
with  other  instances,  expressed  or  implied ;  and 
from  the  whole,  as  well  as  from  the  nature  of 
things,  it  will  appear,  that,  when  the  Apostle 
speaks  of  the  faith  of  the  elders  in  its  particular 
acts,  he  represents  it  as  having  respect  to  some 
promise,  declaration,  or  revelation  of  God. 

This  revelation  was  necessarily  antecedent 
to  the  faith ;  but  it  is  also  to  be  observed,  that 
the  acts  by  which  the  faith  was  represented, 
whenever  it  was  represented  by  particular  acts, 
and  when  the  case  admitted  it,  had  a  natural 
and  striking  conformity  and  correspondence  to 
the  previous  revelation.  So  Noah  built  the  ark, 
which  indicated  that  he  had  heard  the  threat 
of  the  world's  destruction  by  water,  and  had  re- 
ceived the  promise  of  his  own  preservation,  and 
that  of  his  family,  as  well  as  that  of  a  part  of  the 
beasts  of  the  earth.  When  Abraham  went  into 
Canaan  at  the  command  of  God,  and  upon  the 
promise  that  that  country  should  become  the  in. 
heritance  of  his  decendants,  he  showed  his  faith 
by  taking  possession  of  it  for  them  in  anticipa- 
tion, and  his  residence  there  indicated  the  kind 
of  promise  which  he  had  received.  Thus  these 
instances  show,  that  when  the  faith  which  the 
Apostle  commends  exhibited  itself  in  some  par- 
ticular act,  that  act  had  a  correspondency  to  the 
previous  promise  or  revelation  which  was  the 
ground  of  faith.  We  must  therefore  interpret 
the  acts  of  Abel's  faith  so  as  to  make  them  also 
correspond  with  an  antecedent  revelation.  His 
faith  had  respect  to  some  previous  revelation, 
and  the  nature  of  the  revelation  is  to  be  collect- 
ed from  the  significant  manner  in  which  he  de- 
clared his  faith  in  it. 

Now  that  which  Abel  did  "  by  faith,"  was, 
generally,  to  perform  an  act  of  solemn  worship, 
in  the  confidence  that  it  would  be  acceptable  to 
God.  This  supposes  a  revelation,  immediate 
or  by  tradition,  that  such  acts  of  worship  were 
acceptable  to  God,  or  his  faith  coulu  have  had 
no  warrant,  and  would  not  have  been  faith,  but 
fancy.  But  the  case  must  be  considered  more 
particularly.  His  faith  led  him  to  offer  "  a  more 
excellent  sacrifice"  than  that  of  Cain  ;  but  this 


ABE 


B 


ABI 


as  necessarily  implies,  that  there  was  pome  an- 
tecedent revelation  to  which  his  faith,  as  thus 
expressed,  had  respect,  and  on  which  that  pecu- 
liarity of  his  offering,  which  distinguished  it 
from  the  offering  of  Cain,  was  founded;  a  re- 
velation which  indicated  that  the  way  in  which 
God  would  he  approached  acceptably,  in  solemn 
worship,  was  by  animal  sacrifices.  Without 
this,  the  faith  to  which  his  offering,  which  was 
an  offering  of  the  firstlings  of  his  flock,  had  a 
special  fitness  and  adaptation,  could  have  had 
no  warrant  in  Divine  authority.  But  this  reve- 
lation must  have  included,  in  order  to  its  being 
the  ground  of  faith,  as  "  the  substance  of  things 
hoped  for,"  a  promise  of  a  benefit  to  be  confer- 
red, in  which  promise  Abel  might  confide.  But 
if  so,  then  this  promise  must  have  been  connect- 
ed, not  with  the  worship  of  God  in  general,  or 
performed  in  any  way  whatever  indifferently, 
but  with  his  worship  by  animal  oblations ;  for  it 
was  in  this  way  that  the  faith  of  Abel  specially 
and  distinctively  indicated  itself.  The  antece- 
dent revelation  was,  therefore,  a  promise  of  a 
benefit  to  be  conferred,  by  means  of  animal  sa- 
crifice ;  and  we  are  taught  what  this  benefit  was, 
by  that  which  was  actually  received  by  the 
offerer, — "  He  obtained  witness  that  he  was 
righteous ;"  which  must  be  interpreted  in  the 
sense  of  a  declaration  of  his  personal  justifica- 
tion, and  acceptance  as  righteous,  by  the  for- 
giveness of  his  sins.  The  reason  of  Abel's 
acceptance  and  of  Cain's  rejection  is  hereby 
made  manifest;  the  one,  in  seeking  the  Divine 
favour,  conformed  to  his  established  and  ap- 
pointed method  of  being  approached  by  guilty 
men,  and  the  other  not  only  neglected  this,  but 
profanely  and  presumptuously  substituted  his 
own  inventions. 

5.  It  is  impossible,  then,  to  allow  the  sacrifice 
of  Abel,  in  this  instance,  to  have  been  an  act 
of  faith,  without  supposing  that  it  had  respect 
to  a  previous  revelation,  which  agreed  with  all 
the  parts  of  that  sacrificial  action  by  which  he 
expressed  his  faith  in  it.  Had  Abel's  sacrifice 
been  eucharistic  merely,  it  would  have  express- 
ed gratitude,  but  not  faith ;  or  if  faith  in  the 
general  sense  of  confidence  in  God  that  he  would 
receive  an  act  of  grateful  worship,  and  reward 
the  worshippers,  it  did  not  more  express  faith 
than  the  offering  of  Cain,  who  surely  believed 
these  two  points,  or  he  would  not  have  brought 
an  offering  of  any  kind.  The  offering  of  Abel 
expressed  a  faith  which  Cain  had  not;  and  the 
doctrinal  principles  which  Abel's  faith  respect- 
ed were  such  as  his  sacrifice  visibly  embodied. 
If  it  was  not  an  eucharistic  sacrifice,  it  was  an 
expiatory  one  ;  and,  in  fact,  it  is  only  in  a  sacri- 
fice of  this  kind,  that  it  is  possible  to  see  that 
faith  exhibited  which  Abel  had,  and  Cain  had 
not.  If  then  we  refer  to  the  subsequent  sacri- 
fices of  expiation  appointed  by  Divine  authority, 
and  their  explanation  in  the  New  Testament,  it 
will  be  obvious  to  what  doctrines  and  principles 
of  an  antecedent  revelation  the  faith  of  Abel 
had  respect,  and  which  his  sacrifice,  the  exhi- 
bition of  his  faith,  proclaimed:  confession  of 
the  fact  of  being  a  sinner, — acknowledgment 
that  the  demerit  and  penalty  of  sin  is  death, — 
submission  to  an  appointed  mode  of  expiation, — 


animal  sacrifice  offered  vicariously,  but  in  itseh 
a  mere  type  of  a  better  sacrifice,  "the  Seed  of 
the  woman,"  appointed  to  be  offered  at  some 
future  period, — and  the  efficacy  of  this  appoint- 
ed method  of  expiation  to  obtain  forgiveness, 
and  to  admit  the  guilty  into  the  Divine  favour. 

"  Abel,"  Dr.  Magee  justly  says,  "  in  firm  reli- 
ance on  the  promise  of  God,  and  in  obedience 
to  his  command,  offered  that  sacrifice  which 
had  been  enjoined  as  the  religious  expression 
of  his  faith;  whilst  Cain,  disregarding  the  gra- 
cious assurances  that  had  been  vouchsafed,  or 
at  least  disdaining  to  adopt  the  prescribed  mode 
of  manifesting  his  belief,  possibly  as  not  ap- 
pearing to  his  reason  to  possess  any  efficacy  or 
natural  fitness,  thought  he  had  sufficiently  ac- 
quitted himself  of  his  duty  in  acknowledging 
the  general  superintendence  of  God,  and  ex- 
pressing liis  gratitude  to  the  Supreme  Benefac- 
tor, by  presenting  some  of  those  good  things 
which  he  thereby  confessed  to  have  been  de- 
rived from  his  bounty.  In  short,  Cain,  the  first- 
born of  the  fall,  exhibits  the  first  fruits  of  his 
parents'  disobedience,  in  the  arrogance  and 
self-sufficiency  of  reason  rejecting  the  aids  of 
revelation,  because  they  fell  not  within  its  ap- 
prehension of  right.  He  takes  the  first  place 
in  the  annals  of  Deism,  and  displays,  in  his 
proud  rejection  of  the  ordinance  of  sacrifice, 
the  same  spirit  which,  in  later  days,  has  actu- 
ated his  enlightened  followers,  in  rejecting  the 
sacrifice  of  Christ." 

Abel  was  killed  about  the  year  of  the  world, 
130. 

ABEL-MISRAIM,  the  floor  of  Atad,  beyond 
the  river  Jordan,  where  Joseph,  his  brethren, 
and  the  Egyptians  mourned  for  the  death  of 
Jacob,  Gen.  1,  11.  On  this  occasion  the  funeral 
procession  was,  at  the  command  of  Joseph,  at- 
tended by  "all  the  elders  of  Egypt,  and  all  the 
servants  of  Pharaoh,  and  all  his  house,  and  the 
house  of  his  brethren,  chariots  and  horsemen, 
a  very  great  company ;"  an  affecting  proof,  as 
it  has  been  remarked,  of  Joseph's  simplicity  and 
singleness  of  heart,  which  allowed  him  to  give 
to  the  great  men  of  Egypt,  over  whom  he  bore 
absolute  rule,  an  opportunity  of  observing  his 
own  comparatively  humble  origin,  by  leading 
them  in  attendance  upon  his  father's  corpse  to 
the  valleys  of  Canaan,  the  modest  cradle  of  his 
race,  and  to  their  simple  burial  places. 

ABEL-SHITTIM,  a  city  situate  in  the  plains 
of  Moab,  beyond  Jordan,  opposite  to  Jericho, 
Num.  xxv,  1,  &C  ;  xxiii,  49  ;  Joshua  xi,  1.  Eu- 
sebius  says  it  stood  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
mount  Peor.  Moses  encamped  at  Abel-Shittim 
some  time  before  the  Hebrew  army  passed  the 
Jordan.  Here  the  Israelites  fell  into  idolatry, 
and  worshipped  Baal-peor,  for  which  God  pun. 
ished  them  by  the  destruction  of  twenty-four 
thousand  persons  in  one  day. 

ABIAII,  the  second  son  of  the  prophet  Sa- 
muel, and  brother  of  Joel.  Samuel  having  en- 
trusted to  his  sons  the  administration  of  public 
justice,  and  admitted  them  to  a  share  in  the  go- 
vernment, they  behaved  so  ill,  that  the  peoplo 
demanded  a  king,  1  Sam.  viii,  2.   A.  M.  2909. 

ABIATHAK,  the  son  of  Ahimelech,  and  the 
tenth  high  priest  among  the  Jews,  and  fourth 


ABI 


ABI 


in  descent  from  Eli,  2  Sam.  viii,  17;  1  Chron. 
xviii,  16.  When  Saul  sent  to  Nob  to  murder 
all  the  priests,  Abiathar  escaped  the  massacre, 
and  fled  to  David  in  the  wilderness.  There  he 
continued  in  the  quality  of  high  priest;  but 
Saul,  out  of  aversion  to  Ahimelech,  whom  he 
imagined  to  have  betrayed  his  interests,  trans, 
ferred  the  dignity  of  the  high  priesthood  from 
Ithamar's  family  into  that  of  Eleazar,  by  con- 
ferring this  office  upon  Zadok.  Thus  there 
were,  at  the  same  time,  two  high  priests  in  Is- 
rael, Abiathar  with  David,  and  Zadok  with 
Saul.  In  this  state  things  continued,  until  the 
reign  of  Solomon,  when  Abiathar,  being  at- 
tached to  the  party  of  Adonijah,  was,  by  Solo- 
mon, divested  of  his  priesthood,  A.  M.  2989 ; 
and  the  race  of  Zadok  alone  performed  the 
functions  of  that  office  during  the  reign  of  So- 
lomon, to  the  exclusion  of  the  family  of  Itha- 
mar,  according  to  the  word  of  the  Lord  to  Eli, 
1  Sam.  ii,  30,  &c. 

ABIB,  the  name  of  the  first  Hebrew  sacred 
month,  Exod.  xiii,  4.  This  month  was  after- 
ward called  Nisan  ;  it  contained  thirty  days, 
and  answered  to  part  of  our  March  and  April. 
Abib  signifies  green  ears  of  corn,  or  fresh  fruits, 
according  to  Jerom's  translation,  Exod.  xiii,  4, 
and  to  the  LXX.  It  was  so  named  because 
corn,  particularly  barley,  was  in  ear  at  that 
time.  It  was  an  early  custom  to  give  names 
to  months,  from  the  appearances  of  nature ; 
and  the  custom  is  still  in  force  among  many 
nations.  The  year  among  the  Jews  com- 
menced in  September,  and  consequently  their 
jubilees  and  other  civil  matters  were  regulated 
in  this  way,  Lev.  xxv,  8-10  ;  but  their  sacred 
year  began  in  Abib.  This  change  took  place 
at  the  redemption  of  Israel  from  Egypt,  Exod. 
xii,  2,  "  This  shall  be  to  you  the  beginning  of 
months."  Ravanelli  observes,  that  as  this  de- 
liverance from  Egypt  was  a  figure  of  the  re- 
demption of  the  church  of  Jesus  Christ,  who 
died  and  rose  again  in  this  month,  it  was  made 
the  "  beginning  of  months,"  to  lead  the  church 
to  expect  the  acceptable  year  of  the  Lord.  On 
the  tenth  day  of  this  month  the  paschal  lamb 
was  taken ;  and  on  the  fourteenth  they  ate  the 
passover.  On  the  seven  succeeding  days  they 
celebrated  the  feast  of  unleavened  bread,  on  the 
last  of  which  days  they  held  a  solemn  convo- 
cation, Exod.  xii,  xiii.  On  the  fifteenth  they 
gathered  the  sheaf  of  the  barley  first  fruits,  and 
on  the  following  day  presented  an  offering  of 
it  to  the  Lord,  which  having  done  they  might 
begin  their  harvest,  Lev.  xxiii. 

ABIHU,  the  son  of  Aaron,  the  high  priest, 
was  consumed,  together  with  his  brother  Na- 
dab,  by  fire  sent  from  God,  because  he  had 
offered  incense  with  strange  fire,  instead  of 
taking  it  from  the  altar,  Lev.  x,  1,  2.  This  ca- 
lamity happened  A.  M.  2514 ;  within  eight  days 
after  the  consecration  of  Aaron  and  his  sons. 
Some  commentators  believe  that  this  fire  pro- 
ceeded from  the  altar  of  burnt  offerings ;  others, 
that  it  came  from  the  altar  of  incense.  Several 
interpreters,  as  the  Rabbins,  Lyra,  Cajetan,  and 
others,  are  of  opinion,  that  Nadab  and  Abihu 
were  overtaken  with  wine,  and  so  forgot  to  take 
the  sacred  fire  in  their  censers.     This  conjec- 


ture is  founded  on  the  command  of  God  deliver- 
ed immediately  afterward  to  the  priests,  for- 
bidding them  the  use  of  wine  during  the  time 
they  should  be  employed  in  the  service  of  the 
temple.  Another  class  allege,  that  there  was 
nothing  so  heinous  in  their  transgression,  but 
it  was  awfully  punished,  to  teach  ministers 
fidelity  and  exactness  in  discharging  their  of- 
fice. It  had  a  vastly  more  infportant  mean- 
ing,— this  instance  of  vengeance  is  a  standing 
example  of  that  divine  wrath  which  shall  con- 
sume all  who  pretend  to  serve  God,  except  with 
incense  kindled  from  the  one  altar  and  offer- 
ing by  which  he  for  ever  perfects  them  that 
are  sanctified. 

ABIJAH,  the  son  of  Jeroboam,  the  first  king 
of  the  ten  tribes,  who  died  very  young,  1  Kings 
xiv,  1,  &c,  A.M.  3046.— 2.  The  son  of Reho- 
boam,  king  of  Judah,  and  of  Maachah,  the 
daughter  of  Uriel,  who  succeeded  his  father, 
A.  M.  3046,  2  Chron.  xi,  20 ;  xiii,  2,  &c.  The 
Rabbins  reproach  this  monarch  with  neglecting 
to  destroy  the  profane  altar  which  Jeroboam 
had  erected  at  Bethel ;  and  with  not  suppress- 
ing the  worship  of  the  golden  calves  there 
after  his  victory  over  that  prince. 

ABILENE,  a  small  province  in  Coelo  Syria, 
between  Lebanon  and  Antilibanus.  Of  this 
place  Lysanias  was  governor  in  the  fifteenth 
year  of  Tiberius,  Luke  iii,  1.  Abela,  or  Abila, 
the  capital,  was  north  of  Damascus,  and  south 
of  Heliopolis. 

ABIMELECH.  This  seems  to  have  been 
the  title  of  the  kings  of  Philistia,  as  Casar 
was  of  the  Roman  emperors,  and  Pharaoh  of 
the  sovereigns  of  Egypt.  It  was  the  name 
also  of  one  of  the  sons  of  Gideon,  who  became 
a  judge  of  Israel,  Judges  ix ;  and  of  the  Jew- 
ish high  priest,  who  gave  Goliah's  sword,  which 
had  been  deposited  in  the  tabernacle,  and  part 
of  the  shew  bread,  to  David,  at  the  time  this 
prince  was  flying  from  Saul,  1  Sam.  xxi,  1. 

ABIRAM,  the  eldest  son  of  Hiel,  the  Beth- 
elite.  Joshua  having  destroyed  the  city  of  Jeri- 
cho, pronounced  this  curse:  "Cursed  be  the 
man,  before  the  Lord,  that  riseth  up  and  build- 
eth  this  city,  Jericho :  lie  shall  lay  the  founda- 
tion thereof  in  his  first-born,  and  in  his  young- 
est son  shall  he  set  up  the  gates  of  it,"  Joshua 
vi,  26.  Hiel  of  Bethel,  about  five  hundred  and 
thirty-seven  years  after  this  imprecation,  hav- 
ing undertaken  to  rebuild  Jericho,  whilst  he 
was  laying  the  foundation  of  it,  lost  his  eldest 
son,  Abiram,  1  Kings  xvi,  34 ;  and  Segub,  the 
youngest,  when  they  set  up  the  gates  of  it :  a 
remarkable  instance  of  a  prophetic  denuncia- 
tion fulfilled,  perhaps  on  a  person  who  would 
not  credit  the  tradition,  or  the  truth  of  the  pre- 
diction. So  true  is  the  word  of  the  Lord ;  so 
minutely  are  the  most  distant  contingencies 
foreseen  by  him ;  and  so  exact  is  the  accom- 
plishment of  Divine  prophecy ! 

2.  Abiram,  the  son  of  Eliab,  of  the  tribe  of 
Reuben,  was  one  of  those  who  conspired  with 
Korah  and  Dathan  against  Moses  in  the  wil- 
derness, and  was  swallowed  up  alive,  with  his 
companions,  by  the  earth,  which  opened  to  re- 
ceive them,  Num.  xvi. 

ABISHAG,  a  young  woman,  a  native  of 


ABN 


8 


ABO 


Shunam,  in  the  tribo  of  Issachar.  David,  at  the 
age  of  seventy,  finding  no  warmth  in  his  bed, 
was  advised  by  Jiis  physicians  to  procure  some 
young  person,  who  might  communicate  the 
heat  required.  To  this  end  Abishag  was  pre- 
sented to  him,  who  was  one  of  the  most  beau- 
tiful women  in  Israel,  1  Kings  i,  3 ;  and  the 
king  made  her. his  wife.  After  his  death,  Ado- 
nijah  requested  her  in  marriage,  for  which  he 
lost  his  life ;  Solomon  perceiving  in  this  a  de- 
sign upon  the  crown  also.  Adonijah  was  his 
elder  brother,  an  intriguing  man,  and  had  as- 
pired to  be  king  before  the  death  of  David, 
and  had  had  his  life  spared  only  upon  the  con- 
dition of  his  peaceable  conduct.  By  this  re- 
quest he  convinced  Solomon,  that  he  was  still 
actuated  by  political  views,  and  this  brought 
upon  him  the  punishment  of  treason. 

ABISHAI,  the  son  of  Zeruiah,  David's  sis- 
ter, who  was  one  of  the  most  valiant  men 
of  his  time,  and  one  of  the  principal  generals 
in  David's  armies. 

ABLUTION,  purification  by  washing  the 
body,  either  in  whole  or  part.  Ablutions  ap- 
pear to  be  almost  as  ancient  as  external  wor- 
ship itself.  Moses  enjoined  them  ;  the  Hea- 
thens adopted  them ;  and  Mohammed  and  his 
followers  have  continued  them :  thus  they  have 
been  introduced  among  most  nations,  and 
make  a  considerable  part  of  all  superstitious  re- 
ligions. The  Egyptian  priests  had  their  diurnal 
and  nocturnal  ablutions;  the  Grecians,  their 
sprinklings ;  the  Romans,  their  lustrations  and 
lavations ;  the  Jews,  their  washings  of  hands 
and  feet,  beside  their  baptisms ;  the  ancient 
Christians  used  ablution  before  communion, 
which  the  Romish  church  still  retains  before 
the  mass,  sometimes  after ;  the  Syrians,  Copts, 
&c,  have  their  solemn  washings  on  Good  Fri- 
day ;  the  Turks  their  greater  and  less  ablu- 
tions, &c. 

Lustration,  among  the  Romans,  was  a  solemn 
ceremony  by  which  they  purified  their  cities, 
fields,  armies,  or  people,  after  any  crime  or 
impurity.  Lustrations  might  be  performed  by 
fire,  by  sulphur,  by  water,  and  by  air ;  the  last 
was  applied  by  ventilation,  or  fanning  the 
thing  to  be  purified.  All  sorts  of  people,  slaves 
excepted,  might  perform  some  kind  of  lus- 
tration. When  a  person  died  the  house  was 
to  be  swept  in  a  particular  manner ;  new  mar- 
ried persons  were  sprinkled  by  the  priest  with 
water.  People  sometimes,  by  way  of  purifica- 
tion, ran  several  times  naked  through  the 
streets.  There  was  scarcely  any  action  per- 
formed, at  the  beginning  and  end  of  which 
some  ceremony  was  not  required  to  purify 
themselves  and  appease  the  gods. 

ABNER  was  the  uncle  of  king  Saul,  and  the 
general  of  his  army.  After  Saul's  death,  he 
made  Ishbosheth  king;  and  for  seven  years 
supported  the  family  of  Saul,  in  opposition  to 
David ;  but  in  most  of  his  skirmishes  came  off 
with  loss.  While  Ishbosheth's  and  David's 
troops  lay  near  each  other,  hard  by  Gibeon, 
Abner  challenged  Joab  to  select  twelve  of  Da- 
vid's warriors  to  fight  with  an  equal  number 
of  his.  Joab  consented :  the  twenty-four  en- 
gaged ;  and  fell  together  on  the  spot.     A  fierce 


battle  ensued,  in  which  Abner  and  his  troop* 
were  routed.  Abner  himself  was  hotly  pursued 
by  Asahel,  whom  he  killed  by  a  back  stroke  of 
his  spear.  Still  he  was  followed  by  Joab  and 
Abishai,  till  he,  who  in  the  morning  sported 
with  murder,  was  obliged  at  even  to  entreat  that 
Joab  would  stay  his  troops  from  the  effusion  of 
blood,  2  Sam.  ii. 

Not  long  after,  Abner,  taking  it  highly  amiss 
for  Ishbosheth  to  charge  him  with  lewd  be- 
haviour toward  Rizpah,  Saul's  concubine,  vow- 
ed that  he  would  quickly  transfer  the  whole 
kingdom  into  the  hands  of  David.  He  there- 
fore commenced  a  correspondence  with  David, 
and  had  an  interview  with  him  at  Hebron.  Ab- 
ner had  just  left  the  feast  at  which  David  had 
entertained  him,  when  Joab,  informed  of  the 
matter,  warmly  remonstrated,  asserting,  that 
Abner  had  come  as  a  spy.  On  his  own  authori- 
ty he  sent  a  messenger  to  invite  him  back,  to 
have  some  farther  communication  with  the 
king ;  and  when  Abner  was  come  into  Joab's 
presence,  the  latter,  partly  from  jealousy  lest 
Abner  might  become  his  superior,  and  partly 
to  revenge  his  brother  Asahel's  death,  mortally 
stabbed  him  in  the  act  of  salutation.  David,  to 
show  how  heartily  he  detested  the  act,  honour- 
ed Abner  with  a  splendid  funeral,  and  composed 
an  elegy  on  his  death,  2  Sam.  iii. 

ABOMINATION.  This  term  was  used  with 
regard  to  the  Hebrews,  who,  being  shepherds, 
are  said  to  have  been  an  abomination  to  the 
Egyptians  ;  because  they  sacrificed  the  animals 
held  sacred  by  that  people,  as  oxen,  goats,  sheep, 
&c,  which  the  Egyptians  esteemed  unlawful. 
This  word  is  also  applied  in  the  sacred  writings 
to  idolatry  and  idols,  not  only  because  the  wor- 
ship of  idols  is  in  itself  an  abominable  thing,  but 
likewise  because  the  ceremonies  of  idolaters 
were  almost  always  of  an  infamous  and  licen- 
tious nature.  For  this  reason,  Chrysostom  af- 
firms, that  every  idol,  and  every  image  of  a  man, 
was  called  an  abomination  among  the  Jews. 
The  "  abomination  of  desolation"  foretold  by 
the  Prophet  Daniel,  x,  27,  xi,  31,  is  supposed  by 
some  interpreters  to  denote  the  statue  of  Jupiter 
Olympius,  which  Antiochus  Epiphanes  caused 
to  be  erected  in  the  temple  of  Jerusalem.  The 
second  of  the  passages  above  cited  may  proba- 
bly refer  to  this  circumstance,  as  the  statue  of 
Jupiter  did,  in  fact,  "make  desolate,"  by  ban- 
ishing the  true  worship  of  God,  and  those  who 
performed  it,  from  the  temple.  But  the  former 
passage,  considered  in  its  whole  connection, 
bears  more  immediate  reference  to  that  which 
the  evangelists  have  denominated  the  "abomi 
nation  of  desolation,"  Matt,  xxiv,  15,  16;  Mark 
xiii,  14.  This,  without  doubt,  signifies  the  en- 
signs of  the  Roman  armies  under  the  command 
of  Titus,  during  the  last  siege  of  Jerusalem. 
The  images  of  their  gods  and  emperors  were 
delineated  on  these  ensigns ;  and  the  ensigns 
themselves,  especially  the  eagles,  which  were 
carried  at  the  heads  of  the  legions,  were  objects 
of  worship;  and,  according  to  the  usual  style  of 
Scripture,  they  were  therefore  an  abomination. 
Those  ensigns  were  placed  upon  the  ruins  of 
the  temple  after  it  was  taken  and  demolished ; 
and,  as  Josephus  informs  us,  the  Romans  sarri- 


ABR 


ABR 


ficed  to  them  there.  The  horror  with  which 
the  Jews  regarded  them,  sufficiently  appears 
from  the  account  which  Josephus  gives  of  Pi- 
late's  introducing  them  into  the  city,  when  he 
sent  his  army  from  Csesarea  into  winter  quar- 
ters at  Jerusalem,  and  of  Vitellius's  proposing 
to  march  through  Judea,  after  he  had  received 
orders  from  Tiberius  to  attack  Aretas,  king  of 
Petra.  The  people  supplicated  and  remonstrat. 
ed,  and  induced  Pilate  to  remove  the  army,  and 
Vitellius  to  march  his  troops  another  way.  The 
Jews  applied  the  above  passage  of  Daniel  to  the 
Romans,  as  we  are  informed  by  Jerome.  The 
learned  Mr.  Mede  concurs  in  the  same  opinion. 
Sir  Isaac  Newton,  Obs.  on  Daniel  ix,  xii,  ob- 
serves, that  in  the  sixteenth  year  of  the  empe- 
ror Adrian,  B.  C.  132,  the  Romans  accomplish- 
ed the  prediction  of  Daniel  by  building  a  temple 
to  Jupiter  Capitolinus,  where  the  temple  of  God 
in  Jerusalem  had  stood.  Upon  this  occasion  the 
Jews,  under  the  conduct  of  Barchochab,  rose  up 
in  arms  against  the  Romans,  and  in  the  war  had 
fifty  cities  demolished,  nine  hundred  and  eighty- 
five  of  their  best  towns  destroyed,  and  five 
hundred  and  eighty  thousand  men  slain  by  the 
sword;  and  in  the  end  of  the  war,  B.  C.  136, 
they  were  banished  from  Judea  upon  pain  of 
death ;  and  thenceforth  the  land  remained  de- 
solate of  its  old  inhabitants.  Others  again  have 
applied  the  prediction  of  Daniel  to  the  invasion 
and  desolation  of  Christendom  by  the  Moham- 
medans, and  to  their  conversion  of  the  churches 
into  mosques.  From  this  interpretation  they 
infer,  that  the  religion  of  Mohammed  will  pre- 
vail in  the  east  one  thousand  two  hundred  and 
sixty  years,  and  be  succeeded  by  the  restoration 
of  the  Jews,  the  destruction  of  antichrist,  the 
full  conversion  of  the  Gentiles  to  the  church  of 
Christ,  and  the  commencement  of  the  millen- 
nium. 

In  general,  whatever  is  morally  or  ceremo- 
nially impure,  or  leads  to  sin,  is  designated  an 
abomination  to  God.  Thus  lying  lips  are  said 
to  be  an  abomination  to  the  Lord.  Every  thing 
in  doctrine  or  practice  which  tended  to  corrupt 
the  simplicity  of  the  Gospel  is  also  in  Scripture 
called  abominable  ;  hence  Babylon  is  represent- 
ed, Rev.  xvii,  4,  as  holding  in  her  hand  a  cup 
"full  of  abominations."  In  this  view,  to  "work 
abomination,"  is  to  introduce  idolatry,  or  any 
other  great  corruption,  into  the  church  and 
worship  of  God,  1  Kings  xi,  7. 

ABRAM,  oi3N,  a  high  father;  and  ABRA- 
HAM, n.vuN,  father  of  a  great  multitude,  the 
son  of  Terah,  born  at  Ur,  a  city  of  Chaldea, 
A.  M.2008.  The  account  of  this  eminent  pa- 
triarch occupies  so  large  a  part  of  the  book  of 
Genesis,  and  stands  so  intimately  connected 
with  both  the  Jewish  and  Christian  dispensa- 
tions,— with  the  one  by  a  political  and  religious, 
and  with  the  other  by  a  mystical,  relation, — that 
his  history  demands  particular  notice.  Our  ac- 
count may  be  divided  into  his  personal  history, 
and  his  typical,  and  ?nystic  character. 

I.  Abraham's  personal  history. 

1.  Chaldea,  the  native  country  of  Abraham, 
was  inhabited  by  a  pastoral  people,  who  were 
almost  irresistibly  invited  to  the  study  of  the 
motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  by  the  peculiar 


serenity  of  the  heavens  in  that  climate,  and  their 
habit  of  spending  their  nights  in  the  open  air  in 
tending  their  flocks.  The  first  rudiments  of  as- 
tronomy, as  a  science,  is  traced  to  this  region  ; 
and  here,  too,  one  of  the  earliest  forms  of  idola- 
try, the  worship  of  the  host  of  heaven,  usually 
called  Tsabaism,  first  began  to  prevail.  During 
the  three  hundred  and  fifty  years  which  elaps- 
ed between  the  deluge  and  the  birth  of  Abra- 
ham, this  and  other  idolatrous  superstitions  had 
greatly  corrupted  the  human  race,  perverted  the 
simple  forms  of  the  patriarchal  religion,  and 
beclouded  the  import  of  its  typical  rites.  The 
family  of  Abraham  was  idolatrous,  for  his  "fa- 
thers  served  other  gods  beyond  the  flood,"  that 
is,  the  great  river  Euphrates ;  but  whether  he 
himself  was  in  the  early  period  of  his  life  an 
idolater,  we  are  not  informed  by  Moses.  The 
Arabian  and  Jewish  legends  speak  of  his  early 
idolatry,  his  conversion  from  it,  and  of  his  zeal 
in  breaking  the  images  in  his  father's  house  ;  but 
these  are  little  to  be  depended  upon.  Before 
his  call  ho  was  certainly  a  worshipper  of  the 
true  God ;  and  that  not  in  form  only,  but  "in 
spirit  and  in  truth."  Whilst  Abraham  was  still 
sojourning  in  Ur,  "  the  God  of  glory"  appeared 
to  him,  and  said  unto  him,  "  Get  thee  out  of  thy 
country  and  from  thy  kindred,  and  go  into  the 
land  which  I  shall  show  thee ;"  and  so  firm  was 
his  faith  in  the  providence  and  care  of  God,  that 
although  the  place  of  his  future  abode  was  not 
indicated,  nor  any  information  given  of  the  na- 
ture of  the  country,  or  the  character  of  its  in- 
habitants, he  nevertheless  promptly  obeyed,  and 
"went  out,  not  knowing  whither  he  went." 
Terah  his  father,  Nahor  his  brother,  and  Lot  his 
nephew,  the  son  of  Haran  his  deceased  brother, 
accompanied  him ;  a  circumstance  which  indi- 
cates that  if  the  family  had  formerly  been  idola- 
trous it  had  now  received  the  faith  of  Abraham. 
They  first  migrated  to  Haran,  or  Charran,  in 
Mesopotamia,  a  flat,  barren  region  westward  of 
Ur ;  and  after  a  residence  there  of  a  few  years, 
during  which  Terah  had  died,  Abraham  left 
Haran  to  go  into  Palestine,  taking  with  him 
Sarah  his  wife,  who  had  no  child,  and  Lot,  with 
his  paternal  property.  Nahor  appears  to  have 
been  left  in  Haran.  To  this  second  migration 
he  was  incited  also  by  a  Divine  command,  ac- 
companied by  the  promises  of  a  numerous  issue, 
that  his  seed  should  become  a  great  nation,  and, 
above  all,  that  "  in  him  all  the  families  of  the 
earth  should  be  blessed ;"  in  other  words,  that 
the  Messiah,  known  among  the  patriarchs  as  tiie 
promised  "seed  of  the  woman,"  should  be  born 
in  his  line.  Palestine  was  then  inhabited  by 
the  Canaanites,  from  whom  it  was  called  Ca- 
naan. Abraham,  leading  his  tribe,  first  settled 
at  Sechem,  a  valley  between  the  mountains  Ebal 
and  Gerizim,  where  God  appeared  to  him  and 
promised  to  give  him  the  land  of  Canaan,  and 
where,  as  in  other  places  in  which  he  remained 
any  time,  he  built  an  altar  to  the  Lord.  He 
then  removed  to  a  hilly  region  on  the  north  of 
Jericho;  and  as  the  pastures  were  exhausted, 
migrated  southward,  till  a  famine  drove  him 
into  Egypt,  probably  the  earliest,  certainly  the 
most  productive,  corn  country  of  the  ancient 
world. 


ABR 


10 


ABR 


2.  Here  it  may  be  observed,  that  the  migra- 
tions of  Abraham  and  his  sons  show  the  manner 
in  which  the  earth  was  gradually  covered  with 
people.  In  those  ages  some  cities  had  been 
built,  and  the  country  to  some  extent  about  them 
cultivated ;  but  wide  spaces  of  unoccupied  land 
lay  between  them.  A  part  of  society  following 
therefore  the  pastoral  life,  led  forth  their  flocks, 
and,  in  large  family  tribes,  of  which  the  parent 
was  the  head,  uniting  both  the  sovereign  power 
and  the  priesthood  in  himself,  and  with  a 
train  of  servants  attached  to  the  tribe  by  he- 
reditary ties,  pitched  their  camps  wherever  a 
fertile  and  unappropriated  district  offered  them 
pasture.  A  few  of  these  nomadic  tribes  appear 
to  have  made  the  circuit  of  the  same  region, 
seldom  going  far  from  their  native  scats ;  which 
would  probably  have  been  the  case  with  Abra- 
ham, had  he  not  received  the  call  of  God  to  de- 
part to  a  distant  country.  Others,  more  bold, 
followed  the  track  of  rivers,  and  the  sweep  of 
fertile  valleys,  and  at  length  some  built  cities 
and  formed  settlements  in  those  distant  regions ; 
whilst  others,  either  from  attachment  to  their 
former  mode  of  life,  or  from  necessity,  continu- 
ed in  their  pastoral  occupations,  and  followed 
the  supplies  afforded  for  their  flocks  by  the  still 
expanding  regions  of  the  fertile  earth.  Wars 
and  violences,  droughts,  famines,  and  the  con- 
stant increase  of  population,  continued  to  im- 
pel these  innumerable,  but  at  nrst,  small  streams 
of  men  into  parts  still  more  remote.  Those 
who  settled  on  the  sea  coast  began  to  use  that 
element,  both  for  supplying  themselves  with  a 
new  species  of  food,  and  as  a  medium  of  com- 
munication by  vessels  with  other  countries  for 
the  interchange  of  such  commodities  as  their 
own  lands  afforded  with  those  offered  by  mari- 
time states,  more  or  less  distant.  Thus  were  laid 
the  foundations  of  commerce,  and  thus  the  mari- 
time cities  were  gradually  rendered  opulent  and 
powerful.  Colonies  were  in  time  transported 
from  them  by  means  of  their  ships,  and  settled 
on  the  coasts  of  still  more  distant  and  fertile 
countries.  Thus  the  migrations  of  the  three 
primitive  families  proceeded  from  the  central 
regions  of  Armenia,  Mesopotamia,  and  Assyria  ; 
and  in  succession  they  established  numerous 
communities, — the  Phenicians,  Arabians,  Egyp- 
tians, Ethiopians,  and  Lybians  southward; — 
the  Persians,  Indians,  and  Chinese  eastward ; — 
the  Scythians,  Celts,  and  Tartars  northward ; — 
and  the  Goths,  Greeks,  and  Latins  westward, 
even  as  far  as  the  Peruvians  and  Mexicans  of 
South  America,  and  the  Indians  of  North  Ainc. 
rica. 

3.  Abraham,  knowing  the  dissolute  charac- 
ter of  the  Egyptians,  directed  Sarah  to  call 
herself  his  sister,  which  she  was,  although  by 
another  mother ;  fearing  that  if  they  knew  her 
to  be  his  wife,  they  would  not  only  seize  her, 
but  kill  him.  This  circumstance  indicates  the 
vicious  state  of  morals  and  government  in 
Egypt  at  this  early  period.  In  this  affair  Abra- 
ham has  been  blamed  for  want  of  faith  in  God; 
but  it  was  perhaps  no  more  than  an  act  of  com- 
mon prudence,  as  the  seraglio  of  the  Egyp- 
tian monarch  was  supplied  by  any  means,  how- 
ever violent   and  lawless.      Sarah,   upon  the 


report  of  her  beauty,  was  seized  and  taken  mto 
his  harem ;  and  God  sent  great  plagues  upon 
his  house,  which,  from  their  extraordinary 
character,  he  concluded  to  be  divine  judgments. 
This  led  to  inquiry,  and  on  discovering  that  he 
was  detaining  another  man's  wife  by  violence, 
he  sent  her  back,  and  dismissed  Abraham  laden 
with  presents. 

4.  After  the  famine  Abraham  returned  to 
Canaan,  and  pitched  his  tents  between  Bethel 
and  Hai,  where  he  had  previously  raised  an 
altar.  Here,  as  his  flocks  and  herds,  and  those 
of  Lot,  had  greatly  increased,  and  strifes  had 
arisen  between  their  herdsmen  as  to  pasturage 
and  water,  they  peaceably  separated.  Lot  re- 
turning to  the  plain  of  the  Jordan,  which  before 
the  destruction  of  Sodom  was  as  "the  garden 
of  God,"  and  Abraham  to  Mamre,  near  Hebron, 
after  receiving  a  renewal  of  the  promise,  that 
God  would  give  him  the  whole  land  for  a  pos- 
session. The  separation  of  Abraham  and  Lot 
still  farther  secured  the  unmingled  descent  of 
the  Abrahamitic  family.  The  territories  of  the 
kings  of  the  cities  of  the  plain  were  a  few  years 
afterward  invaded  by  a  confederacy  of  the  petty  < 
kings  of  the  Euphrates  and  the  neighbouring 
countries,  and  Lot  and  his  family  were  taken 
prisoners.  This  intelligence  being  brought  to 
Abraham,  he  collected  the  men  of  his  tribe, 
three  hundred  and  eighteen,  and  falling  upon 

the  kings  by  night,  near  the  fountains  of  Jeri- 
cho, he  defeated  them,  retook  the  spoil,  and 
recovered  Lot.  On  his  return,  passing  near 
Salem,  supposed  to-be  the  city  afterward  called 
Jerusalem,  he  was  blessed  by  its  king  Mel- 
chizedec,  who  was  priest  of  the  most  high  God  ; 
so  that  the  knowledge  and  worship  of  Jehovah 
had  not  quite  departed  at  that  time  from  the. 
Canaanitish  nations.  To  him  Abraham  gave 
a  tithe  of  the  spoil.  The  rest  he  generously 
restored  to  the  king  of  Sodom,  refusing,  in  a 
noble  spirit  of  independence,  to  retain  so  much 
as  a  "shoe  lachet,"  except  the  portion  which, 
by  usage  of  war,  fell  to  the  young  native  sheiks, 
Aner,  Eschal,  and  Mamre,  who  had  joined  him 
in  the  expedition. 

5.  After  this  he  had  another  encouraging 
vision  of  God,  Gen.  xv,  1 ;  and  to  his  complaint 
that  he  was  still  childless,  and  that  his  name 
and  property  would  descend  to  the  stranger 
Eliezer,  who  held  the  next  rank  in  his  tribe, 
the  promise  was  given,  that  he  himself  should 
have  a  son,  and  that  his  seed  should  be  count- 
less as  the  stars  of  heaven.  And  it  is  emphati- 
cally added,  "He  believed  in  the  Lord,  and  he 
counted  it  to  him  for  righteousness."  He  was 
then  fully  assured,  that  he  stood  before  God,  a 
pardoned  and  accepted  man,  "  whose  iniquities 
were  forgiven,"  and  to  whom  "the  Lord  did 
not  impute  sin."  Still  the  fulfilment  of  the 
promise  of  a  son  was  delayed ;  and  Sarah,  per- 
haps despairing  that  it  would  be  accomplished 
in  her  person,  and  the  revelation  which  had 
been  made  merely  stating  that  this  son  should 
be  the  fruit  of  Abraham's  body,  without  any 
reference  to  her,  she  gave  to  him,  according  to 
the  custom  of  those  times,  one  of  her  hand- 
maids, an  Egyptian,  to  be  his  secondary  wife, 
who  brought  forth  Ishmael.     Children  born  in 


ABR 


11 


ABR 


this  manner  had  the  privileges  of  legitimacy ; 
but  fourteen  years  afterward,  when  Abraham 
was  a  hundred  years  old,  and  Sarah  ninety, 
the  Lord  appeared  to  him  again,  established  his 
covenant  with  him  and  with  his  seed,  changed 
his  name  to  Abraham,  "the  father  of  many 
nations,"  promised  that  Sarah  herself  should 
bring  forth  the  son  to  whom  the  preceding 
promises  had  referred  ;  instituted  circumcision 
as  the  sign  of  the  covenant ;  and  changed  the 
name  of  his  wife  from  Sarai,  my  princess,  to 
Sarah,  the  princess,  that  is,  of  many  people  to 
descend  from  her. 

6.  At  this  time  Abraham  occupied  his  former 
encampment  near  Hebron.  Here,  as  he  sat  in 
the  door  of  his  tent,  three  mysterious  strangers 
appeared.  Abraham,  with  true  Arabian  hospi- 
tality, received  and  entertained  them.  The  chief 
of  the  three  renewed  the  promise  of  a  son  to  be 
born  from  Sarah,  a  promise  which  she  received 
with  a  laugh  of  incredulity,  for  which  she  was 
mildly  reproved.  As  Abraham  accompanied 
them  toward  the  valley  of  the  Jordan,  the  same 
divine  person,  for  so  he  manifestly  appears, 
announced  the  dreadful  ruin  impending  over 
the  licentious  cities  among  which  Lot  had  taken 
up  his  abode.  No  passage,  even  in  the  sacred 
writings,  exhibits  a  more  exalted  view  of  the 
divine  condescension  than  that  in  which  Abra- 
ham is  seen  expostulating  on  the  apparent  in- 
justice of  involving  the  innocent  in  the  ruin  of 
the  guilty:  "Shall  the  city  perish,  if  fifty,  if 
forty-five,  if  forty,  if  thirty,  if  twenty,  if  ten 
righteous  men  be  found  within  its  walls  ?" 
"Ten  righteous  men  shall  avert  its  doom." 
Such  was  the  promise  of  the  celestial  visitant ; 
but  the  guilt  was  universal,  the  ruin  inevitable  ; 
and  the  violation  of  the  sacred  laws  of  hospi- 
tality and  nature,  which  Lot  in  his  horror 
attempted  to  avert  by  the  most  revolting  ex- 
pedient, confirmed  the  justice  of  the  divine 
sentence. 

7.  Sarah  having  conceived,  according  to 
the  divine  promise,  Abraham  left  the  plain  of 
Mamre,  and  went  south  to  Gerar,  where  Abi- 
melech  reigned  ;  and  again  fearing  lest  Sarah 
should  be  forced  from  him,  and  himself  be  put 
to  death,  her  beauty  having  been,  it  would  ap- 
pear, preternaturally  continued,  notwithstand- 
ing her  age,  he  here  called  her,  as  he  had  done 
in  Egypt,  his  sister.  Abimelech  took  her  to 
his  house,  designing  to  marry  her;  but  God 
having,  in  a  dream,  informed  him  that  she  was 
Abraham's  wife,  he  returned  her  to  him  with 
great  presents.  This  year  Sarah  was  delivered 
of  Isaac  ;  and  Abraham  circumcised  him,  ac- 
cording to  the  covenant  stipulation  ;  and  when 
he  was  weaned,  made  a  great  entertainment. 
Sarah,  having  observed  Ishmael,  son  of  Hagar, 
mocking  her  son  Isaac,  said  to  Abraham, 
"Cast  out  this  bondwoman  and  her  son,  for 
Ishmael  shall  not  be  heir  with  Isaac."  After 
great  reluctance,  Abraham  complied  ;  God  hav- 
ing informed  him  that  this  was  according  to 
the  appointments  of  his  providence,  with  re- 
spect to  future  ages.  About  the  same  time, 
Abimelech  came  with  Phicol,  his  general,  to 
conclude  an  alliance  with  Abraham,  who  made 
that  prince  a  present  of  seven  ewe  lambs  out 


of  his  flock,  in  confirmntion  that  a  well  he  had 
opened  should  be  his  own  property ;  and  they 
called  the  place  Beer-sheba,  or  "the  well  of 
swearing,"  because  of  the  covenant  there  rati- 
fied with  oaths.  Here  Abraham  planted  a 
grove,  built  an  altar,  and  for  some  time  resided, 
Gen.  xx,  xxi. 

8.  More  than  twenty  years  after  this,  (A.  M. 
2133,)  God,  for  the  final  trial  and  illustration 
of  Abraham's  faith,  directed  him  to  offer  up  his 
son  Isaac.  Abraham  took  his  son,  and  two 
servants,  and  went  toward  mount  Moriah. 
When  within  sight  of  the  mountain,  Abraham 
left  his  servants,  and  ascended  it  with  his  son 
only;  and  there  having  bound  him,  he  pre- 
pared for  the  affecting  sacrifice  ;  but  when  he 
was  about  to  give  the  blow,  an  angel  from  hea- 
ven cried  out  to  him,  "Lay  not  thine  hand  upon 
the  lad,  neither  do  thou  anything  to  him.  Now 
I  know  that  thou  fearest  God,  since  thou  hast 
not  withheld  thine  only  son  from  me."  Abra- 
ham, turning,  saw  a  ram  entangled  in  the  bush 
by  his  horns ;  and  he  offered  this  animal  as  a 
burnt  offering,  instead  of  his  son  Isaac.  This 
memorable  place  he  called  by  the  prophetic 
name,  Jehovah-jirch,  or  the  Lord  will  sec — or 
provide,  Gen.  xxii,  1-14,  having  respect,  no 
doubt,  to  the  true  sacrifice  which,  in  the  ful- 
ness of  time,  was  to  be  offered  for  the  whole 
world  upon  the  same  mountain. 

9.  Twelve  years  afterward,  Sarah,  wife  of 
Abraham,  died  in  Hebron.  Abraham  came  to 
mourn  and  to  perform  the  funeral  offices  for 
her.  He  addressed  the  people  at  the  city  gate, 
entreating  them  to  allow  him  to  bury  his  wife 
among  them;  for,  being  a  stranger,  and  having 
no  land  of  his  own,  he  could  claim  no  right  of 
interment  in  any  sepulchre  of  that  country. 
He,  therefore,  bought  of  Ephron,  one  of  the 
inhabitants,  the  field  of  Machpelah,  with  the 
cave  and  sepulchre  in  it,  at  the  price  of  four 
hundred  shekels  of  silver,  about  forty-five 
pounds  sterling.  And  here  Abraham  buried 
Sarah,  with  due  solemnities,  according  to  the 
custom  of  the  country,  Gen.  xxiii.  This  whole 
tra  nsaction  impressively  illustrates  the  dignity, 
courtesy,  and  honour  of  these  ancient  chiefs  ; 
and  wholly  disproves  the  notion  that  theirs  was 
a  rude  and  unpolished  age. 

10.  Abraham,  having  grown  old,  sent  Eliezer, 
his  steward,  into  Mesopotamia,  with  directions 
to  obtain  a  young  woman  of  his  own  family,  as 
a  wife  for  his  son  Isaac.  Eliezer  executed  his 
commission  with  fidelity,  and  brought  back 
Rebecca,  daughter  of  Bethuel,  grand-daughter 
of  Nahor,  and,  consequently,  Abraham's  niece, 
whom  Isaac  married.  Abraham  afterward  mar- 
ried Kcturah ;  by  whom  he  had  six  sons,  Zim- 
ran,  Jokshan,  Medan,  Midian,  Ishbak,  and 
Shuah;  who  became  heads  of  different  people, 
which  dwelt  in  Arabia,  and  around  it.  He  died, 
aged  a  hundred  and  seventy-five  years,  and 
was  buried,  with  Sarah  his  wife,  in  the  cave  of 
Machpelah,  which  he  had  purchased  of  Ephron, 
Gen.  xxiv,  xxv,  A.  M.  2183,  before  Christ  1821. 

11.  From  the  personal  history  of  Abraham 
wc  may  now  proceed  to  the  consideration  of 
the  typical  circumstances  which  were  con- 
nected with  it. 


ABR 


12 


ABR 


1.  Abraham  himself  with  his  family  may  be 
regarded  as  a  type  of  the  church  of  God  in 
future  ages.  They  indeed  constituted  God's 
ancient  church.  Not  that  many  scattered  pa- 
triarchal and  family  churches  did  not  remain  : 
such  was  that  of  Melchizedec  ;  and  such  pro- 
bably was  that  of  Nahor,  whom  Abraham  left 
behind  in  Mesopotamia.  But  a  visible  church 
relation  was  established  between  Abraham's 
family  and  the  Most  High,  signified  by  the 
visible  and  distinguishing  sacrament  of  circum- 
cision, and  followed  by  new  and  enlarged  reve- 
lations of  truth.  Two  purposes  were  to  be 
answered  by  this, — the  preservation  of  the  true 
doctrine  of  salvation  in  the  world,  which  is  the 
great  and  solemn  duty  of  every  branch  of  the 
church  of  God, — and  the  manifestation  of  that 
truth  to  others.  Both  were  done  by  Abraham. 
Wherever  he  sojourned  he  built  his  altars  to 
the  true  God,  and  publicly  celebrated  his  wor- 
ship ;  and,  as  we  learn  from  St.  Paul,  he  lived 
in  tents  in  preference  to  settling  in  the  land  of 
Canaan,  though  it  had  been  given  to  him  for 
a  possession,  in  order  that  he  might  thus  pro- 
claim his  faith  in  the  eternal  inheritance  of 
which  Canaan  was  a  type  ;  and  in  bearing  this 
testimony,  his  example  was  followed  by  Isaac 
and  Jacob,  the  "  heirs  with  him  of  the  same 
promise,"  who  also  thus  "  confessed  that  they 
were  strangers  and  pilgrims,"  and  that  "they 
looked"  for  a  continuing  and  eternal  city  in 
heaven.  So  also  now  is  the  same  doctrine  of 
immortality  committed  to  the  church  of  Christ ; 
and  by  deadness  to  the  world  ought  its  mem- 
bers to  declare  the  reality  of  their  own  faith 
in  it. 

2.  The  numerous  natural  posterity  promised 
to  Abraham  was  also  a  type  of  the  spiritual 
seed,  the  true  members  of  the  church  of  Christ, 
springing  from  the  Messiah,  of  whom  Isaac 
was  the  symbol.  Thus  St.  Paul  expressly  dis- 
tinguishes between  the  fleshly  and  the  spiritual 
seed  of  Abraham ;  to  the  latter  of  which,  in 
their  ultimate  and  highest  sense,  the  promises 
of  increase  as  the  stars  of  heaven,  and  the 
sands  of  the  sea -shore,  are  to  be  referred,  as 
also  the  promise  of  the  heavenly  Canaan. 

3.  The  intentional  offering  up  Isaac,  with 
its  result,  was  probably  that  transaction  in 
which  Abraham,  more  clearly  than  in  any 
other,  "saw  the  day  of  Christ,  and  was  glad." 
He  received  Isaac  from  the  dead,  says  St.  Paul, 
"in  a  figure."  This  could  be  a  figure  of 
nothing  but  the  resurrection  of  our  Lord ;  and, 
if  so,  Isaac's  being  laid  upon  the  altar  was  a 
figure  of  his  sacrificial  death,  scenically  and 
most  impressively  represented  to  Abraham. 
The  place,  the  same  ridge  of  hills  on  which 
our  Lord  was  crucified ;  the  person,  an  only 
son,  to  die  for  no  offence  of  his  own ;  the  sa- 
crijiccr,  a  father  ;  the  receiving  back,  as  it  were, 
from  death  to  life ;  the  name  impressed  upon 
the  place,  importing,  "  the  Lord  will  provide," 
in  allusion  to  Abraham's  own  words  to  Isaac, 
"the  Lord  will  provide  a  lamb  for  a  burnt 
offering;"  all  indicate  a  mystery  which  lay 
deep  beneath  this  transaction,  and  which  Abra- 
ham, as  the  reward  of  his  obedience,  was  per- 
mitted to  behold.     "The  day"  of  Christ's  hu. 


miliation  and  exaltation  was  thus  opened  to 
him ;  and  served  to  keep  the  great  truth  in 
mind,  that  the  true  burnt  offering  and  sacrifice 
for  sin  was  to  be  something  higher  than  the 
immolation  of  lambs  and  bulls  and  goats, — nay, 
something  more  than  what  was  merely  human. 

4.  The  transaction  of  the  expulsion  of  Ha- 
gar  was  also  a  type.  It  was  an  allegory  in 
action,  by  which  St.  Paul  teaches  us  to  under- 
stand that  the  son  of  the  bondwoman  repre- 
sented those  who  are  under  the  law ;  and  the 
child  of  the  freewoman  those  who  by  faith  in 
Christ  are  supernaturally  begotten  into  the 
family  of  God.  The  bondwoman  and  her  son 
being  cast  out,  represented  also  the  expulsion 
of  the  unbelieving  Jews  from  the  church  of 
God,  which  was  to  be  composed  of  true  believ- 
ers of  all  nations,  all  of  whom,  whether  Jews 
or  Gentiles,  were  to  become  "  fellow  heirs." 

III.  But  Abraham  appears  before  us  invested 
with  a  mystic  character,  which  it  is  of  great 
importance  rightly  to  understand. 

1.  He  is  to  be  regarded  as  standing  in  a 
federal  or  covenant  relation,  not  only  to  his 
natural  seed,  but  specially  and  eminently  to  all 
believers.  "The  Gospel,"  we  are  told  by  St. 
Paul,  "was  preached  to  Abraham,  saying,  In 
thee  shall  all  nations  be  blessed."  "  Abraham 
believed  in  God,  and  it  was  accounted  to  him 
for  righteousness ;"  in  other  words,  he  was  jus- 
tified. A  covenant  of  gratuitous  justification 
through  faith  was  made  with  him  and  his  be- 
lieving descendants ;  and  the  rite  of  circum- 
cision, which  was  not  confined  to  his  posterity 
by  Sarah,  but  appointed  in  every  branch  of  his 
family,  was  the  sign  or  sacrament  of  this  cove- 
nant of  grace,  and  so  remained  till  it  was  dis- 
placed by  the  sacraments  appointed  by  Christ. 
Wherever  that  sign  was  it  declared  the  doc- 
trine, and  offered  the  grace,  of  this  covenant — 
free  justification  by  faith,  and  its  glorious  re- 
sults— to  all  the  tribes  that  proceeded  from 
Abraham.  This  same  grace  is  offered  to  us  by 
the  Gospel,  who  become  "  Abraham's  seed,"  his 
spiritual  children  with  whom  the  covenant  is 
established,  through  the  same  faith,  and  are 
thus  made  "the  heirs  with  him  of  the  same 
promise." 

2.  Abraham  is  also  exhibited  to  us  as  the 
representative  of  true  believers;  and  in  this 
especially,  that  the  true  nature  of  faith  was 
exhibited  in  him.  This  great  principle  was 
marked  in  Abraham  with  the  following  charac- 
ters : — An  entire  unhesitating  belief  in  the 
word  of  God; — an  unfaltering  trust  in  all  his 
promises ; — a  steady  regard  to  his  almighty 
power,  leading  him  to  overlook  all  apparent 
difficulties  and  impossibilities  in  every  case 
where  God  had  explicitly  promised ; — and  ha- 
bitual and  cheerful  and  entire  obedience.  The 
Apostle  has  described  faith  in  Heb.  xi,  1 ;  and 
that  faith  is  seen  living  and  acting  in  all  its 
energy  in  Abraham. 

A  few  miscellaneous  remarks  are  suggested 
by  some  of  the  circumstances  of  Abraham's 
history  : — 

1.  The  ancient  method  of  ratifying  a  cove- 
nant by  sacrifice  is  illustrated  in  the  account 
given  in  Gen.  xv,  9, 10.   The  beasts  were  slain 


ABR 


13 


ABS 


and  divided  in  the  midst,  and  the  persons  co- 
venanting passed  between  the  parts.  Hence, 
after  Abraham  had  performed  this  part  of  the 
ceremony,  the  symbol  of  the  Almighty's  pre. 
sence,  "a  smoking  furnace,  and  a  burning 
lamp,  passed  between  the  pieces,"  verse  18, 
and  so  both  parties  ratified  the  covenant. 

2.  As  the  beauty  of  Sarah,  which  she  re- 
tained so  long  as  quite  to  conceal  her  real  age 
from  observers,  attracted  so  much  notice  as  to 
lead  to  her  forcible  seizure,  once  by  Pharaoh  in 
Egypt,  and  again  by  Abimelech  in  Palestine,  it 
may  appear  strange,  that,  as  in  the  east  women 
are  generally  kept  in  seclusion,  and  seldom  ap- 
pear without  veils,  she  exposed  herself  to  ob- 
servation. But  to  this  day  the  Arab  women  do 
not  wear  veils  at  home  in  their  tents ;  and  Sa- 
rah's countenance  might  have  been  seen  in  the 
tent  by  some  of  the  officers  of  Pharaoh  and 
Abimelech,  who  reported  her  beauty  to  their 
masters. 

3.  The  intentional  offering  up  of  Isaac  is 
not  to  be  supposed  as  viewed  by  Abraham  as  an 
act  sanctioned  by  the  Pagan  practice  of  human 
sacrifice.  The  immolation  of  human  victims, 
particularly  of  that  which  was  most  precious, 
the  favourite,  the  first-born  child,  appears  to 
have  been  a  common  usage  among  many  early 
nations,  more  especially  the  tribes  by  which 
Abraham  was  surrounded.  It  was  the  distin- 
guishing rite  among  the  worshippers  of  Mo- 
loch ;  at  a  later  period  of  the  Jewish  history,  it 
was  practised  by  a  king  of  Moab;  and  it  was 
undoubtedly  derived  by  the  Carthaginians  from 
their  Phenecian  ancestors  on  the  shores  of  Sy- 
ria. Where  it  was  an  ordinary  usage,  as  in  the 
worship  of  Moloch,  it  was  in  unison  with  the 
character  of  the  religion,  and  of  its  deity.  It 
was  the  last  act  of  a  dark  and  sanguinary  su- 
perstition, which  rose  by  regular  gradation  to 
this  complete  triumph  over  human  nature.  The 
god,  who  was  propitiated  by  these  offerings, 
had  been  satiated  with  more  cheap  and  vulgar 
victims ;  he  had  been  glutted  to  the  full  with 
human  suffering  and  with  human  blood.  In 
general  it  was  the  final  mark  of  the  subjuga- 
tion of  the  national  mind  to  an  inhuman  and 
domineering  priesthood.  But  the  Mosaic  reli- 
gion held  human  sacrifices  in  abhorrence ;  and 
tho  God  of  the  Abrahamitic  family,  uniformly 
beneficent,  had  imposed  no  duties  which  en- 
tailed human  suffering,  had  demanded  no  offer- 
ings which  were  repugnant  to  the  better  feel- 
ings of  our  nature.  The  command  to  offer 
Isaac  as  "  a  burnt  offering,"  was  for  these  rea- 
sons a  trial  the  more  severe  to  Abraham's  faith. 
He  must  therefore  have  been  fully  assured  of 
the  divine  command ;  and  he  left  the  mystery 
to  be  explained  by  God  himself.  His  was  a 
simple  act  of  unhesitating  obedience  to  the 
command  of  God ;  the  last  proof  of  perfect  re- 
liance on  the  certain  accomplishment  of  the 
divine  promises.  Isaac,  so  miraculously  be- 
stowed, could  be  as  miraculously  restored ; 
Abraham,  such  is  the  comment  of  the  Christian 
Apostle,  "believed  that  God  could  even  raise 
him  up  from  the  dead." 

4.  The  wide  and  deep  impression  made  by 
the  character  of  Abraham  upon  the  ancient 


world  is  proved  by  the  reverence  which  people 
of  almost  all  nations  and  countries  have  paid  to 
him,  and  the  manner  in  which  the  events  of 
his  life  have  been  interwoven  in  their  mytho- 
logy, and  their  religious  traditions.  Jews, 
Magians,  Sabians,  Indians,  and  Mohammedans 
have  claimed  him  as  the  great  patriarch  and 
founder  of  their  several  sects  ;  and  his  history 
has  been  embellished  with  a  variety  of  fictions. 
One  of  the  most  pleasing  of  these  is  the  follow- 
ing, but  it  proceeds  upon  the  supposition  that 
he  was  educated  in  idolatry:  "As  Abraham 
was  walking  by  night  from  the  grotto  where 
he  was  born,  to  the  city  of  Babylon,  he  gazed 
on  the  stars  of  heaven,  and  among  them  on  the 
beautiful  planet  Venus.  '  Behold,'  said  he  with- 
in himself,  '  the  God  and  Lord  of  the  universe  !' 
but  the  star  set  and  disappeared,  and  Abraham 
felt  that  the  Lord  of  the  universe  could  not 
thus  be  liable  to  change.  Shortly  after,  he  be- 
held the  moon  at  the  full :  '  Lo,'  he  cried,  •  the 
Divine  Creator,  the  manifest  Deity!'  but  the 
moon  sank  below  the  horizon,  and  Abraham 
made  the  same  reflection  as  at  the  setting  of 
the  evening  star.  All  the  rest  of  the  night  he 
passed  in  profound  rumination ;  at  sunrise  he 
stood  before  the  gates  of  Babylon,  and  saw  the 
whole  people  prostrate  in  adoration.  '  Won- 
drous orb,'  he  exclaimed,  '  thou  surely  art  the 
Creator  and  Ruler  of  all  nature  !  but  thou,  too, 
hastest  like  the  rest  to  thy  setting ! — neither 
then  art  thou  my  Creator,  my  Lord,  or  my 
God!'" 

ABRAHAMITES,  reported  heretical  sects 
of  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries,  charged  with 
the  Paulician  errors,  and  some  of  them  with 
idolatry.  For  these  charges  we  have,  however, 
only  the  word  of  their  persecutors.  Also  the 
name  of  a  sect  in  Bohemia,  as  late  as  1782, 
who  professed  the  religion  of  Abraham  before 
his  circumcision,  and  admitted  no  scriptures 
but  the  decalogue  and  the  Lord's  prayer.  As 
these  were  persecuted,  they  too  were  probably 
misrepresented,  and  especially  as  their  con- 
duct is  allowed  to  have  been  good,  even  by  their 
enemies. 

ABSALOM,  the  son  of  David  by  Maachah, 
daughter  of  the  king  of  Geshur;  distinguished 
for  his  fine  person,  his  vices,  and  his  unnatural 
rebellion.  Of  his  open  revolt,  his  conduct  in 
Jerusalem,  his  pursuit  of  the  king  his  father, 
his  defeat  and  death,  see  2  Sam.  xvi-xviii,  at 
large. 

ABSOLUTION,  in  the  church  of  Rome,  is 
a  sacrament,  in  which  the  priests  assume  the 
power  of  forgiving  sins.  Tbe  rite  of  absolution 
in  the  church  of  England  is  acknowledged  to 
be  declarative  only — "Almighty  God  hath 
given  power  and  commandment  to  his  minis- 
ters to  declare  and  pronounce  to  his  people,  be- 
ing penitent,  the  absolution  and  remission  of 
their  sins  :  He  pardoneth,"  &c.  In  this  view 
it  is  innocent ;  and  although  any  private  Chris- 
tian has  a  right  to  declare  and  pronounce  the 
same  doctrine  to  his  neighbour,  the  official  pub- 
lication of  the  grace  of  the  Gospel  is  the  public 
duty  of  its  ministers  in  the  congregation,  since 
they  are  Christ's  "  ambassadors." 

ABSTINENCE,  forbearance  of  any  thing 


ABY 


14 


ABY 


It  is  generally  used  with  reference  to  forbear- 
ance from  food  under  a  religious  motive.  The 
Jewish  law  ordained  that  the  priests  should  ab- 
stain from  the  use  of  wine  during  the  whole 
time  of  their  being  employed  in  the  service  of 
the  temple,  Lev.  x,  9.  The  same  abstinence 
was  enjoined  upon  the  Nazaritcs,  during  the 
time  of  their  Nazariteship,  or  separation,  Num. 
vi,  3.  The  Jews  were  commanded  to  abstain 
from  several  sorts  of  animals.     See  Animal. 

The  fat  of  all  sorts  of  animals  that  were 
sacrificed  was  forbidden  to  be  eaten,  Lev.  iii, 
17;  vii,  23;  and  the  blood  of  every  animal,  in 
general,  was  prohibited  under  pain  of  death. 
Indeed  blood  was  forbidden  by  the  Creator, 
from  the  time  of  the  grant  of  the  flesh  of  beasts 
to  man  for  food  ;  this  prohibition  was  continued 
under  the  Jewish  economy,  and  transmitted  to 
the  Christian  church  by  Apostolic  authority, 
Acts  xv,  28,  29.  (See  Blood.)  The  Jews  also 
abstained  from  the  sinew  which  is  upon  the 
hollow  of  the  thigh,  Gen.  xxxii,  25  ;  because  of 
the  shrinking  of  the  sinew  of  Jacob's  thigh 
when  touched  by  the  angel,  as  though  by  that 
the  part  had  been  made  sacred. 

Among  the  primitive  Christians,  some  denied 
themselves  the  use  of  such  meats  as  were  pro- 
hibited by  the  law ;  others  treated  this  absti- 
nence with  contempt.  St.  Paul  has  given  his 
decision  on  these  questions  in  his  epistles, 
1  Cor.  viii,  7-10 ;  Rom.  xiv,  1-3.  The  council 
of  Jerusalem,  which  was  held  by  the  Apostles, 
enjoined  the  Christian  converts  to  abstain  from 
meats  strangled,  from  blood,  from  fornication, 
and  from  idolatry,  Acts  xv,  20. 

The  spiritual  monarchy  of  the  western  world 
introduced  another  sort  of  abstinence  which 
may  be  termed  ritual,  and  which  consists  in 
abstaining  from  particular  meats  at  certain 
times  and  seasons,  the  rules  of  which  are  called 
rogations.  The  ancient  Lent  was  observed 
only  a  few  days  before  Easter.  In  the  course 
of  the  third  century,  it  extended  at  Rome  to 
three  weeks;  and  before  the  middle  of  the  suc- 
ceeding age,  it  was  prolonged  to  six  weeks, 
and  began  to  be  called  quadragesima,  or  the 
forty  days'  fast. 

ABYSS,  or  deep,  afivecos,  without  bottom. 
The  chaos  ;  the  deepest  parts  of  the  sea ;  and, 
in  the  New  Testament,  the  place  of  the  dead, 
Rom.  x,  7  ;  a  deep  place  of  punishment.  The 
devils  besought  Jesus  that  he  would  not  send 
them  into  the  abyss,  a  place  they  evidently 
dreaded,  Luke  viii,  31 ;  where  it  seems  to  mean 
that  part  of  Hades  in  which  wicked  spirits  are 
in  torment.     See  Hell. 

In  the  opinion  of  the  ancient  Hebrews,  and 
of  the  generality  of  eastern  people  at  this  day, 
the  abyss,  the  sea,  or  waters,  encompassed  the 
whole  earth.  This  was  supposed  to  float  upon 
the  abyss,  of  which  it  covered  a  small  part. 
According  to  the  same  notion,  the  earth  was 
founded  on  the  waters,  or  at  least  its  founda- 
tions were  on  the  abyss  beneath,  Psalm  xxiv, 
2;  exxxvi,  6.  Under  these  waters,  and  at 
the  bottom  of  this  abyss,  they  represented  the 
wicked  as  groaning,  and  suffering  the  punish- 
ment of  their  sin.  The  Rephaim  were  confined 
there,  those   old   giants,  who,  whilst  living, 


caused  surrounding  nations  to  tremble,  Trov. 
ix,  IS;  xxi,  16,  &c.  Lastly,  in  these  dark  dun- 
geons the  kings  of  Tyre,  Babylon,  and  Egypt 
are  described  by  the  Prophets  as  suffering  the 
punishment  of  their  pride  and  cruelty,  Isaiah 
xxvi,  14;  Ezek.  xxviii,  10,  &c. 

These  depths  are  figuratively  represented  as 
the  abodes  of  evil  spirits,  and  powers  opposed  to 
God :  "  I  saw,"  says  St.  John,  "  a  star  fall  from 
heaven  unto  the  earth,  and  to  him  was  given 
the  key  of  the  bottomless  pit.  And  he  opened 
the  bottomless  pit ;  and  there  arose  a  smoke 
out  of  it,  as  the  smoke  of  a  great  furnace ; 
and  the  sun  and  the  air  were  darkened  by 
reason  of  the  smoke  of  the  pit.  And  there 
came  out  of  the  smoke  locusts  upon  the  earth. 
And  they  had  a  king  over  them,  which  is  the 
angel  of  the  bottomless  pit,"  Rev.  ix,  1,  2,  11. 
In  another  place,  the  beast  is  represented  as 
ascending  out  of  the  bottomless  pit,  and 
waging  war  against  the  two  witnesses  of  God, 
Rev.  xi,  7.  Lastly,  St.  John  says,  "I  saw  an 
angel  come  down  from  heaven,  having  the  key 
of  the  bottomless  pit,  and  a  great  chain  in  his 
hand.  And  he  laid  hold  on  the  dragon,  that 
old  serpent,  which  is  the  devil,  and  Satan,  and 
bound  him  a  thousand  years,  and  cast  him  into 
the  bottomless  pit,  and  shut  him  up,  and  set  a 
seal  upon  him,  that  he  should  deceive  the  na- 
tions no  more  till  the  thousand  years  should 
be  fulfilled  :  and  after  that  he  must  be  loosed  a 
little  season,"  Rev.  xx,  1-3. 

ABYSSINIAN  CHURCH,  a  branch  of  the 
Coptic  church,  in  Upper  Ethiopia.  The  Abys- 
sinians,  by  the  most  authentic  accounts,  were 
converted  to  the  Christian  faith  about  the  year 
330;  when  Frumentius,  being  providentially 
raised  to  a  high  office,  under  the  patronage  of 
the  queen  of  Ethiopia,  and  ordained  bishop  of 
that  country  by  Athanasius,  patriarch  of  Alex- 
andria, established  Christianity,  built  churches, 
and  ordained  a  regular  clergy  to  officiate  in 
them.  The  Abyssinian  Christians  themselves, 
indeed,  claim  a  much  higher  antiquity,  having 
a  tradition,  that  the  doctrine  of  Christ  was  first 
introduced  among  them  by  Queen  Candace, 
Acts  viii,  27 ;  or  even  preached  there  by  the 
Apostles  Matthew  and  Bartholomew  ;  but  the 
former  is  supported  by  no  collateral  evidence, 
and  the  latter  is  in  opposition  to  high  authority. 
Some  of  them  claim  relation  to  the  Israelites, 
through  the  queen  of  Sheba,  so  far  back  as  the 
reign  of  Solomon. 

The  Abyssinian  Christians  have  always  re- 
ceived their  abuna,  or  patriarch,  from  Alexan- 
dria whence  they  sprang,  and  consequently 
their  creed  is  Monophysite,  or  Eutychian; 
maintaining  one  nature  only  in  the  person  of 
Christ,  namely,  the  divine,  in  which  they  con- 
sidered all  the  properties  of  the  humanity  to  be 
absorbed;  in  opposition  to  the  Nestorians. 

On  the  power  of  the  Saracens  prevailing  in 
the  cast,  all  communication  being  nearly  cut 
off'  between  the  eastern  and  western  churches, 
Ihe  Abyssinian  church  remained  unknown  in 
Europe  till  nearly  the  close  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  when  John  II,  of  Portugal,  acciden- 
tally hearing  of  the  existence  of  such  a  church, 
sent  to  make  inquiry.     This  led  to  a  corrcs- 


ACA 


15 


ACC 


pondcnce  between  the  Abyssinians  and  the 
church  of  Rome  ;  and  Bermudas,  a  Portuguese, 
was  consecrated  by  the  pope  patriarch  of  Ethio- 
pia, and  the  Abyssinians  were  required  to  re- 
ceive the  Roman  Catholic  faith,  in  return  for 
some  military  assistance  afforded  to  the  empe- 
ror. Instead  of  this,  however,  the  emperor 
sent  for  a  new  patriarch  from  Alexandria,  im- 
prisoned Bermudes,  and  declared  the  pope  a 
heretic. 

About  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
the  Jesuits  attempted  a  mission  to  Abyssinia, 
in  the  hope  of  reducing  it  to  the  pope's  au- 
thority ;  but  Without  success.  In  1588  a  second 
mission  was  attempted,  and  so  far  succeeded  as 
to  introduce  a  system  of  persecution,  which 
cost  many  lives,  and  caused  many  troubles  to 
the  empire.  In  the  following  century,  how- 
ever, the  Jesuits  were  all  expelled,  Abyssinia 
returned  to  its  ancient  faith,  and  nothing  more 
was  heard  of  the  church  of  Abyssinia,  till  the 
latter  part  of  the  last  century. 

After  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits,  all  Euro- 
peans were  interdicted  ;  nor  does  it  appear  that 
any  one  dared  to  attempt  an  entrance  until  the 
celebrated  Mr.  Bruce,  by  the  report  of  his 
medical  skill,  contrived  to  introduce  himself  to 
the  court,  where  he  even  obtained  military  pro- 
motion ;  and  was  in  such  repute,  that  it  was 
with  great  difficulty  he  obtained  leave  to  return 
to  England. 

Encouraged,  perhaps,  by  this  circumstance, 
the  Moravian  brethren  attempted  a  mission  to 
this  country,  but  in  vain.  They  were  compelled 
to  retreat  to  Grand  Cairo,  from  whence,  by 
leave  of  the  patriarch,  they  visited  the  Copts 
at  Behrusser,  and  formed  a  small  society ;  but 
in  1783,  they  were  driven  thence,  and  com- 
pelled to  return  to  Europe.  More  recently, 
however,  the  late  king  of  Abyssinia  (Itsa  Tak- 
ley  Gorges)  addressed  a  letter  to  Mr.  Salt,  the 
British  consul  in  Egypt,  and  requested  copies 
of  some  parts  of  both  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments. Copies  of  the  Psalms,  in  Ethiopic,  as 
printed  by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  So- 
ciety, were  also  sent  to  him. 

ACADEMICS,  a  name  given  to  such  phi- 
losophers as  adopted  the  doctrines  of  Plato. 
They  were  so  called  from  the  Academia,  a 
grove  near  Athens,  where  they  frequently  in- 
dulged their  contemplations.  Academia  is  said 
to  derive  its  name  from  one  Academus,  a  god 
or  hero  so  called.     Thus  Horace, — 

Atque  inter  syl'cas  Academi  quccrere  verum. 
|  And  in  the  groves  of  Academus  to  search  for  truth.] 
The  academics  are  divided  into  those  of  the 
first  academy,  who  taught  the  doctrines  of 
Plato  in  their  original  purity ;  those  of  the  se- 
cond or  middle  academy,  who  differed  materi- 
ally from  the  first,  and  inclined  to  skepticism  ; 
and  those  of  the  new  academy.  The  middle 
school  laid  it  down  as  a  principle,  that  neither 
our  senses,  nor  our  reason,  are  to  be  trusted ; 
but  that  in  common  affairs  we  are  to  conform 
to  received  opinions.  The  new  academy  main- 
tained that  we  have  no  means  of  distinguishing 
truth,  and  that  the  most  evident  appearances 
may  lead  us  into  error ;  they  granted  the  wise 
man  opinion,  but  denied  him  certainty.    They 


held,  however,  that  it  was  best  to  follow  the 
greatest  probability,  which  was  sufficient  for 
all  the  useful  purposes  of  life,  and  laid  down 
rules  for  the  attainment  of  felicity.  The  dif- 
ference betwixt  the  middle  academy  and  the 
new  seems  to  have  been  this,  that  though  they 
agreed  in  the  imbecility  of  human  nature,  yet 
the  first  denied  that  probabilities  were  of  any 
use  in  the  pursuit  of  happiness ;  and  the  latter 
held  them  to  be  of  service  in  such  a  design : 
the  former  recommended  a  conformity  with  re- 
ceived opinions,  and  the  latter  allowed  men  an 
opinion  of  their  own.  In  the  first  academy, 
Speusippus  filled  the  chair;  in  the  second,  Ar- 
cesilaus ;  and  in  the  new  or  third  academy, 
Carneades. 

ACC  AD,  one  of  the  four  cities  built  by  Nim- 
rod,  the  founder  of  the  Assyrian  empire.  (See 
Nimrod.)  "  And  the  beginning  of  his  king- 
dom was  Babel,  and  Erech,  and  Accad,  and 
Calneh,  in  the  land  of  Shinar,"  Gen.  x,  10. 
Thus  it  appears  that  Accad  was  contemporary 
with  Babylon,  and  was  one  of  the  first  four 
great  cities  of  the  world. 

It  would  scarcely  be  expected  that  any  thing 
should  now  remain  to  guide  us  in  our  search 
for  this  ancient  city,  seeing  that  Babylon  itself, 
with  which  it  was  coeval,  is  reduced  to  heaps ; 
and  that  it  is  not  mentioned  under  its  ancient 
name  by  any  profane  author.  But  the  discove- 
ries of  modern  travellers  may  be  brought  to  aid 
us  in  our  inquiry.  At  the  distance  of  about 
six  miles  from  the  modern  town  of  Bagdad,  is 
found  a  mound,  surmounted  by  a  tower-shaped 
ruin,  called  by  the  Arabs  Tell  Niinrood,  and  by 
the  Turks  Nemrood  Tepasso ;  both  terms  im- 
plying the  Hill  of  Nimrod.  This  gigantic  mass 
rises  in  an  irregularly  pyramidal  or  turreted 
shape,  according  to  the  view  in  which  it  is  taken, 
one  hundred  and  twenty-five  or  one  hundred  and 
thirty  feet  above  the  gently  inclined  elevation  on 
which  it  stands.  Its  circumference,  at  the  bot- 
tom, is  three  hundred  feet.  The  mound  which 
constitutes  its  foundation  is  composed  of  a  col- 
lection of  rubbish,  formed  from  the  decay  of 
the  superstructure;  and  consists  of  sandy  earth, 
fragments  of  burnt  brick,  pottery,  and  hard 
clay,  partially  vitrified.  In  the  remains  of  the 
tower,  the  different  layers  of  sun-dried  brick,  of 
which  it  is  composed,  may  be  traced  with 
great  precision.  These  bricks,  cemented  to- 
gether by  slime,  and  divided  into  courser;  vary- 
ing from  twelve  to  twenty  feet  in  height,  are 
separated  from  one  another  by  a  stratum  of 
reeds,  similar  to  those  now  growing  in  the 
marshy  parts  of  the  plain,  and  in  a  wonderful 
state  of  preservation.  The  resemblance  of  this 
mode  of  building  to  that  in  some  of  the  struc- 
tures at  Babylon,  cannot  escape  observation ; 
and  we  may  reasonably  conclude  it  to  be  the 
workmanship  of  the  same  architects.  The  so- 
lidity and  the  loftiness  of  this  pile,  unfashioned 
to  any  other  purpose,  bespeak  it  to  be  one  of 
those  enormous  pyramidal  towers  which  were 
consecrated  to  the  Sabian  worship ;  which,  as 
essential  to  their  religious  rites,  were  probably 
erected  in  all  the  early  cities  of  the  Cuthites ; 
and,  like  their  prototype  at  Babylon,  answered 
the  double  purpose  of  altars  and  observatories. 


ACC 


16 


ACC 


Here  then  was  the  site  of  one  of  those  early 
cities.  It  was  not  Babylon ;  it  was  not  Erech  ; 
it  was  not  Cain  eh.  It  might  be  too  much  to 
say  that  therefore  it  must  be  Accad ;  but  the 
inference  is  at  least  warrantable;  which  is 
farther  strengthened  by  the  name  of  the  place, 
Akarkouft";  which  bears  a  greater  affinity  to 
that  of  Accad  than  many  others  which  are 
forced  into  the  support  of  geographical  specu- 
lations, especially  when  it  is  recollected  that 
the  .Syrian  name  of  the  city  was  Achar. 

ACCESS,  free  admission,  open  entrance. 
Our  access  to  God  is  by  Jesus  Christ,  the  way, 
the  truth,  and  the  life,  Rom.  v,  2 ;  Eph.  ii,  18. 
Under  the  law,  the  high  priest  alone  had  ac- 
cess into  the  holiest  of  all ;  but  when  the  veil 
of  the  temple  was  rent  in  twain,  at  the  death 
of  Christ,  it  was  declared  that  a  new  and  living 
way  of  access  was  laid  open  through  the  veil, 
that  is  to  say,  his  flesh.  By  his  death,  also,  the 
middle  wall  of  partition  was  broken  down,  and 
Jew  and  Gentile  had  both  free  access  to  God  ; 
whereas,  before,  the  Gentiles  had  no  nearer 
access  in  the  temple  worship  than  to  the  gate 
of  the  court  of  Israel.  Thus  the  saving  grace 
and  lofty  privileges  of  the  Gospel  are  equally 
bestowed  upon  true  believers  of  all  nations. 

ACCHO,  afterward  called  Ptolemais,  and 
now  Akka  by  the  Arabs,  and  Acre  by  the  Turks. 
It  was  given  to  the  tribe  of  Asher,  Judges  i,  31. 
Christianity  was  planted  here  at  an  early  period, 
and  here  St.  Paul  visited  the  saints  in  his  way 
to  Jerusalem,  Acts  xxi,  7.  It  is  a  seaport  of 
Palestine,  thirty  miles  south  of  Tyre,  and,  in 
the  first  partition  of  the  hoi}'  land,  belonged  to 
the  tribe  of  Asher;  but  this  was  one  of  the 
places  out  of  which  the  Israelites  could  not 
drive  the  primitive  inhabitants.  In  succeeding 
times  it  was  enlarged  by  the  first  Ptolemy,  to 
whose  lot  it  fell,  and  who  named  it  after  him- 
self, Ptolemais. 

This  city,  now  called  Acre,  which,  from  the 
convenience  of  its  port,  is  one  of  the  most  con- 
siderable on  the  Syrian  coast,  was,  during 
almost  two  centuries,  the  principal  theatre  of 
the  holy  wars,  and  the  frequent  scene  of  the 
perfidies  and  treacheries  of  the  crusaders. 

Among  its  antiquities,  Dr.  E.  D.  Clarke 
describes  the  remains  of  a  very  considerable 
edifice,  exhibiting  a  conspicuous  appearance 
among  the  buildings  on  the  north  side  of  the 
city.  "  In  this  structure  the  style  of  the  archi- 
tecture is  of  the  kind  we  call  Gothic.  Perhaps 
it  has  on  that  account  borne  among  our  coun- 
trymen the  appellation  of  '  King  Richard's 
Palace,'  although,  in  the  period  to  which  the 
tradition  refers,  the  English  were  hardly  capa- 
ble of  erecting  palaces,  or  any  other  buildings 
of  equal  magnificence.  Two  lofty  arches,  and 
part  of  the  cornice,  are  all  that  now  remain  to 
attest  the  former  greatness  of  the  superstruc- 
ture. The  cornice,  ornamented  with  enormous 
stone  busts,  exhibiting  a  series  of  hideous  dis- 
torted countenances,  whose  features  are  in  no 
instances  alike,  may  either  have  served  as  allu- 
sions to  the  decapitation  of  St.  John,  or  were 
intended  for  a  representation  of  the  heads  of 
Saracens  suspended  as  trophies  upon  the  walls." 
Maundrell  and  Pococke  consider  this  building 


to  have  been  the  church  of  St.  Andrew ;  but 
Dr.  E.  D.  Clarke  thinks  it  was  that  of  St.  John, 
erected  by  the  Knights  of  Jerusalem,  whence 
the  city  changed  its  name  of  Ptolemais  for 
that  of  St.  John  dAcre.  lie  also  considers 
the  style  of  architecture  to  be  in  some  degree 
the  original  of  our  ornamented  Gothic,  before 
its  translation  from  the  holy  land  to  Italy, 
France,  and  England. 

Mr.  Buckingham,  who  visited  Acre  in  181C, 
says,  "Of  the  Canaanitish  Accho  it  would  be 
thought  idle  perhaps  to  seek  for  remains  ;  yet 
some  presented  themselves  to  my  observation 
so  peculiar  in  form  and  materials,  and  of  such 
high  antiquity,  as  to  leave  no  doubt  in  my  own 
mind  of  their  being  the  fragments  of  buildings 
constructed  in  the  earliest  ages. 

"Of  the  splendour  of  Ptolemais,  no  perfect 
monument  remains;  but  throughout  the  town 
are  seen  shafts  of  red  and  grey  granite,  and 
marble  pillars.  The  Saracenic  remains  are 
only  to  be  partially  traced  in  the  inner  walls 
of  the  town ;  which  have  themselves  been  so 
broken  down  and  repaired,  as  to  leave  little  visi- 
ble  of  the  original  work;  and  all  the  mosques,  » 
fountains,  bazaars,  and  other  public  buildings, 
are  in  a  style  rather  Turkish  than  Arabic,  ex. 
cepting  only  an  old,  but  regular  and  well-buill 
khan  or  caravanserai,  which  might  perhaps  be 
attributed  to  the  Saracen  age.  The  Christian 
ruins  are  altogether  gone,  scarcely  leaving  a 
trace  of  the  spot  on  which  they  stood." 

Acre  has  been  rendered  famous  in  our  own 
times  by  the  successful  resistance  made  by  our 
countryman  Sir  Sydney  Smith,  aided  by  the 
celebrated  Djezzar  Pasha,  to  the  progress  of  the 
French  under  Buonaparte.  Since  this  period, 
the  fortifications  have  been  considerably  in- 
creased ;  and  although  to  the  eye  of  an  engi- 
neer they  may  still  be  very  defective,  Acre 
may  be  considered  as  the  strongest  place  in 
Palestine. 

Mr.  Conner  says,  on  the  authority  of  the 
English  consul,  that  there  are  about  ten  thou- 
sand inhabitants  in  Acre,  of  whom  three  thou- 
sand are  Turks,  and  the  remainder  Christians, 
chiefly  Catholics. 

ACCUBATION,  the  posture  used  at  table 
by  the  ancients.  The  old  Romans  sat  at  meat 
as  we  do,  till  the  Grecian  luxury  and  softness 
had  corrupted  them.  The  same  custom,  of 
lying  upon  couches  at  their  entertainments, 
prevailed  among  the  Jews  also  in  our  Saviour's 
time ;  for  having  been  lately  conquered  by 
Pompey,  they  conformed  in  this,  and  in  many 
other  respects,  to  the  example  of  their  masters. 
The  manner  of  lying  at  meat  among  the  Ro- 
mans, Greeks,  and  more  modern  Jews,  was  the 
same  in  all  respects.  The  table  was  placed 
in  the  middle  of  the  room,  around  which  stood 
three  couches  covered  with  cloth  or  tapestry, 
according  to  the  quality  of  the  master  of  the 
house ;  upon  these  they  lay,  inclining  the  su- 
perior part  of  their  bodies  upon  their  left  arms, 
the  lower  part  being  stretched  out  at  full  length, 
or  a  little  bent.  Their  heads  were  supported 
and  raised  with  pillows.  The  first  man  lay  at 
the  head  of  the  couch  ;  the  next  man  lay  with 
his  head  toward  the  feet  of  the  other,  from 


ACC 


17 


ACR 


which  he  was  defended  by  the  bolster  that 
supported  his  own  back,  commonly  reaching 
over  to  the  middle  of  the  first  man  ;  and  the 
rest  after  the  same  manner.  The  most  honour- 
able place  was  the  middle  couch — and  the  mid- 
dle of  that.  Favourites  commonly  lay  in  the 
bosom  of  their  friends;  that  is,  they  were  placed 
next  below  them  :  see  John  xiii,  23,  where  St. 
John  is  said  to  have  lain  in  our  Saviour's  bo- 
som. The  ancient  Greeks  sat  at  the  table ;  for 
Homer  observes  that  when  Ulysses  arrived  at 
the  palace  of  Alcinous,  the  king  dispatched  his 
son  Laodamas  to  seat  Ulysses  in  a  magnificent 
chair.  The  Egyptians  sat  at  table  anciently, 
as  well  as  the  Romans,  till  toward  the  end  of  the 
Punic  war,  when  they  began  to  recline  at  table. 

ACCURSED,  in  the  Scriptures,  signifies 
that  which  is  separated  or  devoted.  With  re- 
gard to  persons,  it  denotes  the  cutting  off  or 
separating  any  one  from  the  communion  of  the 
church,  the  number  oftlte  living,  or  the  privileges 
of  society;  and  also  the  devoting  an  animal, 
city,  or  other  thing  to  destruction.  Anathema 
was  a  species  of  excommunication  among  the 
Jews,  and  was  often  practised  after  they  had 
lost  the  power  of  life  and  death,  against  those 
persons  who,  according  to  the  Mosaic  law, 
ought  to  have  been  executed.  A  criminal,  af- 
ter the  sentence  of  excommunication  was  pro- 
nounced, became  anathema:  and  they  had  a 
full  persuasion  that  the  sentence  would  not  be 
in  vain ;  but  that  God  would  interfere  to  punish 
the  offender  in  a  manner  similar  to  the  penalty 
of  the  law  of  Moses :  a  man,  for  instance,  whom 
the  law  condemned  to  be  stoned,  would,  they 
believed,  be  killed  by  the  falling  of  a  stone 
upon  him  ;  a  man  to  be  hanged,  would  be 
choked ;  and  one  whom  the  law  sentenced  to 
the  flames,  would  be  burnt  in  his  house,  &c. 
Maranutha,  a  Syriac  word,  signifying  the  Lord 
coineth,  was  added  to  the  sentence,  to  express 
their  persuasion  that  the  Lord  God  would  °°«ie 
to  take  vengeance  upon  that  g-uilt  vvhich  they, 
circumstanced  as  thoy  were,  had  not  the  power 
to  punish,  1  Cor.  xvi,  22. 

According  to  the  idiom  of  the  Hebrew  lan- 
guage, accursed  and  crucified  were  synonymous 
terms.  By  the  Jews  every  one  who  died  upon 
a  tree  was  reckoned  accursed,  Deut.  xxi,  23. 

Excommunication  is  a  kind  of  anathema 
also  among  some  Christians;  and  by  it  the 
offender  is  deprived,  not  only  of  communicat- 
ing in  prayers  and  other  holy  offices,  but  of 
admittance  to  the  church,  and  of  conversation 
with  the  faithful.  The  spirit  of  Judaism,  rather 
than  that  of  the  Gospel,  1ms  in  this  been  imi- 
tated ;  for  among  the  Hebrews,  they  who  were 
excommunicated  could  not  perform  any  public 
duty  of  their  employments  ;  could  be  neither 
judges  nor  witnesses ;  neither  be  present  at 
funerals,  nor  circumcise  their  own  sons,  nor  sit 
down  in  the  company  of  other  men,  nearer  than 
within  the  distance  of  four  cubits.  If  they  died 
under  excommunication,  they  were  denied  the 
rites  of  burial ;  and  a  large  stone  was  left  on 
their  graves,  or  a  heap  of  stones  was  thrown 
over  them,  as  over  Achan,  Joshua  vii,  26.  The 
.  Apostolical  excommunication  was  simply  to 
deny  to  the  offender,  after  admonition,  the  right 
3 


of  partaking  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  which  was 
excision  from  the  church  of  Christ. 

ACELDAMA,  a  piece  of  ground  without  tho 
south  wall  of  Jerusalem,  on  the  other  side  of 
the  brook  Siloam.  It  was  called  the  Potter's 
Field,  because  an  earth  or  clay  was  duo-  in  it 
of  which  pottery  was  made.  It  was  likewise 
called  the  Fuller's  Field,  because  cloth  was  dried 
in  it.  But  it  having  been  afterward  bought  with 
the  money  by  which  the  high  priest  and  rulers 
of  the  Jews  purchased  the  blood  of  Jesus,  it  was 
called  Aceldama,  or  the  Field  of  Blood. 

ACHAIA.  This  name  is  used  to  denote  the 
whole  of  Greece,  as  it  existed  as  a  Roman  pro- 
vince; or  Achaia  Proper,  a  district  in  tho 
northern  part  of  the  Peloponnesus,  on  the  bay 
of  Corinth,  and  in  which  the  city  of  that  namo 
stood.  It  appears  to  have  been  used  in  the 
former  sense  in  2  Cor.  xi,  10 ;  and  in  the  latter, 
in  Acts  xix,  21. 

ACHAN,  the  son  of  Carmi,  of  the  tribe  of 
Judah,  who  having  taken  a  part  of  the  spoils  of 
Jericho,  against  the  injunction  of  God,  who  had 
accursed  or  devoted  the  whole  city,  was,  upon 
being  taken  by  lot,  doomed  to  be  stoned  to 
death.  The  whole  history  is  recorded,  Joshua 
vii.  It  would  appear  that  Achan's  family  were 
also  stoned;  for  they  were  led  out  with  him, 
and  all  his  property,  "  And  all  Israel  stoned  him 
with  stones,  and  burned  them  with  fire,  after 
they  had  stoned  them  with  stones."  Some  of 
the  critics  have  made  efforts  to  confine  the 
stoning  to  Achan,  and  the  burning  to  his  goods ; 
but  not  without  violence  to  the  text.  It  is  pro- 
bable, therefore,  that  his  family  were  privy  to 
the  theft,  seeing  he  hid  the  accursed  things 
which  he  had  stolen  in  the  earth,  in  his  tent. 
By  concealment  they  therefore  became  partak- 
ers of  his  crime,  and  so  the  sentence  was  justified. 

ACHMETHA.     Se<>  Ecbatana. 

ACHOR,  Valley  of,  between  Jericho  and  Ai. 
So  called  from  the  trouble  brought  upon  the 
Israelites  by  the  sin  of  Achan ;  Achor  in  the 
Hebrew  denoting  trouble. 

ACHZIB,  a  city  on  the  coast  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, in  the  tribe  of  Asher,  and  one  of  the 
cities  out  of  which  that  tribe  did  not  expel  the 
inhabitants,  Judges  i,  31.  It  was  called  Ecdippa 
by  the  Greeks,  and  is  at  present  termed  Zib.  It 
is  situated  about  ten  miles  north  of  Accho,  or 
Ptolemais.  Mr.  Buckingham,  who  passed  by 
this  place,  says  that  it  is  small,  and  situated  on 
a  hill  near  the  sea ;  having  a  few  palm  trees 
rearing  themselves  above  its  dwellings, 

ACRA,  "Anpa.  This  Greek  word  signifies,  in 
general,  a  citadel.  The  Syrians  and  Chaldeans 
use  Nnpn,  in  the  same  sense.  King  Antiochus 
gave  orders  for  building  a  citadel  at  Jerusalem, 
north  of  the  temple,  on  an  eminence,  which 
commanded  the  holy  place ;  and  for  that  reason 
was  called  Acra.  Josephus  says,  that  this  emi- 
nence was  semicircular,  and  that  Simon  Mac- 
cabams,  having  expelled  the  Syrians,  who  had 
seized  Acra,  demolished  it,  and  spent  three 
years  in  levelling  the  mountain  on  which  it 
stood ;  that  no  situation  in  future  should  com- 
mand the  temple.  On  mount  Acra  were  after- 
ward built,  the  palace  of  Helena ;  Agrippa's  pa- 
lace, the  place  where  the  public  records  were 


ACT 


IS 


ADA 


lodged  ;  and  that  where  the  magistrates  of  Je- 
rusalem assembled. 

ACRABATENE,  a  district  of  Judaea,  extend- 
ing between  Shechem  (now  Napolose)  and  Jeri- 
cho, inclining  east.  It  was  about  twelve  miles 
in  length.  The  Acrabatene  had  its  name  from 
a  place  called  Akrabbim,  about  nine  miles  from 
Shechem,  eastward.  This  was  also  the  name 
of  another  district  of  Judea  on  the  frontier  of 
Idumea,  toward  the  northern  extremity  of  the 
Dead  Sea. 

ACTS  OF  THE  AFOSTLES.  This  book, 
in  the  very  beginning,  professes  itself  to  be  a 
continuation  of  the  Gospel  of  St.  Luke  ;  and  its 
style  bespeaks  it  to  be  written  by  the  same  per- 
son. The  external  evidence  is  also  very  satis- 
factory ;  for  besides  allusions  in  earlier  authors, 
and  particularly  in  Clement  of  Rome,  Polycarp, 
and  Justin  Martyr,  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles 
are  not  only  quoted  by  Irenasus,  as  written  by 
Luke  the  evangelist,  but  there  are  few  things 
recorded  in  this  book  which  are  not  mentioned 
by  that  ancient  father.  This  strong  testimony 
in  favour  of  the  genuineness  of  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles  is  supported  by  Clement  of  Alexan- 
dria, Tertullian,  Jerome,  Eusebius,  Theodoret, 
and  most  of  the  later  fathers.  It  may  be  added, 
that  the  name  of  St.  Luke  is  prefixed  to  this 
book  in  several  ancient  Greek  manuscripts  of 
the  New  Testament,  and  also  in  the  old  Syriac 
version. 

2.  This  is  the  only  inspired  work  which  gives 
us  any  historical  account  of  the  progress  of 
Christianity  after  our  Saviour's  ascension.  It 
comprehends  a  period  of  about  thirty  years,  but 
it  by  no  means  contains  a  general  history  of 
the  church  during  that  time.  The  principal 
facts  recorded  in  it  are,  the  choice  of  Matlhias 
to  be  an  Apostle  in  the  room  of  the  traitor  Ju- 
das; the  descent  ofiha  Holy  Ghost  on  the  day 
of  pentecost;  the  preaching,  minxoloo,  ana  sllf. 
ferings  of  the  Apostles  at  Jerusalem ;  the  death 
of  Stephen,  the  first  martyr;  the  persecution 
and  dispersion  of  the  Christians;  the  preaching 
of  the  Gospel  in  different  parts  of  Palestine,  espe- 
cially in  Samaria;  the  conversion  of  St.  Paul: 
the  call  of  Cornelius,  the  first  Gentile  convert ; 
the  persecution  of  the  Cbristians  by  Herod 
Agrippa  ;  the  preaching  of  Paul  and  Barnabas 
to  the  Gentiles,  by  the  express  command  of  the 
Holy  Ghost ;  the  decree  made  at  Jerusalem,  de- 
claring that  circumcision,  and  a  conformity  to 
other  Jewish  rites  and  ceremonies,  were  not 
necessary  in  Gentile  converts ;  and  the  latter 
part  of  the  book  is  confined  to  the  history  of  St. 
Paul,  of  whom  St.  Luke  was  the  constant  com- 
panion for  several  years. 

3.  As  this  account  of  St.  Paul  is  not  continu- 
ed beyond  his  two  years'  imprisonment  at  Rome, 
it  is  probable  that  this  book  was  written  soon 
after  his  release,  which  happened  in  the  year 
63  ;  we  may  therefore  consider  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles  as  written  about  the  year  64. 

4.  The  place  of  its  publication  is  more  doubt- 
ful. The  probability  appears  to  be  in  favour  of 
Greece,  though  some  contend  for  Alexandria 
in  Egypt.  This  latter  opinion  rests  upon  the 
subscriptions  at  tho  end  of  some  Greek  manu- 
ecripts,  and  of  the  copies  of  the  Syriac  version ; 


but  the  best  critics  think,  that  these  subscrip- 
tions, which  are  also  affixed  to  other  books  of 
the  New  Testament,  deserve  but  little  weight ; 
and  in  this  case  they  are  not  supported  by  any 
ancient  authority. 

5.  It  must  have  been  of  the  utmost  import- 
ance in  the  early  times  of  the  Gospel,  and  cer- 
tainly not  of  less  importance  to  every  subse- 
quent age,  to  have  an  authentic  account  of  the 
promised  descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  of  the 
success  which  attended  the  first  preachers  of 
the  Gospel  both  among  the  Jews  and  Gen- 
tilps.  Thf>s<?  great  pvp.nt.s  completed  the  evi- 
dence  of  the  divine  mission  of  Christ,  establish- 
ed the  truth  of  the  religion  which  he  taught,  and 
pointed  out  in  the  clearest  manner  the  compre- 
hensive nature  of  the  redemption  which  he  pur- 
chased by  his  death. 

CEcumenius  calls  the  Acts,  the  "  Gospel  of 
the  Holy  Ghost ;"  and  St. Chrysostom,  the  "Gos- 
pel of  our  Saviour's  resurrection,"  or  the  Gospel 
of  Jesus  Christ  risen  from  the  dead.  Here,  in 
the  lives  and  preaching  of  the  Apostles,  we 
have  the  most  miraculous  instances  of  the 
power  of  the  Holy  Ghost;  and  in  the  account  of  9 
those  who  were  the  first  believers,  we  have  re- 
ceived the  most  excellent  pattern  of  the  truo 
Christian  life. 

ADAM,  the  name  given  to  man  in  general, 
both  male  and  female  in  the  Hebrew  Scrip- 
tures, Gen.  i,  26, 27 ;  v,  1, 2 ;  xi,  5 ;  Josh,  xiv,  15 ; 
2  Sam.  vii,  19;  Eccl.  iii,  21;  Jer.  xxxii,  20; 
Hosea  vi,  7 ;  Zech.  xiii,  7  :  in  all  which  places 
mankind  is  understood ;  but  particularly  it  is 
the  name  of  the  first  man  and  father  of  the 
human  race,  created  by  God  himself  out  of  the 
dust  of  the  earth.  Josephus  thinks  that  he  was 
called  Adam  by  reason  of  the  reddish  colour  of 
the  earth  out  of  which  he  was  formed,  for  Adam 
in  Hebrew  signifies  red.  God  having  made 
man  out  of  the  dust  of  the  earth,  breathed  into 
him  <]ie  breath  of  life,  and  gave  him  dominion 
over  all  the  oro.tnTRs  of  this  world,  Gen.  i,  26, 
27  ;  ii,  7.  He  created  him  after  his  own  image 
and  resemblance  ;  and  having  blessed  him,  he 
placed  him  in  a  delicious  garden,  in  Eden,  that 
he  might  cultivate  it,  and  feed  upon  its  fruits, 
Gen.  ii,  8  ;  but  under  the  following  injunction  : 
"  Of  every  tree  of  the  garden  thou  mayest  freely 
eat:  but  of  the  tree  of  the  knowledge  of  good 
and  evil,  thou  shalt  not  eat  of  it ;  for  in  the  day 
thou  eatest  thereof,  thou  shalt  surely  die."  The 
first  thing  that  Adam  did  after  his  introduction 
into  paradise,  was  to  give  names  to  all  the 
beasts  and  birds  which  presented  themselves 
before  him,  Gen.  ii,  19,  20. 

But  man  was  without  a  fellow  creature  of  his 
own  species ;  wherefore  God  said,  "  It  is  not 
good  for  man  to  be  alone ;  I  will  make  him  a 
help  meet  for  him."  And  the  Lord  caused  a 
deep  sleep  to  fall  upon  Adam,  and  while  he 
slept,  he  took  one  of  his  ribs,  "and  closed  up 
the  flesh  instead  thereof;"  and  of  that  substance 
which  he  took  from  man  made  he  a  woman, 
whom  he  presented  to  him.  Then  said  Adam, 
"  This  is  now  bone  of  my  bone,  and  flesh  of 
my  flesh :  she  shall  be  called  woman,  because 
she  was  taken  out  of  man,"  Gen.  ii,  21,  &c. 

The  woman  was  seduced  by  the  tempter ; 


ADA 


19 


ADA 


and  she  seduced  her  husband  to  eat  of  the  for- 
bidden fruit.  When  called  to  judgment  for  this 
transgression  before  God,  Adam  attempted  to 
cast  the  blame  upon  his  wife,  and  the  woman 
upon  the  serpent  tempter.  But  God  declared 
them  all  guilty,  and  punished  the  serpent  by 
degradation  ;  the  woman  by  painful  childbear- 
iirg  and  subjection ;  and  the  man  by  agricul- 
tural labour  and  toil ;  of  which  punishments 
every  day  witnesses  the  fulfilment.  As  their 
natural  passions  now  became  irregular,  and 
their  exposure  to  accidents  was  great,  God  made 
a  covering  of  skins  for  Adam  and  for  his  wife  ; 
and  expelled  them  from  the  garden,  to  the 
country  without ;  placing  at  the  east  of  the  gar- 
den cherubims  and  a  rlaming  sword,  which 
turned  every  way,  to  keep  the  way  of  the  tree 
of  life.  It  is  not  known  how  long  Adam  and 
his  wife  continued  in  paradise  :  some  say,  many 
years ;  others,  not  many  days ;  others,  not  many 
hours.  Adam  called  his  wife's  name  Eve,  which 
signifies  "the  mother  of  all  living."  Shortly 
after,  Eve  brought  forth  Cain,  Gen.  iv,  1,  2.  It 
is  believed  that  she  had  a  girl  at  the  time,  and 
that,  generally,  she  had  twins.  The  Scriptures 
notice  only  three  sons  of  Adam :  Cain,  Abel, 
and  Seth ;  and  omits  daughters ;  except  that 
Moses  tells  us,  "Adam  begat  sons  and  daugh- 
ters ;"  no  doubt  many.  He  died,  aged  nine 
hundred  and  thirty,  B.  C.  3074. 

Upon  this  history,  so  interesting  to  all  Adam's 
descendants,  some  remarks  may  be  offered. 

1.  It  is  disputed  whether  the  name  Adam  is 
derived  from  red  earth.  Sir  W.  Jones  thinks 
it  may  be  from  Adim,  which  in  Sanscrit  signi- 
fies, the  first.  The  Persians,  however,  denomi- 
nate him  Adamah,  which  signifies,  according 
to  Sale,  red  earth.  The  term  for  woman  is 
Aisha,  the  feminine  of  Aish,  man,  and  signifies, 
therefore,  maness  or  female  man. 

2.  The  manner  in  which  the  creation  of  Adam 
is  narrated  indicates  something  peculiar  and 
eminent  in  the  being  to  be  formed.  Among 
the  heavenly  bodies  the  earth,  and  above  all 
the  various  productions  of  its  surface,  vegetable 
and  animal,  however  perfect  in  their  kinds, 
and  beautiful  and  excellent  in  their  respective 
natures,  not  one  being  was  found  to  whom  the 
rest  could  minister  instruction ;  inspire  with 
moral  delight ;  or  lead  up  to  the  Creator  him- 
self. There  was,  properly  speaking,  no  intel- 
lectual being  ;  none  to  whom  the  whole  frame 
and  furniture  of  material  nature  could  minister 
knowledge  ;  no  one  who  could  employ  upon 
them  the  generalizing  faculty,  and  make  them 
the  basis  of  inductive  knowledge.  If,  then,  it 
was  not  wholly  for  himself  that  the  world  was 
created  by  God  ;  and  if  angels  were  not  so  im- 
mediately connected  with  this  system,  as  to 
lead  us  to  suppose  that  it  was  made  for  them ; 
a  rational  inhabitant  was  obviously  still  want- 
ing to  complete  the  work,  and  to  constitute  a 
perfect  whole.  The  formation  of  such  a  being 
was  marked,  therefore,  by  a  manner  of  proceed- 
ing which  serves  to  impress  us  with  a  sense  of 
the  greatness  of  the  work.  Not  that  it  could 
be  a  matter  of  more  difficulty  to  Omnipotence 
to  create  man  than  any  thing  beside ;  but  prin- 
cipally, it  is  probable,  because  he  was  to  be  the 


lord  of  the  whole  and  therefore  himself  account- 
able to  the  original  proprietor ;  and  was  to  be 
the  subject  of  another  species  of  government,  a 
moral  administration  ;  and  to  be  constituted  an 
image  of  the  intellectual  and  moral  perfections, 
and  of  the  immortality,  of  the  common  Make?. 
Every  thing  therefore,  as  to  man's  creation,  is 
given  in  a  solemn  and  deliberativeformTand  con- 
tains also  an  intimation  of  a  Trinity  of  Persons 
in  the  Godhead,  all  equally  possessed  of  creative 
power,  and  therefore  Divine,  to  each  of  whom 
man  was  to  stand  in  relations  the  most  sacred 
and  intimate : — "  And  God  said,  Let  us  make 
man  in  our  image,  after  our  likeness ;  and  let 
them  have  dominion,"  &c. 

3.  It  may  be  next  inquired  in  what  that  image 
of  God  in  which  man  was  made  consists. 

It  is  manifest  from  the  history  of  Moses,  that 
human  nature  has  two  essential  constituent 
parts,  the  body  formed  out  of  preexisting  mat- 
ter, the  earth ;  and  a  living  soul,  breathed  into 
the  body  by  an  inspiration  from  God.  "And 
the  Lord  God  formed  man  out  of  the  dust  of 
the  ground,  and  breathed  into  his  nostrils  (or 
face)  the  breath  of  life,  (lives,)  and  man  became 
a  living  soul."  Whatever  was  thus  imparted 
to  the  body  of  man,  already  "formed,"  and  per- 
fectly finished  in  all  its  parts,  was  the  only 
cause  of  life  ;  and  the  whole  tenor  of  Scripture 
shows  that  this  was  the  rational  spirit  itself, 
which,  by  a  law  of  its  Creator,  was  incapable 
of  death,  even  after  the  body  had  fallen  under 
that  penalty. 

The  "image"  or  likeness  of  God  in  which 
man  was  made  has,  by  some,  been  assigned  to 
the  body ;  by  others,  to  the  soul.  It  has,  also-, 
been  placed  in  the  circumstance  of  his  having 
"dominion"  over  the  other  creatures.  As  to 
the  body,  it  is  not  necessary  to  prove  that  in 
no  sense  can  it  bear  the  image  of  God  ;  that  is, 
be  "  like"  God.  An  upright  form  has  no  more 
likeness  to  God  than  a  prone  or  reptile  one ; 
God  is  incorporeal,  and  cannot  be  the  antitype 
of  any  thing  material. 

Equally  unfounded  is  the  notion  that  the 
image  of  God  in  man  consisted  in  the  "  domi- 
nion "  which  was  granted  to  him  over  this  lower 
world.  Limited  dominion  may,  it  is  true,  be 
an  image  of  large  and  absolute  dominion  ;  but 
man  is  not  said  to  have  been  made  in  the  image 
of  God's  dominion,  which  is  an  accident  merely, 
for,  before  creatures  existed,  God  himself  could 
have  no  dominion  : — he  was  made  in  the  image 
and  likeness  of  God  himself.  Still  farther,  it 
is  evident  that  man,  according  to  the  history, 
was  made  in  the  image  of  God  in  order  to  his 
having  dominion,  as  the  Hebrew  particle  im- 
ports ;  and,  therefore,  his  dominion  was  conse- 
quent upon  his  formation  in  the  "image"  and 
"  likeness"  of  God,  and  could  not  be  that  image 
itself. 

The  notion  that  the  original  resemblance  of 
man  to  God  must  be  placed  in  some  one  essen- 
tial quality,  is  not  consistent  with  holy  writ, 
from  which  alone  we  can  derive  our  information 
on  this  subject.  We  shall,  it  is  true,  find  that 
the  Bible  partly  places  it  in  what  is  essential  to 
human  nature  ;  but  that  it  should  comprehend 
nothing  else,  or  consist  in  one  quality  only,  has 


ADA 


20 


ADA 


no  proof  or  reason ;  and  wc  arc,  in  fact,  taught 
that  it  comprises  also  what  is  so  far  from  being 
essential  that  it  may  be  both  lost  and  regained. 
When  God  is  called  "the  Father  of  spirits,"  a 
likeness  is  suggested  between  man  and  God  in 
the  spirituality  of  their  nature.     This  is  also 
implied  in  the  striking  argument  of  St.  Paul 
with  the  Athenians  :  "  Forasmuch,  then,  as  we 
are  the  offspring  of  God,  we  ought  not  to  think 
that  the  Godhead  is  like  unto  gold,  or  silver, 
or  stone,  graven  by  art  and  man's  device ;" — 
plainly  referring  to  the  idolatrous  statues  by 
which  God  was  represented  among  Heathens. 
If  likeness  to  God  in  man  consisted  in  bodily 
shape,  this  would  not  have  been  an  argument 
against  human  representations  of  the  Deity ; 
but  it  imports,  as  Howe  well  expresses  it,  that 
"  we  are  to  understand  that  our  resemblance  to 
him,  as  wc  are  his  offspring,  lies  in  some  higher, 
more  noble,  and  more  excellent  thing,  of  which 
there  can  be  no  figure  ;  as  who  can  tell  how  to 
give  the  figure  or  image  of  a  thought,  or  of  the 
mind  or  thinking  power  ?"  In  spirituality,  and, 
consequently,  immateriality,  this  image  of  God 
in  man,  then,  in  the  first  instance,  consists. 
Nor  is  it  any  valid  objection  to  say,  that  "  im- 
materiality is  not  peculiar  to  the  soul  of  man  ; 
for  we  have  reason  to  believe  that  the  inferior 
animals  are  actuated  by  an  immaterial  princi- 
ple."    This  is  as  certain  as  analogy  can  make 
it :  but  though  we  allow  a  spiritual  principle  to 
animals,  its  kind  is  obviously  inferior ;  for  that 
spirit  which  is  incapable  of  induction  and  moral 
knowledge,  must  be  of  an  inferior  order  to  the 
spirit  which  possesses  these  capabilities  ;  and 
this  is  the  kind  of  spirit  which  is  peculiar  to  man. 
The  sentiment  expressed  in  Wisdom  ii,  23, 
is  an  evidence  that,  in  the  opinion  of  the  an- 
cient Jews,  the  image  of  God  in  man  comprised 
immortality  also.     "  For  God  created  man  to 
be  immortal,  and  made  him  to  be  an  image  of 
his  own  eternity  :"  and  though  other  creatures 
were  made  capable  of  immortality,  and  at  least 
the  material  human  frame,  whatever  we  may 
think  of  the  case  of  animals,  would  have  es- 
caped death,  had  not  sin  entered  the  world ; 
yet,  without  admitting  the    absurdity  of  the 
"natural  immortality"  of  the  human  soul,  that 
essence  must  have  been  constituted  immortal 
in  a  high  and  peculiar  sense  which  has  ever 
retained  its  prerogative  of  continued  duration 
amidst  the  universal  death  not  only  of  animals, 
but  of  the  bodies  of  all  human  beings.     There 
appears  also  a  manifest  allusion  to  man's  im- 
mortality, as  being  included  in  the  image  of 
God,  in  the  reason  which  is  given  in  Genesis 
for  the  law  which  inflicts  death  on  murderers  : 
"  Whoso  sheddeth  man's  blood,  by  man  shall 
his  blood  be  shed :    for  in  the  image   of  God, 
made  he  man."     The  essence  of  the  crime  of 
homicide  is  not  confined  here  to  the  putting  to 
death  the  mere  animal  part  of  man ;  and  it  must, 
therefore,  lie  in  the  peculiar  value  of  life  to  an 
immortal  being,  accountable  in  another  state 
for  the  actions  done  in  this,  and  whose  life 
ought  to  be  specially  guarded  for  this  very  rea- 
son, that  death  introduces  him  into  changeless 
and  eternal  relations,  which  were  not  to  be  left 
to  the  mercy  of  human  passions. 


To  these  we  are  to  add  the  intellectual  poio 
ers,  and  we  have  what  divines,  in  perfect  ac- 
cordance with  the  Scriptures,  have  called,  "  the 
natural  image  of  God  in  his  creatures,"  which 
is  essential  and  ineffaceable.  Man  was  made 
capable  of  knowledge,  and  he  was  endowed 
with  liberty  of  will. 

This  natural  image  of  God  was  the  founda- 
tion of  that  moral  image  by  which  also  man 
was  distinguished.  Unless  he  had  been  a  spi- 
ritual, knowing,  and  willing  being,  he  would 
have  been  wholly  incapable  of  moral  qualities. 
That  he  had  such  qualities  eminently,  and  that 
in  them  consisted  the  image  of  God,  as  well  as 
in  the  natural  attributes  just  stated,  we  have 
also  the  express  testimony  of  Scripture  :  "  Lo 
this  only  have  I  found,  that  God  made  man 
upright  ;  but  they  have  sought  out  many  in- 
ventions." There  is  also  an  express  allusion  to 
the  moral  image  of  God,  in  which  man  was  at 
first  created,  in  Colossians  iii,  10:  "And  have 
put  on  the  new  man,  which  is  renewed  in 
knowledge,  after  the  image  of  Him  that  cre- 
ated him;"  and  in  Ephesians  iv,  24:  "Put  on 
the  new  man,  which  after  God  is  created  in  * 
righteousness  and  true  holiness."  In  these 
passages  the  Apostle  represents  the  change 
produced  in  true  Christians  by  the  Gospel,  as 
a  "  renewal  of  the  image  of  God  in  man  ;  as  a 
new  or  second  creation  in  that  image  ;"  and  he 
explicitly  declares,  that  that  image  consists 
in  "knowledge,"  in  "righteousness,"  and  in 
"true  holiness." 

This  also  may  be  finally  argued  from  tho 
satisfaction  with  which  the  historian  of  the 
creation  represents  the  Creator  as  viewing 
the  works  of  his  hands  as  "very  good,"  which 
was  pronounced  with  reference  to  each  of  them 
individually,  as  well  as  to  the  whole:  "And 
God  saw  every  thing  that  he  had  made,  and 
behold  it  was  very  good."  But,  as  to  man,  this 
goodness  must  necessarily  imply  moral  as 
well  as  physical  qualities.  Without  them  ho 
would  have  been  imperfect  as  man;  and  had 
they,  in  their  first  exercises,  been  perverted 
and  sinful,  he  must  have  been  an  exception, 
and  could  not  have  been  pronounced  "  very 
good."  The  goodness  of  man,  as  a  rational 
being,  must  lie  in  devotednessand  consecration 
to  God;  consequently,  man  was  at  first  holy. 
A  rational  creature,  as  such,  is  capable  of 
knowing,  loving,  serving,  and  living  in  com- 
munion with  the  Most  Holy  One.  Adam,  at 
first,  did  or  did  not  exert  this  capacity ;  if  he  did 
not,  he  was  not  very  good, — not  good  at  all. 

4.  On  the  intellectual  and  moral  endow- 
ments of  the  progenitor  of  the  human  race, 
erring  views  appear  to  have  been  taken  on  both 
sides. 

In  knowledge,  some  have  thought  him  little 
inferior  to  the  angels ;  others,  as  furnished 
with  but  the  simple  elements  of  science  and  of 
language.  The  truth  seems  to  be  that,  as  to 
capacity,  his  intellect  must  have  been  vigorous 
beyond  that,  of  any  of  his  fallen  descendants; 
which  itself  gives  us  very  high  views  of  the 
strength  of  his  understanding,  although  we 
should  allow  him  to  have  been  created  "lower 
than  the  angels."     As  to  his  actual  knoxrledge, 


ADA 


21 


ADA 


that  would  depend  upon  the  time  and  opportu- 
nity he  had  for  observing  the  nature  and  laws 
of  the  objects  around  him ;  and  the  degree  in 
which  he  was  favoured  with  revelations  from 
God  on  moral  and  religious  subjects. 

On  the  degree  of  moral  excellence  also  in 
the  first  man,  much  license  has  been  given  to 
a  warm  imagination,  and  to  rhetorical  embel- 
lishment ;  and  Adam's  perfection  has  sometimes 
been  fixed  at  an  elevation  which  renders  it  ex- 
ceedingly difficult  to  conceive  how  he  could 
fall  into  sin  at  all.  On  the  other  hand,  those 
who  either  deny  or  hold  very  slightly  the  doc- 
trine of  our  hereditary  depravity,  delight  to 
represent  Adam  as  little  superior  in  moral  per- 
fection and  capability  to  his  descendants.  But, 
if  we  attend  to  the  passages  of  holy  writ  above 
quoted,  we  shall  be  able,  on  this  subject,  to  as- 
certain, if  not  the  exact  degree  of  his  moral 
endowments,  yet  that  there  is  a  certain  stand- 
ard below  which  they  cannot  be  placed. — 
Generally,  he  was  made  in  the  image  of  God, 
which,  we  have  already  proved,  is  to  be  under- 
stood morally  as  well  as  naturally.  Now, 
however  the  image  of  any  thing  may  be  limited 
in  extent,  it  must  still  be  an  accurate  Repre- 
sentation as  far  as  it  goes.  Every  thing  good 
in  the  creation  must  always  be  a  miniature 
representation  of  the  excellence  of  the  Creator ; 
but,  in  this  case,  the  "  goodness,"  that  is,  tlie 
perfection,  of  every  creature,  according  to  the 
part  it  was  designed  to  act  in  the  general  as- 
semblage of  beings  collected  into  our  system, 
wholly  forbids  us  to  suppose  that  the  image  of 
God's  moral  perfections  in  man  was  a  blurred 
and  dim  representation.  To  whatever  extent 
it  went,  it  necessarily  excluded  all  that  from 
man  which  did  not  resemble  God ;  it  was  a 
likeness  to  God  in  "righteousness  and  true 
holiness,"  whatever  the  degree  of  each  might 
be,  and  excluded  all  admixture  of  unrighteous- 
ness and  unholiness.  Man,  therefore,  in  his 
original  state,  was  sinless,  both  in  act  and  in 
principle.  Hence  it  is  said  that  "God  made 
man  upright."  That  this  signifies  moral  recti- 
tude cannot  be  doubted ;  but  the  import  of  the 
word  is  very  extensive.  It  expresses,  by  an 
easy  figure,  the  exactness  of  truth,  justice,  and 
obedience ;  and  it  comprehends  the  state  and 
habit  both  of  the  heart  and  the  life.  Such, 
then,  was  the  condition  of  primitive  man : 
there  was  no  obliquity  in  his  moral  principles, 
his  mind,  or  affections;  none  in  Ip3  conduct. 
He  was  perfectly  sincere  and  exactly  just,  ren- 
dering from  the  heart  all  that  was  due  to  God 
and  to  the  creature.  Tried  by  the  exactest 
plummet,  he  was  upright;  by  the  most  perfect 
rule,  he  was  straight. 

The  "  knowledge"  in  which  the  Apostle  Paul, 
in  the  passage  quoted  above  from  Colossians 
iii,  10,  places  "  the  image  of  God"  after  which 
man  was  created,  does  not  merely  imply  the 
faculty  of  understanding,  which  is  a  part  of  the 
natural  image  of  God ;  but  that  which  might 
be  lost,  because  it  is  that  in  which  we  may  be 
"renewed."  It  is,  therefore,  to  be  understood 
of  the  faculty  of  knowledge  in  right  exercise  ; 
and  of  that  willing  reception,  and  firm  retain- 
ing, and  hearty  approval,  of  religious  truth,  in 


which  knowledge,  when  spoken  of  morally,  is 
always  understood  in  the  Scriptures.  We  may 
not  be  disposed  to  allow,  with  some,  that  Adam 
understood  the  deep  philosophy  of  nature,  and 
could  comprehend  and  explain  the  sublime 
mysteries  of  religion.  The  circumstance  of 
his  giving  names  to  the  animals,  is  certainly 
no  sufficient  proof  of  his  having  attained  to  a 
philosophical  acquaintance  with  their  qualities 
and  distinguishing  habits,  although  we  should 
allow  their  names  to  be  still  retained  in  the 
Hebrew,  and  to  be  as  expressive  of  their  pecu- 
liarities as  some  expositors  have  stated.  Suffi- 
cient time  appears  not  to  have  been  afforded 
him  for  the  study  of  the  properties  of  animals, 
as  this  event  took  place  previous  to  the  forma, 
tion  of  Eve  ;  and  as  for  the  notion  of  his  acquir- 
ing knowledge  by  intuition,  this  is  contradicted 
by  the  revealed  fact,  that  angels  themselves  ac- 
quire their  knowledge  by  observation  and  study, 
though  no  doubt,  with  great  rapidity  and  cer- 
tainty. The  whole  of  this  transaction  was  super- 
natural ;  the  beasts  were  "brought"  to  Adam, 
and  it  is  probable  that  he  named  them  under  a 
Divine  suggestion.  He  has  been  also  supposed 
to  be  the  inventor  of  language,  but  his  history 
shows  that  he  was  never  without  speech.  From 
the  first  he  was  able  to  converse  with  God ;  and 
we  may,  therefore,  infer  that  language  was  in 
him  a  supernatural  and  miraculous  endowment. 
That  his  understanding  was,  as  to  its  capacity, 
deep  and  large  beyond  any  of  his  posterity, 
must  follow  from  the  perfection  in  which  he 
was  created ;  and  his  acquisitions  of  knowledge 
would,  therefore,  be  rapid  and  easy.  It  was, 
however,  in  moral  and  religious  truth,  as  being 
of  the  first  concern  to  him,  that  we  are  to  sup- 
pose the  excellency  of  his  knowledge  to  have 
consisted.  "His  reason  would  be  clear,  his 
judgment  uncorrupted,  and  his  conscience  up- 
right and  sensible."  The  best  knowledge  would, 
in  him,  be  placed  first,  and  that  of  every  other 
kind  be  made  subservient  to  it,  according  to  its 
relation  to  that.  The  Apostle  adds  to  know- 
ledge, "righteousness  and  true  holiness;"  terms 
which  express,  not  merely  freedom  from  sin, 
but  positive  and  active  virtue. 

Sober  as  these  views  of  man's  primitive  state 
are,  it  is  not,  perhaps,  possible  for  us  fully  to 
conceive  of  so  exalted  a  condition  as  even  this. 
Below  this  standard  it  could  not  fall ;  and  that 
it  implied  a  glory,  and  dignity,  and  moral  great- 
ness of  a  very  exalted  kind,  is  made  sufficiently 
apparent  from  the  degree  of  guilt  charged  upon 
Adam  when  he  fell :  for  the  aggravating  cir- 
cumstances of  his  offence  may  well  be  deduced 
from  the  tremendous  consequences  which  fol- 
lowed. 

5.  The  salvation  of  Adam  has  been  disputed ; 
for  what  reason  does  not  appear,  except  that 
the  silence  of  Scripture,  as  to  his  after  life,  has 
given  bold  men  occasion  to  obtrude  their  specu- 
lations upon  a  subject  which  called  for  no  such 
expression  of  opinion.  As  nothing  to  the  con- 
trary appears,  the  charitable  inference  is,  that 
as  he  was  the  first  to  receive  the  promise  of  re. 
demption,  so  he  was  the  first  to  prove  its  virtue. 
It  is  another  presumption,  that  as  Adam  and 
Eve  were  clothed  with  skins  of  beasts,  which 


ADA 


22 


ADD 


could  not  have  been  slain  for  food,  these  were 
the  skins  of  their  sacrifices ;  and  as  the  offering 
of  animal  sacrifice  was  an  expression  of  faith  in 
the  appointed  propitiation,  to  that  refuge  we 
may  conclude  they  resorted,  and  through  its 
merits  were  accepted. 

6.  The  Rabbinical  and  Mohammedan  tradi- 
tions and  fables  respecting  the  first  man  are  as 
absurd  as  they  are  numerous.  Some  of  them 
indeed  are  monstrous,  unless  we  suppose  them  to 
be  allegories  in  the  exaggerated  style  of  the 
orientals.  Some  say  that  he  was  nine  hundred 
cubits  high;  whilst  others,  not  satisfied  with 
this,  affirm  that  his  head  touched  the  heavens. 
The  Jews  think  that  he  wrote  the  ninety-first 
Psalm,  invented  the  Hebrew  letters,  and  com- 
posed several  treatises ;  the  Arabians,  that  he 
preserved  twenty  books  which  fell  from  heaven  ; 
and  the  Musselmen,  that  he  himself  wrote  ten 
volumes. 

7.  That  Adam  was  a  type  of  Christ,  is  plainly 
affirmed  by  St.  Paul,  who  calls  him  "the  figure 
of  him  who  was  to  come."  Hence  our  Lord  is 
sometimes  called,  not  inaptly,  the  Second 
Adam.  This  typical  relation  stands  sometimes 
in  similitude,  sometimes  in  contrast.  Adam 
was  formed  immediately  by  God,  as  was  the 
humanity  of  Christ.  In  each  the  nature  was 
spotless,  and  richly  endowed  with  knowledge 
and  true  holiness.  Both  are  scon  invested  with 
dominion  over  the  earth  and  all  its  creatures ; 
and  this  may  explain  the  eighth  Psalm,  where 
David  seems  to  make  the  sovereignty  of  the 
first  man  over  the  whole  earth  in  its  pristine 
glory,  the  prophetic  symbol  of  the  dominion 
of  Christ  over  the  world  restored.  Beyond 
these  particulars  fancy  must  not  carry  us ;  and 
the  typical  contrast  must  also  be  linx «.ed  to  that 
which  is  stated  in  Scripture,  or  supported  by  its 
allusions.  Adam  and  Christ  were  each  a  pub- 
lic person,  a  federal  head  to  the  whole  race  of 
mankind ;  but  the  one  was  the  fountain  of  sin 
and  death,  the  other  of  righteousness  and  life. 
By  Adam's  transgression  "many  were  made  sin- 
ners," Rom.  v,  14-19.  Through  him,  "death 
passed  upon  all  men,  because  all  have  sinned" 
in  him.  But  he  thus  prefigured  that  one  man, 
by  whose  righteousness  the  "free  gift  comes 
upon  all  men  to  justification  of  life."  The  first 
man  communicated  a  living  soul  to  all  hie  pos- 
terity ;  the  other  is  a  quickening  Spirit,  to  re- 
store them  to  newness  of  life  now,  and  to  raise 
them  up  at  the  last  day.  By  the  imputation  of 
the  first  Adam's  sin,  and  the  communication  of 
his  fallen,  depraved  nature,  death  reigned  over 
those  who  had  not  sinned  after  the  similitude 
of  Adam's  transgression  ;  and  through  the  right- 
eousness of  the  Second  Adam,  and  the  com- 
munication of  a  divine  nature  by  the  Holy  Spi- 
rit, favour  and  grace  shall  much  more  abound 
in  Christ's  true  followers  unto  eternal  life.  See 
Redemption. 

ADAMA,  one  of  the  five  cities  which  were 
destroyed  by  fire  from  heaven,  and  buried  un- 
der the  waters  of  the  Dead  Sea,  Gen.  xiv,  2 ; 
Deut.  xxix,  23.  It  was  the  most  easterly  of 
all  those  which  were  swallowed  up ;  and  there 
is  some  probability  that  it  was  not  entirely  sunk 
under  the  waters ;  or  that  the  inhabitants  of  the 


country  built  a  new  city  of  the  same  name  upon 
the  eastern  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea :  for  Isaiah, 
according  to  the  Septuagint,  says,  "God  will 
destroy  the  Moabites,  the  city  of  Ar,  and  the 
remnant  of  Adama." 

ADAMANT,  -pep,  'A£a>a?,  Ecclus.  xvi,  16. 
A  stone  of  impenetrable  hardness.  Sometimes 
this  name  is  given  to  the  diamond  ;  and  so  it  is 
rendered,  Jer.  xvii,  1.  But  the  Hebrew  word 
rather  means  a  very  hard  kind  of  stone,  proba- 
bly the  smiris,  which  was  also  used  for  cutting, 
engraving,  and  polishing  other  hard  stones  and 
crystals.  The  word  occurs  also  in  Ezek.  iii,9, 
and  Zech.  vii,  12.  In  the  former  place  the 
Lord  says  to  the  Prophet,  "I  have  made  thy 
forehead  as  an  adamant,  firmer  than  a  rock ;" 
that  is,  endued  thee  with  undaunted  courage. 
In  the  latter,  the  hearts  of  wicked  men  are  de- 
clared to  be  as  adamant ;  neither  broken  by  the 
threatenings  and  judgments  of  God,  nor  pene, 
trated  by  his  promises,  invitations,  and  mercies. 
See  Diamond. 

ADAMITES,  sects  reputed  to  have  profess- 
ed the  attainment  of  a  perfect  innocence,  so  that 
they  wore  no  clothes  in  their  assemblies,  But 
Lardner  doubts  their  existence  in  ancient,  and 
Beausobre  in  modern,  times. 

ADAR,  the  twelfth  month  of  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal, and  the  sixth  of  the  civil,  year  among  the 
Hebrews.  It  contains  but  twenty-nine  days, 
and  answers  to  our  February,  and  sometimes 
enters  into  March,  according  to  the  course  of 
the  moon,  by  which  they  regulated  their  seasons. 

ADARCONIM,  DWTK,  a  sort  of  money, 
mentioned  1  Chron.  xxix,  7,  and  Ezra  viii,  27. 
The  Vulgate  translates  it,  golden  pence,  the  LXX, 
pieces  of  gold.  They  were  darics,  a  gold  coin, 
which  some  value  at  twenty  drachms  of  silver. 

ADER.  Jcrom  observes,  that  the  place  where 
the  angels  declared  the  birth  of  Jesus  Christ  to 
the  shepherds,  was  called  by  this  name,  Luke  ii, 
8,  9.  The  empress  Helena  built  a  church  on 
this  spot,  the  remains  of  which  are  still  visible. 

ADDER,  a  venomous  serpent,  more  usually 
called  the  viper.  In  our  translation  of  the  Bible 
we  find  the  word  adder  five  times ;  but  without 
sufficient  authority  from  the  original. 

pfl<fiB>,  in  Gen.  xlix,  17,  is  probably  the  ceras- 
tes ;  a  serpent  of  the  viper  kind,  of  a  light  brown 
colour,  which  lurks  in  the  sand  and  the  tracks 
of  wheels  in  the  road,  and  unexpectedly  bites 
not  cn^y  (he  unwary  traveller,  but  the  legs  of 
horses  ana  other  beasts.  By  comparing  the 
Danites  to  this  artful  reptile,  the  patriarch  in- 
timated that  by  stratagem,  more  than  by  open 
bravery,  they  should  avenge  themselves  of  their 
enemies  and  extend  their  conquests. — jj-\fl>  in 
Psalm  lviii,  4 ;  xci,  13,  signifies  an  asp.  We 
may  perhaps  trace  to  this  the  Python  of  the 
Greeks,  and  its  derivatives.  (See  Asp.) — 2w3y, 
found  only  in  Psalm  cxl,  3,  is  derived  from  a 
verb  which  signifies  to  bend  back  on  itself.  The 
Chaldee  Paraphrasts  render  it  8»3?J>,  which  wo 
translate  elsewhere,  spider :  they  may  therefore 
have  understood  it  to  have  been  the  tarantula. 
It  is  rendered  asp  by  the  Septuagint  and  Vul. 
gate,  and  is  so  taken,  Rom.  iii,  13.  The  name 
is  from  the  Arabic  achasa.  But  there  are  seve- 
ral serpents  which  coil  themselves  previously 


ADD 


23 


ADD 


to  darting  on  their  enemy;  if  this  be  a  charac- 
ter of  the  asp,  it  is  not  peculiar  to  that  reptile. 
— j?bx,  or  >jj?dx,  Prov.  xxiii,  32 ;  Isaiah  xi,  8 ;  xiv, 
29  ;  lix,  5  ;  and  Jer.  viii,  17,  is  that  deadly  ser- 
pent called  the  basilisk,  said  to  kill  with  its  very 
breath.     See  Cockatrice. 

In  Psalm  lviii,  5,  reference  is  made  to  the 
effect  of  musical  sounds  upon  serpents.  That 
they  might  be  rendered  tame  and  harmless  by 
certain  charms,  or  soft  and  sweet  sounds,  and 
trained  to  delight  in  music,  was  an  opinion 
which  prevailed  very  early  and  universally. 

Many  ancient  authors  mention  this  effect ; 
Virgil  speaks  of  it  particularly,  JEn.  vii,  v,  750. 

Qahi  el  Marrubia  venit  de  gente  sacerdos, 
Fronde  super  galeam  el  felici  comptus  oliva, 
Archippi  regis  missu  foriissimus  Umbra  ; 

Vipereo  generi,  el  graviter  spirantibus  hydris 
Spargere  qui  somnos  cantuque  manuque  solebat, 
Mulcebatque  iras,  et  morsus  arte  levabat. 

"  Umbro,  the  brave  Marrubian  priest,  was  there, 
Sent  by  the  Marsian  monarch  to  the  war. 
The  smiling  olive  with  her  verdant  boughs 
Shades  his  bright  helmet  and  adorns  his  brows  ; 
His  charms  in  peace  the  furious  serpent  keep ; 
And  lull  the  envenom'd  viper's  race  to  sleep  : 
His  healing  hand  allay'd  the  raging  pain, 
And  at  his  touch  the  poisons  fled  again.1'        Pitt. 

Mr.  Boyle  quotes  the  following  passage  from 
Sir  H.  Blunt's  Voyage  into  the  Levant : — 

"  Many  rarities  of  living  creatures  I  saw  in 
Grand  Cairo ;  but  the  most  ingenious  was  a  nest 
of  serpents,  of  two  feet  long,  black  and  ugly, 
kept  by  a  Frenchman,  who,  when  he  came  to 
handle  them,  would  not  endure  him,  but  ran 
and  hid  in  their  hole.  Then  he  would  take  his 
cittern  and  play  upon  it.  They,  hearing  his 
music,  came  all  crawling  to  his  feet,  and  began 
to  climb  up  him,  till  he  gave  over  playing,  then 
away  they  ran." 

The  wonderful  effect  which  music  produces 
on  the  serpent  tribes,  is  confirmed  by  the  testi- 
mony of  several  respectable  moderns.  Adders 
swell  at  the  sound  of"  a  flute,  raising  themselves 
up  on  the  one  half  of  their  body,  turning  them- 
selves round,  beating  proper  time,  and  follow- 
ing the  instrument.  Their  head,  naturally 
round  and  long  like  an  eel,  becomes  broad  and 
flat  like  a  fan.  The  tame  serpents,  many  of 
which  the  orientals  keep  in  their  houses,  are 
known  to  leave  their  holes  in  hot  weather,  at 
the  sound  of  a  musical  instrument,  and  run 
upon  the  performer.  Dr.  Shaw  had  an  oppor- 
tunity of  seeing  a  number  of  serpents  keep 
exact  time  with  the  Dervishes  in  their  circula- 
tory dances,  running  over  their  heads  and 
arms,  turning  when  they  turned,  and  stopping 
when  they  stopped.  The  rattlesnake  acknow- 
ledges the  power  of  music  as  much  as  any  of 
his  family;  of  which  the  following  instance  is 
a  decisive  proof:  When  Chateaubriand  was  in 
Canada,  a  snake  of  that  sDecies  entered  their 
encampment;  a  young  Canadian,  one  of  the 
party,  who  could  play  on  the  flute,  to  divert  his 
associates,  advanced  against  the  serpent  with 
his  new  species  of  weapon :  on  the  approach 
of  his  enemy,  the  haughty  reptile  curled  him- 
self into  a  spiral  line,  flattened  his  head,  in- 
flated his  cheeks,  contracted  his  lips,  displayed 


his  envenomed  fangs,  and  his  bloody  throat , 
his  double  tongue  glowed  like  two  flames  of 
fire ;  his  eyes  were  burning  coals ;  his  body, 
swollen  with  rage,  rose  and  fell  like  the  bel- 
lows of  a  forge ;  his  dilated  skin  assumed  a 
dull  and  scaly  appearance ;  and  his  tail,  which 
sounded  the  denunciation  of  death,  vibrated 
with  so  great  rapidity  as  to  resemble  a  light 
vapour.  The  Canadian  now  began  to  play 
upon  his  flute,  the  serpent  started  with  surprise, 
and  drew  back  his  head.  In  proportion  as  he 
was  struck  with  the  magic  effect,  his  eyes  lost 
their  fierceness,  the  oscillations  of  his  tail  be- 
came slower,  and  the  sound  which  it  emitted 
became  weaker,  and  gradually  died  away.  Less 
perpendicular  upon  their  spiral  line,  the  rings 
of  the  fascinated  serpent  were  by  degrees  ex- 
panded, and  sunk  one  after  another  upon  the 
ground,  in  concentric  circles.  The  shades  of 
azure,  green,  white,  and  gold,  recovered  their 
brilliancy  on  his  quivering  skin,  and  slightly 
turning  his  head,  he  remained  motionless,  in 
the  attitude  of  attention  and  pleasure.  At  this 
moment,  the  Canadian  advanced  a  few  steps, 
producing  witii  his  flute  sweet  and  simple 
notes.  The  reptile,  inclining  his  variegated 
neck,  opened  a  passage  with  his  head  through 
the  high  grass,  and  began  to  creep  after  the 
musician,  stopping  when  he  stopped,  and  be- 
ginning to  follow  him  again,  as  soon  as  he 
moved  forward'.  In  this  manner  he  was  led 
out  of  their  camp,  attended  by  a  great  number 
of  spectators,  both  savages  and  Europeans, 
who  could  scarcely  believe  their  eyes,  when 
they  beheld  this  wonderful  effect  of  harmony. 
The  assembly  unanimously  decreed,  that  the 
serpent  which  had  so  highly  entertained  them, 
should  be  permitted  to  escape.  Many  of  them 
are  carried  in  baskets  through  Hindostan,  and 
procure  a  maintenance  for  a  set  of  people  who 
play  a  few  simple  notes  on  the  flute,  with 
which  the  snakes  seem  much  delighted,  and 
keep  time  by  a  graceful  motion  of  the  head, 
erecting  about  half  their  length  from  the 
ground,  and  following  the  music  with  gentle 
curves,  like  the  undulating  lines  of  a  swan's 
neck. 

But  on  some  serpents,  these  charms  seem  to 
have  no  power ;  and  it  appears  from  Scripture, 
that  the  adder  sometimes  takes  precautions  to 
prevent  the  fascination  which  he  sees  preparing 
for  him  :  "  for  the  deaf  adder  shutteth  her  ear, 
and  will  not  hear  the  voice  of  the  most  skilful 
charmer."  The  threatening  of  the  Prophet 
Jeremiah  proceeds  upon  the  same  fact :  "  I  will 
send  serpents"  (cockatrices)  "among  you, 
which  will  not  be  charmed,  and  they  shall  bite 
you."  In  all  these  quotations,  the  sacred  wri- 
ters, while  they  take  it  for  granted  that  many 
serpents  are  disarmed  by  charming,  plainly  ad- 
mit that  the  powers  of  the  charmer  are  in  vain 
exerted  upon  others. 

It  is  the  opinion  of  some  interpreters,  that 
the  word  ^rw,  which  in  some  parts  of  Scripture 
denotes  a  lion,  in  others  means  an  adder,  or 
some  other  kind  of  serpent.  Thus,  in  the 
ninety-first  Psalm,  they  render  it  the  basilisk : 
"Thou  shalt  tread  upon  the  adder  and  the 
basilisk,  the  young  lion  and  the  dragon  thou 


ADO 


24 


ADO 


shalt  trample  under  foot."  Indeed,  all  the  an- 
cient expositors  agree,  that  some  species  of  ser- 
pent is  meant,  although  they  cannot  determine 
what  particular  serpent  the  sacred  writer  had 
in  view.  The  learned  Bochart  thinks  it  ex- 
tremely probable  that  the  holy  Psalmist  in  this 
verse  treats  of  serpents  only ;  and,  by  conse- 
quence, that  both  the  terms  ^nip  and  "VC3  mean 
some  kind  of  snakes,  as  well  as  jnfl  and  p:n ; 
because  the  coherence  of  the  verse  is  by  this 
view  better  preserved,  than  by  mingling  lions 
and  serpents  together,  as  our  translators  and 
other  interpreters  have  commonly  done  ;  nor  is 
it  easy  to  imagine  what  can  be  meant  by  tread- 
ing upon  the  lion,  and  trampling  the  young 
iion  under  foot ;  for  it  is  not  possible  in  walk- 
ing to  tread  upon  the  lion,  as  upon  the  adder, 
the  basilisk,  and  other  serpents. 

To  ADJURE,  to  bind  by  oath,  as  under  the 
penalty  of  a  fearful  curse,  Joshua  vi,  26 ;  Mark 
v,  7.  2.  To  charge  solemnly,  as  by  the  au- 
thority, and  under  pain,  of  the  displeasure  of 
God,  Matt,  xxvi,  63 ;  Acts  xix,  13. 

ADONAI,  one  of  the  names  of  God.  This 
word  in  the  plural  number  signifies  my  Lords. 
The  Jews,  who  either  out  of  respect  or  super- 
stition, do  not  pronounce  the  name  of  Jehovah, 
read  Adonai  in  the  room  of  it,  as  often  as  they 
meet  with  Jehovah  in  the  Hebrew  text.  But 
the  ancient  Jews  were  not  so  scrupulous. 
Neither  is  there  any  law  which  forbids  them  to 
pronounce  any  name  of  God. 

ADONIS.  The  text  of  the  Vulgate  in  Ezek. 
viii,  14,  says,  that  the  Prophet  saw  women  sit- 
ting in  the  temple,  and  weeping  for  Adonis ; 
but  according  to  the  reading  of  the  Hebrew 
text,  they  are  said  to  weep  for  Thamuz,  or 
Tammuz,  the  hidden  one.  Among  the  Egyp- 
tians Adonis  was  adored  under  the  name  of 
Osiris,  the  husband  of  Isis.  But  he  was  some- 
times called  by  the  name  of  Ammuz,  or  Tam- 
muz, the  concealed,  probably  to  denote  his  death 
or  burial.  The  Hebrews,  in  derision,  some- 
times call  him  the  dead,  Psalm  cvi,  28 ;  Lev. 
xix,  28 ;  because  they  wept  for  him,  and  repre- 
sented him  as  dead  in  his  coffin ;  and  at  other 
times  they  denominate  him  the  image  of  jeal- 
ousy, Ezek.  viii,  3,  5,  because  he  was  the 
object  of  the  jealousy  of  Mars.  The  Syrians, 
Phoenicians,  and  Cyprians,  called  him  Adonis  ; 
and  Calmet  is  of  opinion  that  the  Ammonites 
and  Moabites  designated  him  by  the  name  of 
Baal-peor. 

The  manner  in  which  they  celebrated  the 
festival  of  this  false  deity  was  as  follows  :  They 
represented  him  as  lying  dead  in  his  coffin, 
wept  for  him,  bemoaned  themselves,  and  sought 
for  him  with  great  eagerness  and  inquietude. 
After  this,  they  pretended  that  they  had  found 
him  again,  and  that  he  was  still  living.  At 
this  good  news  they  exhibited  marks  of  the 
most  extravagant  joy,  and  were  guilty  of  a 
thousand  lewd  practices,  to  convince  Venus 
how  much  they  congratulated  her  on  the  return 
and  revival  of  her  favourite,  as  they  had  before 
condoled  with  her  on  his  death.  The  Hebrew 
women,  of  whom  the  Prophet  Ezekiel  speaks, 
celebrated  the  feasts  of  Tammuz,  or  Adonis,  in 
Jerusalem ;  and  God  showed  the  Prophet  these 


women  weeping  for  this  infamous  god,  even  in 
his  temple. 

Fabulous  history  gives  the  following  account 
of  Adonis :  He  was  a  beautiful  young  shepherd, 
the  son  of  Cyniras,  king  of  Cyprus,  by  his  own 
daughter  Myrrha.  The  goddess  Venus  fell  in 
love  with  this  youth,  and  frequently  met  him 
on  mount  Libanus.  Mars,  who  envied  this 
rival,  transformed  himself  into  a  wild  boar,  and, 
as  Adonis  was  hunting,  struck  him  in  the  groin 
and  killed  him.  Venus  lamented  the  death  of 
Adonis  in  an  inconsolable  manner.  The  east- 
ern people,  in  imitation  of  her  mourning,  ge- 
nerally established  some  solemn  days  for  the 
bewailing  of  Adonis.  After  his  death,  Venus 
went  to  the  shades,  and  obtained  from  Proser- 
pine, that  Adonis  might  be  with  her  six  months 
in  the  year,  and  continue  the  other  six  in  the 
infernal  regions.  Upon  this  were  founded 
those  public  rejoicings,  which  succeeded  the 
lamentations  of  his  death.  Some  say  that 
Adonis  was  a  native  of  Syria;  some,  of  Cy- 
prus ;  and  others,  of  Egypt. 

ADOPTION.  An  act  by  which  one  takes 
another  into  his  family,  owns  him  for  his  son, 
and  appoints  him  his  heir.  The  Greeks  and 
Romans  had  many  regulations  concerning 
adoption.  It  does  not  appear  that  adoption, 
properly  so  called,  was  formerly  in  use  among 
the  Jews.  Moses  makes  no  mention  of  it  in 
his  laws ;  and  the  case  of  Jacob's  two  grand- 
sons, Gen.  xlviii,  14,  seems  rather  a  substitution. 

2.  Adoption  in  a  theological  sense  is  that  act 
of  God's  free  grace-  by  which,  upon  our  being 
justified  by  faith  in  Christ,  we  are  received  into 
the  family  of  God,  and  entitled  to  the  inherit- 
ance of  heaven.  This  appears  not  so  much  a 
distinct  act  of  God,  as  involved  in,  and  neces- 
sarily flowing  from,  our  justification ;  so  that 
at  least  the  one  always  implies  the  other.  Nor 
is  there  any  good  ground  to  suppose  that  in  the 
New  Testament  the  term  adoption  is  used  with 
any  reference  to  the  civil  practice  of  adoption 
by  the  Greeks,  Romans,  or  other  Heathens,  and 
therefore  it  is  not  judicious  to  illustrate  the 
texts  in  which  the  word  occuie  by  their  for- 
malities. The  Apostles  in  using  the  term  appear 
to  have  had  before  them  the  simple  view,  that 
our  sins  had  deprived  us  of  our  sonship,  the 
favour  of  God,  and  the  right  to  the  inheritance 
of  eternal  life ;  but  that,  upon  our  return  to 
God,  and  reconciliation  with  him,  our  forfeited 
privileges  were  not  only  restored,  but  greatly 
heightened  through  the  paternal  kindness  of 
God.  They  could  scarcely  be  forgetful  of  the 
affecting  parable  of  the  prodigal  son ;  and  it  is 
under  the  same  view  that  St.  Paul  quotes  from 
the  Old  Testament,  "Wherefore  come  out 
from  among  them,  and  be  ye  separate,  saith 
the  Lord,  and  touch  not  the  unclean  thing,  and 
I  will  receive  you,  and  I  will  be  a  Father  unto 
you,  and  ye  shall  be  my  sons  and  daughters, 
saith  the  Lord  Almighty." 

Adoption,  then,  is  that  act  by  which  we  who 
were  alienated,  and  enemies,  and  disinherited, 
are  made  the  sons  of  God,  and  heirs  of  his 
eternal  glory.  "  If  children,  then  heirs,  heirs 
of  God  and  joint  heirs  with  Christ;"  where  it 
is  to  be  remarked,  that  it  is  not  in  our  own 


ADO 


25 


ADO 


right,  nor  in  the  right  of  any  work  done  in  us, 
or  which  we  ourselves  do,  though  it  should  be 
an  evangelical  work,  that  we  become  heirs  ; 
but  jointly  with  Christ,  and  in  his  right. 

3.  To  this  state  belong,  freedom  from  a  ser- 
vile spirit,  for  we  are  not  servants  but  sons ; 
the  special  love  and  care  of  God  our  heavenly 
Father ;  a  filial  confidence  in  him ;  free  access 
to  him  at  all  times  and  in  all  circumstances ; 
a  title  to  the  heavenly  inheritance ;  and  the 
Spirit  of  adoption,  or  the  witness  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  to  our  adoption,  which  is  the  foundation 
of  all  the  comfort  we  can  derive  from  those 
privileges,  as  it  is  the  only  means  by  which  we 
can  know  that  they  are  ours. 

4.  The  last  mentioned  great  privilege  of 
adoption  merits  special  attention.  It  consists 
in  the  inward  witness  or  testimony  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  to  the  sonship  of  believers,  from  which 
flows  a  comfortable  persuasion  or  conviction  of 
our  present  acceptance  with  God,  and  the  hope 
of  our  future  and  eternal  glory.  This  is  taught 
in  several  passages  of  Scripture : — 

Rom.  viii,  15,  16,  "  For  ye  have  not  received 
the  spirit  of  bondage  again  to  fear,  but  the 
Spirit  of  adoption,  whereby  we  cry,  Abba,  Fa- 
ther. The  Spirit  itself  beareth  witness  with 
our  spirit  that  we  are  the  children  of  God."  In 
this  passage  it  is  to  be  remarked,  1.  That  the 
Holy  Spirit  takes  away  "  fear,"  a  servile  dread 
of  God  as  offended.  2.  That  the  "  Spirit  of  God" 
here  mentioned,  is  not  the  personified  spirit  or 
genius  of  the  Gospel,  as  some  would  have  it, 
but  "the  Spirit  itself,"  or  himself,  and  hence 
he  is  called  in  the  Galatians,  "  the  Spirit  of  his 
Son,"  which  cannot  mean  the  genius  of  the 
Gospel.  3.  That  he  inspires  a  filial  confidence 
in  God,  as  our  Father,  which  is  opposed  to 
"  the  fear"  produced  by  the  "  spirit  of  bondage." 
4.  That  he  excites  this  filial  confidence,  and 
enables  us  to  call  God  our  Father,  by  witness- 
ing, bearing  testimony  with  our  spirit,  "  that 
we  are  the  children  of  God." 

Gal.  iv,  4-6,  "  But  when  the  fulness  of  the 
time  was  come,  God  sent  forth  his  Son,  made 
of  a  woman,  made  under  the  law,  to  redeem 
them  that  were  under  the  law,  that  we  might 
receive  the  adoption  of  sons ;  and  because  ye 
are  sons,  God  hath  sent  forth  the  Spirit  of  his 
Son  into  your  hearts,  crying,  Abba,  Father." 
Here  also  are  to  be  noted,  1.  The  means  of 
our  redemption  from  under  (the  curse  of)  the 
law, — the  incarnation  and  sufferings  of  Christ. 
2.  That  the  adoption  of  sons  follows  upon  our 
actual  redemption  from  that  curse,  or,  in  other 
words,  upon  our  pardon.  3.  That  upon  our 
being  pardoned,  the  "Spirit  of  the  Son"  is 
"sent  forth  into  our  hearts,"  producing  the 
(same  effect  as  that  mentioned  in  the  Epistle  to 
the  Romans,  viz.  filial  confidence  in  God, — 
"  crying,  Abba,  Father."  To  these  texts  are  to 
be  added  all  those  passages,  so  numerous  in  the 
New  Testament,  which  express  the  confidence 
and  the  joy  of  Christians ;  their  friendship  with 
God ;  their  confident  access  to  him  as  their 
God;  their  entire  union  and  delightful  inter- 
course with  him  in  spirit. 

This  has  been  generally  termed  the  doctrine 
of  assurance,  and,  perhaps,  the  expressions  of 


St.  Paul,  "the  full  assurance  of  faith,"  and 
"the  full  assurance  of  hope,"  may  warrant  the 
use  of  the  word.  But  as  there  is  a  current  and 
generally  understood  sense  of  this  term,  imply- 
ing that  the  assurance  of  our  present  accept- 
ance and  sonshjp  implies  an  assurance  of  our 
final  persoverance,  and  of  an  indefeasible  title 
to  heaven ;  the  phrase,  a  comfortable  persua- 
sion, or  conviction  of  our  justification  and 
adoption,  arising  out  of  the  Spirit's  inward  and 
direct  testimony,  is  to  be  preferred. 

There  is,  also,  another  reason  for  the  sparing 
and  cautious  use  of  the  term  assurance,  which 
is,  that  it  seems  to  imply,  though  not  necessa- 
rily, the  absence  of  all  doubt,  and  shuts  out  all 
those  lower  degrees  of  persuasion  which  may 
exist  in  the  experience  of  Christians.  For,  our 
faith  may  not  at  first,  or  at  all  times,  be  equally 
strong,  and  the  testimony  of  the  Spirit  may 
have  its  degrees  of  clearness.  Nevertheless, 
the  fulness  of  this  attainment  is  to  be  pressed 
upon  every  one  :  "Let  us  draw  near,"  says  St. 
Paul  to  all  Christians,  "  with  full  assurance  of 
faith." 

It  may  serve,  also,  to  remove  an  objection 
sometimes  made  to  the  doctrine,  and  to  correct 
an  error  which  sometimes  pervades  the  state- 
ment of  it,  to  observe  that  this  assurance,  per- 
suasion, or  conviction,  whichever  term  be 
adopted,  is  not  of  the  essence  of  justifying 
faith ;  that  is,  justifying  faith  does  not  consist 
in  the  assurance  that  I  am  now  forgiven, 
through  Christ.  This  would  be  obviously  con- 
tradictory. For  we  must  believe  before  we 
can  be  justified ;  much  more  before  we  can  be 
assured,  in  any  degree,  that  we  are  justified  : — 
this  persuasion,  therefore,  follows  justification, 
and  is  one  of  its  results.  But  though  we  must 
not  only  distinguish,  but  separate,  this  persua- 
sion of  our  acceptance  from  the  faith  which 
justifies,  we  must  not  separate  it,  but  only  dis- 
tinguish it,  from  justification  itself.  With  that 
come  in  as  concomitants,  adoption,  the  "  Spirit 
of  adoption,"  and  regeneration. 

ADORATION,  the  act  of  rendering  divine 
honours ;  or  of  addressing  God  or  any  other 
being  as  supposing  it  to  be  God.  (See  Worship.) 
The  word  is  compounded  of  ad,  "  to,"  and  os, 
"  mouth ;"  and  literally  signifies  to  apply  the 
hand  to  the  mouth ;  inanum  ad  os  admovere, 
"  to  kiss  the  hand ;"  this  being  in  eastern  coun- 
tries one  of  the  great  marks  of  respect  and  sub- 
mission. To  this  mode  of  idolatrous  worship 
Job  refers,  xxxi,  26,27.    See  alsol  Kingsxix,  18. 

The  Jewish  manner  of  adoration  was  by 
prostration,  bowing,  and  kneeling.  The  Chris- 
tians adopted  the  Grecian,  rather  than  the 
Roman,  method,  and  always  adored  uncovered. 
The  ordinary  posture  of  the  ancient  Christians 
was  kneeling;  but  on  Sundays,  standing. 

Adoration  is  also  used  for  certain  extraordi- 
nary acts  of  civil  honour,  which  resemble  those 
paid  to  the  Deity,  yet  are  given  to  men. 

We  read  of  adorations  paid  to  kings,  princes, 
emperors,  popes,  bishops,  abbots,  &c,  by  kneel- 
ing, falling  prostrate,  kissing  the  feet,  hands, 
garments,  &c. 

The  Persian  manner  of  adoration,  introduced 
by  Cyrus,  was  by  bending  the  knee,  and  falling 


ADO 


26 


ADU 


on  the  face  at  the  prince's  feet,  striking  the 
earth  with  the  forehead,  and  kissing  the  ground. 
This  was  an  indispensable  condition  on  the  part 
of  foreign  ministers  and  ambassadors,  as  well 
as  the  king's  own  vassals,  of  being  admitted  to 
audience,  and  of  obtaining  aiiy  favour.  This 
token  of  reverence  was  ordered  to  be  paid  to 
their  favourites  as  well  as  to  themselves,  as  we 
learn  from  the  history  of  Haman  and  Mordecai, 
in  the  book  of  Esther;  and  even  to  their  sta- 
tues and  images ;  for  Philostratus  informs  us 
that,  in  the  time  of  Apollonius,  a  golden  statue 
of  the  king  was  exposed  to  all  who  entered 
Babylon,  and  none  but  those  who  adored  it 
were  admitted  within  the  gates.  The  ceremony, 
which  the  Greeks  called  npoaicvvuv,  Conon  re- 
fused to  perform  to  Artaxerxes,  and  Callis- 
thenes  to  Alexander  the  Great,  as  reputing  it 
impious  and  unlawful. 

The  adoration  performed  to  the  Roman  and 
Grecian  emperors  consisted  in  bowing  or  kneel- 
ing at  the  prince's  feet,  laying  hold  of  his  pur- 
ple robe,  and  then  bringing  the  hand  to  the 
lips.  Some  attribute  the  origin  of  this  practice 
to  Constantius.  They  were  only  persons  of 
rank  or  dignity  that  were  entitled  to  the  honour. 
Bare  kneeling  before  the  emperor  to  deliver  a 
petition,  was  also  called  adoration. 

It  is  particularly  said  of  Dioclesian,  that  he 
had  gems  fastened  to  his  shoes,  that  divine 
honours  might  be  more  willingly  paid  him,  by 
kissing  his  feet.  And  this  mode  of  adoration 
was  continued  till  the  last  age  of  the  Greek 
monarchy.  When  any  one  pays  his  respects 
to  the  king  of  Achen  in  Sumatra,  he  first  takes 
oif  his  shoes  and  stockings,  and  leaves  them  at 
the  door. 

The  practice  of  adoration  may  be  said  to  be 
still  subsisting  in  England,  in  the  custom  of 
kissing  the  king's  or  queen's  hand. 

Adoration  is  also  used  in  the  court  of  Rome, 
in  the  ceremony  of  kissing  the  pope's  feet.  It 
is  not  certain  at  what  period  this  practice  was 
introduced  into  the  church :  but  it  was  proba- 
bly borrowed  from  the  Byzantine  court,  and  ac- 
companied the  temporal  power.  Dr.  Maclaine, 
in  the  chronological  table  which  he  has  sub- 
joined to  his  translation  of  Mosheim's  Ecclesi- 
astical History,  places  its  introduction  in  the 
eighth  century,  immediately  after  the  grant  of 
Pepin  and  Charlemagne.  Baronius  traces  it  to 
a  much  higher  antiquity,  and  pretends  that 
examples  of  this  homage  to  the  vicars  of  Christ 
occur  so  early  as  the  year  204.  These  prelates 
finding  a  vehement  disposition  in  the  people  to 
fall  down  before  them,  and  kiss  their  feet,  pro- 
cured crucifixes  to  be  fastened  on  their  slippers ; 
by  which  stratagem,  the  adoration  intended  for 
the  pope's  person  is  supposed  to  be  transferred 
to  Christ.  Divers  acts  of  this  adoration  we  find 
offered  even  by  princes  to  the  pope  ;  and  Gre- 
gory XIII,  claims  this  act  of  homage  as  a  duty. 

Adoration  properly  is  paid  only  to  the  pope 
when  placed  on  the  altar,  in  which  posture  the 
cardinals,  conclavists,  alone  are  admitted  to 
kiss  his  feet.  The  peoplo  are  afterward  admit- 
ted to  do  the  like  at  St.  Peter's  church ;  the 
ceremony  is  described  at  large  by  Guicciardin. 

Adoration  is  more  particularly  used  for  kiss- 


ing one's  hand  in  presence  of  another  as  a 
token  of  reverence.  The  Jews  adored  by  kiss- 
ing their  hands,  and  bowing  down  their  heads  ; 
whence  in  their  language  kissing  is  properly 
used  for  adoration.  This  illustrates  a  passage 
in  Psalm  ii,  "  Kiss  the  Son  lest  he  be  angry;" 
— that  is,  pay  him  homage  and  worship. 

It  was  the  practice  among  the  Greek  Chris- 
tians to  worship  with  the  head  uncovered, 
1  Cor.  xi ;  but  in  the  east  the  ancient  custom  of 
worshipping  with  the  head  covered  was  retained. 

ADRAMMELECH,  the  son  of  Sennacherib, 
king  of  Assyria.  The  king  returning  to  Nine- 
veh, after  his  unhappy  expedition  made  into 
Judea  against  king  Hezekiah,  was  killed  by  his 
two  sons,  Adrammelech  and  Sharezer,  whilst 
at  his  devotions  in  the  temple  of  his  god  Nis- 
roch,  Isaiah  xxxvii,  38 ;  2  Kings  xix.  It  is 
not  known  what  prompted  these  two  princes  to 
commit  this  parricide  ;  but  after  they  had  com- 
mitted the  murder,  they  fled  for  safety  to  the 
mountains  of  Armenia,  and  their  brother,  Esar- 
haddon,  succeeded  to  the  crown. 

Adrammelech  was  also  one  of  the  gods 
adored  by  the  inhabitants  of  Sepharvaim,  who 
were  settled  in  the  country  of  Samaria,  in  the 
room  of  the  Israelites,  who  were  carried  beyond 
the  Euphrates.  The  Sepharvaites  made  their 
children  pass  through  the  fire  in  honour  of  this 
idol,  and  another,  called  Anammelech,  2  Kings 
xvii,  31.  The  Rabbins  say,  that  Adrammelech 
was  represented  under  the  form  of  a  mule  ;  but 
there  is  much  more  reason  to  believe  that 
Adrammelech  meant  the  sun,  and  Anammelech 
the  moon;  the  first  signifying  the  magnificent 
king,  the  second  the  gentle  king, — many  east- 
ern nations  adoring  the  moon  as  a  god,  not  as 
a  goddess. 

ADRAMYTTIUM,  a  city  on  the  west  coast 
of  Mysia,  in  Lesser  Asia,  over  against  the  isle 
of  Lesbos.  It  was  in  a  ship  belonging  to  this 
place,  that  St.  Paul  sailed  from  Cesarea  to  pro- 
ceed to  Rome  as  a  prisoner,  Acts  xxvii,  2.  It 
is  now  called  Edremit. 

ADRIA.  This  name,  which  occurs  in  Acts 
xxvii,  27,  is  now  confined  to  the  gulf  lying 
between  Italy  on  the  one  side,  and  the  coasts 
of  Dalmatia  and  Albania  on  the  other.  But  in 
St.  Paul's  time  it  was  extended  to  all  that  por- 
tion of  the  Mediterranean  between  Crete  and 
Sicily.  Thus  Ptolemy  says  that  Sicily  was 
bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Adriatic,  and  Crete 
in  a  similar  manner  on  the  west;  and  Strabo 
says  that  the  Ionian  Gulf  was  a  part  of  what, 
in  his  time,  was  called  the  Adriatic  Sea. 

ADULLAM,  a  city  in  the  tribe  of  Judah,  to 
the  west  of  Hebron,  whose  king  was  slain  by 
Joshua,  Josh,  xii,  15.  It  is  frequently  men- 
tioned in  the  history  of  Saul  and  David ;  and 
is  chiefly  memorable  from  the  cave  in  its  neigh- 
bourhood, where  David  retired  from  Achish, 
king  of  Gath,  when  he  was  joined  by  the  dis- 
tressed and  discontented,  to  the  number  of  four 
hundred,  over  whom  he  became  captain,  1  Sam. 
xxii,  1.  Judas  Maccabeus  encamped  in  the 
plain  of  Adullam,  where  he  passed  the  Sabbath 
day,  2  Mac.  xii,  38.  Eusebius  says  that,  in  his 
time,  Adullam  was  a  very  great  town,  ten  miles 
to  the  east  of  Eleutheropolis, 


ADU 


27 


ADU 


ADULTERY,  the  violation  of  the  marriage 
bed.  The  law  of  Moses  punished  with  death 
both  the  man  and  the  woman  who  were  guilty 
of  this  crime,  Lev.  xx,  10.  If  a  woman  was 
betrothed  to  a  man,  and  was  guilty  of  this  in- 
famous crime  before  the  marriage  was  com- 
pleted, she  was,  in  this  case,  along  with  her 
paramour,  to  be  stoned,  Deut.  xxii,  22-24. 

When  any  man  among  the  Jews,  prompted 
by  jealousy,  suspected  his  wife  of  the  crime  of 
adultery,  he  brought  her  first  before  the  judges, 
and  informed  them  that,  in  consequence  of  his 
suspicions,  he  had  privately  admonished  her, 
but  that  she  was  regardless  of  his  admonitions. 
If  before  the  judges  she  asserted  her  innocency, 
he  required  that  she  should  drink  the  waters  of 
jealousy,  that  God  might  by  these  means  dis- 
cover what  she  attempted  to  conceal,  Num.  v, 
12,  &c.  The  man  then  produced  his  witnesses, 
and  they  were  heard.  After  this,  both  the  man 
and  the  woman  were  conveyed  to  Jerusalem, 
and  placed  before  the  sanhedrim;  the  judges  of 
which,  by  threats  and  other  means,  endea- 
voured to  confound  the  woman,  and  make  her 
confess.  If  she  persisted  in  denying  the  fact, 
she  was  led  to  the  eastern  gate  of  the  court  of 
Israel,  stripped  of  her  own  clothes,  and  dressed 
in  black,  before  great  numbers  of  her  own  sex. 
The  priest  then  told  her,  that  if  she  was  really 
innocent,  she  had  nothing  to  fear;  but  if  guilty, 
she  might  expect  to  suffer  all  that  the  law  had 
denounced  against  her,  to  which  she  answered, 
''Amen,  amen."  The  priest  then  wrote  the 
terms  of  the  law  in  this  form  : — "  If  a  strange 
man  hath  not  come  near  you,  and  you  are 
not  polluted  by  forsaking  the  bed  of  your  hus- 
band, these  bitter  waters,  which  I  have  cursed, 
will  not  hurt  you  :  but  if  you  have  polluted 
yourself  by  coming  near  to  another  man,  and 
gone  astray  from  your  husband, — may  you  be 
accursed  of  the  Lord,  and  become  an  example 
for  all  his  people  ;  may  your  thigh  rot,  and  your 
belly  swell  till  it  burst ;  may  these  cursed  wa- 
ters enter  into  your  belly,  and  being  swelled 
therewith,  may  your  thighs  putrefy." 

After  this,  the  priest  filled  a  pitcher  out  of 
the  brazen  vessel,  near  the  altar  of  burnt  offer- 
ings, cast  some  dust  of  the  pavement  into  it, 
mingled  something  with  it  as  bitter  as  worm- 
wood, and  then  read  the  curses,  and  received 
her  answer  of  Amen.  Another  priest,  in  the 
meantime,  tore  off  her  clothes  as  low  as  her 
bosom — made  her  head  bare — untied  the  tresses 
of  her  hair — fastened  her  clothes,  which  were 
thus  torn,  with  a  girdle  under  her  breasts,  and 
then  presented  her  with  the  tenth  part  of  an 
ephah,  or  about  three  pints,  of  barley  meal. 
The  other  priest  then  gave  her  the  waters  of 
jealousy,  or  bitterness,  to  drink ;  and  as  soon 
as  the  woman  had  swallowed  them,  he  gave 
her  the  meal  in  a  vessel  like  a  frying-pan  into 
her  hand.  This  was  stirred  before  the  Lord, 
and  part  of  it  thrown  into  the  fire  of  the  altar. 
If  the  wife  was  innocent,  she  returned  witli 
her  husband,  and  the  waters,  so  far  from  injur- 
ing her,  increased  her  health,  and  made  her 
more  fruitful ;  but  if  she  was  guilty,  she  grew 
pale  immediately,  her  eyes  swelled ;  and,  lest 
she  should  pollute  the  temple,  she  was  instantly 


carried  out,  with  these  symptoms  upon  her,  and 
died  instantly,  with  all  the  ignominious  circum- 
stances related  in  the  curses. 

On  this  law  of  Moses,  Michaelis  has  the  fol- 
lowing remarks : — 

"  This  oath  was,  perhaps,  a  relic  of  some 
more  severe  and  barbarous  consuetudinary 
laws,  whose  rigours  Moses  mitigated ;  as  he 
did  in  many  other  cases,  where  an  established 
usage  could  not  be  conveniently  abolished  alto- 
gether. Among  ourselves,  in  barbarous  times, 
the  ordeal,  or  trial  by  fire,  was,  notwithstand- 
ing the  parity  of  our  married  people,  in  com- 
mon use  ;  and  this,  in  point  of  equity,  was 
much  the  same  in  effect,  as  if  the  husband  had 
had  the  right  to  insist  on  his  wife  submitting 
to  the  hazardous  trial  of  her  purity,  by  drink- 
ing a  poisoned  potion  ;  which,  according  to  an 
ancient  superstition,  could  never  hurt  her  if 
she  was  innocent.  And,  in  fact,  such  a  right 
is  not  altogether  unexampled ;  for,  according 
to  Oldendorp's  History  of  the  Mission  of  the 
Evangelical  Brethren,  in  the  Caribbee  Islands, 
it  is  actually  in  use  among  some  of  the  savage 
nations  in  the  interior  parts  of  Western  Africa. 

"  Now,  when  in  place  of  a  poisoned  potion 
like  this,  which  very  few  husbands  can  be  very 
willing  to  have  administered  to  their  wives,  we 
see,  as  among  the  Hebrews,  an  imprecation- 
drink,  whose  avenger  God  himself  promises  to 
become,  we  caunot  but  be  struck  with  the  con- 
trast of  wisdom  and  clemency  which  such  a 
contrivance  manifests.  In  the  one  case,  (and 
herein  consists  their  great  distinction,)  inno- 
cence can  only  be  preserved  by  a  miracle ; 
while,  on  the  other,  guilt  only  is  revealed  and 
punished  by  the  hand  of  God  himself. 

"By  one  of  the  clauses  of  the  oath  of  pur- 
gation, (and  had  not  the  legislator  been  perfect- 
ly assured  of  his  divine  mission,  the  insertion 
of  any  such  clause  would  have  been  a  very  bold 
step  indeed,)  a  visible  and  corporeal  punish- 
ment was  specified,  which  the  person  swearing 
imprecated  on  herself,  and  which  God  himself 
was  understood  as  engaging  to  execute.  To 
have  given  so  accurate  a  definition  of  the  pun- 
ishment that  God  meant  to  inflict,  and  still 
more  one  that  consisted  of  such  a  rare  disease, 
would  have  been  a  step  of  incomprehensible 
boldness  in  a  legislator  who  pretended  to  have 
a  divine  mission,  if  he  was  not,  with  the  most 
assured  conviction,  conscious  of  its  reality. 

"  Seldom,  however,  very  seldom,  was  it  likely 
that  Providence  would  have  an  opportunity  of 
inflicting  the  punishment  in  question.  For  the 
oath  was  so  regulated,  that  a  woman  of  the 
utmost  effrontery  could  scarcely  have  taken  it 
without  changing  colour  to  such  a  degree  as  to 
betray  herself. 

"  In  the  first  place,  it  was  not  administered 
to  the  woman  in  her  own  house,  but  she  was 
under  the  necessity  of  going  to  that  place  of 
the  land  where  God  in  a  special  manner  had 
his  abode,  and  took  it  there.  Now,  the  solem- 
nity of  the  place,  unfamiliarized  to  her  by  daily 
business  or  resort,  would  have  a  great  effect 
upon  her  mind.  In  the  next  place,  there  was 
offered  unto  God  what  was  termed  an  execra- 
tion offering,   not  in   order  to   propitiate   his 


ADU 


28 


iERA 


mercy,  but  to  invoke  his  vengeance  on  the 
guilty.  Here  the  process  was  extremely  slow, 
which  gave  her  more  time  for  reflection  than 
to  a  guilty  person  could  be  acceptable,  and  that, 
too,  amidst  a  multitude  of  unusual  ceremonies. 
For  the  priest  conducted  her  to  the  front  of  the 
sanctuary,  and  took  holy  water,  that  is,  water 
out  of  the  priests'  laver,  which  stood  before  it, 
together  with  some  earth  off  its  floor,  which 
was  likewise  deemed  holy ;  and  having  put  the 
earth  in  the  water,  he  then  proceeded  to  un- 
cover the  woman's  head,  that  her  face  might 
be  seen,  and  every  change  on  her  countenance 
during  the  administration  of  the  oath  accurately 
observed :  and  this  was  a  circumstance  which, 
in  the  east,  where  the  women  are  always  veiled, 
must  have  had  a  great  effect ;  because  a  woman, 
accustomed  to  wear  a  veil,  could,  on  so  extra, 
ordinary  an  occasion,  have  had  far  less  com- 
mand of  her  eyes  and  her  countenance  than  a 
European  adulteress,  who  is  generally  a  perfect 
mistress  in  all  the  arts  of  dissimulation,  would 
display.  To  render  the  scene  still  more  awful, 
the  tresses  of  her  hair  were  loosened,  and  then 
the  execration  offering  was  put  into  her  hand, 
while  the  priest  held  in  his  the  imprecation 
water.  This  is  commonly  termed  the  bitter 
water;  but  we  must  not  understand  this  as  if 
the  water  had  really  been  bitter;  for  how  could 
it  have  been  so  ?  The  earth  of  the  floor  of  the 
tabernacle  could  not  make  it  bitter.  Among 
the  Hebrews,  and  other  oriental  nations,  the 
word  bitter  was  rather  used  for  curse :  and, 
strictly  speaking,  the  phrase  does  not  mean 
bitter  water,  but  the  water  of  bitternesses,  that  is, 
of  curses.  The  priest  now  pronounced  the  oath, 
which  was  in  all  points  so  framed  that  it  could 
excite  no  terrors  in  the  breast  of  an  innocent 
woman  ;  for  it  expressly  consisted  in  this,  that 
the  imprecation  water  should  not  harm  her  if 
she  was  innocent.  It  would  seem  as  if  the 
priest  here  made  a  stop,  and  again  left  the  wo- 
man some  time  to  consider  whether  she  would 
proceed  with  the  oath.  This  I  infer  from  the 
circumstance  of  his  speech  not  being  directly 
continued  in  verse  21st,  which  is  rather  the 
apodosis  of  what  goes  before  ;  and  from  the 
detail  proceeding  anew  in  the  words  of  the  his- 
torian, Then  shall  the  priest  pronounce  the  rest 
of  the  oath  and  the  curses  to  the  woman;  and 
proceed  thus. — After  this  stop  he  pronounced 
the  curses,  and  the  woman  was  obliged  to  de- 
clare her  acquiescence  in  them  by  a  repeated 
Amen.  Nor  was  the  solemn  scene  yet  altoge- 
ther at  an  end ;  but  rather,  as  it  were  com- 
menced anew.  For  the  priest  had  yet  to  write 
the  curses  in  a  book,  which  I  suppose  he  did 
at  great  deliberation ;  having  done  so,  he 
washed  them  out  again  in  the  very  impreca- 
tion water,  which  the  woman  had  now  to 
drink ;  and  this  water  being  now  presented  to 
her,  she  was  obliged  to  drink  it,  with  this  warn- 
ing and  assurance,  in  the  name  of  God,  that  if 
she  was  guilty,  it  would  prove  within  her  an 
absolute  curse.  Now,  what  must  have  been 
her  feelings,  while  drinking,  if  not  conscious 
of  purity  ?  In  my  opinion  she  must  have  con- 
ceived that  she  already  felt  an  alteration  in  the 
state  of  her  body,  and  the  germ,  as  it  were,  of 


tho  disease  springing  within  her.  Conscience 
and  imagination  would  conspire  together,  and 
render  it  almost  impossible  for  her  to  drink  it 
out.  Finally,  the  execration  offering  was  taken 
out  of  her  hand,  and  burnt  upon  the  altar.  I 
cannot  but  think  that,  under  the  sanction  of 
such  a  purgatorium,  perjury  must  have  been  a 
very  rare  occurrence  indeed.  If  it  happened 
but  once  in  an  age,  God  had  bound  himself  to 
punish  it ;  and  if  this  took  place  but  once,  (if 
but  one  woman  who  had  taken  the  oath  was 
attacked  with  that  rare  disease  which  it  threat- 
ened,) it  was  quite  enough  to  serve  as  a  deter- 
ment to  all  others  for  at  least  one  generation." 

This  procedure  had  also  the  effect  of  keep- 
ing in  mind,  among  the  Jews,  God's  high  dis- 
pleasure against  this  violation  of  his  law  ;  and 
though  some  lax  moralists  have  been  found,  in 
modern  times,  to  palliate  it,  yet  the  Christian 
will  always  remember  the  solemn  denuncia- 
tions of  the  New  Testament  against  a  crime 
so  aggravated,  whether  considered  in  its  effects 
upon  the  domestic  relations,  upon  the  moral 
character  of  the  guilty  parties,  or  upon  society 
at  large, — "  Whoremongers  and  adulterers  God 
will  judge." 

Adultery,  in  the  prophetic  scriptures,  is  often 
metaphorically  taken,  and  signifies  idolatry, 
and  apostasy  from  God,  by  which  men  basely 
defile  themselves,  and  wickedly  violate  their 
ecclesiastical  and  covenant  relation  to  God, 
Hos.  ii,  2 ;  Ezek.  xvi. 

ADVOCATE,  riapaVA>;T05,  a  patron,  one  who 
pleads  the  cause  of  any  one  before  another.  In 
this  sense  the  term  is  applied  to  Christ  our  in- 
tercessor, 1  John  ii,  1.  It  signifies  also  a  com- 
forter, and  an  instructer ;  and  is  used  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  John  xiv,  16,  and  xv,  26. 

ADYTUM  is  a  Greek  word,  signifying  inac- 
cessible, by  which  is  understood  the  most  retir 
ed  and  secret  place  of  the  Heathen  temples,  into 
which  none  but  the  priests  were  allowed  to 
enter.  The  adytum  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
answered  to  the  sanctum  sanctorum  of  the  Jews, 
and  was  the  place  from  whence  oracles  were 
delivered. 

iERA,  a  series  of  years,  commencing  from  a 
certain  point  of  time  called  an  epocha :  thus  we 
say,  the  Christian  aera;  that  is,  the  number  of 
years  elapsed  since  the  birth  of  Christ.  The 
generality  of  authors  use  the  terms  sera  and 
epocha  in  a  synonymous  sense ;  that  is,  for 
the  point  of  time  from  which  any  computation 
begins. 

The  ancient  Jews  made  use  of  several  seras 
in  their  computation ;  sometimes  they  reckon- 
ed from  the  deluge,  sometimes  from  the  division 
of  tongues ;  sometimes  from  their  departure  out 
of  Egypt ;  and  at  other  times  from  the  building 
of  the  temple  ;  and  sometimes  from  the  restora- 
tion after  the  Babylonish  captivity :  but  their 
vulgar  aera  was  from  the  creation  of  the  world, 
which  falls  in  with  the  year  of  the  Julian 
period  953 ;  and  consequently  they  supposed  the 
world  created  294  years  sooner  than  according 
to  our  computation.  But  when  the  Jews  be- 
came subject  to  the  Syro-Macedonian  kings, 
they  were  obliged  to  make  use  of  the  oera  of 
the  Scleucidce  in  all  their  contracts,  which  from 


AFF 


29 


AGA 


thence  was  called  the  aera  of  contracts.  This 
tera  begins  with  the  year  of  the  world  3692,  of 
the  Julian  period  4402,  and  before  Christ  312. 
The  rora  in  general  use  among  the  Christians 
is  that  from  the  birth  of  Jesus  Christ,  concerning 
the  true  time  of  which  chronologers  differ ;  some 
place  it  two  years,  others  four,  and  again  others 
five,  before  the  vulgar  rera,  which  is  fixed  for  the 
year  of  the  world  4004 :  but  Archbishop  Usher, 
and  after  him  the  generality  of  modern  chrono- 
logers, place  it  in  the  year  of  the  world  4000. 

The  ancient  Heathens  used  several  asras: 
1.  The  asra  of  the  first  olympiad  is  placed  in 
the  year  of  the  world  3228,  and  before  the  vul- 
gar asra  of  Jesus  Christ  776.  2.  The  taking  of 
Troy  by  the  Greeks,  in  the  year  of  the  world 
2320,  and  before  Jesus  Christ  1884.  3.  The 
voyage  undertaken  for  the  purpose  of  bringing 
away  the  golden  fleece,  in  the  year  of  the  world 
2760.  4.  The  foundation  of  Rome,  in  2856. 
5.  The  sera  of  Nabonassar,  in  3257.  6.  The  aera 
of  Alexander  the  Great,  or  his  last  victory  over 
Darius,  in  3674,  and  before  Jesus  Christ  330. 

AERI ANS,  a  sect  which  arose  about  the  mid- 
dle of  the  fourth  century,  being  the  followers  of 
Aerius,  (who  must  be  distinguished  from  Arius 
and  Aetius,)  a  monk  and  a  presbyter  of  Sebas- 
tia,  in  Pontus.  He  is  charged  with  being  an 
Arian,  or  Semi-Arian ;  but  the  heaviest  accusa- 
tion against  him  is  an  attempt  to  reform  the 
church  ;  and,  by  rejecting  prayers  for  the  dead, 
with  certain  fasts  and  festivals  then  supersti- 
tiously  observed,  to  reduce  Christianity  as  near- 
ly as  possible  "  to  its  primitive  simplicity ;  a 
purpose,  indeed,  laudable  and  noble,"  says  Dr. 
Mosheim,  "  when  considered  in  itself:  though 
the  principle-s  from  whence  it  springs,  and  the 
means  by  which  it  is  executed,  are  sometimes, 
in  many  respects,  worthy  of  censure,  and  may 
have  been  so  in  the  case  of  this  reformer." 
This  gentle  rebuke  probably  refers  to  a  report 
that  the  zeal  of  Aerius  originated  in  his  being 
disappointed  of  the  bishopric  of  Sebastia,  (con- 
ferred on  Eustathius,)  which  led  him  to  affirm 
that  the  Scriptures  make  no  distinction  between 
a  presbyter  and  a  bishop,  which  he  founded 
chiefly  on  1  Tim.  iv,  14.  Hence  he  is  consider- 
ed by  many,  as  the  father  of  the  modern  Pres- 
byterians.— "  For  this  opinion,  chiefly"  says  Dr. 
Turner,  "  he  is  ranked  among  the  heretics,  by 
Epiphanius,  his  contemporary,  who  calls  it  a 
notion  full  of  folly  and  madness.  His  followers 
were  driven  from  the  churches,  and  out  of  all 
the  towns  and  villages,  and  were  obliged  to  as- 
semble in  the  woods,  caverns,  and  open  defiles." 

AETlANS,  another  branch  (as  it  is  said)  of 
Arians,  so  called  from  Aetius,  bishop  of  An- 
tioch,  who  is  also  charged  with  maintaining 
"  faith  without  worV.s,"  as  "  sufficient  to  salva- 
tion," or  rather  justification ;  and  with  maintain- 
ing "that  sin  is  not  imputed  to  believers."  It 
is  added,  that  he  taught  God  had  revealed  to 
him  things  which  he  had  "concealed  from  the 
Apostles  ;"  which,  perhaps,  is  only  a  misrepre- 
sentation of  what  he  taught  on  the  doctrine  of 
divine  influences. 

AFFINITY.  There  are  several  degrees  of 
affinity,  wherein  marriage  was  prohibited  by 
the  law  of  Moses :  thus  the  son  could  not  marry 


his  mother,  nor  his  father's  wife,  Lev.  xviii,  7, 
&c.  The  brother  could  not  marry  his  sister, 
whether  she  were  so  by  the  father  only,  or  only 
by  the  mother,  and  much  less  if  she  were  his 
sister  both  by  the  same  father  and  mother.  The 
grandfather  could  not  marry  his  granddaughter, 
either  by  his  son  or  daughter.  No  one  could 
marry  the  daughter  of  his  father's  wife ;  nor 
the  sister  of  his  father  or  mother;  nor  the  uncle, 
his  niece  ;  nor  the  aunt,  her  nephew ;  nor  the 
nephew,  the  wife  of  his  uncle  by  the  father's 
side.  The  father-in-law  could  not  marry  his 
daughter-in-law  ;  nor  the  brother  the  wife  of  his 
brother,  while  living ;  nor  even  after  the  death 
of  his  brother,  if  he  left  children.  If  he  left  no 
children,  the  surviving  brother  was  to  raise  up 
children  to  his  deceased  brother  by  marrying  his 
widow.  It  was  forbidden  to  marry  the  mother 
and  the  daughter  at  one  time,  or  the  daughter 
of  the  mother's  son,  or  the  daughter  of  her 
daughter,  or  two  sisters,  together. 

It  is  true  the  patriarchs,  before  the  law,  mar- 
ried their  sisters,  as  Abraham  married  Sarah, 
who  was  his  father's  daughter  by  another  mo- 
ther ;  and  two  sisters  together,  as  Jacob  mar- 
ried Rachel  and  Leah ;  and  their  own  sisters, 
both  by  father  and  mother,  as  Seth  and  Cain. 
But  these  cases  are  not  to  be  proposed  as  ex- 
amples ;  because  in  some  they  were  authorized 
by  necessity ;  in  others,  by  custom  ;  and  the  law 
as  yet  was  not  in  being.  If  some  other  examples 
may  be  found,  either  before  or  since  the  law, 
the  Scripture  expressly  disapproves  of  them  ;  as 
Reuben's  incest  with  Balah,  his  father's  concu- 
bine ;  and  the  action  of  Amnon  with  his  sister 
Tamar ;  and  that  of  Herod  Antipas,  who  mar- 
ried Herodias,  his  sister-in-law,  his  brother 
Philip's  wife,  while  her  husband  was  yet  living ; 
and  that  which  St.  Paul  reproves  and  punishes 
among  the  Corinthians,  1  Cor.  v,  1. 

AGABUS,  a  prophet,  and  as  the  Greeks  say, 
one  of  the  seventy  disciples  of  our  Saviour.  He 
foretold  that  there  would  be  a  great  famine  over 
all  the  earth ;  which  came  to  pass  accordingly, 
under  the  emperor  Claudius,  in  the  fourth  year 
of  his  reign,  A.  D.  44,  Acts  xi,  28. 

Ten  years  after  this,  as  St.  Paul  was  going 
to  Jerusalem,  and  had  already  landed  at  Csesa- 
rea,  in  Palestine,  the  same  prophet,  Agabus, 
arrived  there,  and  coming  to  visit  St.  Paul  and 
his  company,  he  took  this  Apostle's  girdle,  and 
binding  himself  hand  and  feet,  he  said,  "  Thus 
saith  the  Holy  Ghost,  So  shall  the  Jews  at 
Jerusalem  bind  the  man  that  owneth  this  gir- 
dle, and  shall  deliver  him  into  the  hands  of  the 
Gentiles,"  Acts  xxi,  10.  We  know  no  other 
particulars  of  the  life  of  Agabus.  The  Greeks 
say  that  he  suffered  martyrdom  at  Antioch. 

AGAG.  This  seems  to  have  been  a  common 
name  of  the  princes  of  Amalek,  one  of  whom 
was  very  powerful  as  early  as  the  time  of  Moses, 
Num.  xxiv,  7.  On  account  of  the  cruelties  ex- 
ercised by  this  king  and  his  army  against  the 
Israelites,  as  they  returned  from  Egypt,  a  bloody 
and  long  contested  battle  took  place  between 
Joshua  and  the  Amalekites,  in  which  the  former 
was  victorious,  Exod.  xvii,  8-13.  At  the  same 
time,  God  protested  with  an  oath  to  destroy 
Amalek,  verses  14-16;  Dent,  xxv,  17-19,  A.M. 


AGE 


30 


AGR 


2513.  About  four  hundred  years  after  this,  the 
Lord  remembered  the  cruel  treatment  of  his 
people,  and  his  own  oath  ;  and  lie  commanded 
Saul,  by  the  mouth  of  Samuel,  to  destroy  the 
Amalekites.  Saul  mustered  his  army,  and 
found  it  two  hundred  thousand  strong,  1  Sam. 
xv,  1,  &c.  Having  entered  into  their  country, 
he  cut  in  pieces  all  he  could  meet  with  from 
Havilah  to  Slmr.  Agag  their  king,  and  the 
best  of  their  cattle,  were  however  spared,  an  act 
of  disobedience  on  the  part  of  Saul,  probably 
dictated  by  covetousness.  But  Agag  did  not 
long  enjoy  this  reprieve  ;  for  Samuel  no  sooner 
heard  that  he  was  alive,  than  he  sent  for 
him ;  and  notwithstanding  his  insinuating  ad- 
dress,  and  the  vain  hopes  with  which  he  flat- 
tered himself  that  the  bitterness  of  death  was 
past,  he  caused  him  to  be  hewed  to  pieces  in 
Gilgal  before  the  Lord,  saying,  "  As,  "iti^s,  in 
the  same  identical  mode  as,  thy  sword  hath  made 
women  childless,  so  shall  thy  mother  be  child- 
less among  women."  This  savage  chieftain  had 
hewed  many  prisoners  to  death ;  and,  therefore, 
by  command  of  the  Judge  of  the  whole  earth, 
he  was  visited  with  the  same  punishment  which 
he  had  inflicted  upon  others. 

AGAPiE.     See  Love  Feast. 

AGAR,  mount  Sinai,  so  called,  Gal.  iv,  24, 
25.  But  this  reading  is  doubtful,  many  MSS. 
having  the  verse,  "  for  this  Sinai  is  a  mountain 
of  Arabia."  Some  critics  however  contend  for 
the  reading  of  the  received  text,  and  urge  that 
Agar,  which  signifies  "  a  rocky  mountain,"  is 
the  Arabic  name  for  Sinai. 

AGATE,  -Dti-,  Exod.  xxviii,  19  ;  xxxix,  12. 
In  the  Septuagint  a^a'Djf,  and  Vulgate,  achates. 
A  precious  stone,  semi-pellucid.  Its  variega- 
tions are  sometimes  most  beautifully  disposed, 
representing  plants,  trees,  rivers,  clouds,  &c. 
Its  Hebrew  name  is,  perhaps,  derived  from  the 
country  whence  the  Jews  imported  it;  for  the 
merchants  of  Sheba  brought  to  the  market  of 
Tyre  all  kinds  of  precious  stones,  Ezek.  xxvii, 
22.  The  agate  was  the  second  stone  in  the 
third  row  of  the  pectoral  of  the  high  priest, 
Exod.  xxviii,  19,  and  xxxix,  12. 

AGE,  in  the  most  general  sense  of  the  term, 
denotes  the  duration  of  any  substance,  animate 
or  inanimate  ;  and  is  applied  either  to  the  whole 
period  of  its  existence,  or  to  that  portion  of  it 
which  precedes  the  time  to  which  the  description 
of  it  refers.  In  this  sense  it  is  used  to  signify  either 
the  whole  natural  duration  of  the  life  of  man, 
or  any  interval  of  it  that  has  elapsed  before  the 
period  of  which  we  speak.  When  age  is  under- 
stood of  a  cc-tain  portion  of  the  life  of  man,  its 
whole  duration  is  divided  into  four  different 
ages,  viz.  infancy,  youth,  manhood,  and  old 
age  :  the  first  extending  to  the  fourteenth  year  ; 
the  second,  denominated  youth,  adolescence, 
or  the  age  of  puberty,  commencing  at  fourteen, 
and  terminating  at  about  twenty-five  ;  manhood, 
or  the  virile  age,  concluding  at  fifty ;  and  the 
last  ending  at  the  close  of  life.  Some  divide 
the  first  period  into  infancy  and  childhood  ;  and 
the  last  likewise  into  two  stages,  calling  that 
which  succeeds  the  age  of  seventy-five,  decrepit 
old  age.  Ago  is  applicable  to  the  duration  of 
tilings  inanimate  or  factitious;  and  in  this  use 


of  the  term  we  speak  of  the  age  of  a  house,  of 
a  country,  of  a  state  or  kingdom,  &c. 

Age,  in  chronology,  is  used  for  a  century,  or 
a  period  of  one  hundred  years  :  in  which  sense 
it  is  the  same  with  seculum,  and  differs  from 
generation.  It  is  also  used  in  speaking  of  the 
times  past  since  the  creation  of  the  world. 
The  several  ages  of  the  world  may  be  reduced 
to  three  grand  epochas,  viz.  the  age  of  the  law 
of  nature,  called  by  the  Jews  the  void  age, 
from  Adam  to  Moses.  The  age  of  the  Jewish 
law,  from  Moses  to  Christ,  called  by  the  Jews 
the  present  age.  And  the  age  of  grace,  from 
Christ  to  the  present  year.  The  Jews  call  tho 
third  age,  the  age  to  come,  or  the  future  age ; 
denoting  by  it  the  time  from  the  advent  of  the 
Messiah  to  the  end  of  the  world.  The  Romans 
distinguished  the  time  that  preceded  them  into 
three  ages :  the  obscure  or  uncertain  age,  which 
reached  down  as  low  as  Ogyges  king  of  Attica, 
in  whose  reign  the  deluge  happened  in  Greece  ; 
the  fabulous  or  heroic  age,  which  ended  at  the 
first  olympiad ;  and  the  historical  age,  which 
commenced  at  the  building  of  Rome.  Among 
the  poets,  the  four  ages  of  the  world  are,  the 
golden,  the  silver,  the  brazen,  and  the  iron  age. 

Age  is  sometimes  used  among  the  ancient 
poets  in  the  same  sense  as  generation,  or  a  period 
of  thirty  years.  Thus  Nestor  is  said  to  have 
lived  three  ages,  when  he  was  ninety  years  old. 

The  period  preceding  the  birth  of  Jesus 
Christ  has  been  generally  divided  into  six 
ages.  The  first  extends  from  the  creation  to 
the  deluge,  and  comprehends  1656  years.  The 
second  age,  from  the  deluge  to  Abraham's  en- 
tering the  land  of  promise,  A.  M.  2082,  com- 
prehends 426  years.  The  third  age  from  Abra- 
ham's entrance  into  the  promised  land  to  tho 
Exodus,  A.  M.  2512,  includes  430  years.  The 
fourth  age,  from  the  Exodus  to  the  building  of 
the  temple  by  Solomon,  A.  M.  2992,  contains 
480  years.  The  fifth  age  from  the  foundation  of 
Solomon's  temple  to  the  Babylonish  captivity, 
A.  M.  341 6,  comprehends  424  years.  The  sixth 
age,  from  the  Babylonish  captivity  to  the  birth 
of  Jesus  Christ,  A.M.  4000,  the  fourth  year  be- 
fore the  vulgar  fera,  includes  584  years.  Those 
who  follow  the  Septuagint,  or  Greek  version, 
divide  this  period  into  seven  ages,  viz.  1.  From 
the  creation  to  the  deluge,  2262  years.  2.  From 
the  deluge  to  the  confusion  of  tongues,  738 
years.  3.  From  this  confusion  to  the  calling 
of  Abraham,  460  years.  4.  From  this  period 
to  Jacob's  descent  into  Egypt,  215  years;  and 
from  this  event  to  the  Exodus,  430  years, 
making  the  whole  645  years.  5.  From  the  Exo- 
dus to  Saul,  774  years.  6.  From  Saul  to  Cyrus, 
583  years.  7.  From  Cyrus  to  the  vulgar  a?ra 
of  Christians,  538  years ;  the  whole  period  from 
the  creation  to  this  period  containing  6000 
years. 

AGRIPPA,  snrnamed  Herod,  the  son  of 
Aristobulus  and  Mariamnc,  and  grandson  of 
Herod  the  Great,  was  born  A.  M.  3997,  three 
years  before  the  birth  of  our  Saviour,  and  seven 
years  before  the  vulgar  acra.  After  the  death 
of  his  father  Aristobulus,  Joscphus  informs  us 
that  Herod,  his  grandfather,  took  care  of  his 
education,  and  sent  him  to  Rome  to  make  his 


AGR 


31 


AGU 


court  to  Tiberius.  Agrippa,  having  a  great  in- 
clination  for  Caius,  the  son  of  Germanicus,  and 
grandson  of  Antonia,  chose  to  attach  himself 
to  this  prince,  as  if  he  had  some  prophetic 
views  of  the  future  elevation  of  Caius,  who  at 
that  time  was  beloved  by  all  the  world.  The 
great  assiduity  and  agreeable  behaviour  of 
Agrippa  so  far  won  upon  this  prince,  that  he 
was  unable  to  live  without  him.  Agrippa, 
being  one  day  in  conversation  with  Caius,  was 
overheard  by  one  Eutychus,  a  slave  whom 
Agrippa  had  emancipated,  to  say  that  he  should 
be  glad  to  see  the  old  emperor  take  his  depar- 
ture for  the  other  world  and  leave  Caius  master 
of  this,  without  meeting  with  any  obstacle  from 
the  emperor's  grandson,  Tiberius  Nero.  Euty- 
chus, some  time  after  this,  thinking  he  had 
reason  to  be  dissatisfied  with  Agrippa,  com- 
municated the  conversation  to  the  emperor ; 
whereupon  Agrippa  was  loaded  with  fetters, 
and  committed  to  the  custody  of  an  officer. 
Soon  after  this,  Tiberius  dying,  and  Caius 
Caligula  succeeding  him,  the  new  emperor 
heaped  many  favours  and  much  wealth  upon 
Agrippa,  changed  his  iron  fetters  into  a  chain 
of  gold,  set  a  royal  diadem  on  his  head,  and 
gave  him  the  tetrarchy  which  Philip,  the  son  of 
Herod  the  Great,  had  been  possessed  of,  that 
is,  Batanaea  and  Trachonitis.  To  this  he  added 
that  of  Lysanias ;  and  Agrippa  returned  very 
soon  into  Judea,  to  take  possession  of  his  new 
kingdom.  The  emperor  Caius,  desiring  to  be 
adored  as  a  god,  commanded  to  have  his  statue 
set  up  in  the  temple  of  Jerusalem.  But  the 
Jews  opposed  this  design  with  so  much  resolu- 
tion, that  Petronius  was  forced  to  suspend  his 
proceedings  in  this  affair,  and  to  represent,  in 
a  letter  to  the  emperor,  the  resistance  he  met 
with  from  the  Jews.  Agrippa,  who  was  then 
at  Rome,  coming  to  the  emperor  at  the  very 
time  he  was  reading  the  letter,  Caius  told  him 
that  the  Jews  were  the  only  people  of  all  man- 
kind who  refused  to  own  him  for  a  deity ;  and 
that  they  had  taken  arms  to  oppose  his  resolu- 
tion. At  these  words  Agrippa  fainted  away, 
and,  being  carried  home  to  his  house,  continued 
in  that  state  for  a  long  time.  As  soon  as  he 
was  somewhat  recovered,  he  wrote  a  long  let- 
ter to  Caius,  wherein  he  endeavoured  to  soften 
him;  and  his  arguments  made  such  an  impres- 
sion upon  the  emperor's  mind,  that  he  desisted, 
in  appearance,  from  the  design  which  he  had 
formed  of  setting  up  his  statue  in  the  temple. 
Caius  being  killed  in  the  beginning  of  the  fol- 
lowing year,  A.  D.  41,  Agrippa,  who  was  then  at 
Rome,  contributed  much  by  his  advice  to  main- 
tain Claudius  in  possession  of  the  imperial  digni- 
ty, to  which  he  had  been  advanced  by  the  army. 
The  emperor,  as  an  acknowledgment  for  his 
kind  offices,  gave  him  all  Judea,  and  the  king- 
dom of  Chalcis,  which  had  been  possessed  by 
Herod  his  brother.  Thus  Agrippa  became  of 
a  sudden  one  of  the  greatest  princes  of  the 
east,  and  was  possessed  of  as  much,  if  not  more 
territory,  than  had  been  held  by  Herod  the 
Great,  his  grandfather.  He  returned  to  Judea, 
and  governed  it  to  the  great  satisfaction  of  the 
Jews.  But  the  desire  of  pleasing  them,  and  a 
mistaken  zeal  for  their  religion,  induced  him 


to  put  to  death  the  Apostle  James,  and  to  cast 
Peter  into  prison  with  the  same  design ;  and, 
but  for  a  miraculous  interposition,  which,  how- 
ever, produced  no  effect  upon  the  mind  of  the 
tyrant,  his  hands  would  have  been  imbrued  in 
the  blood  of  two  Apostles,  the  memory  whereof 
is  preserved  in  Scripture.  At  Ctcsarea,  he  had 
games  performed  in  honour  of  Claudius.  Here 
the  inhabitants  of  Tyre  and  Sidon  waited  on 
him  to  sue  for  peace.  Agrippa  being  come 
early  in  the  morning  into  the  theatre,  with  a 
design  to  give  them  audience,  seated  himself 
on  his  throne,  dressed  in  a  robe  of  silver  tissue, 
worked  in  the  most  admirable  manner.  Tho 
rising  sun  darted  his  golden  beams  thereon, 
and  gave  it  such  a  lustre  as  dazzled  the  eyes  of 
the  spectators ;  and  when  the  king  began  hia 
speech  to  the  Tyrians  and  Sidonians,  the  para- 
sites around  him  began  to  say,  it  was  "the 
voice  of  a  god  and  not  of  man."  Instead  of 
rejecting  these  impious  flatteries,  Agrippa  re- 
ceived them  with  an  air  of  complacency ;  and 
the  angel  of  the  Lord  smote  him  because  he 
did  not  give  God  the  glory.  Being  therefore 
carried  home  to  his  palace,  he  died,  at  the  end 
of  five  days,  racked  with  tormenting  pains  in 
his  bowels,  and  devoured  with  worms.  Such 
was  the  death  of  Herod  Agrippa,  A.  D.  44, 
after  a  reign  of  seven  years.  He  left  a  son  of 
the  same  name,  and  three  daughters — Bernice, 
who  was  married  to  her  uncle  Herod,  her 
father's  brother ;  Mariamne,  betrothed  to  Julius 
Archelaus;  and  Drusilla,  promised  to  Epi- 
phanius,  the  son  of  Archelaus,  the  son  of 
Comagena. 

AGRIPPA,  son  of  the  former  Agrippa,  was 
at  Rome  with  the  emperor  Claudius  when  his 
father  died.  The  emperor,  we  are  told  by 
Josephus,  was  inclined  to  give  him  all  the  do- 
minions that  had  been  possessed  by  his  father, 
but  was  dissuaded  from  it,  Agrippa  being  only 
seventeen  years  of  age  ;  and  he  kept  him  there- 
fore at  his  court  four  years. 

Three  years  after  this,  Herod,  king  of  Chal- 
cis, and  uncle  to  young  Agrippa,  dying,  the 
emperor  gave  his  dominions  to  this  prince, 
who,  notwithstanding,  did  not  go  into  Judea 
till  four  years  after,  A.  D.  53;  when,  Claudius 
taking  from  him  the  kingdom  of  Chalcis,  gave 
him  the  provinces  of  Gaulonitis,  Trachonitis, 
Batanaea,  Paneas,  and  Abylene,  which  formerly 
had  been  in  the  possession  of  Lysanias.  After 
the  death  of  Claudius,  his  successor,  Nero,  who 
had  a  great  affection  for  Agrippa,  to  his  other 
dominions  added  Julias  in  Peraea,  and  that  part 
of  Galilee  to  which  Tarichaia  and  Tiberias  be- 
longed. Festus  governor  of  Judea,  coming  to 
his  government,  A.  D.  60,  king  Agrippa  and 
Bernice,  his  sister,  went  as  far  as  Csesarea  to 
salute  him ;  and  as  they  continued  there  for 
some  time,  Festus  talked  with  the  king  con- 
cerning the  affair  of  St.  Paul,  who  had  been 
seized  in  the  temple  about  two  years  before,  and 
within  a  few  days  previous  to  his  visit  had  ap- 
pealed to  the  emperor.  Agrippa  wishing  to  hear 
Paul,  that  Apostle  delivered  that  noble  address 
in  his  presence  which  is  recorded,  Acts  xxvi. 

AGUR.  The  thirtieth  chapter  of  Proverbs 
begins  with  this  title:    "The  words  of  Agur, 


AGU 


32 


AGU 


the  son  of  Jakch ;"  and  the  thirty-first,  with 
"  the  words  of  king  Lemuel ;"  with  respect  to 
which  some  conjecture  that  Solomon  describes 
himself  under  these  appellations ;  others,  that 
these  chapters  are  the  productions  of  persons 
whose  real  names  are  prefixed.  Scripture  his- 
tory, indeed,  affords  us  no  information  respect- 
ing their  situation  and  character;  but  there 
must  have  been  sufficient  reason  for  regarding 
their  works  in  the  light  of  inspired  productions, 
or  they  would  not  have  been  admitted  into  the 
sacred  canon. 

They  arc  called  Massa,  a  term  frequently 
applied  to  the  undoubted  productions  of  the 
prophetic  Spirit ;  and  it  is  not  improbable  that 
the  authors  meant,  by  the  adoption  of  this  term, 
to  lay  claim  to  the  character  of  inspiration.  A 
succession  of  virtuous  and  eminent  men,  fa- 
voured with  divine  illuminations,  flourished  in 
Judea  till  the  final  completion  of  the  sacred 
code ;  and,  most  likely,  many  more  than  those 
whose  writings  have  been  preserved.  Agur 
may  then  have  been  one  of  those  prophets 
whom  Divine  providence  raised  up  to  comfort 
or  admonish  his  chosen  people ;  and  Lemuel 
may  have  been  some  neighbouring  prince,  the 
son  of  a  Jewish  woman,  by  whom  he  was 
taught  the  Massa  contained  in  the  thirty-first 
chapter.  These,  of  course,  can  only  be  con- 
sidered as  mere  conjectures ;  for,  in  the  absence 
of  historic  evidence,  who  can  venture  to  pro- 
nounce with  certainty  ?  The  opinion,  however, 
that  Agur  and  Lemuel  are  appellations  of  So- 
lomon, is  sanctioned  by  so  many  and  such 
respectable  writers,  that  it  demands  a  more 
particular  examination. 

The  knowledge  of  names  was  anciently  re- 
garded as  a  matter  of  the  highest  importance, 
in  order  to  understand  the  nature  of  the  per- 
sons or  things  which  they  designate;  and,  in 
the  opinion  of  the  rabbins,  was  preferable  even 
to  the  study  of  the  written  law.  The  Heathens 
paid  considerable  attention  to  it,  as  appears 
from  the  Cratylus  of  Plato ;  and  some  of  the 
Christian  fathers  entertained  very  favourable 
notions  of  such  knowledge.  The  Jewish 
doctors,  it  is  true,  refined  upon  the  subject  with 
an  amazing  degree  of  subtilty,  grounding  upon 
it  many  ridiculous  ideas  and  absurd  fancies ; 
yet  it  is  unquestionable  that  many  of  the  proper 
names  in  Scripture  are  significant  and  charac- 
teristic. Thus  the  names  Eve,  Cain,  Seth, 
Noah,  Abraham,  Israel,  &c,  were  imposed  by 
reason  of  their  being  expressive  of  the  several 
characters  of  the  persons  whom  they  represent. 
Reasoning  from  analogy,  we  may  infer  that  all 
the  proper  names  in  the  Old  Testament,  at 
thi'ir  original  imposition,  were  intended  te  de- 
note some  quality  or  circumstance  in  the  per- 
son or  thing  to  which  they  belong ;  and  though 
many,  from  transference,  have  ceased  to  be 
personally  characteristic,  yet  are  they  all  sig- 
nificative. 

As  the  custom  of  imposing  descriptive 
names  prevailed  in  the  primitive  ages,  it  is  not 
impossible  that  Agur  and  Lemuel  may  be  ap- 
propriated  to  Solomon,  and  Jakeh  to  David  as 
mystic  appellations  significative  of  their  respec- 
tive characters.     It  is  even  some  confirmation 


of  tliis  opinion,  that  Solomon  is  denominated 
Jedidiah  (beloved  of  the  Lord)  by  the  Prophet 
Nathan  ;  and  that  in  the  hook  of  Ecclesiastes, 
he  styles  himself  Koheleth,  or  the  Preacher. 
Nevertheless,  this  hypothesis  docs  not  appear 
to  rest  upon  a  firm  foundation.  It  is  foreign  to 
the  simplicity  of  the  sacred  penmen,  and  con- 
trary  to  their  custom  in  similar  cases,  to  adopt 
a  mystic  name,  without  either  explaining  it,  or 
alleging  the  reasons  for  its  adoption.  In  the 
names  Eve,  Cain,  Seth,  Noah,  Sec,  before  allud- 
ed  to ;  in  the  appellation  Nabal ;  in  the  enigma- 
tical names  in  the  first  chapter  of  Hcsea ;  in 
the  descriptive  names  given  to  places,  as  Beer- 
sheba,  Jehovah-jireh,  Peniel,  Bethel,  Gilgal; 
and  in  many  other  instances,  the  meaning  of 
the  terms  is  either  explained,  or  the  circum- 
stances are  mentioned  which  led  to  their  selec- 
tion. When  Solomon  is  called  Jedidiah,  it  is 
added  that  it  was  "  because  of  the  Lord  ;"  and 
when  he  styles  himself  Koheleth,  an  explana- 
tory clause  is  annexed,  describing  himself  "the 
son  of  David,  the  king  of  Jerusalem."  But  if 
Solomon  be  meant  by  the  titles  Agur  and  Lem- 
uel, he  is  so  called  without  any  statement  of  the 
reasons  for  their  application,  and  without  any 
explanation  of  their  import ;  a  circumstance  un- 
usual with  the  sacred  writers,  and  the  reverse  to 
what  is  practised  in  the  book  of  Proverbs,  where 
his  proper  name,  Solomon,  is  attributed  to  him 
in  three  different  places.  Nor  is  any  thing  cha- 
racteristic of  the  Jewish  monarchs  discoverable 
in  the  terms  themselves.  Jakeh,  which  denotes 
obedient,  is  no  more  applicable  to  David  than 
to  Nathan,  or  any  other  personage  of  eminent 
worth  and  piety  among  the  Israelites.  The 
name  of  Agur  is  not  of  easy  explanation  ;  some 
giving  it  the  sense  of  rccollectus,  that  is,  reco- 
vered from  his  errors,  and  become  penitent ;  an 
explanation  more  applicable  to  David  than  to 
Solomon.  Simon,  in  his  lexicon,  says  it  may 
perhaps  denote  "him  who  applies  to  the  study 
of  wisdom  ;"  an  interpretation  very  suitable  to 
the  royal  philosopher,  but  not  supported  by 
adequate  authority ;  and  in  his  Onomasticon 
he  explains  it  in  a  different  manner.  Others 
suppose  that  it  means  collector ;  though  it  has 
been  argued,  that,  as  it  has  a  passive  form,  it 
cannot  have  an  active  sense.  But  this  is  not 
a  valid  objection,  as  several  examples  may  be 
produced  from  the  Bible  of  a  similar  form  with 
an  active  signification.  If  such  be  its  mean- 
ing, it  is  suitable  to  Solomon,  who  was  not  the 
collector  or  compiler,  but  tho  author,  of  the 
Proverbs.  With  respect  to  the  name  Lemuel,  it 
signifies  one  that  is  for  God,  or  devoted  to  God ; 
and  is  not,  therefore,  peculiarly  descriptive  of 
Solomon.  It  appears,  then,  that  nothing  can 
be  inferred  from  the  signification  of  the  names 
Agur  and  Lemuel  in  support  of  the  conjecture, 
that  they  are  appellations  of  Solomon.  Tho 
contents,  likewise,  of  the  two  chapters  in 
question  strongly  militate  against  this  hypo, 
thesis. 

When  all  these  circumstances  arc  taken  into 
consideration,  together  with  the  extreme  impro- 
bability that  Solomon  should  be  denominated 
three  times  by  his  proper  name,  and  afterward, 
in  the  same  work,  by  two  different  enigmatical 


AHA 


33 


AHA 


names,  we  are  fully  warranted  in  rejecting  the 
notion,  that  the  wise  monarch  is  designed  by 
the  appellations  Agur  and  Lemuel.  And  it 
seems  most  reasonable  to  consider  them  as 
denoting  real  persons. 

AHAB,  the  son  and  suocessor  of  Omri.  He 
began  his  reign  over  Israel,  A.  M.  3086,  and 
reigned  22  years.  In  impiety  he  far  exceeded 
all  the  kings  of  Israel.  He  married  Jezebel, 
the  daughter  of  Ethbaal,  king  of  Zidon,  who 
introduced  the  whole  abominations  and  idols 
of  her  country,  Baal  and  Ashtaroth. 

2.  Ahab  the  son  of  Kolaiah,  and  Zedekiah  the 
son  of  Maaseiah,  were  two  false  prophets,  who, 
about  A.  M.  3406,  seduced  the  Jewish  captives 
at  Babylon  with  hopes  of  a  speedy  deliverance, 
and  stirred  them  up  against  Jeremiah.  The 
Lord  threatened  them  with  a  public  and  igno- 
minious  death,  before  such  as  they  had  deceiv- 
ed ;  and  that  their  names  should  become  a 
curse ;  men  wishing  that  their  foes  might  be 
made  like  Ahab  and  Zedekiah,  whom  Nebu- 
chadnezzar king  of  Babylon  roasted  in  the  fire, 
Jer.  xxix,  21,  22. 

AHASUERUS  was  the  king  of  Persia,  who 
advanced  Esther  to  be  queen,  and  at  her  request 
delivered  the  Jews  from  the  destruction  plotted 
for  them  by  Hainan.  Archbishop  Usher  is  of 
opinion  that  this  Ahasuerus  was  Darius  Hy- 
staspes ;  and  that  Atossa  was  the  Vashti,  and 
Artystona  the  Esther,  of  the  Scriptures.  But, 
according  to  Herodotus,  the  latter  was  the 
daughter  of  Cyrus,  and  therefore  could  not  be 
Esther;  and  the  former  had  four  sons  by  Da- 
rius, besides  daughters,  born  to  him  after  he 
was  king;  and  therefore  she  could  not  be  the 
queen  Vashti,  divorced  from  her  husband  in 
the  third  year  of  his  reign,  nor  he  the  Ahasue- 
rus who  divorced  her.  Besides,  Atossa  retained 
her  influence  over  Darius  to  his  death,  and 
obtained  the  succession  of  the  crown  for  his 
son,  Xerxes  ;  whereas  Vashti  was  removed  from 
the  presence  of  Ahasuerus  by  an  irrevocable 
decree,  Esther  i,  19.  Joseph  Scaliger  main- 
tains that  Xerxes  was  the  Ahasuerus,  and  Ha- 
mestris  his  queen,  the  Esther,  of  Scripture.  The 
opinion  is  founded  on  the  similitude  of  names, 
but  contradicted  by  the  dissimilitude  of  the  cha- 
racters of  Hamestris  and  Esther.  Besides,  Hero- 
dotus says  that  Xerxes  had  a  son  by  Hamestris 
that  was  marriageable  in  the  seventh  year  of  his 
reign  ;  and  therefore  she  could  not  be  Esther. 
The  Ahasuerus  of  Scripture,  according  to  Dr. 
Prideaux,  was  Artaxerxes  Longimanus.  Jose- 
phus  positively  says  that  this  was  the  person. 
The  Septuagint,  through  the  whole  book  of 
Esther,  uses  Artaxerxes  for  the  Hebrew  Aha- 
suerus wherever  the  appellation  occurs ;  and 
the  apocryphal  additions  to  that  book  every 
where  call  the  husband  of  Esther  Artaxerxes  ; 
and  he  could  be  no  other  than  Artaxerxes  Lon- 
gimanus. The  extraordinary  favour  shown  to 
the  Jews  by  this  king,  first  in  sending  Ezra, 
and  afterward  Nehemiah,  to  relieve  this  people, 
and  restore  them  to  their  ancient  prosperity, 
affords  strong  presumptive  evidence  that  they 
had  near  his  person  and  high  in  his  regard 
such  an  advocate  as  Esther.  Ahasuerus  is  also 
a  name  given  in  Scripture,  Ezra  iv,  6,  to  Cam- 
4 


byses,  the  son  of  Cyrus;  and  to  Astyaffes,  kinjr 
of  the  Medes,  Dan.  ix,  1.  b 

AHAVA.  The  name  of  a  river  of  Babylo- 
nia, or  rather  of  Assyria,  where  Ezra  assembled 
those  captives  whom  he  afterward  brought  into 
Judea,  Ezra  viii,  15.  The  river  Ahava  is 
thought  to  be  that  which  ran  along  the  Ada- 
bene,  where  a  river  Diava,  or  Adiava,  is  men- 
tioned, and  on  which  Ptolemy  places  the  city 
Abane  or  Aavane.  This  is  probably  the  coun- 
try called  Ava,  whence  the  kings  of  Assyria 
translated  the  people  called  Avites  into  Pales- 
tine, and  where  they  settled  some  of  the  captive 
Israelites,  2  Kings  xvii,  24 ;  xviii,  34  ;  xix,  13  ; 
xvii,  31.  Ezra,  intending  to  collect  as  many 
Israelites  as  he  could,  who  might  return  to  Ju- 
dea, halted  in  the  country  of  Ava,  or  Aahava, 
whence  he  sent  agents  into  the  Caspian  mount- 
ains, to  invite  such  Jews  as  were  willing  to 
join  him,  Ezra  viii,  16.  The  history  of  Izates, 
king  of  the  Adiabenians,  and  of  his  mother 
Helena,  who  became  converts  to  Judaism  some 
years  after  the  death  of  Jesus  Christ,  sufficiently 
proves  that  there  were  many  Jews  still  settled 
in  that  country. 

AHAZ  succeeded  his  father  Jotham,  as  king 
of  Israel,  at  the  age  of  twenty  years,  reigned 
till  the  year  before  Christ,  726,  and  addicted 
himself  to  the  practice  of  idolatry.  After  the 
customs  of  the  Heathen,  he  made  his  children 
to  pass  through  fire;  he  shut  up  the  temple, 
and  destroyed  its  vessels.  He  became  tributary 
to  Tiglath-pileser,  whose  assistance  he  suppli- 
cated against  the  kings  of  Syria  and  Israel. 
Such  was  his  impiety,  that  he  was  not  allowed 
burial  in  the  sepulchres  of  the  kings  of  Israel, 
2  Kings  xvi ;  2  Chron.  xxviii. 

AHAZIAH,  the  son  of  Ahab,  king  of  Israel. 
Ahaziah  reigned  two  years,  partly  alone,  and 
partly  with  his  father  Ahab,  who  appointed  him 
his  associate  in  the  kingdom  a  year  before  his 
death.    Ahaziah  imitated  his  father's  impieties, 

1  Kings  xxii,  52,  &c,  and  paid  his  adorations 
to  Baal  and  Ashtaroth,  the  worship  of  whom 
had  been  introduced  into  Israel  by  Jezebel  his 
mother.  The  Moabites,  who  had  been  always 
obedient  to  the  kings  of  the  ten  tribes,  ever 
since  their  separation  from  the  kingdom  of 
Judah,  revolted  after  the  death  of  Ahab,  and 
refused  to  pay  the  ordinary  tribute.  Ahaziah 
had  not  leisure  or  power  to  reduce  them,  2  Kings 
i,  1,  2,  &c,  for,  about  the  same  time,  having 
fallen  through  a  lattice  from  the  top  of  his 
house,  he  was  considerably  injured,  and  sent 
messengers  to  Ekron  to  consult  Baalzebub,  the 
god  of  that  place,  whether  he  should  recover, 

2  Kings  i,  1-17.  Elijah  met  the  messengers, 
and  informed  them  he  should  certainly  die ; 
and  he  died  accordingly. 

2.  Ahaziah,  king  of  Judah,  the  son  of  Jeho- 
ram  and  Athaliah.  He  succeeded  his  father  in 
the  kingdom  of  Judah,  A.  M.  3119;  being  in' 
the  twenty-second  year  of  his  age,  2  Kings 
viii,  26,  &c ;  and  he  reigned  one  year  only  in 
Jerusalem.  He  walked  in  the  ways  of  Ahab's 
house,  to  which  he  was  related,  his  mother 
being  of  that  family.  Jorani,  king  of  Israel, 
2  Kings  viii,  going  to  attack  Ramoth  Gilead, 
which  the  kings  of  Syria  had  taken  from  his 


AHI 


34 


AIIO 


predecessors,  was  there  dangerously  wounded, 
and  carried  by  his  own  appointment  to  Jezreel, 
for  the  purpose  of  surgical  assistance.  Ahaziah, 
Joram's  friend  and  relation,  accompanied  him 
in  this  war,  and  came  afterward  to  visit  him  at 
Jezreel.  In  the  meantime,  Jehu,  the  son  of 
Nimshi,  whom  Joram  had  left  besieging  the 
fortress  of  Ramoth,  rebelled  against  his  master, 
and  set  out  with  a  design  of  extirpating  the 
house  of  Ahab,  according  to  the  commandment 
of  the  Lord,  2  Kings  ix.  Joram  and  Ahaziah, 
who  knew  nothing  of  his  intentions,  went  to 
meet  him.  Jehu  killed  Joram  dead  upon  the 
spot:  Ahaziah  fled,  but  Jehu's  people  overtook 
him  at  the  going  up  of  Gur,  and  mortally 
wounded  him;  notwithstanding  which,  he  had 
strength  enough  to  reach  Megiddo,  where  he 
died.  His  servants,  having  laid  him  in  his 
chariot,  carried  him  to  Jerusalem,  where  he  was 
buried  with  his  fathers,  in  the  city  of  David. 

AHIJAH,  the  prophet  of  the  Lord,  who 
dwelt  in  Shiioh.  He  is  thought  to  be  the  per- 
son who  spoke  twice  to  Solomon  from  God, 
once  while  he  was  building  the  temple,  1  Kings 
vi,  11,  at  which  time  he  promised  him  the 
divine  protection  ;  and  again,  1  Kings  xi,  11, 
after  his  falling  into  his  irregularities,  with 
great  threatenings  and  reproaches.  Ahijah  was 
one  of  those  who  wrote  the  history  or  annals 
of  this  prince,  2  Chron.  ix,  29.  The  same 
prophet  declared  to  Jeroboam,  that  he  would 
usurp  the  kingdom,  1  Kings  xi,  29,  &c ;  and, 
about  the  end  of  Jeroboam's  reign,  he  also  pre- 
dicted the  death  of  Abijah,  the  only  pious  son 
of  that,  prince,  as  is  recorded  1  Kings  xiv,  2, 
&c.  Ahijah,  in  all  probability,  did  not  long 
survive  the  delivery  of  this  last  prophecy  ;  but 
we  are  not  informed  of  the  tune  and  manner 
of  his  death. 

AHIKAM,  the  son  of  Shaphan,  and  father 
of  Gedaliah.  He  was  sent  by  Josiah,  king  of 
Judah,  to  Huldah  the  prophetess,  2  Kings  xxii, 
12,  to  consult  her  concerning  the  book  of  the 
law,  which  had  been  found  in  the  temple. 

AHIMAAZ,  the  son  of  Zadok,  the  high 
priest.  Ahimaaz  succeeded  his  father  under 
the  reign  of  Solomon.  He  performed  a  very 
important  piece  of  service  for  David  during  the 
war  with  Absalom.  While  his  father  Zadok 
was  in  Jerusalem,  2  Sam.  xv,  29,  Ahimaaz  and 
Jonathan  continued  without  the  city,  xvii,  17, 
near  En-Rogel,  or  the  fountain  of  Rogel ;  thi- 
ther a  maid  servant  came  to  tell  them  the  reso- 
lution which  had  been  taken  in  Absalom's 
council :  whereupon  they  immediately  departed 
to  give  the  king  intelligence.  But  being  dis- 
covered by  a  young  lad  who  gave  information 
concerning  them  to  Absalom,  that  prince  sent 
orders  to  pursue  them  :  Ahimaaz  and  Jona- 
than, fearing  to  be  taken,  retired  to  a  man's 
house  at  Baharim,  in  whose  court-yard  there 
was  a  well,  wherein  they  concealed  themselves. 
After  the  battle,  in  which  Absalom  was  over- 
come and  slain,  xviii,  Ahimaaz  desired  leave 
of  Joab  to  carry  the  news  thereof  to  David. 
But  instead  of  him  Joab  sent  Cushi  to  carry 
the  news,  and  told  Ahimaaz  that  he  would  send 
him  to  the  king  upon  some  other  occasion  ;  but 
soon  after  Cushi  was  departed,  Ahimaaz  ap- 


plied again  to  Joab,  praying  to  be  permitted  to 
run  after  Cushi;  and,  having  obtained  leave, 
he  ran  by  the  way  of  the  plain,  and  outran 
Cushi.  He  was  succeeded  in  the  priesthood  by 
his  son  Azariah. 

AHIMELECH.  He  was  the  son  of  Ahitub, 
and  brother  of  Ahia,  whom  he  succeeded  in 
the  high  priesthood.  He  is  called  Abiathar, 
Mark  ii,  26.  During  his  priesthood  the  taber- 
nacle was  at  Nob,  where  Ahimelech,  with 
other  priests,  had  their  habitation.  David, 
being  informed  by  his  friend  Jonathan  that 
Saul  was  determined  to  destroy  him,  thought 
it  prudent  to  retire.  He  therefore  went  to  Nob, 
to  the  high  priest  Ahimelech,  who  gave  him 
the  shew  bread,  and  the  sword  of  Goliath.  One 
day,  when  Saul  was  complaining  of  his  officers, 
that  no  one  was  affected  with  his  misfortunes, 
or  gave  him  any  intelligence  of  what  w:as  car- 
rying on  against  him,  1  Sam.  xxii,  9,  &c,  Doeg 
related  to  him  what  had  occurred  when  David 
came  to  Ahimelech  the  high  priest.  On  this 
information,  Saul  convened  the  priests,  and 
having  charged  them  with  the  crime  of  treason, 
ordered  his  guards  to  slay  them,  which  they 
refusing  to  do,  Doeg,  who  had  been  their  ac- 
cuser, at  the  king's  command  became  their 
executioner,  and  with  his  sacrilegious  hand 
massacred  no  less  than  eighty-five  of  them  ; 
the  Septuagint  and  Syriac  versions  make  the 
number  of  priests  slain  by  Doeg  three  hundred 
and  five.  Nor  did  Saul  stop  here  ;  but,  send- 
ing  a  party  to  Nob,  he  commanded  them  to 
slay  men,  women,  and  children,  and  even  cat- 
tle, with  the  edge  of  the  sword.  Only  one  son 
of  Ahimelech,  named  Abiathar,  escaped  the 
carnage  and  fled  to  David. 

AHITHOPHEL,  a  native  of  Giloh,  who, 
after  having  been  David's  counsellor,  joined 
in  the  rebellion  of  Absalom,  and  assisted  him- 
with  his  advice.  Hushai,  the  friend  of  David, 
was  employed  to  counteract  the  counsels  of 
Ahithophel,  and  to  deprive  Absalom,  under  a 
pretence  of  serving  him,  of  the  advantage  that 
was  likely  to  result  from  the  measures  which 
he  proposed.  One  of  these  measures  was  cal- 
culated to  render  David  irreconcilable,  and 
was  immediately  adopted  ;  and  the  other  to 
secure,  or  to  slay  him.  Before  the  last  coun- 
sel was  followed,  Hushai's  advice  was  desired; 
and  he  recommended  their  assembling  together 
the  whole  force  of  Israel,  putting  Absalom  at 
their  head,  and  overwhelming  David  by  their 
number.  The  treacherous  counsel  of  Hushai 
was  preferred  to  that  of  Ahithophel ;  with 
which  the  latter  being  disgusted  he  hastened 
to  his  house  at  Giloh,  where  he  put  an  end  to 
his  life.  He  probably  foresaw  Absalom's  de- 
feat, and  dreaded  the  punishment  which  would 
be  inflicted  on  himself  as  a  traitor,  when  David 
was  resettled  on  the  throne.  A.  M.  2981.  B.  C. 
1023.     2  Sam.  xv,  xvii. 

AHOLIBAH.  This  and  Aholah  are  two 
feigned  names  made  use  of  by  Ezckiel,  xxiii,  4, 
to  denote  the  two  kingdoms  of  Judah  and  Sa- 
maria. Aholah  and  Aholibah  are  represented 
as  two  sisters  of  Egyptian  extraction.  Aholah 
stands  for  Samaria,  and  Aholibah  for  Jerusa- 
lem.    The  first  signifies  a  tent,  and  the  second, 


AIC 


35 


AIC 


my  tent  is  in  her.  They  both  prostituted  them- 
selves to  the  Egyptians  and  Assyrians,  in  imi- 
tating their  abominations  and  idolatries  ;  for 
which  reason  the  Lord  abandoned  them  to 
those  very  people  for  whose  evil  practices  they 
had  shown  so  passionate  an  affection.  They 
were  carried  into  captivity,  and  reduced  to  the 
severest  servitude. 

AI,  called  by  the  LXX,  Gai,  by  Josephus 
Aina,  and  by  others  Ajah,  a  town  of  Palestine, 
situate  west  of  Bethel,  and  at  a  small  distance 
north-west  of  Jericho.  The  three  thousand 
men,  first  sent  by  Joshua  to  reduce  this  city, 
were  repulsed,  on  account  of  the  sin  of  Achan, 
who  had  violated  the  anathema  pronounced 
against  Jericho,  by  appropriating  a  part  of  the 
spoil.  After  the  expiation  of  this  offence,  the 
whole  army  of  Israel  marched  against  Ai,  with 
orders  to  treat  that  city  as  Jericho  had  been 
treated,  with  this  difference,  that  the  plunder 
was  to  be  given  to  the  army.  Joshua,  having 
appointed  an  ambush  of  thirty  thousand  men, 
marched  against  the  city,  and  by  a  feigned  re- 
treat, drew  out  the  king  of  Ai  with  his  troops; 
and  upon  a  signal  given  by  elevating  his  shield 
on  the  top  of  a  pike,  the  men  in  ambush  enter- 
ed the  city  and  set  fire  to  it.  Thus  the  soldiers 
of  Ai,  placed  between  two  divisions  of  Joshua's 
army,  were  all  destroyed  ;  the  king  alone  being 
preserved  for  a  more  ignominious  death  on  a 
gibbet,  where  he  hung  till  sunset.  The  spoil 
of  the  place  was  afterward  divided  among  the 
Israelites.  The  men  appointed  for  ambush 
are,  in  one  place,  said  to  be  thirty  thousand, 
and  in  another  five  thousand.  For  reconciling 
this  apparent  contradiction,  most  commentators 
have  generally  supposed,  that  there  were  two 
bodies  placed  in  ambuscade  between  Bethel 
.and  Ai,  one  of  twenty-five  thousand  and  the 
other  of  five  thousand  men  ;  the  latter  being 
probably  a  detachment  from  the  thirty  thou- 
sand first  sent,  and  ordered  to  lie  as  near  to  the 
city  as  possible.  Masius  allows  only  five  thou- 
sand men  for  the  ambuscade,  and  twenty -five 
thousand  for  the  attack. 

AICHMALOTARCH,  'A^/iaAoTa'p^y,  signi- 
fies the  prince  of  the  captivity,  or  chief  of  the 
captives.  The  Jews  pretend  that  this  was  the 
title  of  him  who  had  the  government  of  their 
people  during  the  captivity  of  Babylon  ;  and 
they  believe  these  princes  or  governors  to  have 
been  constantly  of  the  tribe  of Judah,  and  fami- 
ly of  David.  But  they  give  no  satisfactory 
proof  of  the  real  existence  of  these  Aichmalo- 
tarchs.  There  was  no  prince  of  the  captivity 
before  the  end  of  the  second  century,  from 
which  period  the  office  continued  till  the 
eleventh  century.  The  princes  of  the  captivity 
resided  at  Babylon,  where  they  were  installed 
with  great  ceremony,  held  courts  of  justice, 
&c,  and  were  set  over  the  eastern  Jews,  or 
those  settled  in  Babylon,  Chaldasa,  Assyria,  and 
Persia.  Thus  they  affected  to  restore  the  splen- 
dour of  their  ancient  monarchy,  and  in  this 
view  the  following  account  may  be  amusing. 
The  ceremonial  of  the  installation  is  thus  de- 
scribed :  The  spiritual  heads  of  the  people,  the 
masters  of  the  learned  schools,  the  elders,  and 
the  people,  assembled  in  great  multitudes  within 


a  stately  chamber,  adorned  with  rich  curtains, 
in  Babylon,  where,  during  his  days  of  splen: 
dour,  the  Resch-Glutha  fixed  his  residence. 
The  prince  was  seated  on  a  lofty  throne.  The 
heads  of  the  schools  of  Sura  and  Pumbeditha 
on  his  right  hand  and  left.  These  chiefs  of 
the  learned  men  then  delivered  an  address, 
exhorting  the  new  monarch  not  to  abuse  his 
power;  and  reminded  him  that  he  was  called 
to  slavery  rather  than  to  sovereignty,  for  ho 
was  prince  of  a  captive  people.  On  the  next 
Thursday  he  was  inaugurated  by  the  laying  on 
of  hands,  and  the  sound  of  trumpets,  and  accla- 
mations. He  was  escorted  to  his  palace  with 
great  pomp,  and  received  magnificent  presents 
from  all  his  subjects.  On  the  Sabbath  all  the 
principal  people  being  assembled  before  his 
house,  he  placed  himself  at  their  head,  and, 
with  his  face  covered  with  a  silken  veil,  pro- 
ceeded  to  the  synagogue.  Benedictions  and 
hymns  of  thanksgiving  announced  his  en- 
trance. They  then  brought  him  the  book  of 
the  law,  out  of  which  he  read  the  first  line, 
afterward  he  addressed  the  assembly,  with  his 
eyes  closed  out  of  respect.  He  exhorted  them 
to  charity,  and  set  the  example  by  offering 
liberal  alms  to  the  poor.  The  ceremony  closed 
with  new  acclamations,  and  prayers  to  God 
that,  under  the  new  prince,  ho  would  be  pleased 
to  put  an  end  to  their  calamities.  The  prince 
gave  his  blessing  to  the  people,  and  prayed  for 
each  province,  that  it  might  be  preserved  from 
war  and  famine.  He  concluded  his  orisons  in 
a  low  voice,  lest  his  prayer  should  be  repeated 
to  the  jealous  ears  of  the  native  monarchs,  for 
he  prayed  for  the  restoration  of  the  kingdom  of 
Israel,  which  could  not  rise  but  on  the  ruins  of 
their  empire.  The  prince  returned-  to  his  pa- 
lace, where  he  gave  a  splendid  banquet  to  the 
chief  persons  of  the  community.  After  that 
day  he  lived  in  a  sort  of  stately  oriental  seclu- 
sion, never  quitting  his  palace,  except  to  go  to 
the  schools  of  the  learned,  where,  as  he  entered, 
the  whole  assembly  rose  and  continued  stand- 
ing, till  he  took  his  seat.  He  sometimes  paid 
a  visit  to  the  native  sovereign  in  Babylon  (Bag- 
dad.) This  probably  refers  to  a  somewhat  later 
period.  On  these  great  occasions  his  imperial 
host  sent  his  own  chariot  for  his  guest ;  but  the 
prince  of  the  captivity  dared  not  accept  the  in- 
vidious distinction,  he  walked  in  humble  and 
submissive  modesty  behind  the  chariot.  Yet 
his  own  state  was  by  no  means  wanting  in 
splendour :  he  was  arrayed  in  cloth  of  gold ; 
fifty  guards  marched  before  him ;  all  the  Jews 
who  met  him  on  the  way  paid  their  homage, 
and  fell  behind  into  his  train.  He  was  received 
by  the  eunuchs,  who  conducted  him  to  the 
throne,  while  one  of  his  officers,  as  he  marched 
slowly  along,  distributed  gold  and  silver  on  all 
sides.  As  the  prince  approached  the  imperial 
throne,  he  prostrated  himself  on  the  ground, 
in  token  of  vassalage.  The  eunuchs  raised 
him  and  placed  him  on  the  left  hand  of  the 
sovereign.  After  the  first  salutation,  the  prince 
represented  the  grievances,  or  discussed  tho 
affairs,  of  his  people. 

The  court  of  the  Resch-Glutha  is  described 
as  splendid,     In  imitation  of  his  Persian  mas. 


ALE 


36 


ALE 


ter,  he  had  his  officers,  counsellors,  and  cup- 
bearers ;  and  rabbins  were  appointed  as  satraps 
over  the  different  communities.  This  state,  it 
is  probable,  was  maintained  by  a  tribute  raised 
from  the  body  of  the  people,  and  substituted  for 
that  which,  in  ancient  times  was  paid  for  the 
temple  in  Jerusalem.  His  subjects  in  Babylonia 
were  many  of  them  wealthy. 

AIJALON,  a  city  of  the  Canaanites ;  the 
valley  adjoining  to  which  is  memorable  in 
sacred  history  from  the  miracle  of  Joshua,  in 
arresting  the  course  of  the  sun  and  moon,  that 
the  Israelites  might  have  sufficient  light  to  pur- 
sue their  enemies,  Joshua  x,  12,  13.  Aijalon 
was  afterward  a  Levitical  city,  and  belonged  to 
the  tribe  of  Dan ;  who  did  not,  however,  drive 
out  the  Amorite  inhabitants,  Judges  i,  35. 

AIR,  that  thin,  fluid,  elastic,  transparent, 
ponderous,  compressible  body  which  surrounds 
the  terraqueous  globe  to  a  considerable  height. 
In  Scripture  it  is  sometimes  used  for  heaven; 
as,  "the  birds  of  the  air;"  "the  birds  of  heaven." 
To  "beat  the  air,"  and  "to  speak  to  the  air," 
1  Cor.  ix,  26,  signify  to  fatigue  ourselves  in 
vain,  and  to  speak  to  no  purpose.  "The  prince 
of  the  power  of  the  air"  is  the  head  and  chief 
of  the  evil  spirits,  with  which  both  Jews  and 
Heathens  thought  the  air  was  filled. 

ALABASTER,  'A>,a6a^pov,  the  name  of  a 
genus  of  fossils  nearly  allied  to  marble.  It  is 
a  bright  elegant  stone,  sometimes  of  a  snowy 
whiteness.  It  may  be  cut  freely,  and  is  capa- 
ble of  a  fine  polish  ;  and,  being  of  a  soft  nature, 
it  is  wrought  into  any  form  or  figure  with  ease. 
Vases  or  cruises  were  anciently  made  of  it, 
wherein  to  preserve  odoriferous  liquors  and  oint- 
ments. Pliny  and  others  represent  it  as  peculiar- 
ly proper  for  this  purpose ;  and  the  druggists  in 
Egypt  have,  at  this  day,  vessels  made  of  it,  in 
which  they  keep  their  medicines  and  perfumes. 
In  Matt,  xxvi,  6,  7,  we  read  that  Jesus  being 
at  table  in  Bethany,  in  the  house  of  Simon 
the  leper,  a  woman  came  thither  and  poured  an 
alabaster  box  of  ointment  on  his  head.  St. 
Mark  adds,  "  She  brake  the  box,"  which  merely 
refers  to  the  seal  upon  the  vase  which  closed  it, 
and  kept  the  perfume  from  evaporating.  This 
had  never  been  removed,  but  was  on  this  occa- 
sion broken,  that  is,  first  opened. 
ALBIGENSES.  See  Waldenses. 
ALEPH,  N,  the  name  of  the  first  letter  in  the 
Hebrew  alphabet,  from  which  the  alpha  of  the 
Syrians  and  Greeks  was  formed.  This  word 
signifies,  prince,  chief,  or  thousand,  expressing, 
as  it  were,  a  leading  number. 

ALEXANDER,  commonly  called  the  Great, 
son  and  successor  of  Philip,  king  of  Macedon, 
is  denoted  in  the  prophecies  of  Daniel  by  a 
leopard  with  four  wings,  signifying  his  great 
6trength,  and  the  unusual  rapidity  of  his  con- 
quests, Dan.  vii,  G ;  and  by  a  one-homed  he-goat 
running  over  the  earth  so  swiftly  as  not  to  touch 
it,  attacking  a  ram  with  two  horns,  overthrow- 
ing him,  and  trampling  him  under  foot,  without 
any  being  able  to  rescue  him,  Dan.  viii,  4-7. 
The  he-goat  prefigured  Alexander ;  the  ram, 
Darius  Codomannus,  the  last  of  the  Persian 
kings.  In  the  statue  beheld  by  Nebuchadnezzar 
in  his  dream,  Dan.  ii,  3i),  the  belly  of  brass  was 


the  emblem  of  Alexander.  He  was  appointed 
by  God  to  destroy  the  Persian  empire,  and  to 
substitute  in  its  room  the  Grecian  monarchy. 

Alexander  succeeded  bis  father  Philip,  A.  M. 
3668,  and  B.  C.  336.  He  was  chosen,  by  the 
Greeks,  general  of  their  troops  against  the  Per- 
sians, and  entered  Asia  at  the  head  of  thirty- 
four  thousand  men,  A.  M.  3670.  In  one  cam- 
paign, he  subdued  almost  all  Asia  Minor;  and 
afterward  defeated,  in  the  narrow  passes  which 
led  from  Syria  to  Cilicia,  the  army  of  Darius, 
which  consisted  of  four  hundred  thousand  foot, 
and  one  hundred  thousand  horse.  Darius  fled, 
and  left  in  the  hands  of  the  conqueror,  his  camp, 
baggage,  children,  wife,  and  mother. 

After  subduing  Syria,  Alexander  came  to 
Tyre ;  and  the  Tyrians  refusing  him  entrance 
into  their  city,  he  besieged  it.  At  the  same 
time  he  wrote  to  Jaddus,  high  priest  of  the 
Jews,  that  he  expected  to  be  acknowledged  by 
him,  and  to  receive  from  him  the  same  submis- 
sion which  had  hitherto  been  paid  to  the  king 
of  Persia.  Jaddus  refusing  to  comply  under  the 
plea  of  having  sworn  fidelity  to  Darius,  Alexan- 
der resolved  to  march  against  Jerusalem,  when 
he  had  reduced  Tyre.  After  a  long  siege,  this 
city  was  taken  and  sacked  ;  and  Alexander 
entered  Palestine,  A.  M.  3672,  and  subjected  it 
to  his  obedience.  As  he  was  marching  against 
Jerusalem,  the  Jews  became  greatly  alarmed, 
and  had  recourse  to  prayers  and  sacrifices.  The 
Lord,  in  a  dream,  commanded  Jaddus  to  open 
the  gates  to  the  conqueror,  and,  at  the  head  of 
his  people,  dressed  in  his  pontifical  ornaments, 
and  attended  by  the  priests  in  their  robes,  to 
advance  and  meet  the  Macedonian  king.  Jad- 
dus obeyed  ;  and  Alexander  perceiving  this  com  ■ 
pany  approaching,  hastened  toward  the  high 
priest,  whom  he  saluted.  He  then  adored  God,  • 
whose  name  was  engraven  on  a  thin  plate  of 
gold,  worn  by  the  high  priest  upon  his  fore- 
head. The  kings  of  Syria  who  accompanied 
him,  and  the  great  officers  about  Alexander, 
could  not  comprehend  the  meaning  of  his  eon- 
duct.  Parmenio  alone  ventured  to  ask  him 
why  he  adored  the  Jewish  high  priest;  Alex- 
ander replied,  that  he  paid  this  respect  to  God, 
and  not  to  the  high  priest.  "  For,"  added  he, 
"  whilst  I  was  yet  in  Macedonia,  I  saw  the  God 
of  the  Jews,  who  appeared  to  me  in  the  same 
form  and  dress  as  the  high  priest  at  present, 
and  who  encouraged  me  and  commanded  me 
to  march  boldly  into  Asia,  promising  that  he 
would  be  my  guide,  and  give  me  the  empire  of 
the  Persians.  As  soon,  therefore,  as  I  perceived 
this  habit,  I  recollected  the  vision,  and  under- 
stood that  my  undertaking  was  favoured  by  God, 
and  that  under  his  protection  I  might  expect 
prosperity." 

Having  said  this,  Alexander  accompanied 
Jaddus  to  Jerusalem,  where  he  offered  sacrifices 
in  the  temple  according  to  the  directions  of  the 
high  priest.  Jaddus  is  said  to  have  showed 
him  the  prophecies  of  Daniel,  in  which  the  de- 
struction of  the  Persian  empire  by  Alexander  is 
declared.  The  king  was  therefore  confirmed 
in  his  opinion,  that  God  had  chosen  him  to 
execute  this  great  work.  At  his  departure, 
Alexander  bade  the  Jews  ask  of  him  what  they 


ALE 


37 


ALE 


would.  The  high  priest  desired  only  the  liberty 
of  living  under  his  government  according  to 
their  own  laws,  and  an  exemption  from  tribute 
every  seventh  year,  because  in  that  year  the 
Jews  neither  tilled  their  grounds,  nor  reaped 
their  fruits.  With  this  request  Alexander  readily 
complied. 

Having  left  Jerusalem,  Alexander  visited 
other  cities  of  Palestine,  and  was  every  where 
received  with  great  testimonies  of  friendship 
and  submission.  The  Samaritans  who  dwelt  at 
Sichem,  and  were  apostates  from  the  Jewish 
religion,  observing  how  kindly  Alexander  had 
treated  the  Jews,  resolved  to  say  that  they  also 
were  by  religion  Jews.  For  it  was  their  practice, 
when  they  saw  the  affairs  of  the  Jews  in  a  pros, 
perous  state,  to  boast  that  they  were  descended 
from  Manasseh  and  Ephraim ;  but  when  they 
thought  it  their  interest  to  say  the  contrary, 
they  failed  not  to  affirm,  and  even  to  swear, 
that  they  were  not  related  to  the  Jews.  They 
came,  therefore,  with  many  demonstrations  of 
joy,  to  meet  Alexander,  as  far  almost  as  the 
territories  of  Jerusalem.  Alexander  commend, 
ed  their  zeal ;  and  the  Sichemites  entreated  him 
to  visit  their  temple  and  city.  Alexander  pro- 
mised this  at  his  return ;  but  as  they  petitioned 
him  for  the  same  privileges  as  the  Jews,  he  asked 
them  if  they  were  Jews.  They  replied,  they 
were  Hebrews,  and  were  called  by  the  Phoeni- 
cians, Sichemites.  Alexander  said  that  he  had 
granted  this  exemption  only  to  the  Jews,  but 
that  at  his  return  he  would  inquire  into  the 
affair,  and  do  them  justice. 

This  prince  having  conquered  Egypt,  and 
regulated  it,  gave  orders  for  the  building  of  the 
city  of  Alexandria,  and  departed  thence,  about 
spring,  in  pursuit  of  Darius.  Passing  through 
Palestine,  he  was  informed  that  the  Samaritans, 
in  a  general  insurrection,  had  killed  Androma- 
chus,  governor  of  Syria  and  Palestine,  who  had 
come  to  Samaria  to  regulate  some  affairs.  This 
action  greatly  incensed  Alexander,  who  loved 
Andromachus.  He  therefore  commanded  all 
those  who  were  concerned  in  his  murder  to  be 
put  to  death,  and  the  rest  to  be  banished  from 
Samaria;  and  settled  a  colony  of  Macedonians 
in  their  room.  What  remained  of  their  lands 
he  gave  to  the  Jews,  and  exempted  them  from 
the  payment  of  tribute.  The  Samaritans  who 
escaped  this  calamity,  retired  to  Sichem,  at  the 
foot  of  mount  Gerizim,  which  afterward  became 
their  capital.  Lest  the  eight  thousand  men  of 
this  nation,  who  were  in  the  service  of  Alex- 
ander, and  had  accompanied  him  since  the 
siege  of  Tyre,  if  permitted  to  return  to  their 
own  country,  should  renew  the  spirit  of  rebel- 
lion, he  sent  them  into  Thebais,  the  most  re- 
mote southern  province  of  Egypt,  where  he 
assigned  them  lands. 

Alexander,  after  defeating  Darius  in  a  pitched 
battle,  and  subduing  all  Asia  and  the  Indies  with 
incredible  rapidity,  gave  himself  up  to  intemper- 
ance. Having  drunk  to  excess,  he  fell  sick 
and  died,  after  he  had  obliged  "  all  the  world  to 
be  quiet  before  him,"  1  Mace,  i,  3.  Being  sen- 
sible that  his  end  was  near,  he  sent  for  the 
grandees  of  his  court,  and  declared  that  "  he 
gave  the  empire  to  the  most  deserving."    Some 


affirm  that  he  regulated  the  succession  by  a  will. 
The  author  of  the  first  book  of  Maccabees  says, 
that  he  divided  his  kingdom  among  his  gene- 
rals while  he  was  living,  1  Mace,  i,  7.  This  he 
might  do  ;  or  he  might  express  his  foresight  of 
what  actually  took  place  after  his  death.  It  is 
certain,  that  a  partition  was  made  of  Alexan- 
der's dominions  among  the  four  principal  offi- 
cers of  his  army,  and  that  the  empire  which  he 
founded  in  Asia  subsisted  for  many  ages.  Alex- 
ander died,  A.  M.  3684,  and  B.  C.  323,  in  the 
thirty -third  year  of  his  age,  and  the  twelfth  of  his 
reign.  The  above  particulars  of  Alexander  are 
here  introduced  because,  from  his  invasion  of 
Palestine,  the  intercourse  of  the  Jews  with  the 
Greeks  became  intimate,  and  influenced  many 
events  of  their  subsequent  history. 

On  the  account  above  given  of  the  interview 
between  Alexander  and  the  Jewish  high  priest, 
by  Josephus,  many  doubts  have  been  cast  by 
critics.  But  the  sudden  change  of  his  feelings 
toward  them,  and  the  favour  with  which  the 
nation  was  treated  by  him,  render  the  story  not 
improbable. 

ALEXANDRIA,  a  famous  city  of  Egypt, 
and,  during  the  reign  of  the  Ptolemies,  the  regal 
capital  of  that  kingdom.  It  was  founded  by 
Alexander  the  Great:  who  being  struck  with 
the  advantageous  situation  of  the  spot  where 
the  city  afterward  stood,  ordered  its  immediate 
erection  ;  drew  the  plan  of  the  city  himself,  and 
peopled  it  with  colonies  of  Greeks  and  Jews  :  to 
which  latter  people,  in  particular,  he  gave  great 
encouragement.  They  were,  in  fact,  made  free 
citizens,  and  had  all  the  privileges  of  Mace- 
donians granted  to  them;  which  liberal  policy 
contributed  much  to  the  rise  and  prosperity  of 
the  new  city ;  for  this  enterprising  and  com- 
mercial people  knew  much  better  than  either 
the  Greeks  or  the  Egyptians  how  to  turn  the 
happy  situation  of  Alexandria  to  the  best  ac- 
count. The  fall  of  Tyre  happening  about  the 
same  time,  the  trade  of  that  city  was  soon  drawn 
to  Alexandria,  which  became  the  centre  of  com- 
mercial intercourse  between  the  east  and  the 
west;  and  in  process  of  time  grew  to  such  an 
extent,  in  magnitude  and  wealth,  as  to  be  second 
in  point  of  population  and  magnificence  to  none 
but  Rome  itself. 

Alexandria  owed  much  of  its  celebrity  as  well 
as  its  population  to  the  Ptolemies.  Ptolemy 
Soter,  one  of  Alexander's  captains,  who,  after 
the  death  of  this  monarch,  was  first  governor 
of  Egypt,  and  afterward  assumed  the  title  of 
king,  made  this  city  the  place  of  his  residence, 
about  B.  C.  304.  This  prince  founded  an  aca- 
demy, called  the  Museum,  in  which  a  society 
of  learned  men  devoted  themselves  to  philoso- 
phical studies,  and  the  improvement  of  all  the 
other  sciences  ;  and  he  also  gave  them  a  library, 
which  was  prodigiously  increased  by  his  suc- 
cessors. He  likewise  induced  the  merchants 
of  Syria  and  Greece  to  reside  in  this  city,  and 
to  make  it  a  principal  mart  of  their  commerce. 
His  son  and  successor,  Ptolemy  Philadelphus, 
pursued  the  designs  of  his  father. 

In  the  hands  of  the  Romans,  the  successors 
of  the  Macedonians  in  the  government  of 
Egypt,  the  trade  of  Alexandria  continued  to 


ALE 


38 


ALE 


flourish,  until  luxury  and  licentiousness  paved 
the  way,  as  in  exery  similar  instance,  for  its 
overthrow. 

Alexandria,  together  with  the  rest  of  Egypt, 
passed  from  the  dominion  of  the  Romans  to 
that  of  the  Saracens.  With  this  event,  the  sun 
of  Alexandria  may  be  said  to  have  set :  the 
blighting  hand  of  Islamism  was  laid  on  it  j  and 
although  the  genius  and  the  resources  of  such  a 
city  could  not  be  immediately  destroyed,  it  con- 
tinued to  languish  until  the  passage  by  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  in  the  fifteenth  century, 
gave  a  new  channel  to  the  trade  which  for  so 
many  centuries  had  been  its  support ;  and  at 
this  day,  Alexandria,  like  most  eastern  cities, 
presents  a  mixed  spectacle  of  ruins  and  wretch- 
edness,— of  fallen  greatness  and  enslaved  hu- 
man beings. 

Some  idea  may  be  formed  of  the  extent  and 
grandeur  of  Alexandria,  by  the  boast  made  by 
Amrou:  "I  have  taken,"  said  he,  "the  great 
city  of  the  west.  It  is  impossible  for  me  to 
enumerate  the  variety  of  its  riches  and  beauty. 
I  shall  content  myself  with  observing,  that  it 
contains  four  thousand  palaces,  four  thousand 
baths,  four  hundred  theatres  or  places  of 
amusement,  twelve  thousand  shops  for  the 
sale  of  vegetable  foods,  and  forty  thousand 
tributary  Jews." 

It  was  in  Alexandria  chiefly  that  the  Grecian 
philosophy  was  engrafted  upon  the  stock  of 
ancient  oriental  wisdom.  The  Egyptian  me- 
thod of  teaching  by  allegory  was  peculiarly 
favourable  to  such  a  union :  and  we  may  well 
suppose  that  when  Alexander,  in  order  to  pre- 
serve by  the  arts  of  peace  that  extensive  empire 
which  he  had  obtained  by  the  force  of  arms, 
endeavoured  to  incorporate  the  customs  of  the 
Greeks  with  those  of  the  Persian,  Indian,  and 
other  eastern  nations,  the  opinions  as  well  as 
the  manners  of  this  feeble  and  obsequious  race 
would,  in  a  great  measure,  be  accommodated 
to  those  of  their  conquerors.  This  influence 
of  the  Grecian  upon  the  oriental  philosophy 
continued  long  after  the  time  of  Alexander, 
and  was  one  principal  occasion  of  the  confu- 
sion of  opinions  which  occurs  in  the  history  of 
the  Alexandrian  and  Christian  schools.  Alex- 
ander, when  he  built  the  city  of  Alexandria, 
with  a  determination  to  make  it  the  seat  of  his 
empire,  and  peopled  it  with  emigrants  from 
various  countries,  opened  a  new  mart  of  phi- 
losophy, which  emulated  the  fame  of  Athens 
itself.  A  general  indulgence  was  granted  to 
the  promiscuous  crowd  assembled  in  this  rising 
city,  whether  Egyptians,  Grecians,  Jews,  or 
others,  to  profess  their  respective  systems  of 
philosophy  without  molestation.  The  conse- 
quence was,  that  Egypt  was  soon  filled  with 
religious  and  philosophical  sectaries  of  every 
kind  ;  and  particularly,  that  almost  every  Gre- 
cian sect  found  an  advocate  and  professor  in 
Alexandria.  The  family  of  the  Ptolemies,  as 
we  have  seen,  who  after  Alexander  obtained 
the  government  of  Egypt,  from  motives  of 
policy  encouraged  this  new  establishment. 
Ptolemy  Lagus,  who  had  obtained  the  crown 
of  Egypt  by  usurpation,  was  particularly  care- 
ful to  secure  the  interest  of  the  Greeks  in  his 


favour,  and  with  this  view  invited  people  from 
every  part  of  Greece  to  settle  in  Egypt,  and 
removed  the  schools  of  Athens  to  Alexandria. 
This  enlightened  prince  spared  no  pains  to 
raise  the  literary,  as  well  as  the  civil,  military, 
and  commercial  credit  of  his  country.  Under 
the  patronage  first  of  the  Egyptian  princes, 
and  afterward  of  the  Roman  emperors,  Alex- 
andria long  continued  to  enjoy  great  celebrity 
as  the  seat  of  learning,  and  to  send  forth  emi- 
nent philosophers  of  every  sect  to  distant  coun- 
tries.  It  remained  a  school  of  learning,  as  well 
as  a  commercial  emporium,  till  it  was  taken, 
and  plundered  of  its  literary  treasures  by  the 
Saracens.  Philosophy,  during  this  period,  suf- 
fered a  grievous  corruption  from  the  attempt 
which  wras  made  by  philosophers  of  different 
sects  and  countries,  Grecian,  Egyptian,  and 
oriental,  who  were  assembled  in  Alexandria,  to 
frame,  from  their  different  tenets,  one  general 
system  of  opinions.  The  respect  which  had 
long  been  universally  paid  to  the  schools  of 
Greece,  and  the  honours  with  which  they  were 
now  adorned  by  the  Egyptian  princes,  induced 
other  wise  men,  and  even  the  Egyptian  priests 
and  philosophers  themselves,  to  submit  to  this 
innovation.  Hence  arose  a  heterogeneous  mass 
of  opinions,  under  the  name  of  the  Eclectic 
philosophy,  and  which  was  the  foundation  of 
endless  confusion,  error,  and  absurdity,  not 
only  in  the  Alexandrian  school,  but  among  Jews 
and  Christians  ;  producing  among  the  former 
that  specious  kind  of  philosophy,  which  they 
called  their  Cabala,  and  among  the  latter  in- 
numerable corruptions  of  the  Christian  faith. 

At  Alexandria  there  was,  in  a  very  early 
period  of  the  Christian  sera,  a  Christian  school 
of  considerable  eminence.  St.  Jerome  says, 
the  school  at  Alexandria  had  been  in  being 
from  the  time  of  St.  Mark.  Pantaenus,  placed 
by  Lardner  at  the  year  192,  presided  in  it.  St. 
Clement  of  Alexandria  succeeded  Pantaenus  in 
this  school  about  the  year  190 ;  and  he  was 
succeeded  by  Origen.  The  extensive  com- 
merce of  Alexandria,  and  its  proximity  to  Pa- 
lestine, gave  an  easy  entrance  to  the  new 
religion,  and  when  Adrian  visited  Egypt,  ho 
found  a  church  composed  of  Jews  and  Greeks, 
sufficiently  important  to  attract  the  notice  of 
that  inquisitive  prince.  The  theological  sys- 
tem of  Plato  was  introduced  into  both  the  phi- 
losophical and  Christian  schools  of  Alexandria  ; 
and  of  course  many  of  his  sentiments  and  ex- 
pressions were  blended  with  the  opinions  and 
language  of  the  professors  and  teachers  of 
Christianity. 

Alexandria  was  the  source,  and  for  some 
time  the  principal  stronghold,  of  Arianism ; 
which  had  its  name  from  its  founder,  Arius,  a 
presbyter  of  the  church  of  this  city,  about  the 
year  315.  His  doctrines  were  condemned  by 
a  council  held  here  in  the  year  320  ;  and  after- 
ward by  a  general  council  of  three  hundred 
and  eighty  fathers,  held  at  Nice,  by  order  of 
Constantine,  in  325.  These  doctrines,  how- 
ever, which  suited  the  reigning  taste  for  dis- 
putative  theology,  and  the  pride  and  self-suffi- 
ciency of  nominal  Christians,  better  than  the 
unsophisticated  simplicity  of  the  Gospel,  spread 


ALE 


39 


ALL 


widely  and  rapidly  notwithstanding.  Arius  was 
steadfastly  opposed  by  the  celebrated  Athana- 
sius,  bishop  of"  Alexandria,  the  intrepid  cham- 
pion of  the  catholic  faith,  who  was  raised  to 
the  archiepiscopal  throne  of  Alexandria  in  326. 

This  city  was,  in  415,  distinguished  by  a 
fierce  persecution  of  the  Jews  by  the  patriarch 
Cyril.  They  who  had  enjoyed  the  rights  of 
citizens,  and  the  freedom  of  religious  worship, 
for  seven  hundred  years,  ever  since  the  founda- 
tion of  the  city,  incurred  the  hatred  of  this 
ecclesiastic ;  who,  in  his  zeal  for  the  extermi- 
nation of  heretics  of  every  kind,  pulled  down 
their  synagogues,  plundered  their  property, 
and  expelled  them,  to  the  number  of  forty 
thousand,  from  the  city. 

It  was  in  a  ship  belonging  to  the  port  of 
Alexandria,  that  St.  Paul  sailed  from  Myra,  a 
city  of  Lycia,  on  his  way  to  Rome,  Acts  xxvii, 
5,  6.  Alexandria  was  also  the  native  place  of 
Apollos. 

ALEXANDRIAN  LIBRARY.  This  cele- 
brated collection  of  books  was  first  founded  by 
Ptolemy  Soter,  for  the  use  of  the  academy,  or 
society  of  learned  men,  which  he  had  founded 
at  Alexandria.  Beside  the  books  which  he 
procured,  his  son,  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  add- 
ed many  more,  and  left  in  this  library  at  his 
deatli  a  hundred  thousand  volumes ;  and  the 
succeeding  princes  of  this  race  enlarged  it  still 
more,  till  at  length  the  books  lodged  in  it 
amounted  to  the  number  of  seven  hundred 
thousand  volumes.  The  method  by  which 
they  are  said  to  have  collected  these  books 
was  this :  they  seized  all  the  books  that  were 
brought  by  the  Greeks  or  other  foreigners  into 
Egypt,  and  sent  them  to  the  academy*  or  mu- 
seum, where  they  were  transcribed  by  persons 
employed  for  that  purpose.  The  transcripts 
were  then  delivered  to  the  proprietors,  and  the 
originals  laid  up  in  the  library.  Ptolemy  Eu- 
ergetes,  for  instance,  borrowed  of  the  Athenians 
the  works  of  Sophocles,  Euripides,  and  iEschy- 
lus,  and  only  returned  them  the  copies,  which 
he  caused  to  be  transcribed  in  as  beautiful  a 
manner  as  possible ;  the  originals  he  retained 
for  his  own  library,  presenting  the  Athenians 
with  fifteen  talents  for  the  exchange,  that  is, 
with  three  thousand  pounds  sterling  and  up- 
wards. As  the  museum  was  at  first  in  the 
quarter  of  the  city  called  Bruchion,  the  library 
was  placed  there  ;  but  when  the  number  of 
books  amounted  to  four  hundred  thousand 
volumes,  another  library,  within  the  Serapeum, 
was  erected  by  way  of  supplement  to  it,  and, 
on  that  account,  called  the  daughter  of  the 
former.  The  books  lodged  in  this  increased 
to  the  number  of  three  hundred  thousand 
volumes  ;  and  these  two  made  up  the  number 
of  seven  hundred  thousand  volumes,  of  which 
the  royal  libraries  of  the  Ptolemies  were  said 
to  consist.  In  the  war  which  Julius  Caesar 
waged  with  the  inhabitants  of  Alexandria,  the 
library  of  Bruchion  was  accidentally,  but  un- 
fortunately, burnt.  But  the  library  in  Sera- 
peum still  remained,  and  there  Cleopatra  de- 
posited the  two  hundred  thousand  volumes  of 
the  Pergamean  library  with  which  she  was 
presented    by   Marc    Antony.      These,    and 


others  added  to  them  from  time  to  time,  ren- 
dered the  new  library  more  numerous  and  con- 
siderable than  the  former ;  and  though  it  was 
plundered  more  than  once  during  the  revolu- 
tions which  happened  in  the  Roman  empire, 
yet  it  was  as  frequently  supplied  with  the  same 
number  of  books,  and  continued,  for  many 
ages,  to  be  of  great  fame  and  use,  till  it  was 
burnt  by  the  Saracens,  A.  D.  642.  Abulpha- 
ragius,  in  his  history  of  the  tenth  dynasty, 
gives  the  following  account  of  this  catastrophe : 
John  Philoponus,  surnamed  the  Grammarian, 
a  famous  Peripatetic  philosopher,  being  at 
Alexandria  when  the  city  was  taken  by  the 
Saracens,  was  admitted  to  familiar  intercourse 
with  Amrou,  the  Arabian  general,  and  pre- 
sumed to  solicit  a  gift,  inestimable  in  his 
opinion,  but  contemptible  in  that  of  the  barba- 
rians ;  and  this  was  the  royal  library.  Amrou 
was  inclined  to  gratify  his  wish,  but  his  rigid 
integrity  scrupled  to  alienate  the  least  object 
without  the  consent  of  the  caliph.  He  accord- 
ingly wrote  to  Omar,  whose  well  known  an- 
swer was  dictated  by  the  ignorance  of  a  fanatic : 
"  If  these  writings  of  the  Greeks  agree  with 
the  Koran,  or  book  of  God,  they  are  useless, 
and  need  not  be  preserved ;  if  they  disagree, 
they  are  pernicious,  and  ought  to  be  destroyed." 
The  sentence  of  destruction  was  executed  with 
blind  obedience  :  the  volumes  of  paper  or  parch- 
ment were  distributed  to  the  four  thousand 
baths  of  the  city;  and  such  was  their  number, 
that  six  months  were  barely  sufficient  for  the 
consumption  of  this  precious  fuel. 

ALGUM,  qjSn  oro'DiAf!,  1  Kings x,  11, 12. 
This  is  the  name  of  a  kind  of  wood,  or  tree, 
large  quantities  of  which  were  brought  by  the 
fleet  of  Solomon  from  Ophir,  of  which  he  made 
pillars  forthe  house  of  the  Lord,  and  for  Lis  own 
palace ;  also  musical  instruments.  See  Almug. 
ALLEGORY,  a  figure  in  rhetoric,  whereby 
we  make  use  of  terms  which,  in  their  proper 
signification,  mean  something  else  than  what 
they  are  brought  to  denote ;  or  it  is  a  figure 
whereby  we  say  one  thing,  expecting  it  shall 
be  understood  of  another,  to  which  it  alludes; 
or  which,  under  the  literal  sense  of  the  words, 
conceals  a  foreign  or  distant  meaning.  An 
allegory  is,  properly,  a  continued  metaphor,  or 
a  series  of  several  metaphors  in  one  or  more 
sentences.  Such  is  that  beautiful  allegory  in 
Horace,  lib.  i,  Od.  14. 

"  O  navis,  referent  in  mare  te  novi 
Fluctus,"  Sfc. 
[O  ship,  shall  new  billows  drive  thee  again  to  sea,  &c] 
Where  the  ship  is  usually  held  to  stand  for  the 
republic ;  waves,  for  civil  war ;  port,  for  peace 
and  concord  ;  oars,  for  soldiers  ;  and  mariners 
for  magistrates.     Thus,  also,  in  Prior's  Henry 
and  Emma,  Emma  describes  her  constancy  to 
Henry  in  the  following  allegorical  manner : — 
"  Did  I  but  purpose  to  embark  with  thee 
On  the  smooth  surface  of  a  summer's  sea, 
While  gentle  zephyrs  play  with  prosperous  gales, 
And  fortune's  favour  fills  the  swelling  sails ; 
But  would  forsake  the  ship,  and  make  the  shore, 
When  the  winds  whistle,  and  the  tempests  roar  1" 

Cicero,  likewise,  speaking  of  himself,  in  Pison. 
c.  9,  torn,  vi,  p.  187,  uses  this  allegorical  Ian- 


ALL 


40 


ALL 


guage :  "  Nor  was  I  so  timorous,  that,  after  I 
had  steered  the  ship  of  the  state  through  the 
greatest  storms  and  waves,  and  brought  her 
safe  into  port,  I  should  fear  the  cloud  of  your 
forehead,  or  your  colleague's  pestilential  breath. 
I  saw  other  winds,  I  perceived  other  storms,  I 
did  not  withdraw  from  other  impending  tem- 
pests ;  but  I  exposed  myself  singly  to  them  for 
the  common  safety."  Here  the  state  is  com- 
pared to  a  ship,  and  all  the  things  said  of  it 
under  that  image,  are  expressed  in  metaphors 
made  use  of  to  denote  the  dangers  with  which 
it  had  been  threatened.  We  have  also  a  very 
fine  example  of  an  allegory  in  Psalm  lxxx  ;  in 
which  the  people  of  Israel  are  represented  un- 
der the  image  of  a  vine,  and  the  figure  is  sup- 
ported throughout  with  great  correctness  and 
lieauty.  Whereas,  if,  instead  of  describing  the 
vine  as  wasted  by  the  boar  from  the  wood,  and 
devoured  by  the  wild  beasts  of  the  field,  the 
Psalmist  had  said,  it  was  afflicted  by  Heathens, 
or  overcome  by  enemies,  which  is  the  real 
meaning,  the  figurative  and  the  literal  meaning 
would  have  been  blended,  and  the  allegory 
yuined.  The  learned  Bishop  Lowth,  De  Sacra 
Poesi  Hebrceorum,  Pral.  10,  11,  has  specified 
three  forms  of  allegory  that  occur  in  sacred 
poetry.  The  first  is  that  which  rhetoricians 
call  a  continued  metaphor.  When  several 
metaphors  succeed  each  other,  they  alter  the 
form  of  the  composition ;  and  this  succession 
has  very  properly,  in  reference  to  the  etymology 
.of  the  word,  been  denominated  by  the  Greeks 
a'Wnyopia,  an  allegory ;  although  Aristotle,  in- 
stead of  considering  it  as  a  new  species  of 
figure,  has  referred  it  to  the  class  of  metaphors. 
The  principle  of  allegory  in  this  sense  of  the 
term,  and  of  the  simple  metaphor,  is  the  same ; 
nor  is  it  an  easy  matter  to  restrict  each  to  its 
proper  limit,  and  to  mark  the  precise  termina- 
tion of  the  one,  and  the  commencement  of  the 
other.  This  eminently  judicious  critic  observes, 
that  when  the  Hebrew  poets  use  the  congenial 
figures  of  metaphor,  allegory,  and  comparison, 
particularly  in  the  prophetic  poetry,  they  adopt 
a  peculiar  mode  of  doing  it,  and  seldom  regu- 
late the  imagery  which  they  introduce  by  any 
fixed  principle  or  standard.  Not  satisfied  with 
a  simple  metaphor,  they  often  run  it  into  an 
allegory,  or  blend  with  it  a  direct  comparison. 
The  allegory  sometimes  follows,  and  sometimes 
precedes  the  simile  :  to  this  is  added  a  frequent 
change  of  imagery,  as  well  as  of  persons  and 
tenses ;  and  thus  are  displayed  an  energy  and 
boldness,  both  of  expression  and  meaning, 
which  are  uneonfined  by  any  stated  rules,  and 
which  mark  the  discriminating  genius  of  the 
Hebrew  poetry.  Thus,  in  Gen.  xlix,  9,  " Judah 
is  a  lion's  whelp;"  this  metaphor  is  immediately 
drawn  out  into  an  allegory,  with  a  change  of 
person :  "  From  the  prey,  my  son,  thou  art 
gone  up,"  that  is,  to  the  mountains,  which  is 
understood ;  and  in  the  succeeding  sentences 
the  person  is  again  changed,  the  image  is 
gradually  advanced,  and  the  metaphor  is  joined 
with  a  comparison  that  is  repeated. 
"  He  stoopctli  down,  lie  coucbeth  as  a  lion ; 
And  as  a  lioness;  who  shall  rouse  him')" 
A  similar  instance  occurs  in  the  prophecy,  re- 


corded in  Psalm  ex,  3,  which  explicitly  foretels 
the  abundant  increase  of  the  Gospel  on  its  first 
promulgation.  This  kind  of  allegory,  how- 
ever, sometimes  assumes  a  more  regular  and 
perfect  form,  and  then  occupies  the  whole 
subject  and  compass  of  the  discourse.  An  ex. 
ample  of  this  kind  occurs  in  Solomon's  well 
known  allegory,  Eccles.  xii,  2-6,  in  which  old 
age  is  so  admirably  depicted.  There  is  also,  in 
Isaiah  xxviii,  24-29,  an  allegory,  which,  with 
no  less  elegance  of  imagery,  is  more  simple  and 
regular,  as  well  as  more  just  and  complete, 
both  in  the  form  and  the  method  of  treating  it. 
Another  kind  of  allegory  is  that  which,  in  the 
proper  and  more  restricted  sense,  may  be  called 
a  parable  ;  and  consists  of  a  continued  narra- 
tion of  some  fictitious  event,  accommodated, 
by  way  of  similitude,  to  the  illustration  of  some 
important  truth.  The  Greeks  call  these  alle- 
gories airoi  or  apologues,  and  the  Latins  fabulce, 
or  fables.  (See  Parable.)  The  third  species 
of  allegory,  which  often  occurs  in  the  pro- 
phetic poetry,  is  that  in  which  a  double  mean- 
ing is  couched  under  the  same  words,  or  when 
the  same  discourse,  differently  interpreted,  de- 
signates different  events,  dissimilar  in  their 
nature,  and  remote  as  to  time.  These  different 
relations  are  denominated  the  literal  and  mys. 
tical  senses.  This  kind  of  allegory,  which  the 
learned  prelate  calls  mystical,  seems  to  derive 
its  origin  from  the  principles  of  the  Jewish 
religion ;  and  it  differs  from  the  two  former 
species  in  a  variety  of  respects.  In  these  alle- 
gories the  writer  may  adopt  any  imagery  that 
is  most  suitable  to  his  fancy  or  inclination ; 
but  the  only  proper  materials  for  this  allegory 
must  be  supplied  from  the  sacred  rites  of  the 
Hebrews  themselves  ;  and  it  can  only  be  intro- 
duced in  relation  to  such  things  as  are  imme. 
diately  connected  with  the  Jewish  religion,  or 
their  immediate  opposites.  The  former  kinds 
partake  of  the  common  privileges  of  poetry; 
but  the  mystical  allegory  has  its  foundation  in 
the  nature  of  the  Jewish  economy,  and  is  adapt- 
ed solely  to  the  poetry  of  the  Hebrews.  Be- 
sides, in  the  other  forms  of  allegory,  the  exterior 
or  ostensible  imagery  is  mere  fiction,  and  the 
truth  lies  altogether  in  the  interior  or  remote 
sense  ;  but  in  this  allegory  each  idea  is  equally 
agreeable  to  truth.  The  exterior  or  ostensible 
image  is  itself  a  reality ;  and  although  it  sus- 
tains another  character,  it  does  not  wholly  lay 
aside  its  own.  There  is  also  a  great  variety  in 
the  use  and  conduct  of  the  mystical  allegory  ; 
in  the  modes  in  which  the  corresponding  images 
are  arranged,  and  in  which  they  are  obscured 
or  eclipsed  by  one  another.  Sometimes  the 
obvious  or  literal  sense  is  so  prominent  and 
conspicuous,  both  in  the  words  and  sentiments, 
that  the  remote  or  figurative  sense  is  scarcely 
permitted  to  glimmer  through  it.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  figurative  sense  is  more  frequently 
found  to  beam  forth  with  so  much  perspicuity 
and  lustre,  that  the  literal  sense  is  quite 
cast  into  the  shade,  or  becomes  indiscernible. 
Sometimes  the  principal  or  figurative  idea  is 
exhibited  to  the  attentive  eye  with  a  constant 
and  equal  light ;  and  sometimes  it  unexpectedly 
glares  upon  us,  and  breaks  forth  with  sudden 


ALM 


41 


ALM 


and  astonishing  coruscations,  like  a  flash  of 
lightning  bursting  from  the  clouds.  But  the 
mode  or  form  of  this  figure  which  possesses  the 
chief  beauty  and  elegance,  is,  when  the  two  ima- 
ges, equally  conspicuous,  run,  as  it  were,  parallel 
throughout  the  whole  poem,  mutually  illustrat- 
ing and  correspondent  to  each  other.  The  learn- 
ed author  has  illustrated  these  observations  by 
instances  selected  from  Psalms  ii,  and  Ixxii. 
He  adds,  that  the  mystical  allegory  is,  on  ac- 
count of  the  obscurity  resulting  from  the  nature 
of  the  figure,  and  the  style  of  the  composition, 
so  agreeable  to  the  nature  of  the  prophecy,  that 
it  is  the  form  which  it  generally,  and  indeed 
lawfully,  assumes,  as  best  adapted  to  the  pre- 
diction of  future  events.  It  describes  events  in 
a  manner  exactly  conformable  to  the  intention 
of  prophecy;  that  is,  in  a  dark,  disguised,  and 
intricate  manner,  sketching  out,  in  a  general 
way,  their  form  and  outline ;  and  seldom  de- 
scending to  a  minuteness  of  description  and 
exactness  of  detail. ' 

ALLELUIA,  or  Hallelu-jah,  ;v-il?'?n,  praise 
the  Lord ;  or,  praise  to  the  Lord :  compounded 
of  l^^n,  praise  ye,  and  n»,  the  Lord.  This  word 
occurs  at  the  beginning,  or  at  the  end,  of  many 
Psalms.  Alleluia  was  sung  on  solemn  days  of 
rejoicing  :  "  And  all  her  streets  shall  sing  Alle- 
luia," says  Tobit,  speaking  of  the  rebuilding  of 
Jerusalem,  Tob.  xiii,  18.  St.  John,  in  the 
Revelation,  xix,  1,  3,  4,  6,  says,  "I  heard  a 
great  voice  of  much  people  in  heaven,  who 
cried,  Alleluia  ;  and  the  four  living  creatures 
fell  down,  and  worshipped  God,  saying,  Alle- 
luia." This  expression  of  joy  and  praise  was 
transferred  from  the  synagogue  to  the  church. 
At  the  funeral  of  Fabiola,  "several  psalms 
were  sung  with  loud  alleluias,"  says  Jerom,  in 
Epitaphio  Paula,  "The  monks  of  Palestine 
were  awaked  at  their  midnight  watchings,  with 
the  singing  of  alleluias."  It  is  still  occasion- 
ally used  in  devotional  psalmody. 

ALMAH,  r\tijy,  a  Hebrew  word  signifying 
properly  a  virgin,  a  young  woman  unacquainted 
with  man.  In  this  sense  it  occurs  in  the  fa- 
mous passage  of  Isaiah,  vii,  14:  "Behold  a 
virgin  shall  conceive  and  bear  a  son."  The 
Hebrew  has  no  term  that  more  properly  signi- 
fies a  virgin  than  almah.  St.  Jerom,  in  his 
commentary  on  this  passage,  observes,  that  the 
Prophet  declined  using  the  word  bethaul  which 
signifies  any  young  woman,  or  young  person, 
but  employed  the  term  almah,  which  denotes  a 
virgin  never  seen  by  man.  This  is  the  import 
of  the  word  almah,  which  is  derived  from  a 
root  which  signifies  to  conceal.  It  is  very  well 
known,  that  young  women  in  the  east  do  not 
appear  in  public,  but  are  shut  up  in  their 
houses,  and  their  mothers'  apartments,  like 
nuns.  The  Chaldee  paraphrast  and  the  Sep- 
tuagint  translate  almah  "  a  virgin ;"  and  Akiba, 
the  famous  rabbin,  who  was  a  great  enemy  to 
Christ  and  Christians,  and  lived  in  the  second 
century,  understands  it  in  the  same  manner. 
The  Apostles  and  Evangelists,  and  the  Jews 
of  our  Saviour's  time,  explained  it  in  the  same 
sense,  and  expected  a  Messiah  born  of  a  virgin. 

The  Jews,  that  they  may  obscure  this  plain 
text,  and  weaken  this  proof  of  the  truth  of  the  | 


Christian  religion,  pretend  that  the  Hebrew 
word  signifies  a  young  woman,  and  not  a  vir- 
gin. But  this  corrupt  translation  is  easily  con- 
futed. 1.  Because  this  word  constantly  denotes 
a  virgin  in  all  other  passages  of  Scripture  in 
which  it  is  used.  2.  From  the  intent  of  the 
passage,  which  was  to  confirm  their  faith  by  a 
strange  and  wonderful  sign.  It  surely  could 
be  no  wonder,  that  a  young  woman  should 
conceive  a  child ;  but  it  was  a  very  extraordi- 
nary circumstance  that  a  virgin  should  con. 
ceive  and  bear  a  son. 

ALMIGHTY,  an  attribute  of  the  Deity, 
Gen.  xvii,  1.  The  Hebrew  name,  i-\a,  Shaddai, 
signifies  also  all-sufficient,  or  all-bountiful.  See 
Gen.  xxviii,  3;  xxxv,  11;  xliii,  14;  xlix,  25. 
Of  the  omnipotence  of  God,  we  have  a  most 
ample  revelation  in  the  Scriptures,  expressed  in 
the  most  sublime  language.  From  the  annun- 
ciation by  Moses  of  a  divine  existence  who  was 
"  in  the  beginning,"  before  all  things,  the  very 
first  step  is  to  the  display  of  his  almighty  power 
in  the  creation  out  of  nothing,  and  the  imme- 
diate arrangement  in  order  and  perfection,  of 
the  "  heaven  and  the  earth  ;"  by  which  is  meant, 
not  this  globe  only  with  its  atmosphere,  or 
even  with  its  own  celestial  system,  but  the  uni- 
verse itself;  for  "he  made  the  stars  also."  We 
are  thus  at  once  placed  in  the  presence  of  an 
agent  of  unbounded  power;  for  we  must  all 
feel  that  a  being  which  could  create  such  a 
world  as  this,  must,  beyond  all  comparison, 
possess  a  power  greater  than  any  which  we 
experience  in  ourselves,  than  any  which  we 
observe  in  other  visible  agents,  and  to  which  we 
are  not  authorized  by  our  observation  or  know- 
ledge to  assign  any  limits  of  space  or  duration. 

2.  That  the  sacred  writers  should  so  fre- 
quently dwell  upon  the  omnipotence  of  God, 
has  important  reasons  which  arise  out  of  the 
very  design  of  the  revelation  which  they  were 
the  means  of  communicating  to  mankind. 
Men  were  to  be  reminded  of  their  obligations 
to  obedience ;  and  God  is  therefore  constantly 
exhibited  as  the  Creator,  the  Preserver,  and 
Lord  of  all  things.  His  solemn  worship  and 
fear  were  to  be  enjoined  upon  them ;  and,  by 
the  manifestation  of  his  works,  the  veil  was 
withdrawn  from  his  glory  and  majesty.  Idola- 
try was  to  be  checked  and  reproved,  and  the 
true  God  was  therefore  placed  in  contrast  with 
the  limited  and  powerless  gods  of  the  Heathen : 
"  Among  the  gods  of  the  nations,  is  there  no 
god  like  unto  thee  ;  neither  are  there  any  works 
like  thy  works."  Finally,  he  is  exhibited  as 
the  object  of  trust  to  creatures  constantly  re- 
minded by  experience  of  their  own  infirmity 
and  dependence  ;  and  to  them  it  is  essential  to 
know,  that  his  power  is  absolute,  unlimited,  and 
irresistible,  and  that,  in  a  word,  he  is  "mighty 
to  save." 

3.  In  a  revelation  which  was  thus  designed 
to  awe  and  control  the  wicked,  and  to  afford 
strength  of  mind  and  consolation  to  good  men 
under  all  circumstances,  the  omnipotence  of 
God  is  therefore  placed  in  a  great  variety  of 
impressive  views,  and  connected  with  the  most 
striking  illustrations. 

It   is  declared  by  the  fact  of  creation,   the 


ALM 


42 


ALM 


creation  of  beings  out  of  nothing;  which  itself, 
though  it  had  been  confined  to  a  single  object, 
however  minute,  exceeds  finite  comprehension, 
and  overwhelms  the  faculties.  This  with  God 
required  no  effort :  "  He  spake  and  it  was  done, 
he  commanded  and  it  stood  fast."  The  vast- 
ness  and  variety  of  his  works  enlarge  the  con- 
ception :  "  The  heavens  declare  the  glory  of 
God,  and  the  firmament  sboweth  his  handy 
work."  "He  spreadeth  out  the  heavens,  and 
treadeth  upon  the  waves  of  the  sea ;  he  maketh 
Arcturus,  Orion,  and  Pleiades,  and  the  cham- 
bers of  the  south  ;  he  doeth  great  things,  past 
finding  out,  yea,  and  wonders  without  number. 
He  stretcheth  out  the  north  over  the  empty 
place,  and  hangeth  the  earth  upon  nothing. 
He  bindeth  up  the  waters  in  the  thick  clouds, 
and  the  cloud  is  not  rent  under  them  ;  he  hath 
compassed  the  waters  with  bounds  until  the 
day  and  night  come  to  an  end."  The  ease  with 
which  he  sustains,  orders,  and  controls  the 
most  powerful  and  unruly  of  the  elements, 
arrays  his  omnipotence  with  an  aspect  of  in- 
effable dignhy  and  majesty  :  "  By  him  all  things 
consist."  "  He  brake  up  for  the  sea  a  decreed 
place,  and  set  bars  and  doors,  and  said,  Hitherto 
shalt  thou  come  and  no  farther,  and  here  shall 
thy  proud  waves  be  stayed."  "He  looketh  to 
the  end  of  the  earth,  and  seeth  under  the  whole 
heaven,  to  make  the  weight  for  the  winds,  to 
weigh  the  waters  by  measure,  to  make  a  decree 
for  the  rain,  and  a  way  for  the  lightning  of  the 
thunder."  "  Who  hath  measured  the  waters  in 
the  hollow  of  his  hand,  meted  out  heaven  with 
a  span,  comprehended  the  dust  of  the  earth 
in  a  measure,  and  weighed  the  mountains  in 
scales,  and  the  hills  in  a  balance."  The  de- 
scriptions of  the  divine  power  are  often  terri- 
ble :  "  The  pillars  of  heaven  tremble,  and  are 
astonished  at  his  reproof;  he  divideth  the  sea 
by  his  power."  "  He  removeth  the  mountains, 
and  they  know  it  not ;  he  overturneth  them  in 
his  anger;  he  shaketh  the  earth  out  of  her 
place,  and  the  pillars  thereof  tremble  ;  he  coin- 
mandeth  the  sun  and  it  riseth  not,  and  sealeth 
up  the  stars."  The  same  absolute  subjection 
of  creatures  to  his  dominion  is  seen  among  the 
intelligent  inhabitants  of  the  material  universe  ; 
and  angels,  mortals  the  most  exalted,  and  evil 
spirits,  are  swayed  with  as  much  ease  as  the 
most  passive  elements  :  "  He  maketh  his  angels 
spirits,  and  his  ministers  a  flame  of  fire."  They 
veil  their  faces  before  his  throne,  and  acknow- 
ledge themselves  his  servants :  "  It  is  lie  that 
Bitteth  upon  the  circle  of  the  earth,  and  the  in- 
habitants thereof  are  as  grasshoppers,"  "  as  the 
dust  of  the  balance,  less  than  nothing  and 
vanity."  "He  bringeth  princes  to  nothing." 
"  He  setteth  up  one  and  putteth  down  another ;" 
"for  the  kingdom  is  the  Lord's,  and  he  is  go- 
vernor among  the  nations."  "  The  angels  that 
sinned  he  cast  down  to  hell,  and  delivered  them 
into  chains  of  darkness,  to  be  reserved  unto 
judgment.''  The  closing  scenes  of  this  world 
complete  these  transcendent  conceptions  of 
the  majesty  and  power  of  God.  The  dead  of 
all  ages  rise  from  their  graves  at  his  voice :  and 
the  sea  gives  up  the  dead  which  are  in  it.  Be- 
fore his  face  heaven  and  earth  fly  away ;  the 


stars  fall  from  heaven,  and  the  powers  of  hea. 
ven  are  shaken.  The  dead,  small  and  great, 
stand  before  God,  and  are  divided  as  a  shepherd 
divideth  the  sheep  from  the  goats.  The  wicked 
go  away  into  everlasting  punishment,  but  the 
righteous  into  life  eternal. 

4.  Of  these  amazing  views  of  the  omnipo- 
tence of  God,  spread  almost  through  every  page 
of  the  Scriptures,  the  power  lies  in  their  truth. 
They  are  not  eastern  exaggerations,  mistaken 
for  sublimity.  Every  thing  in  nature  answers 
to  them,  and  renews  from  age  to  age  the  energy 
of  the  impression  which  they  cannot  but  make 
on  the  reflecting  mind.  The  order  of  the  astral 
revolutions  indicates  the  constant  presence  of 
an  invisible  but  incomprehensible  power.  The 
seas  hurl  the  weight  of  their  billows  upon  the 
rising  shores,  but  every  where  find  a  "  bound 
fixed  by  a  perpetual  decree."  The  tides  reach 
their  height ;  if  they  flowed  on  for  a  few  hours, 
the  earth  would  change  places  with  the  bed  of 
the  sea  ;  but,  under  an  invisible  control,  they 
become  refluent.  The  expression,  "  He  touch- 
eth  the  mountains  and  they  smoke,"  is  not 
mere  imagery : — every  volcano  is  a  testimony 
of  its  truth ;  and  earthquakes  proclaim,  that, 
before  him,  "the  pillars  of  the  world  tremble." 
Men  collected  into  armies,  or  populous  nations, 
give  us  vast  ideas  of  human  power ;  but  let  an 
army  be  placed  amidst  the  sand  storms  and 
burning  winds  of  the  desert,  as,  in  the  east ; 
or,  before  "  his  frost,"  as  in  our  own  day  in 
Russia,  where  one  of  the  mightiest  armaments 
was  seen  retreating  before,  or  perishing  under, 
an  unexpected  visitation  of  snow  and  storm ; 
or  let  the  utterly  helpless  state  of  a  populous 
country  which  has  been  visited  by  famine,  or 
by  a  resistless  pestilential  disease,  be  reflected 
upon ;  and  we  feel  that  it  is  scarcely  a  figure 
of  speech  to  say,  that  "all  nations  before  him 
are  less  than  nothing  and  vanity." 

5.  Nor,  in  reviewing  this  doctrine  of  Scrip, 
ture,  ought  the  great  practical  uses  made  of  the 
omnipotence  of  God,  by  the  sacred  writers,  to 
be  overlooked.  By  them  nothing  is  said  for 
the  mere  display  of  knowledge,  as  in  Heathen 
writers;  and  we  have  no  speculations  without 
a  subservient  moral.  To  excite  and  keep  alive 
in  man  the  fear  and  worship  of  God,  and  to 
bring  him  to  a  felicitous  confidence  in  that 
almighty  power  which  pervades  and  controls 
all  things,  are  the  noble  ends  of  those  ample 
displays  of  the  omnipotence  of  God,  which  roll 
through  the  sacred  volume  with  a  sublimity 
that  inspiration  only  could  supply.  "  Declare 
his  glory  among  the  Heathen,  his  marvellous 
works  among  all  nations ;  for  great  is  the  Lord, 
and  greatly  to  be  praised. — Glory  and  honour 
are  in  his  presence,  and  strength  and  gladness 
in  his  place. — Give  unto  the  Lord,  ye  kindreds 
of  the  people,  give  unto  the  Lord  glory  and 
strength  ;  give  unto  the  Lord  the  glory  due  unto 
his  name. — The  Lord  is  my  light  and  my  sal- 
vation ;  whom  shall  I  fear  ? — The  Lord  is  the 
strength  of  my  life  ;  of  whom  shall  I  be  afraid  ? 
If  God  be  for  us,  who  then  can  be  against  us? 
Our  help  standeth  in  the  name  of  the  Lord,  who 
made  heaven  and  earth. — What  tune  I  am 
afraid,  I  will  tmst  in  thee." — Thus,  as  one  ob. 


ALM 


43 


ALM 


eerves,  "  our  natural  fears,  of  which  we  must 
have  many,  remit  us  to  God,  and  remind  us, 
since  we  know  what  God  is,  to  lay  hold  oxi  his 
almighty  power." 

6.  Ample,  however,  as  are  these  views  of  the 
power  of  God,  the  subject  is  not  exhausted. 
As,  when  the  Scriptures  speak  of  the  eternity 
of  God,  they  declare  it  so  as  to  give  us  a  mere 
glimpse  of  that  fearful  peculiarity  of  the  divine 
nature,  that  God  is  the  fountain  of  being  to 
himself,  and  that  he  is  eternal,  because  he  is 
the  "I  am;"  so  we  are  taught  not  to  measure 
God's  omnipotence  by  the  actual  displays  of  it 
which  we  see  around  us.  These  are  the  mani- 
festations of  the  fact,  but  not  the  measure  of 
the  attribute  ;  and  should  we  resort  to  the  dis- 
coveries of  modern  philosophy,  which,  by  the 
help  of  instruments,  has  so  greatly  enlarged 
the  known  boundaries  of  the  visible  universe, 
and  add  to  the  stars  which  are  visible  to  the 
naked  eye,  those  new  exhibitions  of  the  divine 
power  in  the  nebulous  appearances  of  the  hea- 
vens which  are  resolvable  into  myriads  of 
distinct  celestial  luminaries,  whose  immense 
distances  commingle  their  light  before  it  reach- 
es our  eyes ;  we  thus  almost  infinitely  expand 
the  circle  of  created  existence,  and  enter  upon 
a  formerly  unknown  and  overwhelming  range 
of  divine  operation.  But  still  we  are  only  re- 
minded, that  his  power  is  truly  almighty  and 
measureless — "  Lo,  all  these  are  parts  of  his 
ways ;  but  how  little  a  portion  is  known  of  him, 
and  the  thunder  of  his  power  who  can  under- 
stand '.'"  It  is  a  mighty  conception  that  we 
form  of  a  power  from  which  all  other  power  is 
derived,  and  to  which  it  is  subordinate ;  which 
nothing  can  oppose ;  which  can  beat  down 
and  annihilate  all  other  power  whatever; 
which  operates  in  the  most  perfect  manner,  at 
once,  in  an  instant,  with  the  utmost  ease ;  but 
the  Scriptures  lead  us  to  the  contemplation  of 
greater  and  even  unfathomable  depths.  The 
omnipotence  of  God  is  inconceivable  and 
boundless.  It  arises  from  the  infinite  perfec- 
tion of  God,  that  his  power  can  never  be  actu- 
ally exhausted ;  and,  in  every  imaginable  instant 
in  eternity,  that  inexhaustible  power  of  God 
can,  if  it  please  him,  be  adding  either  more 
creatures  to  those  in  existence,  or  greater  per- 
fection to  them;  since  "  it  belongs  to  self-exist- 
ent being,  to  be  always  full  and  communicative, 
and,  to  the  communicated  contingent  being,  to 
he  ever  empty  and  craving." 

7.  One  limitation  of  the  divine  power  it  is 
true  we  can  conceive,  but  it  detracts  nothing 
from  its  perfection.  Where  things  in  them- 
selves imply  a  contradiction,  as  that  a  body 
may  be  extended  and  not  extended,  in  a  certain 
place  and  not  in  it,  at  the  same  time ;  such 
things  cannot  be  done  by  God,  because  contra- 
dictions are  impossible  in  their  own  nature. 
Nor  is  it  any  derogation  from  the  divine  power 
to  say,  they  cannot  be  done ;  for  as  the  object 
of  the  understanding,  of  the  eye,  and  the  ear, 
is  that  which  is  intelligible,  visible,  and  audi- 
ble ;  so  the  object  of  power  must  be  that  which 
is  possible  ;  and  as  it  is  no  prejudice  to  the  most 
perfect  understanding,  or  sight,  or  hearing,  that 
it  does  not  understand  what  is  not  intelligible, 


or  see  what  is  not  visible,  or  hear  what  is  not 
audible  ;  so  neither  is  it  any  diminution  to  the 
most  perfect  power,  that  it  does  not  do  what  is 
not  possible.  In  like  manner,  God  cannot  do 
any  thing  that  is  repugnant  to  his  other  perfec- 
tions :  he  cannot  lie,  nor  deceive,  nor  deny 
himself;  for  this  would  be  injurious  to  his  truth. 
He  cannot  love  sin,  nor  punish  innocence ;  for 
this  would  destroy  his  holiness  and  goodness : 
and  therefore  to  ascribe  a  power  to  him  that  is 
inconsistent  with  the  rectitude  of  his  nature,  is 
not  to  magnify  but  debase  him ;  for  all  unright- 
eousness is  weakness,  a  defection  from  right 
reason,  a  deviation  from  the  perfect  rule  of  ac- 
tion, and  arises  from  a  want  of  goodness  and 
power.  In  a  word,  since  all  the  attributes  of 
God  are  essentially  the  same,  a  power  in  him 
which  tends  to  destroy  any  other  attribute  of 
the  divine  nature,  must  be  a  power  destructive 
of  itself.  Well,  therefore,  may  we  conclude  him 
absolutely  omnipotent,  who,  by  being  able  to 
effect  all  things  consistent  with  his  perfections, 
showeth  infinite  ability,  and,  by  not  being  able  to 
do  any  thing  repugnant  to  the  same  perfections, 
demonstrates  himself  subject  to  no  infirmity. 

8.  Nothing  certainly  in  the  finest  writings  of 
antiquity,  were  all  their  best  thoughts  collected 
as  to  the  majesty  and  power  of  God,  can  bear 
any  comparison  with  the  views  thus  presented 
to  us  by  divine  revelation.  Were  we  to  forget, 
for  a  moment,  what  is  the  fact,  that  their  noblest 
notions  stand  connected  with  fancies  and  vain 
speculations  which  deprive  them  of  their  force, 
still  their  thoughts  never  rise  so  high  ;  the  cur- 
rent is  broken,  the  round  of  lofty  conception  is 
not  completed,  and,  unconnected  as  their  views 
of  divine  power  were  with  the  eternal  destiny 
of  man,  and  the  very  reason  of  creation,  we 
never  hear  in  them,  as  in  the  Scriptures,  "the 

THUNDER  of  his  power." 

ALMOND  TREE,  yti.  Arabic,  lauz.  Trans- 
lated hazel,  Gen.  xxx,  37 ;  nptP,  rendered  almond, 
Gen.  xliii,  11;  Exod.  xxv,  33,  34;  xxxvii,  19, 
20  ;  Num.  xvii,  8 ;  Eccles.  xii,  5 ;  and  Jer.  i,  11. 
The  first  name  may  be  that  of  the  tree;  the 
other,  that  of  the  fruit,  or  nut. 

A  tree  resembling  the  peach  tree  in  its  leaves 
and  blossoms,  but  the  fruit  is  longer  and  more 
compressed,  the  outer  green  coat  is  thinner  and 
drier  when  ripe,  and  the  shell  of  the  stone  is 
not  so  rugged.  This  stone,  or  nut,  contains  a 
kernel,  which  is  the  only  esculent  part.  The 
whole  arrives  at  maturity  in  September,  when 
the  outer  tough  cover  splits  open  and  discharges 
the  nut.  From  the  circumstance  of  its  blossom- 
ing the  earliest  of  any  of  the  trees,  beginning 
as  soon  as  the  rigour  of  winter  is  past,  and  be- 
fore it  is  in  leaf,  it  has  its  Hebrew  name  shakad, 
which  comes  from  a  verb  signifying  to  make 
haste,  to  be  in  a  hurry,  or  to  awake  early.  To 
the  forwardness  of  the  almond  tree  there  seems 
to  be  a  reference  in  Jeremiah:  "The  word  of 
the  Lord  came  unto  me,  saying,  Jeremiah,  what 
seest  thou  ?  And  I  said,  I  see  a  rod  of  an  almond 
tree.  Then  said  the  Lord  unto  me,  Thou  hast 
well  seen  :  for  I  will  hasten  my  word  to  perform 
it ;"  or  rather,  "  I  am  hastening,  or  watching 
over  my  word  to  fulfil  it,"  Jer.  i,  11,  12.  In 
this  manner  it  is   rendered  by  the  Seventy* 


ALO 


44 


ALO 


anil  by  the  Vulgate,  Vigilabo  ego  super  verbum 
meum.  [I  will  watch  over  my  word.]  This  is 
the  first  vision  with  which  the  Prophet  was 
honoured ;  and  his  attention  is  roused  by  a  very 
significant  emblem  of  that  severe  correction 
with  which  the  Most  High  was  hastening  to 
visit  his  people  for  their  iniquity;  and  from  the 
species  of  tree  to  which  the  rod  belonged,  he  is 
warned  of  its  near  approach.  The  idea  which 
the  appearance  of  the  almond  rod  suggested  to 
his  mind,  is  confirmed  by  the  exposition  of  God 
himself:  "  I  am  watching  over,  or  on  account, 
of,  my  word  to  fulfil  it ;"  and  this  double  mode 
of  instruction,  first  by  emblem,  and  then  by 
exposition,  was  certainly  intended  to  make  a 
deeper  impression  on  the  mind  both  of  Jeremiah 
and  of  the  people  to  whom  he  was  sent. 

It  is  probable  that  the  rods  which  the  princes 
of  Israel  bore,  were  scions  of  the  almond  tree,  at 
once  the  ensign  of  their  office,  and  the  emblem 
of  their  vigilance.  Such,  we  know  from  the  testi- 
mony of  Scripture,  was  the  rod  of  Aaron ;  which 
renders  it  exceedingly  probable,  that  the  rods  of 
the  other  chiefs  were  from  the  same  tree. 

The  hoary  head  is  beautifully  compared  by 
Solomon  to  the  almond  tree,  covered  in  the  ear- 
liest days  of  spring  with  its  snow  white  flowers, 
before  a  single  leaf  has  budded  :  "The  almond 
tree  shall  flourish,  and  the  grasshopper  shall 
be  a  burden,  and  desire  shall  fail,"  Eccl.  xii,  5. 
Man  has  existed  in  this  world  but  a  few  days, 
when  old  age  begins  to  appear,  sheds  its  snows 
upon  his  head,  prematurely  nips  his  hopes, 
darkens  his  earthly  prospects,  and  hurries  him 
into  the  grave. 

ALMUG  TREE,  a  certain  kind  of  wood, 
mentioned  1  Kings,  x,  11;  2  Chron.  ii,  8;  ix, 
10,  11.  Jerom  and  the  Vulgate  render  it,  ligna 
thyina,  and  the  Septuagint  £i)A«  tzc^ckijtu,  wrought 
loood.  Several  critics  understand  it  to  mean 
gummy  wood ;  but  a  wood  abounding  in  resin 
must  be  very  unfit  for  the  uses  to  which  this  is 
said  to  be  applied.  Celsus  queries  if  it  be  not 
the  sandal;  but  Michaelis  thinks  the  particular 
species  of  wood  to  be  wholly  unknown  to  us. 
Dr.  Shaw  supposes  that  the  almugtree  was  the 
cypress;  and  he  observes  that  the  wood  of  this 
tree  is  still  used  in  Italy  and  other  places  for 
violins,  harpsichords,  and  other  stringed  instru- 
ments. 

ALOE,  i1?}',  a  plant  with  broad  leaves,  near- 
ly two  inches  thick,  prickly  and  serrated.  It 
grows  about  two  feet  high.  A  very  bitter  gum 
is  extracted  from  it,  used  for  medicinal  pur- 
poses, and  anciently  for  embalming  dead  bo- 
dies. Nicodemus  is  said,  John  xix,  39,  to  have 
brought  one  hundred  pounds'  weight  of  myrrh 
and  aloes  to  embalm  the  body  of  Jesus.  The 
quantity  has  been  exclaimed  against  by  certain 
Jews,  as  being  enough  for  filly  bodies.  But 
instead  of  Uutov  it  might  originally  have  been 
written  Hkcitov,  ten  pounds'  weight.  However, 
at  the  funeral  of  Herod  there  were  five  hundred 
ipwpuT6<]>o(»>s,  spice  hearers;  and  at  that  of  R.  Ga- 
maliel, eighty  pounds  of  opobalsamum  were  used. 

The  wood  which  God  showed  Moses,  that 
with  it  he  might  sweeten  the  waters  df  Marah, 
is  called  nlvah,  Exod.  xv,  25.  The  word  has 
some  relation  to  aloe ;  and  some  interpreters  are 


of  opinion  that  Moses  used  a  bitter  sort  of  wood, 
that  so  the  power  of  God  might  be  the  more 
remarkable.  Mr.  Bruce  mentions  a  town,  or 
large  village,  by  the  name  of  Elvah.  It  is  thickly 
planted  with  trees  ;  is  the  oasis  parva  of  the 
ancients;  and  the  last  inhabited  place  to  the 
west  that  is  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Egypt. 
He  also  observes  that  the  Arabs  call  a  shrub  or 
tree,  not  unlike  our  hawthorn,  either  in  wood 
or  flower,  by  the  name  of  elvah.  "  It  was  this," 
say  they,  "with  which  Moses  sweetened  the 
waters  of  Marah;  and  with  this,  too,  did  Kalib 
Ibn  el  Walid  sweeten  those  of  Elvah,  once  bit- 
ter, and  give  the  place  the  name  of  this  circum- 
stance." It  may  be  that  God  directed  Moses  to 
the  very  wood  proper  for  the  purpose.  M.  Nei- 
buhr,  when  in  these  parts,  inquired  after  wood 
capable  of  this  effect,  but  could  gain  no  informa- 
tion of  any  such.  It  will  not,  however,  from 
hence  follow  that  Moses  really  used  a  bitter 
wood  ;  but,  as  Providence  usually  works  by  the 
proper  and  fit  means  to  accomplish  its  ends,  it 
seems  likely  that  the  wood  he  made  use  of  was, 
in  some  degree  at  least,  corrective  of  that  quali- 
ty which  abounded  in  the  water,  and  so  rendered 
it  potable.  This  seems  to  have  been  the  opinion 
of  the  author  of  Ecclesiasticus,  xxxviii,  5.  That 
other  water,  also,  requires  some  correction,  and 
that  such  a  correction  is  applied  to  it,  appears 
from  the  custom  in  Egypt  in  respect  to  that  of 
the  Nile,  which,  though  somewhat  muddy,  is 
rendered  pure  and  salutary  by  being  put  into 
jars,  the  inside  of  which  is  rubbed  with  a  paste 
made  of  bitter  almonds.  The  first  discoverers 
of  the  Floridas  are  said  to  have  corrected  the 
stagnant  and  fetid  water  they  found  there,  by 
infusing  in  it  branches  of  sassafras;  and  it  is 
understood  that  the  first  inducement  of  the  Chi- 
nese to  the  general  use  of  tea,  was  to  correct 
the  water  of  their  ponds  and  rivers. 

The  Licn-Aloe,  or  agallochum,  Num.  xxiv, 
6 ;  Psalm  xlv,  9 ;  and  Cantic.  iv,  14.  r^r.N,  mas- 
culine, *?nN,  whose  plural  is  o^nN,  is  a  small 
tree  about  eight  or  ten  feet  high.  That  the 
flower  of  this  plant  yielded  a  fragrance,  is  assur- 
ed to  us  in  the  following  extract  from  Swin- 
burne's Travels,  letter  xii:  "This  morning, 
like  many  of  the  foregoing  ones,  was  delicious. 
The  sun  rose  gloriously  out  of  the  sea,  and  all 
the  air  around  was  perfumed  with  the  effluvia  of 
the  aloe,  as  its  rays  sucked  up  the  dew  from  the 
leaves."  This  extremely  bitter  plant  contains 
under  the  bark  three  sorts  of  wood.  The  first 
is  black,  solid,  and  weighty ;  the  second  is  of 
a  tawny  colour,  of  a  light  spongy  texture,  very 
porous,  and  filled  with  a  resin  extremely  fra- 
grant and  agreeable  ;  the  third  kind  of  wood, 
which  is  the  heart,  has  a  strong  aromatic  odour, 
and  is  esteemed  in  the  east  more  precious  than 
gold  itself.  It  is  used  for  perfuming  habits  and 
apartments,  and  is  administered  as  a  cordial  in 
fainting  and  epileptic  fits.  These  pieces,  called 
calunbac,  are  carefully  preserved  in  pewter 
boxes,  to  prevent  their  drying.  When  they  8 re 
used  they  are  ground  upon  a  marble  with  such 
liquids  as  are  best  suited  to  the  purpose  for 
which  they  are  intended.  This  wood,  mention- 
ed Cantic.  iv,  14,  in  conjunction  with  several 
other  odoriferous  plants  there  referred  to,  was 


ALT 


45 


ALT 


in  high  esteem  among  the  Hebrews  for  its  ex- 
quisite exhalations. 

The  scented  aloe,  and  each  shrub  that  showers 
Gum  from  its  veins,  and  odours  from  its  flowers. 
Thus  the  son  of  Sirach,  Ecclesiasticus  xxiv,  15  : 
"  I  gave  a  sweet  smell  like  the  cinnamon  and 
aspalathus.  I  yielded  a  pleasant  odour  like  the 
best  myrrh;  like  galbanum  and  onyx,  and 
fragrant  storax,  and  like  the  fume  of  frankin- 
cense in  the  tabernacle."  It  may  not  be  amiss 
to  observe  that  the  Persian  translator  renders 
ahalim,  sandal  wood ;  and  the  same  was  the 
opinion  of  a  certain  Jew  in  Arabia  who  was 
consulted  by  Neibuhr. 

ALPHA,  the  first  letter  of  the  Greek  alpha- 
bet ;  Omega  being  the  last  letter.  Hence 
Alpha  and  Omega  is  a  title  which  Christ  ap- 
propriates to  himself,  Rev.  i,  8 ;  xxi,  6  ;  xxii,  13 ; 
as  signifying  the  beginning  and  the  end,  the 
first  and  the  last,  and  thus  properly  denoting 
his  perfection  and  eternity. 

ALPHEUS,  father  of  James  the  less,  Matt. 
x,  3 ;  Luke  vi,  15.  Alpheus  was  the  husband 
of  Mary,  believed  to  have  been  sister  to  the 
mother  of  Christ ;  for  which  reason,  James  is 
called  the  Lord's  brother ;  but  the  term  brother 
is  too  general  in  its  application  to  fix  their 
relation,  though  the  fact  is  probable.  Many 
are  of  opinion  that  Cleopas,  mentioned  Luke 
xxiv,  18,  is  the  same  as  Alpheus ;  Alpheus  be- 
ing his  Greek  name,  and  Cleopas  his  Hebrew, 
or  Syriac  name,  according  to  the  custom  of 
this  province,  (or  of  the  time,)  where  men  often 
had  two  names ;  by  one  of  which  they  were 
known  to  their  friends  and  countrymen,  by  the 
other  to  the  Romans  or  strangers. 

2.  Alpheus,  father  of  Levi,  or  Matthew, 
whom  Jesus  took  to  be  an  Apostle  and  Evange- 
list, Mark  ii,  14. 

ALTAR.  Sacrifices  are  nearly  as  ancient 
as  worship,  and  altars  are  of  almost  equal  an- 
tiquity. Scripture  speaks  of  altars,  erected  by 
the  patriarchs,  without  describing  their  form, 
or  the  materials  of  which  they  were  composed. 
The  altar  which  Jacob  set  up  at  Bethel,  was 
the  stone  which  had  served  him  for  a  pillow ; 
Gideon  sacrificed  on  the  rock  before  his  house. 
The  first  altars  which  God  commanded  Moses 
to  raise,  were  of  earth  or  rough  stones ;  and  it 
was  declared  that  if  iron  were  used  in  con- 
structing them  they  would  become  impure, 
Exod.  xx,  24,  25.  The  altar  which  Moses 
enjoined  Joshua  to  build  on  Mount  Ebal,  was 
to  be  of  unpolished  stones,  Deut.  xxvii,  5 ;  Josh, 
viii,  31 ;  and  it  is  very  probable  that  such  were 
those  built  by  Samuel,  Saul,  and  David.  The 
altar  which  Solomon  erected  in  the  temple 
was  of  brass,  but  filled,  it  is  believed,  with 
rough  stones,  2  Chron.  iv,  1-3.  It  was  twenty 
cubits  long,  twenty  wide,  and  ten  high.  That 
built  at  Jerusalem,  by  Zerubbabel,  after  the 
return  from  Babylon,  was  of  rough  stones ;  as 
was  that  of  Maccabees.  Josephus  says  that 
the  altar  which  in  his  time  was  in  the  temple 
was  of  rough  stones,  fifteen  cubits  high,  forty 
long,  and  forty  wide. 

Among  the  Romans  altars  were  of  two  kinds, 
the  higher  and  the  lower;  the  higher  were 
intended  for  the  celestial  gods,  and  were  called 


altaria,  from  altus;  the  lower  were  for  tlio 
terrestrial  and  infernal  gods,  and  were  called 
arcs.  Those  dedicated  to  the  heavenly  gods 
were  raised  a  great  height  above,  the  surface  of 
the  earth ;  those  of  the  terrestrial  gods  were 
almost  even  with  the  surface ;  and  those  for 
the  infernal  deities  were  only  holes  dug  in  the 
ground  called  scrobiculi. 

Before  temples  were  in  use  the  altars  were 
placed  in  the  groves,  highways,  or  on  tops  of 
mountains,  inscribed  with  the  names,  ensigns, 
or  characters  of  the  respective  gods  to  whom 
they  belonged.  The  great  temples  at  Rome 
generally  contained  three  altars ;  the  first  in 
the  sanctuary,  at  the  foot  of  the  statue,  for 
incense  and  libations;  the  second  before  the 
gate  of  the  temple,  for  the  sacrifices  of  victims ; 
and  the  third  was  a  portable  one  for  the  offer- 
ings and  sacred  vestments  or  vessels  to  lie 
upon.  The  ancients  used  to  swear  upon  the 
altars  upon  solemn  occasions,  such  as  confirm- 
ing alliances,  treaties  of  peace-,  &c.  They 
were  also  places  of  refuge,  and  served  as  an 
asylum  and  sanctuary  to  all  who  fled  to  them, 
whatever  their  crimes  were. 

The  principal  altars  among  the  Jews  were 
those,  of  incense,  of  burnt-offering,  and  the 
altar  or  table  for  the  shew  bread.  The  altar 
of  incense  was  a  small  table  of  shittim  wood 
covered  with  plates  of  gold.  It  was  a  cubit 
long,  a  cubit  broad,  and  two  cubits  high.  At 
the  four  corners  were  four  horns.  The  priest, 
whose  turn  it  was  to  officiate,  burnt  incense  on 
this  altar,  at  the  time  of  the  morning  sacrifice 
between  the  sprinkling  of  the  blood  and  the 
laying  of  the  pieces  of  the  victim  on  the  altar 
of  burnt-offering.  He  did  the  same  also  in  the 
evening,  between  the  laying  of  the  pieces  on 
the  altar  and  the  drink-offering.  At  the  same 
time  the  people  prayed  in  silence,  and  their 
prayers  were  offered  up  by  the  priests.  The 
altar  of  burnt-offering  was  of  shittim  wood 
also,  and  carried  upon  the  shoulders  of  the 
priests,  by  staves  of  the  same  wood  overlaid 
with  brass.  In  Moses's  days  it  was  five  cubits 
square,  and  three  high :  but  it  was  greatly  en- 
larged in  the  days  of  Solomon,  being  twenty 
cubits  square,  and  ten  in  height.  It  was  cover- 
ed with  brass,  and  had  a  horn  at  each  corner 
to  which  the  sacrifice  was  tied.  This  altar  was 
placed  in  the  open  air,  that  the  smoke  might 
not  sully  the  inside  of  the  tabernacle  or  tem- 
ple. On  this  altar  the  holy  fire  was  renewed 
from  tune  to  time,  and  kept  constantly  burn- 
ing. Hereon,  likewise,  the  sacrifices  of  lambs 
and  bullocks  were  burnt,  especially  a  lamb 
every  morning  at  the  third  hour,  or  nine  of  the 
clock,  and  a  lamb  every  afternoon  at  three, 
Exod.  xx,  24,  25;  xxvii,  1,  2,  4;  xxxviii,  1. 
The  altar  of  burnt-offering  had  the  privilege  of 
being  a  sanctuary  or  place  of  refuge.  The 
wilful  murderer,  indeed,  sought  protection  there 
in  vain ;  for  by  the  express  command  of  God 
he  might  be  dragged  to  justice,  even  from  the 
altar.  The  altar  or  table  of  shew  bread  was  of 
shittim  wood  also,  covered  with  plates  of  gold, 
and  had  a  border  round  it  adorned  with  sculp- 
ture. It  was  two  cubits  long,  one  wide,  and 
one  and  a  half  in  height.     This  table  stood  in 


AMA 


46 


AMA 


tho  sanctum  sanctorum,  [holy  of  holies,]  and 
upon  it  were  placed  the  loaves  of  shew  bread. 
After  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  their  cap- 
tivity, and  the  building  of  the  second  temple, 
the  form  and  size  of  the  altars  were  somewhat 
changed. 

Sacrifices  according  to  the  laws  of  Moses, 
could  not  be  offered  except  by  the  priests ;  and 
at  any  other  place  than  on  the  altar  of  the 
tabernacle  or  the  temple.  Furthermore,  they 
were  not  to  be  offered  to  idols,  nor  with  any 
superstitious  rites.  See  Lev.  xvii,  1-7 ;  Deut. 
xii,  15,  16.  Without  these  precautionary  mea. 
sures,  the  true  religion  would  hardly  have  been 
secure.  If  a  different  arrangement  had  been 
adopted,  if  the  priests  had  been  scattered  about 
to  various  altars,  without  being  subjected  to  the 
salutary  restraint  which  would  result  from  a 
mutual  observation  of  each  other,  they  would 
no  doubt  some  of  them  have  willingly  con- 
sented to  the  worship  of  idols ;  and  others,  in 
their  separate  situation,  would  not  have  been 
in  a  condition  to  resist  the  wishes  of  the  multi- 
tude, had  those  wishes  been  wrong.  The 
necessity  of  sacrificing  at  one  altar,  (that  of 
the  tabernacle  or  temple,)  is  frequently  and 
emphatically  insisted  on,  Deut.  xii,  13,  14 ;  and 
all  other  altars  are  disapproved,  Lev.  xxvi,  30, 
compare  Joshua  xxii,  0-34.  Notwithstanding 
this,  it  appears  that,  subsequently  to  the  time 
of  Moses,  especially  in  the  days  of  the  kings, 
altars  were  multiplied ;  but  they  fell  under 
suspicions,  although  some  of  them  were  perhaps 
sacred  to  the  worship  of  the  true  God.  It  is, 
nevertheless,  true,  that  prophets,  whose  cha- 
racters were  above  all  suspicion,  sacrificed,  in 
some  instances,  in  other  places  than  the  one 
designated  by  the  laws,  1  Sam.  xiii,  3-14; 
xvi,  1-5  ;  1  Kings  xviii,  21-40. 

AMALEKITES,  a  people  whose  country 
adjoined  the  southern  border  of  the  land  of 
Canaan,  in  the  north-western  part  of  Arabia 
Petraea.  They  are  generally  supposed  to  have 
been  the  descendants  of  Amalek,  the  son  of 
Eliphaz,  and  grandson  of  Esau.  But  Moses 
6peaks  of  the  Amalekites  long  before  this 
Amalek  was  born ;  namely  in  the  days  of 
Abraham,  when  Chcdorlaomer,  king  of  Elam, 
devastated  their  country,  Gen.  xiv,  7  ;  from 
which  it  may  be  inferred  that  there  was  some 
other  and  more  ancient  Amalek,  from  whom 
this  people  sprang.  The  Arabians  have  a 
tradition  that  this  Amalek  was  a  son  of  Ham ; 
and  when  we  consider  that  so  early  as  the 
march  from  Egypt  the  Amalekites  were  a  peo- 
ple powerful  enough  to  attack  the  Israelites,  it 
is  far  more  probable  that  they  should  derive 
their  ancestry  from  Ham,  than  from  the  then 
recent  stock  of  the  grandson  of  Esau.  It  may 
also  be  said,  that  tbe  character  and  fate  of  this 
people  were  more  consonant  with  the  dealings 
of  Providence  toward  the  families  of  the  for- 
mer. This  more  early  origin  of  the  Amalek- 
ites will  likewise  explain  why  Balaam  called 
them  the  "  first  of  the  nations." 

They  are  supposed  by  some  to  have  been  a 
party  or  tribe  of  the  shepherds  who  invaded 
Egypt,  and  kept  it  in  subjection  for  two  hundred 
years.     This  will  agree  with  the  Arabian  tra- 


dition as  to  their  descent.  It  also  agrees  with 
their  pastoral  and  martial  habits,  as  well  as 
with  their  geographical  position;  which  was 
perhaps  made  choice  of  on  their  retiring  from 
Egypt,  adjoining  that  of  their  countrymen  the 
Philistines,  whose  history  is  very  similar.  It 
also  furnishes  a  motive  for  their  hostility  to  the 
Jews,  and  their  treacherous  attempt  to  destroy 
them  in  the  desert.  The  ground  of  this  hos- 
tility has  been  very  generally  supposed  to  have 
been  founded  in  the  remembrance  of  Jacob's 
depriving  their  progenitor  of  his  birthright. 
But  we  do  not  find  that  the  Edomitcs,  who  had 
this  ground  for  a  hatred  to  the  Jews,  made  any 
attempt  to  molest  them,  nor  that  Moses  ever 
reproaches  the  Amalekites  for  attacking  the 
Israelites  as  their  brethren  ;  nor  do  we  ever 
find  in  Scripture  that  the  Amalekites  joined 
with  the  Edomites,  but  always  with  the  Ca- 
naanites  and  the  Philistines.  These  consider- 
ations would  be  sufficient,  had  we  no  other 
reasons  for  believing  them  not  to  be  of  the  stock 
of  Esau.  They  may,  however,  be  deduced 
from  a  higher  origin ;  and  viewing  them  as 
Cuthite  shepherds  and  warriors,  we  have  an 
adequate  explanation  both  of  their  imperious 
and  warlike  character,  and  of  the  motive  of 
their  hostility  to  the  Jews  in  particular.  If 
expelled  with  the  rest  of  their  race  from  Egypt, 
they  could  not  but  recollect  the  fatal  overthrow 
at  the  Red  Sea;  and  if  not  participators  in  that 
catastrophe,  still,  as  members  of  the  same' 
family,  they  must  bear  this  event  in  remem- 
brance with  bitter  feelings  of  revenge.  But  an 
additional  motive  is  not  wanting  for  this  hos- 
tility, especially  for  its  first  act.  The  Amalek- 
ites probably  knew  that  the  Israelites  were 
advancing  to  take  possession  of  the  land  of 
Canaan,  and  resolved  to  frustrate  the  purposes 
of  God  in  this  respect.  Hence  they  did  not 
wait  for  their  near  approach  to  that  country, 
but  came  down  from  their  settlements,  on  its 
southern  borders,  to  attack  them  unawares  at 
Rephidim.  Be  this  as  it  may,  the  Amalekites 
came  on  the  Israelites,  when  encamped  at  that 
place,  little  expecting  such  an  assault.  Moses 
commanded  Joshua,  with  a  chosen  band,  to 
attack  the  Amalekites;  while  he,  with  Aaron 
and  Hur,  went  up  the  mountain  Horeb.  During 
the  engagement,  Moses  held  up  his  hands  to 
heaven ;  and  so  long  as  they  were  maintained 
in  this  attitude,  the  Israelites  prevailed,  but 
when  through  weariness  they  fell,  the  Ama- 
lekites prevailed.  Aaron  and  Hur,  seeing  this, 
held  up  his  hands  till  the  latter  were  entirely 
defeated  with  great  slaughter,  Exod.  xvii. 

The  Amalekites  were  indeed  the  earliest  and 
the  most  bitter  enemies  the  Jews  had  to  en- 
counter. They  attacked  them  in  the  desert ; 
and  sought  every  opportunity  afterward  of 
molesting  them.  Under  the  judges,  the  Ama- 
lekites, in  conjunction  with  the  Midianites, 
invaded  the  land  of  Israel ;  when  they  were 
defeated  by  Gideon,  Judges  vi,  vii.  But  God, 
for  their  first  act  of  treachery,  had  declared 
that  he  would  "utterly  put  out  the  remem- 
brance of  Amalek  from  under  heaven ;"  a 
denunciation  which  was  not  long  after  accom- 
plished.     Saul  destroyed   their  entire   army. 


AMA 


47 


AMB 


with  the  exception  of  Agag  their  king ;  for 
sparing  whom,  and  permitting  the  Israelites  to 
take  the  spoil  of  their  foes,  he  incurred  the 
displeasure  of  the  Lord,  who  took  the  sceptre 
from  him.  Agag  was  immediately  afterward 
hewn  in  pieces  by  Samuel,  1  Sam.  xv.  It  is 
remarkable,  that  most  authors  make  Saul's 
pursuit  of  the  Amalekites  to  commence  from 
the  lower  Euphrates,  instead  of  from  the.  south- 
ern border  of  the  land  of  Canaan.  (See  Havi- 
lah.)  David  a  few  years  after,  defeated  another 
of  their  armies ;  of  whom  only  four  hundred 
men  escaped  on  camels,  1  Sam.  xxx ;  after 
which  event,  the  Amalekites  appear  to  have 
been  obliterated  as  a  nation. 

AM  ASA,  the  son  of  Ithra  and  Abigail,  Da- 
vid's sister,  whom  Absalom,  when  he  rebelled 
against  his  father,  appointed  general  of  his 
army,  2  Sam.  xvii,  25.  Amasa  having  thus  re- 
ceived the  command  of  Absalom's  troops,  engag- 
ed his  cousin  Joab,  general  of  David's  army, 
and  was  worsted.  But,  after  the  defeat  of  Ab- 
salom's party,  David,  being  angry  at  Joab  for 
killing  Absalom,  pardoned  Amasa,  and  gave 
him  the  command  of  his  own  army.  Upon  the 
revolt  of  Sheba,  the  son  of  Bichri,  David  gave 
orders  to  Amasa  to  assemble  all  Judah  and 
inarch  against  Sheba.  Amasa  not  being  able  to 
form  his  army  in  the  time  prescribed,  David 
directed  Abishai  to  pursue  Sheba  with  the 
guards.  Joab,  with  his  people,  accompanied 
him  ;  and  these  troops  were  scarcely  got  as  far 
as  the  great  stone  in  Gibeon,  before  Amasa  came 
and  joined  them  with  his  forces.  Then  said 
Joab  to  Amasa,  "Art  thou  in  health,  my  bro- 
ther ?"  and  took  him  by  the  beard  with  his  right 
hand  to  kiss  him ;  and  treacherously  smote  him 
under  the  fifth  rib,  so  that  he  expired. 

AMAZIAH,  one  of  the  kings  of  Judah,  2 
Chron.  xxiv,  27,  son  of  Joash,  succeeded  his 
father  A.  M.  31G5,  B.  C.  839.  He  was  twenty- 
five-years  of  age  when  he  began  to  reign,  and 
reigned  twenty-nine  years  at  Jerusalem.  "  He 
did  good  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord,  but  not  with 
a  perfect  heart."  When  settled  in  his  kingdom, 
he  put  to  death  the  murderers  of  his  father,  but 
avoided  a  barbarous  practice  then  too  common, 
to  destroy  also  their  children  ;  in  which  he  had 
respect  to  the  precept,  "  The  fathers  shall  not 
be  put  to  death  for  the  children,  neither  shall 
the  children  be  put  to  death  for  the  fathers; 
every  man  shall  be  put  to  death  for  his  own 
sin,"  Deut.  xxiv,  16;  2  Chron.  xxv,  1-3. 

In  the  muster  which  Amaziah  made  of  his 
people,  he  found  three  hundred  thousand  men 
able  to  bear  arms.  He  hired,  besides,  one  hun- 
dred thousand  men  of  Israel ;  for  which  he  paid 
the  king  of  Israel  a  hundred  talents,  about 
thirty-four  thousand  pounds  English.  His  de- 
sign was  to  employ  these  troops  against  Edom, 
which  had  revolted  from  Judah,  in  the  reign  of 
Joram,  about  fifty-four  years  before,  2  Kings, 
viii,  20.  But  a  prophet  of  the  Lord  came  to 
him,  and  said,  "  O  king,  let  not  the  army  of 
Israel  go  with  thee;  for  the  Lord  is  not  with 
Israel."  Amaziah,  hereupon,  sent  back  those 
troops  ;  and  they  returning,  strongly  irritated 
against  Amaziah,  dispersed  themselves  over  the 
cities  of  Judah,  from   Bethoron  to   Samaria, 


killed  three  thousand  men,  and  carried  off  a 
great  booty,  to  make  themselves  amends  for 
the  loss  of  the  plunder  of  Edom.  Amaziah, 
with  his  own  forces  gave  battle  to  the  Edom- 
ites  in  the  Valley  of  Salt,  and  defeated  them ; 
but  having  thus  punished  Edom,  and  taken  their 
idols,  he  adored  them  as  his  own  deities.  This 
provoked  the  Lord,  who  permitted  Amaziah  to 
be  so  blinded  as  to  believe  himself  invincible. 
He  therefore  sent  to  defy  the  king  of  Israel, 
saying,  "Come,  let  us  look  one  another  in  the 
face."  The  motive  of  this  challenge  was  pro. 
bably  to  oblige  Joash,  king  of  Israel,  to  repair 
the  ravages  which  his  troops  had  committed 
on  their  return  homewards.  Joash  answered 
him  by  the  fable  of  the  cedar  of  Lebanon,  and 
the  thistle  trodden  down  by  a  beast,  2  Kings 
xiv,  8,  9.  But  Amaziah,  deaf  to  these  reason- 
ings, advanced  to  Bethshemesh,  and  was  defeat- 
ed and  taken  prisoner  there,  by  Joash,  who 
carried  him  to  Jerusalem.  Joash  ordered  the 
demolition  of  four  hundred  cubits  of  the  city 
wall,  carried  to  Samaria  all  the  gold  and  silver, 
the  rich  vessels  of  the  house  of  God,  the  trea- 
suries of  the  royal  palace,  and  the  sons  of  those 
among  his  own  people  who  had  been  hostages 
there.  Amaziah  reigned  after  this,  fifteen  or 
sixteen  years  at  Jerusalem,  but  returned  not  to 
the  Lord.  He  endeavoured  to  escape  from  a 
conspiracy  to  Lachish  ;  but  was  assassinated. 
He  was  buried  witli  his  ancestors  in  the  city  of 
David,  and  Uzziah,  or  Azariah,  his  son,  about 
sixteen  years  of*  age,  succeeded  him. 

AMBASSADOR,  a  messenger  sent  by  a 
sovereign,  to  transact  affairs  of  great  moment. 
Ministers  of  the  Gospel  are  called  ambassadors, 
because,  in  the  name  of  Jesus  Christ  the  King 
of  kings,  they  declare  his  will  to  men,  and  pro- 
pose the  terms  of  their  reconciliation  to  God, 
2  Cor.  v,  20 ;  Eph.  vi,  20.  Eliakim,  Shebna, 
and  Joah,  the  servants  of  king  Hezekiah,  were 
called  "  ambassadors  of  peace."  In  their  mas- 
ter's name  they  earnestly  solicited  a  peace  from 
the  Assyrian  monarch,  but  were  made  "  to  weep 
bitterly"  with  the  disappointment  and  refusal, 
Isaiah  xxxiii,  7. 

AMBER,  Voc-n,  Ezek.  i,  4,  27  ;  viii,  2.  The 
amber  is  a  hard  inflammable  bitumen.  When 
rubbed  it  is  highly  endowed  with  that  remark- 
able property  called  electricity,  a  word  which 
the  moderns  have  formed  from  its  Greek  name 
t]\fKTpov.  But  the  ancients  had  also  a  mixed 
metal  of  fine  copper  and  silver,  resembling  the 
amber  in  colour,  and  called  by  the  same  name. 
From  the  version  of  Ezekiel  i,  4,  by  the  LXX, 

Ka(  iv  rw  fjn'cui  avrv  to;  bpaais  iiXeierpa  iv  piatp  tov  Kupds, 

"And  in  the  midst  of  it  as  the  appearance  of 
electrum  in  the  midst  of  the  fire,"  it  appears  that 
those  translators  by  rjXiicrpov,  could  not  mean 
amber,  which  grows  dim  as  soon  as  it  feels  the 
fire,  and  quickly  dissolves  into  a  resinous  or 
pitchy  substance ;  but  the  mixed  metal  above 
mentioned,  which  is  much  celebrated  by  the 
ancients  for  its  beautiful  lustre,  and  which, 
when  exposed  to  the  fire  like  other  metals, 
grows  more  bright  and  shining.  St.  Jerom, 
Theodoret,  St.  Gregory  and  Origen  think,  that, 
in  the  above  cited  passages  from  Ezekiel,  a 
precious  and  highly  polished  metal  is  meant. 


AMM 


48 


AMM 


AMEN.  }DM,  in  Hebrew,  signifies  true,  faith- 
ful, certain.  It  is  used  likewise  in  affirmation  ; 
and  was  often  thus  employed  by  our  Saviour  : 
"  Ainen,  amen,"  that  is,  "  Verily,  verily."  It  is 
also  understood  as  expressing  a  wish,  "Amen! 
so  be  it!"  or  an  affirmation,  "Amen,  yes,  I 
believe  it:"  Num.  v,  22.  iShe  shall  answer, 
"Amen!  Amen!"  Deut.  xxvii,  15,  1G,  17,  &c. 
"  All  the  people  shall  answer,  Amen  !  Amen  !" 
1  Cor.  xiv,  lb*.  "  How  shall  he  who  ocoupieth 
the  place  of  the  unlearned,  say,  Amen !  at  thy 
giving  of  thanks  ?  seeing  he  understandeth  not 
what  thou  sayest."  "  The  promises  of  God  are 
Amen  in  Christ;"  that  is,  certain,  confirmed, 
granted,  2  Cor.  i,  20.  The  Hebrews  end  the 
five  books  of  Psalms,  according  to  their  distri- 
bution of  them,  with  "Amen,  amen;"  which 
the  Septuagint  translate,  Thotro,  yevoiro,  and  the 
Latins,  Fiat,  fiat.  The  Gospels,  &c,  are  ended 
with  amen.  The  Greek,  Latin,  and  other 
churches,  preserve  this  word  in  their  prayers, 
as  well  as  alleluia  and  hosanna.  At  the  conclu- 
sion of  the  public  prayers,  the  people  anciently 
answered  with  a  loud  'voice,  "  Amen !"  and 
Jerom  says,  that,  at  Rome,  when  the  people 
answered,  "Amen!"  the  sound  was  like  a  clap 
of  thunder,  in  similitudiriem  ccelestis  lonilrui 
Amen  reboot.  [Amen  rings  again  like  a  peal 
of  thunder.]  The  Jews  assert  that  the  gates 
of  heaven  are  opened  to  him  who  answers, 
"  Amen  !"  with  all  his  might. 

The  Jewish  doctors  give  three  rules  for  pro- 
nouncing the  word :  1.  That  it  be  not  pronounc- 
ed too  hastily  and  rapidly,  but  with  a  grave  and 
distinct  voice.  2.  That  it  be  not  louder  than 
the  tone  of  him  that  blesses.  3.  That  it  be  ex- 
pressed in  faith,  with  a  certain  persuasion  that 
God  would  bless  them,  and  hear  their  prayers. 

Amen  is  a  title  of  our  Lord ,  "  The  Amen, 
the  true  and  faithful  witness,"  Rev.  i,  14. 

AMETHYST,  fpit»,  Exod.xxviii,  19;  and 
xxix,  12  ;  and  once  in  the  New  Testament,  Rev. 
xxi,  20,  afxidv^og. 

A  transparent  gem,  of  a  colour  which  seems 
composed  of  a  strong  blue  and  deep  red ;  and, 
according  as  either  prevails,  affords  different 
tinges  of  purple,  sometimes  approaching  to  vio- 
let, and  sometimes  even  fading  to  a  rose  colour. 
The  stone  called  amethyst  by  the  ancients  was 
evidently  the  same  with  that  now  generally 
known  by  this  name  ;  which  is  far  from  being 
the  case  with  regard  to  some  other  gems.  The 
oriental  is  the  hardest,  scarcest,  and  most  valu- 
able. It  was  the  ninth  stone  in  the  pectoral  of 
the  high  priest,  and  is  mentioned  as  the  twelfth 
in  the  foundations  of  the  New  Jerusalem. 

AMMINADAB,  or  ABINADAB,  a  Levite, 
and  an  inhabitant  of  Kirjath-jearim,  with  whom 
the  ark  was  deposited  after  it  was  brought  back 
from  the  land  of  the  Philisl  ines,  1  Sam.  vii.  This 
Amminadafa  dwelt  in  Gibeath,  that  is  to  say,  in 
the  highest  part  of  the  city  of  Kirjath-jearim. 

2.  The  chariots  of  Amniinadab  arc  mention- 
ed, Canticles  vi,  12,  as  being  extremely  light. 
He  is  thought  to  have  been  some  celebrated 
charioteer,  whose  horses  were  singularly  swift. 

AMMON,  or  HAMMON,  or  JUPITER- 
AM  MON,  an  epithet  given  to  Jupiter  in  Lybia, 
where  was  a  celebrated  temple  of  that  deity 


under  the  denomination  of  Jupiter  Amnion, 
which  was  visited  by  Alexander  the  Great. 

The  word  Amoun,  which  imports  "shining," 
according  to  Jablonski,  denoted  the  effects  pro- 
duced  by  the  sun  on  attaining  the  equator,  such 
as  the  increase  of  the  days ;  a  more  splendid 
light ;  and,  above  all,  the  fortunate  presage  of 
the  inundation  of  the  Nile,  and  its  consequent 
abundance. 

Amnion  is  by  others  derived  from  Ham,  the 
son  of  Noah,  who  first  peopled  Egypt  and  Lybia, 
after  the  flood ;  and,  when  idolatry  began  to 
gain  ground  soon  after  this  period,  became  the 
chief  deity  of  those  two  countries,  in  which  his 
descendants  continued.  A  temple,  it  is  said, 
was  built  to  his  honour,  in  the  midst  of  the 
sandy  deserts  of  Lybia,  unon  a  spot  of  good 
ground,  about  two  leagues  broad,  which  form- 
ed  a  kind  of  island  or  oasis  in  a  sea  of  sand. 
He  was  esteemed  the  Zeus  of  Greece,  and  the 
Jupiter  of  Latium,  as  well  as  the  Amnion  of  the 
Egyptians.  In  process  of  time,  these  two  names 
were  joined ;  and  he  was  called  Jupiter  Amnion. 
For  this  reason  the  city  of  Amnion,  No-ammon, 
or  the  city  of  Ham,  was  called  by  the' Greeks 
Diospolis,  or  the  city  of  Jupiter.  Plutarch  says, 
that  of  all  the  Egyptian  deities  which  seemed 
to  have  any  correspondence  with  the  Zeus  of 
Greece,  Anion  or  Amnion  was  the  most  pecu- 
liar and  appropriate.  From  Egypt  his  name  and 
worship  were  brought  into  Greece;  as  indeed 
were  almost  all  the  names  of  all  the  deities  that 
were  there  worshipped.  Jupiter  Amnion,  or 
the  Egyptian  Jupiter,  was  usually  represented 
under  the  figure  of  a  ram ;  though  in  some 
medals  he  appears  of  a  human  shape,  having 
only  two  rain's  horns  growing  out  beneath  his 
ears.  The  Egyptians,  says  Proclus,  in  the 
Timasus  of  Plato,  had  a  singular  veneration  for 
the  ram,  because  the  image  of  Amnion  bore  its 
head,  and  because  this  first  sign  of  the  zodiac  was 
the  presage  of  the  fruits  of  the  earth.  Eusebius 
adds,  that  this  symbol  marked  the  conjunction 
of  the  sun  and  moon  in  the  sign  of  the  ram. 

2.  Ammon,  or  Ben-Ammi,  the  son  of  Lot,  by 
his  youngest  daughter,  Gen.  xix,  38.  He  was 
the  father  of  the  Ammonites,  and  dwelt  on  the 
east  side,  of  the  Dead  Sea,  in  the  mountains  of 
Gilead. 

AMMONIANS,  the  disciples  of  Ammonius 
Saccas,  of  the  Alexandrian  school.  His  cha- 
racter was  so  equivocal,  that  it  is  disputed 
whether  he  was  a  Heathen  or  a  Christian.  Mr. 
Milner  calls  him  "a  Pagan  Christian,"  who 
imagined  "that,  all  religions,  vulgar  and  philo- 
sophical, Grecian  and  barbarous,  Jewish  and 
Gentile,  meant  the  same  thing  in  substance. 
He  undertook,  by  allegorizing  and  subtilizing 
various  fables  and  systems,  to  make  up  a  coali- 
tion of  all  sects  and  religions ;  and  from  his 
labours,  continued  by  his  disciples, — some  of 
whose  works  still  remain, — his  followers  were 
taught  to  look  on  Jew,  philosopher,  vulgar, 
Pagan,  and  Christian,  as  all  of  the  same  creed," 
and  worshippers  of  the  same  God,  whether  de- 
nominated "Jehovah,  Jove,  or  Lord." 

AMMONITES,  the  descendants  of  Ammon, 
the  son  of  Lot.  They  took  possession  of  the 
country   called   by   their  name,  after  having 


AMM 


49 


AMM 


driven  out  the  Zamzummims,  who  were  its 
ancient  inhabitants.  The  precise  period  at 
which  this  expulsion  took  place  is  not  ascer- 
tained. The  Ammonites  had  kings,  and  were 
uncircumcised,  Jer.  ix,  25,  26,  and  seem  to 
have  been  principally  addicted  to  husbandry. 
They,  as  well  as  the  Moabites,  were  among  the 
nations  whose  peace  or  prosperity  the  Israelites 
were  forbidden  to  disturb,  Deut.  ii,  19,  &c. 
However,  neither  the  one  nor  the  other  were 
to  be  admitted  into  the  congregation  to  the 
tenth  generation,  because  they  did  not  come 
out  to  relieve  them  in  the  wilderness,  and  were 
implicated  in  hiring  Balaam  to  curse  them. 
Their  chief  and  peculiar  deity  is,  in  Scripture, 
called  Moloch.  Chemosh  was  also  a  god  of 
the  Ammonites.  Before  the  Israelites  entered 
Canaan,  the  Amorites  conquered  a  great  part 
of  the  country  belonging  to  the  Ammonites 
and  Moabites  ;  but  it  was  retaken  by  Moses,  and 
divided  between  the  tribes  of  Gad  and  Reuben. 
Previous  to  the  time  of  Jephthah,  B.  C.  1188, 
the  Ammonites  engaged  as  principals  in  a  war, 
under  a  king  whose  name  is  not  given,  against 
the  Israelites.  This  prince,  determining  to  re- 
cover the  ancient  country  of  the  Ammonites, 
made  a  sudden  irruption  into  it,  reduced  the 
land,  and  kept  the  inhabitants  in  subjection  for 
eighteen  years.  He  afterward  crossed  Jordan 
with  a  design  of  falling  upon  the  tribes  of 
Judah,  Benjamin,  and  Ephraim.  The  Israel- 
ites resisted  the  invader ;  and,  assembling  at 
Mizpeh,  chose  Jephthah  for  their  general,  and 
sent  an  expostulatory  message  to  the  king  of 
the  Ammonites,  Judges  x,  xi.  The  king  re- 
plied, that  those  lands  belonged  to  the  Ammon- 
ites, who  had  been  unjustly  dispossessed  of 
them  by  the  Israelites,  when  they  came  out  of 
Egypt,  and  exhorted  Jephthah  to  restore  them 
peaceably  to  the  lawful  owners.  Jephthah  re- 
monstrated on  the  injustice  of  his  claim ;  but 
finding  a  war  inevitable,  he  fell  upon  the  Am- 
monites near  Aroer,  and  defeated  them  with 
great  slaughter.  On  this  occasion  the  Ammon- 
ites lost  twenty  cities ;  and  thus  an  end  was 
put,  after  eighteen  years'  bondage,  to  the 
tyranny  of  Ammon  over  the  Israelites  beyond 
Jordan.  In  the  days  of  Saul,  1  Sam.  xi,  B.  C. 
1095,  the  old  claim  of  the  Ammonites  was  re- 
vived by  Nahash  their  king,  and  they  laid  siege 
to  the  city  of  Jabesh.  The  inhabitants  were 
inclined  to  acknowledge  Nahash  as  their  sove- 
reign ;  but  he  would  accept  their  submission 
only  on  condition  that  every  one  of  them 
should  consent  to  lose  his  right  eye,  and  that 
thus  he  might  fix  a  lasting  reproach  upon 
Israel :  but  from  this  humiliating  and  severe 
requisition  they  were  delivered  by  Saul,  who 
vanquished  and  dispersed  the  army  of  Nahash. 
Upon  the  death  of  Nahash,  David  sent  ambas- 
sadors to  his  son  and  successor  Hanun,  to  con- 
gratulate him  on  his  accession ;  but  these 
ambassadors  were  treated  as  spies,  and  dis- 
missed in  a  very  reproachful  manner,  2  Sam.  x. 
This  indignity  was  punished  by  David  with 
rigour.  Rabbah,  the  capital  of  Hanun,  and 
the  other  cities  of  Ammon,  which  resisted  the 
progress  of  the  conqueror,  were  destroyed  and 
razed  to  the  ground  ;  and  the  inhabitants  were 
5 


put  to  death  or  reduced  to  servitude.  In  the 
reign  of  Jehoshaphat  the  Ammonites  united 
with  their  brethren,  the  Moabites,  and  tho 
inhabitants  of  Mount  Seir,  against  the  king  of 
Judah ;  but  they  were  completely  routed.  They 
were  afterward  overthrown  by  Uzziah,  king 
of  Judah,  and  made  tributary,  2  Chron.  xxvi, 
8 ;  and  rebelling  in  the  reign  of  his  son  Jotham, 
they  were  reduced  to  the  necessity  of  purchas- 
ing peace  at  a  very  dear  rate.  After  the  tribes 
of  Reuben,  Gad,  and  the  half  tribe  of  Manas, 
seh,  were  carried  into  captivity  by  Tiglath 
Pileser,  B.  C.  740,  the  Ammonites  and  Moab- 
ites took  possession  of  the  cities  belonging  to 
these  tribes,  and  were  reproached  for  it  by 
Jeremiah,  xlix,  1.  Their  ambassadors  were 
exhorted  to  submit  to  Nebuchadnezzar,  and 
threatened,  on  their  refusal,  with  captivity  and 
slavery,  Jer.  xxvii,  2,  3, 4.  The  Prophet  Ezekiel, 
xxv,  4-10,  denounces  their  entire  destruction, 
and  informs  them,  that  God  would  deliver  them 
up  to  the  people  of  the  east ;  and  that  the  Am- 
monites should  no  more  be  mentioned  among 
the  nations :  and  this  punishment  they  were  to 
suffer  for  insulting  the  Israelites  on  account  of 
their  calamities,  and  the  destruction  of  their 
temple  by  the  Chaldeans.  This  malediction 
began  to  be  inflicted  upon  them  in  the  fifth 
year  after  the  taking  of  Jerusalem,  when  Nebu- 
chadnezzar made  war  against  aH  tho  people 
around  Judea,  A.  M.  3420  or  3421,  B.  C.  583. 
It  is  probable  that  Cyrus  granted  to  the  Ammon- 
ites and  Moabites  liberty  to  return  into  their 
own  country,  whence  they  had  been  removed 
by  Nebuchadnezzar ;  for  they  were  exposed  to 
the  revolutions  that  were  common  to  the  peo- 
ple of  Syria  and  Palestine,  and  were  subject 
sometimes  to  the  kings  of  Egypt,  and  some- 
times to  the  kings  of  Syria.  Polybius  informs 
us,  that  Antiochus  the  Great  took  Rabboth,  or 
Philadelphia,  the  capital  of  the  Ammonites, 
demolished  the  walls,  and  put  a  garrison  into 
it,  A.  M.  3806,  B.  C.  198.  During  the  persecu- 
tions of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  the  Ammonites 
manifested  their  hatred  to  the  Jews,  and  exer- 
cised great  cruelties  against  such  of  them  as 
lived  in  their  parts.  At  length  their  city  Jaser, 
and  the  neighbouring  town,  fell  a  prey  to  the 
Jews,  who  smote  the  men,  carried  their  wives 
and  children  into  captivity,  and  plundered  and 
burned  the  city.  Thus  ended  their  last  conflict 
with  the  descendants  of  Israel.  Ammon  was, 
however,  a  highly  productive  and  populous 
country  when  the  Romans  became  masters  of 
all  the  provinces  of  Syria ;  and  several  of  tho 
ten  allied  cities,  which  gave  name  to  the  cele- 
brated Decapolis,  were  included  within  its 
boundaries.  Even  when  first  invaded  by  the 
Saracens,  this  country,  including  Moab,  was 
enriched  by  the  various  benefits  of  trade, 
covered  with  a  line  of  forts,  and  possessed  some 
strong  and  populous  cities.  Volney  bears  wit- 
ness, "that  in  the  immense  plains  of  the  Hau- 
ran,  ruins  are  continually  to  be  met  with,  and 
that  what  is  said  of  its  actual  fertility  perfectly 
corresponds  with  the  idea  given  of  it  in  the 
Hebrew  writings."  The  fact  of  its  natural  fer- 
tility is  corroborated  by  every  traveller  who  has 
visited  it.    And  "  it  is  evident,"  says  Burck- 


AMM 


50 


AMM 


hardt,  "  that  the  whole  country  must  have  been 
extremely  well  cultivated  in  order  to  have 
afforded  subsistence  to  the  inhabitants  of  so 
many  towns,"  as  are  now  visible  only  in  their 
ruins.  While  the  fruitfulness  of  the  land  of 
Amnion,  and  the  high  degree  of  prosperity  and 
power  in  which  it  subsisted  long  prior  and  long 
subsequent  to  the  date  of  the  predictions,  are 
thus  indisputably  established  by  historical  evi- 
dence and  by  existing  proofs,  the  researches  of 
recent  travellers  (who  were  actuated  by  the 
mere  desire  of  exploring  these  regions  and  ob- 
taining geographical  information)  have  made 
known  its  present  aspect ;  and  testimony  the 
most  clear,  unexceptionable,  and  conclusive, 
has  been  borne  to  the  state  of  dire  desolation 
to  which  it  is  and  has  long  been  reduced. 

It  was  prophesied  concerning  Amnion,  "  Son 
of  man,  set  thy  face  against  the  Ammonites, 
and  prophesy  against  them.  I  will  make  Rab- 
bah  of  the  Ammonites  a  stable  for  camels  and 
a  couching  place  for  flocks.  Behold,  I  will 
stretch  out  my  hand  upon  thee,  and  deliver 
thee  for  a  spoil  to  the  Heathen ;  I  will  cut  thee 
off  from  the  people,  and  cause  thee  to  perish 
out  of  the  countries ;  I  will  destroy  thee.  The 
Ammonites  shall  not  be  remembered  among 
the  nations.  Rabbah"  (the  chief  city)  "of  the 
Ammonites  shall  be  a  desolate  heap.  Ammon 
shall  be  a  parpetual  desolation,"  Ezek.  xxv,  2, 
5,  7,  10 ;  xxi,  32 ;  Jer.  xlix,  2 ;  Zeph.  ii,  9. 

Ammon  was  to  be  delivered  to  be  a  spoil  to 
the  Heathen — to  be  destroyed,  and  to  be  a  per- 
petual desolation.  "  All  this  country,  formerly 
so  populous  and  flourishing,  is  now  changed 
into  a  vast  desert."  (Seetzeri's  Travels.)  Ruins 
are  seen  in  every  direction.  The  country  is 
divided  between  the  Turks  and  the  Arabs,  but 
chiefly  possessed  by  the  latter.  The  extortions 
of  the  one,  and  the  depredations  of  the  other, 
keep  it  in  "  perpetual  desolation,"  and  make  it 
"a  spoil  to  the  Heathen."  "The  far  greater 
part  of  the  country  is  uninhabited,  being  aban- 
doned to  the  wandering  Arabs,  and  the  towns 
and  villages  are  in  a  state  of  total  ruin."  (Ibid.) 
"  At  every  step  are  to  be  found  the  vestiges  of 
ancient  cities,  the  remains  of  many  temples, 
public  edifices,  and  Greek  churches."  (Burck- 
hardt's  Travels.)  The  cities  are  left  desolate. 
"Many  of  the  ruins  present  no  objects  of  any 
interest.  They  consist  of  a  few  walls  of  dwell- 
ing houses,  heaps  of  stones,  the  foundations  of 
some  public  edifices,  and  a  few  cisterns  filled 
up ;  there  is  nothing  entire,  though  it  appears 
that  the  mode  of  building  was  very  solid,  all 
the  remains  being  formed  of  large  stones.  In 
the  vicinity  of  Ammon  there  is  a  fertile  plain 
interspersed  with  low  hills,  which  for  the  great- 
er part  arc  covered  with  ruins."  (BurckhardVs 
Travels  in  Syria.)  While  the  country  is  thus 
despoiled  and  desolate,  there  are  valleys  and 
tracts  throughout  it  which  "are  covered  with 
a  fine  coat  of  verdant  pasture,  and  are  plaees 
of  resort  to  the  Bedouins,  where  they  pasture 
their  camels  and  their  sheep."  (Buckingham's 
Travels  in  Palestine.)  "The  whole  way  we 
traversed,"  says  Scetzen,  "  we  saw  villages  in 
ruins,  and  met  numbers  of  Arabs  with  their 
camels,"  &c.     Mr.  Buckingham  describes  a 


building  among  the  ruins  of  Ammon,  "  the  ma- 
sonry of  which  was  evidently  constructed  of 
materials  gathered  from  the  ruins  of  other  and 
older  buildings  on  the  spot.  On  entering  it  at 
the  south  end,"  he  adds,  "  we  came  to  an  open 
square  court,  with  arched  recesses  on  each  side, 
the  sides  nearly  facing  the  cardinal  points. 
The  recesses  in  the  northern  and  southern  wall 
were  originally  open  passages,  and  had  arched 
door  ways  facing  each  other ;  but  the  first  of 
these  was  found  wholly  closed  up,  and  the  last 
was  partially  filled  up,  leaving  only  a  narrow 
passage,  just  sufficient  for  the  entrance  of  one 
man  and  of  the  goats,  which  the  Arab  keepers 
drive  in  here  occasionally  for  shelter  during 
the  night."  He  relates  that  he  lay  down  among 
"  flocks  of  sheep  and  goats,"  close  beside  the 
ruins  of  Ammon ;  and  particularly  remarks 
that,  during  the  night,  he  "  was  almost  entirely 
prevented  from  sleeping  by  the  bleating  of 
flocks."  So  literally  true  is  it,  although  Seet- 
zen,  and  Burckhardt,  and  Buckingham,  who 
relate  the  facts,  make  no  reference  or  allusion 
whatever  to  any  of  the  prophecies,  and  travelled 
for  a  different  object  than  the  elucidation  of 
the  Scriptures, — that  "the  chief  city  of  the 
Ammonites  is  a  stable  for  camels,  and  a  couch- 
ing place  for  flocks." 

"The  Ammonites  shall  not  be  remembered" 
among  the  nations."  While  the  Jews,  who 
were  long  their  hereditary  enemies,  continue 
as  distinct  a  people  as  ever,  though  dispersed 
among  all  nations,  no  trace  of  the  Ammonites 
remains;  none  are  now  designated  by  their 
name,  nor  do  any  claim  descent  from  them. 
They  did  exist,  however,  long  after  the  time 
when  the  eventual  annihilation  of  their  race 
was  foretold ;  for  they  retained  their  name,  and 
continued  a  great  multitude  until  the  second 
century  of  the  Christian  rera.  (Justin  Martyr.) 
"Yet  they  are  cut  off  from  the  people.  Am- 
nion has  perished  out  of  th?  countries ;  it  is 
destroyed."  No  people  is  attached  to  its  soil ; 
none  regard  it  as  their  country  and  adopt  its 
name :  "  And  the  Ammonites  are  not  remem- 
bered among  the  nations." 

"Rabbah"  (Rabbah  Ammon,  the  chief  city 
of  Ammon)  "shall  be  a  desolate  heap."  Situ- 
ated, as  it  was,  on  each  side  of  the  borders  of 
a  plentiful  stream,  encircled  by  a  fruitful  region, 
strong  by  nature  and  fortified  by  art,  nothing 
could  have  justified  the  suspicion,  or  warranted 
the  conjecture  in  the  mind  of  an  uninspired 
mortal,  that  the  royal  city  of  Ammon,  what- 
ever disasters  might  possibly  befal  it  in  the  fate 
of  war  or  change  of  masters,  would  ever  un- 
dergo so  total  a  transmutation  as  to  become  a 
desolate  heap.  But  although,  in  addition  to 
such  tokens  of  its  continuance  as  a  city,  more 
than  a  thousand  years  had  given  uninterrupted 
experience  of  its  stability,  ere  the  prophets  of 
Israel  denounced  its  fate ;  yet  a  period  of  equal 
length  has  now  marked  it  out,  as  it  exists  to 
this  day,  a  desolate  heap,  a  perpetual  or  per- 
manent desolation.  Its  ancient  name  is  still 
preserved  by  the  Arabs,  and  its  site  is  now 
"  covered  with  the  ruins  of  private  buildings — 
nothing  of  them  remaining  except  the  founda- 
tions and  some  of  the  door  posts.    The  build. 


AMO 


51 


AMY 


ings,  exposed  to  the  atmosphere,  are  all  in 
decay,"  (Burckhardfs  Travels  in  Syria,)  so  that 
they  may  be  said  literally  to  form  a  desolate 
heap.  The  public  edifices,  which  once  strength, 
ened  or  adorned  the  city,  after  a  long  resistance 
to  decay,  are  now  also  desolate  ;  and  the  re- 
mains of  the  most  entire  among  them,  sub- 
jected as  they  are  to  the  abuse  and  spoliation 
of  the  wild  Arabs,  can  be  adapted  to  no  better 
object  than  "  a  stable  for  camels."  Yet  these 
broken  walls  and  ruined  palaces,  says  Mr. 
Keith,  which  attest  the  ancient  splendour  of 
Amnion,  can  now  be  made  subservient,  by 
means  of  a  single  act  of  reflection,  to  a  far 
nobler  purpose  than  the  most  magnificent  edi- 
fices on  earth  can  be,  when  they  are  contem- 
plated as  monuments  on  which  the  historic  and 
prophetic  truth  of  Scripture  is  blended  in  one 
bright  inscription. 

AMORITES,  the  descendants  of  Amori,  or 
Hsemorri,  or  Amorrhseus,  Gen.  x,  16,  the  fourth 
son  of  Canaan,  whose  first  possessions  were  in 
the  mountains  of  Judea,  among  the  other  fami- 
lies of  Canaan  :  but,  growing  strong  above  their 
fellows,  and  impatient  of  confinement  within 
the  narrow  boundaries  of  their  native  district, 
they  passed  the  Jordan,  and  extended  their 
conquests  over  the  finest  provinces  of  Moab 
and  Ammon  ;  seizing  and  maintaining  posses- 
sion of  that  extensive  and  almost  insulated  por- 
tion of  country  included  between  the  rivers 
Jordan,  Jabbok,  and  Arnon.  This  was  the 
kingdom,  and  Heshbon  the  capital,  of  the 
Amorites,  under  Sihon  their  king,  when  the 
Israelites,  in  their  way  from  Egypt,  requested 
a  passage  through  their  country.  This  request, 
however,  Sihon  refused ;  and  came  out  against 
them  with  all  his  force,  when  he  was  slain,  his 
people  extirpated,  and  his  kingdom  taken  pos- 
session of  by  the  Israelites.  It  was  subse- 
quently divided  between  the  tribes  of  Reuben 
and  Gad,  Num.  xiii,  29  ;  xxi,  13,  25 ;  Joshua 
v,  1 ;  xi,  3 ;  Judges  xi,  19,  22. 

AMOS,  the  fourth  of  the  minor  prophets, 
who  in  his  youth  had  been  a  herdsman  in  Te- 
koa,  a  small  town  about  four  leagues  southward 
of  Jerusalem.  He  was  sent  to  the  people  of 
Samaria,  to  bring  them  back  to  God  by  repent- 
ance, and  reformation  of  manners.  Hence  it 
is  natural  to  suppose  that  he  must  have  been 
born  within  the  territories  of  Israel,  and  that 
he  only  retired  to  Tekoa,  on  being  expelled 
from  Bethel  by  Amaziah,  the  priest  of  the  calves 
at  Bethel.  He  frequently  complains  of  the  vio- 
lence offered  him  by  those  who  endeavoured 
to  impose  silence  on  him.  He  boldly  inveighs 
against  the  crying  sins  of  the  Israelites,  such 
as  idolatry,  oppression,  wantonne'ss,  and  obsti- 
nacy. Nor  does  he  spare  the  sins  of  Judah, 
such  as  their  carnal  security,  sensuality,  and 
injustice.  He  utters  frequent  threatenings 
against  them  both,  and  predicts  their  ruin.  It 
is  observable  in  this  prophecy,  that,  as  it  begins 
with  denunciations  of  judgment  and  destruc- 
tion against  the  Syrians,  Philistines,  Tyrians, 
and  other  enemies  of  the  Jews,  so  it  concludes 
with  comfortable  promises  of  the  restoration  of 
the  tabernacle  of  David,  and  the  establishment 
of  the  kingdom  of  Christ.     Amos  was  called  to 


the  prophetic  office  in  the  time  of  Uzziah,  king 
of  Judah,  and  Jeroboam,  the  son  of  Joash,  king 
of  Israel. 

Some  writers,  in  adverting  to  the  condition 
of  Amos,  have,  with  a  minute  affectation  of 
criticism,  pretended  to  discover  a  certain  rude- 
ness and  vulgarity  in  his  style ;  and  even  Je- 
rom  is  of  opinion  that  he  is  deficient  in  mag- 
nificence and  sublimity.  He  applies  to  him 
the  words  which  St.  Paul  speaks  of  himself, 
that  he  was  rude  in  speech,  though  not  in 
knowledge ;  and  his  authority,  says  Bishop 
Lowth,  "has  influenced  many  commentators 
to  represent  him  as  entirely  rude,  and  void  of 
elegance ;  whereas  it  requires  but  little  atten 
tion  to  be  convinced  that  he  is  not  a  whit  be 
hind  the  very  chiefest  of  the  prophets  ;"  equal 
to  the  greatest  in  loftiness  of  sentiment,  and 
scarcely  inferior  to  any  in  the  splendour  of  his 
diction,  and  in  the  elegance  of  his  composition. 
Mr.  Locke  has  observed,  that  his  comparisons 
are  chiefly  drawn  from  lions,  and  other  ani 
mals,  because  he  lived  among,  and  was  convers 
ant  with,  such  objects.  But,  indeed,  the  finest 
images  and  allusions,  which  adorn  the  poetical 
parts  of  Scripture,  in  general  are  drawn  from 
scenes  of  nature,  and  from  the  grand  objects 
that  range  in  her  walks ;  and  true  genius  ever 
delights  in  considering  these  as  the  real  sources 
of  beauty  and  magnificence.  The  whole  book 
of  Amos  is  animated  with  a  fine  and  masculine 
eloquence; 

AMULET,  a  Aarm  or  supposed  preservative 
against  diseases,  witchcraft,  or  any  other  mis- 
chief. They  were  very  frequent  among  the 
Jews,  the  Greeks,  and  the  Romans,  and  were 
made  of  stone,  metal,  animal  substances,  or,  in 
short,  any  thing  which  A  weak  imagination 
suggested.  The  Jews  were  very  superstitious 
in  the  use  of  amulets,  but  the  Mishna  forbids 
them,  unless  received  from  some  person  of 
whose  cures,  at  least,  three  instances  could  be 
produced.  The  phylacteries  worn  by  the  Pha. 
risees  and  others  of  the  Jewish  nation  were  a 
sort  of  amulets. 

Amulets  among  the  Greeks  were  called, 
<pv\aKT>ipia,  TrcpiaTTTa,  a-rroTiXtaijtaTa,  TTtpia^jiara,  /?(»5- 
6ia,  and  ei-K6\ma.  The  Latins  called  them  amu- 
leta,  appensa,  pentacula,  Qc.  Remains  of  this 
superstition  continue  among  ignorant  people 
even  in  this  country,  which  ought  to  be  strongly 
discountenanced  as  weak  or  wicked.  The  word 
amulet  is  probably  derived  from  amuld,  a  small 
vessel  witli  lustral  water  in  it,  anciently  carried 
in  the  pocket  for  the  sake  of  purification  and 
expiation. 

AMYRALDISM,  a  name  given  by  some 
writers  to  the  doctrine  of  universal  grace,  as 
explained  and  asserted  by  Amyraldus,  or  Mo- 
ses Amyraut,  and  his  followers,  among  the 
reformed  in  France,  toward  the  middle  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  This  doctrine  princi- 
pally consisted  of  the  following  particulars, 
viz.  that  God  desires  the  happiness  of  all  men, 
from  which  none  are  excluded  by  a  divine  de- 
cree ;  that  none  can  obtain  salvation  without 
faith  in  Christ ;  that  God  refuses  to  none  the 
power  of  believing,  though  he  does  not  grant 
to  all  his  assistance,  that  they  may  improve 


ANA 


52 


ANA 


this  power  to  saving  purposes ;  and  that  many 
perish  through  their  own  fault.  Those  who 
embraced  this  doctrine  were  called  Universal- 
ists,  although,,  it  is  evident  that  they  rendered 
grace  universal  in  words,  but  partial  in  reality, 
and  are  chargeable  with  greater  inconsisten- 
cies than  the  Supralapsarians.  Amyraldus  is 
said  to  have  formed  his  system  with  a  view  of 
producing  a  reconciliation  between  the  Luther- 
ans and  Calvinists.  This  theory  was  supported 
in  England  by  Baxter.     See  Baxterianism. 

ANABAPTISTS,  a  name  given  to  those 
Christians  who  maintain  that  baptism  ought 
always  to  be  performed  by  immersion ;  that  it 
ought  not  to  be  administered  to  children  before 
the  age  of  discretion;  and  that  at  this  age  it  ought 
to  be  readministered  to  those  who  have  been 
baptized  in  their  infancy.  They  affirm  that  the 
administration  of  this  sacrament  is  neither  valid 
nor  useful,  if  it  be  done  by  sprinkling  only,  and 
not  by  immersion ;  or  if  the  persons  who  receive 
it  be  not  in  a  condition  to  give  the  reasons  of 
their  belief.  The  Anabaptists  of  Germany 
brought  the  name  into  great  odium  by  their 
turbulent  conduct ;  but  by  the  people  of  this 
persuasion  generally,  the  conduct  of  these 
fanatics  was  at  all  times  condemned.  In  Eng- 
land they  form  a  most  respectable,  though  not 
a  very  numerous  body. 

The  word  Anabaptist  is  compounded  of  ava, 
new,  and  tSairTish1;,  a  baptist ;  and  has  been  in- 
discriminately applied  to  people  of  very  differ- 
ent principles.  Many  of  them  object  to  the 
name,  because  the  baptism  of  infants  by  sprink- 
ling is,  in  their  opinion,  no  baptism  ;  and  others 
hold  nothing  in  common  excepting  some  one 
or  other  of  the  above  mentioned  opinions  con- 
cerning baptism.     See  Baptism. 

ANAGOGICAL.  This  is  one  of  the  four 
senses  in  which  Scripture  may  be  interpreted, 
viz.  the  literal,  allegorical,  anagogical,  and 
tropological.  The  anagogical  sense  is  given 
when  the  text  is  explained  with  regard  to  the 
end  which  Christians  should  have  in  view,  that 
is,  eternal  life :  for  example,  the  rest  of  the 
Sabbath,  in  the  anagogical  sense,  corresponds 
to  the  repose  of  everlasting  blessedness. 

ANAK,  ANAKIM,  famous  giants  in  Pales- 
tine. Anak,  father  of  the  Anakim,  was  son  of 
Arba,  who  gave  his  name  to  Kirjath-Arba,  or 
Hebron.  Anak  had  three  sons,  Sheshai,  Ahi- 
man,  and  Tahnai,  whose  descendants  were 
terrible  for  their  fierceness  and  stature.  The 
Hebrew  spies  reported  that  in  comparison  of 
those  monstrous  men,  they  themselves  were 
but  grasshoppers.  Some  have  thought  that 
the  name  Phoenician,  given  to  the  Canaanites, 
and  particularly  to  the  Sidonians,  was  origi- 
nally from  Bene-Anak,  sons  of  Anak.  Caleb, 
assisted  by  the  tribe  of  Judah,  took  Kirjath- 
Arba,  and  destroyed  the  Anakim,  A.  M.  2559. 
Josh,  xv,  14;  Judg.  i,  20. 

ANALOGY  OF  FAITH.  This  has  been 
often  and  largely  descanted  upon  as  an  import- 
ant rule  for  interpreting  Scripture,  founded,  as  it 
is  said,  upon  Rom.  xii,  6,  "  Let  us  prophesy  ac- 
cording to  the  proportion"  (analogy)  "of  faith." 
The  principle  of  this  rule  has  been  thus 
stated:  It  is  evident  the  Almighty  doth  not 


act  without  a  design  in  the  system  of  Chris, 
tianity,  any  more  than  in  the  works  of  nature. 
Now  thisdesign  must  be  uniform ;  for  as  in  the 
system  of  the  universe  every  part  is  propor- 
tioned to  the  whole,  and  made  subservient  to 
it, — so,  in  the  system  of  the  Gospel,  all  the 
various  truths,  doctrines,  declarations,  precepts, 
and  promises  must  correspond  with,  and  tend 
to,  the  end  designed.  For  instance,  supposing 
the  glory  of  God  in  the  salvation  of  sinners  by 
free  grace  be  the  grand  design, — then,  what- 
ever doctrine,  assertion,  or  hypothesis  agrees 
not  with  this,  it  is  to  be  considered  as  false. 
The  effect  however  of  this  view  of  the  case 
appears  to  be  often  delusive.  If  nothing  more 
be  meant  than  that,  what  is  obscure  in  a  reve- 
lation should  be  interpreted  by  that  which  is 
plain,  the  same  rule  applies  to  all  sober  inter- 
pretations of  any  book  whatever ;  but  if  we  call 
our  opinions,  perhaps  hastily  taken  up,  or  ad- 
mitted on  some  authority  without  examination 
by  the  light  of  Scripture,  "the  analogy  of  faith," 
we  shall  greatly  err.  On  this  subject  Dr.  Camp- 
bell remarks : — 

"  In  vain  do  we  search  the  Scriptures  for 
their  testimony  concerning  Christ,  if,  independ- 
ently of  these  Scriptures,  we  have  received  a 
testimony  from  another  quarter,  and  are  deter- 
mined to  admit  nothing  as  the  testimony  of 
Scripture  which  will  not  perfectly  quadrate 
with  that  formerly  received.  This  was  the  very 
source  of  the  blindness  of  the  Jews  in  our  Sa- 
viour's tune.  They  searched  the  Scriptures  as 
much  as  we  do ;  but,  in  the  disposition  they 
were  in,  they  would  never  have  discovered 
what  that  sacred  volume  testifies  of  Christ. 
Why  ?  because  their  great  rule  of  interpreta- 
tion was  the  analogy  of  the  faith ;  or,  in  other 
words,  the  system  of  the  Pharisean  scribes,  the 
doctrine  then  in  vogue,  and  in  the  profound 
veneration  of  which  they  had  been  educated. 
This  is  that  veil  by  which  the  understandings 
of  that  people  were  darkened,  even  in  reading 
the  law,  and  of  which  the  Apostle  observed, 
that  it  remained  unremoved  in  his  day,  and  of 
which  we  ourselves  have  occasion  to  observe, 
that  it  remains  unremoved  in  ours.  And  is  it 
not  precisely  in  the  same  way  that  the  phrase 
is  used  by  every  sect  of  Christians,  for  the  par- 
ticular system  or  digest  of  tenets  for  which 
they  themselves  have  the  greatest  reverence  ? 
The  Latin  church,  and  even  the  Greek,  are  ex- 
plicit in  their  declarations  on  this  article. 
With  each,  the  analogy  of  the  faith  is  their  own 
system  alone.  And  that  different  parties  of 
Protestants,  though  more  reserved  in  their 
manner  of  speaking,  aim  at  the  same  thing,  is 
undeniable  ;  the  same,  I  mean,  considered  rela- 
tively to  the  speakers;  for,  absolutely  con- 
sidered, every  party  means  a  different  thing. 
'  But,'  say  some,  '  is  not  this  mode  of  interpre- 
tation warranted  by  Apostolical  authority? 
Does  not  Paul,  Rom.  xii,  6,  in  speaking  of  the 
exercise  of  the  spiritual  gifts,  enjoin  the  pro- 
phets to  prophesy  Karu  tt)i/  iia^oytav  Tjj;  rc/j-toif, 
according  to  the  proportion  of  faith,  as  our 
translators  render  it,  but  as  some  critics  ex- 
plain it,  according  to  the  analogy  of  the  faith  ?' 
Though  this  exposition  has  been  admitted  into 


ANA 


53 


ANA 


some  versions,  and  adopted  by  Hammond  and 
other  commentators,  and  may  be  called  literal, 
it  is  suited  neither  to  the  ordinary  meaning  of 
the  words,  nor  to  the  tenor  of  the  context. 
The  word  avaKoyia  strictly  denotes  proportion, 
measure,  rate,  but  by  no  means  that  complex 
notion  conveyed  in  the  aforesaid  phrase  by  the 
term  analogy,  which  has  been  well  observed  by 
Whitby  to  be  particularly  unsuitable  in  this 
place,  where  the  Apostle  treats  of  those  who 
speak  by  inspiration,  not  of  those  who  explain 
what  has  been  thus  spoken  by  others.  The 
context  manifestly  leads  us  to  understand 
avaXoyta  ro/s"^?,  verse  6,  as  equivalent  to  fiirpov 
roig-Ews,  verse  3.  And  for  the  better  understand- 
ing of  this  phrase,  the  measure  of  faith,  it  may 
be  proper  to  observe,  1.  That  a  strong  convic- 
tion of  any  tenet,  from  whatever  cause  it  arises, 
is  in  Scripture  sometimes  termed  faith.  Thus 
in  the  same  epistle,  Rom.  xiv,  22,  the  Apostle 
says,  '  Hast  thou  faith  ?  have  it  to  thyself  be- 
fore God.'  The  scope  of  his  reasoning  shows 
that  nothing  is  there  meant  by  faith,  but  a  con- 
viction of  the  truth  in  regard  to  the  article  of 
which  he  had  been  treating,  namely,  the  equal- 
ity of  days  and  meats,  in  point  of  sanctity,  un- 
der the  Gospel  dispensation.  The  same  is 
evidently  the  meaning  of  the  word,  verse  23, 
•Whatsoever  is  not  of  faith,  is  sin;'  where, 
without  regard  to  the  morality  of  an  action 
abstractly  considered,  that  is  concluded  to  be 
sin  which  is  done  by  one  who  doubts  of  its 
lawfulness.  2.  As  to  spiritual  gifts,  prophecy 
and  inspiration  in  particular,  they  appear  to 
have  been  accompanied  with  such  a  faith  or 
conviction  that  they  came  from  the  Spirit,  as 
left  no  room  for  hesitation.  And  indeed  it  is 
easy  to  perceive  that  something  of  this  kind 
was  absolutely  necessary  to  enable  the  inspired 
person  to  distinguish  what  proceeded  from  the 
Spirit  of  God,  from  what  was  the  creature  of 
his  own  imagination.  The  prophets  of  God 
were  not  acted  upon  like  machines  in  deliver- 
ing their  predictions,  as  the  diviners  were  sup- 
posed to  be  among  the  Heathen,  but  had  then, 
as  at  other  times,  the  free  use  of  their  faculties, 
both  of  body  and  mind."  This  caution  is 
therefore  with  great  propriety  given  them  by 
the  Apostle,  to  induce  them  to  be  attentive  in 
prophesying,  not  to  exceed  the  precise  measure 
allowed  them,  (for  different  measures  of  the 
same  gift  were  committed  to  different  persons,) 
and  not  to  mingle  aught  of  their  own  with  the 
things  of  God's  Spirit.  Let  him  prophesy  ac- 
cording to  the  proportion  in  which  he  has 
received  this  gift,  which  is  in  proportion  to  his 
faith.  Though  a  sense  somewhat  different  has 
been  given  to  the  words  by  some  ancient  Greek 
expositors,  none  of  them  seems  to  have  formed 
a  conception  of  that  sense,  which,  as  was  ob- 
served above,  has  been  given  by  some  moderns. 
This  has,  nevertheless,  a  sound  and  sober  prin- 
ciple included  in  it,  although  capable  of  great 
abuse.  Undoubtedly  there  is  a  class  of  great 
and  leading  truths  in  the  Scriptures  so  clearly 
revealed  as  to  afford  principles  of  interpreta- 
tion in  doubtful  passages,  and  these  are  so 
obvious  that  persons  of  sound  minds  and  hearts 
will  not  need  those  formal  rules  for  the  appli- 


cation of  the  analogy  of  faith  to  interpretation, 
which  have  been  drawn  up  by  several  writer?, 
and  which  when  not  misleading,  are  generally 
superfluous. 

ANANIAS  was  the  son  of  Nebedseus,  high 
priest  of  the  Jews.  According  to  Josephtjs,  lie 
succeeded  Joseph,  the  son  of  Camith,  in  the 
forty-seventh  year  of  the  Christian  sera ;  and 
was  himself  succeeded  by  Ishmael,  the  son  of 
Tabseus,  in  the  year  63.  Quadratus,  governor 
of  Syria,  coming  into  Judsea,  on  the  rumours 
which  prevailed  among  the  Samaritans  and 
Jews,  sent  the  high  priest  Ananias  to  Rome,  to 
vindicate  his  conduct  to  the  emperor.  The 
high  priest  justified  himself,  was  acquitted,  and 
returned.  St.  Paul  being  apprehended  at  Jeru- 
salem by  the  tribune  of  the  Roman  troops  that 
guarded  the  temple,  declared  to  him  that  he 
was  a  citizen  of  Rome.  This  obliged  the  offi- 
cer to  treat  him  with  some  regard.  As  he  was 
ignorant  of  what  the  Jews  accused  him,  the 
next  day  he  convened  the  priests,  and  placed 
St.  Paul  in  the  midst  of  them,  that  he  might 
justify  himself.  St.  Paul  began  as  follows : 
"  Men  and  brethren,  I  have  lived  in  all  good 
conscience  before  God  until  this  day."  He  had 
scarcely  spoken  this,  when  the  high  priest, 
Ananias,  commanded  those  who  were  near  him 
to  smite  him  on  the  face.  The  Apostle  imme- 
diately replied,  "  God  shall  judge  thee,  thou 
whited  wall ;  for,  sittest  thou  to  judge  me  after 
the  law,  and  commandest  me  to  be  smitten 
contrary  to  the  law  ?"  They  that  stood  by 
said,  "  Revilest  thou  God's  high  priest  ?"  And 
Paul  answered,  "  I  wist  not,  brethren,  that  he 
was  the  high  priest ;  for  it  is  y/ritten,  Thou 
shalt  not  speak  evil  of  the  ruler  of  thy  people," 
Acts  xxii,  23,  24 ;  xxiii,  1-5 ;  by  which  words 
many  suppose  that  the  Apostle  spake  in  bitter 
irony;  or  at  least  that  he  considered  Ananias 
as  a  usurper  of  the  office  of  the  priesthood. 

After  this,  the  assembly  being  divided  in 
opinion,  St.  Paul  was  sent  by  the  tribune  to 
Caesarea,  that  Felix,  governor  of  the  province, 
might  take  cognizance  of  the  affair.  When  it 
was  known  that  the  Apostle  had  arrived  at 
Cffisarea,  Ananias  the  high  priest,  and  other 
Jews,  went  thither  to  accuse  him ;  but  the  af- 
fair was  adjourned,  and  St.  Paul  continued  two 
years  in  prison  in  that  city,  Acts  xxiv. 

The  Apostle's  prediction  that  God  would 
smite  Ananias,  was  thus  accomplished :  Albi- 
nus,  governor  of  Judsea,  being  come  into  that 
country,  Ananias  found  means  to  gain  him  by 
presents;  and  Ananias,  by  reason  of  this  pa- 
tronage, was  considered  as  the  first  man  of  his 
nation.  However,  there  were  in  his  party 
some  violent  persons,  who  plundered  the  coun- 
try, and  seized  the  tithes  of  the  priests  ;  and 
this  they  did  with  impunity,  on  account  of  the 
great  credit  of  Ananias.  At  the  same  time, 
several  companies  of  assassins  infested  Judsea, 
and  committed  great  ravages.  When  any  of 
their  companions  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
governors  of  the  province,  and  were  about  to 
be  executed,  they  failed  not  to  seize  some  do- 
mestic or  relation  of  the  high  priest  Ananias, 
that  he  might  procure  the  liberty  of  their  asso- 
ciates, in  exchange  for  those  whom  they  de- 


ANA 


54 


ANG 


tamed.  Having  taken  Eleazcr,  one  of  Ana- 
nias's  sons,  they  did  not  release  liim  till  ten  of 
their  companions  were  liberated.  By  this  means 
their  number  considerably  increased,  and  the 
country  was  exposed  to  their  ravages.  At 
length,  Eleazer,  the  son  of  Ananias,  heading  a 
party  of  mutineers,  seized  the  temple,  and  for- 
bade any  sacrifices  for  the  emperor.  Being 
joined  by  the  assassins,  he  pulled  down  the 
house  of  his  father  Ananias,  with  his  brother, 
hid  himself  in  the  .aqueducts  belongin  g  to  the  roy- 
al palace,  but  was  soon  discovered,  and  both  of 
them  were  killed.  Thus  God  smote  this  whited 
wall,  in  the  very  beginning  of  the  Jewish  wars. 

2.  Ananias,  one  of  the  first  Christians  of 
Jerusalem,  who  being  converted,  with  his  wife 
Sapphira,  sold  his  estate;  (as  did  the  other 
Christians  at  Jerusalem,  under  a  temporary 
regulation  that  they  were  to  have  all  things  in 
common ;)  but  privately  reserved  a  part  of  the 
purchase  money  to  himself.  Having  brought 
the  remainder  to  St.  Peter,  as  the  whole  price 
of  the  inheritance  sold,  the  Apostle,  to  whom 
the  Holy  Ghost  had  revealed  this  falsehood, 
rebuked  him  severely,  as  having  lied  not  unto 
men  but  unto  God,  Acts  v.  At  that  instant, 
Ananias,  being  struck  dead,  fell  down  at  the 
Apostle's  feet ;  and  in  the  course  of  three  hours 
after,  his  wife  suffered  a  similar  punishment. 
This  happened,  A.  D.  33,  or  34.  It  is  evident, 
that  in  this  and  similar  events,  the  spectators 
and  civil  magistrates  must  have  been  convinced 
thai  some  extraordinary  power  was  exerted ; 
for  if  Peter  had  himself  slain  Ananias,  he  would 
have  been  amenable  to  the  laws  as  a  murderer. 
But,  if  by  forewarning  him  that  he  should  im- 
mediately die,  and  the  prediction  came  to  pass, 
it  is  evident  that  the  power  which  attended  this 
word  of  Peter  was  not  from  Peter,  but  from 
God.  This  was  made  the  more  certain  by  the 
death  of  two  persons,  in  the  same  manner,  and 
under  the  same  circumstances,  which  could 
not  be  attributed  to  accident. 

3.  Ananias,  a  disciple  of  Christ,  at  Damas- 
cus, whom  the  Lord  directed  to  visit  Paul,  then 
lately  converted.  Ananias  answered,  "  Lord, 
I  have  heard  by  many  of  this  man,  how  much 
evil  he  hath  done  to  thy  saints  at  Jerusalem  ; 
and  how  he  hath  authority  from  the  chief 
priests  to  bind  all  that  call  upon  thy  name." 
But  the  Lord  said  unto  him,  "  Go  thy  way,  for 
he  is  a  chosen  vessel  unto  me."  Ananias, 
therefore,  went  to  the  house  in  which  God  had 
revealed  unto  him  that  Paul  was,  and  putting 
his  hands  on  him,  said,  "  Brother  Saul,  the 
Lord  Jesus  who  appeared  unto  thee  in  the  way, 
hath  sent  me  that  thou  mightest  receive  thy 
sight,  and  be  filled  with  the  Holy  Ghost,"  Acts 
ix,  10-12,  &,c.  We  are  not  informed  of  any 
other  circumstance  of  the  life  of  Ananias. 

ANATHEMA,  from  dvarfe>;/«,  signifies  some- 
thing set  apart,  separated,  or  devoted,  Mic.  iv, 
13,  or  the  formula  by  which  this  is  effected. 
To  anathematize  is  generally  understood  to 
denote  the  cutting  off  or  separating  any  one 
from  the  communion  of  the  faithful,  the  num- 
ber of  the  living,  or  the  privileges  of  society ;  or 
the  devoting  of  an  animal,  city,  or  other  thing, 
to  destruction.     See  Accursed. 


ANATHEMA  MARANATHA.  "If  any 
man  love  not  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  let  him 
be  Anathema  Maranatha,"  1  Cor.  xvi,  22.  Why 
these  two  words,  one  Greek  and  the  other  Sy- 
riac,  were  not  translated,  is  not  obvious.  They 
are  the  words  with  which  the  Jews  began  their 
greater  excommunication,  whereby  they  not 
only  excluded  sinners  from  their  society,  but 
delivered  them  up  to  the  divine  cherem,  or 
anathema,  that  is,  to  misery  in  this  life,  and 
perdition  in  the  life  to  come.  "  Let  him  be 
Anathema"  is,  "  Let  him  be  accursed."  Ma- 
ranatha signifies, "  The  Lord  cometh,"  or, "  will 
come ;"  that  is,  to  take  vengeance.  See  Ac- 
cursed. 

ANDREW,  an  Apostle  of  Jesus  Christ,  a 
native  of  Bethsaida,  and  the  brother  of  Peter. 
He  was  at  first  a  disciple  of  John  the  Baptist, 
whom  he  left  to  follow  our  Saviour,  after  the 
testimony  of  John,  "Behold  the  Lamb  of  God 
which  taketh  away  the  sin  of  the  world,"  John 
i,  29,  and  was  the  first  disciple  received  by  our 
Saviour.  Andrew  then  introduced  his  brother 
Simon,  and  they  went  with  him  to  the  marriage 
in  Cana,  but  afterward  returned  to  their  ordi- 
nary occupation,  not  expecting,  perhaps,  to  be 
farther  employed  in  his  service.  However, 
some  months  after,  Jesus  meeting  them,  while 
fishing  together,  called  them  to  a  regular  at- 
tendance upon  him,  and  promised  to  make 
them  fishers  of  men,  Matt,  iv,  19. 

After  our  Saviour's  ascension,  tradition  states 
that  Andrew  was  appointed  to  preach  in  Scy- 
thia  and  the  neighbouring  countries.  Accord- 
ing to  Eusebius,  after  this  Apostle  had  planted 
the  Gospel  in  several  places,  he  came  to  Patrae, 
in  Achaia,  where,  endeavouring  to  convert  the 
pro-consul  iEgeas,  he  was,  by  that  governor's 
orders,  first  scourged,  and  then  crucified.  The 
time  of  his  suffering  martyrdom  is  not  known  ; 
but  all  the  ancient  and  modern  martyrologies 
of  the  Greeks  and  Latins  agree  in  celebrating 
his  festival  on  the  30th  of  November.  His 
body  was  embalmed,  and  decently  interred  at 
Patrffi,  by  Maximilla,  a  lady  of  great  quality 
and  estate.  It  was  afterward  removed  to  Con- 
stantinople, by  Constantine  the  Great,  who 
buried  it  in  the  great  church  which  he  had  built 
to  the  honour  of  the  Apostles.  It  is  not  known 
for  what  reason  painters  represent  St.  Andrew's 
cross  like  an  X.  Peter  Chrysologus  says  that 
he  was  crucified  upon  a  tree  ;  and  the  spurious 
Hippolytus  assures  us  that  it  was  an  olive  tree. 
Nevertheless,  the  tradition  which  describes  him 
to  have  been  nailed  to  a  cross  is  very  ancient. 

ANGEL,  a  spiritual,  intelligent  substance, 
the  first  in  rank  and  dignity  among  created 
beings.  The  word  angel,  ayylXos,  is  not  pro- 
perly a  denomination  of  nature  but  of  office  ; 
denoting  as  much  as  mincius,  messenger,  a 
person  employed  to  carry  one's  orders,  or  de- 
clare his  will.  Thus  it  is  St.  Paul  represents 
angels,  Hcb.  i,  14,  where  he  calls  them  "minis- 
tering spirits;"  and  yet  custom  has  prevailed 
so  much,  that  angel  is  now  commonly  taken 
for  the  denomination  of  a  particular  order  of 
spiritual  beings,  of  great  understanding  and 
power,  superior  to  the  souls  or  spirits  of  men. 
Some  of  these  are  spoken  of  in  Scripture  in 


ANG 


55 


ANG 


such  a  manner  as  plainly  to  signify  that  they 
are  real  beings,  of  a  spiritual  nature,  of  high 
power,  perfection,  dignity,  and  happiness. 
Others  of  them  are  distinguished  as  not  hav- 
ing kept  their  first  station,  Jude  6.  These  are 
represented  as  evil  spirits,  enemies  of  God,  and 
intent  on  mischief.  The  devil  as  the  head  of 
them,  and  they  as  his  angels,  are  represented 
as  the  rulers  of  the  darkness  of  this  world,  or 
spiritual  wickednesses,  or  wicked  spirits,  tu 
ZuvnuartKa  rrjg  zsovrjpiai  h  toIs  iirxpaviois,  Eph.  vi,  12  ; 
which  may  not  be  unfitly  rendered,  "  the  spi- 
ritual managers  of  opposition  to  the  kingdom 
of  God." 

The  existence  of  angels  is  supposed  in  all 
religions,  though  it  is  incapable  of  being  proved 
a  priori.  Indeed,  the  ancient  Sadducees  are 
represented  as  denying  all  spirits  ;  and  yet  the 
Samaritans,  and  Caraites,  who  are  reputed 
Sadducees,  openly  allowed  them  :  witness 
Abusaid,  the  author  of  an  Arabic  version  of 
the  Pentateuch ;  and  Aaron,  a  Caraite  Jew,  in 
his  comment  on  the  Pentateuch ;  both  extant 
in  manuscript  in  the  king  of  France's  library. 
In  the  Alcoran  we  find  frequent  mention  of 
angels.  The  Mussulmen  believe  them  of  dif- 
ferent orders  or  degrees,  and  to  be  destined  for 
different  employments  both  in  heaven  and  on 
earth.  They  attribute  exceedingly  great  power 
to  the  angel  Gabriel,  as  that  he  is  able  to  de- 
scend in  the  space  of  an  hour  from  heaven  to 
earth ;  to  overturn  a  mountain  with  a  single 
feather  of  his  wing,  &c.  The  angel  Asrael, 
they  suppose,  is  appointed  to  take  the  souls  of 
such  as  die;  and  another  angel,  named  Esra- 
phil,  they  tell  us,  stands  with  a  trumpet  ready 
in  his  mouth  to  proclaim  the  day  of  judgment. 

The  Heathen  philosophers  and  poets  were 
also  agreed  as  to  the  existence  of  intelligent 
beings,  superior  to  man ;  as  is  shown  by  St. 
Cyprian  in  his  treatise  of  the  vanity  of  idols  ; 
from  the  testimonies  of  Plato,  Socrates,  Tris- 
megistus,  &c.  They  were  acknowledged  under 
different  appellations ;  the  Greeks  calling  them 
daemons,  and  the  Romans  genii,  or  lares.  Epi- 
curus seems  to  have  been  the  only  one  among  the 
old  philosophers  who  absolutely  rejected  them. 

Authors  are  not  so  unanimous  about  the  na- 
ture as  about  the  existence  of  angels.  Clemens 
Alexandrinus  believed  they  had  bodies ;  which 
was  also  the  opinion  of  Origen,  Coesarius,  Ter- 
tullian,  and  several  others.  Athanasius,  St. 
Basil,  St.  Gregory  Nicene,  St.  Cyril,  St.  Chry- 
sostom,  &c,  held  them  to  be  mere  spirits.  It 
has  been  the  more  current  opinion,  especially 
in  later  times,  that  they  are  substances  entirely 
spiritual,  who  can,  at  any  time,  assume  bodies, 
and  appear  in  human  or  other  shapes.  Ecclesi- 
astical writers  make  a  hierarchy  of  nine  orders  of 
angels.  Others  have  distributed  angels  into  nine 
orders,  according  to  the  names  by  which  they 
are  called  in  Scripture,  and  reduced  these 
orders  into  three  hierarchies;  to  the  first  of 
whichbelong  seraphim,  cherubim,  and  thrones; 
to  the  second,  dominions,  virtues,  and  powers ; 
and  to  the  third,  principalities,  archangels,  and 
angels.  The  Jews  reckon  four  orders  or  com- 
panies of  angels,  each  headed  by  an  archangel ; 
the  first  order  being  that  of  Michael ;  the  second, 


of  Gabriel ;  the  third,  of  Uriel ;  and  the  fourth, 
of  Raphael.  Following  the  Scripture  account, 
we  shall  find  mention  made  of  different  orders 
of  these  superior  beings ;  for  such  a  distinction 
of  orders  seems  intimated  in  the  names  given 
to  different  classes.  Thus  we  have  thrones, 
dominions,  principalities,  or  princedoms,  powers, 
authorities,  living  ones,  cherubim  and  seraphim. 
That  some  of  these  titles  may  indicate  the 
same  class  of  angels  is  probable  ;  but  that  they 
all  should  be  but  different  appellations  of  one 
common  and  equal  order  is  improbable.  We 
learn  also  from  Scripture,  that  they  dwell  in 
the  immediate  presence  of  God ;  that  they 
"  excel  in  strength  ;"  that  they  are  immortal ; 
and  that  they  are  the  agents  through  which 
God  very  often  accomplishes  his  special  pur- 
poses of  judgment  and  mercy.  Nothing  is 
more  frequent  in  Scripture  than  the  missions 
and  appearances  of  good  and  bad  angels,  whom 
God  employed  to  declare  his  will ;  to  correct, 
teach,  reprove,  and  comfort.  God  gave  the 
law  to  Moses,  and  appeared  to  the  old  patri- 
archs, by  the  mediation  of  angels,  who  repre- 
sented him,  and  spoke  in  his  name,  Acts  vii, 
30,  35;  Gal.  iii,  19  :  Heb.  xiii,  2. 

Though  the  Jews,  in  general,  believed  the 
existence  of  angels,  there  was  a  sect  among 
them,  namely,  the  Sadducees,  who  denied  the 
existence  of  all  spirits  whatever,  God  only  ex- 
cepted, Acts  xxiii,  8.  Before  the  Babylonish 
captivity,  the  Hebrews  seem  not  to  have  known 
the  names  of  any  angel.  The  Talmudists  say 
they  brought  the  names  of  angels  from  Baby- 
lon. Tobit,  who  is  thought  to  have  resided  in 
Nineveh  some  time  before  the  captivity,  men- 
tions the  angel  Raphael,  Tob.  iii,  17  ;  xi,  2,  7 ; 
and  Daniel,  who  lived  at  Babylon  some  time 
after  Tobit,  has  taught  us  the  names  of  Michael 
and  Gabriel,  Dan.  viii,  16;  ix,  21;  x,  21.  In 
the  New  Testament,  we  find  only  the  two  latter 
mentioned  by  name. 

There  are  various  opinions  as  to  the  time 
when  the  angels  were  created.  Some  think 
this  took  place  when  our  heavens  and  the  earth 
were  made.  For  this  opinion,  however,  there 
is  no  just  foundation  in  the  Mosaic  account. 
Others  think  that  angels  existed  long  before 
the  formation  of  our  solar  system;  and  Scrip- 
ture seems  to  favour  this  opinion,  Job  xxxviii, 
4,  7,  where  God  says,  "Where  wast  thou  when 
I  laid  the  foundations  of  the  earth  ? — and  all 
the  sons  of  God  shouted  for  joy."  Though  it 
be  a  universal  opinion  that  angels  are  of  a  spi- 
ritual and  incorporeal  nature,  yet  some  of  the 
fathers,  misled  by  a  passage  in  Gen.  vi,  2, 
where  it  is  said,  "The  sons  of  God  saw  the 
daughters  of  men,  that  they  were  fair,  and  they 
took  them  wives  of  all  which  they  chose," 
imagined  them  to  be  corporeal,  and  capable  of 
sensual  pleasures.  But,  without  noticing  all 
the  wild  reveries  which  have  been  propagated 
by  bold  or  ignorant  persons,  let  it  suffice  to 
observe,  that  by  "  the  sons  of  God  "  we  are  evi- 
dently to  understand  the  descendants  of  Seth, 
who,  for  the  great  piety  wherein  they  continued 
for  some  time,  were  so  called;  and  that  "the 
daughters  of  men"  were  the  progeny  of  wicked 
Cain. 


ANG 


56 


ANG 


As  to  the  doctrine  of  tutelary  or  guarding 
angels,  presiding  over  the  affairs  of  empires, 
nations,  provinces,  and  particular  persons, 
though  received  by  the  later  Jews,  it  appears 
tc  be  wholly  Pagan  in  its  origin,  and  to  have 
no  countenance  in  the  Scriptures.  The  pas- 
sages in  Daniel  brought  to  favour  this  notion 
are  capable  of  a  much  better  explanation  ;  and 
when  our  Lord  declares  that  the  "  angels"  of 
little  children  "do  always  behold  the  face  of 
God,"  he  cither  speaks  of  children  as  being  the 
objects  of  the  general  ministry  of  angels,  or, 
still  jnore  probably,  by  angels  he  there  means 
the  disembodied  spirits  of  children ;  for  that  the 
Jews  called  disembodied  spirits  by  the  name  of 
angels,  appears  from  Acts  xii,  15. 

On  this  question  of  guardian  angels,  Bishop 
Horsley  observes:  "That  the  holy  angels  are 
often  employed  by  God  in  his  government  of 
this  sublunary  world,  is  indeed  to  be  clearly 
proved  by  holy  writ.  That  they  have  power 
over  the  matter  of  the  universe,  analogous  to 
the  powers  over  it  which  men  possess,  greater 
in  extent,  but  still  limited,  is  a  thing  which 
might  reasonably  be  supposed,  if  it  were  not 
declared.  But  it  seems  to  be  confirmed  by 
many  passages  of  holy  writ ;  from  which  it 
seems  also  evident  that  they  are  occasionally, 
for  certain  specific  purposes,  commissioned  to 
exercise  those  powers  to  a  prescribed  extent. 
That  the  evil  angels  possessed  before  their  fall 
the  like  powers,  which  they  are  still  occasion- 
ally permitted  to  exercise  for  the  punishment 
of  wicked  nations,  seems  also  evident.  That 
they  have  a  power  over  the  human  sensory, 
which  they  are  occasionally  permitted  to  exer- 
cise, and  by  means  of  which  they  may  inflict 
diseases,  suggest  evil  thoughts,  and  be  the  in- 
struments of  temptation,  must  also  be  admitted. 
But  all  this  amounts  not  to  any  thing  of  a  dis- 
cretional authority  placed  in  the  hands  of 
tutelar  angels,  or  to  an  authority  to  advise  the 
Lord  God  with  respect  to  the  measures  of  his 
government.  Confidently  I  deny  that  a  single 
text  is  to  be  found  in  holy  writ,  which,  rightly 
understood,  gives  the  least  countenance  to  the 
abominable  doctrine  of  such  a  participation  of 
the  holy  angels  in  God's  government  of  the 
world.  In  what  manner  then,  it  may  be  asked, 
are  the  holy  angels  made  at  all  subservient  to 
the  purposes  of  God's  government?  This  ques- 
tion is  answered  by  St.  Paul  in  his  Epistle  to 
the  Hebrews,  in  the  last  verse  of  the  first  chap- 
ter ;  and  this  is  the  only  passage  in  the  whole 
Bible  in  which  we  have  any  thing  explicit  upon 
the  office  and  employment  of  angels  :  '  Are 
they  not  all,'  saith  he,  '  ministering  spirits,  sent 
forth  to  minister  for  them  that  shall  be  heirs  of 
salvation  ?'  They  are  all,  however  high  in 
rank  and  order,  nothing  more  than  'minister- 
ing spirits,'  or,  literally,  'serving  spirits;'  not 
invested  with  authority  of  their  own,  but  'sent 
forth,'  occasionally  sent  forth,  to  do  such  serv- 
ice as  maybe  required  of  them,  'for  them  that 
shall  be  heirs  of  salvation.'" 

The  exact  number  of  angels  is  no  where 
mentioned  in  Scripture ;  but  it  is  always  repre- 
sented as  very  great.  Daniel,  vii,  10,  says  of 
the  Ancient  of  Days,  "A  fiery  stream  came  from 


before  him;  thousand  thousands  ministered 
unto  him,  and  ten  thousand  times  ten  thousand 
stood  before  him."  Jesus  Christ  says,  that  his 
heavenly  Father  could  have  given  him  more 
than  twelve  legions  of  angels,  that  is,  more 
than  seventy-two  thousand,  Matt,  xxvi,  53 ; 
and  the  Psalmist  declares,  that  the  chariots  of 
God  are  twenty  thousand,  even  thousands  of 
angels,  lxviii,  17.  These  are  all  intended  not 
to  express  any  exact  number,  but  indefinitely 
a  very  large  one. 

Though  all  the  angels  were  created  alike 
good,  yet  Jude  informs  us,  verse  6,  that  some 
of  them  "kept  not  their  first  estate,  but  left 
their  own  habitation,"  and  these  God  hath 
"reserved  in  everlasting  chains  under  dark- 
ness, unto  the  judgment  of  the  great  day." 
Speculations  on  the  cause  and  occasion  of  their 
fall  are  all  vain  and  trifling.  Milton  is  to  be 
read  on  this  subject,  as  on  others,  not  as  a 
divine,  but  as  a  poet.  All  we  know,  is,  that 
they  are  not  in  their  first  "estate,"  or  in  their 
original  place ;  that  this  was  their  own  fault, 
for  "they  left  their  own  habitation;"  that  they 
are  in  chains,  yet  with  liberty  to  tempt;  and 
that  they  are  reserved  to  the  general  judgment. 

Dr.  Prideaux  observes,  that  the  minister  of 
the  synagogue,  who  officiated  in  offering  the 
public  prayers,  being  the  mouth  of  the  congre- 
gation, delegated  by  them,  as  their  representa- 
tive, messenger,  or  angel,  to  address  God  in 
prayer  for  them,  was  in  Hebrew  called  sheliack- 
zibbor,  that  is,  the  angel  of  the  church  ;  and  that 
from  hence  the  chief  ministers  of  the  seven 
churches  of  Asia  are  in  the  Revelation,  by  a 
name  borrowed  from  the  synagogue,  called 
angels  of  those  churches. 

THE  ANGEL  OF  THE  LORD,  or  H,e 
Angel  Jehovah,  a  title  given  to  Christ  in  his 
different  appearances  to  the  patriarchs  and 
others  in  the  Old  Testament. 

When  the  Angel  of  the  Lord  found  Hagar 
in  the  wilderness,  "  she  called  the  name  of 
Jehovah  that  spake  to  her,  Thou  God  seest 
me." — Jehovah  appeared  unto  Abraham  in  the 
plains  of  Mamre.  Abraham  lifted  up  his  eyes, 
and  three  men,  three  persons  in  human  form, 
"stood  by  him."  One  of  the  three  is  called 
Jehovah.  And  Jehovah  said,  "  Shall  I  hide  from 
Abraham  the  thing  that  I  do  ?"  Appearances 
of  the  same  personage  occur  to  Isaac  and  to 
Jacob  under  the  name  of  "the  God  of  Abra- 
ham, and  of  Isaac."  After  one  of  these  mani- 
festations, Jacob  says,  "I  have  seen  God  face 
to  face;"  and  at  another,  "Surely  the  Lord 
(Jehovah)  is  in  this  place."  The  same  Jehovah 
was  made  visible  to  Moses,  and  gave  him  his 
commission ;  and  God  said,  "  I  am  that  I  am  ; 
thou  shaft  say  to  the  children  of  Israel,  I  am 
hath  sent  me  unto  you."  The  same  Jehovah 
went  before  the  Israelites  by  day  in  a  pillar  of 
cloud,  and  by  night  in  a  pillar  of  fire ;  and  by 
Him  the  law  was  given  amidst  terrible  displays 
of  power  and  majesty  from  Mount  Sinai.  "  I 
am  the  Lord  (Jehovah)  thy  God,  which  have 
brought  thee  out  of  the  land  of  Egypt,  out  of 
the  house  of  bondage :  Thou  shalt  have  no 
other  gods  before  me,"  &c.  The  collation  of 
a  few  passages,  or  of  the  different  parts  of  the 


ANG 


57 


ANG 


same  passages,  of  Scripture,  will  show  that 
Jehovah,  and  "the  Angel  of  the  Lord,"  when 
used  in  this  eminent  sense,  are  the  same  person. 
Jacob  says  of  Bethel,  where  he  had  exclaimed, 
"  Surely  Jehovah  is  in  this  place ;"  "  The  Angel 
of  God  appeared  to  me  in  a  dream,  saying,  I 
am  the  God  of  Bethel."  Upon  his  death  bed 
he  gives  the  names  of  God  and  Angel  to  this 
same  person:  "The  God  which  fed  me  all  my 
life  long  unto  this  day,  the  Angel  which  re- 
deemed me  from  all  evil,  bless  the  lads."  So 
in  Hosea  xii,  2,  5,  it  is  said,  "  By  his  strength 
lie  had  power  with  God;  yea,  he  had  power 
over  the  Angel,  and  prevailed."  "We  found 
him  in  Bethel,  and  there  he  spake  with  us, 
even  the  Lord  God  of  Hosts ;  the  Lord  is  his 
memorial."  Here  the  same  person  has  the 
names,  God,  Angel,  and  Lord  God  of  Hosts. 
"  The  Angel  of  the  Lord  called  to  Abraham  a 
second  time  from  heaven,  and  said,  By  myself 
have  I  sworn,  saith  the  Lord,  (Jehovah,)  that, 
since  thou  hast  done  this  thing,  in  blessing  will 
I  bless  thee."  The  Angel  of  the  Lord  appeared 
to  Moses  in  a  flame  of  fire ;  but  this  same 
Angel  "  called  to  him  out  of  the  bush,  and  said, 
I  am  the  God  of  thy  fathers,  the  God  of  Abra- 
ham, the  God  of  Isaac,  and  the  God  of  Jacob ; 
and  Moses  hid  his  face,  for  he  was  afraid  to 
look  upon  God."  To  omit  many  other  pas- 
sages, St.  Stephen,  in  alluding  to  this  part  of 
the  history  of  Moses,  in  his  speech  before  the 
council,  says,  "There  appeared  to  Moses  in 
the  wilderness  of  Mount  Sinai,  an  Angel  of  the 
Lord  in  a  flame  of  fire,"  showing  that  that 
phraseology  was  in  use  among  the  Jews  in  his 
day,  and  that  this  Angel  and  Jehovah  were  re- 
garded as  the  same  being ;  for  he  adds,  "  Moses 
was  in  the  church  in  the  wilderness  with  the 
Angel  which  spoke  unto  him  in  Mount  Sinai." 
There  is  one  part  of  the  history  of  the  Jews  in 
the  wilderness,  which  so  fully  shows  that  they 
distinguished  this  Angel  of  Jehovah  from  all 
created  angels,  as  to  deserve  particular  atten- 
tion. In  Exodus  xxiii,  20,  God  makes  this 
promise  to  Moses  and  the  Israelites :  "  Behold, 
I  send  an  Angel  before  thee  to  keep  thee  in 
the  way,  and  to  bring  thee  into  the  place  which 
I  have  prepared.  Beware  of  him,  and  obey 
his  voice ;  provoke  him  not ;  for  he  will  not 
pardon  your  transgressions,  for  my  name  is  in 
him."  Of  this  Angel  let  it  be  observed,  that 
he  is  here  represented  as  the  guide  and  pro- 
tector of  the  Israelites ;  to  him  they  were  to 
owe  their  conquests  and  their  settlement  in  the 
promised  land,  which  are  in  other  places  often 
attributed  to  the  immediate  agency  of  God; 
that  they  are  cautioned  to  "beware  of  him," 
to  reverence  and  stand  in  dread  of  him ;  that 
the  pardoning  of  transgressions  belongs  to  him ; 
finally,  "  that  the  name  of  God  was  in  him." 
This  name  must  be  understood  of  God's  own 
peculiar  name,  Jehovah,  I  am,  which  he  as- 
sumed as  his  distinctive  appellation  at  his  first 
appearing  to  Moses ;  and  as  the  names  of  God 
are  indicative  of  his  nature,  he  who  had  a  right 
to  bear  the  peculiar  name  of  God,  must  also 
have  his  essence.  This  view  is  put  beyond  all 
doubt  by  the  fact,  that  Moses  and  the  Jews  so 
understood   the   matter;   for   afterward  when 


their  sins  had  provoked  God  to  threaten  not  to 
go  up  with  them  himself,  but  to  commit  them 
to  "  an  angel  who  should  drive  out  the  Canaan- 
ite,"  &c,  the  people  mourned  over  this  as  a 
great  calamity,  and  Moses  betook  himself  to 
special  intercession,  and  rested  not  until  he 
obtained  the  repeal  of  the  threat,  and  the  re- 
newed promise,  "  My  presence  shall  go  with 
thee,  and  I  will  give  thee  rest."  Nothing, 
therefore,  can  be  more  clear  than  that  Moses 
and  the  Israelites  considered  the  promise  of  the 
Angel,  in  whom  was  "  the  name  of  God,"  as  a 
promise  that  God  himself  would  go  with  them. 
With  this  uncreated  Angel,  this  presence  of  the 
Lord,  they  were  satisfied,  but  not  with  "an 
angel"  indefinitely,  who  was  by  nature  of  that 
order  of  beings  usually  so  called,  and  therefore 
a  created  being;  for  at  the  news  of  God's  de- 
termination not  to  go  up  with  them,  Moses 
hastens  to  the  tabernacle  to  make  his  inter- 
cessions, and  refuses  an  inferior  conductor : — 
"  If  thy  presence  go  not  with  me,  carry  us  not 
up  hence." 

The  Jews  held  this  Word,  or  Angel  of  the 
Lord,  to  be  the  future  Messiah,  as  appears  from 
the  writings  of  their  older  rabbins.  So  that 
he  appears  as  the  Jehovah  of  all  the  three  dis- 
pensations, and  yet  is  invariably  described  as  a 
separate  person  from  the  unseen  Jehovah  who 
sends  him.  He  was  then  the  Word  to  be  made 
flesh,  and  to  dwell  for  a  time  among  us,  to 
open  the  way  to  God  by  his  sacrifice,  and  to 
rescue  the  race,  whose  nature  he  should  assume, 
from  sin  and  death.  This  he  has  now  actually 
effected;  and  the  Patriarchal,  Mosaic,  and 
Christian  religions  are  thus  founded  upon  the 
same  great  principles, — the  fall  and  misery  of 
mankind,  and  their  deliverance  by  a  Divine 
Redeemer. 

ANGELICS,  worshippers  of  angels.  Those 
who  consider  this  as  a  sect  of  the  Apostolic 
age,  think  St.  Paul,  Coloss.  ii,  18,  cautions 
Christians  against  a  superstitious  reverence  of 
these  celestial  agents  of  the  Deity,  which  they 
conceive  to  have  been  borrowed  from  the  idola- 
trous reverence  paid  by  the  Heathen  to  genii 
and  demons.  The  Jews  of  that  time  are  also 
accused  of  worshipping  angels,  and  probably 
this  superstition  might  through  them  influence 
the  Judaizing  members  of  some  of  the  Apostolic 
churches.  This  idolatry  may  now  be  too  justly 
charged  upon  the  Romish  and  some  other  cor- 
rupt churches. 

ANGER,  a  resentful  emotion  of  the  mind, 
arising  upon  the  receipt,  or  supposed  receipt, 
of  an  affront  or  injury ;  and  also  simple  feel- 
ing of  strong  displacency  at  that  which  is  in 
itself  evil,  or  base,  or  injurious  to  others.  In 
the  latter  sense  it  is  not  only  innocent  but  com- 
mendable. Strong  displeasure  against  evil 
dofrs,  provided  it  be  free  from  hatred  and 
rrfalice,  and  interferes  not  with  a  just  placable- 
ness,  is  also  blameless,  Eph.  iv,  26.  When  it 
is  vindictive  against  the  person  of  our  neigh- 
bour, or  against  the  innocent  creatures  of  God, 
it  is  wicked,  Matt,  v,  22.  When  anger,  hatred, 
wrath,  and  fury,  are  ascribed  to  God,  they  de- 
note no  tumultuous  passion,  but  merely  his 
holy  and  just  displeasure  with  sin  and  sinners; 


AN  I 


58 


ANI 


nnd  the  evidence  of  it  in  his  terrible  threaten- 
ings,  or  righteous  judgments,  Psalm  vi,  1,  and 
vii,  11.  We  must,  however,  take  care  that  we 
refine  not  too  much.  These  are  Scriptural 
terms,  and  are  often  used  of  God ;  and  though 
they  express  not  a  tumultuous,  much  less  an 
unjust,  passion,  there  is  something  in  God 
which  answers  to  them.  In  him  they  are 
principles  arising  out  of  his  holy  and  just  na- 
ture ;  and  for  this  reason  they  are  more  steady 
and  uniform,  and  more  terrible,  than  if  they 
were  emotions,  or  as  we  say  passions.  Nor 
can  we  rightly  regard  the  severity  of  the  judg- 
ments which  God  has  so  often  executed  upon 
sin  without  standing  in  awe  of  him,  "as  a 
consuming  fire"  to  the  ungodly. 

ANIMAL,  is  an  organized  and  living  body, 
endowed  with  sensation.  Minerals  are  said  to 
grow  or  increase,  plants  to  grow  and  live,  and 
animals  alone  to  have  sensation.  The  Hebrews 
distinguished  animals  into  pure  and  impure, 
clean  and  unclean;  or  those  which  might  be 
eaten  and  offered,  and  those  whose  use  was 
prohibited.  The  sacrifices  which  they  offered, 
were,  1.  Of  the  beeve  kind;  a  cow,  bull,  or 
calf.  The  ox  could  not  be  offered,  because  it 
was  mutilated ;  and  when  it  is  said  oxen  were 
sacrificed,  we  are  to  understand  bulls,  Lev. 
xxii,  18,  19.  Calmet  thinks,  that  the  mutila- 
tion of  animals  was  neither  permitted,  nor  used, 
among  the  Israelites.  2.  Of  the  goat  kind ; 
a  he-goat,  a  she-goat,  or  kid,  Lev.  xxii,  24. 
3.  Of  the  sheep  kind ;  a  ewe,  ram,  or  lamb. 
When  it  is  said  sheep  are  offered,  rams  are 
chiefly  meant,  especially  in  burnt-offerings  and 
sacrifices  for  sin ;  for  as  to  peace-offerings,  or 
sacrifices  of  pure  devotion,  a  female  might  be 
sometimes  offered,  provided  it  was  pure,  and 
without  blemish,  Lev.  iii,  1. 

Besides  these  three  sorts  of  animals,  used  in 
sacrifices,  many  others  might  be  eaten,  wild  or 
tame ;  as  the  stag,  the  roe-buck,  and  in  gene- 
ral all  that  have  cloven  feet,  or  that  chew  the 
cud,  Lev.  ix,  2,  3,  &c.  All  that  have  not 
cloven  hoofs,  and  do  not  chew  the  cud,  were 
esteemed  impure,  and  could  neither  be  offered 
nor  eaten.  The  fat  of  all  sorts  of  animals 
sacrificed  was  forbidden  to  be  eaten.  The 
blood  of  all  kinds  of  animals  generally,  and  in 
all  cases,  was  prohibited  on  pain  of  death, 
Lev.  iii,  17;  vii,  23-27.  Neither  did  the 
Israelites  eat  animals  which  had  been  taken 
and  touched  by  a  devouring  or  impure  beast, 
as  a  dog,  a  wolf,  a  boar,  &c,  Exodus  xxii,  3 ; 
nor  of  any  animal  that  died  of  itself.  Whoever 
touched  its  carcass  was  impure  until  the  even- 
ing :  and  till  that  time,  and  before  he  had 
washed  his  clothes,  he  did  not  return  to  the  com- 
pany of  other  Jews,  Lev.  xi,  39,  40 ;  xvii,  15  ; 
xxii,  8.  Fish  that  had  neither  fins  nor  scales 
were  unclean,  Lev.  xi,  20.  Birds  which 
walk  on  the  ground  with  four  feet,  as  bi^s, 
and  flies  that  have  many  feet,  were  impure. 
The  law,  however,  excepts  locusts,  which  have 
their  hind  feet  higher  than  those  before,  and 
rather  leap  than  walk.  These  were  clean,  and 
might  be  eaten,  Lev.  xi,  21,  22,  as  they  still 
ere  in  Palestine.  The  distinction  between 
clean  and  unclean  animals  has  been  variously 


accounted  for.  Some  have  thought  it  symboli- 
cal, intended  to  teach  the  avoidance  of  those 
evil  qualities  for  which  the  unclean  animals 
were  remarkable ;  others,  that,  in  order  that 
the  Hebrews  might  be  preserved  from  idolatry, 
they  were  commanded  to  kill  and  eat  many 
animals  which  were  sacred  among  the  Egyp- 
tians, and  were  taught  to  look  with  abhorrence 
upon  others  which  they  reverenced.  Others 
have  found  a  reason  in  the  unwholesomeness 
of  the  flesh  of  the  creatures  pronounced  by  the 
law  to  be  unclean,  so  that  they  resolve  the 
whole  into  a  sanative  regulation.  But  it  is 
not  to  be  forgotten  that  this  division  of  ani- 
mals into  clean  and  unclean  existed  both  before 
the  law  of  Moses,  and  even  prior  to  the  flood. 
The  foundation  of  it  was  therefore  clearly  sa- 
crificial; for  before  the  deluge  it  could  not  have 
reference  to  health,  since  animal  food  was  not 
allowed  to  man  prior  to  the  deluge ;  and  as  no 
other  ground  for  the  distinction  appears,  ex- 
cept that  of  sacrifice,  it  must  therefore  have 
had  reference  to  the  selection  of  victims  to  be 
solemnly  offered  to  God,  as  a  part  of  worship, 
and  as  the  means  of  drawing  near  to  him  by 
expiatory  rites  for  the  forgiveness  of  sins. 
Some  it  is  true,  have  regarded  this  distinction 
of  clean  and  unclean  beasts  as  used  by  Moses 
by  way  of  prolepsis,  or  anticipation, — a  notion 
which,  if  it  could  not  be  refuted  by  the  con- 
text, would  be  perfectly  arbitrary.  Not  only 
are  the  beasts,  which  Noah  was  to  receive, 
spoken  of  as  clean  and  unclean  ;  but  it  will  be 
noticed,  that,  in  the  command  to  -take  them 
into  the  ark,  a  difference  is  made  in  the  num- 
ber to  be  preserved — the  clean  being  to  be 
received  by  sevens,  and  the  unclean  by  two  of  a 
kind.  This  shows  that  this  distinction  among 
beasts  had  been  established  in  the  time  of  Noah  ; 
and  thus  the  assumption  of  a  prolepsis  is  refut- 
ed. The  critical  attempts  which  have  been 
made  to  show  that  animals  were  allowed  to 
man  for  food,  previous  to  the  flood,  have 
wholly  failed. 

A  second  argument  is  furnished  by  the  pro- 
hibition of  blood  for  food,  after  animals  had 
been  granted  to  man  for  his  sustenance  along 
with  the  "  herb  of  the  field."  This  prohibition 
is  repeated  by  Moses  to  the  Israelites,  with 
this  explanation  : — "  I  have  given  it  upon  the 
altar  to  make  an  atonement  for  your  souls." 
From  this  it  has  indeed  been  argued,  that  the 
doctrine  of  the  atoning  power  of  blood  was 
new,  and  was  then,  for  the  first  time,  announc- 
ed by  Moses,  or  the  same  reason  for  the  pro- 
hibition would  have  been  given  to  Noah.  To 
this  we  may  reply,  1.  That  unless  the  same  be 
supposed  as  the  ground  of  the  prohibition  of 
blood  to  Noah,  as  that  given  by  Moses  to  the 
Jews,  no  reason  at  all  can  be  conceived  for 
this  restraint  being  put  upon  the  appetite  of 
mankind  from  Noah  to  Moses.  2.  That  it  is 
a  mistake  to  suppose,  that  the  declaration  of 
Moses  to  the  Jews,  that  God  had  "  given  them 
the  blood  for  an  atonement,"  is  an  additional 
reason  for  the  interdict,  not  to  be  found  in  the 
original  prohibition  to  Noah.  The  whole  pas- 
sage in  Lev.  xvii,  is,  "  And  thou  shalt  say  to 
them,  Whatsoever  man  there  be  of  the  house 


ANI 


59 


ANO 


of  Israel,  or  of  the  strangers  that  sojourn  among 
you,  that  eateth  any  manner  of  blood,  I  will 
even  set  my  face  against  that  soul  that  eateth 
blood,  and  I  will  cut  him  oft  from  among  his 
people :  for  the  life  of  the  flesh  is  in  the 
blood ;  and  I  have  given  it  upon  the  altar,  to 
make  atonement  for  your  souls  :  for  it  is  the 
blood  (or  life)  that  maketh  atonement  for  the 
soul."  The  great  reason,  then,  of  the  prohibi- 
tion of  blood  is,  that  it  is  the  life  ;  and  what 
follows  respecting  atonement  is  exegetical  of 
this  reason ;  the  life  is  in  the  blood,  and  the 
blood  or  life  is  given  as  an  atonement.  Now, 
by  turning  to  the  original  prohibition  in  Gene- 
sis, we  find  that  precisely  the  same  reason  is 
given  :  "  But  the  flesh  with  the  blood,  which  is 
the  life  thereof,  shall  ye  not  eat."  The  reason, 
then,  being  the  same,  the  question  is,  whether 
the  exegesis  added  by  Moses  must  not  neces- 
sarily be  understood  in  the  general  reason 
given  for  the  restraint  to  Noah.  Blood  is 
prohibited  for  this  cause,  that  it  is  the  life  ;  and 
Moses  adds,  that  it  is  "the  blood,"  or  life, 
"which  makes  atonement."  Let  any  one 
attempt  to  discover  any  cause  for  tiie  prohibi- 
tion of  blood  to  Noah,  in  the  mere  cffcumstance 
that  it  is  "  the  life,"  and  he  will  find  it  impos- 
sible. It  is  no  reason  at  all,  moral  or  institut- 
ed, except  that  as  it  was  life  substituted  for 
life,  the  life  of  the  animal  in  sacrifice  for  the 
life  of  man,  and  that  it  had  a  sacred  appropria- 
tion. The  manner,  too,  in  which  Moses  in- 
troduces the  subject  is  indicative  that,  although 
he  was  renewing  a  prohibition,  he  was  not 
publishing  a  "new  doctrine;"  he  does  not 
teach  his  people  that  God  had  then  given,  or 
appointed,  blood  to  make  atonement ;  but  he 
prohibits  them  from  eating  it,  because  he  had 
made  this  appointment,  without  reference  to 
time,  and  as  a  subject  with  which  they  were 
familiar.  Because  the  blood  was  the  life,  it 
was  sprinkled  upon,  and  poured  out  at,  the 
altar :  and  we  have  in  the  sacrifice  of  the  pas- 
chal lamb,  and  the  sprinkling  of  its  blood,  a 
sufficient  proof,  that,  before  the  giving  of  the 
law,  not  only  was  blood  not  eaten,  but  was 
appropriated  to  a  sacred  sacrificial  purpose. 
Nor  was  this  confined  to  the  Jews;  it  was 
customary  with  the  Romans  and  Greeks,  who, 
in  like  manner,  poured  out  and  sprinkled  the 
blood  of  victims  at  their  altars,  a  rite  derived, 
probably,  from  the  Egyptians,  as  they  derived 
it,  not  from  Moses,  but  from  the  sons  of  Noah. 
The  notion,  indeed,  that  the  blood  of  the  vic- 
tims was  peculiarly  sacred  to  the  gods,  is  im- 
pressed upon  all  ancient  Pagan  mythology. 

If,  therefore,  the  distinction  of  animals  into 
clean  and  unclean  existed  before  the  flood,  and 
was  founded  upon  the  practice  of  animal  sa- 
crifice, we  have  not  only  a  proof  of  the  antiquity 
of  that  practice,  but  that  it  was  of  divine  insti- 
tution and  appointment,  since  almighty  God 
gave  laws  for  its  right  and  acceptable  perform- 
ance. Still  farther,  if  animal  sacrifice  was  of 
divine  appointment,  it  must  be  concluded  to 
be  typical  only,  and  designed  to  teach  the 
great  doctrine  of  moral  atonement,  and  to 
flirect  faith  to  the  only  true  sacrifice  which 
,  could  take  away  the  sins  of  men ; — "  the  Lamb 


slain  from  the  foundation  of  the  world,"— the 
victim  "  without  spot,"  who  suffered  the  just 
for  the  unjust,  that  he  might  bring  us  to  God. 
See  Sacrifices. 

ANISE,  an  annual  umbeliferous  plant,  the 
seeds  of  which  have  an  aromatic  smell,  a  plea- 
sant warm  taste,  and  a  carminative  quality. 
But  by  avrjOov,  Matt,  xxiii,  23,  the  dill  is  meant. 
Our  translators  seem  to  have  been  first  misled 
by  a  resemblance  of  the  sound.  No  other  ver- 
sions have  fallen  into  the  mistake."  The  Greek 
of  anise  is  avioov  ',  but  of  dill,  avydov, 

ANNA,  the  daughter  of  Phanuel,  a  prophetess 
and  widow,  of  the  tribe  of  Asher,  Luke  ii,  36, 
37.  She  was  married  early,  and  had  lived  only 
seven  years  with  her  husband.  Being  then 
disengaged  from  the  ties  of  marriage,  she 
thought  only  of  pleasing  the  Lord  ;  and  con- 
tinued without  ceasing  in  the  temple,  serving 
God  night  and  day,  with  fasting  and  prayer, 
as  the  Evangelist  expresses  it.  However,  her 
serving  God  at  the  temple  night  and  day,  says 
Dr.  Prideaux,  is  to  be  understood  no  otherwise 
than  that  she  constantly  attended  the  morning 
and  evening  sacrifice  at  the  temple ;  and  then 
with  great  devotion  offered  up  her  prayers  to 
God ;  the  time  of  morning  and  evening  sacri- 
fice being  the  most  solemn  time  of  prayer 
among  the  Jews,  and  the  temple  the  most 
solemn  place  for  this  devotion.  Anna  was 
fourscore  years  of  age  when  the  holy  virgin 
came  to  present  Jesus  in  the  temple ;  and  en- 
tering accidentally,  while  Simeon  was  pro- 
nouncing his  thanksgiving,  she  likewise  began 
to  praise  God,  and  to  speak  of  the  Messiah  to 
all  those  who  waited  for  redemption  in  Jeru- 
salem. We  know  nothing  more  either  of  the 
life  or  death  of  this  holy  woman. 

ANNAS,  or  ANANUS,  as  Josephus  calls 
him,  was  the  son  of  Seth,  and  high  priest  of 
the  Jews.  He  succeeded  Joazar,  the  son  of 
Simon,  enjoyed  the  high  priesthood  eleven 
years,  and  was  succeeded  by  Ishmael,  the  son 
of  Phabi.  After  he  was  deposed,  he  still  pre- 
served the  title  of  high  priest,  and  had  a  great 
share  in  the  management  of  public  affairs.  He 
is  called  high  priest  in  conjunction  with  Caia- 
phas,  when  John  the  Baptist  entered  upon  the 
exercise  of  his  mission  ;  though  Calmet  thinks 
that  at  that  time  he  did  not,  strictly  speaking, 
possess  or  officiate  in  that  character,  Luke  iii,  2. 
On  the  contrary,  Macknight  and  some  others 
are  of  opinion,  that  at  this  time  Caiaphas  was 
only  the  deputy  of  Annas.  He  was  father-in- 
law  to  Caiaphas  ;  and  Jesus  Christ  was  carried 
before  him,  directly  after  his  seizure  in  the 
garden  of  Olives,  John  xviii,  13.  Josephus 
remarks,  that  Annas  was  considered  as  one  of 
the  happiest  men  of  his  nation,  for  five  of  his 
sons  were  high  priests,  and  he  himself  pos- 
sessed that  great  dignity  many  years.  This 
was  an  instance  of  good  fortune  which,  till 
that  time,  had  happened  to  no  person. 

ANOINT,  to  pour  oil  upon,  Gen.  xxviii,  18 ; 
xxxi,  13.  The  setting  up  of  a  stone  and 
anointing  it  by  Jacob,  as  here  recorded,  in 
grateful  memory  of  his  celestial  vision,  proba- 
bly became  the  occasion  of  idolatry  in  succeed- 
ing ages,  and  gave  rise  to  the  erection  of  tern- 


ANO 


60 


ANT 


pics  composed  of  shapeless  masses  of  unhewn 
stone,  of  which  so  many  astonishing  remains 
are  scattered  up  and  down  the  Asiatic  and  the 
European  world. 

Under  the  law  persons  and  things  set  apart 
for  sacred  purposes  were  anointed  with  the 
holy  oil ;  which  appears  to  have  been  a  typical 
representation  of  the  communication  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  to  Christ  and  to  his  church.  See 
Exod.  xxviii,  xxix.  Hence  the  Holy  Spirit  is 
called  an  itnction  or  anointing,  1  John  ii,  20, 
27 ;  and  our  Lord  is  called  the  "  Messiah,"  or 
"  Anointed  One,"  to  denote  his  being  called  to 
the  offices  of  mediator,  prophet,  priest,  and 
king,  to  all  of  which  he  was  consecrated  by  the 
anointing  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  Matt,  iii,  16,  17. 

When  we  hear  of  the  anointing  of  the  Jew- 
ish kings,  we  are  to  understand  by  it  the  same 
as  their  inauguration  ;  inasmuch  as  anointing 
was  the  principal  ceremony  on  such  an  oc- 
casion, 2  Sam.  ii,  4;  v,  3.  As  far  as  we  are 
informed,  however,  unction,  as  a  sign  of  inves- 
titure with  the  royal  authority,  was  bestowed 
only  upon  Saul  and  David,  and  subsequently 
upon  Solomon  and  Joash,  who  ascended  the 
throne  under  such  circumstances,  that  there 
was  danger  of  their  right  to  the  succession  be- 
ing forcibly  disputed,  1  Sam.  x,  24 ;  2  Sam.  ii, 
4;  v,  1-3;  1  Chron.  xi,  1,  2;  2  Kings  xi,  12- 
20  ;  2  Chron.  xxiii,  1-21.  The  ceremony  of 
regal  anointing  needed  not  to  be  repeated  in 
every  instance  of  succession  to  the  throne,  be- 
cause the  unction  which  the  first  one  who  held 
the  sceptre  in  any  particular  line  of  princes  had 
received  was  supposed  to  suffice  for  the  suc- 
ceeding incumbents  in  the  same  descent. 

In  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  those  who  were 
inducted  into  the  royal  office  appear  to  have 
been  inaugurated  with  some  additional  cere- 
monies, 2  Kings  ix,  13.  The  private  anoint- 
ings which  we  learn  to  have  been  performed 
by  the  prophets,  2  Kings  ix,  3,  comp.  1  Sam. 
x,  1 ;  xvi,  1-13,  were  only  prophetic  symbols 
or  intimations  that  the  persons  who  were  thus 
anointed  should  eventually  receive  the  kingdom. 

The  holy  anointing  oil  which  was  made  by 
Moses,  Exod.  xxx,  22-33,  for  the  maintaining 
and  consecrating  of  the  king,  the  high  priest, 
and  all  the  sacred  vessels  made  use  of  in  the 
house  of  God,  was  one  of  those  things,  as  Dr. 
Prideaux  observes,  which  was  wanting  in  the 
second  temple.  The  oil  made  and  consecrated 
for  this  use  was  commanded  to  be  kept  by  the 
children  of  Israel,  throughout  their  genera- 
tions, and  therefore  it  was  laid  up  in  the  most 
holy  place  of  the  tabernacle  and  the  first  temple. 

ANOMCEANS,  the  name  by  which  the  pure 
Arians  were  called  in  the  fourth  century,  in 
contradistinction  to  the  Semi- Arians.  The  word 
is  formed  from  the  Greek  dvtyoioj,  different. 
For  the  pure  Arians  asserted,  that  the  Son  was 
of  a  nature  different  from,  and  in  nothing  like, 
that  of  the  Father;  whereas  the  Semi-Arians 
acknowledged  a  likeness  of  nature  in  the  Son, 
at  the  same  time  that  they  denied,  with  the 
pure  Arians,  the  consubstantiality  of  the  Word. 
The  Semi-Arians  condemned  the  Anomceans 
in  the  council  of  Seleucia ;  and  the  Anomceans, 
in  their  turn,  condemned  the  Semi-Arians  in 


the  councils  of  Constantinople  and  Antiocli, 
erasing  the  word  like  out  of  the  formula  of 
Rimini  and  Constantinople. 

ANSWER.  Beside  the  common  usage  of 
this  word,  in  the  sense  of  a  reply,  it  has  other 
significations.  Moses,  having  composed  a 
thanksgiving,  after  the  passage  of  the  Red  Sea, 
Miriam,  it  is  said,  answered,  "  Sing  ye  to  the 
Lord,"  &c, — meaning,  that  Moses,  with  the 
men  on  one  side,  and  Miriam,  with  the  women 
on  the  other  side,  sung  the  same  song,  as  it 
were,  in  two  choruses,  or  divisions ;  of  which 
one  answered  the  other.  Num.  xxi,  17,  "Then 
Israel  sung  this  song,  Spring  up,  O  well,  answer 
unto  it ;"  that  is,  sing  responsively,  one  side 
(or  choir)  singing  first,  and  then  the  other. 
1  Sam.  xxix,  5,  "Is  not  this  David  of  whom 
they  sung  one  to  another  in  dances,  saying, 
Saul  hath  slain  his  thousands,  and  David  his 
ten  thousands?"  They  sung  this  song  to  his 
honour  in  distinct  choruses. 

This  word  is  taken  likewise  for,  to  accuse  or 
to  defend  any  one,  judicially.  Gen.  xxx,  33, 
"  My  righteousness  shall  answer  for  me ;"  it 
shall  be  my  advocate  before  thee.  Deut.  xxxi, 
21,  "The  song  which  thou  shalt  compose  and 
teach  them  shall  testify  (answer)  against  them 
as  a  witness."  Isaiah  says,  "The  show  of 
their  countenance  will  testify  (answer)  against 
them ;"  their  impudence  will  be  like  a  witness 
and  an  accuser.  Hosea,  v,  5,  "The  pride  of 
Israel  doth  testify  (answer)  to  his  face." 

To  answer,  is  likewise  taken  in  a  bad  sense ; 
as  when  it  is  said  that  a  son  ansicers  his  father 
insolently,  or  a  servant  his  master.  Rom.  ix, 
20,  "Who  art  thou  that  repliest  against  God?" 
that  is,  to  contest  or  debate  with  him.  John 
xviii,  22,  "  Answerest  thou  the  high  priest  so  ?" 
St.  Paul  declares  that  he  "had  in  himself  the 
answer  (or  sentence)  of  death ;"  2  Cor.  i,  9 ; 
like  a  man  who  has  had  notice  of  condemna- 
tion, he  had  a  certain  assurance  of  dying. 

To  answer  is  also  used  in  Scripture  for  the 
commencement  of  a  discourse,  when  no  reply 
to  any  question  or  objection  is  intended.  This 
mode  of  speaking  is  often  used  by  the  evangel- 
ists, "And  Jesus  answered  and  said."  It  is  a 
Hebrew  idiom. 

ANT,  h^dj,  in  the  Turkish  and  Arabic,  neml, 
Prov.  vi,  6;  xxx,  25.  It  is  a  little  insect,  fa- 
mous from  all  antiquity  for  its  social  habits,  its 
economy,  unwearied  industry,  and  prudent  fore- 
sight. It  has  afforded  a  pattern  of  commenda- 
ble frugality  to  the  profuse,  and  of  unceasing 
diligence  to  the  slothful.  Solomon  calls  the 
ants  "  exceeding  wise ;  for  though  a  race  not 
strong,  yet  they  prepare  their  meat  in  the  sum- 
mer." He  therefore  sends  the  sluggard  to 
these  little  creatures,  to  learn  wisdom,  foresight, 
care,  and  diligence. 

"  Go  to  the  ant ;  learn  of  its  ways,  be  wise ; 
It  early  heaps  its  stores,  lest  want  surprise. 
Skill'd  in  the  various  year,  the  prescient  sage 
Beholds  the  summer  chill'd  in  winter's  rage. 
Survey  its  arts  ;  in  each  partition'd  cell 
Economy  and  plenty  deign  to  dwell." 

That  the  ant  hoarded  up  grains  of  corn 
against  winter  for  its  sustenance,  was  very 
generally  believed  by  the   ancients,   though 


ANT 


61 


ANT 


modern  naturalists  seem  to  question  the  fact. 

Thus  Horace  says, 

" Sicut 

Parvula  {nam  exemplo  est)  magni  formica  laburis 
Ore  traldt  quodcunque  potest,  atque  addit  acervo 
Quern  struit,  hand  ignara  ac  non  incauta  J'uturi  ; 
Qua?,  simul  inversum  contristat  aquarius  annum, 
Non  usquam prorepit,  et  illis  utitur  ante 
Qu&sitis  sapiens." 

Sat.  i,  1.  i,  v.  33. 

"  For  thus  the  little  ant  (to  human  lore 
No  mean  example)  forms  her  frugal  store, 
Gather'd  with  mighty  toil  on  every  side, 
Nor  ignorant  nor  careless  to  provide 
For  future  want ;  yet,  when  the  stars  appear 
That  darkly  sadden  the  declining  year, 
No  more  she  comes  abroad,  but  wisely  lives 
On  the  fair  stores  industrious  summer  gives." 
The  learned  Bochart,  in  his  Hierozoicon,  has 
displayed  his  vast  reading  on  this  subject,  and 
has  cited  passages  from  Pliny,  Lucian,  iElian, 
Zoroaster,  Origen,  Basil,  and  Epiphanius,  the 
Jewish   rabbins   and   Arabian   naturalists,   all 
concurring   in    opinion  that  ants  cut  off  the 
heads  of  grain,  to  prevent  their  germinating; 
and  it  is  observable  that  the  Hebrew  name  of 
the  insect  is  derived  from  the  verb  Sqj,  which 
signifies  to  cut  off,  and  is  used  for  cutting  off 
ears  of  corn,  Job  xxiv,  24. 

The  following  remarks  are  from  "  the  Intro- 
duction to  Entomology,"  by  Kirby  and  Spence  : 
"  Till  the  manners  of  exotic  ants  are  more 
accurately  explored,  it  would  be  rash  to  affirm 
that  no  ants  have  magazines  of  provisions ;  for, 
although,  during  the  cold  of  our  winters  in  this 
country,  they  remain  in  a  state  of  torpidity,  and 
have  no  need  of  food,  yet  in  warmer  regions, 
during  the  rainy  seasons,  when  they  are  proba- 
bly confined  to  their  nests,  a  store  of  provisions 
may  be  necessary  for  them.  Even  in  northern 
climates,  against  wet  seasons,  they  may  provide 
in  this  way  for  their  sustenance  and  that  of  the 
young  brood,  which,  as  Mr.  Smeatham  ob- 
serves, are  very  voracious,  and  cannot  bear  to 
be  long  deprived  of  their  food ;  else  why  do 
ants  carry  worms,  living  insects,  and  many 
other  such  things,  into  their  nests  ?  Solomon's 
lesson  to  the  sluggard  has  been  generally  ad- 
duced as  a  strong  confirmation  of  the  ancient 
opinion :  it  can,  however,  only  relate  to  the 
species  of  a  warm  climate,  the  habits  of  which 
are  probably  different  from  those  of  a  cold  one  ; 
so  that  his  words,  as  commonly  interpreted, 
may  be  perfectly  correct  and  consistent  with 
nature,  and  yet  be  not  at  all  applicable  to  the 
species  that  are  indigenous  to  Europe." 

The  ant,  according  to  the  royal  preacher,  is 
one  of  those  things  which  are  little  upon  the 
earth,  but  exceeding  loise.  The  superior  wis- 
dom of  the  ant  has  been  recognised  by  many 
writers.  Horace  in  the  passage  from  which 
the  preceding  quotation  is  taken,  praises  its 
sagacity ;  Virgil  celebrates  its  foresight,  in  pro- 
viding for  the  wants  and  infirmities  of  old  age, 
while  it  is  young  and  vigorous : — 

atque  inopi  meluens  formica  senectm. 

[And  the  ant  dreading  a  destitute  old  age.] 
And  we  learn  from  Hesiod,  that  among  the 
earliest  Greeks  it  was  called  Idris,  that  is,  wise, 
because  it  foresaw  the  coming  storm,  and  the 


inauspicious  day,  and  collected  her  store 
Cicero  believed  that  the  ant  is  not  only  fur- 
nished with  senses,  but  also  with  mind,  reason 
and  memory : — In  formica  von  modo  sensus  sed 
etiam  mens,  ratio,  memoria.  [The  ant  possesses 
not  only  senses,  but  also  mind,  reason,  me- 
mory.] The  union  of  so  many  noble  qualities  in 
so  small  a  corpuscle,  is  indeed  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  phenomena  in  the  works  of  nature. 

ANTHROPOMORPHITES,  a  sect  of  an- 
cient heretics,  who  were  so  denominated  from 
two  Greek  words  avOpu-xos,  man,  and  udpipr),  shape. 
They  understood  every  thing  spoken  in  Scrip- 
ture in  a  literal  sense,  and  particularly  that 
passage  of  Genesis  in  which  it  is  said,  "God 
made  man  after  his  own  image."  Hence  they 
maintained,  that  God  had  a  human  shape. 

ANTHROPOPATHY,  a  metaphor  by  which 
things  belonging  to  creatures  and  especially  to 
man  are  ascribed  to  God.  Instances  of  this 
abound  in  the  Scriptures,  by  which  they  adapt 
themselves  to  human  modes  of  speaking,  and 
to  the  limited  capacities  of  men.  These  an- 
thropopathies  we  must  however  interpret  in  a 
manner  suitable  to  the  majesty  of  the  divine 
nature.  Thus,  when  the  members  of  a  hmnan 
body  are  ascribed  to  God,  we  must  understand 
by  them  those"  perfections  of  which  such  mem- 
bers in  us  are  the  instruments.  The  eye,  for 
instance,  represents  God's  knowledge  and 
watchful  care  ;  the  arm,  his  power  and  strength  ; 
the  cars,  the  regard  he  pays  to  prayer  and  to 
the  cry  of  oppression  and  misery,  &c.  Farther, 
when  human  affections  are  attributed  to  God, 
we  must  so  interpret  them  as  to  imply  no  im- 
perfection, such  as  perturbed  feeling  in  him. 
When  God  is  said  to  repent,  the  antecedent, 
by  a  frequent  figure  of  speech,  is  put  for  the 
consequent;  and  in  this  case  we  are  to  under- 
stand an  altered  mode  of  proceeding  on  the  part 
of  God,  which  in  man  is  the  effect  of  repenting. 

ANTICHRIST,  compounded  of  ivri,  con- 
tra, against,  and  Xpis-S;,  Christ,  in  a  general 
sense,  denotes  an  adversary  of  Christ,  or  one 
who  denies  that  the  Messiah  is  come.  In  this 
sense,  Jews,  infidels,  &c,  may  be  said  to  be 
antichrists.  The  epithet,  in  the  general  sense 
of  it,  is  also  applicable  to  any  power  or  person 
acting  in  direct  opposition  to  Christ  or  his  doc- 
trine. Its  particular  meaning  is  to  be  collected 
from  those  passages  of  Scripture  in  which  it 
occurs.  Accordingly,  it  may  either  signify  one 
who  assumes  the  place  and  office  of  Christ,  or 
one  who  maintains  a  direct  enmity  and  oppo- 
sition to  him.  The  Fathers  all  speak  of  anti- 
christ as  a  single  man  ;  though  they  also  assure 
us,  that  he  is  to  have  divers  precursors,  or  fore- 
runners. Yet  many  Protestant  writers  apply 
to  the  Romish  church,  and  the  pope  who  is  at 
the  head  of  it,  the  several  marks  and  signa- 
tures of  antichrist  enumerated  in  the  Apoca- 
lypse, which  would  imply  antichrist  to  be,  not 
a  single  person,  but  a  corrupt  society,  or  a  long 
series  of  persecuting  pontiffs,  or  rather,  a  cer- 
tain power  and  government,  that  may  be  held 
for  many  generations,  by  a  number  of  indivi- 
duals succeeding  one  another.  The  antichrist 
mentioned  by  the  Apostle  John,  first  Epistle  ii, 
18,  and  more  particularly  described  in  the  book 


ANT 


62 


ANT 


of  Revelation,  seems  evidently  to  be  the  same 
with  the  man  of  sin,  &c,  characterized  by  St.  Paul 
in  his   Second  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians, 
chap,  ii ;    and  the  whole  description  literally 
applies  to  the  Papal  power.    A  late  writer,  after 
collecting  the  principal  prophecies  relating  to 
antichrist,  infers  from  them  that  a  power,  some- 
times represented  as  the  little  horn,  the  man  of 
sin,  the  antichrist,  the  beast,  the  harlot,  the  star 
falling  from  heaven,  the  false  prophet,  the  dra- 
gon, or  as  the  operation  of  false  teachers,  was 
to  be  expected  to  arise  in  the  Christian  world 
to  persecute  and  oppress,  and  delude  the  disci- 
ples of  Christ,  corrupt  the  doctrine  of  the  primi- 
tive church,  enact  new  laws,  and  establish  its 
dominion   over  the  minds  of  mankind.     He 
then  proceeds  to  show,  from  the  application  of 
prophecy  to  history,  and   to   the    remarkable 
train  of  events  that  are  now  passing  in  the 
world,  how  exactly  Popery,  Mohammedanism, 
and  Infidelity,  correspond  with  the  character 
given  in  Scripture  of  the  power  of  antichrist, 
which  was  to  prevail  a  certain  time  for  the 
especial  trial  and  punishment  of  the  corrupted 
church  of  Christ.     Upon  this  system,  the  dif- 
ferent opinions  of  the  Protestants  and  Papists, 
concerning  the   power   of  antichrist,  derived 
from  partial  views  of  the  subject,  are  not  wholly 
incompatible  with  each  other.     With  respect 
to  the  commonly  received  opinion,  that  the 
church  of  Rome  is  antichrist,  Mede  and  New- 
ton, Daubuz  and  Clarke,  Lowman  and  Hurd, 
Jurieu,  Vitringa,  and  many  other  members  of 
the  Protestant  churches  who  have  written  upon 
the  subject,  concur  in  maintaining,  that  the 
prophecies  of  Daniel,  St.  Paul,  and  St.  John, 
point  directly  to  this  church.     This  was  like- 
wise the  opinion  of  the  first  reformers;  and  it 
was  the  prevalent  opinion  of  Christians,  in  the 
earliest  ages,  that  antichrist  would  appear  soon 
after  the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire.     Gregory 
the  Great,  in  the  sixth  century,  applied  the 
prophecies  concerning  the  beast  in  the  Reve- 
lation, the  man  of  sin,  and  the  apostasy  from 
the  faith  mentioned  by  St.  Paul,  to  him  who 
should  presume  to  claim  the  title  of  universal 
priest,  or  universal  bishop,  in  the  Christian 
church;  and  yet  his  immediate  successor,  Boni- 
face III,  received  from  the  tyrant  Phocas  the 
precise  title  which  Gregory  had  thus  censured. 
At  the  synod  of  Rheims,  held  in  the  tenth  cen- 
tury, Arnulphus,  bishop  of  Orleans,  appealed  to 
the  whole  council,  whether  the  bishop  of  Rome 
was  not  the  antichrist  of  St.  Paul,  "  sitting  in 
the  temple  of  God,"  and  perfectly  correspond- 
ing with  the  description  of  him  given  by  St. 
Paul.    In  the  eleventh  century,  all  the  charac- 
ters of  antichrist  seemed  to  be  so  united  in  the 
person    of    Pope    Hildebrand,    who   took   the 
name  of  Gregory  VII,  that  Johannes  Aven- 
tinus,  a  Romish  historian,  speaks  of  it  as  a 
subject  in  which  the  generality  of  fair,  candid, 
and   ingenuous   writers   agreed,   that   at  that 
time  began  the  reign  of  antichrist.     And  the 
Albigcnses  and  Waldenses,  who  may  be  called 
the  Protestants  of  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth 
centuries,   expressly  asserted  in  their  declar- 
ations of  faith,  that  the  church  of  Rome  was 
the  whore  of  Babylon.     The  Papists  imagine 


they  view  in  the  prophetical  picture  of  anti 
christ,  imperial  Rome,  elated  by  her  victories,- 
exulting  in  her  sensuality  and  her  spoils,  pol- 
luted by  idolatry,  persecuting  the  people   of 
God,  and  finally  falling  like  the  first  Babylon ; 
whilst  a  new  and  holy  city,   represented  by 
their  own  communion,  filled  with  the  spotless 
votaries  of  the  Christian  faith,  rises  out  of  its 
ruins,  and  the  victory  of  the  cross  is  completed 
over  the  temples  of  Paganism.     This  scheme 
has  had  its  able  advocates,  at  the  head  of  whom 
may  be  placed  Bossuet,  bishop  of  Meaux,  Gro- 
tius,  and  Hammond.    Some  writers  have  main- 
tained, that  Caligula  was  antichrist ;  and  others 
have  asserted  the  same  of  Nero.     But  in  order 
to    establish    the    resemblance,   they   violate 
the  order  of  time,  disregard  the  opinions  of 
the  primitive  Christians,  and  overlook  the  ap- 
propriate descriptions  of  the  Apostles.     After: 
the  point  had  been  maturely  debated  at  the 
council  of  Gap,  held  in  1603,  a  resolution  was" 
taken  thereupon  to  insert  an  article  in  the  con- 
fession of  faith,  whereby  the  Pope  is  formally 
declared  to  be  antichrist.     Pope  Clement  VIII 
was  stung  with  this  decision ;  and  even  king 
Henry  IV,  of  France  was  not  a  little  mortified, 
to  be  thus  declared,  as   he  said,  an  imp  of 
antichrist. 

In  the  book  of  Daniel  it  is  foretold,  that  this 
power  should  exercise  dominion  until  a  time 
and  times,  and  the  dividing  of  time,  Dan.  vii, 
25.  This  expression  is  generally  admitted  to 
denote  1260  years.  The  Papal  power  was  com- 
pletely established  in  the  year  755,  when  it 
obtained  the  exarchate  of  Ravenna.  Some, 
however,  date  the  rise  of  antichrist  in  the  year 
of  Christ  606 ;  and  Mede  places  it  in  456.  If 
the  rise  of  antichrist  be  not  reckoned  till  he 
was  possessed  of  secular  authority,  his  fall  will 
happen  when  this  power  shall  be  taken  away. 
If  his  rise  began,  according  to  Mede  in  456,  he 
must  have  fallen  in  1716;  if  in  606,  it  must  be 
in  1866 ;  if  in  755,  in  2015.  If,  however,  we 
use  prophetical  years,  consisting  of  three  hun- 
dred and  sixty  days,  and  date  the  rise  of  anti- 
christ in  the  year  755,  his  fall  will  happen  in 
the  year  of  Christ  2000.  Every  thing  however 
in  the  state  of  the  world  betokens  a  speedy 
overthrow  of  the  Papal  and  Mohammedan  pow- 
ers, both  of  which  have  indeed  been  already 
greatly  weakened. 

ANTI-LIB  ANUS.  The  Greeks  give  this 
name  to  that  chain  of  mountains  east  of  Liba- 
nus,  which,  properly  speaking,  forms,  together 
with  Libanus,  but  one  ridge  of  mountains,  ex- 
tending from  north  to  south,  and  afterward 
from  south  to  north,  in  the  shape  almost  of  a 
horse  shoe,  for  the  space  of  about  fourscore 
leagues.  The  western  part  of  these  mountains 
was  called  Libanus ;  the  eastern  wTas  called  An- 
tilibanus;  the  former  reached  along  the  Medi- 
terranean, from  Sidon,  almost  to  Arada,  of 
Symira.  The  Hehrew  text  never  mentions  An- 
tilibanus;  but  uses  the  general  name  Libanus: 
and  the  coins  struck  at  Laodicea  and  Hierapo- 
lis,  have  the  inscription,  "  cities  of  Libanus," 
though  they  belong  rather  to  Antilibanus.  The 
Septuagint,  on  the  contrary,  puts  Antilibanus 
often  instead  of  Libanus.    The  valley  which 


ANT 


63 


ANT 


separates  Libanus  from  Antilibanus  is  very  fruit- 
ful :  it  was  formerly,  on  the  side  of  Syria,  in- 
closed with  a  wall,  whereof  there  are  now  no 
traces.  Strabo  says,  that  the  name  of  C02I0- 
Syria,  or  "  the  hollow  Syria,"  belongs  principally 
to  the  valley  between  Libanus  and  Antilibanus. 

ANTINOMIANS  are  those  who  maintain 
that  the  law  is  of  no  use  or  obligation  under 
the  Gospel  dispensation,  or  who  hold  doctrines 
that  clearly  supersede  the  necessity  of  good 
works  and  a  virtuous  life.  The  Antinomians 
took  their  origin  from  John  Agricola,  about 
tb,e  year  1538,  who  taught  that  the  law  was  in 
no  wise  necessary  under  the  Gospel ;  that  good 
works  do  not  promote  our  salvation,  nor  ill  ones 
hinder  it ;  that  repentance  is  not  to  be  preach- 
ed from  the  decalogue,  but  only  from  the  Gos- 
pel. This  sect  sprung  up  in  England  during 
the  protectorate  of  Oliver  Cromwell ;  and  ex- 
tended their  system  of  libertinism  much  farther 
than  Agricola,  the  disciple  of  Luther.  Some 
of  their  teachers  expressly  maintained,  that  as 
the  elect  cannot  fall  from  grace  nor  forfeit  the 
divine  favour,  the  wicked  actions  they  commit 
are  not  really  sinful,  nor  are  to  be  considered 
as  instances  of  their  violation  of  the  divine  law; 
and  that  consequently  they  have  no  occasion 
either  to  confess  their  sinSj  or  to  break  them  off 
by  repentance.  According  to  them,  it  is  one  of 
the  essential  and  distinctive  characters  of  the 
elect,  that  they  cannot  do  any  thing  which  is 
displeasing  to  God.  Luther,  Rutherford,  Schlus- 
selburgh,  Sedgwick,  Gataker,  Witsius,  Bull, 
Williams,  &c,  have  written  refutations  ;  Crisp, 
Richardson,  Saltmarsh,  &c,  defences,  of  the 
Antinomians ;  Wigandus,  a  comparison  be- 
tween ancient  and  modern  Antinomians. 

The  doctrine  of  Agricola  was  in  itself  obscure, 
and  is  thought  to  have  been  represented  worse 
than  it  really  was  by  Luther,  who  wrote  against 
him  with  acrimony,  and  first  styled  him  and  his 
followers  Antinomians.  Agricola,  in  defending 
himself,  complained  that  opinions  were  imput- 
ed to  him  which  he  did  not  hold.  The  writings 
of  Dr.  Crisp  in  the  seventeenth  century  are  con- 
sidered as  highly  favourable  to  Antinomianism, 
though  he  acknowledges  that,  "  in  respect  of 
the  rules  of  righteousness,  or  the  matter  of 
obedience,  we  are  under  the  law  still,  or  else," 
as  he  adds,  "  we  are  lawless,  to  live  every  man 
as  seems  good  in  his  own  eyes,  which  no  true 
Christian  dares  so  much  as  think  of."  The 
following  sentiments,  however,  among  others, 
are  taught  in  his  sermons :  "  The  law  is  cruel 
and  tyrannical,  requiring  what  is  naturally 
impossible."  "The  sins  of  the  elect  were  so 
imputed  to  Christ,  as  that  though  he  did  not 
commit  them,  yet  they  became  actually  his 
transgressions,  and  ceased  to  be  theirs."  "  The 
feelings  of  conscience,  which  tell  them  that  sin 
is  theirs,  arise  from  a  want  of  knowing  the 
truth."  "  It  is  but  the  voice  of  a  lying  spirit  in 
the  hearts  of  believers,  that  saith  they  have  yet 
sin  wasting  their  consciences,  and  lying  as  a 
burden  too  heavy  for  them  to  bear."  "  Christ's 
righteousness  is  so  imputed  to  the  elect,  that 
they,  ceasing  to  be  sinners,  are  as  righteous  as 
he  was,  and  all  that  he  was."  "  An  elect  per- 
son is  not  in  a  condemned  state  while  an  un- 


believer ;  and  should  he  happen  to  die  before 
God  call  him  to  believe,  he  would  not  be  lost." 
"  Repentance  and  confession  of  sin  are  not 
necessary  to  forgiveness.  A  believer  may  cer- 
tainly conclude  before  confession,  yea,  as  soon 
as  he  hath  committed  sin,  the  interest  he  hath 
in  Christ,  and  the  love  of  Christ  embracing  him." 
These  dangerous  sentiments,  and  others  of  a 
similar  bearing,  have  been  fully  answered  by 
many  writers ;  but  by  none  more  ably  than  by 
the  Rev.  John  Fletcher,  in  his  "Checks  to 
Antinomianism." 

ANTIOCH,  a  city  of  Upper  Syria,  on  the 
river  Orontes,  about  twenty  miles  from  the 
place  where  it  discharges  itself  into  the  Mediter- 
ranean. It  was  built  by  Seleucus  Nicanor,  about 
three  hundred  years  before  Christ ;  and  became 
the  seat  of  empire  of  the  Syrian  kings  of 
the  Macedonian  race,  and  afterward  of  the 
Roman  governors  of  the  eastern  provinces ; 
being  very  centrally  and  commodiously  situat- 
ed midway  between  Constantinople  and  Alex- 
andria, about  seven  hundred  miles  from  each, 
in  37°  17'  north  latitude,  and  36°  45'  east  lon- 
gitude. No  city  perhaps,  Jerusalem  excepted, 
has  experienced  more  frequent  revolutions,  or 
suffered  more  numerous  and  dire  calamities, 
than  Antioch ;  as,  besides  the  common  plagues 
of  eastern  cities,  pestilence,  famine,  fire,  and 
sword,  it  has  several  times  been  entirely  over- 
thrown by  earthquakes. 

In  3G2,  the  emperor  Julian  spent  some  months 
at  Antioch  ;  which  were  chiefly  occupied  in  his 
favourite  object  of  reviving  the  mythology  of 
Paganism.  The  grove  at  Daphne,  planted  by 
Seleucus,  which,  with  its  temple  and  oracle, 
presented,  during  the  reigns  of  the  Macedonian 
kings  of  Syria,  the  most  splendid  and  fashion- 
able place  of  resort  for  Pagan  worship  in  the 
east,  had  sunk  into  neglect  since  the  establish- 
ment of  Christianity.  The  altar  of  the  god  was 
deserted,  the  oracle  was  silenced,  and  the  sacred 
grove  itself  defiled  by  the  interment  of  Chris- 
tians. Julian  undertook  to  restore  the  ancient 
honours  and  usages  of  the  place ;  but  it  was 
first  necessary  to  take  away  the  pollution  occa- 
sioned by  the  dead  bodies  of  the  Christians, 
which  were  disinterred  and  removed  !  Among 
these  was  that  of  Babylas,  a  bishop  of  Antioch, 
who  died  in  prison  in  the  persecution  of  Decius, 
and  after  resting  near  a  century  in  his  grave 
within  the  walls  of  Antioch,  had  been  removed 
by  order  of  Gallus  into  the  midst  of  the  grove 
of  Daphne,  where  a  church  was  built  over  him ; 
the  remains  of  the  Christian  saint  effectually 
supplanting  the  former  divinity  of  the  place, 
whose  temple  and  statue,  however,  though  ne- 
glected, remained  uninjured.  The  Christians  of 
Antioch,  undaunted  by  the  conspiracy  against 
their  religion,  or  the  presence  of  the  emperor 
himself,  conveyed  the  relics  of  their  former 
bishop  in  triumph  back  to  their  ancient  reposito- 
ry within  the  city.  The  immense  multitude  who 
joined  in  the  procession,  chanted  forth  their 
execrations  against  idols  and  idolaters  ;  and  on 
the  same  night  the  image  and  the  temple  of  the 
Heathen  god  were  consumed  by  the  flames.  A 
dreadful  vengeance  might  be  expected  to  have 
followed  these  scenes  J  but  the  real  or  affected 


ANT 


64 


ANT 


clemency  of  Julian  contented  itself  with  shut- 
ting up  the  cathedral,  and  confiscating  its 
wealth.  Many  Christians,  indeed,  suffered  from 
the  zeal  of  the  Pagans  ;  but,  as  it  would  appear, 
without  the  sanction  of  the  emperor. 

In  1268,  Antioch  was  taken  by  Bibars,  or 
Bondocdar,  sultan  of  Egypt.  The  slaughter 
of  seventeen  thousand,  and  the  captivity  of  one 
hundred  thousand  of  its  inhabitants,  mark  the 
final  siege  and  fall  of  Antioch;  which,  while 
they  close  the  long  catalogue  of  its  public  woes, 
attest  its  extent  and  population.  From  this 
time  it  remained  in  a  ruinous  and  nearly  de- 
serted condition,  till,  with  the  rest  of  Syria,  it 
passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Ottoman  Turks, 
with  whose  empire  it  has  ever  since  been  in- 
corporated. 

To  distinguish  it  from  other  cities  of  the 
same  name,  the  capital  of  Syria  was  called 
Anteochia  apud  Daphnem,  or  Antioch  near 
Daphne,  a  village  in  the  neighbourhood,  where 
was  a  temple  dedicated  to  the  goddess  of  that 
name;  though,  in  truth,  the  chief  deity  of  the 
place  was  Apollo,  under  the  fable  of  his  amor- 
ous pursuit  of  the  nymph  Daphne  ;  and  the 
worship  was  worthy  of  its  object.  The  temple 
stood  in  the  midst  of  a  grove  of  laurels  and 
cypresses,  where  every  thing  was  assembled 
which  could  minister  to  the  senses ;  and  in 
whose  recesses  the  juvenile  devotee  wanted 
not  the  countenance  of  a  libertine  god  to  aban- 
don himself  to  voluptuousness.  Even  those  of 
riper  years  and  graver  morals  could  not  with 
safety  breathe  the  atmosphere  of  a  place  where 
pleasure,  assuming  the  character  of  religion, 
roused  the  dormant  passions,  and  subdued  the 
firmness  of  virtuous  resolution.  Such  being 
the  source,  the  stream  could  scarcely  be  ex- 
pected to  be  more  pure  ;  in  fact,  the  citizens  of 
Antioch  were  distinguished  only  for  their  lux- 
ury in  life  and  licentiousness  in  manners. 
This  was  an  unpromising  soil  for  Christianity 
to  take  root  in.  But  here,  nevertheless,  it  was 
planted  at  an  early  period,  and  flourished  vigor- 
ous^'. It  should  be  observed,  that  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Antioch  were  partly  Syrians,  and  partly 
Greeks ;  chiefly,  perhaps,  the  latter,  who  were 
invited  to  the  new  city  by  Seleucus.  To  these 
Greeks,  in  particular,  certain  Cypriot  and  Cy- 
renian  converts,  who  had  fled  from  the  perse- 
cution which  followed  the  death  of  Stephen, 
addressed  themselves ;  "  and  a  great  number 
believed,  and  turned  unto  the  Lord."  When 
the  heads  of  the  church  at  Jerusalem  were  in- 
formed of  this  success,  ihey  sent  Barnabas  to 
Antioch,  who  encouraged  the  new  disciples, 
and  added  many  to  their  number ;  and  finding 
how  great  were  both  the  field  and  the  harvest, 
went  to  Tarsus  to  solicit  the  assistance  of  Paul. 
Both  this  Apostle  and  Barnabas  then  taught 
conjointly  at  Antioch ;  and  great  numbers  were, 
by  their  labours  during  a  whole  year,  added  to 
the  rising  church,  Acts  xi,  19-26 ;  xv,  22-35. 
Here  they  were  also  joined  by  Peter,  who  was 
reproved  by  Paul  for  his  dissimulation,  and  his 
concession  to  the  Jews  respecting  the  observ- 
ance of  the  law,  Gal.  ii,  11-14. 

Antioch  was  the  birthplace  of  St.  Luke  and 
Theophilus,  and  the  see  of  the  martyr  Ignatius. 


In  this  city  the  followers  of  Christ  had  first  the 
name  of  Christians  given  them.  We  have  the 
testimony  of  Chrysostom,  both  of  the  vast  in- 
crease of  this  illustrious  church  in  the  fourth 
century,  and  of  the  spirit  of  charity  which  con- 
tinued to  actuate  it.  It  consisted  at  this  time 
of  not  less  than  a  hundred  thousand  persons, 
three  thousand  of  whom  were  supported  out  of 
the  public  donations.  It  is  painful  to  trace  the 
progress  of  declension  in  such  a  church  as  this. 
But  the  period  now  referred  to,  namely,  the 
age  of  Chrysostom,  toward  the  close  of  the 
fourth  century,  may  be  considered  as  the  brigl'4- 
est  of  its  history  subsequent  to  the  Apostolic 
age,  and  that  from  which  the  church  at  Anti- 
och may  date  its  fall.  It  conlinucd,  indeed, 
outwardly  prosperous ;  but  superstition,  secular 
ambition,  the  pride  of  life  ;  pomp  and  formality 
in  the  service  of  God,  in  place  of  humility  and 
sincere  devotion;  the  growth  of  faction,  and 
the  decay  of  charity ;  showed  that  real  religion 
was  fast  disappearing,  and  that  the  foundations 
were  laid  of  that  great  apostasy  which,  in  two 
centuries  from  this  time,  overspread  the  whole 
Christian  world,  led  to  the  entire  extinction  of 
the  church  in  the  east,  and  still  holds  dominion 
over  the  fairest  portions  of  the  west. 

Antioch,  under  its  modern  name  of  Antakia, 
is  now  but  little  known  to  the  western  nations. 
It  occupies,  or  rather  did  till  lately  occupy,  a 
remote  corner  of  the  ancient  enclosure  of  its 
walls.  Its  splendid  buildings  were  reduced  to 
hovels  ;  and  its  population  of  half  a  million,  to 
ten  thousand  wretched  beings,  living  in  the 
usual  debasement  and  insecurity  of  Turkish 
subjects.  Such  was  nearly  its  condition  when 
visited  by  Pocock  about  the  year  1738,  and 
again  by  Kinneir  in  1813.  But  its  ancient 
subterranean  enemy,  which,  since  its  destruc- 
tion in  587,  never  long  together  withheld  its 
assaults,  has  again  triumphed  over  it :  the  earth- 
quake of  the  13th  of  August,  1822,  laid  it  once 
more  in  ruins ;  and  every  thing  relating  to  An- 
tioch is  past. 

ANTIOCH,  of  Pisidia.  Beside  the  Syrian 
capital,  there  was  another  Antioch  visited  by 
St.  Paul  when  in  Asia,  and  called,  for  the  sake 
of  distinction,  Antiochia  ad  Pisidiam,  as  belong- 
ing to  that  province,  of  which  it  was  the  capi- 
tal. Here  Paul  and  Barnabas  preached ;  but 
the  Jews,  jealous,  as  usual,  of  the  reception  of 
the  Gospel  by  the  Gentiles,  raised  a  sedition 
against  them,  and  obliged  them  to  leave  the 
city,  Acts  xiii,  14,  to  the  end.  There  were 
several  other  cities  of  the  same  name,  sixteen 
in  number,  in  Syria  and  Asia  Minor,  built  by 
the  Seleucidae,  the  successors  of  Alexander  in 
these  countries ;  but  the  above  two  are  the  only 
ones  which  it  is  necessary  to  describe  as  oc- 
curring in  Scripture. 

ANTIOCHUS.  There  were  many  kings  of 
this  name  in  Syria,  much  celebrated  in  the 
Greek,  Roman,  and  Jewish  histories,  after  the 
time  of  Seleucus  Nicanor,  the  father  of  Antio- 
chus  Soter,  and  reckoned  the  first  king  of  Syria, 
after  Alexander  the  Great. 

1.  Antiochus  Soter  was  the  son  of  Seleucus 
Nicanor,  and  obtained  the  surname  of  Soter, 
or  Saviour,  from  having  hindered  the  invasion 


ANT 


65 


ANT 


nf  Asia  by  the  Gauls.  Some  think  that  it  was 
on  the  following  occasion  :  The  Galatians  hav- 
ing marched  to  attack  the  Jews  in  Babylon, 
whose  army  consisted  only  of  eight  thousand 
men,  reinforced  with  four  thousand  Macedon- 
ians, the  Jews  defended  themselves  with  so 
much  bravery,  that  they  killed  one  hundred 
and  twenty  thousand  men,  2  Mac.  viii,  20.  It 
was  perhaps,  too,  on  tbis  occasion,  that  Antio- 
chus  Soter  made  the  Jews  of  Asia  free  of  the 
cities  belonging  to  the  Gentiles,  and  permitted 
them  to  live  according  to  their  own  laws. 

2.  Antiociius  Tiieos,  or,  the  God,  was  the 
son  and  successor  of  Antiociius  Soter.  He 
married  Berenice,  daughter  of  Ptolemy  Phila- 
delphus,  king  of  Egypt.  Laodice,  his  first  wife, 
seeing  herself  despised,  poisoned  Antiociius, 
Berenice,  and  their  son,  who  was  intended  to 
eucceed  in  the  kingdom.  After  this,  Laodice 
procured  Seleucus  Callinicus,  her  son  by  Antio- 
ciius, to  be  acknowledged  king  of  Syria.  These 
events  were  foretold  by  Daniel:  "And  in  the 
end  of  years,"  the  king  of  Egypt,  or  of  the 
south,  and  the  king  of  Syria,  or  of  the  north, 
"  shall  join  themselves  together ;  for  the  king's 
daughter  of  the  south  shall  come  to  the  king 
of  the  north  to  make  an  agreement :  but  she 
shall  not  retain  the  power  of  the  arm;  neither 
shall  he  stand,  nor  his  arm :  but  she  shall  be 
given  up,  and  they  that  brought  her,  and  he 
that  begat  her,  and  he  that  strengthened  her  in 
these  times,"  Dan.  xi,  6. 

3.  Antiociius  the  Great  was  the  son  of 
Seleucus  Callinicus,  and  brother  to  Seleucus 
Ceraunus,  whom  he  succeeded  in  the  year  of 
the  world  3781,  and  before  Jesus  Christ  223. 
He  made  war  against  Ptolemy  Philopator,  king 
of  Egypt,  but  was  defeated  near  Raphia,  3  Mac.  i. 
Thirteen  years  after,  Ptolemy  Philopator  being 
dead,  Antiociius  resolved  to  become  master 
of  Egypt.  He  immediately  seized  Coelo-Syria, 
Phenicia,  and  Judea ;  but  Scopas,  general 
of  the  Egyptian  army,  entered  Judea  while 
Antiociius  was  occupied  by  the  war  against 
Attalus,  and  retook  those  places.  However, 
he  soon  lost  them  again  to  Antiociius.  On 
this  occasion  happened  what  Josephus  relates 
of  this  prince's  journey  to  Jerusalem.  After  a 
victory  which  he  had  obtained  over  Scopas, 
near  the  springs  of  Jordan,  he  became  master 
of  the  strong  places  in  Ccclo-Syria  and  Sama- 
ria ;  and  the  Jews  submitted  freely  to  him,  re- 
ceived him  into  their  city  and  furnished  his 
army  plentifully  with  provisions.  In  reward 
for  their  affection,  Antiociius  granted  them, 
according  to  Josephus,  twenty  thousand  pieces 
of  silver,  to  purchase  beasts  for  sacrifice,  one 
thousand  four  hundred  and  sixty  measures  of 
meal,  and  three  hundred  and  seventy-five  mea- 
sures of  salt  to  be  offered  with  the  sacrifices, 
and  timber  to  rebuild  the  porches  of  tlie  Lord's 
house.  He  exempted  the  senators,  scribes,  and 
singing  men  of  the  temple,  from  the  capitation 
tax ;  and  he  permitted  the  Jews  to  live  accord- 
ing to  their  own  laws  in  every  part  of  his  do- 
minions. He  also  remitted  the  third  part  of 
their  tribute,  to  indemnify  them  for  their  losses 
in  the  war ;  he  forbade  the  Heathens  to  enter 
the  temple  without  being  purified;  and  to  bring 

6 


into  the  city  the  flesh  of  mules,  asses,  and  horses 
to  sell,  under  a  severe  penalty. 

In  the  year  of  the  world  3815,  Antiociius 
was  overcome  by  the  Romans,  and  obliged  to 
cede  all  his  possessions  beyond  Mount  Taurus 
to  give  twenty  hostages,  among  whom  was  bis 
own  son  Antiociius,  afterward  surnamed  Epi- 
phanes,  and  to  pay  a  tribute  of  twelve  thousand 
Euboic  talents,  each  fourteen  Roman  pounds 
in  weight.  To  defray  these  charges,  he  re- 
solved to  seize  the  treasures  of  the  tomple  of 
Belus,  at  Elymais  ;  but  the  people  of  that  coun- 
try, informed  of  his  design,  surprised  and  de- 
stroyed him,  with  all  his  army,  in  the  year  of 
the  world  3817,  and  before  Jesus  Christ  187. 
He  left  two  sons,  Seleucus  Philopator,  and 
Antiociius  Epiphancs,  who  succeeded  biin. 

4.  Antiociius  Epipiianes,  the.  son  of  Antio- 
ciius the  Great,  having  continued  a  hostage  at 
Rome  fourteen  years,  his  brother  Seleucus  re- 
solved to  procure  his  return  to  Syria,  and  sent 
his  own  son  Demetrius  to  Rome  in  the  place 
of  Antiociius.  Whilst  Antiociius  was  on  his 
journey  to  Syria,  Seleucus  died,  in  the  year  of 
the  world  3829.  When,  therefore,  Antiociius 
landed,  the  people  received  him  as  some  pro- 
pitious deity  come  to  assume  the  government, 
and  to  oppose  the  enterprises  of  Ptolemy,  king 
of  Egypt,  who  threatened  to  invade  Syria.  For 
this  reason  Antiociius  obtained  the  surname  of 
Epiphan.es,  the  illustrious,  or  of  one  appearing 
like  a  god. 

Antiochus  quickly  turned  his  attention  to 
the  possession  of  Egypt,  which  was  then  en- 
joyed by  Ptolemy  Philometor,  his  nephew,  son 
to  his  sister  Cleopatra,  whom  Antiociius  the 
Great  had  married  to  Ptolemy  Epiphancs,  king 
of  Egypt.  He  sent  Apollonius,  one  of  his 
officers,  into  Egypt,  apparently  to  honour  Pto- 
lemy's coronation,  but  in  reality  to  obtain 
intelligence  whether  the  great  men  of  the  king- 
dom were  inclined  to  place  the  government  of 
Egypt  in  his  hands  during  the  minority  of  the 
king  his  nephew,  2  Mac.  iv,  21,  &c.  Apollo- 
nius, however,  found  them  not  disposed  to 
favour  his  master ;  and  this  obliged  Antiochus 
to  make  war  against  Philometor.  He  came  to 
Jerusalem  in  3831,  and  was  received  there  by 
Jason,  to  whom  he  had  sold  the  high  priest- 
hood. He  designed  to  attack  Egypt,  but  re- 
turned without  effecting  any  thing.  The  am- 
bition of  those  Jews  who  sought  the  high 
priesthood,  and  bought  it  of  Antiochus,  was 
the  beginning  of  those  calamities  which  over- 
whelmed their  nation  under  this  prince.  Jason 
procured  himself  to  be  constituted  in  this  dig- 
nity in  the  stead  of  Onias  III ;  but  Menelaus 
offering  a  greater  price,  Jason  was  deprived, 
and  Menelaus  appointed  in  his  place.  These 
usurpers  of  the  high  priesthood,  to  gratify  the 
Syrians,  assumed  the  manners  of  the  Greeks, 
their  games  and  exercises,  and  neglected  the 
worship  of  the  Lord,  and  the  temple  service. 

War  broke  out  between  Antiochus  Epiphancs 
and  Ptolemy  Philometor.  Antiochus  entered 
Egypt  in  the  year  of  the  world  3833,  and  re- 
duced almost  the  whole  of  it  to  his  obedience, 
•2  Mae.  v,  3-5.  The  next  year  he  returned ; 
and   whilst   he  was  engaged  in  the  siege  of 


ANT 


66 


ANT 


Alexandria,  a  false  report  was  spread  of  his 
death.  The  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem  testifying 
their  joy  at  this  news,  Antiochus,  when  re- 
turning from  Egypt,  entered  this  city  by  force, 
treated  the  Jews  as  rebels,  and  commanded  his 
troops  to  slay  all  they  met.  Eighty  thousand 
were  killed,  made  captives,  or  sold  on  this 
occasion.  Antiochus,  conducted  by  the  cor- 
rupt high  priest  Menclaus,  entered  into  the 
holy  of  holies,  whence  he  took  and  carried  off 
the-  most  precious  vessels  of  that  holy  place, 
to  the  value  of  one  thousand  eight  hundred 
talents.  In  the  year  3835,  Antiochus  made  a 
third  expedition  against  Egypt,  which  he  en- 
tirely subdued.  The  year  following,  he  sent 
Apollonius  into  Judea,  with  an  army  of  twenty- 
two  thousand  men,  and  commanded  him  to  kill 
all  the  Jews  who  were  of  full  age,  and  to  sell 
the  women  and  young  men,  2  Mac.  v,  24,  25. 
These  orders  were  too  punctually  executed.    It 


vexation.  In  this  condition  he  wrote  to  the 
Jews  very  humbly,  promised  them  many  things, 
and  engaged  even  to  turn  Jew,  if  God  would 
restore  him  to  health.  He  earnestly  recom- 
mended to  them  his  son  Antiochus,  who  was 
to  succeed  him,  and  entreated  them  to  favour 
the  young  prince,  and  to  continue  faithful  to 
him.  He  died,  overwhelmed  with  pain  and 
grief,  in  the  mountains  of  Paratacene,  in  the 
little  town  of  Tabes,  in  the  year  of  the  world 
3840,  and  before  Jesus  Christ  164. 

5.  Antiochus  Eupatok,  son  of  Antiochus 
Epiphanes,  was  only  nine  years  old  when  his 
father  died  and  left  him  the  kingdom  of  Syria. 
Lysias,  who  governed  the  kingdom  in  the  name 
of  the  young  prince,  led  against  Judea  an  army 
of  one  hundred  thousand  foot,  twenty  thousand 
horse,  and  thirty  elephants,  1  Mac.  vi ;  2  Mac. 
xiii.  He  besieged  and  took  the  fortress  of 
Bethsura,  and  thence  marched  against  Jerusa- 


was  on   this  occasion  that  Judas  Maccaboeus    lem.    The  city  was  ready  to  fall  into  his  hands 


retired  into  the  wilderness  with  his  father  and 
his  brethren,  2  Mac.  v,  29.    These  misfortunes 
were  only  preludes  of  what  they  were  to  suffer ; 
for  Antiochus,    apprehending  that  the   Jews 
would  never  be  constant  in  their  obedience  to 
him,  unless  he  obliged  them  to  change  their 
religion,  and  to  embrace  that  of  the  Greeks, 
issued  an  edict,  enjoining  them  to  conform  to 
the  laws  of  other  nations,  and  forbidding  their 
usual  sacrifices  in  the  temple,  their  festivals, 
and  their   Sabbath.      The   statue    of  Jupiter 
Olympus  was  placed  upon  the  altar  of  the  tem- 
ple, and  thus   the  abomination  of  desolation 
was  seen  in  the  temple  of  God.     Many  corrupt 
Jews  complied  with  these  orders ;  but  others 
resisted  them.    Mattathias  and  his  sons  retired 
to  the  mountains.    Old  Eleazar,  and  the  seven 
brethren,  suffered  death  with  great  courage  at 
Antioch,  2  Mac.  vii.     Mattathias  being  dead, 
Judas  Maccaboeus  headed  those  Jews  who  con- 
tinued faithful,  and  opposed  with  success  the 
generals  whom  king  Antiochus  sent  into  Judea. 
The  king,  informed  of  the  valour  and  resist- 
ance of  Judas,  sent  new  forces ;  and,  finding 
his  treasures  exhausted,  he  resolved  to  go  into 
Persia  to  levy  tributes,  and  to   collect  large 
sums  which  he  had  agreed  to  pay  to  the  Ro- 
mans, 1  Mac.  iii,  5-31;   2  Mac.   ix,    1,    &c; 
1  Mac.  vi,  1,  &c.     Knowing  that  very  great 
riches  were  lodged  in  the  temple  of  Elymais, 
he  determined  to  carry  it  off;  but  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  country  made  so  vigorous  a  resist- 
ance, that  he   was   forced  to  retreat  toward 
Babylonia.    When  he  was  come  to  Ecbatana, 
he  was  informed  of  the  defeat  of  Nicanor  and 
Timotheus,   and   that  Judas  Maccaboeus  had 
retaken  the  temple  of  Jerusalem,  and  restored 
the  worship  of  the  Lord,  and  the  usual  sacrifi- 
On  receiving  this  intelligence,  the  king 


was  transported  with  indignation  ;  and,  threat- 
ening to  make  Jerusalem  a  grave  for  the  Jews, 
commanded  the  driver  of  his  chariot  to  urge 
the  horses  forward,  and  to  hasten  his  journey. 
However,  divine  vengeance  soon  overtook 
him :  ho  fell  from  his  chariot,  and  bruised  all 
his  limbs.  Ho  was  also  tormented  with  such 
pains  in  his  bowels,  as  allowed  him  no  rest ; 
and  his  disease  waa  aggravated  by  griof  and 


when  Lysias  received  the  news  that  Philip, 
whom  Antiochus  Epiphanes  had  entrusted 
with  the  regency  of  the  kingdom,  had  come  to 
Antioch  to  take  the  government,  according  to 
the  disposition  of  the  late  king.  He  therefore 
proposed  an  accommodation  with  the  Jews, 
that  he  might  return  speedily  to  Antioch  and 
oppose  Philip.  After  concluding  a  peace,  he 
immediately  returned  into  Syria,  with  the 
young  king  and  his  army. 

In  the  meantime,  Demetrius  Soter,  son  of 
Seleucus  Philopator,  and  nephew  to  Antiochus 
Epiphanes,  to  whom  by  right  the  kingdom 
belonged,  having  escaped  from  Rome,  came 
into  Syria.  Finding  the  people  disposed  for 
revolt,  Demetrius  headed  an  army,  and  marched 
directly  to  Antioch,  against  Antiochus  and 
Lysias.  However,  the  inhabitants  did  not  wait 
till  he  besieged  the  city  ;  but  opened  the  gates, 
and  delivered  to  him  Lysias  and  the  young  king 
Antiochus  Eupator,  whom  Demetrius  caused 
to  be  put  to  death,  without  suffering  them  to 
appear  in  his  presence.  Antiochus  Eupator 
reigned  only  two  years,  and  died  in  the  year  of 
the  world  3842,  and  before  Jesus  Christ  162. 

6.  Antiochus  Theos,  or  the  Ditinc,  the  son 
of  Alexander  Balas,  king  of  Syria,  was  brought 
up  by  the  Arabian  prince  Elmachuel,  or,  as  he 
is  called  in  the  Greek,  Simalcue,  1  Mac.  xi, 
39,  40,  &.c.  Demetrius  Nicanor,  king  of  Syria, 
having  rendered  himself  odious  to  his  troops, 
one  Diodotus,  otherwise  called  Tryphon,  came 
to  Zabdiel,  a  king  in  Arabia,  and  desired  him 
to  entrust  him  with  young  Antiochus,  whom 
he  promised  to  place  on  the  throne  of  Syria, 
which  was  then  possessed  by  Demetrius  Nica- 
nor. After  some  hesitation,  Zabdiel  complied 
with  the  request ;  and  Tryphon  carried  Antio- 
chus into  Syria,  and  put  the  crown  on  his 
head.  The  troops  dismissed  by  Demetrius, 
came  and  joined  Tryphon,  who,  having  formed 
a  powerful  army,  defeated  Demetrius,  and 
forced  him  to  retreat  to  Seleucia.  Tryphon 
seized  his  elephants,  and  rendered  himself 
master  of  Antioch,  in  the  year  of  the  world 
3859,  and  before  Jesus  Christ  145.  Antiochus 
Theos,  to  strengthen  himself  in  his  new  acqui- 
sition,  6cnt  letters  to  Jonathan  Maccaboeus, 


ANT 


67 


ANT 


high  priest  and  prince  of  the  Jews,  confirming 
him  in  the  high  priesthood,  and  granting  him 
four  toparchies,  or  four  considerable  places,  in 
Judea.  He  also  received  Jonathan  into  the 
number  of  his  friends,  sent  him  vessels  of  gold, 
permitted  him  to  use  a  gold  cup,  to  wear  purple, 
and  a  golden  buckle  ;  and  he  gave  his  brother, 
Simon  Maccabreus,  the  command  of  all  bis 
troops  on  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  from 
Tyre  to  Egypt.  Jonathan,  engaged  by  so  many 
favours,  declared  resolutely  for  Antiochus,  or 
rather  for  Tryphon,  who  reigned  under  the 
name  of  this  young  prince ;  and  on  several 
occasions,  he  attacked  the  generals  of  Deme- 
trius, who  still  possessed  many  places  beyond 
Jordan  and  in  Galilee,  1  Mace,  xi,  63,  &c  ;  xii, 
24,  34.  Tryphon,  seeing  young  Antiochus  in 
peaceable  possession  of  the  kingdom  of  Syria, 
resolved  to  usurp  his  crown.  He  thought  it 
necessary,  in  the  first  place,  to  secure  Jonathan 
Maccabseus  who  was  one  of  the  most  powerful 
supporters  of  Antiochus's  throne.  He  came, 
therefore,  with  troops  into  Judea,  invited  Jona- 
than to  Ptolemais,  and  there,  on  frivolous  pre- 
tences, made  him  prisoner.  However,  Simon, 
Jonathan's  brother,  headed  the  troops  of  Judea, 
and  opposed  Tryphon,  who  intended  to  take 
Jerusalem.  Tryphon,  being  disappointed,  put 
Jonathan  to  death  at  Bassa  or  Bascama,  and 
returned  into  Syria,  where,  without  delay,  he 
executed  his  design  of  killing  Antiochus.  He 
corrupted  the  royal  physicians,  who,  having 
published  that  Antiochus  was  tormented  with 
the  stone,  murdered  him,  by  cutting  him  with- 
out any  necessity.  Thus  Tryphon  was  left 
master  of  Syria,  in  the  year  of  the  world  3861, 
and  before  Jesus  Christ  143. 

7.  Antiochus  Sidetes,  or  Soter  the  Saviour, 
or  Eusebcs  the  pious,  was  the  son  of  Demetrius 
Soter,  and  brother  to  Demetrius  Nicanor.  Try- 
phon, the  usurper  of  the  kingdom  of  Syria, 
having  rendered  himself  odious  to  his  troops, 
they  deserted  him,  and  offered  their  services  to 
Cleopatra,  the  wife  of  Demetrius  Nicanor. 
She  lived  in  the  city  of  Seleucia,  shut  up  with 
her  children,  while  her  husband  Demetrius  was 
a  prisoner  in  Persia,  where  he  had  married 
Rodeguna,  the  daughter  of  Arsaces  king  of 
Persia.  Cleopatra,  therefore  sent  to  Antiochus 
Sidetes,  her  brother-in-law,  and  offered  him  the 
crown  of  Syria,  if  he  would  marry  her;  to 
which  Antiochus  consented.  This  prince  was 
then  at  Cnidus,  where  his  father,  Demetrius 
Soter  had  placed  him  with  one  of  his  friends. 
He  came  into  Syria,  and  wrote  to  Simon  Mac- 
Cabreus,  to  engage  him  against  Tryphon,  1  Mace, 
xv,  1,  2,  3,  &c.  He  confirmed  the  privileges 
which  the  kings  of  Syria  had  granted  to  Simon, 
permitted  him  to  coin  money  with  his  own 
stamp,  declared  Jerusalem  and  the  temple 
exempt  from  royal  jurisdiction,  and  promised 
other  favours  as  soon  as  he  should  obtain 
peaceable  possession  of  the  kingdom  which  had 
belonged  to  his  ancestors.  Antiochus  Sidetes 
having  married  his  sister-in-law,  Cleopatra,  in 
the  year  of  the  world  3865,  the  troops  of  Try- 
phon resorted  to  him  in  crowds.  Tryphon, 
thus  abandoned,  retired  to  Dora,  in  Phoenicia, 
whither  Anticchus  pursued  him  with  an  army 


of  120,000  foot,  800  horse,  and  a  powerful 
fleet.  Simon  Maccabreus  sent  Antiochus  two 
thousand  chosen  men,  but  the  latter  refused 
them  and  revoked  all  his  promises.  He  also 
sent  Athenobius  to  Jerusalem  to  oblige  Simon 
to  restore  to  him  Gazara  and  Joppa,  with  the 
citadel  of  Jerusalem  ;  and  to  demand  of  him  five 
hundred  talents  more,  as  reparation  for  injuries 
the  king  had  suffered,  and  as  tribute  for  his 
own  cities.  At  the  same  time  he  threatened 
to  make  war  upon  him,  if  he  did  not  comply. 
Simon  showed  Athenobius  all  the  lustre  of  his 
wealth  and  power,  told  him  he  had  in  his  pos- 
session no  place  whicli  belonged  to  Antiochus, 
and  said  that  the  cities  of  Gazara  and  Joppa 
had  greatly  injured  his  people,  and  he  would 
give  the  king  for  the  property  of  them  one 
hundred  talents.  Athenobius  returned  with 
great  indignation  to  Antiochus,  who  was  ex- 
tremely offended  at  Simon's  answer.  In  the 
meantime,  Tryphon  having  escaped  privately 
from  Dora,  embarked  in  a  vessel  and  fled.  An- 
tiochus pursued  him,  and  sent  Cendebeus  with 
troops  into  the  maritime  parts  of  Palestine,  and 
commanded  him  to  rebuild  Cedron,  and  fight 
the  Jews.  John  Hircanus,  son  of  Simon  Mac- 
cabseus,  was  then  at  Gaza,  and  gave  notice  to 
his  father  of  the  coming  of  Cendebeus.  Simon 
furnished  his  sons,  John  Hircanus  and  Judas 
with  troops,  and  sent  them  against  Cendebeus, 
whom  they  routed  in  the  plain  and  pursued  to 
Azotus. 

Antiochus  followed  Tryphon,  till  he  forced 
him  to  kill  himself  in  the  year  of  the  world 
3869.  After  this,  Antiochus  thought  only  of 
reducing  to  his  obedience  those  cities  which,  in 
the  beginning  of  his  father's  reign,  had  shaken 
oft' their  subjection.  Simon  Maccabsus,  prince 
and  high  priest  of  the  Jews,  being  treacherously 
murdered  by  Ptolemy,  his  son-in-law,  in  the 
castle  of  Docus,  near  Jericho,  the  murderer 
immediately  sent  to  Antiochus  Sidetes  to  de- 
mand troops,  that  he  might  recover  for  him  the 
country  and  cities  of  the  Jews.  Antiochus  came 
in  person  with  an  army,  and  besieged  Jerusa- 
lem, which  was  bravely  defended  by  John  Hir- 
canus. The  siege  was  long  protracted ;  and 
the  king  divided  his  army  into  seven  parts,  and 
guarded  all  the  avenues  of  the  city.  It  being 
the  time  for  celebrating  the  feast  of  taberna- 
cles, the  Jews  desired  of  Antiochus  a  truce 
for  seven  days.  The  king  not  only  granted 
this  request,  but  sent  them  bulls  with  gilded 
horns,  and  vessels  of  gold  and  silver  filled  with 
incense,  to  be  offered  in  the  temple.  He  also 
ordered  such  provisions  as  they  wanted,  to  be 
given  to  the  Jewish  soldiers.  This  courtesy  of 
the  king  so  won  the  hearts  of  the  Jews,  that 
they  sent  ambassadors  to  treat  of  peace,  and  to 
desire  that  they  might  live  according  to  their 
own  laws.  Antiochus  required  that  they  should 
surrender  their  arms,  demolish  the  city  walls, 
pay  tribute  for  Joppa  and  the  other  cities  they 
possessed  out  of  Judea,  and  receive  a  garrison 
into  Jerusalem.  To  these  conditions,  except 
the  last,  the  Jews  consented;  for  they  could 
not  be  induced  to  see  an  army  of  strangers  in 
their  capital,  and  chose  rather  to  give  hostages 
and  five  hundred  talents  of  silver.    The  king 


ANT 


68 


ANT 


entered  the  city,  beat  down  the  breast  work 
above  the  walls,  and  returned  to  Syria,  in  the 
year  of  the  world  3870,  and  before  Jesus  Christ 
134.  Three  years  after,  Antiochus  marched 
against  the  Persians,  or  Partbians,  and  demand. 
ed  the  liberty  of  his  brother  Demetrius  Nicanor, 
who  had  been  made  prisoner  long  before  by 
Arsaces,  and  was  detained  for  the  purpose  of 
being  employed  in  exciting  a  war  against  Antio- 
chus. This  war,  therefore,  Antiochus  thought 
proper  to  prevent.  With  an  army  of  eighty 
thousand,  or,  as  Orosius  says,  of  one  hundred 
thousand  men,  he  marched  toward  Persia,  and 
no  sooner  appeared  on  the  frontiers  of  that 
country,  than  several  eastern  princes,  detesting 
the  pride  and  avarice  of  the  Persians,  came  and 
surrendered.  Antiochus  defeated  his  enemies 
in  three  engagements,  and  took  Babylon.  He 
was  accompanied  in  these  expeditions  by  John 
Hircanus,  high  priest  of  the  Jews,  who,  it  is 
supposed,  obtained  the  surname  of  Hircanus 
from  some  gallant  action  which  he  performed. 
As  the  army  of  Antiochus  was  too  numerous 
to  continue  assembled  in  any  one  place,  he  was 
obliged  to  divide  it,  to  put  it  into  winter  quar- 
ters. These  troops  behaved  with  so  much  in- 
solence, that  they  alienated  the  minds  of  all 
men.  The  cities  in  which  they  were,  privately 
surrendered  to  the  Persians  ;  and  all  resolved  to 
attack,  in  one  day,  the  garrisons  they  contained, 
that  the  troops  being  separated  might  not  assist 
each  other.  Antiochus  at  Babylon  obtained 
intelligence  of  this  design,  and,  with  the  few 
soldiers  about  him,  endeavoured  to  succour  his 
people.    He  was  attacked  in  the  way  by  Phraa- 


Antipas,  returning  to  Judea,  took  great  pains 
in  adorning  and  fortifying  the  principal  places 
of  his  dominions.     He  married  the  daughter  or 
Aretas,  king  of  Arabia,  whom  he  divorced  about 
A.  D.  33,  that  he  might  marry  his  sister-in-law, 
Herodias,  the  wife  of  his  brother  Philip,  who 
was  still  living.     John  the  Baptist,  exclaiming 
against  this  incest,  was  seized  by  order  of  An- 
tipas, and  imprisoned  in  the  castle  of  Machaerus. 
Josephus  says,  that  Antipas  caused  John  to  be 
taken,  because  he  drew  too  great  a  concourse 
after  him  ;  and  Antipas  was  afraid  he  should  use 
his  influence  over  the  people  to  induce  them  to 
revolt.    But  Josephus  has  reported  the  pretence 
for  the  true  cause.     The  evangelists,  who  were 
better  informed  than  Josephus,  as  being  eye 
witnesses  of  what  passed,  and  particularly  ac- 
quainted with  John    and  his  disciples,  assure 
us,   I  hat  the  true  reason  of  imprisoning  John 
was  the  aversion  of  Herod  and  Herodias  against 
him,  on  account  of  his  liberty  in  censuring  their 
scandalous  marriage,  Matt,  xiv,  3,  4  ;  Mark  vi, 
14,  17,  18;  Luke  hi,  19,  20.     When  the  king 
was  celebrating  his  birth  day,  with  the  princi- 
pal persons  of  his  court,  the  daughter  of  He- 
rodias danced  before  them,  and  pleased  him  so 
well  that  he  swore  to  give  her  whatever  she 
should  ask.     She  consulted  her  mother,  who 
advised  her  to  ask  the  head  of  John  the  Bap- 
tist.    Returning,  therefore,  to  the  hall,  she  ad- 
dressed herself  to  the  king,  and  said,  "  Give  me 
here  John  Baptist's  head  in  a  charger."     The 
king  was  afflicted  at  this  request;  but  in  con- 
sideration of  his  oath,  and  of  the  persons  at 
table  with  him,  he  sent  one  of  his  guards,  who 
The    head   was 


tes,  king  of  Persia,  whom  he  fought  with  great    beheaded   John    in    prison 

bravery;  but  being  at  length  deserted  by  his  [  brought  in,   and  given  to  the  young  woman, 

own  forces,  according  to  the  generality  of  his-    who  delivered  it  to  her  mother,  Matt,  xiv,  5,  6, 


Kcording 
torians,  he  was  overpowered  and  killed  by  the 
Persians  or  Partbians.  Appian,  however,  says 
that  he  killed  himself,  and  jElian,  that  he  threw 
himself  headlong  from  a  precipice.  This  event 
took  place  in  the  year  of  the  world  3874,  and 
before  Jesus  Christ  130.  After  the  death  of 
Sidetes,  Demetrius  Nicanor,  or  Nicetor,  reas- 
cended  the  throne  of  Syria. 

ANTIP^EDOBAPTISTS,  a  denomination 
given  to  those  who  object  to  the  baptism  of  in- 
fants. The  word  is  derived  from  aim,  against, 
aats,  izat&bs,  a  child,  fia-nri^i,  I  baptize.  See 
Baptism. 

ANTIPAS,  Antipas-Herod,  or  Herod-Anti- 
pas,  was  the  son  of  Herod  the  Great,  and  Cleo- 
patra of  Jerusalem.  Herod  the  Great,  in  his 
first  will,  declared  him  his  successor  in  the  king- 
dom ;  but  he  afterward  named  his  son  Arche- 
laus  king  of  Judea,  and  gave  to  Antipas  only 
the  title  of  tetrarch  of  Galilee  and  Perrea.  Ar- 
chelaus  going  to  Rome,  to  persuade  the  empe- 
ror to  confirm  his  father's  will,  Antipas  also 
went  thither.  The  emperor  bestowed  on  Ar- 
ehelaus  one  moity  of  what  had  been  assigned 
him  by  Herod,  with  the  quality  of  ethnarch,  and 
promised  to  grant  him  the  title  of  king  when 
he  had  shown  himself  deserving  of  it  by  his 
virtues.  To  Antipas,  \ugustus  gave  Galilee  and 
Perrea;  and  to  Philip,  Herod's  other  son,  the 
Batann>a,  Trachonitis,  and  Auranitis,  with  soma 
other  places. 


&c.  Aretas,  king  of  Arabia,  to  revenge  the 
affront  which  Herod  had  offered  to  his  daugh- 
ter, declared  war  against  him,  and  vanquished 
him  in  a  very  obstinate  contest.  Josephus  tells 
us,  that  the  Jews  attributed  the  defeat  of  Herod 
to  the  death  of  John  the  Baptist.  In  the  year 
of  the  Christian  cera  39,  Herodias  being  jealous 
of  the  prosperity  of  her  brother  Agrippa,  who 
from  a  private  person  had  become  king  of  Ju- 
dea, persuaded  her  husband,  Herod-Antipas,  to 
visit  Rome,  and  desire  the  same  dignity  of  the 
emperor  Caius.  She  resolved  to  accompany 
him  ;  and  hoped  that  her  presents  and  appear- 
ance would  contribute  to  procure  the  emperor's 
favour.  However,  Agrippa  obtaining  intelli- 
gence of  this  design,  wrote  to  the  emperor  and 
accused  Antipas.  The  messenger  of  Agrippa 
arrived  at  Baire,  where  the  emperor  was,  at  the 
very  time  when  Herod  received  his  first  audience. 
Caius,  on  the  delivery  of  Agrippa's  letters,  read 
them  with  great  earnestness.  In  these  letters, 
Agrippa  accused  Antipas  of  having  been  a  par- 
ty in  Sejanus's  conspiracy  against  Tiberius,  and 
said  that  he  still  carried  on  a  correspondence 
with  Artabanus,  king  of  Partha,  against  the 
Romans.  As  a  proof  of  this,  he  affirmed  that. 
Antipas  had  in  his  arsenals  arms  for  seventy 
thousand  men.  Caius  being  angry,  demanded 
hastily  of  Antipas,  if  it  were  true  that  he  had 
such  a  quantity  of  arms  ?  The  king  not  daring 
to  deny  it,  was  instantly  banished  to  Lyons  in 


APE 


69 


APO 


Gaul.  The  emperor  offered  to  forgive  Hero- 
dias,  in  consideration  of  her  brother  Agrippa ; 
but  she  chose  rather  to  follow  her  husband,  and 
to  share  his  fortune  in  banishment.  This  is 
that  Antipas,  who,  being  at  Jerusalem  at  the 
time  of  our  Saviour's  passion,  ridiculed  Jesus 
whom  Pilate  had  sent  to  him,  dressed  him  in 
worn-out  royalty,  and  sent  him  back  to  Pilate 
as  a  mock  king,  whose  ambition  gave  him  no 
umbrage,  Luke  xxiii,  7,  11.  The  year  of  the 
deatli  of  Antipas  is  unknown  ;  but  it  is  certain 
that  he,  as  well  as  Herodias,  died  in  exile.  Jo- 
sephus  says,  that  he  died  in  Spain,  whither 
Caius,  on  his  coming  into  Gaul  the  first  year 
of  his  banishment,  might  order  him  to  be  sent. 

2.  Antipas,  the  faithful  martyr  or  witness 
mentioned  in  the  book  of  Revelation,  ii,  13. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  one  of  our  Saviour's 
first  disciples,  and  to  have  suffered  martyrdom 
at  Pergamus,  of  which  he  was  bishop.  His  Acts 
relate  that  he  was  burnt  in  a  brazen  bull. 
Though  ancient  ecclesiastical  history  furnishes 
no  account  of  this  Antipas,  yet  it  is  certain 
that,  according  to  all  the  rules  of  language, 
what  is  said  concerning  him  by  St.  John  must 
be  understood  literally,  and  not  mystically,  as 
some  interpreters  have  done. 

ANTIPATRIS,  Acts  xxiii,  31,  a  town  in  Pa- 
lestine, anciently  called  Caphar-Saba,  accord- 
ing to  Josephus  ;  but  named  Antipatris  by  He- 
rod the  Great,  in  honour  of  his  father  Antipatcr. 
It  was  situated  in  a  pleasant  valley,  near  the 
mountains,  in  the  way  from  Jerusalem  to  Cagsa- 
rea.  Josephus  places  it  at  about  the  distance  of 
seventeen  miles  from  Joppa.  To  this  place  St. 
Paul  was  brought  in  his  way  to  the  governor  of 
Judea  at  Crosarea,  Acts  xxiii,  31. 

ANTITYPE,  that  which  answers  to  a  type 
or  figure.  A  type  is  a  model,  mould,  or  pat- 
tern ;  that  which  is  formed  according  to  it  is 
an  antitype.     See  Type. 

ANTONIA,  one  of  the  towers  of  Jerusalem, 
called  by  Herod  after  M.  Antony.  The  Romans 
generally  kept  a  garrison  in  this  tower;  and 
from  thence  it  was  that  the  tribune  ran  with  his 
soldiers  to  rescue  St.  Paul  out  of  the  hands  of 
the  Jews,  who  had  seized  him  in  the  temple,  and 
designed  to  have  murdered  him,  Acts  xxi,  31,  32. 

APE,  cip,  K>j<i>os  and  nrjiros,  cephus,  1  Kings  x, 
22 ;  2  Chron.  ix,  21.  This  animal  seems  to  be 
the  same  with  the  ceph  of  the  Ethiopians,  of 
which  Pliny  speaks,  1.  viii,  c.  19  :  "  At  the 
games  given  by  Pompey  the  Great,"  says  he, 
"  were  shown  cephs  brought  from  Ethiopia, 
which  had  their  fore  feet  like  a  human  hand, 
their  hind  legs  and  feet  also  resembled  those 
of  a  man."  The  Scripture  says  that  the  fleet  of 
Solomon  brought  apes,  or  rather  monkeys,  &c, 
from  Ophir.  The  learned  are  not  agreed  re- 
specting the  situation  of  that  country ;  but 
Major  Wilford  says  that  the  ancient  name  of 
the  River  Landi  sindh  in  India  was  Cophes. 
May  it  not  have  been  so  called  from  the  rjiBp 
inhabiting  its  banks  ? 

We  now  distinguish  this  tribo  of  creatures 
into  1.  Monkeys,  those  with  long  tails  ;  2.  Apes, 
those  with  short  tails ;  3.  Baboons,  those  with- 
out tails.  The  ancient  Egyptians  are  said  to 
have  worshipped  apes;  it  is  certain  that  they 


are  still  adored  in  many  places  in  India.  Maf- 
feus  describes  a  magnificent  temple  dedicated  to 
the  ape,  with  a  portico  for  receiving  the  victims 
sacrificed,  supported  by  seven  hundred  columns. 
"  With  glittering  gold  and  sparkling  gems  they  shine, 

But  apes  and  monkeys  are  the  gods  within." 
Figures  of  apes  are  also  made  and  reverenced 
as  idols,  of  which  we  have  several  in  Moore's 
"  Hindoo  Pantheon  ;"  also  in  the  avatars,  given 
in  Maurice's  "  History  of  India,"  &,c.  In  some 
parts  of  the  country  the  apes  are  held  sacred, 
though  not  resident  in  temples  ;  and  incautious 
Engljsh  gentlemen,  by  attempting  to  shoot 
these  apes,  (rather,  perhaps,  monkeys,)  have 
been  exposed,  not  only  to  all  manner  of  insults 
and  vexations  from  the  inhabitants  of  the  vil- 
lages, &c,  adjacent,  but  have  even  been  in 
danger  of  their  lives. 

APHARSACHITES,  a  people  sent  by  the 
kings  of  Assyria  to  inhabit  the  country  of  Sa- 
maria, in  the  room  of  those  Israelites  who  had 
been  removed  beyond  the  Euphrates,  Ezra  v,  6, 
They,  with  the  other  Samaritans,  opposed  the 
rebuilding  of  the  walls  of  Jerusalem,  Ezra  iv,  9, 

APIS,  a  symbolical  deity  worshipped  by  the 
Egyptians.  It  was  an  ox,  having  certain  ex. 
terior  marks,  in  which  animal  the  soul  of  the 
great  Osiris  was  supposed  to  subsist.  The  ox 
was  probably  made  the  symbol  of  Osiris  be- 
cause he  presided  over  agriculture. 

APOCALYPSE, ' AnoKdXvipig,  signifies  revela. 
lion.  It  is,  however,  particularly  applied  to 
the  Revelations  which  St.  John  had  in  the  isle 
of  Patmos,  whither  he  had  been  banished.  The 
testimonies  in  favour  of  the  book  of  the  Reve- 
lation being  a  genuine  work  of  St.  John  the 
Evangelist  are  very  full  and  satisfactory.  An. 
drew,  bishop  of  Caesarea  in  Capadocia,  in  the 
fifth  century,  assures  us  that  Papias  acknow- 
ledged the  Revelation  to  be  inspired.  But  the 
earliest  author  now  extant  who  mentions  this 
book  is  Justin  Martyr,  who  lived  about  sixty 
years  after  it  was  written,  and  he  ascribes  it  to 
St.  John.  So  does  Iraeneus,  whose  evidence 
is  alone  sufficient  upon  this  point ;  for  he  was 
the  disciple  of  Polycarp,  who  was  the  disciple 
of  John  himself;  and  he  expressly  tells  us  that 
he  had  the  explanation  of  a  certain  passage  in 
this  book  from  those  who  had  conversed  with 
St.  John  the  author.  These  two  fathers  are 
followed  by  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Theophi- 
lus  of  Antioch,  Tertullian,  Origen,  Cyprian, 
Lactantius,  Jerome,  Athanasius,  and  many 
other  ecclesiastical  writers,  all  of  whom  concur 
in  considering  the  Apostle  John  as  the  author 
of  the  Revelation.  Some  few  persons,  how- 
ever, doubted  the  genuineness  of  this  book  in 
the  third  and  fourth  centuries;  but  since  that 
time  it  has  been  very  generally  acknowledged 
to  be  canonical ;  and,  indeed,  as  Mr.  Lowman 
observes,  "  hardly  any  one  book  has  received 
more  early,  more  authentic,  and  more  satisfac- 
tory attestations."  The  omission  of  this  book 
in  some  of  the  early  catalogues  of  the  Scrip, 
tures,  was  probably  not  owing  to  any  suspicion 
concerning  its  authenticity  or  genuineness,  but 
because  its  obscurity  and  mysteriousness  were 
thought  to  render  it  less  fit  to  be  read  publicly 
and  generally.     It  is  called  the  Revelation  of 


Aro 


70 


APO 


John  the  Divine  ;  and  this  appellation  was 
first  given  to  St.  John  by  Eusebius,  not  to  dis- 
tinguish him  from  any  other  person  of  the 
same  name,  but  as  an  honourable  title,  inti- 
mating that  to  him  was  more  fully  revealed 
the  system  of  divine  counsels  than  to  any  other 
prophet  of  the  Christian  dispensation. 

.St.  John  was  banished  to  Patmos  in  the 
latter  part  of  tbe  reign  of  Domitian,  and  he 
returned  to  Ephesus  immediately  after  the 
death  of  that  emperor,  which  happened  in  the 
year  96 ;  and  as  the  Apostle  states,  that  these 
visions  appeared  to  him  while  he  was  in  that 
island,  we  may  consider  this  book  as  written  in 
the  year  95  or  96. 

In  the  first  chapter,  St.  John  asserts  the 
divine  authority  of  the  predictions  which  he 
is  about  to  deliver;  addresses  himself  to  the 
churches  of  the  Proconsular  Asia :  and  describes 
the  first  vision,  in  which  he  is  commanded  to 
write  the  things  then  revealed  to  him.  The 
second  and  third  chapters  contain  seven  epis- 
tles to  the  seven  churches  in  Asia ;  namely,  of 
Ephesus,  Smyrna,  Pergamus,  Thyatira,  Sardis, 
Philadelphia,  and  Laodicea,  which  relate  chiefly 
to  their  then  respective  circumstances  and 
situation.  At  the  fourth  chapter  the  prophetic 
visions  begin,  and  reach  to  the  end  of  the  book. 
They  contain  a  prediction  of  all  the  most  re- 
markable revolutions  and  events  in  the  Chris- 
tian church  from  the  time  of  the  Apostle  to 
the  final  consummation  of  all  things.  An 
attempt  to  explain  these  prophecies  does  not 
fall  within  the  design  of  this  work  ;  and  there- 
fore those  who  are  disposed  to  study  this  sub- 
lime and  mysterious  book  are  referred  to  Mede, 
Daubuz,  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  Lowman,  Bishop 
Newton,  Bishop  Hurd,  and  many  other  excel- 
lent commentators.  These  learned  men  agree 
in  their  general  principles  concerning  the  in- 
terpretation of  this  book,  although  they  differ 
in  some  particular  points;  and  it  is  not  to  be 
expected  that  there  should  be  a  perfect  coinci- 
dence of  opinion  in  the  explanation  of  those 
predictions  which  relate  to  still  future  times; 
for,  as  the  incomparable  Sir  Isaac  Newton  ob- 
serves, "  God  gave  these  and  the  prophecies 
of  the  Old  Testament,  not  to  gratify  men's 
curiosity,  by  enabling  them  to  foreknow  things, 
but  that  after  they  were  fulfilled  they  might  be 
interpreted  by  the  event,  and  his  own  pre- 
science, not  that  of  the  interpreters,  be  then 
manifested  thereby  to  the  world."  '.'  To  explain 
this  book  perfectly,"  says  Bishop  Newton,  "  is 
not  the  work  of  one  man,  or  of  one  age ;  but 
probably  it  never  will  be  clearly  understood, 
till  it  is  all  fulfilled."  It  is  graciously  designed, 
that  the  gradual  accomplishment  of  these  pre- 
dictions should  afford,  in  every  succeeding 
period  of  time,  additional  testimony  to  the 
divine  origin  of  our  holy  religion. 

APOCRYPHA,  books  not  admitted  into  the 
sacred  canon,  being  either  spurious,  or  at  least 
not  acknowledged  to  be  divine.  The  word 
Apocrypha  is  of  Greek  origin,  and  is  cither 
derived  from  the  words  and  rrjs  Kpimijg,  because 
the  books  in  question  were  removed  from  the 
crypt,  chest,  ark,  or  other  receptacle  in  which 
the  sacred  books  were  deposited  whose  authority 


was  never  doubted,  or  more  probably  from  tne 
verb  a-oKpi-TTw,  to  hide  or  conceal,  because  they 
were  concealed  from  the  generality  of  readers, 
their  authority  not  being  recognised  by  the 
church,  and  because  they  are  books  which  are 
destitute  of  proper  testimonials,  their  original 
being  obscure,  their  authors  unknown,  and 
their  character  either  heretical  or  suspected. 
The  advocates  of  the  church  of  Rome,  indeed, 
affirm  that  some  of  these  books  are  divinely 
inspired  ;  but  it  is  easy  to  account  for  this :  the 
apocryphal  writings  serve  to  countenance  some 
of  the  corrupt  practices  of  that  church.  The  Pro- 
testant churches  not  only  account  those  books 
to  be  apocryphal  and  merely  human  composi- 
tions which  are  esteemed  such  by  the  church 
of  Rome,  as  the  Prayer  ef  Manasseh,  the  third 
and  fourth  books  of  Esdras,  the  addition  at  the 
end  of  Job,  and  the  hundred  and  fifty-first 
Psalm ;  but  also  the  books  of  Tobit,  Judith,  the 
additions  to  the  book  of  Esther,  Wisdom,  Ec- 
clesiasticus,  Baruch  the  Prophet,  with  the 
Epistle  of  Jeremiah,  the  Song  of  the  Three 
Children,  the  Story  of  Susanna,  the  Story  of 
Bel  and  the  Dragon,  and  the  first  and  second 
books  of  Maccabees.  The  books  here  enume- 
rated are  unanimously  rejected  by  Protestants 
for  the  following  reasons : — 

1.  They  possess  no  authority  whatever, 
either  external  or  internal,  to  procure  their 
admission  into  the  sacred  canon.  None  of 
them  are  extant  in  Hebrew ;  all  of  them  are  in 
the  Greek  language,  except  the  fourth  book  of 
Esdras,  which  is  only  extant  in  Latin.  They 
were  written  for  the  most  part  by  Alexandrian 
Jews,  subsequently  to  the  cessation  of  the  pro- 
phetic spirit,  though  before  the  promulgation 
of  the  Gospel.  Not  one  of  the  writers  in  direct 
terms  advances  a  claim  to  inspiration ;  nor 
were  they  ever  received  into  the  sacred  canon 
by  the  Jewish  church,  and  therefore  they  were 
not  sanctioned  by  our  Saviour.  No  part  of  the 
apocrypha  is  quoted,  or  even  alluded  to,  by  him 
or  by  any  of  his  Apostles ;  and  both  Philo  and 
Josephus,  who  flourished  in  the  first  century  of 
the  Christian  aera,  are  totally  silent  concerning 
them. 

2.  The  apocryphal  books  were  not  admitted 
into  the  canon  of  Scripture  during  the  first 
four  centuries  of  the  Christian  church.  They 
are  not  mentioned  in  the  catalogue  of  inspired 
writings  made  by  Melito  bishop  of  Sardis,  who 
flourished  in  the  second  century,  nor  in  those 
of  Origen  in  the  third  century,  of  Athanasius, 
Hilary,  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  Epiphanius,  Gre- 
gory Nazianzen,  Amphilochius,  Jerom,  Rufi- 
nus,  and  others  of  the  fourth  century ;  nor  in 
the  catalogue  of  canonical  books  recognised  by 
the  council  of  Laodicea,  held  in  the  same  cen- 
tury, whose  canons  were  received  by  the  catho- 
lic church;  so  that  as  Bishop  Burnet  well 
observes,  we  have  the  concurring  sense  of  the 
whole  church  of  God  in  this  matter.  To  this 
decisive  evidence  against  the  canonical  autho- 
rity of  the  apocryphal  books,  we  may  add  that 
they  were  never  read  in  the  Christian  church 
until  the  fourth  centuiy ;  when,  as  Jerom  in- 
forms us,  they  were  read  "  for  example  of  life, 
I  and   instruction  of  manners ;   but  were   not 


APO 


71 


APO 


applied  to  establish  any  doctrine."  And  eon- 
temporary  writers  state,  that  although  they 
were  not  approved  as  canonical  or  inspired 
writings,  yet  some  of  them,  particularly  Judith, 
Wisdom,  and  Ecclesiasticus,  were  allowed  to 
be  perused  by  catechumens.  As  a  proof  that 
they  were  not  regarded  as  canonical  in  the 
fifth  century,  Augustine  relates,  that  when  the 
book  of  Wisdom  and  other  writings  of  the 
•  same  class  were  publicly  read  in  the  church, 
they  were  given  to  the  readers  or  inferior  eccle- 
siastical officers,  who  read  them  in  a  lower 
place  than  those  which  were  universally  ac- 
knowledged to  be  canonical,  which  were  read 
by  the  bishops  and  presbyters  in  a  more  emi- 
nent and  conspicuous  manner.  To  conclude  : 
notwithstanding  the  veneration  in  which  these 
books  were  held  by  the  western  church,  it  is 
evident  that  the  same  authority  was  never 
ascribed  to  them  as  to  the  Old  and  New  Tes- 
tament until  the  last  council  of  Trent,  at  its 
fourth  session,  presumed  to  place  them  all 
(except  the  Prayer  of  Manasseh  and  the  third 
and  fourth  books  of  Esdras)  in  the  same  rank 
with  the  inspired  writings  of  Moses  and  the 
Prophets. 

APOLLINARIANS,  or  Apollinarists,  or,  as 
they  are  called  by  Epiphanius,  Dimaritoe,  a  sect 
who  derive  their  principal  name  from  Apolli- 
naris,  bishop  of  Laodicea,  in  the  fourth  century. 
Apollinaris  strenuously  defended  the  divinity  of 
Christ  against  the  Arians;  but  by  indulging 
too  freely  in  philosophical  distinctions  and 
subtleties,  he  denied  in  some  measure  his  hu- 
manity. He  maintained  that  the  body  which 
Christ  assumed  was  endowed  with  a  sensitive, 
and  not  a  rational,  soul ;  and  that  the  divine 
nature  performed  the  functions  of  reason,  and 
supplied  the  place  of  the  intellectual  principle 
in  man.  Hence  it  seemed  to  follow,  that  the 
divine  nature  in  Christ  was  blended  with  the 
human  and  suffered  with  it  the  pains  of  cruci- 
fixion and  death.  Apollinaris  and  his  follow- 
ers have  been  charged  with  other  errors  by 
certain  ancient  writers ;  but  it  is  not  easy  to 
determine  how  far  their  charge  is  worthy  of 
credit.  The  doctrine  of  Apollinaris  was  first 
condemned  by  a  council  at  Alexandria  in  362, 
and  afterward  in  a  more  formal  manner  by  a 
council  at  Rome  in  375,  and  by  another  council 
in  378,  which  deposed  Apollinaris  from  his  bi- 
shopric. In  short,  it  was  attacked  at  the  same 
time  by  the  laws  of  the  emperors,  the  decrees 
of  councils,  and  the  writings  of  the  learned ; 
and  sunk  by  degrees  under  their  united  force. 

APOLLOS  was  a  Jew  of  Alexandria,  who 
came  to  Ephesus  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  54, 
during  the  absence  of  St.  Paul,  who  had  gone 
to  Jerusalem,  Acts  xviii,  24.  He  was  an  elo- 
quent man,  and  mighty  in  the  Scriptures ;  but 
he  knew  only  the  baptism  of  John,  and  was 
not  fully  informed  of  the  higher  branches  of 
Gospel  doctrine.  However,  he  acknowledged 
that  Jesus  Christ  was  the  Messiah,  and  declar- 
ed himself  openly  as  his  disciple.  At  Ephesus, 
therefore,  he  began  to  speak  boldly  in  the 
synagogue,  and  demonstrated  by  the  Scriptures 
that  Jesus  was  the  Christ.  Aquila  and  Pris- 
cilla,  having  heard  him  there,  took  him  with 


them,    and  instructed  him  more  fully  in  the 
ways  of  God.  Some  time  after,  he  was  inclined 
to  go  into  Achaia,  and  the  brethren  wrote  to 
the  disciples  there,  desiring  them  to  receive 
him.     He  was  very  useful  at  Corinth,  where 
he  watered  what  St.  Paul  had  planted,  1  Cor. 
iii,  6.     It  has  been  supposed,  that  the  great 
admiration  of  his  disciples  for  him  tended  to 
produce  a  schism.  Some  said,  "  I  am  of  Paul ;" 
some,  "  I  am  of  Apollos ;"  and  others,  "  I  am 
of  Cephas."     But  this  division,  which  St.  Paul 
mentions  and  reproves  in  his  First  Epistle  to 
the   Corinthians,    did   not   prevent  Paul  and 
Apollos,  personally,  from  being  closely  united 
in  the  bonds  of  Christian  charity  and  affection. 
Apollos,  hearing  that  the  Apostle  was  at  Ephe- 
sus, went  to  meet  him,  and  was  there  when 
St.  Paul  wrote  the  First  Epistle  to  the  Corin- 
thians ;  hi  which  he  observes,  that  he  had  earn- 
estly entreated  Apollos  to  return  to  Corinth : 
but   though    he    had  not  prevailed  with  him, 
Apollos  gave  him  room  to  hope  that  he  would 
visit   that    city  at    a   favourable    opportunity. 
Some  have  supposed,  that  the  Apostle  names 
Apollos  and  Cephas,  not  as  the  real  persons  in 
whose  name  parties  had  been  formed  in  Co- 
rinth, but  that,  in  order  to  avoid  provoking  a 
temper  which  he  wished  to  subside,  he  trans- 
fers "by  a  figure"  to  Apollos  and  himself  what 
was  really  meant  of  other  parties,  whom  from 
prudence    he  declines  to  mention.     However 
this   might   be,    the   reluctance  of  Apollos  to 
return  to  Corinth  seems  to  countenance  thp 
general  opinion,     St.  Jerom  says  that  Apollos 
was  so  dissatisfied  witli  the  division  which  had 
happened  on  his  account  at  Corinth,  that  he 
retired  into  Crete  with  Zeno,  a  doctor  of  the 
law;  but  that  the  evil  having  been  corrected 
by  the  letter  of  St.  Paul  to  the  Corinthians, 
Apollos  returned  to  that  city,  of  which  he  after- 
ward became  bishop.     The  Greeks  say  that  he 
was  bishop  of  Duras ;  some,  that  he  was  bishop 
of  Iconium,  in  Phrygia;  and  others  of  Cajsarea, 
APOLLYON.     Sec  Abaddon. 
APOLOGIES,     in     ecclesiastical    history, 
were  defences  (so  the  Greek  word  means)  of 
Christianity,  presented  to  Heathen  emperors, 
by  the  Christian  fathers,  who  were  therefore 
called  Apologists.     The  first  was  presented  to 
the  emperor  Adrian,  by  Quadratus,  A.  D.  126, 
a  fragment  of  which  is  preserved  by  Eusebius; 
but  another,  presented  soon  after  to  the  same, 
by  Aristides,  a  converted  Athenian  philosopher, 
is  totally  lost.     Justin  Martyr  wrote  two  apolo- 
gies; the  latter  (to  the  Roman  senate)  is  im- 
perfect at  the  beginning;  but  the  former,  ad. 
dressed  to  Antoninus  Pius,  is  preserved  entire, 
and  was  published  in  English,  in  1709,  by  the 
Rev.  W.  Reeves,  together  with  one  by  Ter- 
tullian,  the  Octavius  (a  dialogue)  of  Minucius 
Felix,   and   the    Commentary   of  Vincentius 
Lirinensis,  with  notes  and  preliminary  disser- 
tations to  each,  in  2  vols.  8vo.  The  Apologies 
are  curious  and  valuable  remains  of  antiquity, 
as   showing  what  were  the  objections  of  the 
Heathens,  and  the  manner  in  which  they  were 
rebutted  by  the  early  Christians. 

APOSTASY,  a  deserting  or  abandoning  of 
the  true  religion.     The  word  is  borrowed  from 


APO 


72 


APO 


the  Latin  aposlatare,  or  apostare,  to  despise  or 
violate  any  thing.  Hence  aposlatare  leges 
anciently  signified  to  transgress  the  lavs.  The 
Latin  apostatare,  again,  comes  from  d-d,  from, 
and  iV»;/«,  /  stand.  Among  the  Romanists, 
apostasy  also  signifies  the  forsaking  of  a  re- 
ligious order,  whereof  a  man  had  made  pro- 
fession, without  a  lawful  dispensation.  The 
ancients  distinguished  three  kinds  of  apostasy  : 
the  first,  a  supererogatione,  is  committed  by  a 
priest,  or  religious,  who  abandons  his  profes- 
sion, and  returns  to  his  lay  sjate ;  the  second, 
a  mandatis  Dei,  by  a  person  of  any  condition, 
who  abandons  the  commands  of  God,  though 
he  retains  his  faith ;  the  third,  a  fide,  by  him 
who  not  only  abandons  his  works,  but  also  the 
faith.  There  is  this  difference  between  an 
apostate  and  a  heretic ;  that  the  latter  only 
abandons  a  part  of  the  faith,  whereas  the  former 
renounces  the  whole.  The  primitive  Chris- 
tian church  distinguished  several  kinds  of 
apostasy.  The  first  was  that  of  those  who 
relapsed  from  Christianity  into  Judaism;  the 
second,  that  of  those  who  blended  Judaism  and 
Christianity  together;  and  the  third  was  that 
of  those  who,  after  having  been  Christians, 
voluntarily  relapsed  into  Paganism. 

APOSTLE,  arr6^o'\og,  one  of  the  twelve  dis- 
ciples of  Jesus  Christ,  commissioned  by  him  to 
preach  his  Gospel,  and  propagate  it  to  all  parts 
of  the  earth.  The  word  originally  signifies  a 
person  delegated  or  sent;  from  aKo^fXXui,  mitto; 
in  which  sense  it  occurs  in  Herodotus,  and 
other  profane  authors.  Hence,  in  the  New 
Testament,  the  term  is  applied  to  divers  sorts 
of  delegates;  and  to  the  twelve  disciples  by 
way  of  eminence.  They  were  limited  to  the 
number  twelve,  in  allusion  to  the  twelve  tribes 
of  Israel.  See  Matt,  xix,  28 ;  Luke  xxii,  30 ; 
Rev.  xxi,  12-14 ;  and  compare  Exod.  xxiv, 
4 ;  Deut.  i,  23 ;  and  Josh,  iv,  2,  3.  Accord-  ! 
ingly  care  was  taken,  on  the  death  of  Judas,  to 
choose  another,  to  make  up  the  number,  Acts 
i,  21,  22,  26.  Of  the  first  selection  and  com- 
mission of  the  twelve  Apostles,  we  have  an 
account,  Luke  vi,  13,  &.c ;  Matt,  x,  1,  &c. 
Having  chosen  and  constituted  twelve  persons, 
under  the  name  of  Apostles,  our  blessed  Lord 
determined  that  for  some  time  they  should  be 
continually  with  him,  not  only  to  attend  upon 
his  public  ministry,  but  to  enjoy  the  benefit  of 
his  private  conversation,  that  he  might  furnish 
them  the  better  for  the  great  work  in  which 
they  were  to  be  employed ;  and  that,  at  length, 
after  suitable  preparation,  he  might,  with 
greater  advantage,  send  them  abroad  to  preach 
his  Gospel,  and  thus  make  way  for  his  own 
visits  to  some  more  distant  parts,  where  he  had 
not  yet  been ;  and  to  enable  them  more  effec- 
tually to  do  this,  he  endowed  them  with  the 
power  of  working  miracles,  of  curing  diseases, 
and  casting  out  demons.  About  the  com- 
mencement of  the  third  year  of  his  ministry, 
according  to  the  common  account  of  its  dura- 
tion, he  sent  them  out  two  by  two,  that  they 
might  be  assistants  to  each  other  in  their  work  ; 
and  commanded  them  to  restrict  their  teaching 
and  services  to  the  people  of  Israel,  and  to 
avoid  goins  to  the  Gentiles  or  to  the  Samari- 


tans ;  to  declare  the  approach  of  the  kingdom 
of  heaven,  and  the  establishment  of  the  Gos- 
pel dispensation ;  to  exercise  the  miraculous 
powers  with  which  they  had  been  endowed 
gratuitously;  and  to  depend  for  their  subsist- 
ence on  the  providence  of  God,  and  on  the 
donations  of  those  to  whom  they  ministered. 
Their  names  were,  Simon  Peter ;  Andrew,  his 
brother ;  James  the  greater,  the  son  of  Zebedee  ; 
and  John  his  brother,  who  was  the  beloved  • 
disciple  ;  Philip  of  Bethsaida ;  Bartholomew ; 
Thomas,  called  Didymus,  as  having  a  twin 
brother;  Matthew  or  Levi,  who  had  been  a 
publican ;  James,  the  son  of  Alpheus,  called 
James  the  less ;  Lebbeus,  surnamed  Tiiaddeus, 
and  who  was  also  called  Judas  or  Jude,  the 
brother  of  James;  Simon,  the  Canaanite,  so 
called,  as  some  have  thought,  because  he  was 
a  native  of  Cana,  or,  as  Dr,  Hammond  thinks, 
from  the  Hebrew  Xjp,  signifying  the  same  with 
Zelotes,  or  the  Zelot,  a  name  given  to  him  on 
account  of  his  having  before  professed  a  dis- 
tinguishing zeal  for  the  law ;  and  Judas  Isca- 
riot,  or  a  man  of  Carioth,  Josh,  xv,  25,  who 
afterward  betrayed  him,  and  then  laid  violent 
hands  on  himself.  Of  these,  Simon,  Andrew, 
James  the  greater,  and  John,  were  fishermen ; 
Matthew,  and  James  the  son  of  Alpheus,  were 
publicans ;  and  tire  other  six  were  probably 
fishermen,  though  their  occupation  is  not  dis- 
tinctly specified. 

After  the  resurrection  of  our  Saviour,  and 
not  long  before  his  ascension,  the  place  of  Ju- 
das the  traitor  was  supplied  by  Matthias,  sup- 
posed by  some  to  have  been  Nathanael  of 
Galilee,  to  whom  our  Lord  had  given  the  dis- 
tinguishing character  of  an  "  Israelite  indeed, 
in  whom  there  was  no  guile ;"  and  the  twelve 
Apostles,  whose  number  was  now  completed, 
received  a  new  commission,  of  a  more  exten- 
sive nature  than  the  first,  to  preach  the  Gospel 
to  all  nations,  and  to  be  witnesses  of  Christ, 
not  only  in  Jerusalem,  in  all  Judea,  and  in 
Samaria,  but  unto  the  uttermost  parts  of  the 
earth ;  and  they  were  qualified  for  the  execu- 
tion of  their  office  by  a  plenteous  effusion  of 
miraculous  powers  and  spiritual  gifts,  and  par- 
ticularly the  gift  of  tongues.  In  consequence 
of  this  commission,  they  preached  first  to  the 
Jews,  then  to  the  Samaritans,  and  afterward 
to  the  idolatrous  Gentiles.  Their  signal  suc- 
cess at  Jerusalem,  where  they  opened  their 
commission,  alarmed  the  Jewish  sanhedrim, 
before  which  Peter  and  John  were  summoned, 
and  from  which  they  received  a  strict  charge 
never  more  to  teach,  publicly  or  privately,  in 
the  name  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth.  The  noble 
reply  and  subsequent  conduct  of  the  Apostlea 
are  well  known.  Thic  court  of  the  Jews  was 
so  awed  and  incensed,  as  to  plot  the  death  of 
the  twelve  Apostles,  as  the  only  effectual  mea- 
sure for  preventing  the  farther  spread  of  Chris- 
tianity. Gamaliel  interposed,  by  his  prudent 
and  moderate  counsel;  and  his  speech  had  so 
good  an  effect  upon  the  sanhedrim,  that,  in- 
stead of  putting  Peter  and  John  to  death,  they 
scourged  them,  renewed  their  charge  and 
threats,  and  then  dismissed  them.  The  Apos- 
tles,  however,  were   not  discpuraged  nor  re. 


APO 


73 


APO 


strained ;  they  counted  it  an  honour  to  suffer 
such  indignities,  in  token  of  their  affection  to 
their  Master,  and  zeal  in  his  cause ;  and  they 
persisted  in  preaching  daily  in  the  courts  of  the 
temple,  and  in  other  places,  that  Jesus  of 
Nazareth  was  the  promised  and  long  expected 
Messiah.  Their  doctrine  spread,  and  the  num- 
ber of  converts  in  Jerusalem  still  increased. 
During  the  violent  persecution  that  raged  at 
Jerusalem,  soon  after  the  martyrdom  of  St. 
Stephen,  several  of  the  leading  men  among 
the  Christians  were  dispersed ;  some  of  them 
travelled  through  the  regions  of  Judea  and 
Samaria,  and  others  to  Damascus,  Phoenicia, 
the  Island  of  Cyprus,  and  various  parts  of 
Syria ;  but  the  twelve  Apostles  remained,  with 
undaunted  firmness,  at  Jerusalem,  avowing 
their  attachment  to  the  persecuted  interest  of 
Christ,  and  consulting  how  they  might  best 
provide  for  the  emergencies  of  the  church,  in 
its  infant  and  oppressed  state. 

When  the  Apostles,  during  their  abode  at 
Jerusalem,  heard  that  many  of  the  Samaritans 
had  embraced  the  Gospel,  Peter  and  John  were 
deputed  to  confer  upon  them  the  gift  of  the 
Holy  Spirit ;  for  to  the  Apostles  belonged  the 
prerogative  of  conferring  upon  others  spiritual 
gifts  and  miraculous  powers.  In  their  return 
to  Jerusalem,  from  the  city  of  Samaria,  they 
preached  the  Gospel  in  many  Samaritan  vil- 
lages. The  manner  of  its  being  sent  to  Ethiopia, 
by  the  conversion  of  the  eunuch  who  was  chief 
treasurer  to  Candace,  queen  of  the  country,  is 
related  in  Acts  viii,  26,  &c.  After  the  Chris- 
tian religion  had  been  planted  in  Jerusalem, 
Judea,  and  Samaria,  and  sent  into  Ethiopia, 
one  of  the  uttermost  parts  of  the  earth,  Acts 
i,  8 ;  and  after  it  had  been  preached  about  eight 
years  to  the  Jews  only,  God,  in  his  wise  and 
merciful  providence,  disposed  things  for  the 
preaching  of  it  among  the  Gentiles.  Csesarea 
was  the  scene  in  which  the  Apostle  Peter  was 
to  open  his  commission  for  this  purpose ;  and 
Cornelius,  one  of  the  devout  Gentiles,  and  a 
man  distinguished  by  his  piety  and  charity, 
was  the  first  proselyte  to  Christianity.  After 
Peter  had  laid  the  foundation  of  a  Christian 
church  among  the  devout  Gentiles,  others  imi- 
tated his  example,  and  a  great  number  of  per- 
sons of  this  description  embraced  the  Christian 
faith,  more  especially  at  Antioch,  where  the 
disciples,  whom  their  enemies  had  hitherto 
called  Galileans,  Nazarenes,  and  other  names 
of  reproach,  and  who,  among  themselves,  had 
been  called  "  disciples,"  "  believers,"  "  the 
church,"  "  the  saints,"  and  "  brethren,"  were 
denominated,  probably  not  without  a  divine 
direction,  Christians. 

When  Christianity  had  been  preached  for 
about  eight  years  among  the  Jews  only,  and 
for  about  three  years  more  among  the  Jews  and 
devout  Gentiles,  the  next  stage  of  its  progress 
was  to  the  idolatrous  Gentiles,  in  the  year  of 
Christ  44,  and  the  fourth  year  of  the  emperor 
Claudius.  Barnabas  and  Saul  were  selected 
for  this  purpose,  and  constituted  in  an  extra- 
ordinary manner  Apostles  of  the  Gentiles,  or 
uncireumcision.  Barnabas  was  probably  an 
elder  of  the  first  rank ;  he  had  seen  Christ  in 


the  flesh,  had  been  an  eye  witness  of  his  being 
alive  again  after  his  crucifixion,  and  had  re- 
ceived the  Holy  Spirit  on  the  day  of  Pentecost, 
as  being  one  of  the  hundred  and  twenty.  Saul 
also,  since  his  conversion  had  preached  as  a 
superior  prophet,  about  seven  years  to  the  Jews 
only,  and  about  two  years  more  to  the  Jews 
and  devout  Gentiles.  They  had  both  been  born 
in  Gentile  countries ;  and  therefore  may  be 
supposed  to  have  had  more  respect  and  affec- 
tion for  the  Gentiles  than  most  of  the  Jews, 
who  were  natives  of  Judea.  Saul  had  been 
converted,  and  had  hitherto  preached  chiefly 
on  Gentile  ground  ;  and  he  had  joined  with 
Barnabas  in  teaching  devout  Gentiles  for  a 
whole  year,  at  Antioch  in  Syria ;  by  all  which 
previous  steps  they  were  regularly  conducted 
to  the  last  gradation,  or  the  conversion  of  the 
idolatrous  Gentiles.  But  it  was  necessary,  in 
order  to  the  being  an  Apostle,  to  have  seen  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ  alive  after  his  crucifixion, 
for  the  Apostles  were  in  a  peculiar  manner  the 
witnesses  of  his  resurrection.  Some  have  sup- 
posed that  Saul  saw  the  person  of  Jesus,  when 
he  was  converted,  near  the  city  of  Damascus ; 
but  others,  who  conceive  from  the  history  of 
this  event,  that  this  could  not  have  been  the 
case,  as  he  was  instantly  struck  blind,  are  of 
opinion  that  the  season,  when  his  Apostolic 
qualification  and  commission  were  completed, 
was  that  mentioned  by  himself,  Acts  xxii,  17, 
when  he  returned  to  Jerusalem  the  second  time 
after  his  conversion,  saw  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  in 
person,  and  received  the  command  to  go  quick- 
ly out  of  Jerusalem,  that  he  might  be  sent  unto 
the  Gentiles.  See  also  Acts  xxvi,  16-20,  where 
he  gives  an  account  of  the  object  of  his  com- 
mission. He  also  received  a  variety  of  gifts 
and  powers,  which,  superadded  to  his  own 
genius  and  learning,  as  well  as  fortitude  and 
patience,  eminently  qualified  him  for  the  office 
of  an  Apostle,  and  for  that  particular  exercise 
of  it  which  was  assigned  to  him.  St.  Paul  is 
frequently  called  the  Apostle,  by  way  of  emi- 
nence ;  and  the  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles,  because 
his  ministry  was  chiefly  employed  for  the  con- 
version of  the  Gentiles,  as  that  of  St.  Peter  was 
for  Jews,  who  is  therefore  styled  the  Apostle  of 
the  circumcision. 

The  Apostles  having  continued  at  Jerusalem 
twelve  years  after  the  ascension  of  Christ,  as 
tradition  reports,  according  to  his  command, 
determined  to  disperse  themselves  in  different 
parts  of  the  world.  But  what  were  the  par- 
ticular provinces  assigned  to  each,  does  not 
certainly  appear  from  any  authentic  history. 
Socrates  says,  that  Thomas  took  Parthia  for 
his  lot;  Matthew,  Ethiopia,  and  Bartholomew, 
India.  Eusebius  gives  the  following  account: 
"Thomas,  as  we  learn  by  tradition,  had  Parthia 
for  his  lot ;  Andrew,  Scythia ;  John,  Asia,  who 
having  lived  there  a  long  time,  died  at  Ephe- 
sus.  Peter,  as  it  seems,  preached  to  the  dis- 
persed Jews  in  Pontus  and  Galatia,  Bithynia, 
Cappadocia,  and  Asia  ;  at  length,  coming  to 
Rome,  he  was  crucified  with  his  head  down- 
ward, as  he  had  desired.  What  need  I  to  speak 
of  St.  Paul,  who  fully  preached  the  Gospel  of 
Christ,  from  Jerusalem  to  Illyricum,  and  at  last 


APO 


74 


APP 


died  a  martyr  at  Rome,  in  the  time  of  Nero  ?" 
From  this  passage  we  may  conclude,  that  at 
the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century,  there  were 
not  any  certain  and  well  attested  accounts  of 
the  places  out  of  Judea,  in  which  several  of  the 
Apostles  of  Christ  preached ;  for  if  there  had, 
Eusebius  must  have  been  acquainted  with  them. 

The  stories  that  are  told  concerning  their 
arrival  and  exploits  among  the  Gauls,  the  Eng- 
lish, the  Spaniards,  the  Germans,the  Americans, 
the  Chinese,  the  Indians,  and  the  Russians,  are 
too  romantic  in  their  nature,  and  of  too  recent 
a  date,  to  be  received  by  an  impartial  inquirer 
after  truth.  These  fables  were  for  the  most 
part  forged  after  the  time  of  Charlemagne, 
when  most  of  the  Christian  churches  contend- 
ed about  the  antiquity  of  their  origin,  with  as 
much  vehemence  as  the  Arcadians,  Egyptians, 
and  Greeks  disputed  formerly  about  their  se- 
niority and  precedence. 

It  appears,  however,  that  all  of  the  Apostles 
did  not  die  by  martyrdom.  Heraclion,  cited 
by  Clemens  Alexandrinus,  reckons  among  the 
Apostles  who  did  not  suffer  martyrdom,  Mat- 
thew, Thomas,  Philip,  and  Levi,  probably 
meaning  Lebbeus. 

To  the  Apostles  belonged  the  peculiar  and 
exclusive  prerogative  of  writing  doctrinal  and 
preceptive  books  of  authority  in  the  Christian 
church ;  and  it  sufficiently  appears  that  no 
epistles  or  other  doctrinal  writings  of  any  per- 
son who  was  of  a  rank  below  that  of  an  Apos- 
tle, were  received  by  Christians  as  a  part  of 
their  rule  of  faith.  With  respect  to  the  writ- 
ings  of  Mark  and  Luke,  they  are  reckoned 
historical,  not  doctrinal  or  dogmatical ;  and 
Augustine  says,  that  Mark  and  Luke  wrote  at 
a  time  when  their  writings  might  be  approved 
not  only  by  the  church,  but  by  Apostles  still 
living. 

The  appellation  of  Apostles  was  also  given  to 
the  ordinary  travelling  ministers  of  the  church. 
Thus  St.  Paul,  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans, 
xvi,  7,  says,  "  Salute  Andronicus  and  Junia, 
my  kinsmen  and  fellow  prisoners,  who  are  of 
note  among  the  Apostles."  In  this  inferior 
sense  the  appellation  is  applied,  by  Clement  of 
Alexandria,  to  Barnabas ;  who  was  not  an 
Apostle  in  the  highest  sense  of  the  word,  so  as 
the  twelve  and  Paul  were  Apostles.  Tertullian 
calls  all  the  seventy  disciples  Apostles;  and 
Clement  calls  Barnabas  Apostolical  merely  in 
another  place,  and  says  that  he  was  one  of  the 
seventy,  and  fellow  labourer  of  Paul.  These, 
says  Dr.  Lardner,  are  the  highest  characters 
which  he  really  intends  to  give  to  Barnabas, 
and  what  he  means  when  he  styles  him  Apos- 
tle ;  therefore  he  need  not  he  supposed  to 
ascribe  to  Barnabas  that  largo  measure  of  in- 
spiration and  high  authority,  which  was  pecu- 
liar to  the  Apostles,  strictly  and  properly  so 
called.  In  a  similar  subordinate  form,  St. 
Clement  of  Rome  is  called  Apostle.  Timothy 
also  is  called  by  Salvian,  Apostle,  meaning 
merely  Apostolical,  or  a  companion  and  disci- 
ple of  Apostles. 

Apostle  wss  likewise  a  title  given  to  those 
sent  by  the  churches,  to  carry  their  alms  to 
the  poor  of  other  churches.    This  usage  they 


borrowed  from  the  synagogues,  who  called 
those  whom  they  sent  on  this  message,  by  the 
same  name ;  and  the  function  or  office  itself 
aiw<?o\r),  that  is,  mission.  Thus  St.  Paul,  writ- 
ing to  the  Philippians,  tells  them,  that  Epa- 
phroditus,  their  Apostle,  had  ministered  to  his 
wants,  chap,  ii,  25.  It  is  applied  in  like  man- 
ner to  those  persons  who  first  planted  the 
Christian  faith  in  any  place. 

Apostle  is  also  used  among  the  Jews,  for  a 
kind  of  officer  anciently  sent  into  the  several 
parts  and  provinces  in  their  jurisdiction,  by 
way  of  visiter,  or  commissary ;  to  see  that  the 
laws  were  duly  observed,  and  to  receive  the 
moneys  collected  for  the  reparation  of  the  tem- 
ple, and  the  tribute  payable  to  the  Romans. 
These  apostles  were  a  degree  below  the  officers 
of  the  synagogues,  called  patriarchs,  and  re- 
ceived their  commissions  from  them.  Some 
authors  observe,  that  St.  Paul  had  borne  this 
office ;  and  that  it  is  this  he  alludes  to  in  the 
beginning  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians :  as 
if  he  had  said,  Paul,  no  longer  an  apostle  of 
the  synagogue,  nor  sent  by  men  to  maintain 
the  law  of  Moses,  but  now  an  Apostle  and  en- 
voy of  Jesus  Christ,  &c.  St.  Jerom,  though  he 
does  not  believe  that  St.  Paul  Kad  been  an 
apostle  of  this  kind,  yet  imagines  that  he  al- 
ludes to  it  in  the  passage  just  cited. 

APOSTLES'  CREED.     See  Creed. 

APPELLATIO,  an  appeal.  The  Sempro- 
nian  law  secured  this  privilege  to  the  Roman 
citizens,  that  they  could  not  be  capitally  con- 
victed, but  by  the  suffrage  of  the  people ;  and 
in  whatever  provinces  they  happened  to  reside, 
if  the  governor  showed  a  disposition  to  con- 
demn them  to  death,  to  scourge,  or  deprive 
them  of  their  property,  they  had  liberty  to  ap- 
peal from  his  jurisdiction  to  the  judgment  of 
the  people.  This  law,  which  was  enacted  un- 
der the  republican  form  of  government,  con- 
tinued in  force  under  the  emperors ;  so  that  if 
any  freeman  of  Rome  thought  himself  ill  used 
and  aggrieved  by  the  presidents  in  any  of  the 
provinces,  he  could,  by  appeal,  remove  his 
cause  to  Rome,  to  the  determination  of  the 
emperor.  A  number  of  persons,  we  are  told, 
were  delegated  by  Augustus,  all  of  consular 
rank,  to  receive  the  appeals  of  the  people  in 
the  provinces.  These  observations  will  explain 
the  nature  of  St.  Paul's  appeal  in  the  Acts  ot 
the  Apostles. 

APPII  FORUM,  a  place  about  fifty  miles 
from  Rome,  near  the  modern  town  of  Piperno 
on  the  road  to  Naples.  It  probably  had  its 
name  from  the  statue  of  Appius  Claudius,  a 
Roman  consul,  who  paved  the  famous  way 
from  Rome  to  Capua,  and  whose  statue  was 
set  up  here.  To  this  place  some  Christians  from 
Rome  came  to  meet  St.  Paul,  Acts  xxviii,  15. 

APPLE  TREE,  men,  Prov.  xxv,  11 ;  Cant, 
ii,  3,  5 ;  vii,  8 ;  viii,  5 ;  Joel  i,  12.  As  the  best 
apples  of  Egypt,  though  ordinary,  are  brought 
thither  by  sea  from  Rhodes,  and  by  land  from 
Damascus,  we  may  believe  that  Judea,  an  in- 
termediate country  between  Egypt  and  Da- 
mascus, has  none  that  are  of  any  value.  Can 
it  be  imagined,  then,  that  the  apple  trees  of 
which  the  Prophet  Joel  speaks,  i,  12,   and 


APR 


75 


AQU 


which  he  mentions  among  the  things  that 
gave  joy  to  the  inhabitants  of  Judea,  were 
those  that  we  call  by  that  name  ?  Our  trans- 
lators must  surely  have  been  mistaken  here, 
since  the  apples  which  the  inhabitants  of  Judea 
eat  at  this  day  are  of  foreign  growth,  and  at 
the  same  time  but  very  indifferent. 

There  are  five  places,  beside  this  in  Joel,  in 
which  the  word  occurs ;  and  from  them  we 
learn  that  it  was  thought  the  noblest  of  the 
trees  of  the  wood,  and  that  its  fruit  was  very 
sweet  or  pleasant,  Cant,  ii,  3 ;  of  the  colour  of 
gold,  Prov.  xxv,  11 ;  extremely  fragrant,  Cant, 
vii,  8 ;  and  proper  for  those  to  smell  that  were 
ready  to  faint,  Cant,  ii,  5.  We  may  be  sure  that 
the  taphuach  was  very  early  known  in  the  holy 
land,  as  it  is  mentioned  in  the  book  of  Joshua 
as  having  given  name  to  a  city  of  Manasseh 
and  one  of  Judah.  Several  interpreters  and 
critics  render  Tin  yy  nc,  Lev.  xxiii,  40,  branches, 
or  fruit,  of  the  beautiful  tree ;  and  understand 
it  of  the  citron  ;  and  it  is  known  that  the  Jews 
still  make  use  of  the  fruit  of  this  tree  at  their 
yearly  feast  of  tabernacles. 

Citron  trees  are  very  noble,  being  large,  their 
leaves  beautiful,  ever  continuing  on  the  trees, 
of  an  exquisite  smell,  and  affording  a  most  de- 
lightful shade.  It  might  well,  therefore,  be 
said,  "  As  the  citron  tree  is  among  the  trees  of 
the  wood,  so  is  my  beloved  among  the  sons." 
This  is  a  delicate  compliment,  comparing  the 
fine  appearance  of  the  prince,  amid  his  escort, 
to  the  superior  beauty  with  which  the  citron 
tree  appears  among  the  ordinary  trees  of  the 
forest ;  and  the  compliment  is  heightened  by  an 
allusion  to  the  refreshing  shade  and  the  exhi- 
larating fruit. 

The  exhilarating  effects  of  the  fruit  are  men- 
tioned Cant,  ii,  5,  "  Comfort  me  with  citrons." 
Egmont  and  Heyman  tell  us  of  an  Arabian  who 
was  in  a  great  measure  brought  to  himself,  when 
overcome  with  wine,  by  the  help  of  citrons  and 
coffee. 

To  the  manner  of  serving  up  these  citrons  in 
his  court,  Solomon  seems  to  refer,  when  he  says, 
"  A  word  fitly  spoken  is  like  golden  citrons  in 
silver  baskets ;"  whether,  as  Maimonides  sup- 
poses, in  baskets  wrought  with  open  work,  or 
in  salvers  curiously  chased,  it  nothing  concerns 
us  to  determine  ;  the  meaning  is,  that  an  excel- 
lent saying,  suitably  expressed,  is  as  the  most 
acceptable  gift  in  the  fairest  conveyance.  So 
the  rabbins  say,  that  the  tribute  of  the  first  ripe 
fruits  was  carried  to  the  temple  in  silver  baskets. 

APRIES,  a  king  of  Egypt,  called  in  the 
sacred  writings  Pharaoh  Hophrah,  Jer.  xliv,  30. 
Apries  was  the  son  of  Psammis,  and  grandson 
of  Necho,  or  Nechao,  who  waged  war  against 
Josiah,  king  of  the  Jews.  He  reigned  twenty- 
five  years,  and  was  long  considered  as  one  of 
the  happiest  princes  in  the  world ;  but  having 
equipped  a  fleet  for  the  reduction  of  the  Cyre- 
nians,  he  lost  in  this  expedition  almost  the 
whole  of  his  army.  The  Egyptians  resolved  to 
make  him  responsible  for  this  ill  success,  re- 
belled, and  pretended  that  he  undertook  the 
war  only  to  get  rid  of  his  subjects,  and  that  he 
might  govern  the  remainder  more  absolutely. 
Apries  deputed  Amasis,  one  of  his  officers,  to 


suppress  the  rebellion,  and  induce  the  people  to 
return  to  their  allegiance.  But,  while  Amasis 
was  haranguing  them,  one  of  the  multitude 
placed  a  diadem  about  his  helmet,  and  proclaim- 
ed him  king.  The  rest  applauded  him ;  and 
Amasis  having  accepted  their  offer,  continued 
with  them,  and  confirmed  them  in  their  rebel- 
lion. Amasis  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the 
rebels,  and  marched  against  Apries,  whom  he 
defeated  and  took  prisoner.  Amasis  treated 
him  with  kindness ;  but  the  people  were  not 
satisfied  till  they  had  taken  him  from  Amasis 
and  strangled  him.  Such  was  the  end  of  Apries, 
according  to  Herodotus.  Jeremiah  threatened 
this  prince  with  being  delivered  into  the  hands 
of  his  enemies,  as  he  had  delivered  Zedekiah, 
king  of  Judah,  into  the  hands  of  Nebuchadnez- 
zar, king  of  Babylon. 

Apries  had  made  a  league  with  Zedekiah,  and 
promised  him  assistance,  Ezek.  xvii,  15.  Zede- 
kiah, therefore,  relying  on  his  forces,  revolted 
from  Nebuchadnezzar,  in  the  year  of  the  world 
3414,  and  before  Jesus  Christ  590.  Early  in 
the  year  following,  Nebuchadnezzar  marched 
against  Hezekiah  ;  but  as  other  nations  of  Sy- 
ria had  shaken  off  their  obedience,  he  first  re- 
duced them  to  their  duty,  and  toward  the  end 
of  the  year  besieged  Jerusalem,  2  Kings  xxv,  5 ; 
2  Chron.  xxxvi,  17  ;  Jer.  xxxix,  1 ;  lii,  4.  Zede- 
kiah defended  himself  in  Jerusalem,  long  and 
obstinately,  that  he  might  give  time  to  Pharaoh 
Hophrah,  or  Apries,  to  come  to  his  assistance. 
Apries  advanced  with  a  powerful  army ;  and  the 
king  of  Babylon  raised  the  siege,  and  marched 
to  meet  him.  But  Apries  not  daring  to  hazard 
a  battle  against  the  Chaldeans,  retreated  into 
Egypt,  and  abandoned  Zedekiah.  Ezekiel  re- 
proaches Egypt  severely  with  this  baseness,  and 
says  that  it  had  been  a  staff  of  reed  to  the  house 
of  Israel,  and  an  occasion  of  falling ;  for  when 
they  took  hold  of  it  by  the  hand,  it  broke  and 
rent  all  their  shoulder.  He  therefore  prophe- 
sies that  Egypt  should  be  reduced  to  a  solitude, 
and  that  God  would  send  against  it  the  sword, 
which  would  destroy  in  it  man  and  beast,  Ezek. 
xxix.  This  was  afterward  accomplished,  first, 
in  the  time  of  Apries ;  and  secondly,  in  the 
conquest  of  Egypt  by  the  Persians. 

AQUILA.  This  person  was  a  native  of  Pon- 
tus  in  Asia  Minor,  and  was  converted  by  St. 
Paul,  together  with  his  wife  Priscilla,  to  the 
Christian  religion.  As  Aquila  was  by  trade  a 
tentmaker,  Acts  xviii,  2,  3,  as  St.  Paul  was,  the 
Apostle  lodged  and  wrought  with  him  at  Co- 
rinth. Aquila  came  thither,  not  long  before, 
from  Italy,  being  obliged  to  leave  Rome  upon 
the  edict  which  the  emperor  Claudius  had  pub- 
lished, banishing  the  Jews  from  that  city.  St. 
Paul  afterward  quitted  Aquila's  house,  and  abode 
with  Justus,  near  the  Jewish  synagogue  at  Co- 
rinth ;  probably,  as  Calmet  thinks,  because 
Aquila  was  a  converted  Jew,  and  Justus  was  a 
convert  from  Paganism,  that  in  this  case  the 
Gentiles  might  come  and  hear  him  with  more 
liberty.  When  the  Apostle  left  Corinth,  Aquila 
and  Priscilla  accompanied  him  as  far  as  Ephe- 
sus,  where  he  left  them  with  that  church  while 
he  pursued  his  journey  to  Jerusalem.  They 
rendered  him  great  service  in  that  city,  so  far 


ARA 


76 


ARA 


as  to  expose  their  own  lives  to  preserve  his. 
They  had  returned  to  Rome  when  St.  Paul 
wrote  his  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  xvi,  4,  where- 
in he  salutes  them  with  great,  kindness.  Lastly, 
they  were  come  back  to  Ephesus  again,  when 
St.  Paul  wrote  his  Second  Epistle  to  Timothy, 
iv,  19,  wherein  he  desires  him  to  salute  them 
in  his  name.  What  became  of  them  after  this 
time  is  not  known. 

AR,  the  capital  city  of  the  Moabites,  situat- 
ed in  the  hills  on  the  south  of  the  river  Anion. 
This  city  was  likewise  called  Rabbah  or  Rab- 
bath  Moab,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Ammon- 
ite Rabbah.  It  was  afterward  called  by  the 
Greeks  Areopolis  ;  and  is  at  present  termed  El- 
Rabba.     See  Moab. 

ARABIA.  A  vast  country  of  Asia,  extend- 
ing one  thousand  five  hundred  miles  from  north 
to  south,  and  one  thousand  two  hundred  from 
east  to  west ;  containing  a  surface  equal  to  four 
times  that  of  France.  The  near  approach  of 
the  Euphrates  to  the  Mediterranean  constitutes 
it  a  peninsula,  the  largest  in  the  world.  It  is 
called  Jezirat-el-  Arab  by  the  Arabs ;  and  by  the 
Persians  and  Turks,  Arebistan.  This  is  one 
of  the  most  interesting  countries  on  the  face  of 
the  earth.  It  has,  in  agreement  with  prophecy, 
never  been  subdued ;  and  its  inhabitants,  at 
once  pastoral,  commercial,  and  warlike,  are  the 
same  wild,  wandering  people  as  the  immediate 
descendants  of  their  great  ancestor  Ishmael  arc 
represented  to  have  been. 

Arabia,  or  at  least  the  eastern  and  northern 
parts  of  it,  were  first  peopled  by  some  of  the 
numerous  families  of  Cush,  who  appear  to  have 
extended  themselves,   or  to  have  given  their 
name  as  the  land  of  Cush,  or  Asiatic  Ethiopia, 
to  all  the  country  from  the  Indus  on  the  east, 
to  the  borders  of  Egypt  on  the  west,  and  from 
Armenia  on  the  north  to  Arabia  Deserta  on 
the  south.    By  these  Cushites,  whose  first  plan- 
tations were   on  both  sides  of  the  Euphrates 
and  Gulf  of  Persia,  and  who  were  the  first  that 
traversed  the  desert  of  Arabia,  the  earliest  com- 
mercial communications  wTere  established  be- 
tween the  east  and  the   west.      But  of  their 
Arabian  territory,  and  of  the  occupation  de- 
pendent, on  it,  they  were  deprived  by  the  sons 
of  Abraham,  Ishmael,  and  Midian  ;  by  whom 
they  were  obliterated  in  this  country  as  a  dis- 
tinct race,  either  by  superiority  of  numbers  after 
mingling  with  them,  or  by  obliging  them  to  re- 
cede altogether  to  their  more  eastern  posses- 
sions, or  over  the  Gulf  of  Arabia  into  Africa. 
From  this  time,  that  is,  about  five  hundred  and 
fifty  years  after  the  flood,  we  read  only  of  Ish- 
maelites  and  Midianites  as  the  shepherds  and 
carriers  of  the  deserts ;  who  also  appear  to  have 
been  intermingled,  and  to  have  shared  both  the 
territory  and  the  traffic,  as  the   traders  who 
bought  Joseph  are  called  by  both  names,  and 
the  same  arc  probably  referred  to  by  Jeremiah, 
xxv,  as  "the  mingled  people  that  dwell  in  the 
desert."     But  Ishmael  maintained  the  superi- 
ority, and  succeeded  in  giving  his  name  to  the 
whole  people. 

Arabia,  it  is  well  known,  is  divided  by  geo- 
graphers into  three  separate  regions,  called  Ara- 
bia Petroea,  Arabia  Deserta,  and  Arabia  Felix. 


The  first,  or  Arabia  Petrasa,  is  the  north- 
western division,  and  is  bounded  on  the  north 
l>y  Palestine  and  the  Dead  Sea,  on  the  east  by 
Arabia  Deserta,  on  the  south  by  Arabia  Felix, 
and  on  the  west  by  the  Heroo]"  olitan  branch  of 
the  Red  Sea  and  the  Isthmus  of  Suez.     The 
greater  parWof  this  division  was  more  exclu- 
sively the  possession  of  the  Midianites,  or  land 
of  Midian ;    where   Moses,   having   fled  from 
Egypt,  married  the  daughter  of  Jethro,   and 
spent  forty  years  keeping  the  flocks  of  his  fa- 
ther-in-law :  no  humiliating  occupation  in  those 
days,  and  particularly  in  Midian,  which  was  a 
land  of  shepherds  ;  the  whole  people  having  no 
other  way  of  life  than  that  of  rearing  and  tend- 
ing their  flocks,  or  in  carrying  the  goods  they 
received  from  the  east  and  so^h  into  Phenicia 
and  Egypt.     The  word  flock,  used  here,  must 
not  convey  the  idea  naturally  entertained  in  our 
own  country  of  sheep  only,  but,  together  with 
these  or  goats,  horned  cattle  and  camels,  the 
most  indispensable  of  animals  to  the  Midian- 
ite.     It  was  a  mixed  flock  of  this  kind  which 
was  the  sole  care  of  Moses,  during  a  third  part 
of  his  long  life;  in  which  he  must  have  had 
abundance  of  leisure,  by  night  and  by  day,  to 
reflect  on  the  unhappy  condition  of  his  own 
people,  still  enduring  all  the  rigours  of  slavery 
in  Egypt.     It  was  a  similar  flock  also  which 
the  daughters  of  Jethro  were  watering  when 
first  encountered  by  Moses  ;  a  trifling  event  in 
itself,  but  important  in  the  history  of  the  future 
leader  of  the  Jews ;  and  showing,  at  the  same 
time,    the    simple    life    of  the    people   among 
whom  he  was  newly  come,  as  well  as  the  scanty 
supply  of  water  in  their  country,  and  the  strifes 
frequently  occasioned  in  obtaining  a  share  of  it. 
Through  a  considerable  part  of  this  region,  the 
Israelites  wandered  after  they  had  escaped  from 
Egypt ;  and  in  it  were  situated  the  mountains 
Horeb  and  Sinai.    Beside  the  tribes  of  Midian, 
which  gradually  became  blended  with  those  of 
Ishmael,  this  was  the  country  of  the  Edomites, 
the  Amalekites,  and  the  Nabathaei,  the  only 
tribe  of  pure  Ishmaelites  within  its  precincts. 
But  all  those  families  have  long  since  been  con- 
founded under  the  general  name  of  Arabs.    The 
greater  part  of  this  district  consists  of  naked 
rocks  and  sandy  and  flinty  plains ;  but  it  con- 
tained also  some  fertile  spots,  particularly  in 
the  peninsula  of  Mount  Sinai,  and  through  the 
long  range  of  Mount  Seir. 

The  second  region,  or  Arabia  Deserta,  is 
bounded  on  the  north  and  north-east  by  the 
Euphrates,  on  the  east  by  a  ridge  of  mountains 
which  separates  it  from  Chaldea,  on  the  south 
by  Arabia  Felix,  and  on  the  west  by  Syria,  Ju- 
dea,  and  Arabia  Petraea.  This  was  more  par- 
ticularly the  country  first  of  the  Cushites,  and 
afterward  of  the  Ishmaelites;  as  it  is  still  of 
their  descendants,  the  modern  Bedouins,  who 
maintain  the  same  predatory  and  wandering 
habits.  It  consists  almost  entirely  of  one  vast 
and  lonesome  wilderness,  a  boundless  level  of 
sand,  whose  dry  and  burning  surface  denies 
existence  to  all  but  the  Arab  and  his  camel. 
Yet,  widely  scattered  over  this  dreary  waste, 
some  spots  of  comparative  fertility  are  to  be 
found,  where,  spread  around  a  feeble  spring  of 


ARA 


77 


ARA 


brackish  water,  a  stunted  verdure,  or  a  few 
palm  trees,  fix  the  principal  settlement  of  a 
tribe,  and  afford  stages  6f  refreshment  in  these 
otherwise  impassable  deserts.  Here,  with  a 
few  dates,  the  milk  of  his  faithful  camel,  and 
perhaps  a  little  corn,  brought  by  painful  jour- 
neys from  distant  regions,  or  plundered  from  a 
passing  caravan,  the  Arab  supports  a  hard  ex- 
istence, until  the  failure  of  his  resources  impels 
him  to  seek  another  oasis,  or  the  scanty  herb- 
age furnished  on  a  patch  of  soil  by  transient 
rains ;  or  else,  which  is  frequently  the  case,  to 
resort,  by  more  distant  migration,  to  the  banks 
of  the  Euphrates  ;  or,  by  hostile  inroads  on  the 
neighbouring  countries,  to  supply  those  wants 
which  the  recesses  of  the  desert  have  denied. 
The  numbers  leading  this  wandering  and  pre- 
carious mode  of  life  are  incredible.  From  these 
deserts  Zerah  drew  his  army  of  a  million  of 
men;  and  the  same  deserts,  fifteen  hundred 
years  after,  poured  forth  the  countless  swarms, 
which,  under  Mohammed  and  his  successors, 
devastated  half  of  the  then  known  world. 

The  third  region,  or  Arabia  Felix,  so  de- 
nominated from  the  happier  condition  of  its 
soil  and  climate,  occupies  the  southern  part  of 
the  Arabian  peninsula.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  two  other  divisions  of  the  country : 
on  the  south  and  south-east  by  the  Indian 
Ocean ;  on  the  east  by  part  of  the  same  ocean 
and  the  Persian  Gulf;  and  on  the  west  by  the 
Red  Sea.  This  division  is  subdivided  into  the 
kingdoms  or  provinces  of  Yemen,  at  the  south- 
ern extremity  of  the  peninsula ;  Hejaz,  on  the 
north  of  the  former,  and  toward  the  Red  Sea ; 
Nejed,  in  the  central  region;  and  Hadramant 
and  Oman,  on  the  shores  of  the  Indian  Ocean. 
The  four  latter  subdivisions  partake  of  much 
of  the  character  of  the  other  greater  divisions 
of  the  country,  though  of  a  more  varied  surface, 
and  with  a  larger  portion  capable  of  cultivation. 
But  Yemen  seems  to  belong  to  another  country 
and  climate.  It  is  very  mountainous,  is  well 
watered  with  rains  and  springs,  and  is  blessed 
with  an  abundant  produce  in  corn  and  fruits, 
and  especially  in  coffee,  of  which  vast  quanti- 
ties are  exported.  In  this  division  were  the 
ancient  cities  of  Nysa,  Musa  or  Moosa,  and 
Aden.  This  is  also  supposed  to  have  been  the 
country  of  the  queen  of  Sheba.  In  Hejaz  are 
the  celebrated  cities  of  Mecca  and  Medina. 

Arabia  Felix  is  inhabited  by  a  people  who 
claim  Jotkan  for  their  father,  and  so  trace  their 
descent  direct  from  Shem,  instead  of  Abraham 
and  Ham.  They  are  indeed  a  totally  different 
people  from  those  inhabiting  the  other  quarters, 
and  pride  themselves  on  being  the  only  pure 
and  unmixed  Arabs.  Instead  of  being  shep- 
herds and  robbers,  they  are  fixed  in  towns  and 
cities ;  and  live  by  agriculture  and  commerce, 
chiefly  maritime.  Here  were  the  people  who 
were  found  by  the  Greeks  of  Egypt  enjoying 
an  entire  monopoly  of  the  trade  with  the  east, 
and  possessing  a  high  degree  of  wealth  and 
consequent  refinement.  It  was  here,  in  the 
ports  of  Sabiea,  that  the  spices,  muslins,  and 
precious  stones  of  India,  were  for  many  ages 
obtained  by  the  Greek  traders  of  Egypt,  before 
they  had  acquired  skill  or  courage  sufficient  to 


pass  the  straits  of  the  Red  Sea ;  which  were 
long  considered  by  the  nations  of  Europe  to  be 
the  produce  of  Arabia  itself.  These  articles, 
before  the  invention  of  shipping,  or  the  esta- 
blishment of  a  maritime  intercourse,  were  con- 
veyed across  the  deserts  by  the  Cushite,  Ish- 
maclite,  and  Midianite  carriers.  It  was  the 
produce  partly  of  India,  and  partly  of  Arabia, 
which  the  travelling  merchants,  to  whom  Jo- 
seph was  sold,  were  carrying  into  Egypt.  The 
balm  and  myrrh  were  probably  Arabian,  as  they 
are  still  the  produce  of  the  same  country ;  but 
the  spicery  was  undoubtedly  brought  farther 
from  the  east.  These  circumstances  are  ad- 
verted to,  to  show  how  extensive  was  the  com- 
munication, in  which  the  Arabians  formed  the 
principal  link:  and  that  in  the  earliest  ages  of 
which  we  have  any  account,  in  those  of  Joseph, 
of  Moses,  of  Isaiah,  and  of  Ezekiel,  "the 
mingled  people"  inhabiting  the  vast  Arabian 
deserts,  the  Cushites,  Ishmaelites,  and  Midian- 
ites,  were  the  chief  agents  in  that  commercial 
intercourse  which  has,  from  the  most  remote 
period  of  antiquity,  subsisted  between  the  ex- 
treme east  and  west.  And  although  the  cur- 
rent of  trade  is  now  turned,  caravans  of 
merchants,  the  descendants  of  these  people, 
may  still  be  found  traversing  the  same  deserts, 
conveying  the  same  articles,  and  in  the  same 
manner  as  described  by  Moses  I 

The  singular  and  important  fact  that  Arabia 
has  never  been  conquered,  has  already  been 
cursorily  adverted  to.  But  Mr.  Gibbon,  un- 
willing to  pass  by  an  opportunity  of  cavilling 
at  revelation,  says,  "  The  perpetual  independ- 
ence of  the  Arabs  has  been  the  theme  of  praise^ 
among  strangers  and  natives;  and  the  arts  of 
controversy  transform  this  singular  event  into 
a  prophecy  and  a  miracle  in  favour  of  the  pos- 
terity of  Ishmael.  Some  exceptions,  that  can 
neither  be  dissembled  nor  eluded,  render  this 
mode  of  reasoning  as  indiscreet  as  it  is  super- 
fluous. The  kingdom  of  Yemen  has  been 
successively  subdued  by  the  Abyssinians,  the 
Persians,  the  Sultans  of  Egypt,  and  the  Turks ; 
the  holy  cities  of  Mecca  and  Medina  have  re- 
peatedly bowed  under  a  Scythian  tyrant ;  and 
the  Roman  province  of  Arabia  embraced  the 
peculiar  wilderness  in  which  Ishmael  and  his 
sons  must  have  pitched  their  tents  in  the  face 
of  their  brethren."  But  this  learned  writer  has, 
with  a  peculiar  infelicity,  annulled  his  own  ar- 
gument ;  and  we  have  only  to  follow  on  the 
above  passage,  to  obtain  a  complete  refutation 
of  the  unworthy  position  with  which  it  begins : 
"Yet  these  exceptions,"  says  Mr.  Gibbon,  "are 
temporary  or  local;  the  body  of  the  nation  has 
escaped  the  yoke  of  the  most  powerful  mo- 
narchies :  the  arms  of  Sesostris  and  Cyrus,  of 
Pompey,  and  Trajan,  could  never  achieve  the^ 
conquest  of  Arabia ;  the  present  sovereign  of 
the  Turks  may  exercise  a  shadow  of  jurisdic- 
tion, but  his  pride  is  reduced  to  solicit  the- 
friendship  of  a  people  whom  it  is  dangerous  to. 
provoke,  and  fruitless  to  attack.  The  obvious- 
causes  of  their  freedom  are  inscribed  on  the 
character  and  country  of  the  Arabs.  Many  ages 
before  Mohammed,  their  intrepid  valour  had 
been  gCYerely  felt  by  their  neighbours,  in  often. 


ARA 


78 


ARA 


sivc  and  defensive  war.  The  patient  and  ac- 
tive virtues  of  a  soldier  are  insensibly  nursed  in 
the  habits  and  discipline  of  a  pastoral  life.  The 
care  of  the  sheep  and  camels  is  abandoned  to 
the  women  of  the  tribe ;  but  the  martial  youth, 
under  the  banner  of  the  emir,  is  ever  on  horse- 
hack  and  in  the  field,  to  practise  the  exercise 
of  the  bow,  the  javelin,  and  the  scimitar.  The 
long  memory  of  their  independence  is  the 
firmest  pledge  of  its  perpetuity ;  and  succeed- 
ing generations  are  animated  to  prove  their 
descent,  and  to  maintain  their  inheritance. 
Their  domestic  feuds  are  suspended  on  the  ap- 
proach of  a  common  enemy ;  and  in  their  last 
hostilities  against  the  Turks,  the  caravan  of 
Mecca  was  attacked  and  pillaged  by  four  score 
thousand  of  the  confederates.  When  they  ad- 
vance to  battle,  the  hope  of  victory  is  in  the 
front,  in  the  rear  the  assurance  of  a  retreat. 
Their  horses  and  camels,  who  in  eight  or  ten 
days  can  perform  a  march  of  four  or  five  hun- 
dred miles,  disappear  before  the  conqueror; 
the  secret  waters  of  the  desert  elude  his  search ; 
and  his  victorious  troops  are  consumed  with 
thirst,  hunger,  and  fatigue,  in  the  pursuit  of 
an  invisible  foe,  who  scorns  his  efforts,  and 
safely  reposes  in  the  heart  of  the  burning  soli- 
tude. The  arms  and  deserts  of  the  Bedouins 
are  not  only  the  safeguards  of  their  own  free- 
dom, but  the  barriers  also  of  the  happy  Arabia, 
whose  inhabitants,  remote  from  war,  are  ener- 
vated by  the  luxury  of  the  soil  and  climate. 
The  legions  of  Augustus  melted  away  in  dis- 
ease and  lassitude ;  and  it  is  only  by  a  naval 
power  that  the  reduction  of  Yemen  has  been 
successfully  attempted.  When  Mohammed 
erected  his  holy  standard,  that  kingdom  was 
a  province  of  the  Persian  empire ;  yet  seven 
princes  of  the  Homerites  still  reified  in  the 
mountains ;  and  the  vicegerent  of  Chosroes 
was  tempted  to  forget  his  distant  country  and 
his  unfortunate  master." 

Yemen  was  the  only  Arabian  province  which 
had  the  appearance  of  submitting  to  a  foreign 
yoke ;  but  even  here,  as  Mr.  Gibbon  himself 
acknowledges,  seven  of  the  native  princes  re- 
mained unsubdued:  a"nd  even  admitting  its 
subjugation  to  have  been  complete,  the  per- 
petual independence  of  the  Ishmaelites  remains 
unimpeached.  For  this  is  not  their  country. 
Petra,  the  capital  of  the  Stony  Arabia,  and  the 
principal  settlement  of  the  Nabathrei,  it  is  true, 
was  long  in  the  hands  of  the  Persians  and  Ro- 
mans ;  but  this  never  made  them  masters  of 
the  country.  Hovering  troops  of  Arabs  con- 
fined the  intruders  within  their  walls,  and  cut 
off"  their  supplies ;  and  the  possession  of  this 
fortress  gave  as  little  reason  to  the  Romans  to 
exult  as  the  conquerors  of  Arabia  Petroea,  as 
that  of  Gibraltar  does  to  us  to  boast  of  the  con- 
quest of  Spain. 

The  Arabian  tribes  were  confounded  by  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  under  the  indiscriminate 
appellation  of  Saracens;  a  name  whose  ety- 
mology has  been  variously,  but  never  satisfac- 
torily, explained.  This  was  their  general  name 
when  Mohammed  appeared  in  the  beginning 
of  the  seventh  century.  Their  religion  at  this 
time  was  Sabianism,  or  the  worship  of  the  sun, 


moon,  &.c ;  variously  transformed  by  the  dif- 
ferent tribes,  and  intermingled  with  some  Jew- 
ish and  Christian  maxims  and  traditions.  The 
tribes  themselves  were  generally  at  variance, 
from  some  hereditary  and  implacable  animosi- 
ties ;  and  their  only  warfare  consisted  in  de- 
sultory skirmishes  arising  out  of  these  feuds, 
and  in  their  predatory  excursions,  where  supe- 
riority of  numbers  rendered  courage  of  less 
value  than  activity  and  vigilance.  Yet  of  such 
materials  Mohammed  constructed  a  mighty  em- 
pire ;  converted  the  relapsed  Ishmaelites  into 
good  Musselmen  ;  united  the  jarring  tribes  un- 
der one  banner ;  supplied  what  was  wanting  in 
personal  courage  by  the  ardour  of  religious 
zeal ;  and  out  of  a  banditti,  little  known  and 
little  feared  beyond  their  own  deserts,  raised  an 
armed  multitude,  which  proved  the  scourge  of 
the  world. 

Mohammed  was  born  in  the  year  569,  of  the 
noble  tribe  of  the  Koreish,  and  descended,  ac- 
cording to  eastern  historians,  in  a  direct  line 
from  Ishmael.  His  person  is  represented  as 
beautiful,  his  manners  engaging,  and  his  elo- 
quence powerful ;  but  he  was  illiterate,  like  the 
rest  of  his  countrymen,  and  indebted  to  a  Jew- 
ish or  Christian  scribe  for  penning  his  Koran. 
Whatever  the  views  of  Mohammed  might  have 
been  in  the  earlier  part  of  his  life,  it  was  not 
till  the  fortieth  year  of  his  age  that  he  avowed 
his  mission  as  the  Apostle  of  God:  when  so 
little  credit  did  he  gain  for  his  pretensions,  that 
in  the  first  three  years  he  could  only  number 
fourteen  converts ;  and  even  at  the  end  of  ten 
years  his  labours  and  his  friends  were  alike 
confined  witAin  the  walls  of  Mecca,  when  the 
designs  of  his  enemies  compelled  him  to  fly  to 
Medina,  where  he  was  favourably  received  by 
a  party  of  the  most  considerable  inhabitants, 
who  had  recently  imbibed  his  doctrines  at  Mec- 
ca. This  flight,  or  Hegira,  was  made  the  Mo- 
hammedan ffira,  from  which  time  is  computed, 
and  corresponds  with  the  16th  of  July,  622,  of 
the  Christian  ffira.  Mohammed  now  found 
himself  sufficiently  powerful  to  throw  aside  all 
reserve  ;  declared  that  he  was  commanded  to 
compel  unbelievers  by  the  sword  to  receive  the 
faith  of  one  God,  and  his  prophet  Mohammed ; 
and  confirming  his  credulous  followers  by  the 
threats  of  eternal  pain  on  the  one  hand,  and 
the  allurements  of  a  sensual  paradise  on  the 
other,  he  had,  before  his  death,  which  happened 
in  the  year  632,  gained  over  the  whole  of  Ara- 
bia to  his  imposture.  His  deatli  threw  a  tem- 
porary gloom  over  his  cause,  and  the  disunion 
of  his  followers  threatened  its  extinction.  Any 
other  empire  placed  in  the  same  circum- 
stances would  have  crumbled  to  pieces ;  but 
the  Arabs  felt  their  power ;  they  revered  their 
founder  as  the  chosen  prophet  of  God ;  and 
their  ardent  temperament,  animated  by  a  re- 
ligious enthusiasm,  gave  an  earnest  of  future 
success,  and  encouraged  the  zeal  or  the  ambi- 
tion of  their  leaders.  The  succession,  after 
some  bloodshed,  was  settled,  and  unnumbered 
hordes  of  barbarians  were  ready  to  carry  into 
execution  the  sanguinary  dictates  of  their  pro- 
phet ;  and,  with  "  the  Koran,  tribute,  or  death," 
as  their  motto,  to  invade  the  countries  of  the 


ARA 


79 


ARA 


infidels.  During  the  whole  of  the  succeeding 
century,  their  rapid  career  was  unchecked ;  the 
disciplined  armies  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
were  unable  to  stand  against  them ;  the  Chris, 
tian  churches  of  Asia  and  Africa  were  annihi- 
lated ;  and  from  India  to  the  Atlantic,  through 
Persia,  Arabia,  Syria,  Palestine,  Asia  Minor, 
Egypt,  with  the  whole  of  northern  Africa, 
Spain,  and  part  of  France,  the  impostor  was 
acknowledged.  Constantinople  was  besieged ; 
Rome  itself  was  plundered ;  and  nothing  less 
than  the  subjection  of  the  whole  Christian 
world  was  meditated  on  the  one  hand  and 
tremblingly  expected  on  the  other. 

All  this  was  wonderful;  but  the  avenging 
justice  of  an  incensed  Deity,  and  the  sure  word 
of  prophecy,  relieve  our  astonishment.  It  was 
to  punish  an  apostate  race,  that  the  Saracen 
locusts  were  let  loose  upon  the  earth ;  and  the 
countries  which  they  were  permitted  to  ravage 
were  those  in  which  the  pure  light  of  revela- 
tion had  been  most  abused.  The  eastern  church 
was  sunk  in  gross  idolatry;  vice  and  wicked- 
ness prevailed  in  their  worst  forms ;  and  those 
who  still  called  themselves  Christians  trusted 
more  to  images,  relics,  altars,  austerities,  and 
pilgrimages,  than  to  a  crucified  Saviour. 

About  a  hundred  and  eighty  years  from  the 
foundation  of  Bagdad,  during  which  period  the 
power  of  the  Saracens  had  gradually  declined, 
a  dreadful  reaction  took  place  in  the  conquered 
countries.  The  Persians  on  the  east,  and  the 
Greeks  on  the  west,  were  simultaneously  roused 
from  their  long  thraldom,  and,  assisted  by  the 
Turks,  who,  issuing  from  the  plains  of  Tar- 
tary,  now  for  the  first  time  made  their  appear- 
ance in  the  east,  extinguished  the  power  of  the 
caliphate,  and  virtually  put  ah  end  to  the  Ara- 
bian monarchy  in  the  year  936.  A  succession 
of  nominal  caliphs  continued  to  the  year  1258 : 
but  the  provinces  were  lost ;  their  power  was 
confined  to  the  walls  of  their  capital ;  and  they 
were  in  real  subjection  to  the  Turks  and  the 
Persians  until  the  above  year,  when  Mostacem, 
the  last  of  the  Abbassides,  was  dethroned  and 
murdered  by  Holagou,  or  Hulaku,  the  Tartar, 
the  grandson  of  Zingis.  This  event,  although 
it  terminated  the  foreign  dominion  of  the  Ara- 
bians, left  their  native  independence  untouched. 
They  were  no  longer,  indeed,  the  masters  of 
the  finest  parts  of  the  three  great  divisions  of 
the  ancient  world :  their  work  was  finished ; 
and  returning  to  the  state  in  which  Moham- 
med found  them  three  centuries  before,  with 
the  exception  of  the  change  in  their  religion, 
they  remained,  and  still  remain,  the  unconquer- 
ed  rovers  of  the  desert. 

It  is  not  the  least  singular  circumstance  in 
the  history  of  this  extraordinary  people,  that 
those  who,  in  the  enthusiasm  of  their  first  suc- 
cesses, were  the  sworn  foes  of  literature,  should 
become  for  several  ages  its  exclusive  patrons. 
Almansor,  the  founder  of  Bagdad,  has  the  merit 
of  first  exciting  this  spirit,  which  was  encou- 
raged in  a  still  greater  degree  by  his  grandson 
Almamon.  This  caliph  employed  his  agents 
in  Armenia,  Syria,  Egypt,  and  at  Constantin- 
ople, in  collecting  the  most  celebrated  works 
on  Grecian  science,  and  had  them  translated 


into  the  Arabic  language.  Philosophy,  astro- 
nomy,  geometry,  and  medicine,  were  thus  in- 
troduced and  taught ;  public  schools  were 
established ;  and  learning,  which  had  altogether 
fled  from  Europe,  found  an  asylum  on  the 
banks  of  the  Tigris.  Nor  was  this  spirit  con- 
fined to  the  capital :  native  works  began  to 
appear ;  and  by  the  hands  of  copyists  were  mul- 
tiplied out  of  number,  for  the  information  of 
the  studious,  or  the  pride  of  the  wealthy.  The 
rage  for  literature  extended  to  Egypt  and  to 
Spain.  In  the  former  country,  the  Fatimites 
collected  a  library  of  a  hundred  thousand  manu- 
scripts, beautifully  transcribed,  and  very  ele- 
gantly bound  ;  and  in  the  latter,  the  Ommiades 
formed  another  of  six  hundred  thousand  vo- 
lumes ;  forty-four  of  which  were  employed  in 
the  catalogue.  Their  capital,  Cordova,  with 
the  towns  of  Malaga,  Almeria,  and  Murcia, 
produced  three  hundred  writers ;  and  seventy 
public  libraries  were  established  in  the  cities  of 
Andalusia.  What  a  change  since  the  days  of 
Omar,  when  the  splendid  library  of  the  Ptole- 
mies was  wantonly  destroyed  by  the  same  peo- 
ple !  A  retribution,  though  a  slight  one,  was 
thus  made  for  their  former  devastations ;  and 
many  Grecian  works,  lost  in  the  original,  have 
been  recovered  in  their  Arabic  dress.  Neither 
was  this  learning  confined  to  mere  parade, 
though  much  of  it  must  undoubtedly  have  been 
so.  Their  proficiency  in  astronomy  and  geo- 
metry is  attested  by  their  astronomical  tables, 
and  by  the  accuracy  with  which,  in  the  plain 
of  Chaldea,  a  degree  of  the  great  circle  of  the 
earth  was  measured.  But  it  was  in  medicine 
that,  in  this  dark  age,  the  Arabians  shone  most : 
the  works  of  Hippocrates  and  Galen  had  been 
translated  and  commented  on  ;  their  physicians 
were  sought  after  by  the  princes  of  Asia  and 
Europe  ;  and  the  names  of  Rhazis,  Albucasis, 
and  Avicenna  are  still  revered  by  the  members 
of  the  healing  art.  So  little,  indeed,  did  the 
physicians  of  Europe  in  that  age  know  of  the 
history  of  their  own  science,  that  they  were 
astonished,  on  the  revival  of  learning,  to  find 
in  the  ancient  Greek  authors  those  systems  for 
which  they  thought  themselves  indebted  to  the 
Arabians ! 

The  last  ren  nant  of  Arabian  science  was 
found  in  Spain ;  from  whence  it  was  expelled 
in  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
by  the  intemperate  bigots  of  that  country,  who 
have  never  had  any  thing  of  their  own  with 
which  to  supply  its  place.  The  Arabians  are 
the  only  people  who  have  preserved  their  de- 
scent, their  independence,  their  language,  and 
their  manners  and  customs,  from  the  earliest 
ages  to  the  present  times  ;  and  it  is  among 
them  that  we  are  to  look  for  examples  of  pa- 
triarchal life  and  manners.  A  very  lively  sketch 
of  this  mode  of  life  is  given  by  Sir  R.  K.  Por- 
ter, in  the  person  and  tribe  of  an  Arab  sheik, 
whom  he  encountered  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  Euphrates.  "  I  had  met  this  warrior,"  says. 
Sir  R.  K.  P.,  "  at  the  house  of  the  British  re- 
sident at  Bagdad  ;  and  came,  according  to  hi3 
repeated  wish,  to  see  him  in  a  place  more  con- 
sonant with  his  habits,  the  tented  field ;  and, 
as  he  expressed  it,  '  at  the  head  of  his  children.' 


ARA 


&0 


ARA 


As  soon  as  we  arrived  in  sight  of  his  camp,  we 
were  met  by  crowds  of  its  inhabitants,  who, 
with  a  wild  and  hurrying  delight,  led  us  toward 
the  tent  of  their  chief.  The  venerable  old 
man  came  forth  to  the  door,  attended  by  his 
subjects  of  all  sizes  and  descriptions,  and  greet- 
ed us  with  a  countenance  beaming  kindness ; 
while  his  words,  which  our  interpreter  explain- 
ed, were  demonstrative  of  patriarchal  welcome. 
One  of  my  Hindoo  troopers  spoke  Arabic ; 
hence  the  substance  of  our  succeeding  discourse 
was  not  lost  on  each  other.  Having  entered, 
I  sat  down  by  my  host ;  and  the  whole  of  the 
persons  present,  to  far  beyond  the  boundaries 
of  the  tent,  (the  sides  of  which  were  open,) 
seated  themselves  also,  without  any  regard  to 
those  more  civilized  ceremonies  of  subjection, 
the  crouching  of  slaves,  or  the  standing  of 
vassalage.  These  persons,  in  rows  beyond 
rows,  appeared  just  as  he  had  described,  the 
offspring  of  his  house,  the  descendants  of  his 
fathers,  from  age  to  age ;  and  like  brethren, 
whether  holding  the  highest  or  the  lowest  rank, 
they  seemed  to  gather  round  their  common 
parent.  But  perhaps  their  sense  of  perfect 
equality  in  the  mind  of  their  chief  could  not  be 
more  forcibly  shown,  than  in  the  share  they 
took  in  the  objects  which  appeared  to  interest 
his  feelings ;  and  as  I  looked  from  the  elders 
or  leaders  of  the  people,  seated  immediately 
around  him,  to  the  circles  beyond  circles  of 
brilliant  faces,  bending  eagerly  toward  him 
and  his  guest,  (all,  from  the  most  respectably 
clad  to  those  with  hardly  a  garment  covering 
their  active  limbs,  earnest  to  evince  some  at- 
tention to  the  stranger  he  bade  welcome,)  I 
thought  I  had  never  before  seen  so  complete  an 
assemblage  of  fine  and  animated  countenances, 
both  old  and  young  :  nor  could  I  suppose  a 
better  specimen  of  the  still  existing  state  of 
the  true  Arab ;  nor  a  more  lively  picture  of  the 
scene  which  must  have  presented  itself,  ages 
ago,  in  the  fields  of  Haran,  when  Terah  sat  in 
his  tent  door,  surrounded  by  his  sons,  and  his 
sons'  sons,  and  the  people  born  in  his  house. 
The  venerable  Arabian  sheik  was  also  seated 
on  the  ground  with  a  piece  of  carpet  spread 
under  him  ;  and,  like  his  ancient  Chaldean  an- 
cestor, turned  to  the  one  side  and  the  other, 
graciously  answering  or  questioning  the  groups 
around  him,  with  an  interest  in  them  all  which 
clearly  showed  the  abiding  simplicity  of  his 
government,  and  their  obedience.  On  the 
smallest  computation,  such  must  have  been 
the  manners  of  these  people  for  more  than 
three  thousand  years ;  thus,  in  all  things,  veri- 
fying the  prediction  given  of  Ishmael  at  his 
birth,  that  he,  in  his  posterity,  should  'be  a  wild 
man,'  and  always  continue  to  be  so,  though 
'  he  shall  dwell  for  ever  in  the  presence  of  his 
brethren.'  And  that  an  acute  and  active  peo- 
ple, surrounded  for  ages  by  polished  and  luxu- 
rious nations,  should  from  their  earliest  to  their 
latest  times,  be  still  found  a  icild  people,  dwell- 
ing in  the  presence  of  all  their  brethren,  (as  we 
may  call  these  nations,)  unsabdued  and  un- 
changeable, is,  indeed,  a  standing  miracle  : 
one  of  those  mysterious  facts  which  establish 
the  truth  of  prophecy."      But   although  the 


manners  of  the  Arabians  have  remained  un- 
altered through  so  many  ages,  and  will  proba- 
bly so  continue,  their  religion,  as  we  have  seen, 
has  sustained  an  important  change;  and  must 
again,  in  the  fulness  of  time,  give  place  to  a 
faith  more  worthy  of  the  people. 

St.  Paul  first  preached  the  Gospel  in  Arabia, 
Gal.  i,  17.  Christian  churches  were  subse- 
quently founded,  and  many  of  their  tribes  em- 
braced Christianity  prior  to  the  fifth  century ; 
most  of  which  appear  to  have  been  tinctured 
with  the  Nestorian  heresy.  At  this  time,  how- 
ever, it  does  not  appear  that  the  Arabians  had 
any  version  of  the  Scriptures  in  their  own 
language,  to  which  some  writers  attribute  the 
ease  with  which  they  were  drawn  into  the  Mo- 
hammedan delusion  ;  while  the  "  Greeks,  Sy- 
rians, Armenians,  Abyssinians,  Copts,  and 
others,"  who  enjoyed  that  privilege,  were  able 
to  resist  it. 

ARAM,  the  fifth  son  of  Shem,  Gen.  x,  22, 
He  was  the  father  of  the  Syrians,  who  from 
him  were  called  Aramaeans,  or  Aramites. 

ARARAT,  a  mountain  of  Asia,  in  Armenia, 
on  which  the  ark  of  Noah  rested  after  the  ces- 
sation of  the  deluge.  Concerning  the  etymo- 
logy  of  the  name,  Dr.  Bryant  observes,  that  it 
is  a  compound  of  Ar-Arat,  and  signifies  "the 
mountain  of  descent,"  being  equivalent  to 
Tt'~"\n,  of  the  Hebrews.  Of  the  precise  situation 
of  this  mountain,  different  accounts  have  been 
given.  Some  have  supposed  that  it  was  one 
of  the  mountains  which  divide  Armenia  on  the 
south  from  Mesopotamia,  and  that  part  of  As- 
syria inhabited  by  the  Curds,  from  whom  those 
mountains  took  the  name  of  Curdue,  or  Cardu ; 
by  the  Greeks  denominated  Gordyai.  It  is 
called  by  the  Arabs  Al-Judi,  and  also  Thama. 
nin.  In  confirmation  of  this  opinion,  it  is 
alleged  that  the  remains  of  the  ark  were  to  be 
seen  on  these  mountains  ;  and  it  is  said,  that 
Berosus  and  Abydenus  both  declare,  that  such 
a  report  existed  in  their  time.  Epiphanius 
pretends,  if  we  may  credit  his  assertion,  that 
the  relics  of  the  ark  were  to  be  seen  in  his 
day  ;  and  we  are  farther  told,  that  the  emperor 
Heraclius  went  from  the  town  of  Thamanin, 
up  the  mountain  Al-Judi,  and  saw  the  place  of 
the  ark.  Others  maintain,  that  mount  Ararat 
was  situated  toward  the  middle  of  Armenia, 
near  the  river  Araxes,  or  Aras,  about  twelve 
miles  from  it,  according  to  Tournefort,  above 
two  hundred  and  eighty  miles  distant  from 
Al-Judi,  to  the  north-east.  Ararat  seems  to 
be  a  part  of  that  vast  chain  of  mountains  call- 
ed Caucasus  and  Taurus;  and  upon  these 
mountains,  and  in  the  adjacent  country,  were 
preserved  more  authentic  accounts  of  the  ark 
than  in  almost  any  other  part  of  the  world.  The 
region  about  Ararat,  called  Araratia,  was  es- 
teemed among  the  ancients  as  nearly  a  central 
part  of  the  earth;  and  it  is  certainly  as  well 
calculated  as  any  other  for  the  accommodation 
of  its  first  inhabitants,  and  for  the  migration  of 
colonies,  upon  the  increase  of  mankind.  The 
soil  of  the  country  was  very  fruitful,  and  espe- 
cially of  that  part  where  the  patriarch  made 
his  first  descent.  The  country  also  was  very 
high,  though  it  luul   line  plains  and  valleys 


ARA 


81 


ARC 


between  the  mountains.  Such  a  country,  there- 
fore, must,  after  the  flood,  have  been  the  soon- 
est exsiccated,  and,  consequently,  the  soonest 
habitable. 

The  mountain  which  has  still  the  name  of 
Ararat,  has  retained  it  through  all  ages.  Tour- 
nefort  has  particularly  described  it,  and  from 
his  account  it  seems  to  consist  chiefly  of  free- 
stone, or  calcareous  sandstone.  It  is  a  de- 
tached mountain  in  form  of  a  sugar  loaf,  in  the 
midst  of  a  very  extensive  plain,  consisting  of 
two  summits ;  the  lesser,  more  sharp  and  point- 
ed ;  the  higher,  which  is  that  of  the  ark,  lies 
north-west  of  it,  and  raises  its  head  far  above 
the  neighbouring  mountains,  and  is  covered 
with  perpetual  snow.  When  the  air  is  clear, 
it  does  not  appear  to  be  above  two  leagues  from 
Erivan,  and  may  be  seen  at  the  distance  of 
four  or  five  days'  journey.  Its  being  visible  at 
such  a  distance,  however,  is  ascribed  not  so 
much  to  its  height,  as  to  its  lonely  situation, 
in  a  large  plain,  and  upon  the  most  elevated 
part  of  the  country.  The  ascent  is  difficult 
and  fatiguing.  Tournefort  attempted  it ;  and, 
after  a  whole  day's  toil,  he  was  obliged,  by  the 
snow  and  intense  cold,  to  return  without  ac- 
complishing his  design,  though  in  the  middle 
of  summer.  On  the  side  of  the  mountain  that 
looks  toward  Erivan,  is  a  prodigious  precipice, 
very  deep,  with  perpendicular  sides,  and  of  a 
rough,  black  appearance,  as  if  tinged  with 
smoke. 

The  summit  of  Ararat  has  nevor  been  reach- 
ed, though  several  attempts  have  been  made  ; 
and  if  the  ark  rested  on  the  summit,  it  is  certain 
that  those  who  have  spoken  of  its  fragments 
being  seen  there  in  different  ages,  must  have 
been  imposed  upon.  It  is,  however,  not  neces- 
sary to  suppose  that  the  ark  rested  upon  either  of 
its  tops  ;  and  that  spot  would  certainly  be  chosen 
which  would  afford  the  greatest  facility  of  de- 
scent. Sir  Robert  Ker  Porter  is  among  the 
modern  travellers  who  have  given  us  an  ac- 
count of  this  celebrated  mountain  : — "  As  the 
vale  opened  beneath  us  in  our  descent,  my 
whole  attention  became  absorbed  in  the  view 
before  me.  A  vast  plain,  peopled  with  count- 
less villages ;  the  towers  and  spires  of  the 
churches  of  Eitch-mai-adzen,  arising  from 
amidst  them;  the  glittering  waters  of  the  Arax- 
es,  flowing  through  the  fresh  green  of  the  vale  ; 
and  the  subordinate  range  of  mountains,  skirt- 
ing the  base  of  the  awful  monument  of  the 
antediluvian  world.  It  seemed  to  stand  a  stu- 
pendous link  in  the  history  of  man,  uniting  the 
two  races  of  men  before  and  after  the  flood. 
But  it  was  not  until  we  had  arrived  upon  the 
flat  plain,  that  I  beheld  Ararat  in  all  its  ampli- 
tude of  grandeur.  From  the  spot  on  which  I 
stood,  it  appeared  as  if  the  hugest  mountains 
of  the  world  had  been  piled  upon  each  other, 
to  form  this  one  sublime  immensity  of  earth, 
and  rock,  and  snow.  The  icy  peaks  of  its 
double  heads  rose  majestically  into  the  clear 
and  cloudless  heavens;  the  sun  blazed  bright 
upon  them ;  and  the  reflection  sent  forth  a 
dazzling  radiance,  equal  to  other  suns.  This 
point  of  the  view  united  the  utmost  grandeur 
of  plain  and  height.  But  the  feelings  I  expe- 
7 


rienced  while  looking  on  the  mountain,  are 
hardly  to  be  described.  My  eye,  not  able  to 
rest  for  any  length  of  time  upon  the  blinding 
glory  of  its  summits,  wandered  down  the  appa- 
rently interminable  sides,  tiil  I  could  no  longer 
trace  their  vast  lines  in  the  mists  of  the  hori- 
zon ;  when  an  inexpressible  impulse,  immedi- 
ately carrying  my  eye  upward  again,  refixed 
my  gaze  upon  the  awful  glare  of  Ararat ;  and 
this  bewildered  sensibility  of  sight  being  an- 
swered by  a  similar  feeling  in  the  mind,  for 
some  moments  I  was  lost  in  a  strange  suspen- 
sion of  the  powers  of  thought." 

The  separate  peaks  are  called  Great  and 
Little  Ararat,  and  the  space  between  them  is 
about  seven  miles.  "  These  inaccessible  sum- 
mits," continues  Sir  R.  K.  Porter,  "  have  never 
been  trodden  by  the  foot  of  man  since  the  days 
of  Noah,  if  even  then  ;  for  my  idea  is,  that  the 
ark  rested  in  the  space  between  these  heads, 
and  not  on  the  top  of  either.  Various  attempts 
have  been  made  in  different  ages  to  ascetid 
these  tremendous  mountain-pyramids,  but  in 
vain :  their  form,  snows,  and  glaciers,  are  in- 
surmountable obstacles :  the  distance  being  so 
great  from  the  commencement  of  the  icy  region 
to  the  highest  points,  cold  alone  would  be  the 
destruction  of  any  person  who  should  have  the 
hardihood  to  persevere.  On  viewing  mount 
Ararat  from  the  northern  side  of  the  plain,  its 
two  heads  are  separated  by  a  wide  cleft,  or 
rather  glen,  in  the  body  of  the  mountain.  The 
rocky  side  of  the  greater  head  runs  almost 
perpendicularly  down  to  the  north-east,  while 
the  lesser  head  rises  from  the  sloping  bottom  of 
the  cleft,  in  a  perfectly  conical  shape.  Both 
heads  are  covered  with  snow.  The  form  of  the 
greater  is  similar  to  the  less,  only  broader  and 
rounder  at  the  top;  and  shows  to  the  north- 
west a  broken  and  abrupt  front,  opening,  about 
half  way  down,  into  a  stupendous  chasm,  deep, 
rocky,  and  peculiarly  black.  At  that  part  of 
the  mountain,  the  hollow  of  the  chasm  receives 
an  interruption  from  the  projection  of  minor 
mountains,  which  start  from  the  sides  of  Ara- 
rat like  branches  from  the  root  of  a  tree,  and 
run  along,  in  undulating  progression,  till  lost  in 
the  distant  vapours  of  the  plain."  Dr.  Shuck- 
ford  argues  that  the  true  Ararat  lies  among  the 
mountains  of  the  north  of  India ;  but  Mr.  Faber 
has  answered  his  reasoning,  and  proved  by  a 
comparison  of  geographical  notices  incidentally 
mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament,  that  the  Ara- 
rat of  Armenia  is  the  true  Ararat. 

ARCHANGEL,  according  to  some,  means 
an  angel  occupying  the  eighth  rank  in  the 
celestial  order  or  hierarchy ;  but  others  reckon 
it  a  title  only  applicable  to  our  Saviour ;  Jude 
9 ;  Dan.  xii,  1 ;  1  Thess.  iv,  16.  On  this  point 
Bishop  Horsley  has  the  following  observa- 
tions : — "  It  has  been  for  a  long  time  a  fashion 
in  the  church  to  speak  very  frequently  and 
familiarly  of  archangels  as  beings  of  an  order 
with  which  we  are  perfectly  well  acquainted. 
Some  say  there  are  seven  of  them.  Upon  what 
solid  ground  that  assertion  stands,  I  know  not ; 
but  this  I  know,  the  word  '  archangel'  is  not 
to  be  found  in  any  one  passage  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment :  in  the  New  Testament  it  occurs  twice, 


ARC 


82 


ARC 


and  only  twice.  One  of  the  two  passages  is  in 
the  First  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians ;  where 
the  Apostle,  among  the  circumstances  of  the 
pomp  of  our  Lord's  descent  from  heaven  to  the 
final  judgment,  mentions  '  the  voice  of  the  arch- 
angel ;'  the  other  passage  is  in  the  Epistle  of  St. 
Jude,  where  the  title  of  archangel  is  coupled 
with  the  name  of  'Michael  the  archangel.' 
This  passage  is  so  remarkably  obscure  that  I 
shall  not  attempt  to  draw  any  conclusion  from  it 
but  this,  which  manifestly  follows,  be  the  par- 
ticular sense  of  the  passage  what  it  may  :  since 
this  is  one  of  the  two  texts  in  which  alone  the 
w7ord  '  archangel'  is  found  in  the  whole  Bible ; 
since  in  this  one  text  only  the  title  of  archan- 
gel is  coupled  with  any  name ;  and  since  the 
name  with  which  it  is  here  coupled  is  Michael ; 
it  follows  undeniably  that  the  archangel  Mi- 
chael is  the  only  archangel  of  whom  we  know 
any  thing  from  holy  writ.  It  cannot  be  prov- 
ed from  holy  writ,  and,  if  not  from  holy  writ, 
it  cannot  be  proved  at  all,  that  any  archangel 
exists  but  the  one  archangel  Michael,  and  this 
one  archangel  Michael  is  unquestionably  the 
Michael  of  the  book  of  Daniel. 

"  I  must  observe  by  the  way,  with  respect  to 
the  import  of  the  title  of  archangel,  that  the . 
word,  by  etymology,  clearly  implies  a  supe- 
riority of  rank  and  authority  in  the  person  to 
whom  it  is  applied.  It  implies  a  command 
over  angels  ;  and  this  is  all  that  the  word  of 
necessity  implies.  But  it  follows  not,  by  any 
sound  rule  of  argument,  that,  because  no  other 
superiority  than  that  of  rank  and  authority  is 
implied  in  the  title,  no  other  belongs  to  the 
person  distinguished  by  the  title,  and  that  he 
is  in  all  other  respects  a  mere  angel.  Since 
we  admit  various  orders  of  intelligent  beings, 
it  is  evident  that  a  being  highly  above  the  an- 
gelic order  may  command  angels. 

"  To  ascertain,  if  we  can,  to  what  order  of 
beings  the  archangel  Michael  may  belong,  let 
us  see  how  he  is  described  by  the  Prophet 
Daniel,  who  never  mentions  him  by  that  title ; 
and  what  action  is  attributed  to  him  in  the 
book  of  Daniel  and  in  another  book,  in  which 
he  bears  a  principal  part. 

"  Now  Daniel  calls  him  '  one  of  the  chief 
princes,'  or  '  one  of  the  capital  princes,'  or 
'  one  of  the  princes  that  are  at  the  head  of  all :' 
for  this  I  maintain  to  be  the  full  and  not  more 
than  the  full  import  of  the  Hebrew  words.  Now 
we  are  clearly  got  above  the  earth,  into  the 
order  of  celestials,  who  are  the  princes  that  are 
first,  or  at  the  head  of  all  ?  Are  they  any 
other  than  the  three  persons  in  the  Godhead  ? 
Michael,  therefore,  is  one  of  them;  but  which 
of  them  ?  This  is  not  left  in  doubt.  Gabriel, 
speaking  of  him  to  Daniel,  calls  him  '  Michael 
your  prince,'  and  '  the  great  prince  which 
standeth  for  the  children  of  thy  people ;'  that 
is,  not  for  the  nation  of  the  Jews  in  particular, 
but  for  the  children,  the  spiritual  children,  of 
that  holy  seed  the  elect  people  of  God ;  a  de- 
scription which  applies  particularly  to  the  Son 
of  God,  and  to  no  one  else ;  and  in  perfect 
consistence  with  this  description  of  Michael 
in  the  book  of  Daniel,  is  the  action  assigned 
to  him  in  the  Apocalypse,  in  which  we  find 


him  fighting  with  the  old  serpent,  the  deceiver 
of  the  world,  and  victorious  in  the  combat. 
That  combat  who  was  to  maintain  ?  in  that 
combat  who  was  to  be  victorious,  but  the  seed 
of  the  woman  ?  From  all  this  it  is  evident, 
that  Michael  is  a  name  for  our  Lord  himself, 
in  his  particular  character  of  the  champion  of 
his  faithful  people,  against  the  violence  of  the 
apostate  faction  and  the  wiles  of  the  devil." 
To  this  opinion  there  is  nothing  irreconcilable 
in  the  "  voice  of  the  archangel"  mentioned  in 
1  Thess.  iv,  16  :  since  the  "  shout,"  the  "  voice," 
the  "  trump  of  God,"  may  all  be  the  majestic 
summons  of  the  Judge  himSelf.  At  the  same 
time  we  must  feel  that  the  reasoning  of  Bi- 
shop Horsley,  though  ingenious,  is  far  from 
being  conclusive  against  the  existence  of  oue 
or  more  archangels. 

ARCHBISHOP,  a  bishop  of  the  first  class, 
who  superintends  the  conduct  of  other  bishops. 
Archbishops  were  not  known  in  the  east  till 
about  the  year  320;  and  though  there  were 
some  soon  after  this,  who  had  the  title,  yet  it 
was  only  a  personal  honour,  by  which  the 
bishops  of  considerable  cities  were  distinguish- 
ed. It  was  not  till  of  late  that  archbishops 
became  metropolitans,  and  had  suffragans  un- 
der them.  Athanasius  appears  to  have  been 
the  first  who  used  the  title  archbishop,  which 
he  gave  occasionally  to  his  predecessor.  Gre- 
gory Nazianzen,  in  like  manner,  gave  it  to 
Athanasius ;  not  that  either  of  them  was  en- 
titled to  any  jurisdiction,  or  even  any  prece- 
dency, in  virtue  of  this  title.  Among  the 
Latins,  Isidore  Hispalensis  is  the  first  who 
speaks  of  archbishops. 

ARCHELAUS,  son  of  Herod  the  Great,  and 
Maltace,  his  fifth  wife.  Herod  having  put  to 
death  his  sons  Alexander,  Aristobulus,  and 
Antipater,  and  expunged  out  of  his  will  Herod 
Antipas,  whom  he  had  declared  king,  he  sub- 
stituted Archelaus,  and  gave  Antipas  the  title 
of  tetrarch  only.  After  the  death  of  Herod, 
Archelaus  ordered  that  king's  will  to  be  read, 
wherein  he,  Archelaus,  was  declared  king,  on 
condition  that  Augustus  consented.  Hereupon 
the  assembly  cried,  "Long  live  king  Arche- 
laus !"  and  the  soldiers  promised  the  same 
fidelity  to  him  as  they  had  shown  to  his  father. 
Archelaus  buried  his  father  magnificently, 
came  to  Jerusalem,  and  there  mourned  seven 
days,  according  to  custom.  He  then  gave  a 
splendid  entertainment  to  the  people,  went  to 
the  temple,  harangued  the  multitude,  promised 
them  good  treatment,  and  declared  he  would 
not  assume  the  title  of  king  till  the  emperor 
had  confirmed  it,  A.  M.  4001 ;  B.  C.  3.  The 
people,  notwithstanding,  tumultuously  demand- 
ed the  execution  of  those  who  advised  Herod 
to  slay  certain  zealots,  who  had  pulled  down  a 
golden  eagle  from  one  of  the  temple  gates. 
They  also  required  Archelaus  to  divest  Joazar 
of  the  high  priesthood ;  and  they  vehemently 
reproached  the  memory  of  the  late  king.  Ar- 
chelaus sent  troops  to  suppress  the  mutineers, 
and  killed  near  three  thousand  of  them  about 
the  temple.  After  this  he  embarked  at  Cacsa- 
rea  for  Rome,  to  procure  from  Augustus  the 
confirmation    of  Herod's  will.     Antipas,    his 


ARC 


83 


ARI 


brother,  went  to  Rome  likewise,  to  dispute  his 
title,  pretending  that  Herod's  first  will  should 
be  preferred  to  his  last,  which  he  alleged  to 
have  been  made  by  him  when  his  understand- 
ing was  not  sound. 

The  two  brothers,  Archelaus  and  Antipas, 
procured  able  orators  to  display  their  preten- 
sions before  the  emperor;  and  when  they  had 
done  speaking,  Archelaus  threw  himself  at 
Augustus's  feet.  Augustus  gently  raised  him, 
said  he  would  do  nothing  contrary  to  Herod's 
intention  or  his  interest,  but  refused  to  decide 
the  affair  at  that  time.  Some  time  afterward, 
the  Jews  sent  a  solemn  embassy  to  Rome,  to 
desire  Augustus  would  permit  them  to  live  ac- 
cording to  their  own  laws,  and  on  the  footing 
of  a  Roman  province,  without  being  subject  to 
kings  of  Herod's  family,  but  only  -to  the  go- 
vernors of  Syria.  Augustus  heard  them,  and 
likewise  heard  Archelaus  in  reply ;  then  broke 
up  the  assembly  without  declaring  himself. 
After  some  days,  he  sent  for  Archelaus,  gave 
him  the  title,  not  of  king,  but  of  ethnarch,  with 
one  moiety  of  the  territories  which  his  father 
Herod  had  enjoyed ;  promising  him  the  crown 
likewise,  if  his  good  conduct  deserved  it.  Ar- 
chelaus returned  to  Judea,  and,  under  pretence 
that  he  had  countenanced  the  seditious  against 
him,  he  deprived  .Toazar  of  the  high  priesthood, 
and  gave  that  dignity  to  his  brother  Eleazar. 
He  governed  Judea  with  so  much  violence, 
that,  after  seven  years,  the  chiefs  of  the  Sama- 
ritans and  Jews  accused  him  before  Augustus. 
The  emperor  immediately  sent  for  his  agent  at 
Rome,  and  without  condescending  to  write  to 
Archelaus  he  commanded  the  agent  to  depart 
instantly  for  Judea,  and  order  Archelaus  to 
Rome,  to  give  an  account  of  his  conduct.  On 
his  arrival  at  Rome,  the  emperor  called  for  his 
accusers,  and  permitted  him  to  defend  himself; 
which  he  did  so  insufficiently,  that  Augustus 
banished  him  to  Vienne,  in  Gaul,  where  he 
continued  in  exile  to  the  end  of  his  life.  See 
Antipas. 

ARCHI-SYNAGOGUS,  the  ruler  of  a  syna- 
gogue.    See  Synagogue. 

ARCHITRICLINUS,  if>XiT9U\tvos,  generally 
translated  steward,  signifies  rather  the  master 
or  superintendent  of  the  feast ;  "one,"  says 
Gaudentius,  "who  is  the  husband's  friend,  and 
commissioned  to  conduct  the  order  and  econo- 
my of  the  feast."  He  gave  directions  to  the 
servants,  superintended  everything,  command- 
ed the  tables  to  be  covered,  or  to  be  cleared  of 
the  dishes,  as  he  thought  proper:  whence  his 
name,  as  regulator  of  the.  triclinium,  or  festive 
board.  He  also  tasted  the  wine,  and  distribut- 
ed it  to  the  guests.  The  author  of  Ecclesias- 
ticus  thus  describes  this  office,  xxxii,  1,  2:  "If 
thou  be  made  the  master  of  a  feast,  lift  not 
thyself  up,  but  be  among  them  as  one  of  the 
rest :  take  diligent  care  of  them,  and  so  sit 
down.  And  when  thou  hast  done  all  thy  office, 
take  thy  place,  that  thou  mayest  be  merry  with 
them,  and  receive  a  crown  for  the  well  order- 
ing of  the  feast."  This  office  is  mentioned, 
John  ii,  8,  9,  upon  which  Theophylact  re- 
marks :  "  That  no  one  might  suspect  that  their 
taste  was  vitiated  by  having  drunk  to  excess, 


so  as  not  to  know  water  from  wine,  our  Sa- 
viour orders  it  to  be  first  carried  to  the  govern- 
or of  the  feast,  who  certainly  was  sober ;  for 
those  who  on  such  occasions  are  intrusted  with 
this  office,  observe  the  strictest  sobriety,  that 
they  may  be  able  properly  to  regulate  the 
whole." 

AREOPAGUS,  the  high  court  at  Athens, 
famed  for  the  justice  of  its  decisions ;  and  so 
called,  because  it  sat  on  a  hill  of  the  same 
name,  or  in  the  suburbs  of  the  city,  dedicated 
to  Mars,  the  god  of  war,  as  the  city  was  to 
Minerva,  his  sister.  St.  Paul,  Acts  xvii,  19, 
&c,  having  preached  at  Athens,  was  carried 
before  the  Areopagites,  as  "a  setter  forth  of 
strange  gods."  On  this  occasion  he  delivered 
that  fine  sermon  which  is  in  substance  record- 
ed in  Acts  xvii.  Dionysius,  one  of  the  judges, 
was  converted;  and  the  Apostle  was  dismissed 
without  any  farther  trouble. 

ARGOB,  a  canton  lying  beyond  Jordan,  in 
the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh,  and  in  the  country 
of  Bashan,  one  of  the  most  fruitful  on  the 
other  side  of  Jordan.  In  the  region  of  Argob 
there  were  sixty  cities,  called  Bashan-havoth- 
Jair,  which  had  very  high  walls  and  strong 
gates,  without  reckoning  many  villages  and 
hamlets,  which  were  not  inclosed,  Deut.  hi, 
4-14;  1  Kings  iv,  13.  But  Argob  was  more 
peculiarly  the  name  of  the  capital  city  of  the 
region  of  Argob,  which  Eusebius  says  was  fif- 
teen miles  west  of  Gerara. 

ARIANS,  this  ancient  sect,  was  unquestion- 
ably so  called  from  Arius,  a  presbyter  of  Alex- 
andria, in  the  early  part  of  the  fourth  century.  It 
is  said  that  he  aspired  to  episcopal  honours ; 
and  after  the  death  of  Achilles,  in  A.  D.  313, 
felt  not  a  little  chagrined  that  Alexander 
should  be  preferred  before  him.  Whether  this 
circumstance  had  any  influence  on  his  opinions, 
it  is  impossible  to  say ;  but  on/3  day,  when  his 
rival  (Alexander)  had  been  addressing  the 
clergy  in  favour  of  the  orthodox  doctrine,  and 
maintaining,  in  strong  and  pointed  language, 
"that  the  Son  of  God  was  co-eternal,  co-essen- 
tial, and  co-equal  with  the  Father,"  Arius  con- 
sidered this  as  a  species  of  Sabellianism,  and 
ventured  to  say,  that  it  was  inconsistent  and 
impossible,  since  the  Father,  who  begat,  must 
be  before  the  Son,  who  was  begotten :  the  lat- 
ter, therefore,  could  not  be  absolutely  eternal. 
Alexander  at  first  admonished  Arius,  and  en- 
deavoured to  convince  him  of  his  error ;  but 
without  effect,  except  that  lie  became  the  more 
bold  in  contradiction.  Some  of  the  clergy 
thought  their  bishop  too  forbearing,  and  it  is 
possible  he  felt  his  inferiority  of  talent;  for 
Arius  was  a  man  of  accomplished  learning, 
and  commanding  eloquence;  venerable  in  per- 
son, and  fascinating  in  address.  At  length 
Alexander  was  roused,  and  attempted  to  silence 
Arius  by  his  authority ;  but  this  not  succeed- 
ing, as  the  latter  was  bold  and  pertinacious, 
Alexander,  about  the  year  320,  called  a  coun- 
cil of  his  clergy,  by  whom  the  reputed  heretic 
was  deposed  and  excommunicated.  Arius  now 
retired  into  Palestine,  where  his  talents  and 
address  soon  made  a  number  of  converts ;  and 
among  the  rest,  the  celebrated  Eusebius,  bishop 


ARI 


84 


ARI 


of  Nicomedia,  and  other  bishops  and  clergy  of 
those  parts,  who  assembled  in  council,  and  re- 
ceived the  excommunicated  presbyter  into 
their  communion.  Eusebius  also,  having  great 
interest  with  Constantia,  the  sister  of  Constan- 
tine,  and  wife  of  Licinius,  recommended  Arius 
to  her  protection  and  patronage ;  through 
which,  and  by  his  own  eloquent  letters  to  the 
clergy  in  various  parts,  his  system  spread  with 
great  rapidity,  and  to  a  vast  extent.  The  em- 
peror Constantine,  who  had  no  great  skill  in 
these  matters,  was  grieved  to  see  the  Christian 
church  (but  just  escaped  from  the  red  dragon 
of  persecution)  thus  torn  by  intestine  animosi- 
ty and  dissensions ;  he  therefore  determined  to 
summon  a  general  council  of  the  clergy,  which 
met  at  Nice,  A.  D.  325,  and  contained  more 
than  300  bishops.  Constantine  attended  in 
person,  and  strongly  recommended  peace  and 
unanimity.  Athanasius  was  the  chief  oppo- 
nent of  the  Arians.  Both  parties  were  willing 
to  subscribe  to  the  language  of  the  Scriptures, 
but  each  insisted  on  interpreting  for  them- 
selves. "  Did  the  Trinitarians,"  says  Mr. 
Milner,  "assert  that  Christ  was  God?  The 
Arians  allowed  it,  but  in  the  same  sense  as 
holy  men  and  angels,  are  styled  gods  in  Scrip- 
ture. Did  they  affirm  that  .he  was  truly  God  ? 
The  others  allowed  that  he  was  made  so  by 
God.  Did  they  affirm  that  the  Son  was  natu- 
rally of  God  ?  It  was  granted :  Even  we,  said 
they,  are  of  God,  '  of  whom  are  all  things.' " 
At  length  the  Athanasians  collected  a  number 
of  texts,  which  they  conceived  amounted  to 
full  proof  of  the  Son  being  of  one  and  the  xumc 
substance  with  the  Father ;  the  Arians  admit- 
ted he  was  of  like  substance,  the  difference  in 
the  Greek  phrases  being  only  in  a  single  let- 
ter,— bjioovuios,  homoottsios,  and  bpowvows,  homoi- 
ousios.  At  length  the  former  was  decreed  to 
be  the  orthodox  faith,  and  the  Nicene  creed 
was  framed  as  it  remains  at  this  day  so  far  as 
concerns  the  person  of  the  Son  of  God,  who  is 
said  to  be  "  begotten  of  his  Father  before  all 
worlds ;  God  of  God,  Light  of  Light,  very  God 
of  very  God,  begotten,  not  made,  of  one  sub- 
stance with  the  Father,  by  whom  all  things 
were  made,"  &c. 

Arius  was  now  excommunicated.  The  sen- 
tence of  the  council  pronounced  against  him 
and  his  associates  was  followed  by  another  of 
the  emperor,  wherebythe  excommunicated  per- 
sons were  condemned  to  banishment,  that  they 
might  be  debarred  the  society  of  their  country- 
men whom  the  church  had  judged  unworthy  to 
remain  in  her  communion.  Soon  after  which, 
Eusebius  of  Nicomedia,  and  Theognis  of  Nice, 
being  found  to  continue  their  countenance  and 
protection  to  the  Arian  cause,  to  communicate 
with  those  whom  they  had  anathematized,  and 
to  concur  in  those  sentiments  which  they  had 
condemned  by  their  subscriptions  ;  they  were 
both  subjected  to  the  same  penalty  of  exile  by 
the  emperor,  and  were  actually  deposed,  (as  we 
learn  from  Athanasius,)  and  had  successors  or- 
dained to  their  sees,  though  history  is  silent  as 
to  the  council  by  which  this  was  done.  But 
such  was  the  good  nature  and  credulity  of  Con- 
stantine, that  these  men,  by  their  usual  artifices, 


easily  imposed  upon  him,  and  brought  hjm  to 
such  a  full  persuasion  of  their  agreement  with 
the  Nicene  faith,  that  in  about  three  years'  time 
they  were  not  only  recalled  from  banishment, 
but  restored  to  their  sees,  and  to  a  considerable 
degree  of  interest  at  court.  Their  thorough 
attachment  to  the  cause  of  Arius,  and  their 
hatred  of  Athanasius,  who  had  so  vigorously 
withstood  them  in  the  council,  and  was  now 
advanced  to  the  see  of  Alexandria,  made  them 
watchful  of  every  opportunity  to  defeat  the  de- 
cisions of  the  council. 

In  the  meantime  one  who  wished  well  to 
their  designs,  and  whom  Constantia  had  upon 
her  death  bed  recommended  to  the  emperor,  did 
so  far  prevail  upon  the  easy  credulity  of  Con- 
stantine, by  complaining  that  Arius  had  been 
misrepresented,  and  differed  nothing  in  his  sen- 
timents from  the  Nicene  fathers,  that  the  indul- 
gent emperor  recalled  him  from  his  banishment, 
and  required  him  to  exhibit  in  writing,  a  con- 
fession of  his  faith.  He  did  this  in  such  terms 
as,  though  they  admitted  of  a  latent  reservation, 
yet  bore  the  appearance  of  being  entirely  catho- 
lic ;  and  therefore  not  only  gave  satisfaction  to 
the  emperor,  but  even  offended  some  of  his  own 
followers,  who  from  that  time  forth  separated 
from  him.  The  discerning  Athanasius  was  not 
so  easily  imposed  upon  as  Constantine ;  but, 
well  assured  of  the  heretic's  prevarication,  v^s 
resolute  in  refusing  to  admit  him  to  commu- 
nion, whom  the  Nicene  council  had  so  openly 
condemned.  Upon  this  the  emperor  sent  for 
Arius  to  Constantinople,  and  insisted  upon  his 
being  received  into  communion,  by  Alexander, 
bishop  of  that  city.  However,  on  the  day  be- 
fore tb  is  was  to  have  taken  place,  Arius  died  sud- 
denly from  a  complaint  in  his  bowels.  Some 
attributed  this  to  poison ;  others  to  the  judg- 
ment of  God.  The  emperor  did  not  long  sur- 
vive ;  and  Constantius,  his  successor,  became 
warmly  attached  to  the  Arian  cause,  as  were 
all  the  court  party.  Successive  emperors  took 
different  sides,  and  thus  was  the  peace  of  the 
church  agitated  for  many  years,  and  practical 
religion  sacrificed  alternately  to  the  dogmas  or 
the  interests  of  one  party  or  the  other ;  and  each 
was  in  turn  excommunicated,  fined,  imprisoned, 
or  banished.  Constantius  supported  Arianism 
triumphantly.  Julian  laughed  at  both  parties, 
but  persecuted  neither.  Jovian  supported  the 
Nicene  doctrine.  Valentinian,  and  his  brother 
Valens,  took  contrary  sides ;  the  former  sup- 
porting Athanasianism  in  the  west,  and  the 
latter  Arianism  in  the  east ;  so  that  what  was 
orthodoxy  at  Rome  was  heresy  at  Constantino- 
ple, and  vice  versa.  The  Arians  themselves  were 
not  unanimous,  but  divided  into  various  shades 
of  sentiment,  under  their  respective  leaders  ;  as 
Eusebians,  Eudoxians,  Acasians,  Aetians,  &c; 
but  the  more  general  distinction  was  into  Ari- 
ans and  Semi-Arians  :  the  former  sinking  the 
character  of  the  Son  of  God  into  that  of  a  mere 
creature,  while  the  latter  admitted  every  thing 
but  the  ho7iioousian  doctrine,  or  his  absolute 
equality  with  the  Father.  After  this  period  we 
hear  little  of  Arianism,  till  it  was  revived  in 
England  in  the  beginning  of  the  last  century  by 
the  eccentric  Mr  Winston,  by  Mr.  Emlyn,  and 


ARK 


85 


ARK 


Dr.  Samuel  Clarke.  The  latter  was  what  may- 
be called  a  high  or  Semi-Arian,  who  came  with- 
in a  shade  of  orthodoxy ;  the  two  former  were 
low  Arians,  reducing  the  rank  of  our  Saviour 
to  the  scale  of  angelic  beings — a  creature  "made 
out  of  nothing."  Since  this  time,  however,  both 
Arians  and  Socinians  are  sunk  into  the  com- 
mon appellation  of  Unitarians,  or  rather  Hu- 
manitarians, who  believe  our  Saviour  (as  Dr. 
Priestley  expresses  it)  to  be  "  a  man  like  them- 
selves." The  last  advocates  of  the  pure  Arian 
doctrine,  of  any  celebrity,  were  Mr.  Henry  Tay- 
lor, (under  the  signature  of  Ben  Mordecai,)  and 
Dr.  Richard  Price,"  in  his  "  Sermons  on  the 
Christian  Doctrine."  It  may  be  proper  to  ob- 
serve, that  the  Arians,  though  they  denied  the 
absolute  eternity  of 'the  Son,  strongly  contended 
for  his  preexistence,  as  the  Logos,  or  the  Word 
of  God,  "by  whom  the  worlds  were  made  ;"  and 
admitted,  more  or  less  explicitly,  the  sacrifice 
which  he  offered  for  sin  upon  the  cross. 

ARIEL,  the  capital  city  of  Moab,  frequently 
mentioned  in  Scripture,  Ezraviii,  16.  See  Moab. 

ARIMATHEA,  or  RAMAH,  now  called 
Ramie,  or  Ramla,  a  pleasant  town,  beautifully 
situated  on  the  borders  of  a  fertile  and  exten- 
sive plain,  abounding  in  gardens,  vineyards, 
olive  and  date  trees.  It  stands  about  thirty 
miles  north-west  of  Jerusalem,  on  the  high  road 
to  Jaffa.  At  this  Rama,  which  was  likewise 
called  Ramathaim  Zophim,  as  lying  in  the  dis- 
trict of  Zuph,  or  Zoph,  Samuel  was  born, 
1  Sam.  i.  This  was  likewise  the  native  place 
of  Joseph,  called  Joseph  of  Arimathea,  who 
begged  and  obtained  the  body  of  Jesus  from 
Pilate,  Matt,  xxvi,  57.  There  was  another 
Ramah,  about  six  miles  north  of  Jerusalem,  in 
a  pass  which  separated  the  kingdoms  of  Israel 
and  Judah,  which  Baasha,  king  of  Israel,  took 
and  began  to  fortify ;  but  he  was  obliged  to  re- 
linquish it,  in  consequence  of  the  alliance  form- 
ed between  Asa,  king  of  Judah,  and  Benhadad, 
king  of  Syria,  1  Kings  xv.  This  is  the  Ramah, 
supposed  to  be  alluded  to  in  the  lamentation  of 
Rachel  for  her  children. 

ARISTARCHUS,  spoken  of  by  St.  Paul  in 
his  Epistle  to  the  Colossians,  iv,  10,  and  often 
mentioned  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  He 
was  a  Macedonian,  and  a  native  of  Thessalo- 
nica.  He  accompanied  St.  Paul  to  Ephesus, 
and  there  continued  with  him  during  the  two 
years  of  his  abode  in  that  place,  sharing  with 
him  in  all  the  dangers  and  labours  of  the  minis- 
try, Acts  xix,  29 ;  xx,  4 ;  xxvii,  2.  He  was  near 
losing  his  life  in  a  tumult  raised  by  the  Ephe- 
sian  silversmiths.  He  left  Ephesus  with  the 
Apostle,  and  went  with  him  into  Greece.  From 
thence  he  attended  him  into  Asia ;  from  Asia 
into  Judea,  and  from  Judea  to  Rome. 

ARK,  area,  denotes  a  kind  of  floating  vessel 
built  by  Noah,  for  the  preservation  of  himself 
and  family,  with  several  species  of  animals 
during  the  deluge.  The  Hebrew  word  by  which 
the  ark  is  expressed,  is  nan  or  n^n,  the  con- 
structive form  of  nan,  which  is  evidently  the 
Greek  Sifa ;  and  so  the  LXX  render  the  word  in 
Exod.  ii,  3,  where  only  it  again  occurs.  They 
also  render  it  Kt6u>Tbv ;  Josephus,  \apvdica  ;  and 
the  Vulgate,  arcam;  signifying  an  ark,  coffer, 


or  chest.  Although  the  ark  of  Noah  answered, 
in  some  respects,  the  purpose  of  a  ship,  it  is 
not  so  certain  that  it  was  of  the  same  form  and 
shape.  It  has  been  inconclusively  argued  by 
Michaelis  and  some  others,  that  if  its  form  had 
not  been  like  that  of  a  ship,  it  could  not  have 
resisted  the  force  of  the  waves  ;  because  it  was 
not  intended  to  be  conducted,  like  a  ship,  from 
one  place  to  another,  but  merely  "to  float  on 
the  surface  of  the  waters,"  Gen.  vii,  17.  It 
appears  to  have  had  neither  helm,  nor  mast, 
nor  oars;  but  was  merely  a  bulky  capacious 
vessel,  light  enough  to  be  raised  aloft  with  all 
its  contents,  by  the  gradual  rise  of  the  deluge. 
Its  shape,  therefore,  was  of  little  importance  ; 
more  especially  as  it  seems  to  have  been  the 
purpose  of  Providence,  in  this  whole  transac- 
tion, to  signify  to  those  who  were  saved,  as  well 
as  to  their  latest  posterity,  that  their  preservation 
was  not  in  any  degree  effected  by  human  con- 
trivance. The  ark  in  which  Moses  was  expos- 
ed bears  the  same  name ;  and  some  have  thought 
that  both  were  of  the  same  materials.  With 
respect  to  the  etymology  of  the  Hebrew  word, 
the  most  rational  seems  to  be  that  of  Clodius, 
who  derives  it  from  the  Arabic  word  a«n,  "  he 
collected,"  from  which  is  formed  nan,  or  n^n, 
denoting  a  place  in  which  things  are  collected. 
Foster  deduces  it  from  two  Egyptian  words, 
t hoi,  "  a  ship,"  and  bai,  "  a  palm  tree  branch ;" 
and  such  ships  are  still  to  be  seen  not  only  in 
Egypt,  but  in  India  and  other  countries ;  par- 
ticularly in  some  isles  of  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

To  the  insufficiency  of  the  ark  to  contain  all 
the  creatures  said  to  have  been  brought  into  it, 
objections  have,  at  different  times,  been  made. 
Bishop  Wilkins  and  others  have  learnedly  dis- 
cussed this  subject,  and  afforded  the  most  satis- 
factory answers.  Dr.  Hales  proves  the  ark  to 
have  been  of  the  burden  of  forty-two  thousand 
four  hundred  and  thirteen  tons ;  and  asks, 
"  Can  we  doubt  of  its  being  sufficient  to  contain 
eight  persons,  and  about  two  hundred  or  two 
hundred  and  fifty  pair  of  four-footed  animals,  (a 
number  to  which,  according  to  M.  Buffon,  all 
the  various  distinct  species  may  be  reduced,) 
together  with  all  the  subsistence  necessary  for 
a  twelvemonth,  with  the  fowls  of  the  air,  and 
such  reptiles  and  insects  as  cannot  live  under 
water  ?"  All  these  various  animals  were  con- 
trolled by  the  power  of  God,  whose  special  agen- 
cy is  supposed  in  the  whole  transaction,  and 
"the  lion  was  made  to  lie  down  with  the  kid." 

Whether  Noah  was  commanded  to  bring  with 
him,  into  the  ark,  a  pair  of  all  living  creatures, 
zoologically  and  numerically  considered,  has 
been  doubted.  During  the  long  period  between 
the  creation  and  the  flood,  animals  must  have 
spread  themselves  over  a  great  part  of  the  an- 
tediluvian earth,  and  certain  animals  would,  as 
now,  probably  become  indigenous  to  certain 
climates.  The  pairs  saved  must  therefore,  if 
all  the  kinds  were  included,  have  travelled  from 
immense  distances.  But  of  such  marches  no 
intimation  is  given  in  the  history ;  and  this 
seems  to  render  it  probable  that  the  animals 
which  Noah  was  "<o  bring  with  him"  into  the 
ark,  were  the  animals  clean  and  unclean  of  the 
country  in  which  he  dwelt,  and  which,  from 


ARK 


86 


ARK 


the  capacity  of  tho  ark,  must  have  been  in  great 
variety  and  number.  The  terms  used,  it  is  true, 
are  universal ;  and  it  is  satisfactory  to  know, 
that  if  taken  in  the  largest  sense  there  was 
ample  accommodation  in  the  ark.  Neverthe- 
less, universal  terms  in  Scripture  are  not  always 
to  be  taken  mathematically,  and  in  the  vision 

of  Peter,  the  phrase  TZavra  Tii  TCTpdizoSa  Tiis  yrjs, — 
all  thh  four-footed  beasts  of  the  earth,  must  be 
understood  of  varii  generis  quadrnpedes,  as 
Schleusner  paraphrases  it.  Thus  we  may  easily 
account  for  the  exuvise  of  animals,  whose  spe- 
cies no  longer  exist,  which  have  been  discover- 
ed in  various  places.  The  number  of  such 
extinct  species  probably  has  been  greatly  over- 
rated by  Cuvier;  but  of  the  fact,  to  a  consider- 
able extent,  there  can  be  no  doubt.  It  is  also 
to  be  observed  that  the  presumptive  evidence 
of  the  truth  of  the  fact  of  the  preparation  of 
such  a  vessel,  and  of  the  supernatural  circum- 
stances which  attended  it,  is  exceedingly  strong. 
It  is,  in  truth,  the  only  solution  of  a  difficulty 
which  has  no  other  explanation  ;  for  as  a  uni- 
versal deluge  is  confirmed  by  the  general  his- 
tory of  the  world,  and  by  a  variety  of  existing 
facts  and  monuments,  such  a-  structure  as  the 
ark,  for  the  preservation  and  sustenance  of 
various  animals,  seems  to  have  been  absolutely 
necessary ;  for  as  we  can  trace  up  the  first  im- 
perfect rudiments  of  the  art  of  ship  building 
among  the  Greeks,  there  could  be  no  ships  be- 
fore the  flood ;  and,  consequently,  no  animals 
could  have  been  saved.  Nay,  it  is  highly  im- 
probable that  even  men  and  domestic  animals 
could  be  saved,  not  to  mention  wild  beasts, 
serpents,  &c,  though  we  should  admit  that  the 
antediluvians  had  shipping,  unless  we  should 
suppose,  also,  that  they  had  a  divine  intimation 
respecting  the  flood,  such  as  Moses  relates  ;  but 
this  would  be  to  give  up  the  cause  of  infidelity. 
Mr.  Bryant  has  collected  a  variety  of  ancient 
historical  relations,  which  show  that  some  re- 
cords concerning  the  ark  had  been  preserved 
among  most  nations  of  the  world,  and  in  the 
general  system  of  Gentile  mythology.  Abyde- 
nus,  with  whom  all  the  eastern  writers  concur, 
informs  us  that  the  place  of  descent  from  the 
ark  was  Armenia ;  and  that  its  remains  had 
been  preserved  for  a  long  time.  Plutarch  men- 
tions the  Noachic  dove,  and  its  being  sent  out 
of  the  ark.  Lucian  speaks  of  Deucalion's  going 
forth  from  the  ark,  and  raising  an  altar  to  God. 
The  priests  of  Ammonia  had  a  custom,  at  par- 
ticular seasons,  of  carrying  in  procession  a 
boat,  in  which  was  an  oracular  shrine,  held  in 
great  veneration  :  and  this  custom  of  carrying 
the  deity  in  an  ark  or  boat  was  in  use  also 
among  the  Egyptians.  Bishop  Pococke  has 
preserved  three  specimens  of  ancient  sculpture, 
in  which  this  ceremony  is  displayed.  They 
were  very  ancient,  and  found  by  him  in  Upper 
Egypt.  The  ship  of  Isis  referred  to  the  ark, 
and  its  name,  '•■  Baris,"  was  that  of  the  mount- 
ain corresponding  to  Ararat  in  Armenia.  Bry- 
ant finds  reference  to  the  ark  in  the  temples  of 
the  serpent  worship,  called  Dracontia;  and  also 
in  that  of  Sesostris,  fashioned  after  the  model 
of  the  ark,  in  commemoration  of  which  it  was 
built,  and  consecrated  to  Osiris  at  Theba. ;  and 


he  conjectures  that  the  city,  said  to  be  one  of 
the  most  ancient  in  Egypt,  as  well  as  the  pro- 
vince, was  denominated  from  it,  Theba  being 
the  appellation  of  the  ark.  In  other  countries, 
as  well  as  in  Egypt,  an  ark,  or  ship,  was  intro 
duced  in  their  mysteries,  and  often  carried  about 
in  the  seasons  of  their  festivals.  He  finds,  also, 
in  the  story  of  the  Argonauts  several  particulars, 
that  are  thought  to  refer  to  the  ark  of  Noah. 
As  many  cities,  not  in  Egypt  only  and  Baeotia, 
but  in  Cilicia,  Ionia,  Attica,  Phthiotis,  Cata- 
onia,  Syria,  and  Italy,  were  called  Theba  ;  so 
likewise  the  city  Apamea  was  denominated 
Cibotus,  from  KtSutros,  in  memory  of  the  ark,  and 
of  the  history  connected  with  it.  The  ark,  ac- 
cording to  the  traditions  of  the  Gentile  world, 
was  prophetic ;  and  was  regarded  as  a  kind  of 
temple  or  residence  of  the  deity.  It  compre- 
hended all  mankind,  within  the  circle  of  eight 
persons,  who  were  thought  to  be  so  highly 
favoured  of  Heaven  that  they  at  last  were  re- 
puted to  be  deities.  Hence  in  the  ancient  my- 
thology of  Egypt,  there  were  precisely  eight 
gods ;  and  the  ark  was  esteemed  an  emblem  of 
the  system  of  the  heavens.  The  principal  terms 
by  which  the  ancients  distinguished  the  ark  were 
Theba,  Baris,  Arguz,  Aren,  Arene,  Ami,  Laris, 
Boutas,  Bceotus,  and  Cibotus  ;  and  out  of  these 
they  formed  different  personages.  See  Deluge. 
ARK  OF  THE  COVENANT,  a  small  chest 
or  coffer,  three  feet  nine  inches  in  length,  two 
feet  three  inches  in  breadth,  and  two  feet  three 
inches  in  height ;  in  which  were  contained  the 
golden  pot  that  had  manna,  Aaron's  rod,  and 
the  tables  of  the  covenant,  Num.  xvii,  10  ;  Heb. 
ix,  4.  This  coffer  was  made  of  shittim  wood, 
and  was  covered  with  a  lid,  called  the  mercy 
seat,  Exod.  xxv,  17-22,  &c,  which  was  of  solid 
gold,  at  the  two  ends  whereof  were  two  figures, 
called  cherubim,  looking  toward  each  other, 
with  expanded  wings,  which,  embracing  the 
whole  circumference  of  the  mercy  seat,  met  in 
the  middle.  The  whole,  according  to  the  rab- 
bins, was  made  out  of  the  same  mass,  without 
any  of  the  parts  being  joined  by  solder.  Over 
this  it  was  that  the  Shechinah,  or  visible  dis- 
play of  the  divine  presence  in  a  luminous  cloud 
rested,  both  in  the  tabernacle  and  in  the  tem- 
ple, Lev.  xvi,  2 ;  and  from  hence  the  divine 
oracles  were  given  forth  by  an  audible  voice, 
as  often  as  God  was  consulted  in  behalf  of  his 
people.  Hence  it  is  that  God  is  said  in  Scrip- 
ture to  dwell  between  the  cherubim,  on  the 
mercy  seat,  because  there  was  the  seat  or 
throne  of  the  visible  appearance  of  his  glory 
among  them,  2  Kings  xix,  15.;  1  Chron,  xiii,  6; 
Psalm  lxxx,  1,  &c  ;  and  for  this  reason  the 
high  priest  appeared  before  the  mercy  seat  once 
every  year,  on  the  great  day  of  expiation,  at 
which  time  he  was  to  make  his  nearest  ap- 
proach to  the  divine  presence,  to  mediate  and 
make  atonement  for  the  whole  people  of  Israel. 
On  the  two  sides  of  the  ark  there  were  four 
rings  of  gold,  two  on  each  side,  through  which 
staves,  overlaid  with  gold,  were  put,  by  means 
whereof  they  carried  it  as  they  marched  through 
the  wilderness,  &c,  on  the  shoulders  of  the 
Levites,  Exod.  xxv,  13, 14;  xxvii,  5.  After  the 
passage  of  the  Jordan,  the  ark  continued  for 


ARK 


S7 


ARM 


some  time  at  Gilgal,  from  whence  it  was  re- 
moved to  Shiloh.  From  this  place  the  Israel- 
ites carried  it  to  their  camp,  where,  in '  an 
engagement  with  the  Philistines,  it  fell  into 
their  hands.  The  Philistines,  having  gotten  pos- 
session of  the  ark,  carried  it  in  triumph  to  one 
of  their  principal  cities,  named  Ashdod,  and 
placed  it  in  the  temple  of  Dagon,  whose  image 
fell  to  the  ground  and  was  broken.  The  Phi- 
listines also  were  so  afflicted  with  emerods,  that 
they  afterward  returned  the  ark  with  various 
presents;  and  it  was  lodged  at  Kirjath-Jearim, 
and  afterward  at  Nob.  David  conveyed  it  to 
the  house  of  Obededom,  and  from  thence  to 
his  palace  at  Zion ;  and  lastly,  Solomon  brought 
it  into  the  temple  which  he  had  built  at  Jeru- 
salem. It  remained  in  the  temple  till  the  times 
of  the  last  kings  of  Judah,  who  gave  themselves 
up  to  idolatry,  and  even  dared  to  place  their 
idols  in  the  holy  temple  itself.  The  priests, 
being  unable  to  bear  this  profanation,  took  the 
ark  and  carried  it  from  place  to  place,  to  pre- 
serve it  from  the  hands  of  those  impious  princes. 
Josiah  commanded  them  to  bring  it  back  to  the 
sanctuary,  and  it  was  accordingly  replaced, 
2  Chron.  xxxv,  3.  What  became  of  the  ark 
at  the  destruction  of  the  temple  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, is  a  dispute  among  the  rabbins.  Had 
it  been  carried  to  Babylon  with  the  other  ves- 
sels of  the  temple,  it  would,  in  all  probability, 
have  been  brought  back  with  them  at  the  close 
of  the  captivity.  But  that  this  was  not  the 
case,  is  agreed  on  all  hands;  whence  it  is  pro- 
bable that  it  was  destroyed  with  the  temple. 

The  ark  of  the  covenant  was,  as  it  were,  the 
centre  of  worship  to  all  those  of  the  Hebrew 
nation  who  served  God  according  to  the  Le- 
vitical  law;  and  not  only  in  the  temple,  when 
they  came  thither  to  worship,  but  every  where 
else  in  their  dispersions  through  the  whole 
world;  whenever  they  prayed,  they  turned  their 
faces  toward  the  place  where  the  ark  stood, 
and  directed  all  their  devotions  that  way,  Dan. 
vi,  10.  Whence  the  author  of  the  book  of 
Cosri,  justly  says,  that  the  ark,  with  the  mercy 
seat  and  cherubim,  were  the  foundation,  root, 
heart,  and  marrow  of  the  whole  temple,  and 
all  the  Levitical  worship  performed  therein ; 
and,  therefore,  had  there  been  nothing  else 
wanting  in  the  second  temple  but  the  ark  only, 
this  alone  would  have  been  a  sufficient  reason 
for  the  old  men  to  have  wept  when  they  re- 
membered the  first  temple  in  which  it  stood ; 
and  for  the  saying  of  Haggai,  ii,  3,  that  the 
second  temple  was  as  nothing  compared  with 
the  first ;  so  great  a  share  had  the  ark  of  the 
covenant  in  the  glory  of  Solomon's  temple. 
However,  the  defect  was  supplied  as  to  the  out- 
ward form,  for  in  the  second  temple  there  was 
also  an  ark  of  the  same  dimensions  with  the 
first,  and  put  in  the  same  place ;  but  it  wanted 
the  tables  of  the  law,  Aaron's  rod,  and  the  pot 
of  manna ;  nor  was  there  any  appearance  of 
the  divine  glory  over  it ;  nor  any  oracles  de- 
livered from  it.  The  only  use  that  was  made 
of  it  was  to  be  a  representation  of  the  former 
on  the  great  day  of  expiation,  and  to  be  a  re- 
pository of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  that  is,  of  the 
original  copy  of  that  collection  of  them  made 


by  Ezra  after  the  captivity ;  in  imitation  of 
which  the  Jews,  in  all  their  synagogues,  have 
a  like  ark  or  coffer  in  which  they  keep  their 
Scriptures. 

For  the  temple  of  Solomon  a  new  ark  was 
not  made  ;  but  he  constructed  cherubim  in  the 
most  holy  place,  which  were  designed  to  give 
additional  state  to  this  most  sacred  symbol  of 
God's  grace  and  mercy.  These  cherubim  were 
fifteen  feet  high,  and  were  placed  at  equal  dis- 
tance from  the  centre  of  the  ark  and  from  each 
side  of  the  wall,  so  that  their  wings  being  ex- 
panded, the  two  wings  which  were  extended 
behind  touched  the  wall,  and  the  other  two  met 
over  the  ark  and  so  overshadowed  it.  When 
these  magnificent  cherubim  were  finished,  the 
ar'i  was  brought  in  and  placed  under  their 
wings,  2  Chron.  v,  7-10. 

The  ark  was  called  the  ark  of  the  covenant, 
because  it  was  a  symbol  of  the  covenant  be- 
tween God  and  his  people.  It  was  also  named 
the  ark  of  the  lesti?nony,  because  the  two  tables 
which  were  deposited  in  it  were  witnesses 
against  every  transgression. 

ARM.  As  it  is  by  this  member  of  the  body 
that  we  chiefly  exert  our  strength,  it  is  there- 
fore used  in  Scripture  for  an  emblem  of  power. 
Thus  God  is  said  to  have  delivered  his  people 
from  Egyptian  bondage  "  with  a  stretched-out 
arm,"  Deut.  v,  15 ;  and  he  thus  threatens  Eli 
the  high  priest,  "I  will  cut  off  thine  arm,  and 
the  arm  of  thy  father's  house,"  1  Sam.  ii,  31  ; 
that  is,  I  will  deprive  thee  and  thy  family  of 
power  and  authority. 

ARMAGEDDON,  a  place  spoken  of,  Rev. 
xvi,  16,  which  literally  signifies  "  the  mountain 
of  Mageddon,"  or  "  Megiddo,"  a  city  situated  in 
the  great  plain  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Carmel, 
where  the  good  prince  Josiah  received  his  mor- 
tal wound,  in  the  battle  against  Necho,  king 
of  Egypt.  At  Armageddon,  the  three  unclean 
spirits  coming  out  of  the  dragon's  mouth  shall 
gather  together  the  kings  of  the  earth,  to  the 
battle  of  the  great  day  of  God  Almighty,  Rev. 
xvi,  13,  14 ;  where  the  word  Armageddon,  ac- 
cording to  Mr.  Pool,  does  not  signify  any  par- 
ticular place,  but  is  used  in  allusion  to  Megiddo, 
mentioned  Judges  v,  19,  where  Barak  overcame 
Sisera  with  his  great  army,  and  where  Josiah 
was  slain,  2  Kings  xxiii,  30.  If  so,  the  term 
must  have  been  a  proverbial  one  for  a  place  of 
destruction  and  mourning. 

ARMENIA,  a  considerable  country  of  Asia, 
having  Colchis  and  Iberia  on  the  north,  Media 
on  the  east,  Mesopotamia  on  the  south,  Pontus 
and  Cappadocia  on  the  west,  and  the  Euphrates 
and  Syria  on  the  south-west,  Armenia  is  often 
confounded  with  Aramroa,  the  land  of  Aram 
or  Syria;  but  they  are  totally  different.  Ar- 
menia, which  is  separated  from  Aram  by  Mount 
Taurus,  was  so  denominated  from  Ar-Men,  the 
mountainous  country  of  Meni  or  Minni,  the 
people  of  which  country  are  mentioned  under 
this  name  by  Jeremiah,  when  summoning  the 
nations  against  Babylon. 

The  people  of  this  country  have  in  all  ages 
maintained  a  great  similarity  of  character, 
partly  commercial  and  partly  pastoral.  They 
have,  in  fact,  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  Asj. 


ARM 


88 


ARM 


atic  continent,  been  what  the  Onshites  and 
Ishmaelites  were  in  the  south,  tenders  of  cat- 
tle, living  on  the  produce  of  their  flocks  and 
herds,  and  carriers  of  merchandize  between  the 
neighbouring  nations ;  a  part  living  at  home 
with  their  flocks,  and  a  part  travelling  as  mer- 
chants and  dealers  into  distant  countries.  In 
the  flourishing  times  of  Tyre,  the  Armenians, 
according  to  Ezekiel,  xxvii,  14,  brought  horses 
and  mules  to  the  markets  of  that  city ;  and,  ac- 
cording to  Herodotus,  they  had  a  considerable 
trade  in  wine,  which  they  sent  down  the  Eu- 
phrates to  Babylon,  &c.  At  the  present  day, 
the  Armenians  are  the  principal  traders  of  the 
east ;  and  are  to  be  found  in  the  capacity  of 
merchants  or  commercial  agents  all  over  Asia, 
a  patient,  frugal,  industrious,  and  honest  peo- 
ple, whose  known  character  for  these  virtues 
has  withstood  the  tyranny  and  extortions  of 
the  wretched  governments  under  which  they 
chiefly  live. 

The  religion  of  the  Armenians  is  a  corrupt 
Christianity  of  the  sect  of  Eutyches ;  that  is, 
they  own  but  one  nature  in  Jesus  Christ. 
Their  rites  partake  of  those  of  the  Greek  and 
Latin  churches,  but  they  reject  the  idolatries 
of  both.  It  is  indeed  a  remarkable  instance  of 
the  firmness  of  this  people,  that  while  the  sur- 
rounding nations  submitted  to  the  religion  as 
well  as  the  arms  of  the  Turks,  they  have  pre- 
served the  purity  of  their  ancient  faith,  such  as 
it  is,  to  the  present  day.  It  cannot  be  supposed 
but  that  the  Turks  used  every  effort  to  impose 
on  the  conquered  Armenians  the  doctrines  of 
the  Koran.  More  tolerant,  indeed,  than  the 
Saracens,  liberty  of  conscience  was  still  not  to 
be  purchased  of  them  but  by  great  sacrifices, 
which  for  three  centuries  the  Armenians  have 
patiently  endured,  and  exhibit  to  the  world  an 
honourable  and  solitary  instance  of  a  success- 
ful national  opposition  of  Christianity  to  Mo- 
hammedanism. 

ARMENIAN  CHURCH,  a  branch,  origin- 
ally, of  the  Greek  church,  residing  in  Armenia, 
They  probably  received  Christianity  in  the 
fourth  century.  Mr.  Yeates  gives  the  most 
recent  account  of  them : — 

"  Their  whole  ecclesiastical  establishment  is 
under  the  government  of  four  patriarchs ;  the 
first  has  his  residence  in  Echmiadzin,  or  Eg. 
miathin,  near  Irivan ;  the  second,  at  Sis,  in  the 
lesser  Armenia;  the  third,  in  Georgia;  and 
the  fourth,  in  Achtamar,  or  Altamar,  on  the 
Lake  of  Van ;  but  the  power  of  the  two  last  is 
bounded  within  their  own  diocesses,  while  the 
others  have  more  extensive  authority,  and  the 
patriarch  of  Egmiathan  has,  or  had,  under  him 
eighteen  bishops,  beside  those  who  are  priors 
of  monasteries.  The  Armenians  every  where 
perform  divine  service  in  their  own  tongue, 
in  which  their  liturgy  and  offices  are  written, 
in  the  dialect  of  the  fourth  or  fifth  centuries. 
They  have  the  whole  Bible  translated  from 
the  Septuagint,  as  they  say,  so  early  as  the 
time  of  Chrysostom.  The  Armenian  confes- 
sion is  similar  to  that  of  the  Jacobite  Chris- 
tians, both  being  Monophysites,  acknowledg- 
ing but  one  nature  in  the  person  of  Christ; 
hut  this,  according  to  Mr.  Simon,  is  little  more 


than  a  dispute  about  terms ;  few  ofthem  being 
able  to  enter  into  the  subtilties  of  polemics. 

"In  the  year  16G4,  an  Armenian  bishop, 
named  Uscan,  visited  Europe  for  the  purpose 
of  getting  printed  the  Armenian  Bible,  and 
communicated  the  above  particulars  to  Mr. 
Simon.  In  16G7,  a  certain  patriarch  of  the 
lesser  Armenia  visited  Rome,  and  made  a  pro- 
fession of  faith  which  was  considered  ortho- 
dox, and  procured  him  a  cordial  reception, 
with  the  hope  of  reconciling  the  Armenian 
Christians  to  the  Roman  church;  but,  before 
he  got  out  of  Italy,  it  was  found  he  had  pre- 
varicated, and  still  persisted  in  the  errors  of 
his  church.  About  this  time,  Clement  IX, 
wrote  to  the  king  of  Persia,  in  favour  of  some 
Catholic  converts  in  Armenia,  and  received  a 
favourable  answer;  but  the  Armenian  church 
could  never  be  persuaded  to  acknowledge  the 
authority  of  Rome. 

"They  have  among  them  a  number  of  mo- 
nasteries and  convents,  in  which  is  maintained 
a  severe  discipline ;  marriage  is  discounte- 
nanced, though  not  absolutely  prohibited ;  a 
married  priest  cannot  obtain  promotion,  and 
the  higher  clergy  are  not  allowed  to  marry. 
They  worship  in  the  eastern  manner,  by 
prostration :  they  are  very  superstitious,  and 
their  ceremonies  much  resemble  those  of  the 
Greek  church.  Once  in  their  lives  they  gene- 
rally perform  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem ;  and 
in  1819,  the  number  of  Armenian  pilgrims  was 
thirteen  hundred,  nearly  as  many  as  the  Greeks. 
Dr.  Buchanan,  however,  says,  '  Of  all  the 
Christians  in  central  Asia,  they  have  preserved 
themselves  most  free  from  Mohammedan  and 
Papal  corruptions.' " 

ARMIES.  In  the  reign  of  David,  the  He- 
brews acquired  such  skill  in  the  military  art, 
together  with  such  strength,  as  gave  them  a 
decided  superiority  over  their  competitors  on 
the  field  of  battle.  David  increased  the  stand- 
ing army,  which  Saul  had  introduced.  Solo- 
mon introduced  cavalry  into  the  military  force 
of  the  nation,  also  chariots.  Both  cavalry  and 
chariots  were  retained  in  the  subsequent  age ; 
an  age,  in  which  military  arms  were  improved 
in  their  construction,  the  science  of  fortifica- 
tion made  advances,  and  large  armies  were 
mustered.  From  this  period,  till  the  time 
when  the  Hebrews  became  subject  to  the 
Assyrians  and  Chaldeans,  but  little  improve- 
ment was  made  in  the  arts  of  war.  The 
Maccabees,  after  the  return  of  the  Hebrews 
from  the  captivity,  gave  a  new  existence  to 
the  -military  art  among  them.  But  their  de- 
scendants were  under  the  necessity  of  submit- 
ting to  the  superior  power  of  the  Romans. 

Whenever  there  was  an  immediate  prospect 
of  war,  a  levy  was  made  by  the  genealogists, 
Deut.  xx,  5-9.  In  the  time  of  the  kings,  there 
was  a  head  or  ruler  of  the  persons,  that  made 
the  levy,  denominated  lawn,  who  kept  an  ac- 
count of  the  number  of  the  soldiers,  but  who 
is,  nevertheless,  to  be  distinguished  from  the 
generalissimo,  "icion,  2  Chron.  xxvi,  11.  Com- 
pare Q  Sam.  viii,  17 ;  xx,  25 ;  1  Chron.  xviii,  16. 
After  the  levy  was  fully  made  out,  the  geneal- 
ogists gave  public  notice,  that  the  following 


ARM 


89 


ARM 


persons  might  be  excused,  from  military  service, 
Deut.  xx,  5-8 :  1.  Those  who  had  built  a  house, 
and  had  not  yet  inhabited  it.  2.  Those  who 
had  planted  a  0"D,  that  is,  an  olive  or  vine  gar- 
den, and  had  not  as  yet  tasted  the  fruit  of  it ; 
an  exemption,  consequently,  which  extended 
through  the  first  five  years  after  such  planting. 

3.  Those  who  had  bargained  for  a  spouse,  but 
had  not  celebrated  the  nuptials ;  also  those  who 
had  not  as  yet  lived  with  their  wife,  for  a  year. 

4.  The  faint-hearted,  who  would  be  likely  to 
discourage  others,  and  who,  if  they  had  gone 
into  battle,  where,  in  those  early  times,  every 
thing  depended  on  personal  prowess,  would 
only  have  fallen  victims. 

At  the  head  of  each  rank  or  file  of  fifty,  was 
the  captain  of  fifty.  The  other  divisions  con- 
sisted of  a  hundred,  a  thousand,  and  ten  thou- 
sand men,  each  one  of  which  was  headed  by 
its  appropriate  commander.  These  divisions 
ranked  in  respect  to  each  other  according  to 
their  families,  and  were  subject  to  the  authority 
of  the  heads  of  those  families,  2  Chron.  xxv,  5 ; 
xxvi,  12,  13.  The  centurions,  and  chiiiarchs 
or  captains  of  thousands,  were  admitted  into 
the  councils  of  war,  1  Chron.  xiii,  1-3  ;  1  Sam. 
xviii,  13.  The  leader  of  the  whole  army  was 
denominated  Naxmty-^N,  the  captain  of  the  host. 
The  genealogists,  (in  the  English  version,  offi- 
cers,) according  to  a  law  in  Deut.  xx,  9,  had 
the  right  of  appointing  the  persons  who  were 
to  act  as  officers  in  the  army ;  and  they,  un- 
doubtedly, made  it  a  point,  in  their  selections, 
to  choose  those  who  are  called  heads  of  fami- 
lies. The  practice  of  thus  selecting  military 
officers  ceased  under  the  kings.  Some  of  them 
were  then  chosen  by  the  king,  and  in  other  in- 
stances the  office  became  permanent  and  he- 
reditary in  the  heads  of  families.  Both  kings 
and  generals  had  armour  bearers,  a^2  8vi. 
They  were  chosen  from  the  bravest  of  the 
soldiery,  and  not  only  bore  the  arms  of  their 
masters,  but  were  employed  to  give  his  com- 
mands to  the  subordinate  captains,  and  were 
present  at  his  side  in  the  hour  of  peril,  1  Sam. 
xiv,  6 ;  xvii,  7.  The  infantry,  the  cavalry,  and 
the  chariots  of  war  were  so  arranged,  as  to 
make  separate  divisions  of  an  army,  Exod.  xiv, 
6,  7.  The  infantry  were  divided  likewise  into 
light-armed  troops,  OHHJ,  and  into  spearmen, 
Genesis  xlix,  19;  1  Samuel  xxx,  8,  15,  23; 
2  Sam.  iii,  22 ;  iv,  2;  xxii,  30 ;  Psalm  xviii,  30 ; 
2  Kings  v,  2;  Hosea  vii,  1.  The  light-armed 
infantry  were  furnished  with  a  sling  and  jave- 
lin, with  a  bow,  arrows,  and  quiver,  and  also, 
at  least  in  latter  times,  with  a  buckler.  They 
fought  the  enemy  at  a  distance.  The  spear- 
men, on  the  contrary,  who  were  armed  with 
spears,  swords,  and  shields,  fought  hand  to 
hand,  1  Chron.  xii,  24,  34 ;  2  Chron.  xiv,  8 ; 
xvii,  17.  The  light-armed  troops  were  com- 
monly taken  from  the  tribes  of  Ephraim  and 
Benjamin,  2  Chron.  xiv,  8;  xvii,  17.  Compare 
Gen.  xlix,  27 ;  Psalm  lxxviii,  9. 

The  art  of  laying  out  an  encampment  ap- 
pears to  have  been  well  understood  in  Egypt, 
long  before  the  departure  of  the  Hebrews  from 
that  country.  It  was  there  that  Moses  became 
acquainted    with    that   mode    of  encamping, 


which,  in  the  second  chapter  of  Numbers,  is 
prescribed  to  the  Hebrews.  In  the  encamp- 
ment of  the  Israelites,  it  appears  that  the  holy 
tabernacle  occupied  the  centre.  In  reference 
to  this  circumstance,  it  may  be  remarked,  that 
it  is  the  common  practice  in  the  east,  for  the 
prince  or  leader  of  a  tribe  to  have  his  tent 
pitched  in  the  centre  of  the  others;  and  it 
ought  not  to  be  forgotten,  that  God,  whose 
tent  or  palace  was  the  holy  tabernacle,  was 
the  prince,  the  leader  of  the  Hebrews.  The 
tents  nearest  to  the  tabernacle  were  those  of 
the  Levites,  whose  business  it  was  to  watch  it, 
in  the  manner  of  a  Pretorian  guard.  The 
family  of  Gershom  pitched  to  the  west,  that  of 
Kehath  to  the  south,  that  of  Merari  to  the  north. 
The  priests  occupied  a  position  to  the  east,  op- 
posite to  the  entrance  of  the  tabernacle,  Num. 
i,  53  ;  iii,  21-38.  At  some  distance  to  the  east, 
were  the  tribes  of  Judah,  Issachar,  and  Zebu- 
Ion  ;  on  the  south  were  those  of  Reuben,  Si- 
meon, and  Gad ;  to  the  west  were  Ephraim, 
Manasseh,  and  Benjamin;  to  the  north,  Dan, 
Asher,  and  Napthali.  The  people  were  thus 
divided  into  four  bodies,  three  tribes  to  a  divi- 
sion ;  each  of  which  divisions  had  its  separate 
standard,  *?.n.  Each  of  the  large  family  asso- 
ciations likewise,  of  which  the  different  tribes 
were  composed,  had  a  separate  standard,  termed, 
in  contradistinction  from  the  other,  mN;  and 
every  Hebrew  was  obliged  to  number  himself 
with  his  particular  division,  and  follow  his  ap- 
propriate standard.  Of  military  standards, 
there  were, — 1.  The  standard,  denominated 
"Mi;  one  of  which  pertained  to  each  of  the 
four  general  divisions.  The  four  standards  of 
this  name  were  large,  and  ornamented  with 
colours  in  white,  purple,  crimson,  and  dark 
blue.  The  Jewish  Rabbins  assert,  (founding 
their  statement  on  Genesis  xlix,  3,  9,  17,  22, 
which  in  this  case  is  very  doubtful  authority,) 
that  the  first  of  these  standards,  namely,  that 
of  Judah,  bore  a  lion ;  the  second,  or  that  of 
Reuben,  bore  a  man ;  that  of  Ephraim,  which 
was  the  third,  displayed  the  figure  of  a  bull ; 
while  that  of  Dan,  which  was  the  fourth,  ex- 
hibited the  representation  of  cherubim.  They 
were  wrought  into  the  standards  with  embroid- 
ered work.  2.  The  standard,  called  rilK.  The 
ensign  of  this  name  belonged  to  the  separate 
classes  of  families.  3.  The  standard,  called  dj. 
This  standard  was  not,  like  the  others,  borne 
from  place  to  place.  It  appears  from  Num. 
xxi,  8,  9,  that  it  was  a  long  pole,  fixed  into  the 
earth.  A  flag  was  fastened  to  its  top,  which 
was  agitated  by  the  wind,  and  seen  at  a  great 
distance,  Jer.  iv,  G,  21;  li,  2,  12,  27;  Ezek. 
xxvii,  7.  In  order  to  render  it  visible,  as  far 
as  possible,  it  was  erected  on  lofty  mountains, 
and  was  in  this  way  used  as  a  signal,  to  assemble 
soldiers.  It  no  sooner  made  its  appearance  on 
such  an  elevated  position,  than  the  war-cry 
was  uttered,  and  the  trumpets  were  blown, 
Isaiah  v,  26;  xiii,  2;  xviii,  3;  xxx,  17;  xlix, 
22  ;  lxii,  10-13. 

Before  battle  the  various  kinds  of  arms  were 
put  into  the  best  order ;  the  shields  were 
anointed,  and  the  soldiers  refreshed  themselves 
by  taking  food,  lest  they  should  become  weary 


ARM 


90 


ARM 


and  faint  under  the  pressure  of  their  labours, 
Jer.  xlvi,  3,  4 ;  Isaiah  xxi,  5.  The  soldiers, 
more  especially  the  generals  and  kings,  except 
when  they  wished  to  remain  unknown,  1  Kings 
xxii,  30-34,  were  clothed  in  splendid  habili- 
ments, which  are  denominated,  tfip-mn,  the 
sacred  dress,  Psalm  ex,  3.  It  was  the  duty  of 
the  priests,  before  the  commencement  of  the 
battle,  to  exhort  the  Hebrews  to  exhibit  that 
courage  which  was  required  by  the  exigency 
of  the  occasion.  The  words  which  they  used 
were  as  follows  : — "  Hear,  O  Israel ;  ye  ap- 
proach this  day  unto  battle  against  your  ene- 
mies; let  not  your  hearts  faint ;  fear  not,  and 
do  not  tremble  ;  neither  be  ye  terrified,  because 
of  them.  For  the  Lord  your  God  is  he  that 
goeth  with  you,  to  fight  for  you  against  your 
enemies,  to  save  you,"  Deut.  xx,  2,  &.c.  The 
last  ceremony,  previous  to  an  engagement,  was 
the  sounding  of  the  sacred  trumpets  by  the 
priests,  Num.  x,  9,  10 ;  2  Chron.  xiii,  12-14 ; 
1  Mace,  iii,  54 

ARMINIANISM,  strictly  speaking,  is  that 
system  of  religious  doctrine  which  was  taught 
by  Arminius,  professor  of  divinity  in  the  uni- 
versity of  Leyden.  If  therefore  we  would  learn 
precisely  what  Arminianism  is,  we  must  have 
recourse  to  those  writings  in  which  that  divine 
himself  has  stated  and  expounded  his  peculiar 
tenets.  This,  however,  will  by  no  means  give 
us  an  accurate  idea  of  that  which,  since  his 
time,  has  been  usually  denominated  Arminian- 
ism. On  examination,  it  will  be  found,  that 
in  many  important  particulars,  those  who  have 
called  themselves  Arminians,  or  have  been 
accounted  such  by  others,  differ  as  widely  from 
the  nominal  head  and  founder  of  their  sect,  as 
he  himself  did  from  Calvin,  and  other  doctors 
of  Geneva.  There  are,  indeed,  certain  points, 
with  regard  to  which  he  has  been  strictly  and 
uniformly  followed  by  almost  all  his  pretended 
adherents ;  but  there  are  others  of  equal  or  of 
greater  importance,  dogmatically  insisted  on 
by  them,  to  which  he  unquestionably  never 
gave  his  sanction,  and  even  appears  to  have 
been  decidedly  hostile.  Such  a  distinction, 
obvious  as  it  must  be  to  every  attentive  reader, 
has  yet  been  generally  so  far  overlooked,  that 
the  memory  of  Arminius  is  frequently  loaded 
with  imputations  the  most  unreasonable  and 
unjust.  He  is  accused,  by  the  ignorant  and 
the  prejudiced,  of  introducing  corruptions  into 
the  Christian  church,  which  he  probably  never 
thought  of,  and  which  certainly  have  no  place 
in  his  works.  And  all  the  odium  which  his 
followers  have  from  time  to  time  incurred 
by  their  varied  and  increasing  heterodoxy, 
has  been  absurdly  reflected  upon  him,  as  if 
he  could  be  responsible  for  every  error  that 
may  be  sent  abroad  under  the  sanction  of  his 
name.  Whatever  be  the  number  or  the  spe- 
cies of  these  errors,  and  in  whatever  way  they 
may  be  associated  with  his  principles,  it  is  fair 
to  the  character  of  Arminius,  and  useful  to  the 
interests  of  religiou..  truth,  to  revert  to  his  own 
writings  as  the  only  source  from  which  we 
ought  to  derive  information  concerning  the 
Arminian  scheme ;  and  by  doing  so,  it  may  be 
discovered,  that  genuine  unadulterated  Armi- 


nianism  is  not  that  great  and  dangerous  heresy 
which  among  a  certain  class  of  Christians  it 
is  too  often  represented  to  be. 

Arminianism,  in  its  proper  sense,  is  to  be 
considered  as  a  separation  from  Calvinism,  with 
regard  to  the  doctrines  of  unconditional  elec- 
tion, particular  redemption,  and  other  points 
necessarily  resulting  from  these.  The  Calvinists 
held  that  God  had  elected  a  certain  portion  of  the 
human  race  to  eternal  life,  passing  by  the  rest, 
or  rather  dooming  them  to  everlasting  destruc- 
tion ;  that  God's  election  proceeded  upon  no  pre- 
science of  the  moral  principles  and  character 
of  those  whom  he  had  thus  predestinated,  but 
originated  solely  in  the  motions  of  his  free  and 
sovereign  mercy ;  that  Christ  died  for  the  elect 
only,  and  therefore  that  the  merits  of  his  death 
can  avail  for  the  salvation  of  none  but  them ; 
and  that  they  are  constrained  by  the  irresisti- 
ble power  of  divine  grace  to  accept  of  him  as 
their  Saviour.  To  this  doctrine,  that  of  Armi- 
nius and  his  legitimate  followers  stands  op- 
posed. They  do  not  deny  an  election  ;  but 
they  deny  that  it  is  absolute  and  unconditional. 
They  argue,  that  an  election  of  this  kind  is 
inconsistent  with  the  character  of  God,  that  it 
destroys  the  liberty  of  the  human  will,  that  it 
contradicts  the  language  of  Scripture,  and  that 
it  tends  to  encourage  a  careless  and  licentious 
practice  in  those  by  whom  it  is  believed.  They 
maintain  that  God  has  elected  those  only  who, 
according,  not  to  his  decree,  but  to  his  fore- 
knowledge, and  in  the  exercise  of  their  natural 
powers  of  self-determination,  acting  under  the 
influence  of  his  grace,  would  possess  that  faith 
and  holiness  to  which  salvation  is  annexed  in 
the  Gospel  scheme.  And  those  who  are  not 
elected  are  allowed  to  perish,  not  because  they 
were  not  elected,  but  merely  and  solely  in  con- 
sequence of  their  infidelity  and  disobedience  ; 
on  account,  indeed,  of  which  infidelity  and 
disobedience  being  foreseen  by  God,  their  elec- 
tion did  not  take  place.  They  hold,  that  Christ 
died  for  all  men  in  the  literal  and  unrestricted 
sense  of  that  phrase ;  that  his  atonement  is 
able,  both  from  its  own  merit,  and  from  the 
intention  of  him  who  appointed  it,  to  expiate 
the  guilt  of  every  individual ;  that  every  indi- 
vidual is  invited  to  partake  of  the  benefits 
which  it  lias  procured;  that  the  grace  of  God 
is  offered  to  make  the  will  comply  with  this 
invitation,  but  that  this  grace  may  be  resisted 
and  rendered  ineffectual  by  the  sinner's  per- 
versity. Whether  true  believers  necessarily 
persevered,  or  whether  they  might  fall  from 
their  faith,  and  forfeit  their  state  of  grace,  was 
a  question  which  Arminius  left  in  a  great  mea- 
sure unresolved,  but  which  was  soon  deter- 
mined by  his  followers  in  this  additional  pro- 
position, that  saints  may  fall  from  the  state  of 
grace,  in  which  they  are  placed  by  the  opera- 
tion of  the  Holy  Spirit.  This,  indeed,  seems 
to  follow  as  a  corollary,  from  what  Arminius 
maintained  respecting  the  natural  freedom  and 
corruption  of  the  will,  and  the  resistibility  of 
divine  grace. 

It  may  now  be  proper  to  mention  some  ten- 
ets with  regard  to  which  Arminianism  has  been 
much   misrepresented       If  a  man    hold   thai 


ARM 


91 


ARM 


good  works  are  necessary  to  justification  ;  if  he 
maintain  that  faith  includes  good  works  in  its 
own  nature  ;  if  he  reject  the  doctrine  of  original 
sin ;  if  he  deny  that  divine  grace  is  requisite 
for  the    whole    work  of  sanctification ;   if  he 
spe  ik  of  human  virtue  as  meritorious  in  the 
sight  of  God ;  it  is  very  generally  concluded, 
that  he  is  an  Arminian.    But  the  trutli  is,  that 
a  man  of  such  sentiments  is  properly  a  disciple 
of  the  Pelagian  and  Socinian  schools.    To  such 
sentiments  pure  Arminianism  is  as  diametri- 
cally opposite  as  Calvinism  itself.     The  genu- 
ine Arminians  admit  the  corruption  of  human 
nature  in  its  full  extent.    They  admit,  that  we 
are  justified  by  faith  only.    They  admit,  that  our 
justification  originates  solely  in  the  grace  of 
God.    They  admit,  that  the  procuring  and  meri- 
torious cause  of  our  justification  is  the  right- 
eousness of  Christ.    Propter  quam,  says  Armini- 
us,  Deus  credentibus  peccatum  condonat,  eosque 
projustis  reputat  non  aliter  atque  si  legem  per- 
fects implevissent.  [For  the  sake  of  which  God 
pardons  believers,  and  accounts  them  as  right- 
eous precisely  as  if  they  had  perfectly  obeyed 
the  law.]    They  admit  in  this  way,  that  justifi- 
cation implies  not  merely  forgiveness  of  sin,  but 
acceptance  to  everlasting  happiness.    Junctam 
habet  adoptionem  in  Jilios,  et  collationem  juris 
in  hereditatem  vita  eternal.     [It  has  connected 
with  it  adoption  to  sonship,  and  the  grant  of  a 
right  to  the  inheritance  of  eternal  life.]    They 
admit,  in  fine,  that  the  work  of  sanctification, 
from  its  very  commencement  to  its  perfection 
in  glory,  is  carried  on  by  the  operation  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  which  is  the  gift  of  God  by  Jesus 
Christ.     So  sound,  indeed,  are  the  Arminians 
with  respect  to  the  doctrine  of  justification,  a 
doctrine    so    important    and    essential    in   the 
opinion  of  Luther,  that  he  scrupled  not  to  call 
it,  articulus  e-cclesice  stantis  vel  cadentis ;  [the 
article  with  which  the  church  stands  or  falls ;] 
that  those  who  look  into  the  writings  of  Armi- 
nius may  be  disposed  to  suspect  him  of  having 
even  exceeded   Calvin    in    orthodoxy.      It    is 
certain,  at  least,  that  he  declares  his  willing- 
ness to  subscribe  to  every  thing  that  Calvin 
has  written  on  that  leading  subject  of  Chris- 
tianity, in  the  thrrd  book  of  his  Institutes;  and 
with  this  declaration  the  tenor  of  his  writings 
invariably  corresponds. 

The  system  of  Arminius,  then,  appears  to 
have  been  the  same  with  that  which  was  gene- 
rally maintained  in  the  reformed  churches  at 
that  time ;  except  in  so  far  as  the  doctrine  of 
the  divine  decrees  was  concerned.  But  the 
most  eminent  of  those  who  became  Arminians, 
or  ranked  among  his  professed  followers,  by 
embracing  and  avowing  his  peculiar  tenets 
with  respect  to  election  and  redemption,  soon 
began  to  depart  widely  from  the  other  tenets 
of  his  theological  creed.  They  adopted  views 
of  the  corruption  of  man,  of  justification,  of 
the  righteousness  of  Christ,  of  the  nature  of 
faith,  of  the  province  of  good  works,  of  the 
necessity  and  operations  of  grace,  that  are 
quite  contrary  to  those  which  he  had  enter- 
tained and  published.  Many  of  them,  in  pro- 
cess of  time,  differed  more  or  less  from  one 


so  diversified  are  the  forms  which  Arminian- 
ism, as  it  is  called,  has  assumed  in  the  course 
of  its  progress,  that  to  describe  precisely  what 
it  has  been  since  the  synod  of  Dort,  or  what  it 
is  at  the  present  day,  would  be  a  most  difficult, 
if  not  an  impossible,  task.     Even  the  confes- 
sion of  faith,  which  was  drawn    out   for  the 
Arminians  by  Episcopius,  and  is  to  be  found  in 
the  second  volume  of  his   works,  cannot  be 
referred  to  as  a  standard.     It  was  composed 
merely  to    counteract   the    reproach    of  their 
being  a  society  without  any  common  principles. 
It  is  expressed  chiefly  in  the  words  and  phrases 
of  Scripture,  to  which,  of  course,  every  one 
would  annex  his  own  meaning.      Beside,   no 
person,  not  even  a  pastor,  was  obliged,  by  any 
form,  to  adhere  strictly  to  it ;  but  every  one 
was  left  entirely  at  liberty  to  interpret  its  lan- 
guage in  the  manner  that  was  most  agreeable 
to  his  own  private  sentiments.     Accordingly, 
so  various  and  inconsistent  are  their  opinions, 
that  could  Arminius  peruse  the  unnumbered 
volumes  which  have  been  written  as  exposi- 
tions and  illustrations  of  Arminian  doctrine, 
he  would  be  at  a  loss  to  discover  his  own  sim- 
ple system,  amidst  that  heterogeneous  mass  of 
error   with  which  it  lias  been  rudely  mixed ; 
and  would  be  astonished  to  find,  that  the  con- 
troversy which  he  had  conscientiously  intro- 
duced, had  wandered  far   from    the    point  to 
which  he  had  confined  it,  and  that  with  his 
name  dogmas  were  associated,  the  unscriptural 
and  dangerous  nature  of  which  he  had  pointed 
out  and  condemned. 

The  same  temper  of  mind  which  led  him  to 
renounce  the  peculiarities  of  Calvinism,  in- 
duced him  also  to  adopt  more  enlarged  and 
liberal  views  of  church  communion  than  those 
which  had  hitherto  prevailed.  While  he  main- 
tained that  the  mercy  of  God  is  not  confined 
to  a  chosen  few,  he  conceived  it  to  be  quite 
inconsistent  with  the  genius  of  Christianity, 
that  men  of  that  religion  should  keep  at  a  dis- 
tance from  each  other,  and  constitute  separate 
churches,  merely  because  they  differed  in  their 
opinions  as  to  some  of  its  doctrinal  articles. 
He  thought  that  Christians  of  all  denomina- 
tions should  form  one  great  community,  united 
and  upheld  by  the  bonds  of  charity  and  brother- 
ly love ;  with  the  exception,  however,  of  Ro- 
man Catholics,  who,  on  account  of  their  idola- 
trous worship  and  persecuting  spirit,  must  be 
unfit  members  of  such  a  society.  That  this 
was  not  only  agreeable  to  the  wishes  of  Ar- 
minius, but  one  chief  object  of  his  labours,  is 
evident  from  a  passage  in  his  last  will,  which 
he  made  a  little  before  his  death  : — Ea  propositi 
et  docui  qucc  ad  propagationem  amplifcalionetn- 
que  veritatis  religionis  Christiance,  veri  Dei  cul- 
tus,  communis  pielatis,  et  sanctce  inter  homines 
convers[at]ionis,  denique  ad  convenientem  Chris- 
tiano  nomini  tranquillitatem  et  pacem  juxta 
verbum  Dei  possent  conferre,  excludens  ex  iis 
papatum,  cum  quo  nulla  unitas  fidei,  nullum 
pietatis  aut  Christiance  pads  vinculum  servari 
potest.  [I  have  advanced  and  taught  those 
things  which  might  contribute  to  the  propaga- 
tion and  spread  of  the  truth  of  Christianity, 


another,  on  some  or  all  of  these  points.     And  ]  the  worship  of  the  true  God,  general  piety,  and 


ARM 


92 


ARM 


a  holy  fellowship  among  men ; — in  fine,  to  a  I  off  the  yoke  of  civil  and  spiritual  despotism, 


tranquillity  and  peace  according  to  God's  word 
and  becoming  the  Christian  name,  excluding 
the  Papacy,  with  which  no  unity  of  faith,  no 
bond  of  piety,  or  of  Christian  peace  can  be 
maintained.] 

Mosheim  has  stated  this  circumstance  in  a 
note  to  his  history  of  the  Arminian  church ; 
but    his    statement,    or  rather  the  conclusion 
which  he  deduces  from  it,  is  evidently  unfair 
and  incorrect.     He  alleges,  that  Arminius  had 
actually  laid  the  plan  of  that  theological  sys- 
tem which  was  afterward  embraced  by  his  fol- 
lowers; that  he  had  inculcated  the  main  and 
leading  principles  of  it  on  the  minds  of  his  dis- 
ciples ;  and  that  Episcopius  and  others,  who 
rejected  Calvinism  in  more  points  than  in  that 
which  related  to  the  divine  decrees,  only  pro- 
pagated, with  greater  courage  and  perspicuity, 
the  doctrines  which  Arminianism,  as  taught 
by  its  founder,  already  contained.    These  alle- 
gations, it  is  clear,  have  no  sort  of  connection 
with  the  passage  from  which  they  are  drawn 
as  inferences;  and  they  are  wholly  inconsist- 
ent with  the  assertions,  and  reasonings,  and 
declarations  of  Arminius,  when  he  is  discuss- 
ing the  merits  of  the  question  that  was  agitated 
between  him  and  the  Geneva  school.   Armi- 
nius, in  addition  to  the  scheme  of  doctrine  which 
he  taught,  was  anxious  to  establish  this  maxim, 
and  to  reduce  it  to  practice,  that,  with  the  ex- 
ception   above    mentioned,    no    difference    of 
opinions  should   prevent  Christians   from  re- 
maining in  one  church  or  religious  body.     He 
did  not  mean  to  insinuate,  that  a  difference  of 
opinion  was  of  no    consequence    at  all ;  that 
they  who  thought  one  way  were  just  as  right 
as  they  who  thought  a  contrary  way ;  or  that 
men   have  no  occasion  to  be  solicitous  about 
the  religious  tenets  which  they  hold.     He  did 
not  mean  to  give  up  his  own  system  as  equally 
true,  or  equally  false,  with  that  of  Calvin ;  and 
as  little  could  he  be  supposed  to  sanction  those 
sentiments  of  his  followers  which  were  in  di- 
rect  opposition    to   the    sentiments  which  he 
himself  had  maintained.    But  he  endeavoured, 
in  the  first  place,  to  assert  liberty  of  conscience, 
and  of  worship ;    and  then,  upon  that  funda- 
mental  principle,  to  persuade  all  Christians, 
however  divided  in  opinion,  to  lay  aside  the 
distinctions  of  sect  and  party,  and  in  one  united 
body  to    consult   that  tranquillity   and   peace 
which  is  so  agreeable  to  the  Christian  name. 
This  we  conceive  to  have  been  the  object  of  Ar- 
minius ;  an  object  so  indicative  of  an  enlight- 
ened mind,  so  congenial  to  that  charity  which 
hopeth  all  things,  and  thinketh  no  evil,  and  so 
conducive  to  the  interests  of  religion  and  the 
peace  of  the  world,  as  to  reflect  the  highest 
honour  on  him  by  whom  it  was  first  pursued, 
and  to  constitute  the  true  glory  of  Arminianism. 
The  controversy  to  which  Arminianism  had 
given  rise,  was  carried  on  after  the  death  of 
its  founder,  with  the  greatest  eagerness,  and 
produced  the  most  bitter  and  deplorable  dis- 
sensions.    The  Arminians  requested  nothing* 
more  than  a  bare  toleration.     This  moderate 
demand,  at  all  times  reasonable  and  just,  was 
particularly  so  in  Holland,  which  had  thrown 


and  where  the  received  confession  of  faith  had 
not  determined  the  questions  under  debate.    It 
was  strongly  urged  by  Grotius,  Hoogerbeets, 
Olden  Barnevelt,  and  other  persons  of  respect- 
ability and  influence.    And  Maurice,  prince  of 
Orange,  and  his  mother  the  princess  dowager, 
giving  countenance   to  the   claim,  there  was 
some  prospect  of  the  Calvinists  being  persuad- 
ed to  enter  into  pacific  measures,  and  to  treat 
their   dissenting   brethren  with    forbearance. 
Accordingly,  in  the  year  1611,  a  conference 
between    the    contending  parties  was  held  at 
the  Hague,  on  which  occasion,  it  is  commonly 
asserted,  the  toleration  required  was  offered  to 
the  Arminians,  provided  they  would  renounce 
the  errors  of  Socinianism, — though  the  papers 
which  passed  between  the  parties  at  that  con- 
ference,   as   authenticated   by  each   of  them, 
contain  no  proviso  of  that  description.     An- 
other conference  was  held  at  Delft,  in  1613. 
And  in  1614,  the  States  of  Holland  promul- 
gated an  edict,  exhorting  the  disputants  to  the 
exercise   of  mutual   charity.     But  these  and 
other  expedients  employed  for  the  same  pur- 
pose, had  not  the  desired  effect.     The  Calvin- 
ists expressed  great  indignation  at  the  magis 
trates,  for  endeavouring,  by  their  authority,  to 
promote  a  union  with  such  adversaries.     The 
conduct  of  the  States  was  ably  and  eloquently 
defended  by  Grotius,  in  two  treatises,  entitled, 
"  De  Jure  Summarwn  Potestatum  circa  sacra," 
and    "  Ordinum    Hollandice,    ac    West-Frisia 
Pietas  a  multorvm  calumniis  vindicata." 

The  hopes  of  success  which  the  Arminians 
entertained  from  the  indulgent  manner  in 
which  they  were  treated  by  the  civil  authori- 
ties, were  soon  blasted  by  a  misunderstanding 
which  had  secretly  subsisted  for  some  time  be- 
tween the  stadtholder  and  the  principal  magis- 
trates, and  at  last  broke  forth  into  an  open 
rupture.  Maurice,  being  suspected  of  aiming 
at  sovereign  power,  was  firmly  opposed  by  the 
leading  persons  in  the  government,  who  had 
been  the  friends  and  patrons  of  the  Arminians, 
and  to  whom,  therefore,  these  adhered  at  this 
difficult  crisis.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Go- 
marists,  or  Calvinists,  attached  themselves  to 
Maurice,  and  inflamed  the  resentment  which 
he  had  already,  for  various  reasons,  conceived 
against  the  Arminians.  The  prince  was  re- 
solved, at  once  to  ruin  the  ministers  who  had 
ventured  to  oppose  his  schemes  of  usurpation, 
and  to  crush  the  Arminians,  by  whom  those 
statesmen  had  been  warmly  supported.  For 
this  purpose  he  got  the  leading  men  cast  into 
prison.  Barnevelt,  whose  long  and  faithful 
services  deserved  a  better  fate,  died  on  the 
scaffold :  and  Grotius  and  Hoogerbeets,  under 
pretexts  more  plausible  than  solid,  were  un- 
justly condemned  to  perpetual  imprisonment, 
from  which,  however,  the  former  afterward 
escaped,  and  fled  into  France.  The  alleged 
crime  of  the  Arminians  being  of  an  ecclesias- 
tical nature,  it  was  thought  proper  to  bring 
their  cause  before  a  national  assembly  of  di- 
vines by  which  their  religious  opinions  might 
bo  regularly  and  finally  condemned. 

Under  the  auspices  of  Maurice,  therefore, 


ARM 


93 


ARM 


and  by  the  authority  of  the  states  general,  a 
synod  was  convoked  at  Dort,  in  the  year  1618. 
Before  this  meeting,  which  consisted  of  depu- 
ties from  the  United  Provinces,  from  England, 
Scotland,  Switzerland,  and  other  places,  the 
Arminians  appeared,  with  Episcopius  at  their 
head,  to  answer  to  the  accusations  brought 
against  them,  of  departing  from  the  establish- 
ed religion.  For  a  full  account  of  the  pro- 
ceedings of  this  synod,  the  reader  may  consult 
the  second  and  third  volumes  of  Brandt's  His- 
tory of  the  Reformation,  and  the  Remains  of 
Mr.  John  Hales  of  Eaton,  who  was  present  at 
the  meeting,  and  gives  a  simple  narrative  of 
what  he  saw  and  heard.  The  conduct  of  the 
synod  has  been  applauded  by  some,  and  con- 
demned by  others.  On  the  one  hand,  it  has 
been  placed  above  every  other  synod  since  the 
Apostolic  age,  for  its  temper,  moderation,  and 
sanctity ;  on  the  other,  it  has  been  charged 
with  injustice  and  cruelty,  and  burlesqued  in 
such  lines  as  these : — 

Dordrcchti  sy nodus  nodus ;  chorus  integer,  ctger  ; 

Convenlus,  ventus  ;  sessio,  stramen,  Amen. 

[The  point  of  this  doggrel,  which  consists 
chiefly  in  the  gingle  of  the  Latin  words,  is  lost 
in  a  translation.  The  following  is  a  literal 
version : — 

The  synod  of  Dort,  a  knot;  the  whole  assembly,  sick ; 

The  convention,  wind;  the  session,  straw,  Amen.] 
Neal  remarks,  that  it  behaved  as  well  as  most 
assemblies  of  a  similar  kind  have  done,  "who 
have  pretended  to  establish  articles  for  other 
men's  faith,  with  penal  sanctions."  This  says 
very  little  for  the  synod  of  Dort;  though,  per- 
haps, it  is  even  more  than  can  be  said  with 
truth.  Martinius  of  Bremen  seems  to  have 
spoken  much  more  correctly,  when  he  told  his 
friends,  "  I  believe  now  what  Gregory  Nazian- 
zen  says,  that  he  had  never  seen  any  council 
attended  with  good  effects,  but  that  it  always 
increased  the  evil  rather  than  removed  it.  I 
declare  as  well  as  that  father,  that  I  will  never 
set  my  foot  in  any  synod  again.  O  Dort ! 
Dort!  would  to  God  that  I  had  never  seen 
thee !"  The  Arminians,  it  is  contended,  asked 
more  indulgence  than  they  had  reason  to  ex- 
pect ;  however  it  is  certain  that  the  treatment 
which  they  received  from  the  synod,  was  arbi- 
trary, faithless,  and  oppressive.  They  were  at 
length  found  guilty  of  heresy,  and  of  hostility 
to  their  country  and  its  religion.  And  the 
measures  adopted  against  them,  in  consequence 
of  this  sentence,  were  of  the  most  severe  and 
rigorous  kind.  They  were  excommunicated  ; 
they  were  driven  from  all  their  offices,  civil 
and  ecclesiastical;  their  ministers  were  pro- 
hibited from  preaching;  and  their  congrega- 
tions were  suppressed.  Refusing  to  submit  to 
the  two  last  of  these  hard  decrees,  they  were 
subjected  to  fines,  imprisonments,  and  various 
other  punishments.  To  avoid  this  tyrannical 
treatment,  many  of  them  retired  to  Antwerp, 
others  to  France,  and  a  considerable  number 
into  Holstein,  where  they  were  kindly  received 
by  Frederick  the  duke,  and  where,  in  the  form 
of  a  colony,  they  built  for  themselves  a  hand- 
some town,  naming  it  Frederickstadt,  in  com- 
pliment to   their  friend  and  protector.     The 


history  of  this  colony  may  be  found  in  a  work 
entitled  Epistola  Prastantium  et  Erudilorum 
Virorum  Ecclesiastics  et  Theologies,  and  pub- 
lished by  Limborch  and  Hartsoeker. 

The  tenets  of  the  Arminians  may  be  com- 
prised in  the  following  five  articles  relating  to 
predestination,  universal  redemption,  the  cor- 
ruption of  men,  conversion,  and  perseverance, 
viz.  1.  That  God,  from  all  eternity,  determin- 
ed to  bestow  salvation  on  those  whom  he  fore- 
saw would  persevere  unto  the  end  in  their 
faith  in  Christ  Jesus ;  and  to  inflict  everlasting 
punishment  on  those  who  should  continue  in 
their  unbelief,  and  resist  unto  the  end  his  di- 
vine succours ;  so  that  election  was  conditional, 
and  reprobation  in  like  manner  the  result  of 
foreseen  infidelity  and  persevering  wickedness. 
2.  That  Jesus  Christ,  by  his  sufferings  and 
death,  made  an  atonement  for  the  sins  of  all 
mankind  in  general,  and  of  every  individual  in 
particular ;  that,  however,  none  but  those  who 
believe  in  him  can  be  partakers  of  the  divine 
benefits.  3.  That  true  faith  cannot  proceed 
from  the  exercise  of  our  natural  faculties  and 
powers,  nor  from  the  force  and  operation  of 
free  will ;  since  man,  in  consequence  of  his 
natural  corruption,  is  incapable  either  of  think- 
ing or  doing  any  good  thing ;  and  that,  there- 
fore, it  is  necessary,  in  order  to  his  salvation, 
that  he  be  regenerated  and  renewed  by  the 
operation  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  which  is  the  gift 
of  God  through  Jesus  Christ.  4.  That  this 
divine  grace  or  energy  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
begins  and  perfects  every  thing  that  can  be 
called  good  in  man,  and  consequently  all  good 
works  are  to  be  attributed  to  God  alone ;  that, 
nevertheless,  this  grace  is  offered  to  all,  and 
does  not  force  men  to  act  against  their  inclina- 
tions, but  may  be  resisted  and  rendered  inef- 
fectual by  the  perverse  wills  of  impenitent  sin- 
ners. 5.  That  God  gives  to  the  truly  faithful, 
who  are  regenerated  by  his  grace,  the  means 
of  preserving  themselves  in  this  state;  and 
though  the  first  Arminians  made  some  doubt 
with  respect  to  the  closing  part  of  this  article, 
their  followers  uniformly  maintain,  that  the 
regenerate  may  lose  true  justifying  faith,  forfeit 
their  state  of  grace,  and  die  in  their  sins.  The 
Arminians  are  also  called  Remonstrants,  from 
an  humble  petition  entitled  their  Remonstrance, 
which,  in  the  year  1610,  they  addressed  to  the 
States  of  Holland.  Their  principal  writers 
are,  Arminius,  Episcopius,  Uitenbogart,  Grotius, 
Curcellceus,  Limborch,  he  Clerc,  Wetslein, 
Goodwin,  Whitby,  Wesley,  Fletcher,  Tomline, 
<f-c.  The  works  of  Arminius,  with  a  copious 
account  of  his  life  and  times,  have  been  recent- 
ly translated  into  English,  by  Mr.  James 
Nichols ;  and  have  not  only  served  to  dissipate 
many  misconceptions  respecting  the  sentiments 
of  this  celebrated  divine,  which  had  prevailed 
in  England,  where  the  Pelagianism  of  some 
eminent  divines,  generally  called  Arminia.v, 
had  been  unjustly  charged  upon  him  ;  but  have 
added  a  most  valuable  collection  of  treatises  to 
our  theological  literature. 

ARMS.  The  Hebrews  do  not  appear  to  have 
had  any  peculiar  military  habit.  As  the  flow- 
ing dress  which  they  ordinarily  wore  would 


ARM 


94 


ARM 


nave  impeded  their  movements,  they  girt  it 
closely  around  them  when  preparing  for  battle, 
and  loosened  it  on  their  return,  2  Sara,  xx,  8 ; 
1  Kings  xx,  11.  They  used  the  same  arms  as 
the  neighbouring  nations,  both  defensive  and 
offensive  ;  and  these  were  made  either  of  iron 
or  of  brass,  principally  of  the  latter  metal.  Of 
the  defensive  arms  of  the  Hebrews,  the  follow, 
ing  were  the  most  remarkable  ;  namely, 

1.  The  helmet,  }Oi3,  for  covering  and  de- 
fending the  head.  This  was  a  part  of  the 
military  provision  made  by  Uzziah  for  his  vast 
army,  2  Chron.  xxvi,  14 ;  and  long  before  the 
time  of  that  king,  the  helmets  of  Saul  and  of 
the  Philistine  champion  were  of  the  same  metal, 
1  Sam.  xvii,  38.  This  military  cap  was  also 
worn  by  the  Persians,  Ethiopians,  and  Libyans, 
Ezek.  xxxviii,  5,  and  by  the  troops  which  An- 
tiochus  sent  against  Judas  Maccabeus,  1  Mac. 
vi,  35. 

2.  The  breastplate  or  corslet,  jvw,  was  an- 
other piece  of  defensive  armour.  Goliath,  and 
the  soldiers  of  Antiochus,  1  Sam.  xvii,  5 ;  1  Mac. 
vi,  35,  were  accoutred  with  this  defence;  which, 
in  our  authorized  translation,  is  variously  ren- 
dered habergeon,  coat  of  mail,  and  brigandine, 
1  Sam.  xvii,  38 ;  2  Chron.  xxvi,  14 ;  Isa.  lix, 
17;  Jer.  xlvi,  4.  Between  the  joints  of  this 
harness,  as  it  is  termed  in  1  Kings  xxii,  4,  the 
profligate  Ahab  was  mortally  wounded  by  an 
arrow,  shot  at  a  venture.  From  these  various 
renderings  of  the  original  word,  it  should  seem 
that  this  piece  of  armour  covered  both  the  back 
and  breast,  but  principally  the  latter.  The 
corslets  were  made  of  various  materials:  some- 
times they  were  made  of  flax  or  cotton,  woven 
very  thick,  or  of  a  kind  of  woollen  felt :  others 
again  were  made  of  iron  or  brazen  scales,  or 
laminae,  laid  one  over  another,  like  the  scales 
of  a  fish ;  others  were  properly  what  we  call 
coats  of  mail ;  and  others  were  composed  of  two 
pieces  of  iron  or  brass,  which  protected  the 
back  and  breast.  All  these  kinds  of  corslets 
are  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures.  Goliath's 
coat  of  mail,  1  Sam.  xvii,  5,  was  literally  a 
corslet  of  scales,  that  is,  composed  of  numerous 
laminae  of  brass,  crossing  each  other.  It  was 
called  by  Virgil,  and  other  Latin  writers,  squa- 
ma lorica.  Similar  corslets  were  worn  by  the 
Persians  and  other  nations.  The  breastplate 
worn  by  the  unhappy  Saul,  when  he  perished 
in  battle,  is  supposed  to  have  been  of  flax,  or 
cotton,  woven  very  close  and  thick,  2  Sam.i,  9, 
marginal  rendering. 

3.  The  shield  defended  the  whole  body  dur- 
ing the  battle.  It  wTas  of  various  forms,  and 
made  of  wood  covered  with  tough  hides,  or  of 
Iwraas,  and  sometimes  was  overlaid  with  gold, 
1  Kings  x,  1G,  17  ;  xiv,  26,  27.  Two  sorts  are 
mentioned  in  the  Scriptures;  namely,  the  njx, 
great  shield  or  buckler,  and  the  ]m,  or  entailer 
shield.  It  was  much  used  by  the  Jews,  Baby- 
lonians, Chaldeans,  Assyrians,  and  Egyptians. 
David,  who  was  a  great  warrior,  often  men- 
tions a  shield  and  buckler  in  his  divine  poems, 
to  signify  that  defence  and  protection  of  Heaven 
which  he  expected  and  experienced,  and  in 
which  lie  reposed  all  his  trust,  Psalm  v,  12; 
and  when  he  says,  "  God  will  with  favour  com 


pass  the  righteous  as  with  a  shield,"  he  seems 
to  allude  to  the  use  of  the  great  shield  tsin?iah, 
(which  is  the  word  he  uses,)  with  which  they 
covered  and  defended  their  whole  bodies. 
King  Solomon  caused  two  different  sorts  of 
shields  to  be  made  ;  namely,  the  tsinnah,  (which 
answers  to  clypeus  among  the  Latins,)  such  a 
large  shield  as  the  infantry  wore,  and  the  ma- 
giiiuim,  or  scuta,  which  were  used  by  the  horse- 
men, and  were  of  a  much  less  size,  2  Chron.  ix, 
15,  16.  The  former  of  these  are  translated 
targets,  and  are  double  in  weight  to  the  other. 
The  Philistines  came  into  the  field  with  this 
weapon  :  so  we  find  their  formidable  champion 
was  appointed,  1  Sam.  xvii,  7.  One  bearing  a 
shield  went  before  him,  whose  proper  duty  it 
was  to  carry  this  and  some  other  weapons, 
with  which  to  furnish  his  master  upon  occasion. 

The  loss  of  the  shield  in  fight  was  excessively 
resented  by  the  Jewish  warriors,  as  well  as  la- 
mented by  them  ;  for  it  was  a  signal  aggrava- 
tion of  the  public  mourning,  that  "the  shield 
of  the  mighty  was  vilely  cast  away,"  2  Sam. 
i,  21.  David,  a  man  of  arms,  who  composed 
this  beautiful  elegy  on  the  death  of  Saul,  felt 
how  disgraceful  a  thing  it  was  for  soldiers  to 
quit  their  shields  in  the  field. 

These  honourable  sentiments  were  not  con- 
fined to  the  Jews.  We  find  them  prevailing 
among  most  other  ancient  nations,  who  con- 
sidered it  infamous  to  cast  away  or  lose  their 
shield.  With  the  Greeks  it  was  a  capital  crime, 
and  punished  with  death.  The  Lacedemonian 
women,  it  is  well  known,  in  order  to  excite  the 
courage  of  their  sons,  used  to  deliver  to  them 
their  fathers'  shields,  with  this  short  address: 
"This  shield  thy  father  always  preserved:  do 
thou  preserve  it  also,  or  perish."  Alluding  per- 
haps to  these  sentiments,  St.  Paul,  when  ex. 
horting  the  Hebrew  Christians  to  steadfastness 
in  the  faith  of  the  Gospel,  urges  them  not  to 
cast  away  their  confidence,  which  "hath  great 
recompense  of  reward,'*  Heb.  x,  35. 

4.  Another  defensive  provision  in  war  was 
the  military  girdle,  which  was  for  a  double  pur- 
pose :  first,  in  order  to  hold  the  sword,  which 
hung,  as  it  does  this  day,  at  the  soldier's  girdle 
or  belt,  1  Sam.  xvii,  39  :  secondly,  it  was  ne- 
cessary to  gird  the  clothes  and  the  armour  to- 
gether. To  gird  and  to  arm  are  synonjmious 
words  in  Scripture ;  for  those  who  are  said  to 
be  able  to  put  on  armour  are,  according  to  the 
Hebrew  and  the  Septuagint,  girt  with  a  girdle  ; 
and  hence  comes  the  expression  of  "  girding 
to  the  battle,"  1  Kings  xx,  11;  Isa.  viii,  9; 
2  Sam.  xxii,  40  ;  1  Sam.  xviii,  4.  There  is  ex- 
press mention  of  this  military  girdle,  where  it 
is  recorded  that  Jonathan,  to  assure  David  of 
his  entire  love  and  friendship  by  some  visible 
pledges,  stripped  himself  not  only  of  his  usual 
garments,  but  of  his  military  habiliments,  his 
sword,  bow,  and  girdle,  and  gave  them  to  David. 

5,  Boots  or  greaves  were  part  of  the  ancient 
defensive  harness,  because  it  was  the  custom 
to  cast  certain  tp-no&ia,  impediments,  (so  called, 
because  they  entangled  the  feet,)  in  the  way 
before  the  enemy.  The  military  boot  or  shoe 
was  therefore  necessary  to  guard  the  legs  and 
<eet  from  the  iron  stakes  placed  in  the  way  to 


ARM 


95 


ART 


gall  and  wound  them ;  and  thus  we  are  enabled 
to  account  for  Goliath's  greaves  of  brass  which 
were  upon  his  legs. 

The  offensive  weapons  were  of  two  sorts  ; 
namely,  such  as  were  employed  when  they 
came  to  a  close  engagement,  and  those  with 
which  they  annoyed  the  enemy  at  a  distance. 
Of  the  former  description  were  the  sword  and 
the  battle-axe. 

1.  The  sword  is  the  most  ancient  weapon  of 
offence  mentioned  in  the  Bible.  With  it  Ja- 
cob's sons  treacherously  assassinated  the  She- 
chemites,  Gen.  xxxiv,  2.  It  was  worn  on  the 
thigh,  Psalm  xlv,  4 ;  Exod.  xxxii,  27 ;  and,  it 
should  seem  on  the  left  thigh  ;  for  it  is  par- 
ticularly mentioned  that  Ehud  put  a  dagger  or 
short  sword  under  his  garments  on  his  right 
thigh,  Judges  iii,  16.  There  appear  to  have  been 
two  kinds  of  swords  in  use,  a  larger  one  with 
one  edge,  which  is  called  in  Hebrew  the  mouth 
of  the  sword,  Joshua  vi,  21 ;  and  a  shorter  one 
with  two  edges,  like  that  of  Ehud.  The  modern 
Arabs,  it  is  well  known,  wear  a  sabre  on  one 
side,  and  a  cangiar  or  dagger  in  their  girdles. 

2.  Of  the  battle-axe  we  have  no  description 
in  the  sacred  volume :  it  seems  to  have  been  a 
most  powerful  weapon  in  the  hands  of  cavalry, 
from  the  allusion  made  to  it  by  Jeremiah  : 
"Thou  art  my  battle-axe  and  weapons  of  war; 
for  with  thee  will  I  break  in  pieces  the  nations, 
and  with  thee  will  I  destroy  kingdoms:  and 
with  thee  will  I  break  in  pieces  the  horse  and 
his  rider,  and  with  thee  will  I  break  in  pieces 
the  chariot  and  his  rider,"  Jer.  li,  20,  21. 

3.  The  spear  and  javelin  (as  the  words  nm 
and  nijn  are  variously  rendered  in  Num.  xxv,  7  ; 
1  Sam.  xiii,  19,  and  Jer.  xlvi,  4)  were  of  differ- 
ent kinds,  according  to  their  length  or  make. 
Some    of  them  might  be  thrown    or   darted, 

1  Sam.  xviii,  11;  others  were  a  kind  of  long 
swords,   Num.  xxv,   8 ;    and  it  appears   from 

2  Sam.  ii,  23,  that  some  of  them  were  pointed 
at  both  ends.  When  armies  were  encamped, 
the  spear  of  the  general  or  commander-in-chief 
was  stuck  into  the  ground  at  his  head. 

4.  Slings  are  enumerated  among  the  military 
stores  collected  by  Uzziah,  2  Chron.  xxvi,  14. 
In  the  use  of  the  sling  David  eminently  ex- 
celled, and  he  slew  Goliath  with  a  stone  from 
one.  The  Benjaminites  were  celebrated  in 
battle  because  they  had  attained  to  great  skill 
and  accuracy  in  handling  this  weapon  ;  "they 
could  sling  stones  to  a  hairs  breadth,  and  not 
miss,"  Judges  xx,  16 ;  and  where  it  is  said  that 
they  were  left-handed,  it  should  rather  be  ren- 
dered ambidexters;  for  we  are  told  they  could 
use  "  both  the  right  hand  and  the  left,"  1  Chron. 
xii,  2  ;  that  is,  they  did  not  constantly  use  the 
right  hand  as  others  did,  when  they  shot  arrows 
or  slung  stones ;  but  they  were  so  expert  in  their 
military  exercises,  that  they  could  perform  them 
with  their  left  hand  as  well  as  with  their  right. 

5.  Bows  and  arrows  are  of  great  antiquity ; 
indeed,  no  weapon  is  mentioned  so  early. 
Thus  Isaac  said  to  Esau,  "  Take  thy  weapons, 
thy  quiver  and  thy  bow,"  Gen.  xxvii,  3 ;  though, 
it  is  true,  these  are  not  spoken  of  as  used  in 
war,  but  in  hunting ;  and  so  they  are  supposed 
and  implied  before   this,  where  it  is   said  of 


Ishmael,  that  he  became  an  archer,  he  used 
bows  and  arrows  in  shooting  of  wild  beasts, 
Gen.  xxi,  20.  This  afterward  became  so  use. 
ful  a  weapon,  that  care  was  taken  to  train  up 
the  Hebrew  youth  to  it  betimes.  When  David 
had,  in  a  solemn  manner,  lamented  the  death 
of  King  Saul,  he  gave  orders  for  teaching  the 
young  men  the  use  of  the  bow,  1  Sam.  i,  18, 
that  they  might  be  as  expert  as  the  Philistines, 
by  whose  bows  and  arrows  Saul  and  his  army 
were  slain.  These  were  part  of  the  military 
ammunition  ;  for  in  those  times'  bows  were  used 
instead  of  guns,  and  arrows  supplied  the  place 
of  powder  and  ball.  From  the  book  of  Job, 
xx,  24,  it  may  be  collected,  that  the  military 
bow  was  made  of  steel,  and  consequently  was 
very  stiff  and  hard  to  bend,  on  which  account 
they  used  their  foot  in  bending  their  bows  ; 
and  therefore  when  the  prophets  speak  of 
treading  the  bow  and  of  bows  trodden,  they  are 
to  be  understood  of  bows  bent,  as  our  trans- 
lators rightly  render  it,  Jer.  1,  14 ;  Isa.  v,  28 ; 
xxi,  15 ;  but  the  Hebrew  word  which  is  used  in 
these  places,  signifies  to  tread  upon.  This 
weapon  was  thought  so  necessary  in  war,  that 
it  is  there  called,  "  the  bow  of  war,"  or  the 
"battle-bow,"  Zech.  ix,  10;  x,  14. 

ARNON,  a  river  or  brook,  mentioned  Num. 
xxi,  24,  and  elsewhere.  Its  spring  head  is  in 
the  mountains  of  Gilead,  or  of  the  Moabites, 
and  it  discharges  itself  into  the  Dead  Sea. 

ARROW.  See  Akms.  Divination  with  ar- 
rows was  a  method  of  presaging  future  events, 
practised  by  the  ancients.  Ezekiel,  xxi,  21,  in- 
forms us,  that  Nebuchadnezzar,  putting  himself 
at  the  head  of  his  armies,  to  march  against 
Zedekiah,  king  of  the  Jews,  and  against  the 
king  of  the  Ammonites,  stood  at  the  parting  of 
two  ways,  to  mingle  his  arrows  together  in  a 
quiver,  in  order  to  divine  from  thence  which 
way  he  should  march.  Jerom,  Theodoret,  and 
the  modern  commentators  after  them,  believe 
that  this  prince  took  several  arrows,  and  upon 
each  of  them  wrote  the  name  of  the  king,  town, 
or  province,  which  he  was  to  attack :  for  ex- 
ample, upon  one,  Jerusalem ;  upon  another, 
Rabbah,  the  capital  of  the  Ammonites ;  and 
upon  another,  Egypt,  &c.  After  having  put 
these  into  a  quiver,  he  shook  them  together, 
and  then  drew  them  out ;  and  the  arrow  which 
was  drawn  was  thought  to  declare  the  will  of 
the  gods  to  attack  first  that  city,  province,  or 
kingdom,  with  whose  name  it  was  inscribed. 

ARTAXERXES,  or  Ahasuerus,  a  king  of 
Persia,  the  husband  of  Esther,  who,  in  the 
opinion  of  the  learned  Usher  and  Calmet,  was 
the  Darius  of  profane  authors.  See  Ahasuerus. 

2.  Artaxerxes  I«ongimanus  is  supposed  by 
Dr.  Prideaux  to  be  the  Ahasuerus  of  Esther. 
He  was  the  son  of  Xerxes,  .and  grandson  of 
Darius  Hystaspes,  and  reigned  in  Persia  from 
the  year  of  the  world  3531  to  3579.  He  per- 
mitted Ezra,  with  all  those  inclined  to  follow 
him,  to  return  into  Judea,  in  the  year  of  the 
world  3537,  Ezra  vii,  viii.  Afterward,  Nehe- 
miah  also  obtained  leave  to  return,  and  to  build 
the  walls  and  gates  of  Jerusalem,  in  the  year 
of  the  world  3550,  Nehem.  i,  11.  From  this 
year,  chronologers   reckon  the  beginning  of 


ASA 


96 


ASA 


Daniel's  seventy  weeks,  Daniel  xi,  29.  These 
are  weeks  of  years,  and  make  four  hundred  and 
ninety  years.  Dr.  Prideaux,  who  discourses 
very  copiously,  and  with  great  learning,  on 
this  prophecy,  maintains  that  the  decree  men- 
tioned in  it  for  the  restoring  and  rebuilding  of 
Jerusalem,  cannot  be  understood  of  that  granted 
to  Nehemiah,  in  the  twentieth  year  of  Artax- 
erxes ;  but  of  that  granted  to  Ezra,  by  the 
same  Artaxerxes,  in  the  seventh  year  of  his 
reign.  From  that  time  to  the  death  of  Christ, 
are  exactly  four  hundred  and  ninety  years,  to 
a  month :  for  in  the  month  Nisan  the  decree 
was  granted  to  Ezra ;  and  in  the  middle  of  the 
same  month  Nisan,  Christ  suifered,  just  four 
hundred  and  ninety  years  afterward. 

The  easterns  think  that  the  surname  of 
Longimanus  was  given  to  Artaxerxes  by  rea- 
son of  the  extent  of  his  dominions ;  as  it  is 
commonly  said  that  princes  have  long  hands : 
but  the  Greeks  maintain  that  this  prince  had 
really  longer  hands  or  arms  than  usual ;  and 
that,  when  he  stood  upright,  he  could  touch 
his  knees.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  hand- 
somest man  of  his  time.  The  eastern  people 
call  him  Bahaman,  and  give  him  the  surname 
of  Ardschir-diraz-dest,  or  the  long-handed. 
He  was  the  son  of  Asfendiar,  sixth  king  of 
the  second  dynasty  of  the  Persians.  After 
having  extinguished  the  family  of  Rostam, 
which  was  formidable  to  him  on  account 
of  the  great  men  who  composed  it,  he  carried 
his  arms  into  the  western  provinces,  Meso- 
potamia and  Syria,  which  formed  part  of  his 
empire.  He  took  Babylon  from  Belshazzar, 
son  of  Nebuchadnezzar;  and  he  put  in  his 
place  Kiresch,  who  by  us  is  called  Cyrus. 
Some  Persian  historians  assert  that  the  mother 
of  Artaxerxes  was  a  Jewess,  of  the  tribe  of 
Benjamin,  and  family  of  Saul ;  and  that  the 
most  beloved  of  his  wives  was  of  the  tribe  of 
Judah,  and  race  of  Solomon,  by  Rehoboam, 
king  of  Judah.  If  this  be  true,  we  need  not 
wonder  that  he  should  recommend  to  Cyrus  to 
favour  the  Jewish  nation.  This  Cyrus  per- 
formed, by  sending  back  the  people  into  their 
own  country,  and  permitting  them  to  rebuild 
their  temple.  But  the  truth  of  this  story  is 
doubtful ;  and  were  it  true,  the  interference  of 
the  special  providence  of  God  must  still  be 
acknowledged.  Artaxerxes  reigned  forty-seven 
years,  and  died  in  the  year  of  the  world  3579, 
and  before  Jesus  Christ  425. 

ARTEMAS,  St.  Paul's  disciple,  who  was 
sent  by  that  Apostle  into  Crete,  in  the  room  of 
Titus,  chap,  iii,  12,  while  he  continued  with 
St.  Paul  at  Nicopolis,  where  he  passed  the 
winter.  We  know  nothing  particular  of  the 
life  or  death  of  Arte m as  ;  but  the  employment 
to  which  he  was  appointed  by  the  Apostle  is  a 
proof  of  his  great  merit. 

ASA,  the  son  and  successor  of  Abijam,  king 
of  Judah,  began  to  reign  in  the  year  of  the 
world  3049,  and  before  Christ  955.  He  reigned 
forty-one  years  at  Jerusalem,  and  did  right  in 
the  sight  of  the  Lord.  He  purged  Jerusalem 
from  the  infamous  practices  attending  the 
worship  cf  idols;  and  he  deprived  his  mother 
of  her  office  and  dignity  of  queen,  because  she 


erected  an  idol  to  Astarte,  which  he  burnt  m 
the  valley  of  Hinnom,  1  Kings  xv,  8,  &c. 

The  Scripture  reproaches  Asa  with  not  de- 
stroying the  high  places,  which,  perhaps,  he 
thought  it  politic  to  tolerate,  to  avoid  the  great- 
er evil  of  idolatry.  He  carried  into  the  house 
of  the  Lord  the  gold  and  silver  vessels  which 
his  father  Abijam  had  vowed  to  consecrate. 
He  fortified  several  cities,  and  repaired  others, 
encouraging  his  people  to  this  labour  while  the 
kingdom  was  at  peace  ;  and  the  Lord  favoured 
them  with  his  protection.  After  this  he  levied 
three  hundred  thousand  men  in  Judah,  armed 
with  shields  and  pikes ;  and  two  hundred  and 
eighty  thousand  men  in  Benjamin,  armed  with 
shields  and  bows,  all  men  of  courage  and  va- 
lour. About  this  time,  Zerah,  king  of  Ethi- 
opia, or  rather  of  Cush,  which  is  part  of  Arabia, 
marched  against  Asa  with  a  million  of  foot, 
and  three  hundred  chariots  of  war,  and  ad- 
vanced as  far  as  Mareshah.  This  probably 
happened  in  the  fifteenth  year  of  Asa's  reign, 
and  in  the  year  of  the  world  3064,  2  Chron. 
xv,  10.  Asa  advanced  to  meet  Zerah,  and  en- 
camped in  the  plain  of  Zephathah,  or  rather 
Zephatah,  near  Mareshah,  and  having  prayed 
to  the  Lord,  God  struck  the  forces  of  Zerah 
with  such  a  panic  that  they  began  to  flee.  Asa 
and  his  army  pursued  them  to  Geran,  and  slew 
of  them  a  great  number.  After  this,  Asa's 
army  returned  to  Jerusalem,  laden  with  booty. 
The  prophet  Azariah  met  them,  and  said, 
"Hear  ye  me,  Asa,  and  all  Judah  and  Benja- 
min, The  Lord  is  with  you  while  ye  be  with 
him,  and  if  ye  seek  him  he  will  be  found  of 
you;  but  if  ye  forsake  him,  he  will  forsake 
you. — Be  ye  strong,  therefore,  and  let  not  your 
hands  be  weak  :  for  your  work  shall  be  reward- 
ed," 2  Chron.  xv,  2,  7.  After  this  exhortation, 
Asa,  being  animated  with  new  courage,  de- 
stroyed the  idols  of  Judah,  Benjamin,  and 
Mount  Ephraim ;  repaired  the  altar  of  burnt- 
offerings  ;  and  assembled  Judah  and  Benjamin, 
with  many  from  the  tribes  of  Simeon,  Ephraim, 
and  Manasseh,  and  on  the  third  day,  in  the 
fifteenth  year  of  his  reign,  celebrated  a  solemn 
festival.  Of  the  cattle  taken  from  Zerah,  they 
sacrificed  seven  hundred  oxen,  and  seven  thou- 
sand sheep ;  they  renewed  the  covenant  with 
the  Lord;  and,  with  cymbals  and  trumpets 
sounding,  they  swore  to  the  covenant,  and  de- 
clared that  whoever  should  forsake  the  true 
worship  of  God,  should  be  put  to  death.  The 
Lord  gave  them  peace  ;  and,  according  to  the 
Chronicles,  the  kingdom  of  Judah  had  rest  till 
the  thirty-fifth  year  of  Asa.  Concerning  this 
year,  however,  there  are  difficulties ;  and  some 
think  that  we  should  read  the  twenty-fifth,  in- 
stead of  the  thirty -fifth;  since  Baasha,  who 
made  war  on  Asa,  lived  no  longer  than  the 
twenty-sixth  year  of  Asa,  1  Kings  xvi,  8. 

In  this  year  Baasha,  king  of  Israel,  began 
to  fortify  Ramah,  on  the  frontiers  of  the  two 
kingdoms  of  Judah  and  Israel,  that  he  might 
prevent  the  Israelites  from  resorting  to  the 
kingdom  of  Judah,  and  the  temple  of  the  Lord 
at  Jerusalem.  When  Asa  was  informed  of 
this,  ho  sent  to  Benhadad,  king  of  Damascus, 
all  the  gold  and  silver  of  his  palace,  and  of  the 


ASC 


97 


ASH 


temple,  to  induce  him  to  break  his  alliance 
with  Baasha,  and  to  assist  him  against  the  king 
of  Israel.  Benhadad  accepted  Asa's  presents, 
and  invaded  Baasha's  country,  where  he  took 
several  cities  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Naph- 
tali.  This  obliged  Baasha  to  retire  from  Ra- 
mah,  that  he  might  defend  his  dominions  nearer 
home.  Asa  immediately  ordered  his  people  to 
Ramah,  carried  off  all  the  materials  prepared 
by  Baasha,  and  employed  them  in  building 
Geba  and  Mizpah.  This  application  to  Ben- 
hadad for  assistance  was  inexcusable.  It  im- 
plied, that  Asa  distrusted  God's  power  and 
goodness,  which  he  had  so  lately  experienced. 
Therefore  the  Prophet  Hanani  was  sent  to  re- 
prove him  for  his  conduct.  Asa,  however,  was 
so  exasperated  at  his  rebukes  that  he  put  the 
Prophet  in  chains,  and  at  the  same  time  or- 
dered the  execution  of  several  persons  in  Judah. 
Toward  the  latter  part  of  his  life,  he  was  in- 
commoded with  swellings  in  his  feet,  which, 
gradually  rising  upwards,  killed  him.  The 
Scripture  reproaches  him  with  having  had  re- 
course to  physicians,  rather  than  to  the  Lord. 
He  was  buried  in  the  sepulchre  which  he  had 
provided  for  himself  in  the  city  of  David ;  and 
after  his  death  they  placed  on  the  bed  great 
quantities  of  perfumes  and  spices,  with  which 
his  body  was  burned.  His  bones  and  ashes 
were  then  collected,  and  put  into  his  grave. 

ASAHEL,  the  son  of  Zeraiah.  and  brother 
of  Joab.  He  was  killed  by  Abner,  in  the  bat- 
tle of  Gibeon,  2  Sam.  ii,  18,  19,  while  he  ob- 
stinately persisted  in  the  pursuit  of  that  general. 
To  revenge  his  death,  his  brother  Joab,  some 
years  after,  treacherously  killed  Abner,  who 
had  come  to  wait  on  David  at  Hebron,  in  order 
to  procure  him  to  be  acknowledged  king  by  all 
Israel,  2  Sam.  iii,  26,  27.     See  Abner. 

ASAPH,  a  celebrated  musician  in  the  time 
of  David,  was  the  son  of  Barachias  of  the  tribe 
of  Levi.  Asaph,  and  also  his  descendants, 
presided  over  the  musical  band  in  the  service 
of  the  temple.  Several  of  the  psalms,  as  the 
fiftieth,  the  seventy-third  to  the  eighty-third, 
have  the  name  of  Asaph  prefixed  ;  but  it  is  not 
certain  whether  the  words  or  the  music  were 
composed  by  him.  With  regard  to  some  of 
them,  which  were  written  during  the  Babylon- 
ish captivity,  they  cannot  in  any  respect  be 
ascribed  to  him.  Perhaps  they  were  written 
or  set  to  music  by  his  descendants,  who  bore 
his  name,  or  by  some  of  that  class  of  musicians 
of  which  the  family  of  Asaph  was  the  head, 
1  Chron.  vi,  39  ;  2  Chron.  xxix,  30  ;  xxxv,  15 ; 
Neh.  xii,  46.  The  psalms  which  bear  the 
name  of  Asaph  are  doctrinal  or  preceptive : 
their  style,  though  less  sweet  than  that  of 
David,  is  more  vehement,  and  little  inferior  to 
the  grandeur  of  Isaiah. 

ASCENSION  OF  CHRIST,  his  visible 
elevation  to  heaven.  Our  Saviour,  having 
repeatedly  conversed  with  his  Apostles  after  his 
resurrection,  and  afforded  them  many  infallible 
proofs  of  its  reality,  led  them  from  Jerusalem 
to  Bethany,  and  was  raised  up  to  heaven  in 
their  sight ;  there  to  continue  till  he  shall  de- 
scend at  the  last  day  to  judge  the  quick  and 
the  dead.  The  evidences  of  this  fact  were 
8 


numerous.  The  disciples  saw  him  ascend, 
Acts  i,  9,  10.  Two  angels  testified  that  ho 
did  ascend,  Acts  i,  11.  Stephen,  Paul,  and 
John  saw  him  in  his  ascended  state,  Acts  vii, 
55,  56;  ix;  Rev.  i.  The  ascension  was  de- 
monstrated by  the  descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
John  xvi,  7,  14 ;  Acts  ii,  33 ;  and  the  terrible 
overthrow  and  dispersion  of  the  Jewish  nation 
is  still  a  standing  proof  of  it,  John  viii,  21 ; 
Matt,  xxvi,  64.  The  time  of  Christ's  ascen- 
sion was  forty  days  after  his  resurrection.  Ho 
continued  so  many  days  upon  earth  that  he 
might  give  repeated  proofs  of  his  resurrection. 
Acts  i,  3 ;  instruct  his  Apostles  in  every  thing 
of  importance  respecting  their  office  and  minis- 
try, Acts  i,  3 ;  and  might  open  to  them  the 
Scriptures  concerning  himself,  and  renew  their 
commission  to  preach  the  Gospel,  Acts  i,  5,  6  ; 
Mark  xvi,  15.  As  to  the  manner  of  his  ascen- 
sion, it  was  from  mount  Olivet  to  heaven,  not 
in  appearance  only,  but  in  reality,  and  that 
visibly  and  locally.  It  was  a  real  motion  of 
his  human  nature  ;  sudden,  swift,  glorious,  and 
in  a  triumphant  manner.  He  was  parted  from 
his  disciples  while  he  was  solemnly  blessing 
them  ;  and  multitudes  of  angels  attended  him 
with  shouts  of  praise,  Psalm  lxviii,  17 ;  xlvii, 

5,  6. 

The  effects  or  ends  of  his  ascension  were, 
1.  To  fulfil  the  types  and  prophecies  concern- 
ing it;  2.  To  "appear"  as  a  priest  "in  the 
presence  of  God  for  us ;"  3.  To  take  upon  him 
more  openly  the  exercise  of  his  kingly  office ; 
4.  To  receive  gifts  for  men,  both  ordinary  and 
extraordinary,  Psalm  lxviii,  18 ;  5.  To  open  the 
way  to  heaven  for  his  people,  Heb.  x,  19,  20 ; 

6.  To  assure  the  saints  of  their  ascension  to 
heaven  after  their  resurrection  from  the  dead, 
John  xiv,  1,  2. 

ASHDOD,  Azoth,  according  to  the  Vul- 
gate, or  Azotus,  according  to  the  Greek,  a  city 
which  was  assigned  by  Joshua  to  the  tribe  of 
Judah,  but  was  possessed  a  long  time  by  the 
Philistines,  and  rendered  famous  for  the  temple 
of  their  god  Dagon,  Joshua  xv,  47.  It  lies 
upon  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  about  nine  or 
ten  miles  north  of  Gaza;  and  in  the  times 
when  Christianity  flourished  in  these  parts  was 
made  an  episcopal  see,  and  continued  a  fair 
village  till  the  days  of  St.  Jerom.  Here  the 
ark  of  Jehovah  triumphed  over  the  Philistine 
idol  Dagon,  1  Sam.  v,  2. 

ASHER,  tribe  of.  The  province  allotted  to 
this  tribe  was  a  maritime  one,  stretching  along 
the  coast  from  Sidon  on  the  north  to  Mount 
Carmel  on  the  south;  including  the  cities  Ab. 
don,  Achsliaph,  Accho,  Achzib,  Sarepta,  Sidon, 
and  Tyre.  But  of  the  northern  half  of  this  ter- 
ritory, that  is,  from  Tyre  northward,  this  tribe 
never  became  possessed,  not  having  expelled 
the  Phoenician  inhabitants,  who  are  supposed 
not  to  have  been  pure  Canaanites,  but  a  mix- 
ture  of  this  people  with  a  Cuthite  colony  from 
Egypt.  Asher  was  the  most  northerly  of  the 
tribes  ;  and  had  that  of  Naphtali  on  the  west, 
and  Zebulun  on  the  .south. 

ASHES.  Several  religious  ceremonies,  and 
some  symbolical  ones,  anciently  depended  upon 
the  use  of  ashes.     To  repent  in  sackcloth  and 


ASH 


98 


ASM 


ashes,  or,  as  an  external  sign  of  self-affliction 
for  sin,  or  of  suffering  under  some  misfortune, 
to  sit  in  ashes,  are  expressions  common  in 
Scripture.  "  I  am  but  dust  and  ashes,"  ex- 
claims Abraham  before  the  Lord,  Gen.  xviii, 
27 ;  indicating  a  deep  sense  of  his  own  mean- 
ness in  comparison  with  God.  God  threatens 
to  shower  down  dust  and  ashes  on  the  lands 
instead  of  rain,  Deut.  xxviii,  24  ;  thereby  to 
make  them  barren  instead  of  blessing  them,  to 
dry  them  up  instead  of  watering  them.  Tamar, 
after  the  injury  she  had  received  from  Amnon, 
covered  her  head  with  ashes,  2  Sam.  xiii,  19. 
The  Psalmist,  in  great  sorrow,  says  poetically, 
he  had  "  eaten  ashes  as  it  were  bread,"  Psalm 
cii,  9  ;  that  is,  he  sat  on  ashes,  he  threw  ashes 
on  his  head ;  and  his  food,  his  bread,  was 
sprinkled  with  the  ashes  wherewith  he  was 
himself  covered.  So  Jeremiah  introduces  Jeru- 
salem saying,  "The  Lord  hath  covered  me 
with  ashes,"  Lamentations  iii,  16.  Sitting  on 
ashes,  or  lying  down  among  ashes,  was  a  token 
of  extreme  grief.  We  find  it  adopted  by  Job, 
ii,  8 ;  by  many  Jews  when  in  great  fear,  Es- 
ther iv,  3;  and  by  the  king  of  Nineveh,  Jonah 
iii,  6.  He  arose  from  his  throne,  laid  aside  his 
robe,  covered  himself  with  sackcloth,  and  sat 
in  ashes.  This  token  of  affliction  is  illustrated 
by  Homer's  description  of  old  Laertes  grieving 
for  the  absence  of  his  son,  "  Sleeping  in  the 
apartment  where  the  slaves  slept,  in  the  ashes, 
near  the  fire."  Compare  Jer.  vi,  26,  "  Daugh- 
ter of  my  people,  wallow  thyself  in  ashes." 
There  was  a  sort  of  ley  and  lustral  water,  made 
with  the  ashes  of  the  heifer  sacrificed  on  the 
great  day  of  expiation  ;  these  ashes  were  dis- 
tributed to  the  people,  and  used  in  purifications, 
by  sprinkling,  to  such  as  had  touched  a  dead 
body,  or  had  been  present  at  funerals,  Num. 
xix,  17. 

ASHKENAZ,  one  of  the  sons  of  Gomer, 
and  grandson  of  Japheth,  who  gave  his  name 
to  the  country  first  peopled  by  him  in  the  north 
and  north-western  part  of  Asia  Minor,  answer- 
ing to  Bithynia;  where  were  traces  long  after 
of  his  name,  particularly  in  that  of  Ascanius, 
applied  to  a  bay  and  city,  as  well  as  to  some 
islands  lying  along  the  coast.  It  was  also 
from  this  country,  most  probably,  that  the  king 
Ascanius,  mentioned  by  Homer,  came  to  the 
aid  of  Priamus  at  the  siege  of  Troy.  From  the 
same  source,  likewise,  the  Pontus  Euxinus,  or 
Black  Sea,  derived  its  name.  It  may  farther 
be  remarked  on  the  identity  of  these  countries, 
that  the  Prophet  Jeremiah,  predicting  the  cap- 
ture of  Babylon,  and  calling  by  name  the 
countries  which  were  to  rise  against  it,  ex- 
claims, "Call  together  against  her  the  king- 
doms of  Ararat,  (or  Armenia,)  Minni,  and 
Ashkenaz :"  which  was  literally  fulfilled  ;  as 
Xenophen  informs  us  that  Cyrus,  after  taking 
Nardis,  became  master  of  Phrygia  on  the  Hel- 
lespont, and  took  along  with  him  many  soldiers 
of  that  country. 

ASHTAROTH,  or  Astarte,  a  goddess  of 
the  Zidonians.  The  word  Ashtaroth  properly 
signifies  flocks  of  sheep,  or  goats ;  and  some- 
times the  grove,  or  woods,  because  she  was 
goddess  of  woods,  and  groves  were  her  temples. 


In  groves  consecratedto  her,  suchlasciviousness 
was  committed  as  rendered  her  worship  infa- 
mous. She  was  also  called  the  queen  of  heaven  ; 
and  sometimes  her  worship  is  said  to  be  that  of 
"  the  host  of  heaven."  She  was  certainly  repre- 
sented in  the  same  manner  as  Isis,  with  cows' 
horns  on  her  head,  to  denote  the  increase  and 
decrease  of  the  moon.  Cicero  calls  her  tho 
fourth  Venus  of  the  Syrians.  She  is  almost 
always  joined  with  Baal,  and  is  called  a  god, 
the  Scriptures  having  no  particular  word  to 
express  a  goddess.  It  is  believed  that  the 
moon  was  adored  in  this  idol.  Her  temples 
generally  accompanied  those  of  the  sun  ;  and 
while  bloody  sacrifices  or  human  victims  were 
offered  to  Baal,  bread,  liquors,  and  perfumes 
were  presented  to  Astarte.  For  her,  tables 
were  prepared  upon  the  flat  terrace  roofs  of 
houses,  near  gates,  in  porches,  and  at  cross- 
ways,  on  the  first  day  of  every  month ;  and 
this  was  called  by  the  Greeks,  Hecate's  supper. 

Solomon,  seduced  by  his  foreign  wives,  in- 
troduced the  worship  of  Ashtaroth  into  Israel ; 
but  Jezebel,  daughter  of  the  king  of  Tyre,  and 
wife  to  Ahab,  principally  established  her  wor- 
ship. She  caused  altars  to  be  erected  to  this 
idol  in  every  part  of  Israel ;  and  at  one  time 
four  hundred  priests  attended  the  worship  of 
Ashtaroth,  1  Kings  xviii,  7. 

ASHUR,  the  son  of  Shem,  who  gave  his 
name  to  Assyria.  It  is  believed  that  Ashur 
originally  dwelt  in  the  land  of  Shinar  and  about 
Babylonia,  but  that  he  was  compelled  by  the 
usurper  Nimrod  to  depart  from  thence,  and 
settle  higher  toward  the  springs  of  the  Tigris, 
in  the  province  of  Assyria,  so  called  from  him, 
where  some  think  he  built  the  famous  city  of 
Nineveh,  and  those  of  Rehoboth,  Calah,  and 
Resen,  Gen.  x,  11,  12. 

ASIA,  one  of  the  four  grand  divisions  of  the 
earth.  It  is  also  used  in  a  more  restricted 
sense  for  Asia  Minor,  or  Anatolia.  In  the 
New  Testament  it  always  signifies  the  Roman 
Proconsular  Asia,  in  which  the  seven  Apoca- 
lyptic churches  were  situated. 

ASKELON,  a  city  in  the  land  of  the  Phi- 
listines, situated  between  Azoth  and  Gaza, 
upon  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  about 
520  furlongs  from  Jerusalem.  The  tribe  of 
Judah,  after  the  death  of  Joshua,  took  the  city 
of  Askelon,  Judges  i,  18,  being  one  of  the  five 
governments  belonging  to  the  Philistines.  The 
place  at  present  is  in  ruins. 

ASMON/EANS,  a  name  given  to  the  Mac- 
cabees, the  descendants  of  Mattathias.  After 
the  death  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  the  Jews 
were  governed  by  their  high  priest,  in  subjec- 
tion, however,  to  the  Persian  kings,  to  whom 
they  paid  tribute;  but  with  full  enjoyment  of 
their  liberties,  civil  and  religious.  Nearly 
three  centuries  of  prosperity  ensued,  until  they 
were  cruelly  oppressed  by  Antiochus  Epipha- 
nes,  king  of  Syria,  when  they  were  compelled 
to  take  up  arms  in  their  own  defence.  Under 
the  able  conduct  of  Judas,  surnamed  Macca- 
beus, and  his  valiant  brothers,  the  Jews  main- 
tained a  religious  war  for  twenty-six  years  with 
five  successive  kings  of  Syria ;  and  after  de- 
stroying upwards  of  two  hundred  thousand  of 


ASP 


99 


ASS 


their  best  troops,  the  Maccabees  finally  esta- 
blished the  independence  of  their  own  country, 
and  the  aggrandisement  of  their  family.  This 
illustrious  house,  whose  princes  united  the 
regal  and  pontifical  dignity  in  their  own  per- 
sons, administered  the  affairs  of  the  Jews  during 
a  period  of  a  hundred  and  twenty-six  years ; 
until,  disputes  arising  between  Hyrcanus  II, 
and  his  brother  Aristobulus,  the  latter  was 
defeated  by  the  Romans,  who  captured  Jerusa- 
lem, and  reduced  Judea  to  a  military  province, 
B.  C.  59. 

ASNAPPER,  the  king  of  Assyria,  who  sent 
the  Cutheans  into  the  country  belonging  to  the 
ten  tribes,  Ezra  iv,  10.  Many  take  this  prince 
to  be  Shalmaneser;  but  others,  with  more 
probability,  think  him  to  be  Esar-haddon. 

ASP,  ]HQ.  Deut.  xxxii,  33;  Job  xx,  14,  16; 
Psalm  lviii,  4;  xci,  13;  Isaiah  xi,  8.  A  very 
venomous  serpent,  whose  poison  is  so  subtle  as 
to  kill  within  a  few  hours  with  a  universal 
gangrene.  This  may  well  refer  to  the  bceten 
of  the  Arabians,  which  M.  Forskal  describes 
as  spotted  with  black  and  white,  about  one  foot 
in  length,  and  nearly  half  an  inch  in  thickness, 
oviparous,  and  whose  bite  is  death.  It  is  the 
aspic  of  the  ancients,  and  is  so  called  now  by 
the  literati  of  Cyprus,  though  the  common 
people  call  it  kufi,  (k»^i/,)  deaf.  With  the  pe- 
then  we  may  connect  the  python  of  the  Greeks, 
which  was,  according  to  fable,  a  huge  serpent 
that  had  an  oracle  at  mount  Parnassus,  famous 
for  predicting  future  events.  Apollo  is  said  to 
have  slain  this  serpent,  and  hence  he  was  call- 
ed "  Pythius."  Those  possessed  with  a  spirit 
of  divination  were  also  styled  Uudwvts.  The 
word  occurs  in  Acts,  xvi,  16,  as  the  character- 
istic of  a  young  woman  who  had  a  pylhonic 
spirit.  It  is  well  known  that  the  serpent  was 
particularly  employed  by  the  Heathens  in  their 
enchantments  and  divinations.     See  Serpent. 

Pethen,  jna,  is  variously  translated  in  our 
version  ;  but  interpreters  generally  consider  it 
as  referring  to  the  asp.  Zophar  alludes  to  it 
more  than  once  in  his  description  of  a  wicked 
man  :  "  Yet  his  meat  in  his  bowels  is  turned, 
it  is  the  gall  of  asps  within  him.  He  shall 'Suck 
the  poison  of  asps  :  the  viper's  tongue  shall  slay 
him."  The  venom  of  asps  is  the  most  subtle 
of  all ;  it  is  incurable  ;  and,  if  the  wounded  part 
be  not  instantly  amputated,  it  speedily  termi- 
nates the  existence  of  the  sufferer.  To  these 
circumstances,  Moses  evidently  alludes  in  bis 
character  of  the  Heathen  :  "  Their  wine  is  the 
poison  of  dragons,  and  the  cruel  venom  of  asps." 
To  tread  upon  the  asp  is  attended  with  extreme 
danger;  therefore,  to  express  in  the  strongest 
manner  the  safety  which  the  godly  man  enjoys 
under  the  protection  of  his  heavenly  Father,  it 
is  promised,  that  he  shall  tread  with  impunity 
upon  these  venomous  creatures.  No  person  of 
his  own  accord  approaches  the  hole  of  these 
deadly  reptiles;  for  he  who  gives  them  the 
smallest  disturbance  is  in  extreme  danger  of 
paying  the  forfeit  of  his  rashness  with  his  life. 
Hence,  the  Prophet  Isaiah,  predicting  the  con- 
version of  the  Gentiles  to  the  faith  of  Christ, 
and  t  e  glorious  reign  of  peace  and  truth  in 
those  regions  which,  prior  to  that  period,  were 


full  of  horrid  cruelty,  marvellously  heightens 
the  force  of  the  whole  description  by  declaring, 
"The  sucking  child  shall  play  on  the  hole  of 
the  asp,  and  the  weaned  child  shall  put  his  hand 
on  the  cockatrice'  den.  They  shall  not  hurt 
nor  destroy  in  all  my  holy  mountain  ;  for  the 
earth  shall  be  full  of  the  knowledge  of  the  Lord, 
as  the  waters  cover  the  sea." 

ASS,  men,  Arabic,  chamara  and  hamar. 
There  are  three  words  referred  by  translators 
to  the  ass:  1.  men,  which  is  the  usual  appella- 
tion, and  denotes  the  ordinary  kind ;  such  as  is 
employed  in  labour,  carriage,  and  domestic  ser- 
vices. 2.  Nis,  rendered  onager,  or  "  wild  ass." 
3.  ]inx,  rendered  she  ass.  To  these  we  must 
add,  Nmj?,  rendered  wild  asses,  Dan.  v,  21. 
The  prevailing  colour  of  this  animal  in  the 
east  is  reddish ;  and  the  Arabic  word,  chamara, 
signifies  to  be  red. 

In  his  natural  state  he  is  fleet,  fierce,  formi- 
dable, and  intractable  ;  but  when  domesticated, 
the  most  gentle  of  all  animals,  and  assumes  a 
patience    and   submission  even   more  humble 
than  his  situation.     Le  Clerc  observes,  that  the 
Israelites  not  being  allowed  to  keep  horses,  the 
ass  was  not  only  made  a  beast  of  burden,  but 
used  on  journeys ;  and  that  even  the  most  ho 
nourable  of  the  nation  were  wont  to  be  mounted 
on  asses,  which  in  the  eastern  countries  were 
much  larger  and  more  beautiful  than  they  are 
with  us.     Jair  of  Gilead  had  thirty  sons  who 
rode  on  as  many  asses,  and  commanded  in  thirty 
cities,  Judges  x,  4.     Abdon's  sons  and  grand- 
sons rode  also  upon  asses,  Judges  xii,  4.     And 
Christ  makes  his  solemn  entry  into  Jerusalem 
riding  upon  an  ass,  Matt,  xxi,  4  ;  John  xii,  14. 
To  draw  with  an  ox  and  ass  together  was  pro- 
hibited in  the  Mosaic  law,  Deut.  xxii,  10.    This 
law  is  thought  to  have  respect  to  some  idola- 
trous custom  of  the  Gentiles,  who  were  taught 
to  believe  that  their  fields  would  be  more  fruit- 
ful if  thus  ploughed ;  for  it  is  not  likely  that 
men  would  have  yoked  together  two  creatures 
so  different  in  their  tempers  and  motions,  had 
they  not  been   led  to  it  by  some  superstition. 
There  might  be,  however,  a  physical  reason  for 
this  injunction.     Two  beasts  of  a  different  spe- 
cies cannot  well    associate  together ;    and  on 
this  account  never  pull  pleasantly  either  in  the 
cart  or  plough,  and  are  not  therefore   ''  true 
yoke  fellows."     Le  Clerc  considers  this  law  as 
merely  symbolical,  importing  that  we  are  not 
to  form  improper  alliances  in  civi'  and  religious 
life  ;  and  he  thinks  his  opinion  confirmed  by 
these  words  of  St.  Paul,  2  Cor.  vi,  14  :  "  Be  ye 
not  unequally  yoked  with  unbelievers  ;"  which 
are  simply  to  be  underwood  as  prohibiting  all 
intercourse  between  Christians  and  idolaters, 
in  social,  mitrimo^i'al,  and  religious  life.     To 
teach  the  Jews  tie  propriety  of  this,  a  variety 
of  precepts  relative  to  improper  and  heteroge- 
neous mixtu^s  were  interspersed  through  their 
law  ;  so  tAat  in  civil  and  domestic  life  they 
might  kave  them  ever  before  their  eyes. 

Ths  wild  ass,  called  para,  is  probably  the 
oneger  of  the  ancients.  It  is  taller  and  a  much 
more  dignified  animal  than  the  common  or  do- 
mestic ass ;  its  legs  are  more  elegantly  shaped ; 
and  it  bears  its  head  higher.     It  i«  peculiarly 


ASS 


100 


ASS 


distinguished  by  a  dusky  woolly  mane,  long 
erect  ears,  and  a  forehead  highly  arched.  The 
colour  of  the  hair,  in  general,  is  of  a  silvery 
white.  These  animals  associate  in  herds,  under 
a  leader,  and  are  very  shy.  They  inhabit  the 
mountainous  regions  and  desert  parts  of  Tar- 
tary,  Persia,  &c.  Anciently  they  were  like- 
wise  found  inLycaonia,Phrygia,  Mesopotamia, 
and  Arabia  Deserta.  They  are  remarkably 
wild;  and  Job,  xxxix,  5-8,  describes  the  liberty 
they  enjoy,  the  place  of  their  retreat,  their  man- 
ners, and  wild,  impetuous,  and  untamable  spi- 
rit. "  Vain  man  would  be  wise,  though  he  be 
born  a  wild  ass's  colt,"  Job  xi,  12  ;  Nia  "vp,  "  ass 
colt,"  not  "ass's  colt;"  t  being  in  apposition 
with  Nio,  and  not  in  government.  The  whole 
is  a  proverbial  expression,  denoting  extreme 
perversity  and  ferocity,  and  repeatedly  alluded 
to  in  the  Old  Testament.  Thus,  Gen.  xvi,  12, 
it  is  prophesied  of  Ishmael  that  he  should  be 
D*iN  nid,  a  wild  ass  man ;  rough,  untaught, 
and  libertine  as  a  wild  ass.  So  Hosea,  xiii,  15  ; 
"  He  (Ephraim)  hath  run  wild  (literally  ossified 
himself)  amidst  the  braying  monsters."  So 
again,  Hosea  viii,  9,  the  very  same  character  is 
given  of  Ephraim,  who  is  called  "  a  solitary 
wild  ass  by  himself,"  or  perhaps  a  solitary  wild 
ass  of  the  desert;  for  the  original  will  bear  to 
be  so  rendered.  This  proverbial  expression  has 
descended  among  the  Arabians  to  the  present 
day,  who  still  employ,  as  Schultens  has  remark- 
ed, the  expressions,  "the  ass  of  the  desert,"  or 
"the  wild  ass,"  to  describe  an  obstinate,  indo- 
cile, and  contumacious  person.  The  Prophet 
Isaiah,  xxxii,  14,  describes  great  desolation  by 
saying  that  "the  wild  asses  shall  rejoice  where 
a  city  stood."  There  is  another  kind  of  ass 
called,  pnN.  Abraham  had  atonoth,  Gen.  xii, 
16;  Balaam  rode  on  an  aton,  Num.  xxii,  23. 
We  find  from  1  Chron.  xxvii,  30,  that  David 
had  an  officer  expressly  appointed  to  superin- 
tend his  atonoth  ;  not  his  ordinary  asses,  but 
those  of  a  nobler  race ;  which  implies  at  least 
equal  dignity  in  this  officer  to  his  colleagues 
mentioned  with  him.  This  notion  of  the  aton 
gives  also  a  spirit  to  the  history  of  Saul,  who, 
v/hen  his  father's  atonoth  were  lost,  was  at  no 
little  pains  to  seek  them ;  moreover,  as  beside 
beinjr  valuable,  they  were  uncommon,  he  might 
the  more  readily  hear  of  them  if  they  had  been 
noticed  or  taken  up  by  any  one ;  and  this  leads 
to  the  trut  interpretation  of  the  servant's  pro- 
posed applies  ion  to  Samuel,  verse  6,  as  though 
ho  said,  "  In  h'.s  office  of  magistracy  this  ho- 
nourable man  maj  have  heard  of  these  strayed 
rarities,  and  secured  them ;  peradventure  he 
can  direct  us." 

Thus  we  find  that  th»se  atonoth  are  men- 
tioned in  Scripture,  only  ir  the  possession  of 
judges,  patriarchs,  and  other  rrreat  men  ;  inso- 
much that  where  these  are  tV.erc  is  dignity, 
either  expressed  or  implied.  Thej  were  also  a 
present  for  a  prince  ;  for  Jacob  prcstntcd  Esau 
with  twenty,  Gen.  xxxii,  15.  What  ti^n  shall 
we  say  of  the  wealth  of  Job,  who  possessed  a 
thousand?  Another  word  which  is  rendered 
"  wild  ass"  by  our  translators,  Job  xxxix,  5,  is 
orud  ;  which  seems  to  be  the  same,  that  in  the 
Chaldec  of  Daniel,  v,  21,  is  called  uredia.   Mr. 


Parkhurst  supposes  that  this  word  denotes  the 
brayer,  and  that  para  and  orud  are  only  two 
names  for  the  same  animal.  But  these  names 
may  perhaps  refer  to  different  races,  though  of 
the  same  species  ;  so  that  a  description  of  the 
properties  of  one  may  apply  to  both,  though  not 
without  some  variation. 

Who  sent  out  the  para  free  1 
Or  who  hath  loosed  the  bands  of  the  orud? 
Whose  dwelling  I  have  made  the  wilderness, 
And  the  barren  land  (salt  deserts)  his  resort : 
The  range  of  open  mountains  are  his  pasture, 
And  he  searcheth  after  every  green  thing. 

Gmelin  observes  that  the  onager  is  very  fond 
of  salt.  Whether  the  "deserts"  of  the  above 
text  were  salt  marshes,  or  salt  deserts,  is  of  very 
little  consequence ;  the  circumstance  shows  the 
correctness  of  the  Hebrew  poet.  In  Daniel  we 
read  that  Nebuchadnezzar  dwelt  with  the  ore- 
dia.  We  need  not  suppose  that  he  was  banish- 
ed to  the  deserts,  but  was  at  most  kept  safely 
in  an  enclosure  of  his  own  park,  where  curious 
animals  were  kept  for  state  and  pleasure.  If 
this  be  correct,  then  the  orud  was  somewhat, 
at  least,  of  a  rarity  at  Babylon  ;  and  it  might 
be  of  a  kind  different  from  the  para,  as  it  is 
denoted  by  another  name.  May  it  not  be  the 
Gicquetei  of  Professor  Pallas,  the  wild  mule  of 
Mongalia?  which  surpasses  the  onager  in  size, 
beauty,  and  perhaps  in  swiftness. 

ASSIDEANS,  by  some  named  Chasideans, 
from  chasidim,  "  merciful,  pious."  They  were 
a  kind  of  religious  society  among  the  Jews, 
whose  chief  and  distinguishing  character  was, 
to  maintain  the  honour  of  the  temple,  and  ob- 
serve punctually  the  traditions  of  the  elders. 
They  were  therefore  not  only  content  to  pay 
the  usual  tribute  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
house  of  God,  but  charged  themselves  with  far- 
ther expense  upon  that  account ;  for  every  day, 
except  that  of  the  great  expiation,  they  sacri- 
ficed a  lamb,  in  addition  to  the  daily  oblation, 
which  was  called  the  sin  offering  of  the  Assi- 
deans.  They  practised  greater  hardships  and 
mortifications  than  others ;  and  their  common 
oath  was,  "  By  the  temple  ;"  for  which  our  Sa- 
viour reproves  the  Pharisees,  who  had  learned 
that  oath  of  them,  Matt,  xxiii,  16.  From  this 
sect  the  Pharisees  sprung.  The  Assideans  are 
represented  as  a  numerous  sect,  distinguished 
by  its  valour,  as  well  as  by  its  zeal  for  tiie  law, 
1  Mac.  ii,  42.  A  company  of  them  resorted  to 
Mattathias,  to  fight  for  the  law  of  God,  and  the 
liberties  of  their  country.  This  sect  arose  either 
during  the  captivity,  or  soon  after  the  restora- 
tion, of  the  Jews ;  and  were  probably  in  the 
commencement,  and  long  afterward,  a  truly 
pious  part  of  the  nation ;  but  they  at  length 
became  superstitious. 

ASSURANCE.  The  sense  in  which  thi3 
term  is  used  theologically  is  that  of  a  firm  per- 
suasion of  our  being  in  a  state  of  salvation. 
The  doctrine  itself  has  been  matter  of  dispute 
among  divines,  and  when  considered  as  imply- 
ing not  only  that  we  are  now  accepted  of  God 
through  Christ,  but  that  we  shall  be  finally 
saved,  or  when  it  is  so  taken  as  to  deny  a  state 
I  of  salvation  to  those  who  are  not  so  assured  as 
to  be  free  from  all  doubt,  it  is  in  many  views 


ASS 


101 


ASS 


questionable.  Assurance  of  final  salvation  must 
stand  or  fall  with  the  doctrine  of  personal  un- 
conditional election,  and  is  chiefly  held  by  di- 
vines of  the  Calvinistic  school ;  and  that  nothing 
is  an  evidence  of  a  state  of  present  salvation 
but  so  entire  a  persuasion  as  amounts  to  assur- 
ance in  the  strongest  sense,  might  be  denied 
upon  the  ground  that  degrees  of  grace,  of  real 
saving  grace,  are  undoubedly  mentioned  in 
Scripture.  Assurance,  however,  is  spoken  of 
in  the  New  Testament,  and  stands  prominent 
as  one  of  the  leading  doctrines  of  religious  ex- 
perience. We  have  "full  assurance  of  under- 
standing ;"  that  is  a  perfect  knowledge  and  en- 
tire persuasion  of  the  truth  of  the  doctrine  of 
Christ.  The  "  assurance  of  faith,"  in  Hebrews 
ix,  22,  is  an  entire  trust  in  the  sacrifice  and 
priestly  office  of  Christ.  The  "  assurance  of 
hope,"  mentioned  in  Hebrews  vi,  11,  relates  to 
the  heavenly  inheritance,  and  must  necessarily 
imply  a  full  persuasion  that  we  are  "  the  chil- 
dren of  God,"  and  therefore  "heirs  of  his  glo- 
ry ;"  and  from  this  passage  it  must  certainly 
be  concluded  that  such  an  assurance  is  what 
every  Christian  ought  to  aim  at,  and  that  it  is 
attainable.  This,  however,  does  not  exclude 
occasional  doubt  and  weakness  of  faith,  from 
the  earlier  stages  of  his  experience. 

A  comforting  and  abiding  persuasion  of  pre- 
sent acceptance  by  God,  through  Christ,  we 
may  therefore  affirm,  must  in  various  degrees 
follow  true  faith.  In  support  of  this  view,  the 
following  remarks  may  be  offered  : — 

If  it  is  the  doctrine  of  the  inspired  records, 
that  man  is  by  nature  prone  to  evil,  and  that 
in  practice  he  violates  that  law  under  which 
as  a  creature  he  is  placed,  and  is  thereby  ex- 
posed to  punishment ; — if  also  it  is  there  stated, 
that  an  act  of  grace  and  pardon  is  promised  on 
the  conditions  of  repentance  toward  God,  and 
faith  in  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ; — if  that  repent- 
ance implies  consideration  of  our  ways,  a  sense 
of  the  displeasure  of  Almighty  God,  contrition 
of  heart,  and  consequently  trouble  and  grief  of 
mind,  mixed,  however,  with  a  hope  inspired  by 
the  promise  of  forgiveness,  and  which  leads  to 
earnest  supplication  for  the  actual  pardon  of 
sin  so  promised,  it  will  follow  from  these  pre- 
mises— either,  1.  That  forgiveness  is  not  to  be 
expected  till  after  the  termination  of  our  course 
of  probation,  that  is,  in  another  life  ;  and  that, 
therefore,  this  trouble  and  apprehension  of 
mind  can  only  be  assuaged  by  the  hope  we 
may  have  of  a  favourable  final  decision  on  our 
case ; — or,  2.  That  sin  is,  in  the  present  life, 
forgiven  as  often  as  it  is  thus  repented  of,  and 
as  often  as  we  exercise  the  required  and  spe- 
cific acts  of  trust  in  the  merits  of  our  Saviour  ; 
but  that  this  forgiveness  of  our  sins  is  not  in 
any  way  made  known  unto  us  :  so  that  we  are 
left,  as  to  our  feelings,  in  precisely  the  same 
state  as  if  sin  were  not  forgiven  till  after  death, 
namely,  in  grief  and  trouble  of  mind,  relieved 
only  by  hope ; — or,  3.  The  Scriptural  view  is, 
that  when  sin  is  forgiven  by  the  mercy  of  God 
through  Christ,  we  are,  by  some  means,  assured 
of  it,  and  peace  and  satisfaction  of  mind  take 
the  place  of  anxiety  and  fear. 

The  first  of  these  conclusions  is  sufficiently 


disproved  by  the  authority  of  Scripture,  which 
exhibits  justification  as  a  blessing  attainable  in 
this  life,  and  represents  it  as  actually  experi- 
enced by  true  believers.  "Therefore  being 
justified  by  faith."  "There  is  now  no  con- 
demnation to  them  who  are  in  Christ  Jesus." 
"  Whosoever  believeth  is  justified  from  all 
things,"  &c.  The  quotations  might  be  multi- 
plied, but  these  are  decisive.  The  notion  that 
though  an  act  of  forgiveness  may  take  place, 
we  are  unable  to  ascertain  a  fact  so  important 
to  us,  is  also  irreconcilable  with  many  scrip- 
tures in  which  the  writers  of  the  New  Testa, 
ment  speak  of  an  experience,  not  confined 
personally  to  themselves,  or  to  those  Christians 
who  were  endowed  with  spiritual  gifts,  but 
common  to  all  Christians.  "  Being  justified  by 
faith  we  have  peace  with  God."  "  We  joy  in 
God,  by  whom  we  have  received  the  reconcilia- 
tion." "  Being  reconciled  unto  God  by  the 
death  of  his  Son."  "  We  have  not  received 
the  spirit  of  bondage  again  unto  fear,  but  the 
spirit  of  adoption,  by  which  we  cry,  Abba,  Fa- 
ther." To  these  may  be  added  innumerable 
passages  which  express  the  comfort,  the  confi- 
dence, and  the  joy  of  Christians ;  their  "  friend- 
ship" with  God;  their  "access"  to  him;  their 
entire  union  and  delightful  intercourse  with 
him  ;  and  their  absolute  confidence  in  the  suc- 
cess of  their  prayers.  All  such  passages  are 
perfectly  consistent  with  deep  humility,  and 
coif-diffidence  ;  but  they  are  irreconcilable  with 
a  state  of  hostility  between  the  parties,  and  with 
an  unascertained  and  only  hoped-for  restoration 
of  friendship  and  favour. 

An  assurance,  therefore,  that  the  sins  which 
are  felt  to  "be  a  burden  intolerable"  are  for- 
given, and  that  the  ground  of  that  apprehension 
of  future  punishment  which  causes  the  peni- 
tent to  "  bewail  his  manifold  sins,"  is  taken 
away  by  restoration  to  the  favour  of  the  offend- 
ed God,  must  be  allowed,  or  nothing  would  be 
more  incongruous  and  impossible  than  the  com- 
fort, the  peace,  the  rejoicing  of  spirit,  which  in 
the  Scriptures  are  attributed  to  believers. 

Few  Christians  of  evangelical  views  have, 
thereiore,  denied  the  possibility  of  our  becom- 
ing assured  of  the  favour  of  God  in  a  sufficient 
degree  to  give  substantial  comfort  to  the  mind. 
Their  differences  have  rather  respected  the 
means  by  which  the  contrite  become  assured 
of  that  change  in  their  relation  to  Almighty 
God,  whom  they  have  offended,  which  in  Scrip- 
ture is  expressed  by  the  term  justification.  The 
question  has  been,  (where  the  notion  of  an  as- 
surance of  eternal  salvation  has  not  been  under 
discussion,)  by  what  means  the  assurance  of 
the  divine  favour  is  conveyed  to  the  mind. 
Some  have  concluded  that  we  obtain  it  by 
inference,  others  by  the  direct  testimony  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  to  the  mind.     See  Holy  Shrit. 

ASSYRIA,  a  kingdom  of  Asia,  of  the  ex- 
tent, origin,  and  duration  of  which  very  dif- 
ferent accounts  have  been  given  by  ancient 
writers.  Ctesias  and  Diodorus  Siculus  affirm, 
that  the  Assyrian  monarchy,  under  Ninus  and 
Semiramis,  comprehended  the  greater  part  of 
the  known  world :  but,  if  this  had  been  the 
case,  it  is  not  likely  that  Homer  and  Herodotus 


ASS 


102 


ASS 


would  have  omitted  a  fact  so  remarkable.  The 
sacred  records  intimate  that  none  of  the  ancient 
states  or  kingdoms  were  of  considerable  extent; 
for  neither  Chederlaomcr,  nor  any  of  the  neigh- 
bouring princes,  were  tributary  or  subject  to 
Assyria ;  and  "  wc  find  nothing,"  says  Playfair, 
"of  the  greatness  or  power  of  this  kingdom  in 
the  history  of  the  judges  and  succeeding  kings 
of  Israel,  though  the  latter  kingdom  was  op- 
pressed  and  enslaved  by  many  different  powers 
in  that  period."  It  is  therefore  highly  probable 
that  Assyria  was  originally  of  small  extent. 
According  to  Ptolemy,  this  country  was  bound- 
ed on  the  north  by  part  of  Armenia  and  Mount 
Niphates;  on  the  west  by  the  Tigris;  on  the 
south  by  Susiana ;  and  on  the  east  by  part  of 
Media  and  the  mountains  Choatra  and  Zagros. 
Of  the  origin,  revolutions,  and  termination  of 
Assyria,  properly  so  called,  and  distinguished 
from  the  grand  monarchy  which  afterward  bore 
this  appellation,  the  following  account  is  given 
by  Mr.  Playfair,  as  the  most  probable  : — "  The 
founder  of  it  was  Ashur,  the  second  son  of 
Shem,  who  departed  from  Shinar,  upon  the 
usurpation  of  Nimrod,  at  the  head  of  a  large 
body  of  adventurers,  and  laid  the  foundations  of 
Nineveh,  where  he  resided,  and  erected  a  new 
kingdom,  called  Assyria,  after  his  name,  Gen. 
x,  11.  These  events  happened  not  long  after 
Nimrod  had  established  the  Chaldean  monar- 
chy, and  fixed  his  residence  at  Babylon  ;  but  it 
does  not  appear  that  Nimrod  reigned  in  As- 
syria. The  kingdoms  of  Assyria  and  Babylon 
were  originally  distinct  and  separate,  Micah 
v,  6 ;  and  in  this  state  they  remained  until 
Ninus  conquered  Babylon,  and  made  it  tribu- 
tary to  the  Assyrian  empire.  Ninus,  the  suc- 
cessor of  Ashur,  Gen.  x,  11,  seized  on  Chatdaa 
after  the  death  of  Nimrod,  and  united  the  king, 
doms  of  Assyria  and  Babylon.  This  great 
prince  is  said  to  have  subdued  Asia,  Persia, 
Media,  Egypt,  &c.  If  he  did  so,  the  effects  of 
his  conquests  were  of  no  long  duration ;  for, 
in  the  days  of  Abraham,  we  do  not  find  that 
any  of  the  neighbouring  kingdoms  were  sub- 
ject to  Assyria.  Ninus  was  succeeded  by  Se- 
miramis,  a  princess  bold,  enterprising,  and 
fortunate ;  of  whose  adventures  and  exploits 
many  fabulous  relations  have  been  recorded. 
Playfair  is  of  opinion  that  there  were  two 
princesses  of  this  name,  who  flourished  at  dif- 
ferent periods  :  one,  the  consort  of  Ninus  ;  and 
another,  who  lived  five  generations  before 
Nitocris,  queen  of  Nebuchadnezzar.  Of  the 
successors  of  Ninus  and  Semiramis  nothing 
certain  is  recorded.  The  last  of  the  ancient 
Assyrian  kings  was  Sardanapalus,  who  was 
besieged  in  his  capital  by  Arbaces,  governor  of 
Media,  in  concurrence  with  the  Babylonians. 
These  united  forces  defeated  the  Assyrian 
army,  demolished  the  capital,  and  became 
masters  of  the  empire,  B.  C.  821. 

"  After  the  death  of  Sardanapalus,"  says  Mr. 
Playfair,  "  the  Assyrian  empire  was  divided 
into  three  kingdoms;  namely,  the  Median, 
Assyrian,  and  Babylonian.  Arbaces  retained 
the  supreme  authority,  and  nominated  govern- 
ors in  Assyria  and  Babylon,  who  were  honoured 
with  the  title  of  kings,  while  they  remained 


subject  and  tributary  to  the  Persian  monarchs 
Belesis,"  he  says,  "  a  Chaldean  priest,  who  as- 
sisted Arbaces  in  the  conquest  of  Sardanapalus, 
received  the  government  of  Babylon  as  the 
reward  of  his  services ;  and  Phul  was  intrusted 
with  that  of  Assyria.  The  Assyrian  governor 
gradually  enlarged  the  boundaries  of  his  king- 
dom, and  was  succeeded  by  Tiglath-pileser, 
Salmanasar,  and  Sennacherib,  who  asserted 
and  maintained  their  independence.  After  the 
death  of  Assar-haddon,  the  brother  and  succes- 
sor of  Sennacherib,  the  kingdom  of  Assyria 
was  split,  and  annexed  to  the  kingdoms  of 
Media  and  Babylon.  Several  tributary  princes 
afterward  reigned  in  Nineveh ;  but  we  hear  no 
more  of  the  kings  of  Assyria,  but  of  those  of 
Babylon.  Cyaxares,  king  of  Media,  assisted 
Nebuchadnezzar,  king  of  Babylon,  in  the  siege 
of  Nineveh,  which  they  took  and  destroyed, 
B.  C.  606." 

The  history  of  Assyria,  deduced  from  Scrip- 
ture, and  acknowledged  as  the  only  authentic 
one  by  Sir  Isaac  Newton  and  many  others, 
ascribes  the  foundation  of  the  monarchy  to 
Pul,  or  Phul,  about  the  second  year  of  Mena- 
hem,  king  of  Israel,  twenty-four  years  before 
the  aera  of  Nabonassar,  1579  years  after  the 
flood,  and,  according  to  Blair,  769,  or,  accord- 
ing to  Newton,  790,  years  before  Christ.  Mena- 
hem,  having  taken  forcible  possession  of  the 
throne  of  Israel  by  the  murder  of  Shallum, 
2  Kings  xv,  10,  was  attacked  by  Pul,  bnt  pre- 
vented the  hostilities  meditated  against  him  by 
presenting  the  invader  with  a  thousand  talents 
of  silver.  Pul,  thus  gratified,  took  the  king- 
dom of  Israel  under  his  protection,  returned  to 
his  own  country,  after  having  received  volun- 
tary homage  from  several  nations  in  his  march, 
ae  he  had  done  from  Israel,  and  became  the 
founder  of  a  great  empire.  As  it  was  in  the 
days  of  Pul  that  the  Assyrians  began  to  afflict 
the  inhabitants  of  Palestine,  2  Kings  xi,  9; 
1  Chron.  v,  2b,  this  was  the  time,  according  to 
Sir  Isaac  Newton,  when  the  Assyrian  empire 
arose.  Thus  he  interprets  the  words,  "  since 
the  time  of  the  kings  of  Assyria,"  Nehem.  ix,  32 ; 
that  is,  since  the  time  of  the  kingdom  of  As- 
syria, or  since  the  rise  of  that  empire.  But 
though  this  was  the  period  in  which  the  Assy- 
rians afflicted  Israel,  it  is  not  so  evident  that 
the  time  of  the  kings  of  Assyria  must  neces- 
sarily be  understood  of  the  rise  of  the  Assyrian 
empire.  However,  Newton  thus  reasons  ;  and 
observos,  that  "Pul  and  his  successors  afflicted 
Israel,  and  conquered  the  nations  round  about 
them ;  and  upon  the  ruin  of  many  small  and 
ancient  kingdoms  erected  their  empire ;  con- 
quering the  Medes,  as  well  as  other  nations." 
It  is  farther  argued,  that  God,  by  the  Prophet 
Amos,  in  the  reign  of  Jeroboam,  about  ten  or 
twenty  years  before  the  reign  of  Pul,  (see  Amos 
vi,  13,  14,)  threatened  to  raise  up  a  nation 
against  Israel ;  and  that,  as  Pul  reigned  pre- 
sently after  the  prophecy  of  Amos,  and  was 
the  first  upon  record  who  began  to  fulfil  it,  he 
may  be  justly  reckoned  the  first  conqueror  and 
founder  of  this  empire.  See  1  Chron.  v,  26. 
Pul  was  succeeded  on  the  throne  of  Assyria 
by  his  elder  son  Tiglath-pileser ;   and  at  the 


ASS 


103 


ASS 


same  time  he  left  Babylon  to  his  younger  son 
Nabonassar,  B.  C.  747.  Of  the  conquests  of 
this  second  king  of  Assyria  against  the  kings 
of  Israel  and  Syria,  when  he  took  Damascus, 
and  subdued  the  Syrians,  we  have  an  account 
in  2  Kings  xv,  29,  37 ;  xvi,  5, 9 ;  1  Chron.  v,  26  ; 
by  which  the  prophecy  of  Amos  was  fulfilled, 
and  from  which  it  appears  that  the  empire  of 
the  Assyrians  was  now  become  great  and 
powerful.  The  next  king  of  Assyria  was  Shal- 
maneser,  or  Salmanassar,  who  succeeded  Tig. 
lath-pileser,  B.  C.  729,  and  invaded  Phoenicia, 
took  the  city  of  Samaria,  and,  B.  C.  721,  car- 
ried the  ten  tribes  into  captivity,  placing  them 
in  Chalach  and  Chabor,  by  the  river  Gazon, 
and  in  the  cities  of  the  Medes,  2  Kings  xvii,  6. 
Shalmaneser  was  succeeded  by  Sennacherib, 
B.  C.  719 ;  and  in  the  year  B.  C.  714,  he  was 
put  to  flight  with  great  slaughter  by  the  Ethio- 
pians and  Egyptians.  In  the  year  B.  C.  711  the 
Medes  revolted  from  the  Assyrians;  Senna- 
cherib was  slain ;  and  he  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Esar-Haddon,  Asserhaddon,  Asordan,  As- 
saradin,  or  Sarchedon,  by  which  names  he  is 
called  by  different  writers.  He  began  his  reign 
at  Nineveh,  in  the  year  of  Nabonassar  42 ;  and 
in  the  year  68  extended  it  over  Babylon.  He 
then  carried  the  remainder  of  the  Samaritans 
into  captivity,  and  peopled  Samaria  with  cap- 
tives brought  from  several  parts  of  his  king- 
dom ;  and  in  the  year  of  Nabonassar  77  or  78 
he  seems  to  have  put  an  end  to  the  reign  of  the 
Ethiopians  over  Egypt.  "  In  the  reign  of  Sen- 
nacherib and  Asser-Hadon,"  says  Sir  I.  New- 
ton, "the  Assyrian  empire  seems  arrived  at  its 
greatness;  being  united  under  one  monarch, 
and  containing  Assyria,  Media,  Apolloniatis, 
Susiana,  Chaldea,  Mesopotamia,  Cilicia,  Syria, 
Phoenicia,  Egypt,  Ethiopia,  and  part  of  Arabia; 
and  reaching  eastward  into  Elymais,  and  Pa- 
rsetaecene,  a  province  of  the  Medes;  and  if 
Chalach  and  Chabor  be  Colchis  and  Iberia,  as 
some  think,  and  as  may  seem  probable  from 
the  circumcision  used  by  those  nations  till  the 
days  of  Herodotus,  we  are  also  to  add  these 
two  provinces,  with  the  two  Armenias,  Pontus, 
and  Cappadocia,  as  far  as  to  the  river  Halys : 
for  Herodotus  tells  us  that  the  people  of  Cap- 
padocia, as  far  as  to  that  river,  were  called 
Syrians  by  the  Greeks,  both  before  and  after 
the  days  of  Cyrus ;  and  that  the  Assyrians  were 
also  called  Syrians  by  the  Greeks."  Asser- 
Hadon  was  succeeded  in  the  year  B.  C.  668  by 
Saosduchinus.  At  this  time  Manasseh  was 
allowed  to  return  home,  and  fortify  Jerusalem ; 
and  the  Egyptians  also,  after  the  Assyrians  had 
harassed  Egypt  and  Ethiopia  three  years,  Isa. 
xx,  3,  4,  were  set  at  liberty.  Saosduchinus, 
after  a  reign  of  twenty  years,  was  succeeded 
at  Babylon,  and  probably  at  Nineveh  also,  by 
Chyniladon,  in  the  year  B.  C.  647.  This 
Chyniladon  is  supposed  by  Newton  to  be  the 
Nebuchadonosor  mentioned  in  the  book  of  Ju- 
dith, i,  1-15,  who  made  war  upon  Arphaxad, 
king  of  the  Medes ;  and,  though  deserted  by 
his  auxiliaries  of  Cilicia,  Damascus,  Syria, 
Phoenicia,  Moab,  Ammon,  and  Egypt,  routed 
the  army  of  the  Medes,  and  slew  Arphaxad. 
This  Arphaxad  is  supposed  to  be  either  Dejoces 


or  his  son  Phraortes,  mentioned  by  Herodotus. 
Soon  after  the  death  of  Phraortes,  in  the  year 
B.  C.  635,  the  Scythians  invaded  the  Medes 
and  Persians  ;  and  in  625,  Nabopolassar,  the 
commander  of  the  forces  of  Chyniladon  in 
Chaldea,  revolted  from  him,  and  became  kin<r 
of  Babylon.  Chyniladon  was  either  then  or 
soon  after  succeeded  at  Nineveh  by  the  last 
king  of  Assyria,  called  Sarac  by  Polyhistor. 
The  authors  of  the  Universal  History  suppose 
Saosduchinus  to  have  been  the  Nebuchadono- 
sor of  Scripture,  and  Chyniladon  or  Chynala- 
dan  to  have  been  the  Sarac  of  Polyhistor.  At 
length  Nebuchadnezzar,  the  son  of  Nabopo- 
lassar, married  Amyit,  the  daughter  of  Astya- 
ges,  king  of  the  Medes,  and  sister  of  Cyaxares; 
and  by  this  marriage  the  two  families  having 
contracted  affinity,  they  conspired  against  the 
Assyrians.  Nabopolassar  being  old,  and  As- 
tyages  dead,  their  sons  Nebuchadnezzar  and 
Cyaxares  led  the  armies  of  the  two  nations 
against  Nineveh,  slew  Sarac,  destroyed  the 
city,  and  shared  the  kingdom  of  the  Assyrians. 
This  victory  the  Jews  refer  to  the  Chaldeans; 
the  Greeks,  to  the  Medes  ;  Tobit,  xiv,  15,  Poly- 
histor, and  Ctesias,  to  both.  With  this  victory 
commenced  the  great  successes  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar and  Cyaxares,  and  it  laid  the  foundation 
of  the  two  collateral  empires  of  the  Babylonians 
and  Medes,  which  were  branches  of  the  Assy- 
rian empire  ;  and  hence  the  time  of  the  fall  of 
the  Assyrian  empire  is  determined,  the  con- 
querors being  then  in  their  youth.  In  the  reign 
of  Josiah,  when  Zephaniah  prophesied,  Nineveh 
and  the  kingdom  of  Assyria  were  standing ; 
and  their  fall  was  predicted  by  that  Prophet, 
Zeph.  i,  3  ;  ii,  13.  And  in  the  end  of  his  reign, 
Pharaoh-Necho,  king  of  Egypt,  the  successor 
of  Psammitichus,  went  up  against  the  king  of 
Assyria  to  the  river  Euphrates,  to  fight  against 
Carchemish,  or  Circutium  ;  and  in  his  way 
thither  slew  Josiah,  2  Kings  xxiii,  09 ;  2  Chron. 
xxxv,  20 ;  and  therefore  the  last  king  of  As- 
syria was  not  yet  slain.  But  in  the  third  and 
fourth  years  of  Jehoiakim,  the  successor  of 
Josiah,  the  two  conquerors  having  taken  Nine- 
veh, and  finished  their  war  in  Assyria,  prose- 
cuted their  conquests  westward;  and,  leading 
their  forces  against  the  king  of  Egypt,  as  an 
invader  of  their  right  of  conquest,  they  beat 
him  at  Carchemish,  and  took  from  him  what- 
ever he  had  recently  taken  from  the  Assyrians, 
2  Kings  xxiv,  7 ;  Jer.  xlvi,  2 ;  "  and  therefore 
we  cannot  err,"  says  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  "  above 
a  year  or  two,  if  we  refer  the  destruction  of 
Nineveh,  and  fall  of  the  Assyrian  empire,  to 
the  third  year  of  Jehoiakim,"  or  the  hundred 
and  fortieth,  or,  according  to  Blair,  the  hun- 
dred and  forty-first  year  of  Nabonassar ;  that 
is,  the  year  B.  C.  607. 

Of  the  government,  laws,  religion,  learning, 
customs,  &c,  of  the  ancient  Assyrians,  nothing 
absolutely  certain  is  recorded.  Their  kingdom 
was  at  first  small,  and  subsisted  for  several 
ages  under  hereditary  chiefs ;  and  their  go- 
vernment was  simple.  Afterward,  when  they 
rose  to  the  sublimity  of  empire,  their  govern- 
ment seems  to  have  been  despotic,  and  the 
empire  hereditary.     Their  laws  were  probably 


AST 


104 


ATH 


few,  and  depended  upon  the  mere  will  of  the 
prince.  To  Ninus  we  may  ascribe  the  division 
of  the  Assyrian  empire  into  provinces  and  go- 
vernments ;  for  we  find  that  tiiis  institution 
was  fully  established  in  the  reigns  of  Semi- 
ramis  and  her  successors.  The  people  were 
distributed  into  a  certain  number  of  tribes ;  and 
their  occupations  or  professions  were  hereditary. 
The  Assyrians  had  several  distinct  councils, 
and  several  tribunals  for  the  regulation  of  pub- 
lic affairs.  Of  councils  there  were  three,  which 
were  created  by  the  body  of  the  people,  and 
who  governed  the  state  in  conjunction  with 
the  sovereign.  The  first  consisted  of  officers 
who  had  retired  from  military  employments ; 
the  second,  of  the  nobility;  and  the  third,  of 
the  old  men.  The  sovereigns  also  had  three 
tribunals,  whose  province  it  was  to  watch  over 
the  conduct  of  the  people.  The  Assyrians 
have  been  competitors  with  the  Egyptians  for 
the  honour  of  having  invented  alphabetic 
writing.  It  appears,  from  the  few  remains  now 
extant  of  the  writing  of  these  ancient  nations, 
that  their  letters  had  a  great  affinity  with  each 
other.  They  much  resembled  one  another  in 
shape;  and  they  ranged  them  in  the  same 
manner,  from  right  to  left. 

ASTROLOGY,  the  art  of  foretelling  future 
events,  from  the  aspects,  positions,  and  influ- 
ences of  the  heavenly  bodies.     The  word  is 
compounded  of  oj-rjp,  star,  and  Ao'yof,  discourse  ; 
whence,  in  the  literal  sense  of  the  term,  as- 
trology should  signify  no  more  than  the  doc- 
trine or  science  of  the  stars.     Astrology  judi- 
.ciary,  or  judicial,  is  what  we  commonly  call 
simple  astrology,  or  that  which  pretends  to  fore- 
tel  mortal  events,  even  those  wiiich  have  a  de- 
pendence on  the  free  will  and  agency  of  man  ; 
■as  if  they  were  directed  by  the  stars.      This 
art,  which  owed  its  origin  to  the  practice  of 
knavery  on  credulity,  is  now  universally  explod- 
ed by  the  intelligent  part  of  mankind.    Judicial 
astrology  is  commonly  said  to  have  been  in- 
vented in  Chald&a,  and  thence  transmitted  to 
the  Egyptians,  Greeks,  and  Romans;  though 
some  will  have  it  of  Egyptian  origin,  and  as- 
cribe the  invention  to  Cham.     But  we  derive 
it  from   the  Arabians.     The    Chaldeans,   and 
the  Egyptians,  and  indeed  almost  all  the  na- 
tions of  antiquity,  were   infatuated  with  the 
chimasras  of  astrology.     It  originated  in  the 
notion,  that  the  stars  have  an  influence,  either 
beneficial   or   malignant,  upon  the   affairs  of 
men,  which  may  be  discovered,  and  made  the 
ground   of  certain    prediction,    in    particular 
cases ;  and  the  whole  art  consisted  in  applying 
astronomical  observations  to  this  fanciful  pur- 
pose.    Diodorus  Siculus  relates,  that  the  Chal- 
deans learned  these  arts  from  the  Egyptians ; 
and  he  would  not  have  made  this  assertion,  if 
there  had  not  been  at  least  a  general  tradition 
that  they  were    practised   from    the   earliest 
times  in  Egypt.     The  system  was,  in  those  re- 
mote ages,  intimately  connected  with  Sabaism, 
or  the  worship  of  the  stars  as  divinities ;  but 
whether  it  emanates  from  idolatry  or  fatality, 
it  denies  God  and  his  providence,  and  is  there- 
fore condemned  in  the  Scriptures,  and  ranked 
with  practices  the    most   offensive   and   pro- 
voking to  tho  Divine  Majesty. 


ASTYAGES,  otherwise,  Cyaxares,  king  of 
tho  Medes,  and  successor  to  Phraortes.  He 
reigned  forty  years,  and  died  A.  M.  3409. 
He  was  father  to  Astyages,  otherwise  called 
Darius  the  Mede.  He  had  two  daughters, 
Mandane  and  Amyit :  Mandane  married  Cam- 
byses,  the  Persian,  and  was  the  mother  of 
Cyrus;  Amyit  married  Nebuchadnezzar,  the 
son  of  Nabopolassar,  and  was  the  mother  of 
Evilmerodach. 

Astyages,  otherwise  called  Ahasuerus  in  the 
Greek,  Dan.  ix,  1,  or  Cyaxares  in  Xenophon,  or 
Apandus  in  Ctesias,  was  appointed  by  his 
father  Cyaxares  governor  of  Media,  and  sent 
with  Nabopolassar,  king  of  Babylon,  against 
Saracus,  otherwise  called  Chynaladanus,  king 
of- Assyria.  These  two  princes  besieged  Sa- 
racus in  Nineveh,  took  the  city,  and  dismem- 
bered the  Assyrian  empire.  Astyages  was  with 
Cyrus  at  the  conquest  of  Babylon,  and  suc- 
ceeded Belshazzar,  king  of  the  Chaldeans,  as 
is  expressly  mentioned  in  Daniel,  v,  30,  31, 
A.  M.  3447.  After  his  death  Cyrus  succeeded 
him,  A.  M.  3456. 

ASUPPIM,  a  word  which  signifies  gather- 
ings, and  the  name  of  the  treasury  of  the  tem- 
ple of  Jerusalem,  1  Chron.  xxvi,  15. 

ATHALIAH,  the  daughter  of  Omri,  king  of 
Samaria,  and  wife  to  Jehoram,  king  of  Judah. 
This  princess,  being  informed  that  Jehu  had 
slain  her  son  Ahaziah,  resolved  to  take  the 
government  upon  herself,  2  Kings  xi ;  which 
that  she  might  effect  without  opposition,  she 
destroyed  all  the  children  that  Jehoram  had  by 
other  wives,  and  all  their  offspring.  But  Je- 
hosheba,  the  sister  of  Ahaziah,  by  the  father's 
side  only,  was  at  this  time  married  to  Jehoiada, 
the  high  priest;  and  while  Athaliah's'  execu- 
tioners were  murdering  the  rest,  she  conveyed 
Joash  the  son  of  Ahaziah  away,  and  kept  him 
and  his  nurse  concealed  in  an  apartment  of 
the  temple,  during  six  years.  In  the  seventh 
year,  his  uncle  Jehoiada  being  determined  to 
place  him  on  the  throne  of  his  ancestors,  and 
procure  the  destruction  of  Athaliah,  he  en- 
gaged the  priests  and  Levites,  and  the  leading 
men  in  all  the  parts  of  the  kingdom  in  his 
interest,  and  in  a  public  assembly  produced 
him,  and  made  them  take  an  oath  of  secrecy 
and  fidelity  to  him.  He  then  distributed  arms 
among  the  people,  whom  he  divided  into  three 
bodies,  one  to  guard  the  person  of  the  king, 
and  the  other  two  to  secure  the  gates  of  the 
temple.  After  this,  lie  brought  out  the  young 
prince,  set  the  crown  on  his  head,  put  the 
book  of  the  law  into  his  hand,  and  with  sound 
of  trumpet  proclaimed  him ;  which  was  se- 
conded with  the  joyful  shouts  and  acclamations 
of  the  people.  Athaliah,  hearing  the  noise, 
made  all  haste  to  the  temple  ;  but  when,  to  her 
astonishment,  she  saw  the  young  king  seated 
on  a  throne,  she  rent  her  clothes  and  cried  out, 
"  Treason  !"  But,  at  the  command  of  Jehoiada, 
the  guards  seized  and  carried  her  out  of  the 
temple,  putting  all  to  the  sword  who  offered  to 
rescue  or  assist  her;  and  then  taking  her  to 
the  stable  gate  belonging  to  the  palace,  there 
put  her  to  death,  A.  M.  3126. 

ATHANASIANS,  the  orthodox  followers 
of  St.  Athanasius,  the  great  and  able  antagon- 


ATH 


105 


ATH 


ist  of  Arius.  The  Athanasian  Creed,  though 
generally  admitted  not  to  be  drawn  up  by  this 
lather,  (but  probably,  as  Doctor  Waterland 
says,  by  Hilary,  bishop  of  Aries,  in  the  fifth 
century,)  is  universally  allowed  to  contain  a 
fair  expression  of  his  sentiments.  This  creed 
says,  "  The  Catholic  faith  is  this :  that  we 
worship  One  God  in  Trinity,  and  Trinity 
in  Unity :  neither  confounding  the  persons, 
nor  dividing  the  substance.  For  there  is  one 
person  of  the  Father,  another  of  the  Son,  and 
another  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  But  the  Godhead 
of  the  Father,  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  is  all  one;  the  glory  equal,  the  majesty 
co-eternal.  Such  as  the  Father  is,  such  is  the 
Son,  and  such  is  the  Holy  Ghost;"  namely, 
"  uncreate,  incomprehensible,  eternal,"  &c. 
The  true  key  to  the  Athanasian  Creed  lies  in 
the  knowledge  of  the  errors  to  which  it  was  op- 
posed. The  Sabellians  considered  the  Father, 
Son,  and  Holy  Spirit  as  one  in  person  ; — this 
was  "  confounding  the  persons :"  the  Arians 
considered  them  as  differing  in  essence — three 
beings ; — this  was  "  dividing  the  substance  :" 
and  against  these  two  hypotheses  was  the  creed 
originally  framed.  And  since  every  sect  was 
willing  to  adopt  the  language  of  Scripture,  it 
was  thought  necessary  to  adopt  scholastic  terms, 
in  order  to  fix  the  sense  of  Scripture  language. 
Many,  however,  hold  the  doctrine  of  the  Atha- 
nasian Creed,  and  approve  its  terms,  who  ob- 
ject to  its  damnatory  clauses.     See  Arians. 

ATHANASIUS,  the  celebrated  patriarch  of 
Alexandria,  resisted  Arius  and  his  erroneous 
doctrines ;  and  his  sentiments  as  to  the  Trinity 
are  embodied  in  the  creed  which  bears  his 
name,  though  not  composed  by  him.  At  the 
Council  of  Nice,  though  then  but  a  deacon  of 
Alexandria,  his  reputation  for  skill  in  contro- 
versy gained  him  an  honourable  place  in  the 
council,  and  with  great  dexterity  he  exposed 
the  sophistry  of  those  who  pleaded  on  the  side 
of  Arius.  Notwithstanding  the  influence  of 
the  emperor,  who  had  recalled  Arius  from 
banishment,  and  upon  a  plausible  confession 
of  his  faith,  in  which  he  affected  to  be  orthodox 
in  his  sentiments,  directed  that  he  should  be 
received  by  the  Alexandrian  church,  Atha- 
nasius  refused  to  admit  him  to  communion, 
and  exposed  his  prevarication.  The  Arians 
upon  this  exerted  themselves  to  raise  tumults 
at  Alexandria,  and  to  injure  the  character  of 
Athanasius  with  the  emperor,  who  was  pre- 
vailed upon  to  pronounce  against  him  a  sen- 
tence of  banishment.  In  the  beginning  of  the 
reign  of  Constantius  he  was  recalled ;  but  was 
again  disturbed  and  deposed  through  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Arians.  Accusations  were  also 
sent  against  him  and  other  bishops  from  the 
east  to  the  west,  but  they  were  acquitted  by 
Pope  Julius  in  full  council.  Athanasius  was 
restored  to  his  see  upon  the  death  of  the  Arian 
bishop,  who  had  been  placed  in  it.  Arian- 
ism,  however,  being  in  favour  at  court,  he 
was  condemned  by  a  council  convened  at  Ar- 
ies, and  by  another  at  Milan,  and  was  obliged 
to  fly  into  the  deserts.  He  returned  with  the 
other  bishops  whom  Julian  the  apostate  recall- 
ed from  banishment,  and  in  A.  D.  362,  held  a 


council  at  Alexandria,  where  the  belief  of  a 
consubstantial  Trinity  was  openly  professed. 
Many  now  were  recovered  from  Arianism,  and 
brought  to  subscribe  the  Nicene  Creed.  Durino- 
the  reign  of  Jovian  also  Athanasius  held  an- 
other council,  which  declared  its  adherence  to 
the  Nicene  faith;  and  with  the  exception  of  a 
short  retirement  under  Valens  he  was  permitted 
to  sit  down  in  quiet  and  govern  his  affectionate 
church  of  Alexandria.  Athanasius  was  an 
eminent  instrument  of  maintaining  the  truth 
in  an  age  when  errors  affecting  the  great 
foundation  of  our  faith  were  urged  with  great 
subtlety.  He  was  by  his  acuteness  able  to  trace 
the  enemy  through  his  most  insidious  modes 
of  attack  ;  and  thus  to  preserve  the  simple  and 
unwary  from  being  misled  by  terms  and  distinc- 
tions, which,  whilst  they  sounded  in  unison  with 
the  true  faith  of  the  Gospel,  did  in  fact  imply, 
or  at  least  open  the  door  to,  the  most  deadly 
errors.  The  Scripture  doctrine  of  the  Trinity, 
as  explained  by  him,  at  length  triumphed  over 
the  heresies  which  at  one  time  met  with  so 
much  support  and  sanction ;  and  the  views  of 
Athanasius  have  been  received,  in  substance, 
by  all  orthodox  churches  to  the  present  time. 

ATHEIST,  in  the  strict  and  proper  sense  of 
the  word,  is  one  who  does  not  believe  in  the 
existence  of  a  God,  or  who  owns  no  being 
superior  to  nature.  It  is  compounded  of  the 
two  terms,  a  negative,  and  6cbg,  God,  signify- 
ing without  God.  Atheists  have  been  also 
known  by  the  name  infidels ;  but  the  word 
infidel  is  now  commonly  used  to  distinguish  a 
more  numerous  party,  and  is  become  almost 
synonymous  with  Deist.  He  who  disbelieves  the 
existence  of  a  God,  as  an  infinite,  intelligent, 
and  a  moral  agent,  is  a  direct  or  speculative 
Atheist ;  he  who  confesses  a  Deity  and  provi- 
dence in  words,  but  denies  them  in  his  life  and 
actions,  is  a  practical  Atheist.  That  Atheism 
existed  in  some  sense  before  the  flood,  may  be 
suspected  from  what  we  read  in  Scripture,  as 
well  as  from  Heathen  tradition  ;  and  it  is  not 
very  unreasonable  to  suppose,  that  the  deluge 
was  partly  intended  to  evince  to  the  world  a 
heavenly  power,  as  Lord  of  the  universe,  and 
superior  to  the  visible  system  of  nature.  This 
was  at  least  a  happy  consequence  of  that  fatal 
catastrophe ;  for,  as  it  is  observed  by  Dean 
Sherlock,  "The  universal  deluge,  and  the 
confusion  of  languages,  had  so  abundantly 
convinced  mankind  of  a  divine  power  and  pro- 
vidence, that  there  was  no  such  creature  as  an 
Atheist,  till  their  ridiculous  idolatries  had  tempt- 
ed some  men  of  wit  and  thought,  rather  to  own 
no  God  than  such  as  the  Heathens  worshipped." 

Atheistical  principles  were  long  nourished 
and  cherished  in  Greece,  and  especially  among 
the  atomical,  peripatetic,  and  skeptical  phi- 
losophers ;  and  hence  some  have  ascribed  the 
origin  of  Atheism  to  the  philosophy  of  Greece. 
This  is  true,  if  they  mean  that  species  of  re- 
fined Atheism,  which  contrives  any  impious 
scheme  of  principles  to  account  for  the  origin 
of  the  world,  without  a  divine  being.  For 
though  there  may  have  been  in  former  ages, 
and  in  other  countries,  some  persons  irreligious 
in  principle  as  well  as  in  practice,  yet  we  know 


ATH 


106 


ATH 


of  none  who,  forming  a  philosophical  scheme  of 
impiety,  became  a  sect,  and  erected  colleges  of 
Atheistical  learning,  till  the  arrogant  and  en- 
terprising  genius  of  Greece  undertook  that 
detestable  work.  Carrying  their  presumptuous 
and  ungoverncd  speculations  into  the  very 
essence  of  the  divinity,  at  first  they  doubted, 
and  at  length  denied,  the  existence  of  a  first 
cause  independent  of  nature  and  of  a  provi- 
dence that  superintends  its  laws,  and  governs 
the  concerns  of  mankind.  These  principles, 
with  the  other  improvements  of  Greece,  were 
transferred  to  Rome ;  and,  excepting  in  Italy, 
we  hear  little  of  Atheism,  for  many  ages  after 
the  Christian  ffira.  "  For  some  ages  before 
the  Reformation,"  says  Archbishop  Tillotson, 
"  Atheism  was  confined  to  Italy,  and  had  its 
chief  residence  at  Rome.  But,  in  this  last  age, 
Atheism  has  travelled  over  the  Alps  and  infect- 
ed France,  and  now  of  late  it  hath  crossed  the 
seas,  and  invaded  our  nation,  and  hath  pre- 
vailed to  amazement."  However,  to  Tillotson, 
and  other  able  writers,  we  owe  its  suppression 
in  this  country ;  for  they  pressed  it  down  with 
a  weight  of  sound  argument,  from  which  it  has 
never  been  able  to  raise  itself.  For  although  in 
our  time,  in  France  and  Germany  a  subtle 
Atheism  was  revived,  and  spread  its  unhallow- 
ed and  destructive  influence  for  many  years 
throughout  the  Continent,  it  made  but  little 
progress  in  this  better-instructed  nation. 

Atheism,  in  its  primary  sense,  comprehends, 
or  at  least  goes  beyond,  every  heresy  in  the 
world ;  for  it  professes  to  acknowledge  no  reli- 
gion, true  or  false.  The  two  leading  hypothe- 
ses which  have  prevailed,  among  Atheists, 
respecting  this  world  and  its  origin,  are,  that 
of  Ocellus  Lucanus,  adopted  and  improved  by 
Aristotle,  that  it  was  eternal ;  and  that  of  Epi- 
curus, that  it  was  formed  by  a  fortuitous  con- 
course of  atoms.  "  That  the  soul  is  material 
and  mortal,  Christianity  an  imposture,  the 
Scripture  a  forgery,  the  worship  of  God  super- 
stition, hell  a  fable,  and  heaven  a  dream,  our 
life  without  providence,  and  our  death  without 
hope,  like  that  of  asses  and  dogs,  are  part  of 
the  glorious  gospel  of  our  modern  Atheists." 

The  being  of  a  God  may  be  proved  from  the 
marks  of  design,  and  from  the  order  and  beauty 
visible  in  the  world  ;  from  universal  consent ; 
from  the  relation  of  cause  and  effect ;  from 
internal  consciousness ;  and  from  the  necessity 
of  a  final  as  well  as  an  efficient  cause. 

Of  all  the  false  doctrines  and  foolish  opi- 
nions that  ever  infested  the  mind  of  man,  no- 
thing can  possibly  equal  that  of  Atheism,  which 
is  such  a  monstrous  contradiction  of  all  evi- 
dence, to  all  the  powers  of  understanding,  and 
the  dictates  of  common  sense,  that  it  may  be 
well  questioned  whether  any  man  can  really 
fall  into  it  by  a  deliberate  use  of  his  judgment. 
All  nature  so  clearly  points  out,  and  so  loudly 
proclaims,  a  Creator  of  infinite  power,  wisdom, 
and  goodness,  thai  whoever  hears  not  its  voice, 
and  sees  not  its  p»-oofs,  may  well  be  thought 
wilfully  deaf,  and  obstinately  blind.  If  it  be 
evident,  self-evident  to  every  man  of  thought, 
that  there  can  be  no  effect  without  a  cause, 
what  shall  we  say  of  that  manifold  combina- 


tion of  effects,  that  series  of  operations,  that 
system  of  wonders,  which  fill  the  universe, 
which  present  themselves  to  all  our  perceptions, 
and  strike  our  minds  and  our  senses  on  every 
side  ?  Every  faculty,  every  object  of  every 
faculty,  demonstrates  a  Deity.  The  meanest 
insect  we  can  see,  the  minutest  and  most  con- 
temptible weed  we  can  tread  upon,  is  really 
sufficient  to  confound  Atheism,  and  baffle  all 
its  pretensions.  How  much  more  that  astonish- 
ing variety  and  multiplicity  of  God's  works 
with  which  we  are  continually  surrounded ! 
Let  any  man  survey  the  face  of  the  earth,  or 
lift  up  his  eyes  to  the  firmament ;  let  him  con- 
sider the  nature  and  instincts  of  brute  animals, 
and  afterward  look  into  the  operations  of  his 
own  mind,  and  will  he  presume  to  say  or  sup- 
pose that  all  the  objects  he  meets  with  are 
nothing  more  than  the  result  of  unaccountable 
accidents  and  blind  chance  ?  Can  he  possibly 
conceive  that  such  wonderful  order  should 
spring  out  of  confusion  ?  or  that  such  perfect 
beauty  should  be  ever  formed  by  the  fortuitous 
operations  of  unconscious,  unactive  particles  of 
matter  ?  As  well,  nay  better,  and  more  easily, 
might  he  suppose  that  an  earthquake  might 
happen  to  build  towns  and  cities ;  or  the  ma- 
terials carried  down  by  a  flood  fit  themselves 
up  without  hands  into  a  regular  fleet.  For 
what  are  towns,  cities,  or  fleets,  in  comparison 
of  the  vast  and  amazing  fabric  of  the  universe ! 
In  short,  Atheism  offers  such  violence  to  all 
our  faculties,  that  it  seems  scarce  credible  it 
should  ever  really  find  any  place  in  the  human 
understanding.  Atheism  is  unreasonable,  be- 
cause it  gives  no  tolerable  account  of  the  ex- 
istence of  the  world.  This  is  one  of  the  great- 
est difficulties  with  which  the  Atheist  has  to 
contend.  For  he  must  suppose  either  that  the 
world  is  eternal,  or  that  it  was  formed  by 
chance  and  a  fortuitous  concourse  of  the  parts 
of  matter.  That  the  world  had  a  beginning, 
is  evident  from  universal  tradition,  and  the 
most  ancient  history  that  exists  ;  from  there 
being  no  memorials  of  any  actions  performed 
previously  to  the  time  assigned  in  that  history 
as  the  Era  of  the  creation  ;  from  the  origin  of 
learning  and  arts,  and  the  liability  of  the  parts 
of  matter  to  decay.  That  the  world  was  not 
produced  by  chance,  is  also  evident.  Nothing 
can  be  more  unreasonable  than  to  ascribe  to 
chance  an  effect  which  appears  with  all  the 
characters  of  a  wise  design  and  contrivance. 
Will  chance  fit  means  to  ends,  even  in  ten 
thousand  instances,  and  not  fail  in  a  single 
one  ?  How  often  might  a  man,  after  shaking 
a  set  of  letters  in  a  bag,  throw  them  on  the 
ground,  before  they  would  become  an  exact 
poem,  or  form  a  good  discourse  in  prose  ?  In 
short,  the  arguments  in  proof  of  Deity  are  so 
numerous,  and  at  the  same  time  so  obvious  to 
a  thinking  mind,  that  to  waste  time  in  dis- 
puting with  an  Atheist,  is  approaching  too 
much  toward  that  irrationality,  which  may  be 
considered  as  one  of  the  most  striking  charac- 
teristics of  the  sect. 

The  more  noted  Atheist,  since  the  Reforma- 
tion, are  Machiavel,  Spinoza,  Hobbes,  Blount, 
and  Vanini.     To  these  may  be  added  Hume, 


ATH 


107 


ATH 


and  Voltaire  the  corypheus  of  the  sect,  and  the 
great  nursing  father  x>£  that  swarm  of  them 
which  has  appeared  in  these  last  days. 

Dr.  Samuel  Clarke,  in  his  "  Demonstration 
of  the  Being  of  a  God,"  says,  that  Atheism 
arises  either  from  stupid  ignorance,  or  from 
corruption  of  principles  and  manners,  or  from 
the  reasonings  of  false  philosophy ;  and  he 
adds,  that  the  latter,  who  are  the  only  Atheisti- 
cal persons  capable  of  being  reasoned  with  at 
all,  must  of  necessity  own  that,  supposing  it 
cannot  be  proved  to  be  true,  yet  it  is  a  thing 
very  desirable,  and  which  any  wise  man  would 
wish  to  be  true,  for  the  great  benefit  and  hap- 
piness of  man,  that  there  was  a  God,  an  intel- 
ligent and  wise,  a  just  and  good  Being,  to 
govern  the  world.  Whatever  hypothesis  these 
men  can  possibly  frame,  whatever  argument 
they  can  invent,  by  which  they  would  exclude 
God  and  providence  out  of  the  world;  that 
very  argument  or  hypothesis,  will  of  necessity 
lead  them  to  this  concession.  If  they  argue, 
that  our  notion  of  God  arises  not  from  nature 
and  reason,  but  from  the  art  and  contrivance 
of  politicians ;  that  argument  itself  forces  them 
to  confess,  that  it  is  manifestly  for  the  interest 
of  human  society,  that  it  should  be  believed 
there  is  a-  God.  If  they  suppose  that  the  world 
was  made  by  chance,  and  is  every  moment 
subject  to  be  destroyed  by  chance  again ;  no 
man  can  be  so  absurd  as  to  contend,  that  it  is 
as  comfortable  and  desirable  to  live  in  such  an 
uncertain  state  of  things,  and  so  continually 
liable  to  ruin,  without  any  hope  of  renovation, 
as  in  a  world  that  is  under  the  preservation 
and  conduct  of  a  powerful,  wise,  and  good 
God.  If  they  argue  against  the  being  of  God, 
from  the  faults  and  defects  which  they  imagine 
they  can  find  in  the  frame  and  constitution  of 
the  visible  and  material  world ;  this  supposition 
obliges  them  to  acknowledge  that  it  would 
have  been  better  the  world  had  been  made  by 
an  intelligent  and  wise  Being,  who  might  have 
prevented  all  faults  and  imperfections.  If  they 
argue  against  providence,  from  the  faultiness 
and  inequality  which  they  think  they  discover 
in  the  management  of  the  moral  world  ;  this  is 
a  plain  confession,  that  it  is  a  thing  more  fit 
and  desirable  in  itself,  that  the  world  should 
be  governed  by  a  just  and  good  Being,  than 
by  mere  chance  or  unintelligent  necessity. 
Lastly,  if  they  suppose  the  world  to  be  eternally 
and  necessarily  self-existent,  and  consequently 
that  every  thing  in  it  is  established  by  a  blind 
and  eternal  fatality ;  no  rational  man  can  at 
the  same  time  deny,  but  that  liberty  and  choice, 
or  a  free  power  of  acting,  is  a  more  eligible 
state,  than  to  be  determined  thus  in  all  our 
actions,  as  a  stone  is  to  move  downward,  by 
an  absolute  and  inevitable  fate.  In  a  word, 
which  way  soever  they  turn  themselves,  and 
whatever  hypothesis  they  make,  concerning 
the  original  and  frame  of  things,  nothing  is  so 
certain  and  undeniable,  as  that  man,  considered 
without  the  protection  and  conduct  of  a  supe- 
rior Being,  is  in  a  far  worse  case  than  upon 
supposition  of  the  being  and  government  of 
God,  and  of  men's  being  under  his  peculiar 
conduct,  protection,  and  favour. 


ATHENS,  a  celebrated  city  of  Greece,  too 
well  known  to  be  here  described.  St.  Paul's 
celebrated  sermon,  Acts  xvii,  was  preached  on 
the  Areopagus,  or  Hill  of  Mars,  where  a  cele- 
brated court  was  held  which  took  cognizance 
of  matters  of  religion,  blasphemies  against  the 
gods,  the  building  of  temples,  &c.  (See  Are. 
opagus.)  The  inscription  on  the  altar,  "  to  the 
unknown  God,"  which  St.  Paul  so  appropriate- 
ly made  the  text  of  his  discourse,  was  adopted 
on  the  occasion  of  the  city  having  been  re- 
lieved from  a  pestilence;  and  they  erected 
altars  to  "the  God  unknown,"  either  as  not 
knowing  to  which  of  their  divinities  they  were 
indebted  for  the  favour,  or,  which  is  more  pro- 
bable, because  there  was  something  in  the  cir- 
cumstances of  this  deliverance,  which  led  them 
to  refer  it  to  a  higher  power  than  their  own 
gods,  even  to  the  supreme  God,  who  was  not 
unfrequently  styled,  the  "unknown,"  by  the 
wiser  Heathens.  The  existence  of  such  altars 
is  expressly  mentioned  by  Lucian.  On  the 
place  where  the  great  Apostle  bore  his  noble 
testimony  against  idols,  and  declared  to  them 
the  God  whom  they  ignorantly  worshipped, 
Dr.  E.  D.  Clarke,  the  traveller,  remarks,  "  It 
is  not  possible  to  conceive  a  situation  of  great- 
er peril,  or  one  more  calculated  to  prove  the 
sincerity  of  a  preacher,  than  that  in  which  the 
Apostle  was  here  placed  ;  and  the  truth  of  this, 
perhaps,  will  never  be  better  felt  than  by  a 
spectator,  who  from  this  eminence  actually 
beholds  the  monuments  of  Pagan  pomp  and 
superstition  by  which  he,  whom  the  Athenians 
considered  as  the  set-er  forth  of  strange  gods, 
was  then  surrounded :  representing  to  the 
imagination  the  disciples  of  Socrates  and  of 
Plato,  the  dogmatist  of  the  porch,  and  the 
skeptic  of  the  academy,  addressed  by  a  poor 
and  lowly  man,  who,  '  rude  in  speech,'  without 
the  '  enticing  words  of  man's  wisdom,'  enjoined 
precepts  contrary  to  their  taste,  and  very  hostile 
to  their  prejudices.  One  of  the  peculiar  privi- 
leges of  the  Areopagita?  seems  to  have  been 
set  at  defiance  by  the  zeal  of  St.  Paul  on  this 
occasion ;  namely,  that  of  inflicting  extreme 
and  exemplary  punishment  upon  any  person 
who  should  slight  the  celebration  of  the  holy 
mysteries,  or  blaspheme  the  gods  of  Greece. 
We  ascended  to  the  summit  by  means  of  steps 
cut  in  the  natural  stone.  The  sublime  scene 
here  exhibited  is  so  striking,  that  a  brief  de- 
scription of  it  may  prove  how  truly  it  offers  to 
us  a  commentary  upon  the  Apostle's  words,  as 
they  were  delivered  upon  the  spot.  He  stood 
upon  the  top  of  the  rock,  and  beneath  the  ca- 
nopy of  heaven.  Before  him  there  was  spread 
a  glorious  prospect  of  mountains,  islands,  seas, 
and  skies ;  behind  him  towered  the  lofty  Acro- 
polis, crowned  with  all  its  marble  temples. 
Thus  every  object,  whether  in  the  face  of  na- 
ture, or  among  the  works  of  art,  conspired  to 
elevate  the  mind,  and  to  fill  it  with  reverence 
toward  that  Being  who  made  and  governs  the 
world,  Acts  xvii,  24,  28 ;  who  sitteth  in  that 
light  which  no  mortal  eye  can  approach,  and 
yet  is  nigh  unto  the  meanest  of  his  creatures ; 
in  whom  we  live,  and  move,  and  have  our 
being." 


ATO 


108 


ATO 


ATONEMENT,  the  satisfaction  offered  to 
divine  justice  by  the  death  of  Christ  for  the 
sins  of  mankind,  by  virtue  of  which  all  true 
penitents  who  believe  in  Christ  are  personally 
reconciled  to  God,  are  freed  from  the  penalty 
of  their  sins,  and  entitled  to  eternal  life.  The 
atonement  for  sin  made  by  the  death  of  Christ, 
is  represented  in  the  Christian  system  as  the 
means  by  which  mankind  may  be  delivered 
from  the  awful  catastrophe  of  eternal  death ; 
from  judicial  inflictions  of  the  displeasure  of  a 
Governor,  whose  authority  has  been  contemned, 
and  whose  will  has  been  resisted,  which  shall 
know  no  mitigation  in  their  degree,  nor  bound 
to  their  duration.  This  end  it  professes  to  ac- 
complish by  means  which,  with  respect  to  the 
Supreme  Governor  himself,  preserve  his  cha- 
racter from  mistake,  and  maintain  the  authority 
of  his  government;  and  with  respect  to  man, 
give  him  the  strongest  possible  reason  for  hope, 
and  render  more  favourable  the  condition  of 
his  earthly  probation.  These  are  considera- 
tions which  so  manifestly  show,  from  its  own 
internal  constitution,  the  superlative  import- 
ance and  excellence  of  Christianity,  that  it 
would  be  exceedingly  criminal  to  overlook 
them. 

How  sin  may  be  forgiven  without  leading  to 
such  misconceptions  of  the  divine  character  as 
would  encourage  disobedience,  and  thereby 
weaken  the  influence  of  the  divine  govern- 
ment, must  be  considered  as  a  problem  of  very 
difficult  solution.  A  government  which  ad- 
mitted no  forgiveness,  would  sink  the  guilty  to 
despair;  a  government  which  never  punishes 
offence,  is  a  contradiction, — it  cannot  exist. 
Not  to  punish  the  guilty,  is  to  dissolve  au- 
thority ;  to  punish  without  mercy,  is  to  destroy, 
and  where  all  are  guilty,  to  make  the  destruc- 
tion universal.  That  we  cannot  sin  with  im- 
punity, is  a  matter  determined.  The  Ruler  of 
the  world  is  not  careless  of  the  conduct  of  his 
creatures ;  for  that  penal  consequences  are  at- 
tached to  the  offence,  is  not  a  subject  of  argu- 
ment, but  is  matter  of  fact  evident  by  daily 
observation  of  the  events  and  circumstances  of 
the  present  life.  It  is  a  principle  therefore 
already  laid  down,  that  the  authority  of  God 
must  be  preserved  ;  but  it  ought  to  be  remarked, 
that  in  that  kind  of  administration  which  re- 
strains evil  by  penalty,  and  encourages  obe- 
dience by  favour  and  hope,  we  and  all  moral 
creatures  are  the  interested  parties,  and  not  the 
divine  Governor  himself,  whom,  because  of  his 
independent  and  all-sufficient  nature,  our  trans- 
gressions cannot  injure.  The  reasons,  there- 
fore, which  compel  him  to  maintain  his  au- 
thority do  not  terminate  in  himself.  If  he 
treats  offenders  with  severity,  it  is  for  our  sake, 
and  for'the  sake  of  the  moral  order  of  the  uni- 
verse, to  which  sin,  if  encouraged  by  a  negli- 
gent administration,  or  by  entire  or  frequent 
impunity,  would  be  the  source  of  endless  dis- 
order and  misery;  and  if  the  granting  of  par- 
don to  offence  be  strongly  and  even  severely 
guarded,  so  that  no  less  a  satisfaction  could 'be 
accepted  than  the  death  of  God's  own  Son,  we 
are  to'refer  this  to  the  moral  necessity  of -the 
.case  as  arising  out  of  the  general  welfare  of 


accountable  creatures,  liable  to  the  deep  evil 
of  sin,  and  not  to  any*reluctance  on  the  part 
of  our  Maker  to  forgive,  much  less  to  any 
thing  vindictive  in  his  nature, — charges  which 
have  been  most  inconsiderately  and  unfairly 
said  to  be  implied  in  the  doctrino  of  Christ's 
vicarious  sufferings.  If  it  then  be  true,  that 
the  release  of  offending  man  from  future  pun- 
ishment, and  his  restoration  to  the  divine  fa- 
vour, ought,  for  the  interests  of  mankind  them- 
selves, and  for  the  instruction  and  caution  of 
other  beings,  to  be  so  bestowed,  that  no  license 
shall  be  given  to  offence ; — that  God  himself, 
whilst  he  manifests  his  compassion,  should  not 
appear  less  just,  less  holy,  than  he  really  is  ; — 
that  his  authority  should  be  felt  to  be  as  com- 
pelling, and  that  disobedience  should  as  truly, 
though  not  unconditionally,  subject  us  to  the 
deserved  penalty,  as  though  no  hope  of  forgive- 
ness had  been  exhibited; — we  ask,  On  what 
scheme,  save  that  which  is  developed  in  the 
New  Testament,  are  these  necessary  conditions 
provided  for?  Necessary  they  are,  unless  we 
contend  for  a  license  and  an  impunity  which 
shall  annul  all  good  government  in  the  uni- 
verse, a  point  for  which  no  reasonable  man 
will  contend ;  and  if  so,  then  we  must  allow 
that  there  is  strong  internal  evidence  of  the 
truth  of  the  doctrine  of  Scripture,  when  it 
makes  the  offer  of  pardon  consequent  only  upon 
the  securities  we  have  before  mentioned.  If 
it  be  said,  that  sin  may  be  pardoned  in  the  ex- 
ercise of  the  divine  prerogative,  the  reply  is, 
that  if  this  prerogative  were  exercised  toward 
a  part  of  mankind  only,  the  passing  by  of  the 
rest  would  be  with  difficulty  reconciled  to  the 
divine  character ;  and  if  the  benefit  were  ex- 
tended to  all,  government  would  be  at  an  end. 
This  scheme  of  bringing  men  within  the  ex- 
ercise of  a  merciful  prerogative,  does  not  there- 
fore meet  the  obvious  difficulty  of  the  case ; 
nor  is  it  improved  by  confining  the  act  of 
grace  only  to  repentant  criminals.  For  in  the 
immediate  view  of  danger,  what  offender,  sur- 
rounded with  the  wreck  of  former  enjoyments, 
feeling  the  vanity  of  guilty  pleasures,  now  past 
for  ever,  and  beholding  the  approach  of  the 
delayed  penal  visitation,  but  would  repent? 
Were  the  principle  of  granting  pardon  to  re- 
pentance to  regulate  human  governments,  every 
criminal  would  escape,  and  judicial  forms  would 
become  a  subjeret  for  ridicule.  Nor  is  it  re- 
cognised by  the  divine  Being  in  his  conduct  to 
men  in  the  present  state,  although  in  this 
world  punishments  are  not  final  and  absolute. 
Repentance  does  not  restore  health  injured  by 
intemperance  ;  property,  wasted  by  profusion  ; 
or  character,  once  sta.ned  by  dishonourable 
practices.  If  repentance  alone  could  secure 
pardon,  then  all  must  be  pardoned,  and  govern- 
ment dissolved,  as  in  the  case  of  forgiveness 
by  the  exercise  of  mere  prerogative  ;  but  if  an 
arbitrary  selection  be  made,  then  different  and 
discordant  principles  of  government  are  in- 
troduced into  the  divine  administration,  which 
is  a  "derogatory  supposition. 

The  question  proposed  abstractedly,  How 
may  mercy  be  extended  to  offending  creatures, 
the  subjects  of  the  divine  government,  without 


ATO 


109 


ATO 


encouraging  vice,  by  lowering  the  righteous 
and  holy  character  of  God,  and  the  authority 
of  his  government,  iv.  the  maintenance  of 
which  the  whole  universe  of  beings  are  inter- 
ested ?  is,  therefore,  at  once  one  of  the  most 
important  and  one  of  the  most  difficult  that 
can  employ  the  human  mind.  None  of  the 
theories  which  have  been,  opposed  to  Chris- 
tianity affords  a  satisfactory  solution  of  the 
problem.  They  assume  principles  either  de- 
structive of  moral  government,  or  which  can- 
not, in  the  circumstances  of  man,  be  acted 
upon.  The  only  answer  is  found  in  the  Holy 
Scriptures.  They  alone  show,  and,  indeed, 
they  alone  profess  to  show,  how  God  may  be 
"just,"  and  yet  the  "justifier"  of  the  ungodly. 
Other  schemes  show  how  he  may  be  merciful ; 
but  the  difficulty  does  not  lie  there.  The  Gos- 
pel meeto  it,  by  declaring  "the  righteousness 
of  God,"  at  the  same  time  that  it  proclaims  his 
mercy.  The  voluntary  sufferings  of  the  Divine 
Son  of  God  "  for  us,"  that  is,  in  our  room  and 
stead,  magnify  the  justice  of  God ;  display  his 
hatred  to  sin  ;  proclaim  "the  exceeding  sinful- 
ness" of  transgression,  by  the  deep  and  painful 
manner  in  which  they  were  inflicted  upon  the 
Substitute ;  warn  the  persevering  offender  of 
the  terribleness,  as  well  as  the  certainty,  of  his 
punishment ;  and  open  the  gates  of  salvation 
to  every  penitent.  It  is  a  part  of  the  same 
divine  plan  also  to  engage  the  influence  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  to  awaken  penitence  in  man,  and 
to  lead  the  wanderer  back  to  himself;  to  re- 
new our  fallen  nature  in  righteousness,  at  the 
moment  we  are  justified  through  faith,  and  to 
place  us  in  circumstances  in  which  we  may 
henceforth  "walk  not  after  the  flesh,  but  after 
the  Spirit."  An  the  ends  of  government  are 
here  answered — no  license  is  given  to  offence, 
— the  moral  law  is  unrepealed, — a  day  of  judg- 
ment is  still  appointed, — future  and  eternal 
punishments  still  display  their  awful  sanctions, 
— a  new  and  singular  display  of  the  awful  purity 
of  the  divine  character  is  afforded, — yet  par- 
don is  offered  to  all  who  seek  it;  and  the 
whole  world  may  be  saved. 

With  such  evidence  of  suitableness  to  the 
case  of  mankind,  under  such  lofty  views  of 
connection  with  the  principles  and  ends  of 
moral  government,  does  the  doctrine  of  the 
atonement  present  itself.  But  other  important 
considerations  are  not  wanting  to  mark  the 
united  wisdom  and  goodness  of  that  method  of 
extending  mercy  to  the  guilty,  which  Chris- 
tianity teaches  us  to  have  been  actually  and 
exclusively  adopted.  It  is  rendered,  indeed, 
"worthy  of  all  acceptation,"  by  the  circum- 
stance of  its  meeting  the  difficulties  we  have 
just  dwelt  upon, — difficulties  which  could  not 
otherwise  have  failed  to  make  a  gloomy  im- 
pression upon  every  offender  awakened  to  a 
sense  of  his  spiritual  danger;  but  it  must  be 
very  inattentively  considered,  if  it  does  not 
farther  commend  itself  to  us,  by  not  only  re- 
moving the  apprehensions  we  might  feel  as  to 
the  severity  of  the  divine  Lawgiver,  but  as  ex- 
alting him  in  our  esteem  as  "the  righteous 
Lord,  who  loveth  righteousness,"  who  sur- 
rendered   his    beloved    Son   to    suffering  and 


death,  that  the  influence  of  moral  goodness 
might  not  be  weakened  in  the  hearts  of  his 
creatures;  and  as  a  God  of  love,  affording  in 
this  instance  a  view  of  the  tenderness  and 
benignity  of  his  nature  infinitely  more  impres- 
sive and  affecting  than  any  abstract  descrip- 
tion could  convey,  or  than  any  act  of  creating 
and  providential  power  and  grace  could  ex- 
hibit, and,  therefore,  most. suitable  to  subdue 
that  enmity  which  had  unnaturally  grown  up 
in  the  hearts  of  his  creatures,  and  which,  when 
corrupt,  they  so  easily  transfer  from  a  law 
which  restrains  their  inclination  to  the  Law- 
giver himself.  If  it  be  important  to  us  to  know 
the  extent  and  reality  of  our  danger,  by  the 
death  of  Christ  it  is  displayed,  not  in  descrip- 
tion, but  in  the  most  impressive  action ;  if  it 
be  important  that  we  should  have  an  assurance 
of  the  divine  placability  toward  us,  it  here 
receives  a  demonstration  incapable  of  being 
heightened ;  if  gratitude  be  the  most  powerful 
motive  of  future  obedience,  and  one  which 
renders  command  on  the  one  part,  and  active 
service  on  the  other,  "  not  grievous  but  joy- 
ous," the  recollection  of  such  obligations  as 
those  which  the  "  love  of  Christ"  has  laid  us 
under,  is  a  perpetual  spring  to  this  energetic 
affection,  and  will  be  the  means  of  raising  it 
to  higher  and  more  delightful  activity  for  ever. 
All  that  can  most  powerfully  illustrate  the 
united  tenderness  and  awful  majesty  of  God, 
and  the  odiousness  of  sin ;  all  that  can  win 
back  the  heart  of  man  to  his  Maker  and  Lord, 
and  render  future  obedience  a  matter  of  affec 
tion  and  delight  as  well  as  duty;  all  that  can 
extinguish  the  angry  and  malignant  passions 
of  man  to  man ;  all  that  can  inspire  a  mutual 
benevolence,  and  dispose  to  a  self-denying 
charity  for  the  benefit  of  others;  all  that  can 
arouse  by  hope,  or  tranquillize  by  faith ;  is  to 
be  found  in  the  vicarious  death  of  Christ,  and 
the  principles  and  purposes  for  which  it  was 
endured. 

The  first  declaration,  on  this  subject,  after 
the  appearance  of  Christ,  is  that  of  John  the 
Baptist,  when  he  saw  Jesus  coming  unto  him, 
"  Behold  the  Lamb  of  God,  which  taketh  away 
the  sin  of  the  world ;"  where  it  is  obvious,  that 
when  John  called  our  Lord,  "  the  Lamb  of 
God,"  he  spoke  of  him  under  a  sacrificial 
character,  and  of  the  effect  of  that  sacrifice  as 
an  atonement  for  the  sins  of  mankind.  This 
was  said  of  our  Lord,  even  before  he  entered 
on  his  public  office ;  but  if  any  doubt  should 
exist  respecting  the  meaning  of  the  Baptist's 
expression,  it  is  removed  by  other  passages,  in 
which  a  similar  allusion  is  adopted,  and  in 
which  it  is  specifically  applied  to  the  death  of 
Christ,  as  an  atonement  for  'sin.  In  the  Acts 
of  the  Apostles,  the  following  words  of  Isaiah 
are,  by  Philip  the  evangelist,  distinctly  applied 
to  Christ,  and  to  his  death  :  "  He  was  led  as  a 
sheep  to  the  slaughter ;  and  like  a  lamb  dumb 
before  his  shearer,  so  opened  he  not  his  mouth . 
in  his  humiliation  his  judgment  was  taken 
away:  and  who  shall  declare  his  generation? 
for  his  life  is  taken  from  the  earth."  This  par- 
ticular part  of  the  prophecy  being  applied  to 
our  Lord's  death,  the  whole  must  relate  to  the 


ATO 


110 


AUG 


same  subject ;  for  it  is  undoubtedly  one  entire 
prophecy,  and  the  other  expressions  in  it  are 
still  stronger :  "  He  was  wounded  for  our 
transgressions ;  he  was  bruised  for  our  iniqui- 
ties ;  the  chastisement  of  our  peace  was  upon 
him ;  and  with  his  stripes  we  are  healed :  the 
Lord  hath  laid  on  him  the  iniquity  of  us  all." 
In  the  First  Epistle  of  Peter,  is  also  a  strong  and 
very  apposite -text,  in  which  the  application  of 
the  term  "lamb"  to  our  Lord,  and  the  sense  in 
which  it  is  applied,  can  admit  of  no  doubt : 
"  Forasmuch  as  ye  know  that  ye  were  not  re- 
deemed with  corruptible  things,  but  with  the 
precious  blood  of  Christ,  as  of  a  lamb  without 
blemish  and  without  spot,"  1  Peter  i,  18,  19. 
It  is  therefore  evident  that  the  Prophet  Isaiah, 
six  hundred  years  before  the  birth  of  Jesus; 
that  John  the  Baptist,  on  the  commencement 
of  his  ministry ;  and  that  St.  Peter,  his  friend, 
companion  and  Apostle,  subsequent  to  the 
transaction ;  speak  of  Christ's  death  as  an 
atonement  for  sin,  under  the  figure  of  a  lamb 
sacrificed. 

The  passages  that  follow,  plainly  and  dis- 
tinctly declare  the  atoning  efficacy  of  Christ's 
death :  "  Now  once  in  the  end  of  the  world 
hath  he  appeared  to  put  away  sin  by  the  sacri- 
fice of  himself."  "  Christ  was  once  offered  to 
bear  the  sins  of  many ;  and  unto  them  that 
look  for  him  shall  he  appear  the  second  time 
without  sin  unto  salvation,"  Heb.  ix,  26,  28. 
"  This  man,  after  he  had  offered  one  sacrifice 
for  sin,  for  ever  sat  down  on  the  right  hand  of 
God ;  for  by  one  offering  he  hath  perfected  for 
ever  them  that  are  sanctified,"  Heb.  x,  12.  It 
is  observable,  that  nothing  similar  is  said  of 
the  death  of  any  other  person,  and  that  no 
such  efficacy  is  imputed  to  any  other  martyr- 
dom. "  While  we  were  yet  sinners  Christ 
died  for  us  ;  much  more  then,  being  now  justi- 
fied by  his  blood,  we  shall  be  saved  from  wrath 
through  him :  for  if,  when  we  were  enemies, 
we  were  reconciled  to  God  by  the  death  of  his 
Son,  much  more,  being  reconciled,  we  shall 
be  saved  by  his  life,"  Rom.  v,  8-10.  The 
words,  "  reconciled  to  God  by  the  death  of  his 
Son,"  show  that  his  death  had  an  efficacy  in 
our  reconciliation  ;  but  reconciliation  is  only 
preparatory  to  salvation.  "  He  has  reconciled 
us  to  his  Father  in  his  cross,  and  in  the  body 
of  his  flesh  through  death,"  Col.  i,  20,  22. 
What  is  said  of  reconciliation  in  these  texts,  is 
in  some  others  spoken  of  sanctification,  which 
is  also  preparatory  to  salvation.  "  We  are 
sanctified," — how  ?  "  by  the  offering  of  the 
body  of  Christ  once  for  all,"  Heb.  x,  10.  In 
the  same  epistle,  the  blood  of  Jesus  is  called 
"  the  blood  of  the  covenant  by  which  we  are 
sanctified."  In  these  and  many  other-passages 
that  occur  in  different  parts  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, it  is  therefore  asserted  that  the  death  of 
Christ  had  an  efficacy  in  the  procuring  of  hu- 
man salvation.  Such  expressions  are  used 
concerning  no  other  person,  and  the  death  of 
no  other  person ;  and  it  is  therefore  evident, 
that  Christ's  death  included  something  more 
than  a  confirmation  of  his  preaching  ;  some, 
thing  more  than  a  pattern  of  a  holy  and  patient 
martyrdom  ;  something  more  than  a  necessary 


antecedent  to  his  resurrection,  by  which  he 
gave  a  grand  and  clear  proof  of  our  resurrec- 
tion from  the  dead.  Christ's  death  was  all 
these,  but  it  was  something  more.  It  was  an 
atonement  for  the  sins  of  mankind;  and  in 
this  way  only  it  became  the  accomplishment 
of  our  eternal  redemption.  See  Day  of  Expia- 
tion. 

AUGSBURGH,  or  AUGUSTAN  CONFES- 
SION. In  1530,  a  diet  of  the  German  princes 
was  convened  by  the  emperor  Charles  V,  to 
meet  at  Augsburgh,  for  the  express  purpose  of 
composing  the  religious  troubles  which  then 
distracted  Germany.  On  this  occasion  Melanc- 
thon  was  employed  to  draw  up  this  famous  con- 
fession of  faith  which  may  be  considered  as  the 
creed  of  the  German  reformers,  especially  of 
the  more  temperate  among  them.  It  consist 
ed  of  twenty-one  articles,  including  the  follow- 
ing points : — The  Trinity,  original  sin,  the 
incarnation,  justification  by  faith,  the  word  and 
sacraments,  necessity  of  good  works,  the  per- 
petuity of  the  church,  infant  baptism,  the  Lord's 
Supper,  repentance  and  confession  y  the  proper 
use  of  the  sacraments,  church  order,  sjtes  and 
ceremonies,  the  magistracy,  a  future  judgment, 
free  will,  the  worship  of  saints,  &c.  It  then 
proceeds  to  state  the  abuses  of  which  the  re- 
formers chiefly  complained,  as  the  denial  of  the 
sacramental  cup  to  the  laity,  the  celibacy  of  the 
clergy,  the  mass,  auricular  confession,  forced 
abstinence  from  meats,  monastic  vows,  and  the 
enormous  power  of  the  church  of  Rome.  The 
confession  was  read  at  a  full  meeting  of  the 
diet,  and  signed  by  the  elector  of  Saxony,  and 
three  other  princes  of  the  German  empire. 

John  Faber,  afterward  archbishop  of  Vienna, 
and  two  other  Catholic  divines,  were  employed 
to  draw  up  an  answer  to  this  confession,  which 
was  replied  to  by  Melancthon  in  his  "  Apology 
for  the  Augsburgh  Confession"  in  1531.  This 
confession  and  defence ;  the  articles  of  Smal- 
cald,  drawn  up  by  Luther  ;  his  catechisms,  &c, 
form  the  symbolical  books  of  the  Lutheran 
church ;  and  it  must  be  owned  that  they  con- 
tain concessions  in  favour  of  some  parts  of 
popery,  particularly  the  real  presence,  that  few 
Protestants  in  this  country  would  admit. 

AUGUSTINE,  or,  as  he  is  sometimes  called 
in  the  court  style  of  the  middle  ages,  St.  Aus- 
tin, one  of  the  ancient  fathers  of  the  church, 
whose  writings  for  many  centuries  had  almost 
as  potent  an  influence  on  the  religious  opinions 
of  Christendom  as  those  of  Aristotle  exercised 
over  philosophy.  Indeed,  it  has  often  been  men- 
tioned as  a  fact,  with  expressions  of  regret,  that 
the  writings  of  no  man,  those  of  the  Stagirite 
excepted,  contributed  more  than  those  of  St. 
Augustine  to  encourage  that  spirit  of  subtle  dis- 
quisition which  subsequently  distinguished  the 
era  of  the  Schoolmen.  He  was  born,  Novem- 
ber 13th,  A.  D.  354,  at  Tagasta,  an  episcopal 
city  of  Numidia  in  Africa.  His  parents,  Patri- 
cius  and  Monica,  were  Christians  of  respect- 
able rank  in  life,  who  afforded  their  son  all  the 
means  of  instruction  which  his  excellent  genius 
and  wonderful  aptitude  for  learning  seemed  to 
require.  He  studied  grammar  and  rhetoric  at 
Madura,  until  he  was  sixteen  years  old ;   and 


AUG 


111 


AUG 


afterward  removed  to  Carthage,  to  complete  his 
studies.  In  both  these  cities,  in  all  the  fervour 
of  unregenerate  youth,  he  entered  eagerly  into 
the  seducing  scenes  of  dissipation  and  folly 
with  which  he  was  surrounded,  and  became  not 
only  depraved  but  infamous  in  his  conduct.  In 
this  respect  he  was  not  unproved  by  his  subse- 
quent connection  with  the  Manichees,  whose 
unhallowed  principles  afforded  an  excuse  for 
his  immorality,  and  threw  a  veil  over  the  vilest 
of  his  actions.  The  simplicity  and  minuteness 
with  which  he  has  narrated  the  numerous  inci- 
dents of  his  childhood,  youth,  and  mature  age, 
in  his  celebrated  book  of  "  Confessions,"  have 
afforded  abundant  matter  of  ridicule  to  the  pro- 
fane and  infidel  wits  of  this  and  the  last  age. 
The  reflections,  however,  which  accompany  his 
narrative,  are  generally  important  and  judi- 
cious, and  furnish  to  the  moral  philosopher 
copious  materials  for  a  history  of  the  varieties 
of  the  human  heart,  and  are  of  superior  value 
to  the  humble  Christian  for  the  investigation 
and  better  knowledge  of  his  own.  With  a 
strange  though  not  uncommon  inconsistency, 
few  books  have  been  more  frequently  quoted 
as  authority  on  matters  relating  to  general  liter- 
ature and  philosophy  by  infidels  themselves, 
than  St.  Augustine's  otherwise  despised  "  Con- 
fessions," and  his  "City  of  God."  But,  what- 
ever else  is  taught  in  this  remarkable  piece  of 
autobiography,  every  pious  reader  will  be  de- 
lighted with  the  additional  proofs  which  it  con- 
tains of  the  ultimate  prevalence  of  faithful 
prayer,  especially  on  the  part  of  Christian  pa- 
rents. Monica's  importunate  prayers  to  heaven 
followed  the  aberrations  of  her  graceless  son, 
— when  he  settled  at  Carthage  as  a  teacher  of 
rhetoric  ;  when  he  removed  to  Rome,  and  lodg- 
ed with  a  Manichee  ; — and  when  he  finally  set- 
tled at  Milan  as  professor  of  rhetoric.  St. 
Ambrose  was  at  that  time,  A.  D.  384,  bishop 
of  Milan,  and  to  his  public  discourses  Augus- 
tine began  to  pay  much  attention.  His  heart 
became  gradually  prepared  for  the  reception  of 
divine  truth,  and  for  that  important  change  of 
heart  and  principles  which  constitutes  "  con- 
version." The  circumstances  attending  this 
change,  though  often  related,  are  not  unwor- 
thy of  being  repeated,  if  only  to  show  that  the 
mode  of  the  Holy  Spirit's  operations  was  in 
vsubstance  the  same  in  those  early  days  as  they 
are  now  ;  and  time  was  when  some  of  the  sound- 
est divines  and  most  worthy  dignitaries  of  the 
church  of  England  were  in  the  habit  of  refer- 
ing  with  approbation  to  this  well  attested  in- 
stance of  change  of  heart.  One  of  his  Chris- 
tian countrymen,  Pontinius,  who  held  a  high 
situation  at  court,  having  perceived  a  copy  of 
St.  Paul's  Epistles  lying  on  the  table,  entered 
one  day  into  conversation  with  him  and  his 
friend  Alipius  about  the  nature  of  faith  and  the 
happiness  of  those  who  lived  in  the  enjoyment 
of  religion.  Augustine  was  deeply  affected  at 
the  close  of  this  visit ;  and  when  Pontinius  had 
retired,  giving  vent  to  his  feelings  he  address- 
ed Alipius  in  a  most  animated  strain:  "How 
is  this  ?  What  shall  we  do  ?  Ignorant  people 
come,  and  seize  upon  heaven  ;  and  we,  with 
our  learning,  (senseless  wretches  that  we  are  ') 


behold  we  are  immersed  in  flesh  and  blood ! 
Are  we  ashamed  to  follow  them  ?  Yet  is  it  not 
a  still  greater  shame,  not  even  to  be  able  to  fol- 
low them?"  Full  of  remorse  and  contrition 
Augustine  left  the  house  and  retired  to  a  secret 
part  of  the  garden,  followed  by  his  friend,  who 
seemed  on  this  occasion  to  be  a  partaker  of  his 
grief  only  because  he  saw  him  grieved  in  spi- 
rit. Unwilling  to  unman  himself,  as  he  ac- 
counted it,  before  Alipius,  he  left  him;  and 
throwing  himself  down  under  the  branches  of 
a  large  fig  tree  he  poured  out  a  torrent  of  tears 
which  he  was  unable  any  longer  to  restrain, 
and  exclaimed  in  bitterness  of  soul,  "When,  O 
Lord,  when  will  thy  anger  cease  ?  Why  to- 
morrow ?  Why  not  at  this  time  ?"  He  instantly 
heard  what  he  considered  to  be  the  voice  of 
a  child,  saying  Tolle,  lege,  "  Take  and  read." 
These  two  Latin  words  were  repeated  several 
times  ;  Augustine  reflected  upon  them,  check, 
ed  his  tears,  received  them  as  the  voice  of  God, 
and  running  into  the  house,  opened,  according 
to  the  divine  direction,  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul 
which  he  had  left  on  the  table,  and  attentively 
read  the  first  passage  which  he  found.  It  was 
Romans  xiii,  13,  14;  a  passage  peculiarly  ap- 
plicable to  him,  in  reference  to  his  former  habits 
and  present  state  of  mind  :  "  Not  in  rioting  and 
drunkenness,  not  in  chambering  and  wanton- 
ness, not  in  strife  and  envying :  but  put  ye  on 
the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  make  not  provi- 
sion for  the  flesh  to  fulfil  the  lusts  thereof."  He 
shut  up  the  book,  and  was  amazed  that  all  his 
doubts  and  fears  had  vanished.  Alipius  was 
speedily  informed  of  this  wonderful  change  in 
bis  feelings  and  views;  and  after  having  desir- 
ed to  see  the  two  verses,  in  the  spirit  of  a  true 
seeker  he  pointed  out  to  Augustine  the  passage 
which  immediately  follows,  and  which  he  con- 
sidered as  peculiarly  adapted  to  his  own  case : 
"  Him  that  is  weak  in  the  faith  receive  ye," 
&c,  Rom.  xiv,  1.  The  two  friends  then  ran  to 
acquaint  Monica  with  these  circumstances,  the 
knowledge  of  which  transported  her  with  joy. 
In  a  frame  of  mind  not  unfamiliar  to  those 
who  have  themselves  had  "  much  forgiven," 
Augustine  wished  to  retire  at  once  from  so' 
wicked  a  world  as  that  in  which  he  had  passed 
the  first  thirty-two  years  of  his  dissolute  life. 
His  secession,  however,  was  only  a  temporary 
one  ;  for  he  and  Alipius  were,  a  few  months 
afterward,  received  by  baptism  into  the  Chris- 
tian church.  After  having  composed  several 
religious  treatises  in  his  retreat  near  Tagasta, 
especially  against  the  errors  of  the  Manichees, 
from  which  he  had  been  so  recently  reclaimed, 
he  was,  in  the  year  392,  ordained  priest  by  Va- 
lerius, bishop  of  Hippo,  now  a  part  of  the  Bar- 
bary  States  on  the  coast  of  Africa.  He  there 
held  a  public  disputation  with  Fortunatus,  a 
celebrated  priest  among  the  Manichees,  and 
acquitted  himself  with  great  spirit  and  success , 
he  also  wrote  and  preached  largely  and  to  great 
effect  against  the  Donatists  and  Manichees. 
His  reputation  as  a  divine  increased ;  and  he 
was,  at  the  close  of  the  year  395,  ordained  bishop 
of  Hippo,  in  which  high  station  he  continued 
with  great  advantage  to  wage  war  against  va- 
rious orders  of  heretics. 


AUG 


112 


AUG 


Augustine  had  hitherto  directed  his  theolo- 
gical artillery  principally  against  the  predesti- 
narian  errors  of  the  Manichees ;  but  he  was  soon 
called  upon  to  change  his  weapons  and  his  mode 
of  warfare,  in  attacking  a  new  and  not  less  dan- 
gerous class  of  heretics.  In  the  year  412  he 
began  to  write  against  the  injurious  doctrines 
of  Pelagius,  a  native  of  Britain,  who  had  resided 
for  a  considerable  time  at  Rome,  and  acquired 
universal  esteem  by  the  purity  of  his  manners, 
his  piety,  and  his  erudition.  Alarmed  at  the 
consequences  which  seemed  to  him  obviously 
to  result  from  allowing  that  Adam's  sin  is  trans- 
mitted to  all  his  posterity,  and  fortified  in  his 
sentiments  on  this  subject  by  those  of  Origen 
and  Ruffinus,  with  the  latter  of  whom  he  had 
associated,  he  boldly  denied  tenets  which  he 
did  not  believe.  In  the  defence  of  his  opinions, 
Pelagius,  was  seconded  by  Celestius,  a  man 
equally  eminent  for  his  talents  and  his  virtues. 
Their  principles  were  propagated  at  first  rather 
by  hints  and  intimations,  than  by  open  avowal 
and  plain  declarations ;  but  this  reserve  was 
laid  aside  when  they  perceived  the  ready  recep- 
tion which  their  doctrines  obtained  ;  and  Celes- 
tius began  zealously  to  disseminate  them  in 
Africa,  while  Pelagius  sowed  the  same  tares  in 
Palestine,  whence  they  were  speedily  trans- 
planted to  almost  every  corner  of  Christendom. 
If  the  brief  notices,  which  have  come  down  to 
us  respecting  their  tenets,  in  the  writings  of 
their  adversaries,  be  correct,  they  affirmed,  "  It 
is  not  free  will  if  it  requires  the  aid  of  God ; 
because  every  one  has  it  within  the  power  of 
his  own  will  to  do  any  thing,  or  not  to  do  it. 
Our  victory  over  sin  and  Satan  proceeds  not 
from  the  help  which  God  affords,  but  is  owing 
to  our  own  free  will.  The  prayers  which  the 
church  offers  up  either  for  the  conversion  of 
unbelievers  and  other  sinners,  or  for  the  perse- 
verance of  believers,  are  poured  forth  in  vain. 
The  unrestricted  capability  of  men's  own  free 
will  is  amply  sufficient  for  all  these  things,  and 
therefore  no  necessity  exists  for  asking  of  God 
those  things  which  we  are  able  of  ourselves  to 
obtain ;  the  gifts  of  grace  being  only  neces- 
sary to  enable  men  to  do  that  more  easily  and 
completely  which  yet  they  could  do  themselves 
though  more  slowly  and  with  greater  difficulty ; 
and  that  they  are  perfectly  free  creatures,"  in 
opposition  to  all  the  current  notions  of  predes. 
tination  and  reprobation.  These  novel  opin- 
ions were  refuted  by  St.  Augustine  and  St.  Je- 
rom,  as  well  as  by  Orosius  a  Spanish  presbyter, 
and  they  were  condemned  as  heresies  in  the 
council  of  Carthage  and  in  that  of  Milevum. 
The  discussions  which  then  arose  have  been 
warmly  agitated  in  various  subsequent  periods 
of  the  Christian  church,  though  little  new  light 
has  been  thrown  upon  them  from  that  age  to 
the  present.  In  his  eagerness  to  confute  these 
opponents  St.  Augustine  employed  language  so 
strong  as  made  it  susceptible  of  an  interpreta- 
tion wholly  at  variance  with  the  accountability 
of  man.  This  led  to  farther  explanations  and 
modifications  of  his  sentiments,  which  were 
multiplied  when  the  Semi-Pelagians  arose,  who 
thought  that  the  truth  lay  between  his  doctrines 
and  those  of  the  Pelagians.    Concerning  origi- 


nal sin,  he  maintained  that  it  was  derived  from 
our  first  parents  ;  and  he  believed  he  had  ascer- 
tained in  what  the  original  sin  conveyed  by 
Adam  to  his  posterity  consisted.  In  his  senti- 
ments, however,  upon  the  latter  point  he  was 
rather  inconsistent,  at  one  time  asserting  that 
the  essence  of  original  sin  was  concupiscence, 
and  at  another  expressing  doubts  respecting 
his  own  position.  This  subject  was  bequeath- 
ed as  a  legacy  to  the  schoolmen  of  a  subsequent 
age,  who  exercised  their  subtle  wits  upon  all 
its  ramifications  down  to  the  period  of  the  coun- 
cil of  Trent.  On  the  consequences  of  the  fall 
of  our  first  parents,  St.  Augustine  taught  that 
by  it  human  nature  was  totally  corrupted,  and 
deprived  of  all  inclination  and  ability  to  do 
good.  Before  the  age  in  which  he  lived,  the 
early  fathers  held  what,  in  the  language  of 
systematic  theology,  is  termed  the  synergestic 
system,  or  the  needfulness  of  human  coopera- 
tion in  the  works  of  holiness  ;  but  though  the 
freedom  of  the  will  was  not  considered  by  them 
as  excluding  or  rendering  unnecessary  the 
grace  of  God,  yet  much  vagueness  is  percepti- 
ble in  the  manner  in  which  they  express  them- 
selves, because  they  had  not  examined  the 
subject  with  the  same  attention  as  the  theolo- 
gians by  whom  they  were  succeeded.  Those 
early  divines  generally  used  the  language  of 
Scripture,  the  fertile  hrvention  of  controversial 
writers,  not  having  as  yet  displayed  itself,  ex- 
cept on  the  divine  nature  of  Jesus  Christ,  and 
subsidiary  terms  and  learned  distinctions  not 
being  then  required  by  any  great  differences  of 
opinion.  But  as  soon  as  Pelagius  broached  his 
errors,  the  attention  of  Christians  was  natur- 
ally turned  to  the  investigation  of  the  doctrine 
of  grace.  The  opinions  of  St.  Augustine  on 
this  subject,  which  soon  became  those  of  the 
great  body  of  the  Christian  church,  admitted 
the  necessity  of  divine  grace,  or  the  influence 
of  the  Holy  Spirit,  for  our  obedience  to  the  law 
of  God.  He  ascribed  the  renovation  of  our 
moral  constitution  wholly  to  this  grace,  denied 
all  cooperation  of  man  with  it  for  answering 
the  end  to  be  accomplished,  and  represented  it 
as  irresistible.  He  farther  affirmed  that  it  was 
given  only  to  a  certain  portion  of  the  human 
race,  to  those  who  showed  the  fruits  of  it  in 
their  sanctification,  and  that  it  secured  the  per- 
severance of  all  upon  whom  it  was  bestowed. 
Plaiferc  in  his  "  Appello  Etangelium"  has  given 
the  following  as  the  substance  of  that  opinion 
of  the  order  of  predestination  of  which  "many 
do  say  that  St.  Austin  was  the  first  author: 
1.  That  God  from  all  eternity  decreed  to  cre- 
ate mankind  holy  and  good.  2.  That  he  fore- 
saw man,  being  tempted  by  Satan,  would  fall 
into  sin,  if  God  did  not  hinder  it ;  he  decreed 
not  to  hinder.  3.  That  out  of  mankind,  seen 
fallen  into  sin  and  misery,  he  chose  a  certain 
number  to  raise  to  righteousness  and  to  eternal 
lite,  and  rejected  the  rest,  leaving  them  in  their 
sins.  4.  That  for  these  his  chosen  he  decreed 
to  send  his  Son  to  redeem  them,  and  his  Spirit 
to  call  them  and  sanctify  them  ;  the  rest  he 
decreed  to  forsake,  leaving  them  to  Satan  and 
themselves,  and  to  punish  them  for  their  sins." 
After  St.  Augustine  had  thus  in  a  great  de 


AUG 


113 


AUG 


gree  new  moulded  the  science  of  theology,  and 
had  combined  with  it  as  an  essential  part  of 
divine  truth,  that  the  fate  of  mankind  was  de- 
termined by  the  divine  decree  independently  of 
their  own  efforts  and  conduct,  and  that  they 
were  thus  divided  into  the  elect  and  reprobate, 
it  became  necessary,  in  order  to  preserve  con- 
sistency, to  introduce  into  his  system  a  limita- 
tion with  respect  to  baptism,  and  to  prevent 
the  opinions  concerning  it  from  interfering 
with  those  which  flowed  from  the  doctrine  of 
predestination.  He  accordingly  taught,  that 
baptism  brings  with  it  the  forgiveness  of  sins  ; 
that  it  is  so  essential,  that  the  omission  of  it 
will  expose  us  to  condemnation ;  and  that  it  is 
attended  with  regeneration.  He  also  affirmed 
that  the  virtue  of  baptism  is  not  in  the  water ; 
that  the  ministers  of  Christ  perform  the  external 
ceremony,  but  that  Christ  accompanies  it  with 
invisible  grace  ;  that  baptism  is  common  to  all, 
whilst  grace  is  not  so  ;  and  that  the  same  ex- 
ternal rite  may  be  death  to  some,  and  life  to 
others.  By  this  distinction  he  rids  himself  of 
the  difficulty  which  would  have  pressed  upon 
his  scheme  of  theology,  had  pardon,  regenera- 
tion, and  salvation  been  necessarily  connected 
with  the  outward  ordinance  of  baptism  ;  and 
limits  its  proper  efficacy  to  those  who  are  com- 
prehended, as  the  heirs  of  eternal  life,  in  the 
decree  of  the  Almighty.  Many,  however,  of 
those  who  strictly  adhere  to  him  in  other  parts 
of  his  doctrinal  system,  desert  him  at  this 
point.  Bishop  Bedell  speaks  thus  in  disparage- 
ment of  his  baptismal  views,  in  a  letter  to  Dr. 
Ward  :  "  This  I  do  yield  to  my  Lord  of  Sarum 
most  willingly,  that  the  justification,  sanctifi- 
cation,  and  adoption  which  children  have  in 
baptism,  is  not  univoce  [univocally]  the  same 
with  that  which  adulti  [adults]  have.  I  think 
the  emphatical  speeches  of  Augustine  against 
the  Pelagians,  and  of  Prosper,  are  not  so  much 
to  be  regarded  (who  say  the  like  of  the  eucha- 
rist  also)  touching  the  necessity  and  efficacy 
in  the  case  of  infants  ;  and  they  are  very  like 
the  speeches  of  Lanfranc  and  Guitmund  of 
Christ's  presence  in  the  sacrament,  opposing 
veraciter,  [truly]  and  vere  [truly]  to  sacramenta- 
litir ;  [sacramentally  ;]  which  is  a  false  and 
absurd  contraposition.  The  opinion  of  the 
Franciscans  out  of  Scotus  and  Bernard,  men- 
tioned in  the  council  of  Trent,  seems  to  be 
the  true  opinion;  for  they  make  the  sacra- 
ments to  be  effectual,  '  because  God  gives  them 
effectus  regulariter  concomitantes,'  [regularly 
accompanying  effects,]  and  to  contain  grace 
no  otherwise  than  as  an  effectual  sign;  and 
that  grace  is  received  by  them  as  an  investiture 
by  a  ring  or  staff,  which  is  obsignando,  [by 
signation.]  Consider  that  if  you  will  aver,  that 
baptism  washes  away  otherwise  than  sacra- 
mentally, that  is,  obsignatorily,  original  sin ; 
yet  you  must  allow  that  manner  of  washing 
for  future  actual  sins ;  and  you  must  make  two 
sorts  of  justification,  one  for  children,  another 
for  adulti;  [adults;]  and  (which  passes  all  the 
rest)  you  must  find  some  promise  in  God's 
covenant  wherein  he  binds  himself  to  wash 
Away  sin  without  faith  or  repentance.  By  this 
doctrine,  you  must  also  maintain  that  children 


do  spiritually  eat  the  flesh  of  Christ  and  drink 
his  blood,  if  they  receive  the  eucharist,  as  for 
ages  they  did,  and  by  the  analogy  of  the  pass- 
over  they  may ;  and  sith  [if]  the  use  of  this 
sacrament  toties  quoties  [as  often  as  it  is  used] 
must  needs  confer  grace,  it  seems  it  were 
necessary  to  let  them  communicate,  and  the 
oftener  the  better,  to  the  intent  they  might  be 
stronger  in  grace :  which  opinion,  though  St. 
Austin  and  many  more  of  the  ancients  do 
maintain,  I  believe  you  will  not  easily  conde- 
scend unto,  or  that  children  dying  without 
baptism  are  damned."  These  remarks  are  im- 
portant, as  proceeding  from  the  pen  of  the 
personal  friend  of  Father  Paul,  who  wrote  the 
History  of  the  council  of  Trent. 

In  the  various  discussions  which  have  arisen 
concerning  predestination  and  the  doctrines 
with  which  it  is  connected,  some  modern  di- 
vines have  quoted  the  arguments  of  St.  Agus- 
tine  against  the  Manichees,  and  others  those 
which  he  employed  against  the  Pelagians,  ac- 
cording to  the  discordant  views  which  the 
combatants  severally  entertain  on  these  contro- 
verted points.  One  of  them  has  thus  expressed 
himself,  in  his  endeavour  to  reconcile  St  Au- 
gustine with  himself: — "The  heresy  of  Pela- 
gius  being  .suppressed,  the  catholic  doctrine  in 
that  point  became  more  settled  and  confirmed 
by  the  opposition ;  such  freedom  being  left  to 
the  will  of  man,  as  was  subservient  unto  grtice, 
cooperating  in  some  measure  with  those  hea- 
venly influences.  And  so  much  is  confessed 
by  St.  Augustine  himself,  where  he  asks  this 
question,  '  Doth  any  man  affirm  that  free  will 
is  perished  utterly  from  man  by  the  fall  of 
Adam  ?'  And  thereunto  he  makes  this  answer : 
'  Freedom  is  perished  by  sin  ;  but  it  is  that 
freedom  only  which  we  had  in  paradise,  of 
having  perfect  righteousness  with  immortality.' 
For,  otherwise,  it  appears  to  be  his  opinion, 
that  man  was  not  merely  passive  in  all  the  acts 
of  grace  which  conduced  to  glory,  according 
to  the  memorable  saying  of  his,  so  common  in 
the  mouths  of  all  men,  '  He  who  first  made  us 
without  our  help  will  not  vouchsafe  to  save  us 
at  last  without  our  concurrence.'  If  any  harsher 
expressions  have  escaped  his  pen,  (as  commonly 
it  happeneth  in  the  heats  of  a  disputation,) 
they  are  to  be  qualified  by  this  last  rule,  and 
by  that  before,  in  which  it  was  affirmed,  that 
'  God  could  not  v/ith  justice  judge  and  con- 
demn the  world,  if  all  men's  sins  proceeded 
not  from  their  own  free  will,  but  from  some 
overruling  providence  which  inforced  them  to 
it.' "  Another  admirer  of  this  father  offers  the 
following  as  an  attempt  at  reconciliation :  "  St. 
Augustine  denied  that  the  cooperation  of  man 
is  at  all  exerted  to  produce  the  renewal  of  our 
nature ;  but,  when  the  renewal  had  been  pro- 
duced, he  admitted  that  there  was  an  exercise 
of  the  will  combined  with  the  workings  of 
grace.  In  the  tenth  chapter  of  his  work 
against  the  Manichaeans,  the  bishop  of  Hippo 
thus  expresses  himself:  '  Who  is  it  that  will 
not  exclaim,  How  foolish  it  is  to  deliver  precepts 
to  that  man  who  is  not  at  liberty  to  perform  ickat 
is  commanded!  And  how  unjust  it  is  to  con- 
demn him  who  had  not  power  to  fulfil  the  com. 


AUG 


114 


AUG 


mands  !  Yet  these  unhappy  persons  [the  Mani- 
chees]  do  not  perceive  that  they  are  ascribing 
such  injustice  and  want  of  equity  to  God.  But 
what  greater  truth  is  there  than  this,  that  God 
has  delivered  precepts,  and  that  human  spirits 
have  freedom  of  will  V  Elsewhere  he  says, 
'  Nothing  is  more  within  our  power  than  our 
own  will.  The  will  is  that  by  which  we  com- 
mit sin,  and  by  which  we  live  righteously.' 
Nothing  can  be  plainer  than  that  the  writer  of 
these  passages  admitted  the  liberty  of  the  hu- 
man will,  and  the  necessity  of  our  own  exer- 
tions in  conjunction  with  divine  grace.  How 
this  is  to  be  reconciled  with  his  general  doc- 
trine, is  perhaps  indicated  in  the  following 
passage  from  his  book  De  Gratia,  et  lib.  Arbi- 
trio,  c.  17.  Speaking  of  grace  he  says,  'That 
we  may  will  God  icorks  without  us;  but  when 
we  will,  and  so  will  as  to  do,  he  co-works  with 
us ;  yet  unless  he  either  works  that  we  may 
will,  or  co-works  when  we  do  will,  we  are 
utterly  incapable  of  doing  any  thing  in  the 
good  works  of  piety.' "  These  are  but  very 
slight  specimens  of  the  mode  in  which  learned 
and  ingenious  men  have  tried  to  give  a  kind 
of  symmetrical  proportion  to  this  father's  doc- 
trinal system.  Several  large  treatises  have 
been  published  with  the  same  praiseworthy 
intention ;  the  pious  authors  of  them  either 
entirely  forgetting,  or  having  never  read,  the 
rather  latitudinarian  indulgence  of  opinion 
which  St.  Augustine  claims  for  himself  in  his 
"Retractations,"  in  which  he  has  qualified  the 
harshness  of  his  previous  assertions  on  many 
subjects.  If,  however,  an  estimate  may  be 
formed  of  what  this  father  intended  in  his  va- 
rious pacifacatory  doctrinal  explanations  from 
what  he  has  actually  admitted  and  expressed, 
it  may  be  safely  affirmed  that  no  systematic 
writer  of  theology  seems  so  completely  to  have 
entered  into  the  last  and  best  views  of  the 
bishop  of  Hippo,  or  so  nearly  reconciled  the 
apparent  discordances  in  them,  as  Arminius 
has  done  ;  and  few  other  authors  have  rendered 
more  ample  justice  to  his  sentiments,  talents, 
and  character,  than  the  famous  Dutch  Professor. 

Many  were  the  theological  labours  to  which 
he  was  invited  by  the  most  eminent  of  his  con- 
temporaries ;  and  hastily  as  some  of  his  lucu- 
brations were  executed,  it  is  not  surprising  that 
among  two  hundred  and  seventy -two  treatises 
on  different  subjects,  some  are  of  inferior  value 
and  unworthy  of  the  fame  which  he  had  ac- 
quired in  the  church.  After  a  life  of  various 
changes,  and  of  a  mixed  character,  he  died 
A.  D.  430,  in  the  seventy-sixth  year  of  his  age  ; 
having  been  harassed  at  the  close  of  life  by 
seeing  his  country  invaded  by  the  Vaiukils, 
and  the  city  of  which  he  was  the  bishop  be- 
sieged. Though  those  barbarians  took  Hippo 
and  burned  it,  they  saved  his  library,  which 
contained  his  voluminous  writings. 

St.  Augustine  was  a  diligent  man  in  the 
sacred  calling ;  and  that  the  office  of  a  bishop 
even  in  that  age  of  the  church  was  no  sinecure, 
is  evident  from  several  notices  in  his  letters. 
At  the  close  of  one  addressed  to  Marcellinus 
he  gives  the  subjoined  account:  "If  I  were 
able  to  give  you  a  narrative  of  the  manner  in 


which  I  spend  my  time,  you  would  be  both  sur- 
prised and  distressed  on  account  of  the  great 
number  of  affairs  which  oppress  me  without 
my  being  able  to  suspend  them.  For  when 
some  little  leisure  is  allowed  me  by  those  who 
daily  attend  upon  me  about  business,  and  who 
are  so  urgent  with  me  that  I  can  neither  shun 
them  nor  ought  to  despise  them,  I  have  always 
some  other  writings  to  compose,  which  indeed 
ought  to  be  preferred,  [to  those  which  Marcel- 
linus requested,]  because  the  present  juncture 
will  not  permit  them  to  be  postponed.  For  the 
rule  of  charity  is,  not  to  consider  the  greatness 
of  the  friendship,  but  the  necessity  of  the  affair. 
Thus  I  have  continually  something  or  other  to 
compose  which  diverts  me  from  writing  what 
would  be  more  agreeable  to  my  inclinations, 
during  the  little  intervals  in  that  multiplicity 
of  business  with  which  I  am  burdened  either 
through  the  wants  or  the  passions  of  others." 
He  frequently  complains  of  this  oppressive 
weight  of  occupation  in  which  his  love  of  his 
flock  had  engaged  him,  by  obeying  the  Apos- 
tolical precept,  which  forbids  Christians  from 
going  to  law  before  Pagan  tribunals.  In  refer- 
ence to  this  employment  his  biographer,  Posi- 
donius,  says  :  "  At  the  desire  of  Christians,  or 
of  men  belonging  to  any  sect  whatever,  he 
would  hear  causes  with  patience  and  attention, 
sometimes  till  the  usual  hour  of  eating,  and 
sometimes  the  whole  day  without  eating  at  all, 
observing  the  dispositions  of  the  parties,  and 
how  much  they  advanced  or  decreased  in  faith 
and  good  works ;  and  when  he  had  opportunity 
he  instructed  them  in  the  law  of  God,  and  gave 
them  suitable  advice,  requiring  nothing  of  them 
except  Christian  obedience.  He  sometimes 
wrote  letters,  when  desired,  on  temporal  sub- 
jects; but  looked  upon  all  this  as  unprofitable 
occupation,  which  drew  him  aside  from  that 
which  was  better  and  more  agreeable  to  him- 
self." 

The  character  of  this  eminent  father  has 
been  much  misrepresented  both  as  a  man  and 
as  a  writer.  Whoever  looks  into  his  writings 
for  accurate  and  enlarged  views  of  Christian 
doctrine,  looks  for  that  which  could  not  be  ex- 
pected in  the  very  infancy  of  Biblical  criticism. 
He  was  a  rhetorician  by  profession,  and  the 
degenerate  taste  of  that  age  must  be  blamed, 
rather  than  the  individual  who  wrote  in  the 
style  which  then  prevailed.  The  learning  of. 
St.  Augustine,  and  particularly  his  knowledge 
of  Greek,  have  been  disputed ;  and  hence  the 
importance  of  his  Biblical  criticisms  has  been 
depreciated.  In  the  account  of  the  early  part 
of  his  life  he  confesses  his  great  aversion  to 
the  study  of  that  language  ;  and  as  he  tells  us, 
in  his  maturer  age,  that  he  read  the  Platonists 
in  a  Latin  version,  it  has  perhaps  been  too 
hastily  concluded  that  he  never  made  any  great 
proficiency  in  it.  But  though  it  be  allowed 
that  his  comments  on  Scripture  consist  chiefly 
of  popular  reflections,  spiritual  and  moral,  or 
allegorical  and  mystical  perversions  of  the  lite- 
ral meaning  ;  yet  the  works  of  this  father  are 
not  wholly  destitute  of  remarks  and  critical 
interpretations,  that  are  pertinent  and  judi- 
cious :  to  such,  after  a  series  of  extracts  from  his 


AVE 


115 


AZA 


writings,  Dr.  Lardner  has  referred  his  readers. 
With  regard  to  his  knowledge  of  Greek,  this 
impartial  and  candid  author  is  of  opinion,  that 
he  understood  that  language  better  than  some 
have  supposed ;  and  he  has  cited  several  pas- 
sages from  which  it  may  be  perceived,  that  St. 
Augustine  frequently  compared  his  copies  of 
the  Latin  version  with  those  of  the  Greek  ori- 
ginal. Le  Clerc  himself  allows  that  he  some- 
times explains  Greek  words  and  phrases  in  a 
very  felicitous  manner.  Indeed,  the  com- 
mencement of  his  correspondence  with  St. 
Jerom  proves  him  to  have  been  no  contempti- 
ble critic.  In  this  he  besought  him,  in  the 
name  of  all  the  African  churches,  to  apply 
himself  to  the  translation  into  Latin  of  the 
Greek  interpreters  of  Scripture,  rather  than  to 
enter  upon  a  new  translation  from  the  original 
Hebrew ;  and  to  point  out  those  passages  in 
which  the  Hebrew  differed  from  the  Septua- 
gint,  as  he  had  previously  done  in  the  book  of 
Job.  Voltaire  and  other  profane  wits  have,  in 
the  exercise  of  their  buffoonery,  impeached  his 
moral  conduct ;  but  their  charges,  when  impar- 
tially examined,  will  be  seen  to  be  founded  in 
ignorance  or  in  malice.  They  resemble  those 
which  the  same  parties  prefer  against  Prophets, 
Apostles,  and  against  Christ  himself.  Mosheim 
observes  that  Augustine's  high  reputation  filled 
the  Christian  world ;  and  "  not  without  reason, 
as  a  variety  of  great  and  shining  qualities  were 
unhed  in  the  character  of  that  illustrious  man. 
A  sublime  genius,  an  uninterrupted  and  zeal- 
ous pursuit  of  truth,  an  indefatigable  applica- 
tion, an  invincible  patience,  a  sincere  piety, 
and  i  subtle  and  lively  wit,  conspired  to  esta- 
blish his  fame  upon  the  most  lasting  founda- 
tions." Such  a  testimony  as  this  far  outweighs 
the  vituperative  remarks  and  petty  sneers  of  a 
thousand  infidel-s.  See  Pelagians  and  Sy- 
nods. 

AUGUSTUS,  emperor  of  Rome,  and  suc- 
cessor of  Julius  Cassar.  The  battle  of  Actium, 
which  he  fought  with  Mark  Antony,  and  which 
made  him  master  of  the  empire,  happened  fif- 
teen years  before  the  birth  of  Christ.  This  is 
the  emperor  who  appointed  the  enrolment 
mentioned  Luke  ii,  1,  which  obliged  Joseph 
and  the  Virgin  Mary  to  go  to  Bethlehem,  the 
place  where  Jesus  Christ  was  born.  Augustus 
procured  the  crown  of  Judea  for  Herod,  from 
the  Roman  senate.  After  the  defeat  of  Mark 
Antony,  Herod  adhered  to  Augustus,  and  was 
always  faithful  to  him  ;  so  that  Augustus  load- 
ed him  with  honours  and  riches. 

AVEN,  a  city  of  Egypt,  afterward  called 
Heliopolis,  and  On,  Ezek.  xxx,  17.  Herodotus 
informs  us  that  in  this  city  there  was  an  annual 
assembly  in  honour  of  the  sun,  and  a  temple 
dedicated  to  him.  It  appears,  however,  highly 
probable,  by  the  behaviour  of  Pharaoh  to  Jo- 
seph and  Jacob,  and  especially  by  Joseph's 
care  to  preserve  the  land  to  the  priests,  Gen. 
xlvii,  22,  26,  that  the  true  religion  prevailed 
in  Egypt  in  his  time ;  and  it  is  incredible  that 
Joseph  should  have  married  the  daughter  of 
the  priest  of  On,  had  that  name  among  the 
Egyptians  denoted  only  the  material  light; 
which,  however,  no  doubt  they,  like  all  the 


rest  of  the  world,  idolized  in  after  times,  and 
to  which  we  find  a  temple  dedicated  among  the 
Canaanites,  under  this  name,  Joshua  vii,  2. 

AVENGER  OF  BLOOD.  He  who  prose- 
cuted  the  man-slayer  under  the  law  was  called 
the  avenger  of  blood,  and  had  a  right  to  slay 
the  person,  if  he  found  him  without  a  city  of 
refuge.     See  Goel. 

AVlMS,  a  people  descended  from  Hevus,  the 
son  of  Canaan.  They  dwelt  at  first  in  the 
country  which  was  afterward  possessed  by  the 
Caphtorims,  or  Philistines.  The  Scripture  says 
expressly,  that  the  Caphtorims  drove  out  the 
Avims,  w«o  dwelt  in  Hazerim,  even  unto 
Azzah,  Deut.  ii,  23.  There  were  also  Avims, 
or  Hivites,  at  Shechem,  or  Gibeon,  Joshua 
xi,  19 ;  for  the  inhabitants  of  Shechem  were 
Hivites.  Lastly,  there  were  some  of  them 
beyond  Jordan,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Hermon. 
Bochart  thinks,  that  Cadmus,  who  conducted 
a  colony  of  the  Phoenicians  into  Greece,  was 
a  Hivite.  His  name,  Cadmus,  comes  from  the 
Hebrew  Kedem,  "the  east,"  because  he  came 
from  the  eastern  parts  of  the  land  of  Canaan. 
The  name  of  his  wife  Hermione  was  taken  from 
Mount  Hermon,  at  the  foot  whereof  the  Hivites 
dwelt.  The  metamorphoses  of  the  companions 
of  Cadmus  into  serpents  is  founded  upon  the 
signification  of  the  name  of  Hivites,  which,  in 
the  Phoenician  language,  signifies  serpents. 

AZARIAH,  or  UZZIAH,  king  of  Judah, 
son  of  Amaziah.  He  began  to  reign  at  the  age 
of  sixteen  years,  and  reigned  fifty-two  years  in 
Jerusalem  ;  his  mother's  name  being  Jecholiah, 
2  Kings  xv.  Azariah  did  that  which  was  right 
in  the  sight  of  the  Lord ;  nevertheless-  he  did 
not  destroy  the  high  places ;  and,  against  the 
express  prohibition  of  God,  the  people  con- 
tinued to  sacrifice  there.  Having  taken  upon 
him  to  offer  incense  in  the  temple,  which  office 
belonged  entirely  to  the  priests,  he  was  struck 
with  a  leprosy,  and  continued  without  the  city, 
separated  from  other  men  until  the  day  of  his 
death,  2  Chron.  xxvi.  Josephus  says,  that  upon 
this  occasion  a  great  earthquake  happened  ; 
and  that  the  temple  opening  at  the  top,  a  ray 
of  light  darted  upon  the  king's  forehead,  the 
very  moment  he  took  the  censer  into  his  hand, 
and  he  instantly  became  a  leper  ;  nay,  that  the 
earthquake  was  so  very  violent,  that  it  tore  irt 
sunder  a  mountain  west  of  Jerusalem,  and 
rolled  one  half  of  it  over  and  over  to  the  dis- 
tance of  four  furlongs,  till  at  length  it  was 
stopped  by  another  mountain  which  stood  over 
against  it;  but  choked  up  the  highway,  and 
covered  the  king's  gardens  with  dust.  This 
is  what  Josephus  adds  to  the  history  related  in 
the  Chronicles  ;  but  the  truth  of  it  may  be 
justly  suspected.  We  know,  indeed,  that  there 
was  a  very  great  earthquake  in  the  reign  of 
Uzziah ;  for  Amos,  chap,  i,  1,  and  Zechariah, 
chap,  xiv,  5,  make  mention  of  it :  however,  it 
is  not  certain  that  it  happened  at  the  very  time 
that  Uzziah  took  upon  him  to  offer  incense. 

During  the  time  that  Uzziah  was  a  leper,  his 
son  Jotham,  as  his  father's  viceroy,  took  the 
public  administration  upon  himself,  and  suc- 
ceeded him  after  his  death,  which  happened  in 
the  fifty -second  year  of  his  reign,  A.  M.  3246. 


BAA 


116 


BAA 


He  was  not  buried  in  the  royal  sepulchre ;  but 
in  the  same  field,  at  some  distance,  on  account 
of  his  leprosy. 

The  first  part  of  Uzziah's  reign  was  very 
successful :  he  obtained  great  advantages  over 
the  Philistines,  Ammonites,  and  Arabians. 
He  made  additions  to  the  fortifications  at  Je- 
rusalem, and  always  kept  an  army  on  foot  of 
three  hundred  and  seven  thousand  men,  and 
upwards,  2  Chron.  xxvi;  and  he  had  great 
magazines,  well  stored  with  all  sorts  of  arms, 
as  well  offensive  as  defensive ;  and  he  was  a 
great  lover  of  agriculture. 

BAAL,  BEL,  or  BELUS,  denoting  lord,  a 
divinity  among  several  ancient  nations  ;  as  the 
Canaanites,  Phoenicians,  Sidonians,  Cartha- 
ginians, Babylonians,  Chaldeans,  and  Assy- 
rians. The  term  Baal,  which  is  itself  an 
appellative,  served  at  first  to  denote  the  true 
God,  among  those  who  adhered  to  the  true  re- 
ligion. Accordingly,  the  Phoenicians,  being 
originally  Canaanites,  having  once  had,  as 
well  as  the  rest  of  their  kindred,  the  knowledge 
of  the  true  God,  probably  called  him  Baal,  or 
lord.  But  they,  as  well  as  other  nations,  gra- 
dually degenerating  into  idolatry,  applied  this 
appellation  to  their  respective  idols ;  and  thus 
were  introduced  a  variety  of  divinities,  called 
Baalim,  or  Baal,  with  some  epithet  annexed  to 
it,  as  Baal  Berith,  Baal  Gad,  Baal  Moloch, 
Baal  Peor,  Baal  Zebub,  &c.  Some  have  sup- 
posed that  the  descendants  of  Ham  first  wor- 
shipped the  sun  under  the  title  of  Baal,  2 
Kings  xxiii,  5,  11 ;  and  that  they  afterward  as- 
cribed it  to  the  patriarch  who  was  the  head  of 
their  line ;  making  the  sun  only  an  emblem 
of  his  influence  or  power.  It  is  certain,  how- 
ever, that  when  the  custom  prevailed  of  deify- 
ing and  worshipping  those  who  were  in  any 
respect  distinguished  among  mankind,  the  ap- 
pellation of  Baal  was  not  restricted  to  the  sun, 
but  extended  to  those  eminent  persons  who 
were  deified,  and  who  became  objects  of  wor- 
ship in  different  nations.  The  Phoenicians  had 
several  divinities  of  this  kind,  who  were  not 
intended  to  represent  the  sun.  It  is  probable 
that  Baal,  Belus,  or  Bel,  the  great  god  of  the 
Carthaginians,  and  also  of  the  Sidonians, 
Babylonians,  and  Assyrians,  who,  from  the 
testimony  of  Scripture,  appears  to  have  been 
delighted  with  human  sacrifices,  was  the  Mo- 
loch of  the  Ammonites  ;  the  Chronus  of  the 
Greeks,  who  was  the  chief  object  of  adoration 
in  Italy,  Crete,  Cyprus,  and  Rhodes,  and  all 
other  countries  where  divine  honours  were  paid 
him;  and  the  Saturn  of  the  Latins.  In  process 
of  time,  many  other  deities,  beside  the  princi- 
pal ones  just  mentioned,  were  distinguished 
by  the  title  of  Baal  among  the  Phoenicians, 
particularly  those  of  Tyre,  and  of  course 
among  the  Carthaginians,  and  other  nations. 
Such  were  Jupiter,  Mars,  Bacchus,  and  Apollo, 
or  the  sun. 

The  temples  and  altars  of  Baal  were  gene- 
rally placed  on  eminences :  they  were  places 
inclosed  by  walls,  within  which  was  maintained 
a  perpetual  fire ;  and  some  of  them  had  statues 
or  images,  called  in  Scripture  "  Chamanim." 


Maundrell,  in  his  journey  from  Aleppo  to  Je- 
rusalem,  observed,  some  remains  of  these  en- 
closures  in  Syria.  Baal  had  his  prophets  and 
his  priests  in  great  numbers;  accordingly,  we 
read  of  four  hundred  and  fifty  of  them  that 
were  fed  at  the  table  of  Jezebel  only  ;  and  they 
conducted  the  worship  of  this  deity,  by  offering 
sacrifices,  by  dancing  round  his  altar  with  vio- 
lent gesticulations  and  exclamations,  by  cutting 
their  bodies  with  knives  and  lancets,  and  by 
raving  and  pretending  to  prophesy,  as  if  they 
were  possessed  by  some  invisible  power. 

It  is  remarkable  that  we  do  not  find  the 
name  Baal  so  much  in  popular  use  east  of 
Babylonia ;  but  it  was  general  west  of  Baby- 
lonia, and  to  the  very  extremity  of  western 
Europe,  including  the  British  isles.  The  wor- 
ship of  Bel,  Belus,  Belenus,  or  Belinus,  was 
general  throughout  the  British  islands;  and 
certain  of  its  rites  and  observances  are  still 
maintained  among  us,  notwithstanding  the 
establishment  of  Christianity  during  so  many 
ages.  A  town  in  Perthshire,  on  the  borders 
of  the  Highlands,  is  called  Tilliebeltane  or 
Tulliebeltane ;  that  is,  the  eminence,  or  rising 
ground,  of  the  fire  of  Baal.  In  the  neighbour- 
hood is  a  Druidical  temple  of  eight  upright 
stones,  where  it  is  supposed  the  fire  was  kin- 
dled. At  some  distance  from  this  is  anothsr 
temple  of  the  same  kind,  but  smaller ;  and  near 
it  a  well  still  held  in  great  veneration.  On 
Beltane  morning,  superstitious  people  go  to 
this  well,  and  drink  of  it ;  then  they  make  a 
procession  round  it  nine  times.  After  this  tbey 
in  like  manner  go  round  the  temple.  So  deep- 
rooted  is  this  Heathenish  superstition  in  the 
minds  of  many  who  reckon  themsdves  good 
Protestants,  that  they  will  not  neglect  these 
rites,  even  when  Beltane  falls  on  the  Sabbath. 

In  Ireland,  Bel-tein  is  celebrated  on  the 
twenty-first  of  June,  at  the  time  of  tie  solstice. 
There,  as  they  make  fires  on  the  tops  of  hills, 
every  member  of  the  family  is  made  to  pass 
through  the  fire  ;  as  they  reckon  wis  ceremony 
necessary  to  ensure  good  fortune  through  the 
succeeding  year.  This  resembles  the  rites  used 
by  the  Romans  in  the  Palilia.  Bel-tein  is  also 
observed  in  Lancashire. 

In  Wales,  this  annual  fire  is  kindled  in  au. 
tumn,  on  the  first  day  of  November;  which 
being  neither  at  the  solstice  nor  equinox,  de- 
serves attention.  It  may  be  accounted  for  by 
supposing  that  the  lapse  of  ages  has  removed 
it  from  its  ancient  station,  and  that  the  observ- 
ance is  kept  on  the  same  day,  nominally, 
though  that  be  now  removed  some  weeks  back- 
ward from  its  true  station.  However  that  may 
be,  in  North  Wales  especially,  this  fire  is  at- 
tended by  many  ceremonies;  such  as  running 
through  the  fire  and  smoke,  each  participator 
casting  a  stone  into  the  fire. 

The  Hebrews  often  imitated  the  idolatry  of 
the  Canaanites  in  adoring  Baal.  They  offered 
human  sacrifices  to  him  in  groves,  upon  high 
places,  and  upon  the  terraces  of  houses.  Baal 
had  priests  and  prophets  consecrated  to  his 
service.  All  sorts  of  infamous  and  immodest 
actions  were  committed  in  the  festivals  of  Baal 
and  Astarte.   See  Jer.  xxxii,  35 ;  2  Kings  xvii, 


BAA 


117 


BAB 


16;  xxiii,  4,  5,  12;  1  Kings  xviii,  22 ;  2  Kings 
x,  19 ;  1  Kings  xiv,  24;  xv,  12;  2  Kings  xxiii, 
7 ;  Hosea  iv,  14.  This  false  deity  is  frequently 
mentioned  in  Scripture  in  the  plural  number, 
Baalim,  which  may  intimate  that  the  name 
Baal  was  given  to  several  different  deities. 

There  were  many  cities  in  Palestine,  whose 
names  were  compounded  of  Baal  and  some 
other  word :  whether  it  was  that  the  god  Baal 
was  adored  in  them,  or  that  these  places  were 
looked  upon  as  the  capital  cities, — lords  of 
their  respective  provinces, — is  uncertain. 

BAAL  BERITH,  the  god  of  the  Shechem- 
ites,  Judges  viii,  33  ;  ix,  4,  46. 

BAAL  PEOR.  Peor  is  supposed  to  have 
been  a  part  of  Mount  Abarim;  and  Baal  was 
the  great  idol  or  chief  god  of  the  Phoenicians, 
and  was  known  and  worshipped  under  a  similar 
name,  with  tumultuous  and  obscene  rites,  all 
over  Asia.  He  is  the  same  as  the  Bel  of  the 
Babylonians.  Baal,  by  itself,  signifies  lord, 
and  was  a  name  of  the  solar  or  principal  god. 
But  it  was  also  variously  compounded,  in  allu- 
sion to  the  different  characters  and  attributes 
of  the  particular  or  local  deities  who  were 
known  by  it,  as  Baal  Peor,  Baal  Zebub,  Baal 
Zephon,  &c.  Baal  Peor,  then,  was  probably 
the  temple  of  an  idol  belonging  to  the  Moab- 
ites,  on  Mount  Abarim,  which  the  Israelites 
worshipped  when  encamped  at  Shittim ;  this 
brought  a  plague  upon  them,  of  which  twenty- 
four  thousand  died,  Num.  xxxv.  Chemosh, 
the  abomination  of  Moab,  to  whom  Solomon 
erected  an  altar,  1  Kings  xi,  7,  is  supposed  to 
have  been  the  same  deity.  Baal  Peor  has  been 
farther  supposed  by  some  to  have  been  Priapus  ; 
by  others,  Saturn ;  by  others,  Pluto ;  and  by 
others  again,  Adonis.  Mr.  Faber  agrees  with 
Calmet  in  making  Baal  Peor  the  same  with 
Adonis ;  a  part  of  whose  worship  consisted  in 
bewailing  him  with  funeral  rites,  as  one  lost  or 
dead,  and  afterward  welcoming,  with  extrava- 
gant joy,  his  fictitious  return  to  life.  He  was 
in  an  eminent  degree  the  god  of  impurity. 
Hosea,  speaking  of  the  worship  of  this  idol, 
emphatically  calls  it  "  that  shame,"  Hos.  ix,  10. 
Yet  in  the  rites  of  this  deity  the  Moabite  and 
Midianite  women  seduced  the  Israelites  to  join. 

BAAL  ZEBUB,  BEELZEBUB,  or  BEL- 
ZEBUB,  signifies  the  god  of  flies,  and  was  an 
idol  of  the  Ekronites.  It  is  not  easy  to  dis- 
cover how  this  false  deity  obtained  its  name. 
Some  commentators  think  that  he  was  called 
Baal  Samin,  or  the  lord  of  heaven ;  but  that 
the  Jews,  from  contempt,  gave  him  the  name 
of  Baal-zebub.  Others  with  greater  reason  be- 
lieve that  he  was  denominated  "the  god  of 
flies"  by  his  votaries,  because  he  defended  them 
from  flies,  which  are  extremely  troublesome  in 
hot  countries;  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
Eleans  worshipped  Hercules  under  the  appella- 
tion of  'Amfyiutoj,  the  fly  chaser.  Pliny  is  of 
opinion,  that  the  name  of  Achor,  the  god  in- 
voked at  Cyrene  against  flies,  is  derived  from 
Accaron,  or  Ekron,  where  Baal-zebub  was 
worshipped,  and  where  he  had  a  famous  temple 
and  oracle.  Winkelman  has  given  the  figures 
of  two  heads,  "both  of  them  images  of  Jupiter, 
called  by  the  Greeks  'A^utoj,  and  by  the  Ro- 


mans Muscarius;  that  is  to  say,  fly  driver;  for 
to  this  Jupiter  was  attributed  the  function  of 
driving  away  flies." 

It  is  evident  that  Beelzebub  was  considered 
as  the  patron  deity  of  medicine ;  for  this  is 
plainly  implied  in  the  conduct  of  Ahaziah,  2 
Kings  i.  The  Greek  mythology  considered 
Apollo  as  the  god  of  medicine,  and  attributed 
also  to  him  those  possessions  by  a  pythonic 
spirit  which  occasionally  perplexed  spectators, 
and  of  which  we  have  an  instance  in  Acts  xvi, 
19.  Apollo,  too,  was  the  sun.  Hence  we  pro- 
bably see  the  reason  why  Ahaziah  sent  to  Beel- 
zebub to  inquire  the  issue  of  his  accident ;  since 
Beelzebub  was  Apollo,  and  Apollo  was  the  god 
of  physic.  The  Jews,  who  changed  Beelzebub 
into  Beelzebul,  "god  of  a  dunghill,"  perhaps 
had  a  reference  to  the  Greek  of  pytho,  which 
signifies  putrefied.  In  Scripture  Beelzebub  is 
called  "  the  prince  of  devils,"  Matt,  xii,  24 ; 
Luke  xi,  ]5;  merely,  it  would  seem,  through 
the  application  of  the  name  of  the  chief  idol  of 
the  Heathen  world  to  the  prince  of  evil  spirits. 
This  was  natural,  since  the  Jews  were  taught 
in  their  own  Scriptures  to  consider  all  the  idols 
of  the  Heathens  "  devils."  Those  commenta- 
tors  who  think  that  the  idol  of  Ekron  himself 
is  intended,  have  indulged  in  an  improbable 
fancy.     See  Hornet. 

BAAL  ZEPHON,  or  the  god  of  the  watch 
tower,  was  probably  the  temple  of  some  idol, 
which  served  at  the  same  time  for  a  place  of 
observation  for  the  neighbouring  sea  and  coun- 
try, and  a  beacon  to  the  travellers  by  either. 
It  was  situated  on  a  cape  or  promontory  on  the 
eastern  side  of  the  western  or  Heroopolitan 
branch  of  the  Red  Sea,  near  its  northern  ex- 
tremity, over  against  Pihahiroth,  or  the  open- 
ing in  the  mountains  which  led  from  the  de- 
sert, on  the  side  of  Egypt,  to  the  Red  Sea. 

BAASHA,  the  son  of  Ahijah,  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  armies  belonging  to  Nadab,  the 
son  of  Jeroboam,  king  of  Israel.  Baasha  kill- 
ed his  master  treacherously  at  the  siege  of 
Gibbethon,  a  city  of  the  Philistines,  A.  M. 
3051,  and  usurped  the  crown,  which  he  pos- 
sessed twenty-four  years,  1  Kings  xv,  27,  &c. 
And,  to  secure  himself  in  his  usurpation,  he 
massacred  all  the  relatives  of  his  predecessor; 
which  uarbarous  action  proved  the  accomplish- 
ment of  the  prophecy  denounced  against  the 
house  of  Jeroboam  by  Ahijah,  the  prophet, 
1  Kings  xiv,  1,  &c. 

BABEL,  the  tower  and  city  founded  by  the 
descendants  of  Noah  in  the  plain  of  Shinar. 
The  different  tribes  descended  from  Noah  were 
here  collected,  and  from  this  point  were  dis- 
persed, through  the  confusion  of  their  language, 
The  time  when  this  tower  was  built  is  differ- 
ently stated  in  the  Hebrew  and  Samaritan 
chronologies.  The  former  fixes  it  in  the  year 
101  after  the  flood,  which  Mr.  Faber  thinks 
encumbered  with  insuperable  difficulties.  This 
writer  then  goes  on  to  show,  that  the  chrono- 
logy of  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch  reconciles 
every  date,  and  surmounts  every  difficulty.  It 
represents  Shem  as  dying  nearly  a  century  and 
a  half  before  the  death  of  Peleg,  instead  of 
more  than  that  number  of  years  afterward,  and 


BAB 


118 


BAB 


almost  four  centuries  and  a  half  before  the 
death  of  Abraham;  whom,  in  accordance  with 
the  history,  it  makes  to  survive  his  father 
Terah  precisely  a  hundred  years.  It  removes 
the  difficulties  with  which  the  Hebrew  chro- 
nology invests  the  whole  history,  by  giving 
time,  while  it  allows  the  dispersion  to  have 
taken  place  in  the  latter  part  of  Peleg's  life,  for 
the  thirteen  sons  of  his  younger  brother  Joktan 
to  have  become  heads  of  families;  for  Noah 
and  his  sons  to  have  died,  as  it  is  proved  they 
must  have  done,  prior  to  the  emigration  from 
Armenia;  for  Nimrod,  instead  of  being  a  boy, 
to  have  been  of  an  age  suitable  to  his  exploits, 
and  to  have  acquired  the  sovereign  command, 
not,  in  the  face  of  all  probability,  while  the 
four  great  patriarchs  were  living,  but  after 
their  decease  ;  and  for  the  families  of  mankind 
to  have  multiplied  sufficiently  to  undertake  the 
stupendous  work  of  the  tower.  It  explains 
also  the  silence  respecting  Sheni  in  the  history 
of  Abraham,  by  making  the  former  die  in  Ar- 
menia four  hundred  and  forty  years  before  the 
latter  was  born,  instead  of  surviving  him  thirty- 
five  years ;  and,  lastly,  it  makes  sacred  history 
accord  with  profane  ;  the  Babylonic  history  of 
Berosus,  and  the  old  records  consulted  by 
Epiphanius,  both  placing  the  death  of  Noah 
and  his  sons  before  the  emigration  from 
Armenia. 

The  sum  of  the  whole  is  as  follows  :  All  the 
descendants  of  Noah  remained  in  Armenia  in 
peaceable  subjection  to  the  patriarchal  religion 
and  government  during  the  lifetime  of  the 
four  royal  patriarchs,  or  till  about  the  begin- 
ning of  the  sixth  century  after  the  flood; 
when,  gradually  falling  off  from  the  pure 
worship  of  God,  and  from  their  allegiance  to 
the  respective  heads  of  families,  and  seduced 
by  the  schemes  of  the  ambitious  Nimrod,  and 
farther  actuated  by  a  restless  disposition,  or  a 
desire  for  a  more  fertile  country,  they  migrated 
in  a  body  southwards,  till  they  reached  the 
plains  of  Shinar,  probably  about  sixty  years 
after  the  death  of  Shem.  Here,  under  the 
command  of  their  new  leader,  and  his  domi- 
nant military  and  sacerdotal  Cuthites,  by 
whom  the  original  scheme  of  idolatry,  the 
groundwork  of  which  was  probably  laid  in 
Armenia,  was  now  perfected ;  and,  with  the 
express  view  to  counteract  the  designs  of  the 
Almighty  in  their  dispersion  into  different 
countries,  they  began  to  build  the  city  and 
tower,  and  set  up  a  banner  which  should  serve 
as  a  mark  of  national  union,  and  concentrate 
them  in  one  unbroken  empire ;  when  they 
were  defeated  and  dispersed  by  the  miraculous 
confusion  of  tongues.  All  this  probably  occu- 
pied the  farther  space  of  twenty  or  twenty-one 
years;  making  eighty-one  from  the  death  of 
Shem,  and  five  hundred  and  eighty-three  after 
the  flood.  All  of  which  also  will  come  within 
the  .life  of  Peleg,  who,  according  to  the  Sama- 
ritan Pentateuch,  died  in  the  year  640.  The 
tower  of  Belus  in  Babylon,  mentioned  by 
Herodotus,  was  probably  either  the  original 
tower  of  Babel  repaired,  or  it  was  constructed 
upon  its  massive  foundations.  The  remains 
of  this  tower  are  still  to  be  seen,  and  arc  thus 


described  by  Captain  Mignan,  in  his  Travels 
in  Chaldea : — 

"At  day  light  I  departed  for  the  ruins,  with 
a  mind  absorbed  by  the  objects  which  I  had 
seen  yesterday.  An  hour's  walk,  indulged  in 
intense  reflection,  brought  me  to  the  grandest 
and  most  gigantic  northern  mass,  on  the  east- 
ern bank  of  the  Euphrates,  and  distant  about 
four  miles  and  a  half  from  the  eastern  suburb 
of  Hillah.  It  is  called  by  the  natives,  El  Mv- 
jellibah,  'the  overturned;'  also  Haroot  and 
Ma  root,  from  a  tradition  handed  down,  with 
little  deviation,  from  time  immemorial,  that 
near  the  foot  of  the  ruin  there  is  a  well,  invisi- 
ble to  mortals,  in  which  those  rebellious  angels 
were  condemned  by  God  to  be  hung  with  their 
heels  upward,  until  the  day  of  judgment,  as  a. 
punishment  for  their  wickedness.  This  solid 
mound,  which  I  consider,  from  its  situation 
and  magnitude,  to  be  the  remains  of  the  Tower 
of  Babel,  (an  opinion  likewise  adopted  by  that 
venerable  and  highly  distinguished  geographer, 
Major  Rennell,)  is  a  vast  oblong  square,  com- 
posed of  kiln-burnt  and  sun-dried  bricks,  rising 
irregularly  to  the  height  of  one  hundred  and 
thirty-nine  feet,  at  the  south-west;  whence  it 
slopes  toward  the  north-east  to  a  depth  of  one 
hundred  and  ten  feet.  Its  sides  face  the  four 
cardinal  points.  I  measured  them  carefully, 
and  the  following  is  the  full  extent  of  each 
face :  that  to  the  north,  along  the  visible  face, 
is  two  hundred  and  seventy-four  yards ;  to  the 
south,  two  hundred  and  fifty -six  yards ;  to  the 
east,  two  hundred  and  twenty-six  yards ;  and 
to  the  west,  two  hundred  and  forty  yards. 
The  summit  is  an  uneven  flat,  strewed  with 
broken  and  unbroken  bricks,  the  perfect  ones 
measuring  thirteen  inches  square,  by  three 
thick.  Many  exhibited  the  arrow-headed 
character,  which  appeared  remarkably  fresh. 
Pottery,  bitumen,  vitrified  and  petrified  brick, 
shells,  and  glass,  were  all  equally  abundant. 
The  principal  materials  composing  this  ruin 
are,  doubtless,  mud  bricks  baked  in  the  sun, 
and  mixed  up  with  straw.  It  is  not  difficult 
to  trace  brick  work  along  each  front,  particu- 
larly at  the  south-west  angle,  which  is  faced  by 
a  wall,  composed  partly  of  kiln-burnt  brick, 
that  in  shape  exactly  resembles  a  watch  tower 
or  small  turret.  On  its  summit  there  are  still 
considerable  traces  of  erect  building ;  at  the 
western  end  is  a  circular  mass  of  sold  brick 
work,  sloping  toward  the  top,  and  rising  from 
a  confused  heap  of  rubbish.  The  chief  ma- 
terial forming  this  fabric  appeared  similar  to 
that  composing  the  ruin  called  Akercouff,  a 
mixture  of  chopped  straw,  with  slime  used  as 
cement;  and  regular  layers  of  unbroken  reeds 
between  the  horizontal  courses  of  the  bricks. 
The  base  is  greatly  injured  by  time  and  the 
elements;  particularly  to  the  south-east,  where 
it  is  cloven  into  a  deep  furrow  from  top  to 
bottom.  The  sides  of  the  ruin  exhibit  hol- 
lows worn  partly  by  the  weather,  but  more 
generally  formed  by  the  Arabs,  who  are  inces- 
santly digging  for  bricks,  and  hunting  for 
antiquities." 

BABYLON,  2  Kings  xxiv,  1.     The  capital 
of  Chaldea,  built  by  Nimrod,  Gen.  x,  10.     It 


BAB 


119 


BAB 


was  under  Nebuchadnezzar  that  Babylon,  then 
become  the  seat  of  universal  empire,  is  sup- 
posed to  have  acquired  that  extent  and  mag- 
nificence, and  that  those  stupendous  works 
were  completed  which  rendered  it  the  wonder 
of  the  world  and  of  posterity  :  and  accordingly, 
this  prince,  then  the  most  potent  on  lhe  earth, 
arrogated  to  himself  the  whole  glory  of  its 
erection;  and  in  the  pride  of  his  heart  ex- 
claimed, "  Is  not  this  great  Babylon  that  I  have 
built  ?"  The  city  at  this  period  stood  on  both 
sides  of  the  river,  which  intersected  it  in  the 
middle.  It  was,  according  to  the  least  compu- 
tation, that  of  Diodorus  Siculus,  45  miles  in 
circumference  ;  and  according  to  Herodotus, 
the  older  author  of  the  two,  60  miles.  Its 
shape  was  that  of  a  square,  traversed  each 
way  by  25  principal  streets ;  which  of  course 
intersected  each  other,  dividing  the  city  into 
626  squares.  These  streets  were  terminated 
at  each  end  by  gates  of  brass,  of  prodigious 
size  and  strength,  with  a  smaller  one  opening 
toward  the  river.  The  walls,  from  the  most 
moderate  accounts,  were  75  feet  in  height  and 
32  in  breadth ;  while  Herodotus  makes  them 
300  in  height  and  75  in  breadth :  which  last 
measurement,  incredible  as  it  may  seem,  is 
worthy  of  credit,  as  Herodotus  is  much  the 
oldest  author  who  describes  them,  and  who 
gives  their  original  height;  whereas,  those 
who  follow  him  in  their  accounts  of  these 
stupendous  walls,  describe  them  as  they  were 
after  they  had  been  taken  down  to  the  less 
elevation  by  Darius  Hystaspes.  They  were 
built  of  brick,  cemented  with  bitumen  instead 
of  mortar ;  and  were  encompassed  by  a  broad 
and  deep  ditch,  lined  with  the  same  materials, 
as  were  also  the  banks  of  the  river  in  its  course 
through  the  city :  the  inhabitants  descending 
to  the  water  by  steps  through  the  smaller 
brazen  gates  before  mentioned.  The  houses 
were  three  or  four  stories  high,  separated  from 
each  other  by  small  courts  or  gardens,  with 
open  spaces  and  even  fields  interspersed  over 
the  immense  area  enclosed  within  the  walls. 
Over  the  river  was  a  bridge,  connecting  the 
two  halves  of  the  city,  which  stood,  the  one  on 
its  eastern,  and  the  other  on  its  western,  bank ; 
the  river  running  nearly  north  and  south.  The 
bridge  was  5  furlongs  in  length,  and  30  feet  in 
breadth,  and  had  a  palace  at  each  end,  with,  it 
is  said,  a  subterraneous  passage  beneath  the 
river,  from  one  to  the  other :  the  work  of  Se- 
miramis.  Within  the  city  was  the  temple  of 
Belus,  or  Jupiter,  which  Herodotus  describes 
as  a  square  of  two  stadia,  or  a  quarter  of  a 
mile :  in  the  midst  of  which  arose  the  cele- 
brated tower,  to  which  both  the  same  writer, 
and  Strabo,  give  an  elevation  of  one  stadium, 
or  660  feet ;  and  the  same  measure  at  its  base  ; 
the  whole  being  divided  into  eight  separate 
towers,  one  above  another,  of  decreasing 
dimensions  to  the  summit;  where  stood  a 
chapel,  containing  a  couch,  table,  and  other 
things  of  gold.  Here  the  principal  devotions 
were  performed ;  and  over  this,  on  the  highest 
platform  of  all,  was  the  observatory,  by  the 
help  of  which  the  Babylonians  arrived  to  such 
perfection  in  astronomy,  that  Calisthenes  the 


philosopher,  who  accompanied  Alexander  to 
Babylon,  found  astronomical  observations  for 
1903  years  backwards  from  that  time  ;  which 
reach  as  high  as  the  115th  year  after  the  flood. 
On  either  side  of  the  river,  according  to  Dio- 
dorus, adjoining  to  the  bridge,  was  a  palace ; 
that  on  the  western  bank  being  by  much  the 
larger.  This  palace  was  eight  miles  in  cir- 
cumference, and  strongly  fortified  with  three 
walls  one  within  another.  Within  it  were  the 
celebrated  pensile  or  hanging  gardens,  enclosed 
in  a  square  of  400  feet.  These  gardens  were 
raised  on  terraces,  supported  by  arches,  or 
rather  by  piers,  laid  over  with  broad  flat  stones ; 
the  arch  appearing  to  be  unknown  to  the  Baby- 
lonians :  which  courses  of  piers  rose  above  one 
another,  till  they  reached  the  level  of  the  top 
of  the  city  walls.  On  each  terrace  or  platform, 
a  deep  layer  of  mould  was  laid,  in  which  flow- 
ers, shrubs  and  trees  were  planted ;  some  of 
which  are  said  to  have  reached  the  height  of 
50  feet.  On  the  highest  level  was  a  reservoir, 
with  an  engine  to  draw  water  up  from  the 
river  by  which  the  whole  was  watered.  This 
novel  and  astonishing  structure,  the  work  of  a 
monarch  who  knew  not  how  to  create  food  for 
his  own  pampered  fancy,  or  labour  for  his  de. 
based  subjects  or  unhappy  captives,  was  under, 
taken  to  please  his  wife  Amyitis  ;  that  she 
might  see  an  imitation  of  the  hills  and  woods 
of  her  native  country,  Media. 

Yet,  while  in  the  plenitude  of  its  power,  and, 
according  to  the  most  accurate  chronologers, 
160  years  before  the  foot  of  an  enemy  had  en- 
tered it,  the  voice  of  an  enemy  had  entered  it, 
the  voice  of  prophecy  pronounced  the  doom  of 
the  mighty  and  unconquered  Babylon.  A 
succession  of  ages  brought  it  gradually  to  the 
dust ;  and  the  gradation  of  its  fall  is  marked 
till  it  sinks  at  last  into  utter  desolation.  At  a 
time  when  nothing  but  magnificence  was 
around  this  city,  emphatically  called  the  great, 
fallen  Babylon  was  delineated  by  the  pencil  of 
inspiration  exactly  as  every  traveller  now  de- 
scribes its  ruins. 

The  immense  fertility  of  Chaldea,  which 
retained  also  the  name  of  Babylonia  till  after 
the  Christian  £era,.  corresponded  with  the  great- 
ness of  Babylon,  It  was  the  most  fertile  re- 
gion of  the  whole  east.  Babylonia  was  one 
vast  plain,  adorned  and  enriched  by  the  Eu- 
phrates and  the  Tigris,  from  which,  and  from 
the  numerous  canals  that  intersected  the  coun, 
try  from  the  one  river  to  the  other,  water  was 
distributed  over  the  fields  by  manuai  labsur  and 
by  hydraulic  machines,  giving  rise,  in  that 
warm  climate  and  rich  exhaustless  soil,  to  an 
exuberance  of  produce  without  a  known  paral- 
lel, over  so  extensive  a  region,  either  in  ancient 
or  modern  times.  Herodotus  states,  that  he 
knew  not  how  to  speak  of  its  wonderful  fer- 
tility, which  none  but  eye  witnesses  would 
credit ;  and,  though  writing  in  the  language  of 
Greece,  itself  a  fertile  country,  he  expresses  his 
own  consciousness  that  his  description  of  what 
he  actually  saw  would  appear  to  be  improbable, 
and  to  exceed  belief.  Such  was  the  "  Chaldees' 
excellency,"  that  it  departed  not  on  the  first 
conquest,  nor  on  the   final   extinction  of  its 


BAB 


120 


BAB 


capital,  but  one  metropolis  of  Assyria  arose  after 
another  in  the  land  of  Chaldea,  when  Babylon 
had  ceased  to  be  "the  glory  of  kingdoms." 

2.  Manifold  are  the  prophecies  respecting 
Babylon  and  the  land  of  the  Chaldeans ;  and 
the  long  lapse  of  ages  has  served  to  confirm 
their  fulfilment  in  every  particular,  and  to  ren- 
der it  at  last  complete.  The  judgments  of 
Heaven  are  not  casual,  but  sure ;  they  are  not 
arbitrary,  but  righteous.  And  they  were  de- 
nounced against  the  Babylonians,  and  the  in- 
habitants of  Chaldea,  expressly  because  of  their 
idolatry,  tyranny,  oppression,  pride,  covetous- 
ness,  drunkenness,  falsehood,  and  other  wick- 
edness. The  burden  of  Babylon,  which  Isaiah 
the  son  of  Amos  did  see :  "  The  noise  of  a 
multitude  in  the  mountains,  like  as  of  a  great 
people  :  a  tumultuous  noise  of  the  kingdoms  of 
nations  gathered  together  :  the  Lord  of  Hosts 
mustereth  the  host  of  the  battle.  They  come 
from  a  far  country,  from  the  end  of  heaven, 
even  the  Lord  and  the  weapons  of  his  indigna- 
tion, to  destroy  the  whole  land.  Behold,  the 
day  of  the  Lord  cometh,  cruel  both  with  wrath 
and  fierce  anger,  to  lay  the  land  desolate  :  and 
he  shall  destroy  the  sinners  thereof  out  of  it. 
Babylon,  the  glory  of  kingdoms,  the  beauty  of 
the  Chaldees'  excellency,  shall  be  as  when  God 
overthrew  Sodom  and  Gomorrah.  It  shall 
never  be  inhabited,  neither  shall  it  be  dwelt  in 
from  generation  to  generation  :  neither  shall 
the  Arabian  pitch  tent  there  :  neither  shall  the 
shepherds  make  their  fold  there.  But  wild 
beasts  of  the  desert  shall  lie  there  :  and  their 
houses  shall  be  full  of  doleful  creatures ;  and 
owls  shall  dwell  there,  and  satyrs  shall  dance 
there.  And  the  wild  beasts  of  the  islands  shall 
cry  in  their  desolate  houses,  and  dragons  in 
their  pleasant  palaces."  "Thou  shalt  take  up 
this  proverb  against  the  king  of  Babylon,  and 
say,  flow  hath  the  oppressor  ceased  !  the  golden 
city  ceased!  Thy  pomp  is  brought  down  to 
the  grave,  and  the  noise  of  thy  viols  :  the  worm 
is  spread  under  thee,  and  the  worms  cover  thee. 
Thou  shalt  be  brought  down  to  hell,  to  the 
sides  of  the  pit.  Thou  art  cast  out  of  the  grave 
like  an  abominable  branch. — I  will  cut  off  from 
Babylon  the  name,  and  remnant,  the  son,  and 
nephew,  saith  the  Lord.  I  will  also  make  it  a 
possession  for  the  bittern,  and  pools  of  water : 
and  I  will  sweep  it  with  the  besom  of  destruc- 
tion, saith  the  Lord  of  Hosts."  "  Babylon  is 
fallen,  is  fallen ;  and  all  the  graven  images  of 
her  gods  he  hath  broken  unto  the  ground." 
"  Thus  saith  the  Lord,  that  saith  unto  the  deep, 
Be  dry ;  and  I  will  dry  up  thy  rivers :  that 
saith  of  Cyrus,  He  is  my  shepherd,  and  shall 
perform  all  my  pleasure, — and  I  will  loose  the 
loins  of  kings,  to  open  before  him  the  two- 
leaved  gates ;  and  the  gates  shall  not  be  shut." 
"  Bel  boweth  down,"  &c.  "  Come  down,  and 
sit  in  the  dust,  O  virgin  daughter  of  Babylon  : 
sit  on  the  ground,  there  is  no  throne,  O  daugh- 
ter of  the  Chaldeans.  Sit  thou  silont,  and  get 
thee  into  darkness,  O  daughter  of  the  Chal- 
deans; for  thou  shalt  no  more  be  called  the 
lady  of  kingdoms." 

Many  other  prophecies  against  Babylon,  and 
the  whole  land  of  Chaldea,  are  found  in  the 


Old  Testament ;  and  though  the  limits  of  this 
article  will  only  allow  a  reference  to  be  made 
to  the  exact  fulfilment  of  a  few,  there  is  not 
one  of  the  great  number  of  predictions  on 
record,  the  accomplishment  of  which  has  not 
been  remarked  by  numerous  writers,  and  more 
especially  by  those  who  have  visited  the  spot. 
For,  though  for  many  centuries  the  site  of 
Babylon  was  unknown,  or  the  ruins  of  other 
Chaldean  cities  mistaken  for  its  remains,  its 
true  situation  and  present  condition  have  been, 
within  a  few  years,  satisfactorily  ascertained, 
and  accurately  described,  by  several  most  intel- 
ligent  and  enterprising  travellers. 

When  in  the  plenitude  of  its  greatness, 
splendour  and  strength,  Babylon  first  yielded 
to  the  arms  of  Cyrus,  whose  name,  and  the 
manoeuvre  by  which  the  city  was  taken,  were 
mentioned  by  Isaiah  nearly  two  hundred  years 
before  the  event ;  which  was  also  predicted  by 
Jeremiah:  "Go  up,  O  Elam,  (or  Persia,)  be- 
siege,  O  Media.  The  Lord  hath  raised  up  the 
spirit  of  the  kings  of  the  Medes,  for  his  device 
is  against  Babylon,  to  destroy  it."  The  kings 
of  Persia  and  Media,  prompted  by  a  common 
interest,  freely  entered  into  a  league  against 
Babylon,  and  with  one  accord  entrusted  the 
command  of  their  united  armies  to  Cyrus,  the 
relative  and  eventually  the  successor  of  them 
both. — But  the  taking  of  Babylon  was  not 
reserved  for  these  kingdoms  alone :  other  na- 
tions had  to  be  "  prepared  against  her."  "  Set 
up  a  standard  in  the  land ;  blow  the  trumpet 
among  the  nations,  prepare  the  nations  against 
her,  call  together  against  her  the  kingdoms  of 
Ararat,  Minni,  and  Aschenaz :  Lo,  I  will  raise 
and  cause  to  come  up  against  Babylon  an  as- 
sembly of  great  nations  from  the  north  coun- 
try," &c.  Cyrus  subdued  the  Armenians,  who 
had  revolted  against  Media,  spared  their  king, 
bound  them  over  anew  to  their  allegiance,  by 
kindness  rather  than  by  force,  and  incorporated 
their  army  with  his  own. — "The  mighty  men 
of  Babylon  have  foreborne  to  fight.  They  have 
remained  in  their  holds ;  their  might  hath  fail- 
ed, they  became  as  women."  So  dispirited 
became  its  people,  that  Babylon,  which  had 
made  the  world  to  tremble,  was  long  besieged, 
without  making  any  effort  to  drive  off  the 
enemy.  But,  possessed  of  provisions  for  twenty 
years,  which  in  their  timid  caution  they  had 
plentifully  stored,  they  derided  Cyrus  from  their 
impregnable  walls,  within  which  they  remained. 
Their  profligacy,  their  wickedness  and  false 
confidence  were  unabated ;  they  continued  to 
live  carelessly  in  pleasures :  and  Babylon  the 
great,  unlike  to  many  a  small  fortress  and  un- 
walled  town,  made  not  one  struggle  to  regain 
its  freedom  or  to  be  rid  of  the  foe. — Much  time 
having  been  lost,  and  no  progress  being  made 
in  the  siege,  the  anxiety  of  Cyrus  was  strongly 
excited,  and  he  was  reduced  to  great  perplexity, 
when  at  last  it  was  suggested  and  immediately 
determined  to  divert  the  course  of  the  Euphra- 
tes. And  while  the  unconscious  and  reckless 
citizens  were  engaged  in  dancing  and  merri- 
ment, the  river  was  suddenly  turned  into  the 
lake,  the  trench,  and  the  canals  ;  and  the  Per- 
sians, both  foot  and  horse,  so  soon  as  the  sub- 


BAB 


121 


BAB 


Biding  of  the  water  permitted,  entered  by  its 
channel,  and  were  followed  by  the  allies  in 
array,  along  the  dry  part  of  the  river.    "  I  will 
dry  up  thy  sea,  and  make  thy  springs  dry.    That 
saith  to  the  deep,  Be  dry,  I  will  dry  up  thy 
rivers." — One    detachment  was  placed  where 
the    river   first   enters   the    city,  and  another 
where  it  leaves  it.     And  "  one  post  did  run  to 
meet  another,  and  one  messenger  to  meet  an- 
other, to  show  the  king  of  Babylon  that  his 
city  is  taken  at  the  end,  and  that  the  passages 
are  shut."     "They  were  taken,"  says  Herodo- 
tus, "  by  surprise ;  and  such  is  the  extent  of  the 
city,  that,  as  the  inhabitants  themselves  affirm, 
they  who  lived  in  the  extremities  were  made 
prisoners  before  any  alarm  was  communicated 
to  the  centre  of  the  place,"  where  the  palace 
stood.     Thus  a  "  snare  was  laid  for  Babylon, 
it  was   taken,  and  it  was  not  aware ;  it  was 
found  and  also  caught ;  for  it  had  sinned  against 
the  Lord.     How   is  the   praise  of  the  whole 
earth  surprised !" — "  In  their  heat  I  will  make 
their  feasts,  and  I  will  make  them  drunken, 
that  they  may  rejoice    and  sleep  a  perpetual 
sleep,  and  not  wake,  saith  the  Lord.     I  will 
bring  them  down  like  lambs  to  the  slaughter," 
&c.     "  I  will  make  drunken  her  princes  and 
her  wise  men,  her  captains  and  her  rulers,  and 
her  mighty  men,  and  they  shall  sleep  a  per- 
petual sleep,"  &c.     Cyrus,  as  the  night  drew 
on,  stimulated  his  assembled  troops  to  enter 
the  city,  because  in  that  night  of  general  revel 
within  the  walls,  many  of  them  were  asleep, 
many  drunk,  and    confusion    universally  pre- 
vailed.    On    passing,    without    obstruction   or 
hinderance,  into  the  city,  the  Persiins,  slaying 
some,  putting  others  to  flight,  and  joining  with 
the  revellers,  as  if  slaughter  had  been  merri- 
ment, hastened   by  the    shortest   way  to   the 
palace,  and  reached  it  ere  yet  a  messenger  had 
told  the  king  that  his  city  was  taken.     The 
gates  of  the  palace,  which  was  strongly  forti- 
fied, were  shut.     The  guards  stationed  before 
them,  were    drinking  beside   a   blazing  light, 
when  the  Persians   rushed  impetuously  upon 
them.    A  louder  and  altered  clamour,  no  longer 
joyous,  caught  the  ear  of  the  inmates  of  the 
palace,  and  the  bright  light  showed  them  the 
work    of   destruction,    without    revealing    its 
cause.     And  not  aware  of  the  presence  of  an 
enemy  in  the  midst  of  Babylon,  the  king  him- 
self, (who  had  been  roused  from  his  revelry  by 
the  hand  writing  on  the  wall,)  excited  by  the 
warlike  tumult  at  the  gates,  commanded  those 
within  to  examine  from  whence  it  arose  ;  and 
according  to  the  same  word,  by  which  "the 
gates"    (leading  from  the   river  to   the  city) 
"  were  not  shut,  the  loins  of  kings  were  loosed 
to  open  before  Cyrus  the  two-leaved  gates"  of 
the   palace.     The  eager   Persians    sprang   in. 
"The  king  of  Babylon  heard   the   report  of 
them;  anguish  took  hold  of  him;"  he  and  all 
who  were  about  him  perished  ;  God  had  "  num- 
bered" his  kingdom   and   finished   it;   it  was 
"divided,"  and  given  to  the  Medes  and  Per- 
sians; the  lives  of  the  Babylonian  princes,  and 
lords,    and   rulers,  and   captains,  closed  with 
that  night's  festival ;  the  drunken  slept  "  a  per- 
petual sleep,  and  did  not  wake." — "  I  will  fill 


thee  with  men  as  with  caterpillars."  Not  only 
did  the  Persian  army  enter  with  ease  as  cater- 
pillars, together  with  all  the  nations  that  had 
come  up  against  Babylon,  but  they  seemed 
also  as  numerous.  Cyrus,  after  the  capture  of 
the  city,  made  a  great  display  of  his  cavalry 
in  the  presence  of  the  Babylonians,  and  in  the 
midst  of  Babylon.  Four  thousand  guards  stood 
before  the  palace  gates,  and  two  thousand  on 
each  side.  These  advanced  as  Cyrus  approach- 
ed ;  two  thousand  spearmen  followed  them. 
These  were  succeeded  by  four  square  masses 
of  Persian  cavalry,  each  consisting  of  ten 
thousand  men  :  and  to  these  again  were  added, 
in  their  order,  the  Median,  Armenian,  Hyrca- 
nian,  Caducian,  and  Sacian  horsemen, — all,  as 
before,  "riding  upon  horses,  every  man  in 
array," — with  lines  of  chariots,  four  abreast, 
concluding  the  train  of  the  numerous  hosts. 
Cyrus  afterward  reviewed,  at  Babylon,  the 
whole  of  his  army,  consisting  of  one  hundred 
and  twenty  thousand  horse,  two  thousand 
chariots,  and  six  hundred  thousand  foot.  Baby- 
lon, which  was  taken  when  not  aware,  and 
within  whose  walls  no  enemy,  except  a  cap- 
tive, had  been  ever  seen,  was  thus  "filled  with 
men  as  with  caterpillars,"  as  if  there  had  not 
been  a  wall  around  it.  The  Scriptures  do  not 
relate  the  manner  in  which  Babylon  was  taken, 
nor  do  they  ever  allude  to  the  exact  fulfilment 
of  the  prophecies.  But  there  is,  in  every  par- 
ticular, a  strict  coincidence  between  the  pre- 
dictions of  the  prophets  and  the  historical 
narratives,  both  of  Herodotus  and  Xenophon. 

3.  Every  step  in  the  progress  of  the  decline 
of  Babylon  was  the  accomplishment  of  a  pro- 
phecy. Conquered,  for  the  first  time,  by  Cyrus, 
it  was  afterward  reduced  from  an  imperial  to  a 
tributary  city.  "  Come  down  and  sit  in  the 
dust,  O  daughter  of  Babylon :  sit  on  the  ground, 
there  is  no  throne,  O  daughter  of  the  Chal- 
deans." After  the  Babylonians  rebelled  against 
Darius,  the  walls  were  reduced  in  height,  and 
all  the  gates  destroyed.  "The  wall  of  Baby- 
lon shall  fall,  her  walls  are  thrown  down." — 
Xerxes,  after  his  ignominious  retreat  from 
Greece,  rifled  the  temples  of  Babylon,  the 
golden  images  alone  of  which  were  estimated 
at  20,000,000/,  beside  treasures  of  vast  amount. 
"  I  will  punish  Bel  in  Babylon,  and  I  will  bring 
forth  out  of  his  mouth  that  which  he  has  swal- 
lowed up  ;  I  will  do  judgment  upon  the  graven 
images  of  Babylon." — Alexander  the  Great  at- 
tempted to  restore  it  to  its  former  glory,  and 
designed  to  make  it  the  metropolis  of  a  uni- 
versal empire.  But  while  the  building  of  the 
temple  of  Belus,  and  the  reparation  of  the  em- 
bankments of  the  Euphrates,  were  actually 
carrying  on,  the  conqueror  of  the  world  died, 
at  the  commencement  of  this  his  last  undertak- 
ing, in  the  height  of  his  power,  and  in  the 
flower  of  his  age.  "Take  balm  for  her  pain, 
if  so  be  that  she  may  be  healed.  We  would 
have  healed  Babylon,  but  she  is  not  healed." 
The  building  of  the  neighbouring  city  of  Se- 
leucia  was  the  chief  cause  of  the  decline  of 
Babylon,  and  drained  it  of  a  great  part  of  its 
population.  And  at  a  later  period,  or  about  130 
years  before  the  birth  of  Christ,  Humerus,  f* 


BAB 


122 


BAB 


Parthian  governor,  who  was  noted  as  excelling 
all  tyrants  in  cruelty,  exercised  great  severities 
on  the  Babylonians  ;  and  having  burned  the 
forum  and  some  of  the  temples,  and  destroyed 
the  fairest  parts  of  the  city,  reduced  many  of 
the  inhabitants  to  slavery  on  the  slightest  pre- 
texts, and  caused  them,  together  with  all  their 
households,  to  be  sent  into  Media.  "They 
shall  remove,  they  shall  depart,  both  man  and 
beast."  The  "  golden  city"  thus  gradually 
verged,  for  centuries,  toward  poverty  and  deso- 
lation. Notwithstanding  that  Cyrus  resided 
chiefly  at  Babylon,  and  sought  to  reform  the 
government,  and  remodel  the  manners  of  the 
Babylonians,  the  succeeding  kings  of  Persia 
preferred,  as  the  seat  of  empire,  Susa,  Persepo- 
lis,  or  Ecbatana,  situated  in  their  own  country  : 
and  in  like  manner  the  successors  of  Alexan- 
der did  not  attempt  to  complete  his  purpose  of 
restoring  Babylon  to  its  preeminence  and  glo- 
ry ;  but,  after  the  subdivision  of  his  mighty  em- 
pire, the  very  kings  of  Assyria,  during  their 
temporary  residence  even  in  Chaldea,  deserted 
Babylon,  and  dwelt  in  Seleucia.  And  thus  the 
foreign  inhabitants,  first  Persians  and  afterward 
Greeks,  imitating  their  sovereigns  by  deserting 
Babylon,  acted  as  if  they  verily  had  said,  "  For- 
sake her,  and  let  us  go  every  man  unto  his  own 
country  ;  for  her  judgment  is  reached  unto 
heaven,  and  is  lifted  up  even  to  the  skies." 

4.  But  kindred  judgments,  the  issue  of  com- 
mon crimes,  rested  on  the  land  of  Chaldea,  as 
well  as  on  its  doomed  metropolis.    "  They  come 
from  a  far  country,  from  the  end  of  the  earth,  to 
destroy  the  whole  land.  Many  nations  and  great 
kings  shall  serve  themselves  of  thee  also,"  &e. 
The  Persians,  the  Macedonians,  the  Partliians, 
the  Romans,  the  Saracens,  and  the  Turks,  are 
the  chief  of  the  many  nations  who  have  un- 
scrupulously and  unsparingly  "  served  them- 
selves" of  the  land  of  the  Chaldeans:  and  Cyrus 
and  Darius,  kings  of  Persia ;    Alexander  the 
Great ;   and    Seleucus,    king  of  Assyria ;   De- 
metrius and  Antiochus  the  Great ;  Tragan,  Se- 
verus,  Julian,  and  Heraclius,  emperors  of  Rome ; 
the  victorious  Omar,  the  successor  of  Moham- 
med ;   Holagou,  and  Tamerlane, — are  "  great 
kings"  who  successively  subdued  or  desolated 
Chaldea,  or  exacted  from  it  tribute  to  such  an 
extent,  as  scarcely  any  other  country  ever  paid 
to  a  single  conqueror.     And  though  the  names 
of  some  of  these  nations  were  unknown  to  the 
Babylonians,  and  unheard  of  in  the  world  at 
the  time  of  the  prophecy,  most  of  these  "  many 
nations  and  great  kings"  need  now  but  to  be 
named,  to  show  that,  in  local  relation  to  Chal- 
dea, "they  came  from  the  utmost  border,  from 
the  coasts   of  the  earth." — "  I  will  punish  the 
land  of  the  Chaldeans,  and  will  make  it  per- 
petual desolations  ;  cut  off"  the  sower  from  Ba- 
bylon, and  him  that  handleth  the  sickle  in  the 
time  of  harvest.     A  drought  is  on  her  waters, 
and  they  shall  be  dried  up.     Behold  the  hinder- 
most  of  the  nations,  a  dry  land  and  a  desert." 
The  land  of  the  Chaldeans  was  indeed  made — 
perpetual,  or  long  continued,  desolation.     Ra- 
vaged and  spoiled  for  ages,  the  Chaldees'  excel- 
lency finally  disappeared,  and  the  land  became 
desolate,   as  still  it  remains.     RauwolrT,  who 


passed  through  it  in  1574,  describes  the  coun 
try  as  bare,  and  "  so  dry  and  barren  that  it  can- 
not be  tilled."     And  the  most  recent  travellers 
all  concur  in  describing  it  in  similar  terms.    On 
the  one  side,  near  to  the  site   of  Opis,  "the 
country  all   around,"    says   Mr.  Buckingham, 
"  appears  to  be  one  wide  desert,  of  sandy  and 
barren  soil,  thinly  scattered  over  with  brush- 
wood and  tufts  of  reedy  grass."     On  the  other, 
between  Bussorah  and  Bagdad,  "  immediately 
on  either  bank  of  the  Tigris,"  observes  Mignan, 
"is  the  untrodden  desert.     The  absence  of  all 
cultivation,  the  sterile,  arid,  and  wild  character 
of  the  whole  scene,  formed  a  contrast  to  the 
rich  and  delightful  accounts  delineated  in  Scrip- 
ture.    The  natives,   in  travelling  over   these 
pathless  deserts,  are  compelled  to  explore  their 
way  by  the  stars."     "  The  whole  country  be- 
tween Bagdad  and  Hillah  is  a  perfectly  flat  and 
(with  the  exception  of  a  few  spots  as  you  ap- 
proach  the   latter   place)    uncultivated   waste. 
That  it  was  at  some  former  period   in  a  far 
different  state,  is  evident  from  the  number  of 
canals  by  which  it  is  traversed,  now  dry  and 
neglected  ;  and  the  quantity  of  heaps  of  earth 
covered  with  fragments  of  brick  and  broken  tiles, 
which  are  seen  in  every  direction,  the  indis- 
putable traces  of  former  population.    At  present 
the  only  inhabitants  of  the  tract  are  the  Sobeide 
Arabs.     Around,  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach  is 
a  trackless  desert." — "  Her  cities   are   desola- 
tions."    The  course  of  the  Tigris  through  Ba- 
bylonia, instead  of  being  adorned  with  cities, 
is  marked  with  the   sites  of  "  ancient  ruins." 
Sitace,  Sabata,  Narisa,  Fuchera,  Sendia,  "no 
longer  exist."     A  succession   of  longitudinal 
mounds,  crcssed  at  right  angles  by  others,  mark 
the  supposed  site  of  Artemita,  or  Destagered. 
Its   once  luxuriant  gardens  are  covered  with 
grass;  ana  a  higher  mound  distinguishes  "the 
royal  residence"  from  the  ancient  streets.  "  Ex- 
tensive ridges  and  mountains,  (near  to  Hou- 
mania,)  varying  in  height  and  extent,  are  seen 
branching  ir.  every  direction."     A  wall,  with 
sixteen  bastions,  is  the  only  memorial  of  Apol- 
lonia.    The  once  magnificent  Seleucia  is  now  a 
scene  of  desolation.     There  is  not  a  single  en- 
tire edifice,  but  the  country  is  strewed  for  miles 
with    fragments   of  decayed   buildings.     "  As 
far,"  says  Major  Keppel,    "as  the  eye   could 
reach,  the  horizon  presented  a  broken  line  of 
mounds;  the  whole  of  this  place  was  a  desert 
flat."   On  the  opposite  bank  of  the  Tigris,  where 
Ctesiphon  its  rival  stood,  beside  fragments  of 
walls  and  broken  masses  of  brick  work,  and  re- 
mains of  vast  structures  encumbered  with  heaps 
of  earth,  there  is  one  magnificent  monument 
of  antiquity  "in  a  remarkably  perfect  state  of 
preservation,"  "a  large  and  noble  pile  of  build- 
ing, the  front  of  which  presents  to  view  a  wall 
three  hundred  feet  in  length,  adorned  with  four 
rows  of  arched  recesses,  with  a  central  arch, 
in   span  eighty-six  feet,  and  above  a  hundred 
feet  high,  supported  by  walls  sixteen  feet  thick, 
and  leading  to  a  hall  which  extends  to  the  depth 
of  a  hundred  and  fifty-six  feet,"  the  width  of 
the  building.     A  great  part  of  the  back  wall, 
and  of  the  roof,  is  broken  down  ;  but  that  which 
|  remains  "  still  appears  much  larger  than  West, 


BAB 


123 


BAB 


minster  Abbey."  It  is  supposed  to  have  been 
the  lofty  palace  of  Chosroes  ;  but  there  desola- 
tion now  reigns.  "  On  the  site  of  Ctesiphon," 
says  Mignan,  "  the  smallest  insect  under  heaven 
would  not  find  a  single  blade  of  grass  wherein 
to  hide  itself,  nor  one  drop  of  water  to  allay  its 
thirst."  In  the  rear  of  the  palace,  and  attach- 
ed to  it,  are  mounds  two  miles  in  circumference, 
indicating  the  utter  desolation  of  buildings, 
formed  to  minister  to  luxury. 

5.  But  let  us  come  to  the  fulfilment  of  these 
wonderful  prophecies  in  the  present  condition 
of  Babylon  itself,  as  described  by  those  who 
have  most  recently  visited  it. 

"  Babylon  shall  become  heaps."  Babylon  the 
glory  of  kingdoms  is  now  the  greatest  of  ruins. 
"  Immense  tumuli  of  temples,  palaces,  and  ha- 
bitations of  every  description,"  arc  every  where 
seen,  and  form  "long  and  varied  lines  of  ruins," 
which,  in  some  places,  says  Sir  R.  K.  Porter, 
"rather  resemble  natural  hills  than  mounds 
which  cover  the  remains  of  great  and  splendid 
edifices."  These  buildings,  which  were  once 
the  labour  of  slaves  and  the  pride  of  kings,  are 
now  misshapen  heaps  of  rubbish.  "  The  whole 
face  of  the  country,"  observes  Rich,  "  is  cover- 
ed with  vestiges  of  building,  in  some  places 
consisting  of  brick  walls  surprisingly  fresh,  in 
others,  merely  a  vast  succession  of  mounds  of 
rubbish,  of  such  indeterminate  figures,  variety, 
and  extent,  as  to  involve  the  person  who  should 
have  formed  any  theory  in  inextricable  confu- 
sion."— "  Let  nothing  of  her  be  left."  "  Vast 
heaps  constitute  all  that  now  remains  of  ancient 
Babylon,"  says  Rich.  All  its  grandeur  is  de- 
parted ;  all  its  treasures  have  been  spoiled ;  all 
its  excellence  has  utterly  vanished ;  the  very 
heaps  are  searched  for  bricks,  when  nothing 
else  can  be  found  ;  even  these  are  not  lej  t, 
wherever  they  can  be  taken  away  ;  and  Baby- 
lon has  for  ages  been  "  a  quarry  above  ground," 
ready  to  the  hand  of  every  successive  despoiler. 
Without  the  most  remote  allusion  to  this  pro- 
phecy, Captain  Mignan  describes  a  mound  at- 
tached to  the  palace,  ninety  yards  in  breadth 
by  half  that  height,  the  whole  of  which  is  deeply 
furrowed,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  generality 
of  the  mounds.  "  The  ground  is  extremely 
soft,  and  tiresome  to  walk  over*  and  appears 
completely  exhausted  of  all  its  building  mate- 
rials ;  nothing  now  is  left,  save  one  towering 
hill,  the  earth  of  which  is  mixed  -with,  fragments 
of  broken  brick,  red  varnished  pottery,  tile, 
bitumen,  mortar,  glass,  shells,  and  pieces  of 
mother  of  pearl," — worthless  fragments,  of  no 
value  to  the  poorest.  "  From  thence  shall  she 
be  taken,  let  nothing  of  her  be  left."  While 
the  workmen  "  cast  her  up  as  heaps"  while  ex- 
cavating for  bricks,  that  they  may  "  take"  them 
"  from  thence,"  and  that  "  nothing  may  be 
left ;"  they  labour  more  than  trebly  in  the  fulfil- 
ment of  prophecy  :  for  the  numerous  and  deep 
excavations  form  pools  of  water,  on  the  over- 
flowing of  the  Euphrates,  and,  annually  filled, 
they  are  not  dried  up  throughout  the  year. 
"  Deep  cavities  are  also  formed  by  the  Arabs, 
when  digging  for  hidden  treasure."  Thus  "  the 
ground,"  says  Buckingham,  "is  sometimes 
covered  with  pools  of  water  in  the  hollows." 


"  Sit  in  the  dust,  sit  on  the  ground,  O  dangh 
ter  of  the  Chaldeans."  The  surface  of  the 
mounds  which  form  all  that  remains  of  Baby- 
lon, consists  of  decomposed  buildings,  reduced 
to  dust;  and  over  all  the  ancient  streets  and 
habitations,  there  is  literally  nothing  but  the 
dust  of  the  ground  on  which  to  sit. — "Thy 
nakedness  shall  be  uncovered."  "  Our  path," 
says  Captain  Mignan,  "  lay  through  the  great 
mass  of  ruined  heaps  on  the  site  of '  shrunken 
Babylon ;'  and  I  am  perfectly  incapable  of  con- 
veying an  adequate  idea  of  the  dreary,  lonely 
nakedness  that  appeared  before  me." — "  Sit 
thou  silent,  and  get  thee  into  darkness." 
"There  reigns  throughout  the  ruins,"  says  Sir 
R.  K.  Porter,  "  a  silence  profound  as  the  grave." 
"  Babylon  is  now  a  silent  scene,  a  sublime 
solitude." — "  It  shall  never  be  inhabited,  nor 
dwelt  in  from  generation  to  generation."  From 
Rauwolff's  testimony  it  appears  that,  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  "there  was  not  a  house  to 
be  seen."  And  now  "the  eye  wanders  over  a 
barren  desert,  in  which  the  ruins  are  nearly 
the  only  indication  that  it  had  ever  been  in- 
habited." "It  is  impossible,"  adds  Major  Keppel, 
"to  behold  this  scene  and  not  to  be  reminded 
how  exactly  the  predictions  of  Isaiah  and  Je- 
remiah have  been  fulfilled,  even  in  the  appear- 
ance Babylon  was  doomed  to  present,  that '  she 
should  never  be  inhabited;'  that  'the  Arabian 
should  not  pitch  his  tent  there ;'  that  she 
should  '  become  heaps  ;'  that  her  cities  should 
be  '  a  desolation,  a  dry  land,  and  a  wilderness.'" 
"Babylon  is  spurned  alike  by  the  heel  of  the 
Ottomans,  the  Israelites,  and  the  sons  of  Ish- 
mael."  It  is  "  a  tenantlers  and  desolate  me- 
tropolis," remarks  Mignan.  "  It  shall  not  be 
Inhabited,  but  be  wholly  desolate.  Neither 
shall  the  Arabian  pitch  tent  there,  neither  shall 
the  shepherds  make  their  folds  there."  It  was 
prophesied  of  Amnion  that  it  should  be  a  stable 
for  camels  and  a  couching  place  for  flocks  ; 
and  of  Philistia,  that  it  should  be  cottages  for 
shepherds,  and  a  pasture  of  flocks.  But  Baby- 
lon was  to  be  visited  with  a  far  greater  desola- 
tion, and  to  become  unfit  or  unsuited  even  for 
such  a  purpose  ;  and  that  neither  a  tent  would 
be  pitched  there,  even  by  an  Arab,  nor  a  fold 
made  by  a  shepherd,  implies  the  last  degree  of 
solitude  and  desolation.  "It  is  common  in 
these  parts  for  shepherds  to  make  use  of  ruined 
edifices  to  shelter  their  flocks  in."  But  Baby- 
lon is  an  exception.  Instead  of  taking  the 
bricks  from  thence,  the  shepherd  might  very 
readily  erect  a  defence  from  wild  beasts,  and 
make  a  fold  for  his  flock  amidst  the  heaps  of 
Babylon ;  and  the  Arab  who  fearlessly  traverses 
it  by  day,  might  pitch  his  tent  by  night.  But 
neither  the  one  nor  the  other  could  now  be 
persuaded  to  remain  a  single  night  among  the 
ruins.  The  superstitious  dread  of  evil  spirits, 
far  more  than  the  natural  terror  of  the  wild 
beasts,  effectually  prevents  them.  Captain 
Mignan  was  accompanied  by  six  Arabs,  com- 
pletely armed ;  but  he  "  could  not  induce  them 
to  remain  toward  night,  from  the  apprehension 
of  evil  spirits.  It  is  impossible  to  eradicate 
this  idea  from  the  minds  of  this  people,  who 
are  very  deeply  imbued  with  superstition." 


BAB 


124 


BAD 


"  Wild  beasts  of  the  deserts  shall  lie  there, 
and  their  houses  shall  be  full  of  doleful  crea- 
tures; and  owls  shall  dwell  there,  and  satyrs 
(goats)  shall  dance  there,"  &c.  "There  are 
many  dens  of  wild  beasts  in  various  parts. 
And  while  the  lower  excavations  are  often 
pools  of  water,  in  most  of  the  cavities  are  num- 
bers of  bats  and  owls."  The  king  of  the  forest 
now  ranges  over  the  site  of  that  Babylon  which 
Nebuchadnezzar  built  for  his  own  glory.  And 
the  temple  of  Belus,  the  greatest  work  of  man, 
is  now  like  unto  a  natural  den  of  lions.  Two 
or  three  majestic  lions  were  seen  upon  its 
heights  by  Sir  Robert  Ker  Porter,  as  he  was 
approaching  it;  and  "the  broad  prints  of  their 
feet  were  left  plain  in  the  clayey  soil."  Major 
Keppel  saw  there  a  similar  foot-print  of  a  lion. 
It  is  also  the  unmolested  retreat  of  jackalls, 
hyenas,  and  other  noxious  animals.  Wild 
beasts  are  numerous  at  the  Mujelibe,  as  well  as 
•on  Birs  Nimrood.  "  The  mound,"  says  Kinneir, 
"  was  full  of  large  holes :  we  entered  some  of 
them,  and  found  them  strewed  with  the  car- 
casses and  skeletons  of  animals  recently  killed. 
The  ordure  of  wild  beasts  was  so  strong,  that 
prudence  got  the  better  of  curiosity ;  for  we 
had  no  doubt  as  to  the  savage  nature  of  the 
inhabitants.  Our  guides,  indeed,  told  us,  that 
all  the  ruins  abounded  in  lions,  and  other  wild 
beasts:  so  literally  has  the  divine  prediction 
been  fulfilled,  that  wild  beasts  of  the  deserts 
should  lie  there,  and  their  houses  be  full  of 
doleful  creatures ;  that  the  wild  beasts  of  the 
islands  should  cry  in  their  desolate  houses." 

"The  sea  is  come  upon  Babylon.  She  is 
covered  with  the  multitude  of  the  waves  there- 
of." The  traces  of  the  western  bank  of  the 
Euphrates  are  now  no  longer  discernible.  The 
river  overflows  unrestrained ;  and  the  very 
ruins,  with  "  every  appearance  of  the  embank- 
ment," have  been  swept  away.  "The  ground 
there  is  low  and  marshy,  and  presents  not  the 
slightest  vestige  of  former  buildings,  of  any 
description  whatever."  "  Morasses  and  ponds," 
says  Porter,  "tracked  the  ground  in  various 
parts.  For  a  long  time  after  the  general  sub- 
siding of  the  Euphrates,  great  part  of  this  plain 
is  little  better  than  a  swamp,"  &c.  "  The  ruins 
of  Babylon  are  then  inundated,  so  as  to  render 
many  parts  of  them  inaccessible,  by  converting 
the  valleys  among  them  into  morasses."  But 
while  Babylon  is  thus  "covered  with  the  mul- 
titude of  waves,  and  the  waters  come  upon  it;" 
yet,  in  striking  contrast  and  seeming  contra- 
diction to  such  a  feature  of  desolation,  (like 
the  formation  of  "  pools  of  water,"  from  the 
"  casting  up  of  heaps,")  are  the  elevated  sun- 
burnt ruins,  which  the  waters  do  not  overflow, 
and  the  "dry  waste"  and  "parched  and  burn- 
ing plain,"  on  which  the  heaps  of  Babylon  lie, 
equally  prove  that  it  is  "a  desert,  a  dry  land, 
and  a  wilderness."  One  part,  even  on  the 
western  side  of  the  river,  is  "  low  and  marshy, 
and  another,"  says  Mignan,  "  an  arid  desert." 

Many  other  striking  particulars  might  be 
collected ;  and  we  may  conclude  in  the  words 
of  Mr.  Keith,  from  whose  work  on  the  prophe- 
cies several  of  the  above  particulars  have  been 
extracted ; — "  Is  it  possible  that  there  can  be 


any  attestation  of  the  truth  of  prophecy,  if  it  be 
not  witnessed  here ?  Is  there  any  spot  on  earth 
which  has  undergone  a  more  complete  trans, 
formation  ?  '  The  records  of  the  human  race,' 
it  has  been  said  with  truth,  '  do  not  present  a 
contrast  more  striking  than  that  between  the 
primeval  magnificence  of  Babylon  and  its  long 
desolation.'  Its  ruins  have  of  late  been  care- 
fully and  scrupulously  examined  by  different 
natives  of  Britain,  of  unimpeached  veracity ; 
and  the  result  of  every  research  is  a  more 
striking  demonstration  of  the  literal  accom- 
plishment of  every  prediction.  How  few  spots 
are  there  on  earth  of  which  we  have  so  clear 
and  faithful  a  picture  as  prophecy  gave  to  fallen 
Babylon  at  a  time  when  no  spot  on  earth  re- 
sembled it  less  than  its  present  desolate  solitary 
site !  or  could  any  prophecies  respecting  any 
single  place  have  been  more  precise,  or  won- 
derful, or  numerous,  or  true,  or  more  gradually 
accomplished  throughout  many  generations  ? 
And  when  they  look  at  what  Babylon  was,  and 
what  it  is,  and  perceive  the  minute  realization 
of  them  all,  may  not  nations  learn  wisdom, 
may  not  tyrants  tremble,  and  may  not  skeptics 
think  ?" 

The  reasons  why  prophecies  so  numerous 
and  particular  were  recorded  concerning  Baby- 
lon, appear  to  have  been,  1.  That  Babylon  was 
the  great  oppressor  of  the  Jews.  2.  That  it 
was  the  type  of  all  the  powerful  persecuting 
enemies  of  the  church  of  God,  especially  of 
Rome ;  and  in  its  fate  they  may  read  their  own. 
3.  That  the  accomplishment  of  prophecy  in  the 
destruction  of  so  eminent  an  empire  might  give 
a  solemn  testimony  to  the  truth  of  the  Scrip- 
tures to  the  whole  earth,  and  to  all  ages. 

BACKSLIDING,  a  falling  off,  or  defection 
in  matters  of  religion  ;  an  apostasy,  Acts  xxi, 
21 ;  2  Thess.  ii,  3 ;  1  Tim.  iv,  1.  This  may  be 
either  partial  or  complete :  partial,  when  it  is 
in  the  heart,  as  Prov.  xiv,  14 ;  complete,  as  that 
described  in  Heb.  vi,  4,  &c ;  x,  6,  &c.  On  the 
latter  passage  Chrysostom  observes,  "  When  a 
house  has  a  strong  foundation,  suppose  an  arch 
fall,  some  of  the  beams  break,  or  a  wall  decline, 
while  the  foundation  is  good,  these  breaches 
may  be  repaired ;  so  in  religion,  whilst  a  per- 
son maintains  the  true  doctrines,  and  remains 
on  the  firm  rock,  though  he  fall,  true  repent- 
ance may  restore  him  to  the  favour  and  image 
of  God  :  but  as  in  a  house,  when  the  foundation 
is  bad,  nothing  can  save  the  building  from  ruin ; 
so  when  heretical  doctrines  are  admitted  for  a 
foundation,  nothing  can  save  the  professor  from 
destruction."  It  is  important  in  interpreting 
these  passages  to  keep  it  steadfastly  in  mind, 
that  the  apostasy  they  speak  of  is  not  only  moral 
but  doctrinal. 

BADGER,  enrv  This  word  in  a  plural  form 
occurs,  Exod.  xxv,  5 ;  xxvi,  14 ;  xxxv,  7,  23 ; 
xxxvi,  19  ;  xxxix,  34 ;  Num.  iv,  6,  8,  10-12, 
14,  25;  Ezek.  xvi,  10;  and  is  joined  with  my, 
skins  used  for  the  covering  of  the  tabernacle  in 
the  wilderness.  The  Jewish  interpreters  are 
agreed  as  to  its  being  some  animal.  Jarchi 
says  it  was  a  beast  of  many  colours,  w-hich  no 
more  exists.  Kimchi  holds  the  same  opi- 
nion.  Aben  Ezra  thinks  it  some  animal  of  the 


BAL 


125 


BAL 


bovine  kind,  of  whose  skins  shoes  are  made; 
alluding  to  Ezek.  xvi,  10.  Most  modern  inter- 
preters have  taken  it  to  be  the  badger,  and 
among  these  our  English  translators ;  but,  in 
the  first  place,  the  badger  is  not  an  inhabitant 
of  Arabia;  and  there  is  nothing  in  its  skin  pe- 
culiarly proper  either  for  covering  a  tabernacle 
or  making  shoes.  Hasseus,  Michaelis,  and 
others,  have  laboured  to  prove  that  it  is  the 
mermaid,  or  homo  marinus,  the  trichekus  of 
Linnaeus.  Faber,  Dathe,  and  Rosenmuller, 
think  that  it  is  the  seal,  or  sea  calf,  vitulus 
marinus,  the  skin  of  which  is  both  strong  and 
pliable,  and  was  accounted  by  the  ancients  as 
a  most  proper  outer  covering  for  tents,  and 
was  also  made  into  shoes,  as  Rau  has  clearly 
shown.  Niebuhr  says,  "  A  merchant  of  Abu- 
shahr  called  dahash  that  fish  which  the  cap- 
tains in  English  vessels  call  porpoise,  and  the 
Germans,  sea  hog.  In  my  voyage  from  Mas- 
kat  to  Abushahr,  I  saw  a  prodigious  quantity 
together  near  Ras  Mussendom,  that  were  all 
going  the  same  way,  and  seemed  to  swim  with 
great  vehemence."  Bochart  thinks  that  not 
an  animal,  but  a  colour,  was  intended,  Exodus 
xxv,  5 ;  so  that  the  covering  of  the  tabernacle 
was  to  be  azure,  or  sky  blue. 

BAG,  a  purs3  or  pouch,  Deut.  xxv,  13 ; 
1  Sam.  xvii,  40 ;  Luke  xii,  33  ;  Job  xiv,  17. 
The  money  collected  in  the  treasuries  of  eastern 
princes  was  reckoned  up  in  certain  equal  sums, 
put  into  bags  and  sealed.  These  are,  in  some 
parts  of  the  Levant,  called  purses,  where  they 
estimate  great  expenses  by  so  many  purses. 
The  money  collected  in  the  temple  in  the  time 
of  Joash,  for  its  reparation,  seems,  in  like  man- 
ner, to  have  been  told  up  in  bags  of  equal  value  ; 
and  these  were  probably  delivered  sealed  to 
those  who  paid  the  workmen,  2  Kings  xii,  10. 
In  the  east,  in  the  present  day,  a  bag  of  money 
passes,  for  some  time  at  least,  currently  from 
hand  to  hand,  under  the  authority  of  a  banker's 
seal,  without  any  examination  of  its  contents. 
See  Tobitix,  5;  xi,  16. 

BAKING  BREAD.  Abraham  directed  Sa- 
rah to  bake  cakes  upon  the  hearth,  for  the  use 
of  the  strangers  who  had  visited  him,  Genesis 
xviii,  6.  Elijah  requests  the  same  of  the  widow 
of  Zarephath,  1  Kings  xvii,  13.  Amnon  the  son 
of  David  requests  Tamar  his  sister  to  come  and 
make  cakes  in  his  sight,  that  he  might  eat  at 
her  hand,  2  Sam.  xiii,  6.  These  and  other  allu- 
sions to  the  preparation  of  bread  will  be  ex- 
plained by  referring  to  eastern  customs.  Rau- 
wolff  observes  that  travellers  frequently  bake 
bread  in  the  deserts  of  Arabia,  on  the  ground 
heated  for  that  purpose  by  fire,  covering  their 
cakes  of  bread  with  ashes  and  coals,  and  turn- 
ing them  several  times  till  they  are  baked. 
The  eastern  bread  is  made  in  small  thin  cakes, 
and  is  generally  eaten  new.  Sometimes  it  was 
however  made  to  keep  several  days,  as  the 
shew  bread ;  and  a  sort  of  rusks,  or  bread  for 
travelling,  Joshua  ix,  12.  The  eastern  ladies 
of  rank  often  prepare  cakes,  pastry,  &c,  in  their 
own  apartments. 

BALAAM,  a  prophet  of  the  city  of  Pethor, 
or  Bosor,  upon  the  Euphrates,  whose  inter- 
course with  Balak,  king  of  the  Moabites,  who 


sent  for  him  to  curse  the  Israelites,  is  recorded 
at  large  by  Moses,  Num.  xxii-xxiv.  It  has 
been  a  subject  of  controversy,  whether  Balaam 
was  a  true  prophet  or  a  mere  diviner,  magician, 
or  fortune  teller.  Origen  says  that  his  whole 
power  consisted  in  magic  and  cursing.  Theo- 
doret  is  of  opinion  that  Balaam  did  not  consult 
the  Lord,  but  that  he  was  supernaturally  in- 
spired, and  constrained  to  speak  against  his 
own  inclination.  Cyril  says  that  he  was  a  ma- 
gician, an  idolater,  and  a  false  prophet,  who 
spoke  truth  against  his  will ;  and  St.  Ambrose 
compares  him  to  Caiaphas,  who  prophesied 
without  being  aware  of  the  import  of  what  he 
said.  Jerom  seems  to  have  adopted  the  opinion 
of  the  Hebrews ;  which  was,  that  Balaam  knew 
the  true  God,  erected  altars  to  him,  and  that  he 
was  a  true  prophet,  though  corrupted  by  ava- 
rice, Num.  xxii,  18.  St.  Austin  and  other  com- 
mentators have  inclined  to  this  opinion.  Dr. 
Jortin  supposes  that  Balaam  was  a  worshipper 
of  the  true  God,  and  a  priest  and  prophet  of 
great  reputation  ;  and  that  he  was  sent  for  by 
Balak  from  a  notion  which  generally  prevail- 
ed, that  priests  and  prophets  could  sometimes, 
by  prayers  and  sacrifices  duly  and  skilfully  ap- 
plied, obtain  favours  from  God,  and  that  their 
imprecations  were  efficacious.  He  conceives 
that  the  prophet  had  been  accustomed  to  reve- 
lations, and  that  he  used  to  receive  them  in 
visions,  or  in  dreams  of  the  night.  It  cannot 
be  denied  that  the  Scripture  expressly  calls  him 
a  prophet,  2  Pet.  ii,  15,  and  therefore  those  are 
probably  right  who  think  that  he  had  once  been 
a  good  man  and  a  true  prophet,  till,  loving  the 
wages  of  unrighteousness,  and  prostituting  the 
honour  of  his  office  to  covetousness,  he  aposta- 
tized from  God,  and,  betaking  himself  to  idola- 
trous practices,  fell  under  the  delusion  of  the 
devil,  of  whom  he  learned  all  his  magical  en- 
chantments ;  though  at  this  juncture,  when  the 
preservation  of  his  people  was  concerned,  it 
might  be  consistent  with  God's  wisdom  to  ap- 
pear to  him  and  overrule  his  mind  by  the  im- 
pulse of  real  revelations.  As  to  what  passed 
between  him  and  his  ass,  when  that  animal 
was  miraculously  enabled  to  speak  to  its  mas- 
ter, commentators  are  divided  in  their  opinions ; 
whether  it  really  and  literally  happened  as  Mo- 
ses relates  it,  or  whether  it  be  an  allegory  only, 
or  was  the  mere  imagination  or  vision  of  Ba- 
laam. But  St.  Peter  evidently  mentions  it  as 
a  fact  literally  and  certainly  occurring:  "the 
dumb  ass,  speaking  with  man's  voice,  when  she 
forbade  the  madness  of  the  prophet,"  2  Pet.  ii, 
16.  This,  it  is  true,  has  frequently  been  made 
the  subject  of  profane  banter  by  those  whose 
skepticism  leads  them  to  scoff  at  all  prodigies. 
But  how  absurd  is  it  to  subject  a  miraculous 
event  to  the  ordinary  rules  of  reasoning  I  "  Say 
what  you  will  of  the  formation  of  the  tongue 
and  jaws  being  unfit  for  speaking,"  says  Bishop 
Newton,  "yet  an  adequate  cause  is  assigned 
for  this  wonderful  event ;  for  it  is  expressly 
said  that  '  the  Lord  opened  the  mouth  of  the 
ass ;'  and  who  that  believes  a  God,  can  doubt 
his  power  to  do  this  and  much  more  ?  The 
miracle  was  by  no  means  needless  or  superflu- 
ous ;  it  was  well  adapted  to  convince  Balaam 


BAL 


126 


BAL 


that  the  mouth  and  tongue  were  under  God's 
direction,  and  that  the  same  divine  power  which 
caused  the  dumb  ass  to  speak  contrary  to  its 
nature,  could,  in  like,  manner,  make  him  utter 
blessings  contrary  to  his  inclination.  And, 
accordingly,  he  was  overruled  to  bless  the  peo- 
ple, though  he  came  prepared  and  disposed  to 
curse  them ;  which  was  the  greater  miracle  of 
the  two  ;  for  the  ass  was  merely  passive,  but 
Balaam  resisted  the  good  motions  of  God." 
The  prophecy  which  Balaam  delivered  con- 
cerning  Israel  on  this  remarkable  occasion,  and 
which  is  contained  in  Numbers  xxiv,  5-9,  has 
been  greatly  admired  by  critics.  Bishop  Lowth, 
in  particular,  remarks  that  he  knows  nothing 
in  the  whole  scope  of  the  Hebrew  poetry  more 
exquisite  or  perfect.  "  It  abounds,"  says  he, 
"  in  splendid  imagery,  copied  immediately  from 
the  tablet  of  nature  ;  and  is  chiefly  conspicuous 
for  the  glowing  elegance  of  the  style,  and  the 
form  and  diversity  of  the  figures." 

After  his  predictions,  Balaam  returned  into 
his  own  country ;  but  before  he  left  the  land 
of  Moab,  as  if  vexed  with  his  own  disappoint- 
ment in  missing  the  promised  reward,  and  with 
a  purpose  of  revenging  himself  on  the  Israel- 
ites, as  the  cause  of  it,  he  instructed  the  Moab- 
ites  and  Midianites  in  a  wicked  scheme,  which 
was  to  send  their  daughters  into  the  camp  of 
the  Israelites,  in  order  to  draw  them  first  into 
lewdness,  and  then  into  idolatry,  the  cer- 
tain means  of  depriving  them  of  the  help  of 
that  God  who  protected  them.  This  artifice 
succeeded;  for  as  the  Israelites  lay  encamped 
at  Shittim,  many  of  them  were  deluded  by  these 
strange  women,  not  only  to  commit  whoredom 
with  them,  but  to  assist  at  their  sacrifices,  and 
worship  their  god  Baal-Peor,  Num.  xxv,  1-3  ; 
xxxi,  16 ;  Mic.  vi,  5 ;  2  Pet.  ii,  15 ;  Jude  11 ;  Rev. 
ii,  14 ;  Deut.  xxiii,  4, 5 ;  Joshua  xxiv,  9, 10 ;  Nch. 
xiii,  2.  God  commanded  Moses  to  avenge  this 
crime.  He  therefore  declared  war  against  the 
Midianites,  killed  five  of  their  princes,  and  a 
great  number  of  other  persons  without  distinc- 
tion of  age  or  sex,  among  whom  was  Balaam 
himself. 

Moses  says  that  Balaam  consulted  the  Lord, 
and  calls  the  Lord  his  God  :  "  I  cannot  go  be- 
yond  the  commandment  of  the  Lord  my  God," 
Num.  xxii,  18.  The  reason  why  Balaam  calls 
Jehovah,  "  my  God"  maybe,  because  he  was  of 
the  posterity  of  Shem,  who  maintained  the 
worship  of  Jehovah,  not  only  in  his  own  per- 
son, but  among  his  descendants  ;  so  that  while 
the  posterity  of  Ham  fell  into  idolatry,  and  the 
posterity  of  Japhet  were  settled  at  a  distance  in 
Europe,  the  Shemites  generally,  though  not 
universally,  retained  the  worship  of  God. 

BALDNESS  is  a  natural  effect  of  old  age,  in 
which  period  of  life  the  hair  of  the  head,  want- 
ing nourishment,  falls  oft*,  and  leaves  the  head 
naked.  Artificial  baldness  was  used  as  a  token 
of  mourning;  it  is  threatened  to  the  voluptu- 
ous daughters  of  Israel,  instead  of  well  set  hair, 
Isaiah  hi,  24.  See  Mic.  i,  16  ;  and  instances 
of  it  occur,  Isaiah  xv,  2 ;  Jer.  xlvii,  5.  See 
Ezek,  vii,  18  ;  Amos  viii,  10. 

The  insult  offered  to  Elisha  by  the  young 
people  of  Bethel,  improperly  rendered  "  little 


children,"  who  cried  out  after  him,  "Go  up, 
thou  bald  head,"  may  here  be  noticed.  The 
town  of  Bethel  was  one  of  the  principal  nur- 
series of  Ahab's  idolatry,  and  the  contempt  was 
offered  to  Elisha  in  his  public  character  as  a 
prophet  of  the  Lord.  If  in  the  expression,  "  Go 
up,"  there  was  also  a  reference  to  the  transla- 
tion of  Elijah,  as  turning  it  into  jest,  this  was 
another  aggravation  of  the  sin,  to  which  these 
young  people  were  probably  instigated  by  their 
parents.  The  malediction  laid  upon  them  by 
the  prophet  was  not  an  act  of  private  resent- 
ment, but  evidently  proceeded  from  prophetic 
impulse. 

BALM,  ns,  Gen.  xxxvii,  25 ;  xliii,  11 ;  Jer. 
viii,  22 ;  xlvi,  11 ;  li,  8  ;  Ezek.  xxvii,  17.  Balm, 
or  balsam,  is  used  with  us  as  a  common  name 
for  many  of  those  oily  resinous  substances, 
which  flow  spontaneously  or  by  incision,  from 
certain  trees  or  plants,  and  are  of  considerable 
use  in  medicine  and  surgery.  It  serves  there- 
fore very  properly  to  express  the  Hebrew  word 
nx,  which  the  LXX  have  rendered  far'uri,  and 
the  ancients  have  interpreted  resin  indiscrimi- 
nately. 

BALSAM  TREE,  pb»-"7jw ;  in  Arabic,  abus- 
cham,  that  is,  "father  of  scent,"  sweet-scented. 
According  to  Mr.  Bruce,  the  ba'essan,  balsam, 
or  balm,  is  an  evergreen  shrub,  or  tree,  which 
grows  to  about  fourteen  feet  high,  spontane- 
ously and  without  culture  in  its  native  country, 
Azab,  and  all  along  the  coast  to  Babelmandel. 
There  were  three  kinds  of  balsam  extracted 
from  this  tree.  The  first  was  called  opobalsa- 
mum,  and  was  most  highly  esteemed.  It  was 
that  which  flowed  spontaneously,  or  by  means 
of  incision,  from  the  trunk  or  branches  of  the 
tree  in  summer  time.  The  second  was  carpo- 
balsamwn,  made  by  expressing  the  fruit  when  in 
maturity.  The  third,  and  least  esteemed  of  all, 
was  hylobalsamum,  made  by  a  decoction  of  the 
buds  and  small  young  twigs.  The  great  value' 
set  upon  this  drug  in  the  east  is  traced  to  the 
earliest  ages.  The  Ishmaelites,  or  Arabian 
carriers  and  merchants,  trafficking  with  the 
Arabian  commodities  into  Egypt,  brought  with 
them  ns  as  a  part  of  their  cargo,  Gen.  xxxvii, 
25;  xliii,  11.  Josephus,  in  the  history  of  the 
antiquities  of  his  country,  says  that  a  tree  of 
this  balsam  was  brought  to  Jerusalem  by  the 
queen  of  Saba,  and  given  among  other  presents 
to  Solomon,  who,  as  we  know  from  Scripture, 
was  very  studious  of  all  sorts  of  plants,  and 
skilful  in  the  description  and  distinction  of 
them.  And  here,  indeed,  it  seems  to  have  been 
cultivated  and  to  have  thriven ;  so  that  the  place 
of  its  origin,  through  length  of  time,  combined 
with  other  reasons,  came  to  be  forgotten.  Not- 
withstanding the  positive  authority  of  Josephus, 
and  the  great  probability  that  attends  it,  we 
cannot  put  it  in  competition  with  what  we  have 
been  told  in  Scripture,  as  we  have  just  now  seen 
that  the  place  where  it  grew,  and  was  sold  to 
merchants,  was  Gilead  in  Judea,  more  than 
1730  years  before  Christ,  or  1000  before  the 
queen  of  Saba ;  so  that  in  reading  the  verse, 
nothing  can  be  plainer  than  that  it  had  been 
transplanted  into  Judea,  flourished,  and  had 
become  an  article  of  commerce  in  Gilead,  long 


BAN 


127 


BAN 


before  the  period  he  mentions.  "  A  company 
of  Ishmaelites  came  from  Gilead  with  their 
camels,  bearing  spicery  and  balm,  and  myrrh, 
going  to  carry  it  down  to  Egypt,"  Gen.  xxxvii, 
25.  Theophrastus,  Dioscorides,  Pliny,  Strabo, 
Diodorus  Siculus,  Tacitus,  Justin,  Solinus,  and 
Serapion,  speaking  of  its  costliness  and  medi- 
cinal virtues,  all  say  that  this  balsam  came  from 
Judea.  The  words  of  Pliny  are,  "  But  to  all 
other  odours  whatever,  the  balsam  is  preferred, 
produced  in  no  other  part  but  the  land  of  Ju- 
dea, and  even  there  in  two  gardens  only ;  both 
of  them  belonging  to  the  king,  one  no  more 
than  twenty  acres,  the  other  still  smaller."  The 
whole  valley  of  Jericho  was  once  esteemed  the 
most  fruitful  in  Judea  ;  and  the  obstinacy  with 
which  the  Jews  fought  here  to  prevent  the  bal- 
sam trees  from  falling  into  the  possession  of 
the  Romans,  attests-  the  importance  which  was 
attached  to  them.  This  tree  Pliny  describes  as 
peculiar  to  the  vale  of  Jericho,  and  as  "  more 
like  a  vine  than  a  myrtle."  It  was  esteemed 
so  precious  a  rarity,  that  both  Pompey  and  Ti- 
tus carried  a  specimen  to  Rome  in  triumph; 
and  the  biTlsam,  owing  to  its  scarcity,  sold  for 
double  its  weight  in  silver,  till  its  high  price  led 
to  the  practice  of  adulteration.  Justin  makes 
it  the  chief  source  of  the  national  wealth.  He 
describes  the  country  in  which  it  grew,  as  a 
valley  like  a  garden,  environed  with  continual 
hills,  and,  as  it  were,  enclosed  with  a  wall. 
"The  space  of  the  valley  contains  200,000 
acres,  and  is  called  Jericho.  In  that  valley, 
there  is  wood  as  admirable  for  its  fruitfulness 
as  for  its  delight,  for  it  is  intermingled  with 
palm  trees  and  opobalsamum.  The  trees  of  the 
opobalsamum  have  a  resemblance  to  fir  trees ; 
but  they  are  lower,  and  are  planted  and  hus- 
banded after  the  manner  of  vines.  On  a  set 
season  of  the  year  they  sweat  balsam.  The 
darkness  of  the  place  is  beside  as  wonderful  as 
the  fruitfulness  of  it ;  for  although  the  sun 
shines  no  where  hotter  in  the  world,  there  is 
naturally  a  moderate  and  perpetual  gloominess 
of  the  air."  According  to  Mr.  Buckingham, 
this  description  is  most  accurate.  "  Both  the 
heat  and  the  gloominess,"  he  says,  "  were  ob- 
served by  us,  though  darkness  would  be  an  im- 
proper term  to  apply  to  this  gloom." 

BANGORIAN  CONTROVERSY,  a  con- 
troversy that  arose  with  Dr.  Hoadly,  bishop  of 
Bangor.  That  prelate,  in  a  sermon  preached 
before  George  I,  asserted  that  Christ  was  su- 
preme in  his  own  kingdom ;  that  he  had  not 
delegated  his  power,  like  temporal  lawgivers 
during  their  absence,  to  any  persons  as  his 
vicegerents  or  deputies ;  and  that  the  church 
of  England,  as  all  other  national  churches, 
was  merely  a  civil  or  human  institution,  esta- 
blished for  the  purpose  of  diffusing  and  per- 
petuating the  knowledge  and  belief  of  Chris- 
tianity. On  the  meeting  of  the  convocation,  a 
committee  was  appointed  to  examine  this  pub- 
lication. A  heavy  censure  was  passed  against 
it,  as  tending  to  subvert  all  government  and 
discipline  in  the  church  of  Christ,  to  reduce 
his  kingdom  to  a  state  of  anarchy  and  confu- 
sion, and  to  impugn  and  impeach  the  royal 
supremacy  in  matters  ecclesiastical,  and  the  au- 


thority of  the  legislature  to  enforce  obedience 
in  matters  of  religion,  by  severe  sanction.  To 
these  proceedings  a  sudden  stop  was  put  by 
proroguing  the  convocation  ;  but  the  contro- 
versy which  had  been  commenced  was  con. 
tinued  for  several  years. 

BANNER,  an  ensign,  or  standard,  used  by 
armies  or  caravans  on  their  journeys  in  the 
eastern  countries.  The  original  *y.n,  is  ren- 
dered by  lexicographers  and  translators  under 
this  word,  as  a  noun,  in  which  form  it  often 
occurs,  a  standard,  banner ;  as  a  verb,  once,  to 
set  up  a  banner ;  Psalm  xx,  5 ;  as  a  participle 
pahul,  vexillatus,  one  distinguished  by  a  ban- 
ner,  the  chief;  as  a  participle  niphal,  bannered, 
or  with  banners.  The  meaning  of  the  root  ia 
illustrated  by  the  very  ingenious  and  sensible 
author  of  "  Observations  on  Divers  Passages 
of  Scripture,"  who  shows,  from  Pitts  and  Po- 
cocke,  that,  "  as  in  Arabia  and  the  neighbouring 
countries,  on  account  of  the  intense  heat  of  the 
sun  by  day,  people  generally  choose  to  travel 
in  the  night ;  so,  to  prevent  confusion  in  their 
large  caravans,  particularly  in  the  annual  one 
to  Mecca,  each  company,  of  which  the  cara- 
van consists,  has  its  distinct  portable  beacon, 
which  is  carried  on  the  top  of  a  pole,  and  con- 
sists of  several  lights,  which  are  somewhat  like 
iron  stoves,  into  which  they  put  short  dry 
wood,  with  which  some  of  the  camels  are 
loaded.  Every  company  has  one  of  these  poles 
belonging  to  it;  some  of  which  have  ten,  some 
twelve,  of  these  lights  on  their  tops,  more  or 
less;  and  they  are  likewise  of  different  figures, 
as  well  as  numbers ;  one,  perhaps,  in  an  oval 
shape ;  another,  triangular,  or  in  the  form  of 
an  M,  or  N,  &c,  so  that  by  these  every  one 
knows  his  respective  company.  They  are  car- 
ried in  the  front,  and  set  up  in  the  place  where 
the  caravan  is  to  pitch,  before  that  comes  up, 
at  some  distance  from  one  another.  As  tra- 
velling then  in  the  night  must  be,  generally 
speaking,  more  agreeable  to  a  great  multitude 
in  that  desert,  we  may  believe  a  compassionate 
God,  for  the  most  part,  directed  Israel  to  move 
in  the  night.  And  in  consequence,  must  we 
not  rather  suppose  the  standards  of  the  tribes 
were  movable  beacons,  like  those  of  the  Mecca 
pilgrims,  than  flags  or  any  thing  of  that  kind  ?" 
This  ingenious  author  seems,  however,  to  for- 
get, 1.  That  the  pillar  of  fire  was  with  the 
Israelites  to  direct  their  marches.  2.  That  the 
Israelites  were  not  a  mere  caravan,  but  an  ar- 
my ;  and,  as  such,  for  order,  required  standards 
as  well  by  day  as  by  night.     See  Armies. 

BANQUET.  The  hospitality  of  the  present 
day  in  the  east  exactly  resembles  that  of  the 
remotest  antiquity.  The  parable  of  the  "  great 
supper"  is  in  those  countries  literally  realized. 
And  such  was  the  hospitality  of  ancient  Greece 
and  Rome.  When  a  person  provided  an  en- 
tertainment for  his  friends  or  neighbours,  he 
sent  round  a  number  of  servants  to  invite  the 
guests ;  these  were  called  vocatores  by  the  Ro- 
mans, and  x'Sr/Tiipcf  by  the  Greeks.  The  day 
when  the  entertainment  is  to  be  given  is  fixed 
some  considerable  time  before  ;  and  in  the  even- 
ing of  the  day  appointed,  a  messenger  comes 
to  bid  the  guests  to  the  feast.     The  custom  ia 


BAN 


128 


BAN 


thus  introduced  in  Luke:  "A  certain  man 
made  a  great  supper,  and  bade  many ;  and  sent 
his  servant  at  supper  time  to  say  to  them  that 
were  bidden,  Come,  for  all  things  are  now 
read)'."  They  were  not  now  asked  for  the  first 
time ;  but  had  already  accepted  the  invitation, 
when  the  day  was  appointed,  and  were  there- 
fore already  pledged  to  attend  at  the  hour  when 
they  might  be  summoned.  They  were  not 
taken  unprepared,  and  could  not  in  consistency 
and  decency  plead  any  prior  engagement.  They 
could  not  now  refuse,  without  violating  their 
word,  and  insulting  the  master  of  the  feast, 
and,  therefore,  justly  subjected  themselves  to 
punishment.  The  terms  of  the  parable  exactly 
accord  with  established  custom.  The  Jews  did 
not  always  follow  the  same  method  ;  sometimes 
they  sent  a  number  of  servants  different  ways 
among  the  friends  they  meant  to  invite  ;  and  at 
other  times,  a  single  male  domestic. 

The  Persians  send  a  deputation  to  meet  their 
guests :  this  deputation  are  called  openers  of 
the  way ;  and  the  more  distinguished  the  per- 
sons sent,  and  the  greater  the  distance  to  which 
they  go,  so  much  greater  is  the  honour.  So  it 
is  proclaimed,  "Go  forth  and  behold  king  So- 
lomon, with  the  crown  wherewith  his  mother 
crowned  him."  "The  bridegroom  cometh,  go 
ye  forth  to  meet  him."  The  names  of  the  per- 
sons to  be  invited  were  inscribed  upon  tablets, 
and  the  gate  was  set  open  to  receive  those  who 
had  obtained  them  ;  but  to  prevent  any  getting 
in  that  had  no  ticket,  only  one  leaf  of  the  door 
was  left  open ;  and  that  was  strictly  guarded  by 
the  servants  of  the  family.  Those  who  were 
admitted  had  to  go  along  a  narrow  passage  to 
the  room ;  and  after  all  who  had  received  tick- 
ets of  admission  were  assembled,  the  master  of 
the  house  rose  and  shut  to  the  door ;  and  then 
the  entertainment  began.  The  first  ceremony, 
after  the  guests  arrived  at  the  house  of  enter- 
tainment, was  the  salutation  performed  by  the 
master  of  the  house,  or  one  appointed  in  his 
place.  Among  the  Greeks,  this  was  sometimes 
done  by  embracing  with  arms  around ;  but  the 
most  common  salutation  was  by  the  conjunc- 
tion of  their  right  hands,  the  right  hand  being 
reckoned  a  pledge  of  fidelity  and  friendship. 
Some iimes  they  kissed  the  lips,  hands,  knees, 
or  feet,  as  the  person  deserved  more  or  less 
respect.  The  Jews  welcomed  a  stranger  to 
their  house  in  the  same  way ;  for  our  Lord  com- 
plains to  Simon,  that  he  had  given  him  no  kiss, 
had  welcomed  him  to  his  table  with  none  of 
the  accustomed  tokens  of  respect. 

The  custom  of  reclining  was  introduced  from 
the  nations  of  the  east,  and  particularly  from 
Persia,  where  it  seems  to  have  been  adopted  at 
a  very  remote  period.  The  Old  Testament 
Scriptures  allude  to  both  customs;  but  they 
furnish  undeniable  proofs  of  the  antiquity  of 
sitting.  As  this  is  undoubtedly  the  most 
natural  and  dignified  posture,  so  it  seems  to 
have  been  universally  adopted  by  the  first  ge- 
nerations of  men  ;  and  it  was  not  till  after  the 
lapse  of  many  ages,  and  when  degenerate  man 
had  lost  much  of  the  firmness  of  his  primitive 
character,  that  he  began  to  recline. 

The  tables  were  constructed  of  three  dif- 


ferent parts  or  separate  tables,  making  but  one 
in  the  whole.  One  was  placed  at  the  upper 
end  crossways,  and  the  two  others  joined  to  its 
ends,  one  on  each  side,  so  as  to  leave  an  open 
space  between,  by  which  the  attendants  could 
readily  wait  at  all  the  three.  Round  these 
tables  were  placed  beds  or  couches,  one  to  each 
table;  each  of  these  beds  was  called  clinium; 
and  three  of  these  being  united,  to  surround 
the  three  tables,  made  the  triclinium.  At  the 
end  of  each  clinium  was  a  footstool,  for  the 
convenience  of  mounting  up  to  it.  These  beds 
were  formed  of  mattresses,  and  supported  on 
frames  of  wood,  often  high]}-  ornamented;  the 
mattresses  were  covered  with  cloth  or  tapestry, 
according  to  the  quality  of  the  entertainer.  At 
the  splendid  feast  which  Ahasuerus  made  for 
the  nobles  of  his  kingdom,  beds  of  silver  and 
gold  were  placed  round  the  tables  ;  according 
to  a  custom  in  the  east  of  naming  a  thing  from 
its  principal  ornament,  these  must  have  been 
couches  profusely  ornamented  with  the  precious 
metals.  Each  guest  inclined  the  superior  part 
of  his  body  upon  his  left  arm,  the  lower  part 
being  stretched  out  at  length,  or  a  little  bent; 
his  head  was  raised  up,  and  his  back  sometimes 
supported  with  pillows.  In  conversation,  those 
who  spoke  raised  themselves  almost  upright, 
supported  by  cushions.  When  they  ate,  they 
raised  themselves  on  their  elbow,  and  made  use 
of  the  right  hand ;  which  is  the  reason  our 
Lord  mentions  the  hand  of  Judas  in  the  singu- 
lar number:  "He  that  dippeth  his  hand  with 
me  in  the  dish,  the  same  shall  betray  me," 
Matt,  xxvi,  23.     See  Accusation. 

When  a  Persian  comes  into  an  assembly,  and 
has  saluted  the  house,  he  then  measures  with 
his  eye  the  place  to  which  his  degree  of  rank 
entitles  him ;  he  straightway  wedges  himself 
into  the  line  of  guests,  without  offering  any 
apology  for  the  general  disturbance  which  he 
produces.  It  often  happens  that  persons  take 
a  higher  seat  than  that  to  which  they  are  en- 
titled. The  Persian  scribes  are  remarkable  for 
their  arrogance  in  this  respect,  in  which  they 
seem  to  bear  a  striking  resemblance  to  the 
Jews  of  the  same  profession  in  the  days  of  our 
Lord.  The  master  of  the  entertainment  has, 
however,  the  privilege  of  placing  any  one  as 
high  in  the  rank  of  the  assembly  as  he  may 
choose.  And  Mr.  Morier  saw  an  instance  of 
it  at  a  public  entertainment  to  which  he  was 
invited.  When  the  assembly  was  nearly  full, 
the  governor  of  Kashan,  a  man  of  humble 
mien,  although  of  considerable  rank,  came  in 
and  seated  himself  at  the  lowest  place ;  when 
the  master  of  the  house,  after  numerous  ex- 
pressions of  welcome,  pointed  with  his  hand  to 
an  upper  seat  in  the  assembly,  to  which  he  de- 
sired him  to  move,  and  which  he  accordingly 
did.  These  circumstances  furnish  a  beautiful 
and  striking  illustration  of  the  parable  which 
our  Lord  uttered,  when  he  saw  how  those  that 
were  invited  chose  the  highest  places. 

Before  the  Greeks  went  to  an  entertainment, 
they  washed  and  anointed  themselves;  for  it 
was  thought  very  indecent  to  appear  on  such 
an  occasion,  defiled  -with  sweat  and  du6t;  but 
they  who  came  off  a  journey  were  washed,  and 


BAN 


129 


BAP 


clothed  with  suitable  apparel,  in  the  house  of 
the  entertainer,  before  they  were  admitted  to 
the  feast.  When  Telemachus  and  Pisistratus 
arrived  at  the  palace  of  Menelaus,  in  the  course 
of  their  wanderings,  they  were  immediately 
supplied  with  water  to  wash,  and  with  oil  to 
anoint,  themselves,  before  they  took  their  seats 
by  the  side  of  the  king.  The  oil  used  on  such 
occasions,  in  the  palaces  of  nobles  and  princes, 
was  perfumed  with  roses  and  other  odoriferous 
herbs.  They  also  washed  their  hands  before 
they  sat  down  to  meat.  To  these  customary 
marks  of  respect,  to  which  a  traveller,  or  one 
who  had  no  house  of  his  own,  was  entitled,  our 
Lord  alludes  in  his  defence  of  Mary  :  "  And  he 
turned  to  the  woman,  and  said  unto  Simon, 
Seest  thou  this  woman  ?  I  entered  into  thine 
house ;  thou  gavest  me  no  water  for  my  feet, 
but  she  hath  washed  my  feet  with  her  tears, 
and  wiped  them  with  the  hairs  of  her  head. 
Thou  gavest  me  no  kiss  ;  but  this  woman,  since 
the  time  I  came  in,  hath  not  ceased  to  kiss  my 
feet.  My  head  with  oil  thou  didst  not  anoint; 
but  this  woman  hath  anointed  my  feet  with 
ointment,"  Luke  vii,  44.  Homer  mentions  it 
as  a  custom  quite  common  in  those  days,  for 
daughters  to  wash  and  afterward  to  anoint  the 
feet  of  their  parents.  Our  Saviour  was  in  the 
circumstances  of  a  traveller;  he  had  no  home 
to  wash  and  anoint  himself  in,  before  he  went 
to  Simon's  house ;  and,  therefore,  had  a  right 
to  complain  that  his  entertainer  had  failed  in 
the  respect  that  was  due  to  him  as  a  stranger, 
at  a  distance  from  the  usual  place  of  his  resi- 
dence. The  Jews  regularly  washed  their  hands 
and  their  feet  before  dinner  ;  they  considered 
this  ceremony  as  essential,  which  discovers  the 
reason  of  their  astonishment,  when  they  ob- 
served the  disciples  of  Christ  sit  down  at  table 
without  having  observed  this  ceremony :  "  Why 
do  thy  disciples  transgress  the  tradition  of  the 
elders?  for  they  wasli  not  their  hands  when 
they  eat  bread,"  Matt,  xv,  2.  After  meals  they 
wasli  them  again  :  for,  says  the  evangelist, 
"the  Pharisees  and  all  the  Jews,  except  they 
wash  their  hands  oft,  eat  not,  holding  the  tra- 
dition of  the  elders,"  Mark  vii,  3,  4.  When 
they  washed  their  hands  themselves,  they 
plunged  them  into  the  water  up  to  the  wrists; 
but  when  others  performed  this  office  for  them, 
it  was  done  by  pouring  it  upon  their  hands. 
The  same  custom  prevailed  in  Greece,  for 
Homer  says,  the  attendants  poured  water  on 
the  hands  of  their  chiefs.  This  was  a  part  of 
the  service  which  Elislia  performed  for  his 
master  Elijah  ;  and  in  every  instance  under  the 
law  where  water  was  applied  to  the  body  by 
another,  it  was  done,  not  by  plunging,  but  by 
pouring  or  sprinkling.  To  wash  the  feet  was 
a  mean  and  servile  office,  and,  therefore,  gene- 
rally performed  by  the  female  servants  of  the 
family.  It  was  occasionally  performed,  how- 
ever, by  females  of  the  highest  rank ;  for  the 
daughter  of  Cleobulus,  one  of  the  Grecian 
sagos,  and  king  of  Lintlus,  a  city  on  the  south- 
east part  of  Rhodes,  was  not  ashamed  to  wash 
the  feet  of  her  father's  guests.  And  it  was 
customary  for  them  to  kiss  the  feet  of  those 
to  whom  they  thought  a  more  than  common 


10 


respect  was  due ;  for  the  daughter  of  Philocleon, 
in  Aristophanes,  washed  her  father,  /anointed 
his  feet,  and,  stooping  down,  kis"sed  them. 
The  towel  which  was  used  to  wipe  the  feet 
after  washing,  was  considered  through  all  the 
east  as  a  badge  of  servitude.  Suetonius  men- 
tions it  as  a  sure  mark  of  the  intolerable  pride 
of  Caligula,  the  Roman  emperor,  that  when  at 
supper  he  suffered  senators  of  the  highest  rank, 
sometimes  to  stand  by  his  couch,  sometimes  at 
his  feet,  girt  with  a  towel.  Hence  it  appears 
that  this  honour  was  a  token  of  humiliation, 
which  was  not,  however,  absolutely  degrading 
and  inconsistent  with  all  regard  to  rank.  Yet 
our  blessed  Redeemer  did  not  refuse  to  give  his 
disciples,  and  Judas  Iscariot  himself,  that  proof 
of  his  love  and  humility. 

The  entertainment  was  conducted  by  a  sym- 
■posiarch,  or  governor  of  the  feast.  He  was, 
says  Plutarch,  one  chosen  among  the  guests, 
the  most  pleasant  and  diverting  in  the  com. 
pany,  that  would  not  get  drunk,  and  yet  would 
drink  freely ;  he  was  to  rule  over  the  rest,  to 
forbid  any  disorder,  but  to  encourage  their 
mirth.  He  observed  the  temper  of  the  guests, 
and  how  the  wine  worked  upon  them ;  how 
every  one  could  bear  his  wine,  and  to  endea- 
vour accordingly  to  keep  them  all  in  harmony, 
and  in  an  even  composure,  that  there  might  be 
no  disquiet  nor  disturbance.  To  do  this  effect- 
ually, he  first  proclaimed  liberty  to  every  one 
to  drink  what  he  thought  proper,  and  then  ob- 
serving who  among  them  was  most  ready  to 
be  disordered,  mixed  more  water  with  his  wine, 
to  keep  him  equally  sober  with  the  rest  of  the 
company;  so  that  this  officer  took  care  that 
none  should  be  forced  to  drink,  and  that  none, 
though  left  to  their  own  choice,  should  get 
intoxicated.  Such,  we  have  reason  to  believe, 
was  the  governor  of  the  feast  at  the  marriage 
in  Cana  of  Galilee,  which  our  Lord  honoured 
with  his  presence.  The  term  apxirpiV-Xiw  lite- 
rally signifies  the  governor  of  a  place  furnished 
with  three  beds ;  and  he  acted  as  one  having 
authority;  for  he  tasted  the  wine  before  he 
distributed  it  to  the  company,  which,  it  is  uni- 
versally admitted,  was  one  of  the  duties  of  a 
symposiarch.  Neither  the  name  nor  the  act 
accords  with  the  character  and  situation  of  a 
guest ;  he  must,  therefore,  have  been  the  sym- 
posiarch, or  governor  of  the  feast.  The  exist, 
ence  of  such  an  officer  among  the  Jews  is 
placed  beyond  a  doubt,  by  a  passage  in  the 
apocryphal  book  of  Ecclesiasticus,  where  his 
office  is  thus  described  :  "  If  thou  be  made  the 
master  of  a  feast,  lift  not  thyself  up,  but  be 
among  them  as  one  of  the  rest ;  take  diligent 
care  of  them,  and  so  sit  down.  And  when 
thou  hast  done  all  thine  office,  take  thy  place, 
that  thou  mayesi  be  merry  with  them,  and  re- 
ceive a  crown  for  the  well-ordering  of  the  feast," 
Ecclesiasticus  xxxii,  1.     See  Architjuclinus. 

BAPTISM,  from  the  Greek  word  pairrfy,  is 
a  rite  or  ceremony  by  which  persons  are 
initiated  into  the  profession  of  the  Christian 
religion  ;  or,  it  is  the  appointed  mode  by  which 
a  person  assumes  the  profession  of  Christianity, 
or  is  admitted  to  a  participation  of  the  privi- 
leges belonging  to  the  disciples  of  Christ.     It 


BAP 


130 


BAP 


was  by  this  mode  that  those  who  believed  the 
Gospel  were  to  be  separated  from  unbelievers, 
and  joined  to  the  visible  Christian  church  ;  and 
the  rite  accompanying  it,  or  washing  with  wa- 
ter, was  probably  intended  to  represent  the 
washing  away,  or  renouncing,  the  impurities 
of  some  former  state,  viz.  the  sins  that  had 
been  committed,  and  the  vicious  habits  that 
had  been  contracted ;  and  to  this  purpose  it 
may  be  observed,  that  the  profession  of  repent, 
ance  always  accompanied,  or  was  understood 
to  accompany,  the  profession  of  faith  in  Christ. 
That  our  Lord  instituted  such  an  ordinance  as 
baptism,  is  plain  from  the  commission  given  to 
the  Apostles  after  his  resurrection,  and  record- 
ed in  Matt,  xxviii,  19,  20.  To  this  rite  there 
is  also  an  allusion  in  Mark  xvi,  16 ;  John  iii,  5  ; 
Acts  ii,  41 ;  viii,  12,  36-38 ;  xxii,  16.  The  de- 
sign of  this  institution,  which  was  to  express 
faith  in  Christ  on  the  part  of  those  who  were 
baptized,  and  to  declare  their  resolution  of 
openly  professing  his  religion,  and  cultivating 
real  and  universal  holiness,  appears  from  Rom. 
vi,  3,  4 ;  1  Peter  iii,  21 ;  Ephes.  v,  26 ;  and 
Titus  iii,  5.  We  find  no  account  of  baptism 
as  a  distinct  religious  rite,  before  the  mission 
of  John,  the  forerunner  of  Christ,  who  was 
called  the  "  Baptist,"  on  account  of  his  being 
commanded  by  God  to  baptize  with  water  all 
who  should  hearken  to  his  invitation  to  repent. 
Washing,  however,  accompanied  many  of  the 
Jewish  rites,  and,  indeed,  was  required  after 
contracting  any  kind  of  uncleanness.  Also, 
soon  after  the  time  of  our  Saviour,  we  find  it 
to  have  been  the  custom  of  the  Jews  solemnly 
to  baptize,  as  well  as  to  circumcise,  all  their 
proselytes.  As  their  writers  treat  largely  of 
the  reasons  for  this  rite,  and  give  no  hint  of  its 
being  a  novel  institution,  it  is  probable  that 
this  had  always  been  the  custom  antecedent 
to  the  time  of  Moses,  whose  account  of  the 
rite  of  circumcision,  and  of  the  manner  of  per- 
forming it,  is  by  no  means  circumstantial.  Or, 
baptism,  after  circumcision,  might  have  come 
into  use  gradually  from  the  natural  propriety 
of  the  thing,  and  its  easy  conformity  to  other 
Jewish  customs.  For  if  no  Jew  could  approach 
the  tabernacle,  or  temple,  after  the  most  trifling 
uncleanness,  without  washing,  much  less  would 
it  be  thought  proper  to  admit  a  proselyte  from 
a  state  so  impure  and  unclean  as  Heathenism 
was  conceived  to  be,  without  the  same  mode 
of  purification.  The  antiquity  of  this  practice 
of  proselyte  baptism  among  the  Jews,  has  been 
a  subject  of  considerable  debate  among  divines. 
It  is  strenuously  maintained  by  Lightfoot.  Dr. 
John  Owen  considers  the  opinion,  that  Chris- 
tian baptism  came  from  the  Jews,  as  destitute 
of  all  probability.  On  the  other  hand,  Mr.  Wall 
has  made  it  highly  probable,  to  say  the  least, 
from  many  testimonies  of  the  Jewish  writers, 
who  without  one  dissenting  voice  allow  the 
fact,  that  the  practice  of  Jewish  baptism  ob- 
tained before  and  at,  as  well  as  after,  our  Sa- 
viour's time.  There  is  also  a  strong  intimation, 
even  in  the  Gospel  itself,  of  such  a  known  prac- 
tice among  the  Jews  in  the  time  of  John  the 
Baptist,  John  i,  25.  The  testimonies  of  the 
Jewish  writers  are  of  the  greater  weight,  be- 


cause the  practice,  reported  by  them  to  have 
been  of  so  ancient  a  date,  did  still  remain 
among  them ;  for  if  it  had  not  been  of  that 
antiquity  to  which  it  pretends,  viz.  before  the 
time  of  Christ,  it  is  not  likely  that  it  would 
ever  have  become  a  custom  among  the  Jews 
afterward.  Would  they  begin  to  proselyte  per- 
sons to  their  religion  by  baptism  in  imitation 
of  the  disciples  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  whom 
they  held  accursed  ?  And  yet  if  this  proselyte 
baptism  were  adopted  by  the  Jews  since  the 
time  of  Christ,  it  must  have  been  a  mere  inno- 
vation in  imitation  of  Christians,  which  is  not 
very  likely.  This  ceremony  is  performed  by 
immersion  in  the  oriental  churches.  The  prac- 
tice of  the  western  churches  is,  to  sprinkle  the 
water  on  the  head  or  face  of  the  person  to  be 
baptized,  except  in  the  church  of  Milan,  in 
whose  ritual  it  is  ordered,  that  the  head  of  the 
infant  be  plunged  three  times  into  the  water; 
the  minister  at  the  same  time  pronouncing  the 
words,  "/  baptize  thee  in  the  name  of  the  Fa- 
ther,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost;"  importing 
that  by  this  ceremony  the  person  baptized  is 
received  among  the  professors  of  that  religion 
which  God,  the  Father  of  all,  revealed  to  man- 
kind by  the  ministry  of  his  Son,  and  confirmed 
by  the  miracles  of  his  Spirit. 

2.  It  is  observable  that  the  baptismal  form, 
above  cited  from  St.  Matthew,  never  occurs  in 
the  same  words,  either  in  the  book  of  the  Acts, 
or  in  any  of  the  Epistles.  But  though  the  form 
in  St.  Matthew  never  appears  elsewhere,  the 
thing  intended  thereby  is  always  implied- 
There  are  many  ceremonies  delivered  by  ec- 
clesiastical writers,  as  used  in  baptism,  which 
were  introduced  after  the  age  of  Justin  Martyr, 
but  which  are  now  disused  ;  as  the  giving  milk 
and  honey  to  the  baptized,  in  the  east ;  wine 
and  milk,  in  the  west,  &c.  They  also  added 
unction  and  the  imposition  of  hands.  Ter- 
tullian  is  the  first  who  mentions  the  signing 
with  the  sign  of  the  cross,  but  only  as  used  in 
private,  and  not  in  public  worship;  and  he 
particularly  describes  the  custom  of  baptizing 
without  it.  Indeed,  it  does  not  appear  to  have 
been  used  in  baptism  till  the  latter  end  of  the 
fourth  or  fifth  century;  at  which  time  great 
virtue  was  ascribed  to  it.  Lactantius,  who* 
lived  in  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century, 
says  the  devil  cannot  approach  those  who  have 
the  heavenly  mark  of  the  cross  upon  them  as 
an  impregnable  fortress  to  defend  them  ;  but 
he  does  not  say  it  was  used  in  baptism.  After 
the  council  of  Nice,  Christians  added  to  bap- 
tism the  ceremonies  of  exorcism  and  adjuration, 
to  make  evil  spirits  depart  from  the  persons  to 
be  baptized.  They  made  several  signings  with 
the  cross,  they  used  lighted  candles,  they  gave 
salt  to  the  baptized  person  to  taste,  and  the 
priest  touched  his  mouth  and  ears  with  spittle, 
and  also  blew  and  spat  upon  his  faee.  At  that 
time  also  baptized  persons  wore  white  garments 
till  the  Sunday  following.  They  had  also  va- 
rious other  ceremonies ;  some  of  which  are 
now  abolished,  though  others  of  them  remain 
in  the  church  of  Rome  to  this  day. 

3.  The  Quakers  assert,  that  water  baptism 
was  never  intended  to  continue  in  the  church 


BAP 


131 


BAP 


of  Christ  any  longer  than  while  Jewish  preju- 
dices made  such  an  external  ceremony  neces- 
sary. They  argue  from  Eph.  iv,  5,  in  which 
one  baptism  is  spoken  of  as  necessary  to  Chris- 
tians, that  this  must  be  a  baptism  of  the  Spirit. 
But  from  comparing  the  texts  that  relate  to 
this  institution,  it  will  plainly  appear  that 
water  baptism  was  instituted  by  Christ  in  more 
general  terms  than  will  agree  with  this  expli- 
cation. That  it  was  administered  to  all  the 
Gentile  converts,  and  not  confined  to  the  Jews, 
appears  from  Matt,  xxviii,  19,  20,  compared 
with  Acts  x,  47 ;  and  that  the  baptism  of  the 
Spirit  did  not  supersede  water  baptism  appears 
to  have  been  the  judgment  of  Peter  and  of 
those  that  were  with  him ;  so  that  the  one 
baptism  spoken  of  seems  to  have  been  that  of 
water ;  the  communication  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
being  only  called  baptism  in  a  figurative  sense. 
As  far  any  objection  which  may  be  drawn  from 
1  Cor.  i,  17,  it  is  sufficiently  answered  by  the 
preceding  verses,  and  all  the  numerous  texts, 
in  which,  in  epistles  written  long  after  this, 
the  Apostle  speaks  of  all  Christians  as  baptized  ; 
and  argues  from  the  obligation  of  baptism,  in 
such  a  manner  as  we  can  never  imagine  he 
would  have  done,  if  he  had  apprehended  it  to 
have  been  the  will  of  God  that  it  should  be 
discontinued  in  the  church.  Compare  Rom. 
vi,  3,  &c;  Col.  ii,  12;  Gal.  iii,  27. 

4.  Baptism,  in  early  times,  was  only  admi- 
nistered at  Easter  and  Whitsuntide,  except  in 
cases  of  necessity.  Adult  persons  were  pre- 
pared for  baptism  by  abstinence,  prayer,  and 
other  pious  exercises.  It  was  to  answer  for 
them,  says  Mosheim,  that  sponsors,  or  god- 
fathers, were  first  instituted  in  the  second  cen- 
tury, though  they  were  afterward  admitted 
also  in  the  baptism  of  infants.  This,  according 
to  M.  Daille,  was  not  done  till  the  fourth  cen- 
tury. Wall  refers  the  origin  of  sponsors,  or 
godfathers,  on  the  authority  of  Tertullian,  to 
the  commencement  of  the  second  century ;  who 
were  used  in  the  baptism  of  infants  that  could 
not  answer  for  themselves.  The  catechumens 
were  not  forward  in  coming  to  baptism;  St. 
Ambrose  was  not  baptized  before  he  was  elect- 
ed bishop  of  Milan ;  and  some  of  the  fathers 
not  till  the  time  of  their  death.  Some  deferred 
it  out  of  a  tender  conscience ;  and  others  out 
of  too  much  attachment  to  the  world  ;  it  being 
the  prevailing  opinion  of  the  primitive  times, 
that  baptism,  whenever  conferred,  washed 
away  all  antecedent  stains  and  sins.  Accord- 
ingly they  deferred  this  sanctifying  rite  as  long 
as  possible,  even  till  they  apprehended  they 
were  at  the  point  of  death.  Cases  of  this  kind 
occur  at  the  beginning  of  the  third  century. 
Constantine  the  Great  was  not  baptized  till  lie 
was  at  the  last  gasp,  and  in  this  he  was  fol- 
lowed by  his  son  Constantius ;  and  two  of  his 
other  sons,  Constantine  and  Constans,  were 
killed  before  they  were  baptized.  As  to  the 
necessity  of  baptism,  we  may  observe,  how- 
ever, that,  though  some  seem  to  have  laid  too 
great  stress  upon  it,  as  if  k  were  indispensa- 
bly necessary  in  order  to  salvation  ;  it  must  be 
allowed,  that  for  any  person  to  omit  baptism, 
when  he  acknowledges  it  to  be  an  institution 


of  Christ,  and  that  it  is  the  will  of  Christ  that 
he  should  submit  to  it,  is  an  act  of  disobedience 
to  his  authority,  which  is  inconsistent  with 
true  faith. 

5.  The  word  baptism  is  frequently  taken  for 
sufferings,  Mark  x,  38;  Luke  xii,  50;  Matt, 
xx,  22,  23.  Of  expressions  like  these  we  find 
some  traces  in  the  Old  Testament  also,  where 
waters  often  denote  tribulations,  Psalm  lxix,  1, 
15;  cxxiv,  4,  5;  and  where  to  be  swallowed 
up  by  the  waters,  and  to  pass  through  the  great 
waters,  signify  to  be  overwhelmed  with  mise- 
ries and  calamities. 

6.  St.  Paul,  endeavouring  to  prove  the  re- 
surrection of  the  dead,  among  several  other 
reasons  in  support  of  the  doctrine,  says,  '*  If 
the  dead  rise  not  at  all,  what  shall  they  do  who 
are  baptized  for  the  dead  ?"  1  Cor.  xv,  29.  Of 
this  phrase  various  interpretations  have  been 
given;  three  of  which  only  shall  be  here  men- 
tioned. "  It  means,"  say  some,  '"baptized  in 
the  room  of  the  dead  just  fallen  in  the  cause  of 
Christ,  and  who  are  thus  supported  by  a  suces- 
sion  of  new  converts,  immediately  offering 
themselves  to  fill  up  their  places,  as  ranks  of 
soldieTS  who  advance  to  combat  in  the  room  of 
their  companions,  who  have  just  been  slain  in 
their  sight.' "  Others  think  it  signifies,  "In 
hope  of  blessings  to  be  received  after  they  are 
numbered  with  the  dead."  Dr.  Macknight 
supplies  the  words,  rrjs  avas-dacws,  and  reads  the 
clause,  "  Who  are  baptized  for  the  resurrection 
of  the  dead ;"  or  in  consequence  of  their  be- 
lieving in  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection  of 
the  dead ;  on  account  of  which  faith,  arid  their 
profession  of  it,  they  aro  exposed  to  great  suf- 
ferings, for  which  they  can  have  no  recom 
pense,  if  there  be  no  resurrection  of  the  dead, 
nor  any  future  life  at  all. 

7.  As  to  the  subjects  of  baptism,  the  anti- 
poedobaptists  hold  that  believing  adults  only 
are  proper  subjects,  because  the  commission  of 
Christ  to  baptize  appears  to  them  to  restrict 
this  ordinance  to  such  only  as  are  taught,  or* 
made  disciples ;  and  that,  consequently,  infants,1 
who  cannot  be  thus  taught,  ought  to  be  ex- 
cluded. "  It  does  not  appear,"  say  they,  "  that 
the  Apostles,  in  executing  the  commission  of 
Christ,  ever  baptized  any  but  those  who  were 
first  instructed  in  the  Christian  faith,  and  pro- 
fessed their  belief  of  it."  They  contend  that 
infants  can  receive  no  benefit  from  baptism, 
and  are  not  capable  of  faith  and  repentance, 
which  are  to  be  considered  as  prerequisites. 

8.  As  to  the  mode,  they  observe  that  the 
meaning  of  the  Word  /Sn^i^w  signifies  to  im- 
merse or  dip,  and  that  only ;  that  John  baptized 
in  Jordan ;  that  he  chose  a  place  where  there 
was  much  water;  that  Jesus  came  up  but  of 
the  water ;  that  Philip  and  the  eunuch  went 
down  both  into  the  water;  that  the  terms, 
washing,  purifying,  burying  in  baptism,  so  often 
mentioned  in  the  Scriptures,  allude  to  this 
mode  ;  that  immersion  only  was  the  practice 
of  the  Apostles  and  the  first  Christians ;  and 
that  it  was  only  laid  aside  from  the  love  of 
novelty,  and  the  coldness  of  climate.  These 
positions,  they  think,  are  so  clear  from  Scrip, 
ture,  and  the  history  of  the  church,  that  they 


BAP 


132 


BAP 


stand  in  need  of  but  little  argument  for  their 
support.  Farther,  they  also  insist  that  all 
positive  institutions  depend  entirely  upon  the 
will  and  declaration  of  the  institutor  ;  and  that, 
therefore,  reasoning  by  analogy  from  previously 
abrogated  rites  is  to  be  rejected,  and  the  ex- 
press command  of  Christ  respecting  baptism 
ought  to  be  our  rule. 

9.  The  Paedobaptists,  however,  are  of  a  dif- 
ferent opinion.  As  to  the  subjects  of  baptism, 
they  believe  that  qualified  adults,  who  have 
not  been  baptized  before,  are  certainly  proper 
subjects  ;  but  then  they  think,  also,  that  infants 
ought  not  to  be  excluded.  They  believe  that, 
as  the  Abrahamic  and  Christian  covenants  are 
the  same,  Gen.  xvii,  7 ;  Heb.  viii,  12 ;  that  as 
children  were  admitted  under  the  former ;  and 
that  as  baptism  is  now  a  sign,  seal,  or  confirma- 
tion of  this  covenant,  infants  heve  as  great  a 
right  to  it  as  the  children  of  the  Israelites  had 
to  the  seal  of  circumcision  under  the  law,  Acts 
ii,  39;  Rom.  iv,  11.  Farther,  if  children  are 
not  to  be  baptized  because  there  is  no  positive 
command  for  it,  for  the  same  reason  they  say 
that  women  should  not  come  to  the  Lord's 
Supper ;  nor  ought  we  to  keep  holy  the  first 
day  of  the  week ;  neither  of  tliese  being  ex- 
pressly commanded.  If  baptizing  infants  had 
been  a  human  invention,  they  also  ask,  how 
such  a  practice  could  have  been  so  universal  in 
the  first  three  hundred  years  of  lhe  church, 
and  yet  no  record  have  remained  when  it  was 
introduced,  nor  any  dispute  or  controversy 
about  it  have  taken  place  ?  Some  reduce  the 
matter  to  a  narrower  compass;  urging,  (l.)That 
God  constituted  in  his  church  the  membership 
of  infants,  and  admitted  them  to  that  privilege 
by  a  religious  ordinance,  Gen.  xvii;  Gal.  iii, 
14,  17.  (2.)  That  this  right  of  infants  to  church 
membership  was  never  taken  away:  and  this 
being  the  case,  they  argue,  that  infants  must 
be  received,  because  God  has  appointed  it ;  and, 
since  they  must  be  received,  it  must  be  either 
with  baptism  or  without  it ;  but  none  must  be 
received  without  baptism ;  therefore,  infants 
must  of  necessity  be  baptized.  Hence  it  is 
clear  that,  under  the  Gospel,  infants  are  still 
continued  exactly  in  the  same  relation  to  God 
and  his  church  in  which  they  were  originally 
placed  under  former  dispensations.  That  in- 
fants are  to  be  received  into  the  church,  and 
as  such  baptized,  is  also  inferred  from  the  fol- 
lowing passages  of  Scripture  :  Gen.  xvii ;  Isa. 
xliv,  3;  Matt,  xix,  13;  Luke  ix,  47,  48;  Acts 
ii,  38,  39 ;  Rom.  xi,  17,  21 ;  1  Cor.  vii,  14. 

10.  Though  there  are  no  express  examples 
in  the  New  Testament  of  Christ  and  his  Apos- 
tles baptizing  infants,  yet  there  is  no  proof  that 
they  were  excluded.  Jesus  Christ  actually 
blessed  little  children ;  and  it  is  difficult  to  be- 
lieve that  such  received  his  blessing,  and  yet 
were  not  to  be  members  of  the  Gospel  church. 
If  Christ  received  them,  and  would  have  us 
"  receive"  them,  how  can  we  keep  them  out  of 
the  visibks  church?  Beside,  if  children  were 
not  to  be  baptized,  it  is  reasonable  to  expect 
that  they  would  have  been  expressly  forbidden. 
As  whole  households  were  baptized,  it  is  also 
probable   there   were   children    among  them. 


From  the  year  400  to  1150,  no  society  of  men, 
in  all  that  period  of  seven  hundred  and  fifty 
years,  ever  pretended  to  say  it  was  unlawful  to 
baptize  infants  :  and  still  nearer  the  time  of 
our  Saviour  there  appears  to  have  been  scarcely 
any  one  who  advised  the  delay  of  infant  bap- 
tism. Irenseus,  who  lived  in  the  second  cen- 
tury, and  was  well  acquainted  with  Polycarp, 
who  was  John's  disciple,  declares  expressly, 
that  the  church  learned  from  the  Apostles  to 
baptize  children.  Origen,  in  the  third  century, 
affirms,  that  the  custom  of  baptizing  infants 
was  received  from  Christ  and  his  Apostles. 
Cyprian,  and  a  council  of  ministers,  held  about 
the  year  254,  no  less  than  sixty-six  in  number, 
unanimously  agreed  that  children  might  be 
baptized  as  soon  as  they  were  born.  Ambrose, 
who  wrote  about  274  years  from  the  Apostles, 
declares  that  the  baptism  of  infants  had  been 
practised  by  the  Apostles  themselves,  and  by 
the  church  down  to  that  time.  "The  catho- 
lic church  every  where  declares,"  says  Chry- 
sostom,  in  the  fifth  century,  "that  infants 
should  be  baptized  ;"  and  Augustine  affirmed, 
that  he  never  heard  or  read  of  any  Christian, 
catholic  or  sectarian,  but  who  always  held  that 
infants  were  to  be  baptized.  They  farther  be. 
lieve  that  there  needed  no  mention  in  the  New 
Testament  of  receiving  infants  into  the  church, 
as  it  had  been  once  appointed  and  never  re- 
pealed. So  far  from  confining  baptism  to 
adults,  it  must  be  remembered  that  there  is  not 
a  single  instance  recorded  in  the  New  Testa, 
ment,  in  which  the  descendants  of  Christian 
parents  were  baptized  in  adult  years.  The 
objection  that  infants  are  not  proper  subjects 
for  baptism,  because  they  cannot  profess  faith 
and  repentance,  falls  with  as  much  weight 
upon  the  institution  of  circumcision  as  infant 
baptism ;  since  they  are  as  capable  or  are  as  fit 
subjects  for  the  one  as  the  other.  Finally,  it 
is  generally  acknowledged,  that  if  infants  die, 
(and  a  great  part  of  the  human  race  die  in 
their  infancy,)  they  are  saved :  if  this  be  the 
case  then  why  refuse  them  the  sign  of  union 
with  Christ,  if  they  be  capable  of  enjoying  the 
thing  signified  ? 

11.  As  to  the  mode,  the  Paedobaptists  deny 
that  the  term  j3a7rri'£w,  which  is  a  derivative  of 
/3dirr»,  and,  consequently,  must  be  something 
less  in  its  signification,  is  invariably  used  in 
the  New  Testament  to  express  plunging.  It 
is  denied,  therefore,  that  dipping  is  its  only 
meaning;  that  Christ  absolutely  enjoined  im- 
mersion ;  and  that  it  is  his  positive  will  that 
no  other  mode  should  be  used.  As  the  word 
(ia-nrifa  is  used  to  express  the  various  ablutions 
among  the  Jews,  such  as  sprinkling,  pouring, 
&c,  Heb.  ix,  10,  for  the  custom  of  washing 
before  meals,  and  the  washing  of  household 
furniture,  pots,  &c,  it  is  evident  from  hence 
that  it  does  not  express  the  manner  of  doing  a 
thing,  whether  by  immersion  or  effusion,  but 
only  the  thing  done  ;  that  is,  washing  ;  or  the 
application  of  water  in  some  form  or  other.  It 
no  where  signifies  to  dip,  but  in  denoting  a  mode 
of,  and  in  order  to,  washing  or  cleansing;  and 
the  mode  or  use  is  only  the  ceremonial  part 
of  a  positive  institute ;  just  as  in  the  Lord's 


BAP 


133 


BAP 


Supper,  the  time  of  day,  the  number  and  pos- 
ture of  the  communicants,  the  quantity  and 
quality  of  bread  and  wine,  are  circumstances 
not  accounted  essential  by  any  part  of  Chris- 
tians. If  in  baptism  there  be  an  expressive 
emblem  of  the  descending  influence  of  the 
Spirit,  pouring  must  be  the  mode  of  adminis- 
tration ;  for  that  is  the  Scriptural  term  most 
commonly  and  properly  used  for  the  commu- 
nication of  divine  influences,  Matt,  iii,  11 ; 
Mark  i,  8,  10;  Luke  iii,  16-22;  John  i,  33; 
Acts  i,  5;  ii,  38,  39  ;  viii,  12,  17;  xi,  15,  16. 
The  term  sprinkling,  also,  is  made  use  of  in 
reference  to  the  act  of  purification,  Isa.  Iii,  15 ; 
Ezek.  xxxvi,  25 ;  Heb.  ix,  13,  14 ;  and  there- 
fore cannot  be  inapplicable  to  baptismal  purifi- 
cation. But,  it  is  observed,  that  John  baptized 
"ira  Jordan:"  to  this  it  is  replied,  To  infer 
always  a  plunging  of  the  whole  body  in  water 
from  this  particle,  would,  in  many  instances, 
be  false  and  absurd.  The  same  Greek  preposi- 
tion, iv,  is  used  when  it  is  said  they  should  be 
"  baptized  with  fire ;"  but  few  will  assert  that 
they  should  be  plunged  into  it.  The  Apostle, 
speaking  of  Christ,  says,  he  came  not,  iv,  "by 
water  only ;"  but,  iv,  "  by  water  and  blood." 
There  the  same  word,  iv,  is  translated  by;  and 
with  justice  and  propriety ;  for  we  know  no 
good  sense  in  which  we  could  say  he  came  in 
water.  It  has  been  remarked  that  iv  is,  more 
than  a  hundred  times,  in  the  New  Testament, 
rendered  at;  and  in  a  hundred  and  fifty  others 
it  is  translated  with.  If  it  be  rendered  so  here, 
John  baptized  at  Jordan,  or  with  the  water  of 
Jordan,  there  is  no  proof  that  he  plunged  his 
disciples  in  it. 

Jesus,  it  is  said,  came  up  out  of  the  water; 
but  this  is  no  proof  that  he  was  immersed,  as 
the  Greek  term,  d™,  often  signifies  from :  for 
instance,  "  Who  hath  warned  you  to  flee/cow," 
not  out  of,  "the  wrath  to  come?"  with  many 
others  that  might  be  mentioned.  Again  :  it  is 
urged  that  Philip  and  the  eunuch  went  down 
both  into  the  water.  To  this  it  is  answered, 
that  here  also  is  no  proof  of  immersion :  for, 
if  the  expression  of  their  going  down  into  the 
water  necessarily  includes  dipping,  then  Philip 
was  dipped,  as  well  as  the  eunuch.  The  pre- 
position eh,  translated  into,  often  signifies  no 
more  than  to,  or  unto:  see  Matt,  xv,  24;  Rom. 
x,  10;  Acts  xxviii,  14;  Matt,  iii,  11 ;  xvii,  27: 
so  that  from  none  of  these  circumstances  can 
it  be  proved  that  there  was  one  person  of  all 
the  baptized,  who  went  into  the  water  ankle 
deep.  As  to  the  Apostle's  expression,  "  burie*1 
with  him  in  baptism,"  that  has  no  force  b*  the 
argument  for  immersion,  since  it  dr^s  not 
allude  to  a  custom  of  dipping,  any  -»iore  than 
our  baptismal  crucifixion  and  d^ath  has  any 
such  reference.  It  is  not  tK  sign,  but  the 
thing  signified,  that  is  hem  alluded  to.  As 
Christ  was  buried,  and  rose  again  to  a  heavenly 
life,  so  we  by  baptism  signify  that  we  are  sepa- 
rated from  sin,  that  we  may  live  a  new  life  of 
faith  and  love. 

To  conclude :  it  is  urged,  against  the  mode 
of  immersion,  that,  as  it  carries  with  it  too 
much  of  the  appearance  of  a  burdensome  rite 
for  the  Gospel  dispensation ;  as  it  is  too  inde- 


cent for  so  solemn  an  ordinance ;  as  it  has  a 
tendency  to  agitate  the  spirits,  often  rendering 
the  subject  unfit  for  the  exercise  of  proper 
thoughts  and  affections,  and  indeed  utterly  in- 
capable of  them  ;  as  in  many  cases  the  immer- 
sion of  the  body  would,  in  all  probability,  be 
instant  death ;  as  in  other  situations  it  would 
be  impracticable,  for  want  of  water ;  it  cannot 
be  considered  as  necessary  to  the  ordinance  of 
baptism,  and  there  is  the  strongest  improbabil- 
ity that  it  was  ever  practised  in  the  times  of 
the  New  Testament,  or  in  the  earliest  periods 
of  the  Christian  church. 

BAPTISTS,  or  ANTIPiEDOBAPTISTS, 
so  called  from  their  rejecting  the  baptism  of 
infants.  The  Baptists  in  England  form  one  of 
"the  three  denominations  of  Protestant  Dis- 
senters." The  constitution  of  their  churches, 
and  their  modes  of  worship,  are  congregational, 
or  independent.  They  bore  a  considerable 
share  in  the  sufferings  of  the  seventeenth  and 
preceding  centuries :  for  there  were  many 
among  the  Lollards  and  Wickliffites  who  dis- 
approved of  infant  baptism.  There  were  also 
many  of  this  faith  among  the  Protestants  and 
Reformers  abroad.  In  Holland,  Germany,  and 
the  north,  they  went  by  the  names  of  Anabap- 
tists and  Mennonites;  and  in  Piedmont  and 
the  south,  they  were  found  among  the  Albi- 
genses  and  Waldenses.  The  Baptists  subsist 
chiefly  under  two  denominations, — the  Particu- 
lar or  Calvinistical,  and  the  General  or  Armi- 
nian.  The  former  is  by  far  the  most  numerous. 
Some  of  both  denominations,  General  and  Par- 
ticular, allow  of  free  or  mixed  communion ; 
admitting  to  the  Lord's  table  pious  persons  who 
have  not  been  immersed,  while  others  consider 
that  as  an  essential  requisite  to  communion. 
These  are  sometimes  called  Strict  Baptists. 
Other  societies  of  this  denomination  observe 
the  seventh  day  of  the  week  as  their  Sabbath, 
apprehending  the  original  law  of  the  Sabbath 
to  remain  in  force,  unaltered  and  unrepealed. 
These  are  called  Seventh-day  Baptists.  A 
considerable  number  of  the  General  Baptists 
have  gone  into  Unitarianism  ;  in  consequence 
of  which,  those  who  maintained  the  doctrines 
of  the  Trinity  and  atonement,  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  formed  them, 
selves  into  what  is  caHed  "The  New  Connec- 
tion," or  .Association .  These  preserve  a  friendly 
correspondence  with  their  other  brethren  in 
things  which  concern  the  general  interests  of 
the  denomination,  but  hold  no  religious  com- 
munion with  them.  Some  congregations  of 
General  Baptists  admit  three  distinct  orders 
of  church  officers :  messengers  or  ministers, 
elders,  and  deacons.  The  Baptists  in  America, 
and  in  the  East  and  West  Indies,  are  chiefly 
Calvinists ;  but  most  of  them  admit  of  free 
communion.  The  Scottish  Baptists  form  a 
distinct  denomination,  and  are  distinguished  by 
several  peculiarities  of  church  government. 
"  No  trace  can  be  found  of  a  Baptist  church  in 
Scotland,"  says  Mr.  Jones,  "excepting  one 
which  appears  to  have  been  formed  out  of 
Cromwell's  army,  previous  to  1765,  when  a 
church  was  settled  at  Edinburgh,  under  the 
pastoral  care  of  Mr.  Carmichael  and  Mr.  Archi- 


BAR 


134 


BAR 


bald  M'Lean.  Others  have  since  been  formed 
at  Dundee,  Glasgow,  and  in  most  of  the  princi- 
pal towns  of  Scotland  :"  also  at  London,  and  in 
various  parts  of  England.  They  think  that 
the  order  of  public  worship,  which  uniformly 
obtained  in  the  Apostolic  churches,  is  clearly 
set  forth  in  Acts  ii,  42-47  ;  and  therefore  they 
endeavour  to  follow  it  out  to  the  utmost  of 
their  power.  They  require  a  plurality  of  elders 
in  every  church,  administer  the  Lord's  Supper, 
and  make  contributions  for  the  poor  every  first 
day  of  the  week.  The  prayers  and  exhortations 
of  the  brethren  form  a  part  of  their  church 
order,  under  the  dicection  and  control  of  the 
elders,  to  whom  it  exclusively  belongs  to  pre- 
side in  conducting  the  worship,  to  rule  in  cases 
of  discipline,  and  to  labour  in  the  word  and 
doctrine,  in  distinction  from  the  brethren  ex- 
horting one  another.  The  elders  are  all  lay- 
men, generally  chosen  from  among  the  bre- 
thren ;  but,  when  circumstances  require,  are 
supported  by  their  contributions.  They  approve 
also  of  persons  who  are  properly  qualified  for 
it,  being  appointed  by  the  church  to  preach  the 
Gospel  and  baptize,  though  not  vested  with 
any  pastoral  charge.  The  discipline  and  go- 
vernment of  the  Scottish  Baptists  are  strictly 
congregational. 

BARACHIAS,  the  father  of  Zacharias, 
mentioned  Matt,  xxiii,  35,  as  slain  between  the 
temple  and  the  altar.  There  is  a  great  diversity 
jof  opinions  concerning  the  person  of  this 
Zacharias,  the  son  of  Barachias.  Some  think 
him  to  be  Zacharias,  the  son  of  Jehoiada,  who 
was  killed  by  the  orders  of  Joash,  between  the 
temple  and  the  altar,  2  Chron.  xxiv,  21.  Camp- 
bell thinks,  with  Father  Simon,  that  Jehoiada 
had  two  names,  Barachias  and  Jehoiada.  See 
Zacharias. 

BARAK,  son  of  Abinoam,  chosen  by  God  to 
deliver  the  Hebrews  from  that  bondage  under 
which  they  were  held  by  Jabin,  king  of  the 
Canaanites,  Judges  iv,  4,  5,  &c.  He  refused 
to  obey  the  Lord's  commands,  signified  to  him 
by  Deborah,  the  prophetess,  unless  she  con- 
sented to  go  with  him.  Deborah  accompanied 
Barak  toward  Kedesh  of  Naphtali ;  and,  having 
assembled  ten  thousand  men,  they  advanced  to 
mount  Tabor.  Sisera,  being  informed  of  this 
movement,  matched  with  nine  hundred  cha- 
riots of  war,  and  encamped  near  the  river  Ki- 
shon.  Barak  rapidly  descended  from  mount 
Tabor,  and  the  Lord  having  spread  terror 
through  Sisera's  army  Barak  easily  obtained  &. 
complete  victory.  Sisera  was  killed  by  Jael. 
Barak  and  Deborah  composed  a  hymn  of 
thanksgiving;  and  the  land  had  peace  forty 
years  from  A.  M.  2719  to  2759,  B.  C.  1245. 

BARBARIAN.  The  word  tj?^  (rendered 
barbarian ;  LXX,  (3dp6apos,)  in  the  Hebrew  sense 
of  it,  signifies  a  stranger;  one  who  knows 
neither  the  hoiy  language  nor  the  law.  Ac- 
cording to  the  notions  of  the  Greeks,  all 
nations  who  were  not  Greeks,  or  not  govern- 
ed by  laws  like  the  Greeks,  were  barbarians. 
The  Persians,  Egyptians,  Hebrews,  Arabians, 
Gauls,  Germans,  and  even  the  Romans,  were, 
in  their  phraseology,  barbarians,  however  learn- 
ed or  polite  they  might  be  in  themsolves.     St. 


Paul  comprehends  all  mankind  under  the 
names  of  Greeks  and  barbarians :  "  I  am  a 
debtor  both  to  the  Greeks  and  to  the  barbari- 
ans ;  to  the  wise  and  to  the  unwise,"  Rom.  i,  14. 
St.  Luke  calls  the  inhabitants  of  the  island  of 
Malta  barbarians,  Acts  xxviii,  2,  4.  St.  Paul, 
writing  to  the  Colossians,  uses  the  terms  bar- 
barian and  Scythian  almost  in  the  same  signifi- 
cation. In  1  Cor.  xiv,  11,  he  says,  that  if  he 
who  speaks  a  foreign  language  in  an  assembly 
be  not  understood  by  those  to  whom  he  dis- 
courses, with  respect  to  them  he  is  a  barbarian  ; 
and,  reciprocally,  if  he  understand  not  those 
who  speak  to  him,  they  are  to  him  barbarians. 
Barbarian,  therefore,  is  used  for  every  stranger 
or  foreigner  who  does  not  speak  our  native 
language,  and  includes  no  implication  what- 
ever of  savage  nature  or  manners  in  those  re- 
specting whom  it  is  used.  It  is  most  probably 
derived  from  berbir,  "a  shepherd;"  whence 
Barbnry,  the  country  of  wandering  shepherds; 
Bedouins,  Sceni,  Scytkei,  as  if,  wanderers  in 
tents ;  therefore  barbarians. 

BAR-JESUS,  or,  according  to  some  copies, 
BARrJEU,  was  a  Jewish  magician  in  the 
island  of  Crete,  Acts  xiii,  6.  St.  Luke  calls 
him  Elymas.  He  was  with  the  pro-consul  Ser- 
gius  Paulus,  who,  sending  for  Paul  and  Barna- 
bas, desired  to  hear  the  word  of  God.  Bar- 
Jesus  endeavouring  to  hinder  the  pro-consul 
from  embracing  Christianity,  Paul,  filled  with 
the  Holy  Ghost,  M  set  his  eyes  upon  him,  and 
said,  O  full  of  all  subtil ty  and  mischief,  thou 
child  of  the  devil,  thou  enemy  of  all  righteous- 
ness, wilt  thou  not  cease  to  pervert  the  right 
ways  of  the  Lord?  Behold,  the  hand  of  the  Lord 
is  upon  thee,  and  thou  shalt  be  blind,  not  seeing 
the  sun  for  a  season ;"  which  took  place  im- 
mediately. The  pro-consul,  who  saw  this 
miracle,  was  converted.  Origen  and  Chrysos- 
tom  think  that.  Elymas,  or  Bar-Jesus,  was  con- 
verted likewise ;  and  that  St.  Paul  speedily 
restored  his  sight. 

BARLEY,  nm  Exod.  ix,  31 ;  Lev.  xxvii, 
16,  &c ;  a  well-known  kind  of  grain.  It  de- 
rives its  Hebrew  name  from  the  long  hairy 
beard  which  grows  upon  the  ear.  Pliny,  on 
the  testimony  of  Menander,  says  that  barley 
was  the  most  ancient  aliment  of  mankind.  In 
Palestine  the  barley  was  sown  about  October, 
and  reaped  in  the  end  of  March,  just  after  the 
passover.  In  Egypt  the  barley  harvest  was 
later ;  for  when  the  hail  fell  there,  Exodus  ix, 
31,  a  few  days  before  the  passover,  the  flax  and 
Wley  were  bruised  and  destroyed  :  for  the  flax 
was  %t  its  full  growth,  and  the  barley  began  to 
form  iu  green  ears ;  but  the  wheat,  and  more 
backward  <jrain,  were  not  damaged,  because 
they  were  o^ly  in  the  blade,  and  the  hail 
bruised  the  yot.ng  shoots  which  produce  the 
ears. 

The  rabbins  sometimes  called  barley  the 
food  of  beasts,  because  in  reality  they  fed  their 
cattle  with  k,  1  Kings  iv,  28 ;  and  from  Homer 
and  other  ancient  writers  we  learn,  that  barley 
was  given  to  horses.  The  Hebrews,  however, 
frequently  used  barley  bread,  as  we  find  by 
several  passages  of  Scripture  :  for  example,  Da- 
vid's friends  brought  to  him  in  his  flight  wheat, 


BAR 


135 


BAR 


barley,  flour,  &c,  2  Sam.  xvii,  28.  Solomon 
sent  wheat,  barley,  oil,  and  wine,  to  the  labour- 
ers King  Hiram  had  furnished  him,  2  Chron. 
ii,  15.  Elijah  had  a  present  made  him,  of 
twenty  barley  loaves,  and  corn  in  the  husk, 
2  Kings  iv,  22.  And,  by  miraculously  increas- 
ing the  five  barley  loaves,  Christ  fed  a  multi- 
tude of  about  five  thousand,  John  vi,  8-10. 
The  jealousy-offering,  in  the  Levitical  institu- 
tion, was  to  be  barley  meal,  Num.  v,  15. 
The  common  mincha,  or  offering,  was  of  fine 
wheat  flour,  Lev.  ii,  1 ;  but  this  was  of  barley, 
a  meaner  grain,  probably  to  denote  the  vile 
condition  of  the  person  in  whose  behalf  it  was 
offered.  For  which  reason,  also,  there  was  no 
oil  or  frankincense  permitted  to  be  offered  with 
it.  Sometimes  barley  is  put  for  a  low,  con- 
temptible reward  or  price.  So  the  false  pro- 
phets are  charged  with  seducing  the  people  for 
handfuls  of  barley,  and  morsels  of  bread,  Ezek. 
xiii,  19.  Hosea  bought  his  emblematic  bride 
for  fifteen  pieces  of  silver,  and  a  homer  and  a 
half  of  barley,  Hosea  iii,  2. 

BARNABAS,  a  disciple  of  Jesus  Christ,  and 
companion  of  St.  Paul  in  his  labours.     He  was 
a  Levite,  born  in  the  isle  of  Cyprus.     His  pro- 
per name  was  Joses,  to  which  the  Apostles 
added  Barnabas,  signifying  the  son  of  consola- 
tion.    He  is  generally  considered  one  of  the 
seventy  disciples,  chosen  by  our  Saviour.     He 
was  brought  up  with  Paul  at  the  feet  of  Ga- 
maliel.   When  that  Apostle  came  to  Jerusalem, 
three  years  after  his  conversion,  Barnabas  in- 
troduced him  to  the  other  Apostles,  Acts  ix, 
26,  27,  about  A.  D.  37.     Five  years  afterward, 
the  church  at  Jerusalem,  being  informed  of  the 
progress  of  the  Gospel  at  Antioch,  sent  Barna- 
bas thither,  who  beheld  with   great  joy  the 
wonders  of  the  grace  of  God,  Acts  xi,  22,  24. 
He    exhorted    the    faithful    to    perseverance. 
Some  time  afterward,  he  went  to  Tarsus,  to 
seek  Paul,  and  bring  him  to  Antioch,  where 
they  jointly  laboured  two  years,  and  converted 
great  numbers ;    and  here  the  disciples   were 
first    called   Christians.      They    left    Antioch 
A.  D.  44,  to  convey  alms  from  this  church  to 
that  at  Jerusalem.    At  their  return  they  brought 
John  Mark,  the  cousin  of  Barnabas.     While 
they  were  at  Antioch,  the  Holy  Ghost  directed 
that  they  should  be  separated  for  those  labours 
among  the  Gentiles  to  which  he  had  appoint- 
ed them.     They  departed  into  Cyprus,  where 
they  converted  Sergius  Paulus,  the  pro-consul. 
They  preached  at  Perga  in  Pamphylia  without 
much  success,  by  reason  of  the  obstinacy  and 
malice  of  the  Jews ;  but  being  come  to  Iconium, 
they  made    many  converts.      Here   the  Jews 
stirred  up  a  sedition,  and  obliged  them  to  retire 
to  Derbe  and  Lystra,  in  Lycaonia,  where  St. 
Paul  curing  one  iEneas,  who  had  been  lame 
from  his  birth,  the  people  of  Lystra  regarded 
them  as  gods;  calling  Barnabas,  Jupiter;  and 
Paul,  Mercury;    and  would  have  sacrificed  to 
them,  which  the  two  Apostles  with  groat  diffi- 
culty hindered:    nevertheless,  soon  afterward, 
they  were  persecuted  in  this  very  city.    Having 
revisited  the  cities  through  which   they    had 
nassed,  and  where  they  had  preached  the  Gos- 
pel, they  returned  to  Antioch  in  Syria. 


In  A.  D.  51,  Barnabas  was  sent  with  Paul 
from  Antioch  to  Jerusalem,  on  occasion  of  dis- 
putes concerning  the  observance  of  legal  rites, 
to  which  the  Jews  wished  to  subject  the  Gen- 
tiles.  Paul  and  Barnabas  were  present  in  the 
council  at  Jerusalem,  and  returned  immediately 
to  Antioch.  Peter,  arriving  there  soon  after- 
ward, was  led  to  countenance,  in  some  degree, 
by  his  conduct,  the  observance  of  the  Mosaic 
distinctions.  Barnabas,  too,  (who,  being  by 
descent  a  Levite,  might  retain  some  former  no- 
tions,) used  the  like  dissimulation :  but  Paul 
reproved  Peter  and  Barnabas  with  great  free- 
dom. Paul  afterward  determining  to  visit  the 
churches  in  the  isle  of  Cyprus,  and  in  Asia 
Minor,  Barnabas  desired  that  John  Mark  might 
accompany  them :  but  Paul  objected,  becauso 
Mark  had  left  them  on  the  first  journey.  Here- 
upon the  two  Apostles  separated :  Paul  went 
toward  Asia;  and  Barnabas,  with  Mark,  to 
Cyprus.  This  is  all  we  know  certainly  concern- 
ing Barnabas. 

There  is  extant  among  the  writings  of  the 
fathers  an  epistle  which  is  attributed  to  Bar- 
nabas; though,  being  without  an  inscription, 
it  is  not  known  to  whom  it  professes  to  have 
been  addressed.  It  was  first  published  by  Arch- 
bishop Usher,  in  Greek  and  Latin,  and  trans- 
lated by  Archbishop  Wake,  in  his  "  Genuine 
Epistles  of  the  Apostolical  Fathers,"  and  has 
often  been  reprinted.  That  it  is  not  the  pro- 
duction of  Barnabas,  the  companion  of  Paul, 
may  be  safely  con>cluded  from  internal  evi- 
dence ;  though  it  may  have  been  written  by 
some  other  person  of  the  same  name.  There 
is  also  a  tract  which  goes  by  the  name  of, 
"The  Gospel  of  Barnabas,"  still  extant;  from 
which  Dr.  White,  at  the  end  of  his  Bampton 
Lectures,  has  given  extracts  sufficiently  copi- 
ous to  satisfy  any  impartial  mind  that  it  is  spu- 
rious. 

BARRENNESS.  This  was  looked  upon  as 
reproachful  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
but  more  particularly  so  among  the  Jews; 
which  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  constant 
expectation  of  Messiah,  and  the  hope  that 
every  woman  had,  that  she  might  be  the  mother 
of  the  promised  seed.  This  constant  hope  of 
the  speedy  coming  of  the  great  "  Seed  of  the 
woman"  serves  also  to  account  for  many  cir- 
cumstances in  the  Old  Testament  history. 
"Couple  it,"  says  the  Rev.  J.  J.  Blunt,  "with 
this  consideration,  and  I  see  the  scheme  of 
revelation,  like  the  physical  scheme,  proceed- 
ing with  beautiful  uniformity:  a  unity  of 
plan  '  connecting,'  as  it  has  been  well  said  by 
Paley,  'the  chicken  roosting  upon  its  perch 
with  the  spheres  revolving  in  the  firmament ;' 
and  a  unity  of  plan  connecting  in  like  man- 
ner the  meanest  accidents  of  a  household  with 
the  most  illustrious  visions  of  a  prophet.  Ab- 
stracted from  this  consideration,  I  see  in  the 
history  of  Moses  details  of  actions,  some  tri- 
fling, some  even  offensive,  pursued  at  a  length 
(when  compared  with  the  whole)  singularly 
disproportionate ;  while  things  which  the  an- 
gels would  desire  to  look  into  are  passed  over 
and  forgotten.  But  this  principle  once  admit- 
ted, all  is  consecrated ;  all  assumes  a  new  as- 


BAR 


136 


BAR 


pect;  trifleB,  that  seem  at  first  not  bigger  than 
a  man's  hand,  occupy  the  heavens ;  and  where, 
fore  Sarah  laughed,  for  instance,  at  the  pros- 
pect of  a  son,  and  wherefore  that  laugh  was 
rendered  immortal  in  his  name ;  and  wherefore 
the  sacred  historian  dwells  on  a  matter  so 
trivial,  whilst  the  world  and  its  vast  concerns 
were  lying  at  his  feet,  I  can  fully  understand. 
For  then  I  see  the  hand  of  God  shaping  every 
thing  to  his  own  ends,  and  in  an  event  thus 
casual,  thus  easy,  thus  unimportant,  telling 
forth  his  mighty  design  of  salvation  to  the 
world,  and  working  it  up  into  the  web  of  his 
noble  prospective  counsels,  Gen.  xxi,  6.  I  sec 
that  nothing  is  great  or  little  before  Him  who 
can  bend  to  his  purposes  whatever  he  willeth, 
and  convert  the  light-hearted  and  thoughtless 
mockery  of  an  aged  woman  into  an  instrument 
of  his  glory,  effectual  as  the  tongue  of  the  seer 
which  he  touched  with  living  coals  from  the 
altar.  Bearing  this  master-key  in  my  hand,  I 
can  interpret  the  scenes  of  domestic  mirth,  of 
domestic  stratagem,  or  of  domestic  wickedness, 
with  which  the  history  of  Moses  abounds. 
The  Seed  of  the  woman,  that  was  to  bruise  the 
serpent's  head,  Gen.  iii,  15,  however  indistinct- 
ly understood,  (and  probably  it  was  understood 
very  indistinctly,)  was  the  one  thing  longed  for 
in  the  families  of  old ;  was  '  the  desire  of  all 
nations,'  as  the  Prophet  Haggai  expressly  calls 
it,  Hag.  ii,  7 ;  and,  provided  they  could  accom- 
plish this  desire,  they  (like  others,  when  urged 
by  an  overpowering  motive)  were  often  reck- 
less of  the  means,  and  rushed  upon  deeds  which 
they  could  not  defend.  Then  did  the  wife  for- 
get her  jealousy,  and  provoke,  instead  of  re- 
senting, the  faithlessness  of  her  husband,  Gen. 
xvi,  2 ;  xxx,  3,  9 ;  then  did  the  mother  forget 
a  parent's  part,  and  teach  her  own  child  treach- 
ery and  deceit,  Gen.  xxv,  23;  xxvii,  13;  then 
did  daughters  turn  the  instincts  of  nature  back- 
ward, and  deliberately  work  their  own  and 
their  father's  shame,  Gen.  xix,  31 ;  then  did 
the  daughter-in-law  veil  her  face,  and  court  the 
incestuous  bed, ,  Gen.  xxxviii,  14;  and  to  be 
childless,  was  to  be  a  by-word,  Gen.  xvi,  5 ; 
xxx,  1 ;  and  to  refuse  to  raise  up  seed  to  a 
brother,  was  to  be  spit  upon,  Gen.  xxxviii,  26 ; 
Deut.  xxv,  9;  and  the  prospect  of  the  promise, 
like  the  fulfilment  of  it,  did  not  send  peace 
into  families,  but  a  sword ;  and  three  were  set 
against  two,  and  two  against  three,  Gen.  xxvii, 
41 ;  and  the  elder,  who  would  be  promoted  unto 
honour,  was  set  against  the  younger,  whom 
God  would  promote,  Gen.  iv,  5 ;  xxvii,  41 ;  and 
national  differences  were  engendered  by  it,  as 
individuals  grew  into  nations,  Gen.  xix,  37 ; 
xxvi,  35 ;  and  even  the  foulest  of  idolatries  may 
be  traced,  perhaps,  to  this  hallowed  source ;  for 
the  corruption  of  the  best  is  the  worst  corrup- 
tion of  all,  Num.  xxv,  1,  2,  3.  It  is  upon  this 
principle  of  interpretation,  and  I  know  not 
upon  what  other  so  well,  that  we  may  put  to 
silence  the  ignorance  of  foolish  men,  who  have 
made  those  parts  of  the  Mosaic  history  a  stum- 
bling-block to  many,  which,  if  rightly  under- 
stood, are  the  very  testimony  of  the  covenant ; 
and  a  principle  which  is  thus  extensive  in  its 
application  and  successful  in  its  results,  which 


explains  so  much  that  is  difficult,  and  answers 
so  much  that  is  objected  against,  has,  from  this 
circumstance  alone,  strong  presumption  in  its 
favour,  strong  claims  upon  our  sober  regard." 

BARSABAS.  Joseph  Barsabas,  surnamed 
Justus,  was  one  of  the  first  disciples  of  Jesus 
Christ,  and  probably  one  of  the  seventy.  When 
St.  Peter  proposed  to  the  disciples  to  fill  up  the 
place  of  Judas  the  traitor,  by  choosing  another 
Apostle,  Acts  i,  21,  Barsabas  was  nominated 
along  with  Matthias ;  but  the  lot  fell  on  Mat- 
thias, who  was  therefore  numbered  with  the 
eleven  Apostles.  We  know  nothing  farther  of 
the  life  of  this  Barsabas. 

2.  Barsabas  was  also  the  surname  of  Judas, 
one  of  the  principal  disciples  mentioned,  Acts 
xv,  22,  &c.  Barsabas  and  some  others  were 
sent  by  the  Apostles,  with  Paul  and  Barnabas, 
to  Antioch.  and  carried  a  letter  with  them  from 
the  Apostles,  signifying  what  the  council  at 
Jerusalem  had  decreed.  After  the  reading  of 
the  letter  to  the  brethren,  which  was  received 
with  joy,  Barsabas  and  Silas  continued  here 
some  time  longer,  instructing  and  confirming 
the  brethren ;  after  which  Silas  and  Barsabas 
returned  to  Jerusalem.  This  is  all  we  know 
of  Barsabas  Judas. 

BARTHOLOMEW,  one  of  the  twelve  Apos- 
tles, Matt. x,  3,  is  supposed  to  be  the  same  per- 
son who  is  called  Nathanael,  one  of  the  first 
of  Christ's  disciples.  This  opinion  is  founded 
on  the  circumstance,  that  as  the  evangelist 
John  never  mentions  Bartholomew  in  the  num- 
ber of  the  Apostles,  so  the  other  evangelists 
never  mention  Nathanael.  And  as  in  John 
i,  45,  Philip  and  Nathanael  are  mentioned  to- 
gether as  coining  to  Jesus,  so  in  the  other  evan- 
gelists Philip  and  Bartholomew  are  constantly 
associated  together.  The  supposition  also  ac- 
quires additional  probability  from  considering, 
that  Nathanael  is  particularly  mentioned  among 
the  Apostles  to  whom  Christ  appeared  at  the 
sea  of  Tiberias,  after  his  resurrection;  Simon 
Peter,  Thomas,  and  Nathanael,  of  Cana  in 
Galilee;  the  sons  of  Zebedee,  namely,  James 
and  John  ;  with  two  other  of  his  disciples,  pro- 
bably Andrew  and  Philip,  John  xxi,  2.  It  is 
an  early  tradition,  that  Bartholomew  propa- 
gated the  faith  as  far  as  India,  and  also  in  the 
more  northern  and  western  parts  of  Asia,  and 
that  he  finally  suffered  martyrdom.  But  all  the 
particulars  respecting  the  life  and  labours  of  the 
Apostles,  not  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament, 
are  exceedingly  uncertain. 

BARUCH,  the  son  of  Neriah,  and  grandson 
of  Maaseiah,  was  of  illustrious  birth,  and  of 
the  tribe  of  Judah.  He  had  a  brother  of  the 
name  of  Seraiah,  who  occupied  an  important 
station  in  the  court  of  King  Zedekiah ;  but  he 
himself  adhered  to  the  person  of  the  Prophet 
Jeremiah,  and  was  hismost  steady  friend,  though 
his  attachment  to  him  drew  on  himself  several 
persecutions  and  much  ill  treatment.  He  ap- 
pears to  have  acted  as  his  secretary  during  a 
great  part  of  his  life,  and  never  left  him  till 
they  were  parted  by  death.  In  the  reign  of 
Jehoiakim,  king  of  Judah,  A.  M.  3398,  Jere- 
miah having  been  thrown  into  prison,  the  Lord 
commanded  him  to  commit  to  writing  all  the 


BAR 


137 


BAS 


prophecies  that  he  had  delivered  until  that  time. 
Ho  accordingly  sent  for  Baruch,  and  dictated 
them  to  him  by  word  of  mouth.  Some  time 
afterward  he  instructed  the  latter  to  go  and 
read  them  to  the  people,  who  were  then  as- 
sembled in  the  temple  ;  on  which  Michaiah, 
who  happened  to  be  present,  and  heard  them, 
instantly  gave  notice  of  them  to  the  king's 
counsellors.  The  latter  immediately  sent  for 
Baruch,  and  commanded  him  to  repeat  to  them 
what  he  had  been  reading  to  the  people  in  the 
temple  ;  which  he  accordingly  did,  to  their  great 
astonishment :  and,  finding  that  they  contained 
some  very  unwelcome  tidings  respecting  the 
fate  of  the  kingdom,  they  inquired  how  he  came 
into  possession  of  them  ;  intimating  that  their 
duty  to  the  king  required  that  they  should  make 
him  acquainted  therewith.  Baruch  was  at  the 
same  time  advised  to  consult  his  own  safety, 
and  to  let  no  man  know  where  he  was  to  be 
found ;  after  which  they  took  from  him  the 
roll  of  his  prophecies,  and  deposited  it  in  the 
chamber  of  Elishama,  the  scribe.  They  next 
waited  on  the  king,  and  told  him  what  had 
passed.  The  latter  sent  Jehudi  to  fetch  the 
book ;  which  being  brought,  Jehoiakim  com- 
manded it  to  be  read  in  his  presence,  and  in 
the  presence  of  his  nobles  who  surrounded 
him.  But  Jehudi  had  not  proceeded  far  before 
the  king  took  the  book,  cut  it  with  his  secre- 
tary's penknife,  and  threw  it  into  the  fire, 
where  it  was  consumed  before  their  faces.  He 
at  the  same  time  gave  orders  to  have  both 
Baruch  and  Jeremiah  seized;  but  the  hand  of 
Providence  concealed  them  from  his  fury. 

Jeremiah  was  instructed  a  second  time  to 
commit  his  prophecies  to  writing ;  and  Baruch 
wrote  them  as  before,  with  the  addition  of 
several  others  which  were  not  contained  in 
the  former  book.  In  the  fourth  year  of  the 
reign  of  Zedekiah,  Baruch  went  to  Babylon, 
carrying  with  him  a  long  letter  from  Jeremiah, 
in  which  the  Prophet  foretold  the  judgments 
that  should  come  upon  Babylon,  and  promised 
the  Jews,  who  were  then  captives  in  that  coun- 
try, that  they  should  again  be  restored  to  their 
own  land.  The  latter  were  exceedingly  affect- 
ed at  hearing  Jeremiah's  letter  read  to  them, 
and  returned  an  answer  to  their  brethren  at 
Jerusalem.  After  his  return  to  Jerusalem,  Ba- 
ruch continued  his  constant  attendance  on 
Jeremiah ;  and  when  Jerusalem  was  besieged 
by  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  Jeremiah  thrown  into 
prison,  Baruch  also  was  confined  with  him  : 
but  when  the  city  had  surrendered,  Nebuzarad- 
dan  showed  him  much  kindness,  granted  him 
his  liberty,  and  permitted  him  to  go  with  Jere- 
miah wherever  he  chose. 

The  remnant  of  the  people  who  had  been  left 
in  Judea  under  the  care  of  Gedaliah,  having 
adopted  the  resolution  of  going  into  Egypt, 
and  finding  that  Jeremiah  opposed  their  taking 
that  journey,  threw  the  blame  upon  Baruch ; 
insinuating  that  the  latter  had  influenced  the 
Prophet  to  declare  against  it.  They  were, 
however,  both  of  them  at  last  compelled  to  fol- 
low the  people  into  Egypt,  where  Jeremiah 
soon  afterward  died ;  on  which  Baruch  retired 
to  Babylon,  where  the  rabbins  say  he  also  died 


in  the  twelfth  year  of  the  captivity,  Jer.xxxvi; 
xliii.  The  book  of  Baruch  is  justly  placed 
among  the  apocryphal  writings.  Grotius  thinks 
it  a  fiction  written  by  some  Hellenistic  Jew ; 
and  St.  Jerome  gives  as  the  reason  why  he  did 
not  write  a  commentary  upon  it,  that  the  Jews 
themselves  did  not  deem  it  canonical. 

BASHAN,  or  BASAN,  one  of  the  most  fer- 
tile cantons  of  Canaan,  which  was  bounded  on 
the  west  by  the  river  Jordan,  on  the  east  by  the 
mountains  of  Gilead,  on  the  south  by  the  brook 
of  Jabbok,  and  on  the  north  by  the  land  of 
Geshur.  The  whole  kingdom  took  its  name 
from  the  hill  of  Bashan,  which  is  situated  in 
the  middle  of  it,  and  by  the  Greeks  is  called 
Batanaea.  It  had  no  less  than  sixty  walled 
towns  in  it,  beside  villages.  It  afforded  an 
excellent  breed  of  cattle,  and  stately  oaks,  and 
was,  in  short,  a  plentiful  and  populous  country. 
Og,  king  of  the  Amorites,  possessed  this  coun- 
try when  Moses  made  the  conquest  thereof. 
In  the  division  of  the  Holy  Land,  it  was  as- 
signed to  the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh.  Of  the 
present  state  of  this  portion  of  the  ancient  pos- 
sessions of  the  Israelites,  Mr.  Buckingham,  in 
his  Travels,  gives  the  following  account :  "  We 
ascended  the  steep  on  the  north  side  of  tho 
Zerkah,  or  Jabbok  ;  and,  on  reaching  the  sum- 
mit, came  again  on  a  beautiful  plain,  of  an 
elevated  level,  and  still  covered  with  a  very 
rich  soil.  We  had  now  quitted  the  land  of 
Sihon,  king  of  the  Amorites,  and  entered  into 
that  of  Og,  the  king  of  Bashan,  both  of  them 
well  known  to  all  the  readers  of  the  early  Scrip- 
tures. We  had  quitted  too,  the  districts  appor- 
tioned to  the  tribes  of  Reuben  and  of  Gad,  and 
entered  that  part  which  was  allotted  to  the 
half  tribe  of  Manasseh,  beyond  Jordan  east- 
ward, leaving  the  land  of  the  children  of  Am. 
mon  on  our  right,  or  to  the  east  of  the  Jabbok, 
which,  according  to  the  authority  before  quoted, 
divided  Amnion,  or  Philadelphia,  from  Gerasa. 
The  mountains  here  are  called  the  land  of 
Gilead  in  the  Scriptures,  and  in  Josephus ;  and, 
according  to  the  Roman  division,  this  was  the 
country  of  the  Decapolis,  so  often  spoken  of 
in  the  New  Testament,  or  the  province  of 
Gaulonitis,  from  the  city  of  Gaulon,  its  early 
capital.  We  continued  our  way  over  this  ele- 
vated tract,  continuing  to  behold,  with  surprise 
and  admiration,  a  beautiful  country  on  all  sides 
of  us :  its  plains  covered  with  a  fertile  soil,  its 
hills  clothed  with  forests ;  at  every  new  turn 
presenting  the  most  magnificent  landscapes 
that  could  be  imagined.  Among  the  trees,  the 
oak  was  frequently  seen  ;  and  we  know  that 
this  territory  produced  them  of  old.  In  enu- 
merating the  sources  from  which  the  supplies 
of  Tyre  were  drawn  in  the  time  of  her  great 
wealth  and  naval  splendour,  the  Prophet  says. 
'  Of  the  oaks  of  Bashan  have  they  made  thine 
oars,'  Ezek.  xxvii,  6.  Some  learned  commenta- 
tors indeed,  believing  that  no  oaks  grew  in 
these  supposed  desert  regions,  have  translated 
the  word  by  '  alders,'  to  prevent  the  appearance 
of  inaccuracy  in  the  inspired  writer.  The  ex- 
pression of 'the  fat  bulls  of  Bashan,'  which 
occurs  more  than  once  in  the  Scriptures, 
seemed  to  us  equally  inconsistent,  as  applied 


BAT 


138 


BAX 


to  the  beasts  of  a  country  generally  thought  to 
be  a  desert,  in  common  with  the  whole  tract 
which  is  laid  down  in  our  modern  maps  as 
such  between  the  Jordan  and  the  Euphrates  ; 
but  we  could  now  fully  comprehend,  not  only 
that  the  bulls  of  this  luxuriant  country  might 
be  proverbially  fat,  but  that  its  possessors,  too, 
might  be  a  race  renowned  for  strength  and 
comeliness  of  person.  The  general  face  of  this 
region  improved  as  we  advanced  farther  in  it ; 
and  every  new  direction  of  our  path  opened 
upon  us  views  which  surprised  and  charmed 
us  by  their  grandeur  and  their  beauty.  Lofty 
mountains  gave  an  outline  of  the  most  magni- 
ficent character  ;  flowing  beds  of  secondary 
hills  softened  the  romantic  wildness  of  the  pic- 
ture; gentle  slopes,  clothed  with  wood,  gave  a 
rich  variety  of  tints,  hardly  to  be  imitated  by 
the  pencil ;  deep  valleys,  filled  with  murmur- 
ing streams  and  verdant  meadows,  offered  all 
the  luxuriance  of  cultivation ;  and  herds  and 
flocks  gave  life  and  animation  to  scenes  as 
grand,  as  beautiful,  and  as  highly  picturesque 
as  the  genius  or  taste  of  a  Claude  could  either 
invent  or  desire." 

BASILIDEANS,  the  followers  of  Basilides 
of  Alexandria,  a  gnostic  leader  of  the  early 
part  of  the  second  century.     See  Gnostics. 

BASTARD,  one  born  out  of  wedlock.  A 
bastard  among  the  Greeks  was  despised,  and 
exposed  to  public  scorn,  on  account  of  his 
spurious  origin.  In  Persia  the  son  of  a  concu- 
bine is  never  placed  on  a  footing  with  the 
legitimate  offspring ;  any  attempt  made  by  pa- 
rental fondness  to  do  so  would  be  resented  by 
the  relations  of  the  legitimate  wife,  and  out- 
rage the  feelings  of  a  whole  tribe.  The  Jew- 
ish father  bestowed  as  little  attention  on  the 
education  of  his  natural  children  as  the  Greek  : 
he  seems  to  have  resigned  them,  in  a  great 
measure,  to  their  own  inclinations  ;  he  neither 
checked  their  passions,  nor  corrected  their 
faults,  nor  stored  their  minds  with  useful  know- 
ledge. This  is  evidently  implied  in  these  words 
of  the  Apostle  :  "  If  ye  endure  chastening,  God 
dealeth  with  you  as  with  sons ;  for  what  son 
is  he  whom  the  father  chasteneth  not  ?  But  if 
ye  be  without  chastisement,  whereof  all  are 
partakers,  then  are  ye  bastards  and  not  sons," 
Heb.  xii,  7,  8.  To  restrain  the  licentious  de- 
sires of  the  heart,  Jehovah  by  an  express  law 
fixed  a  stigma  upon  the  bastard,  which  was  not 
to  be  removed  till  the  tenth  generation  ;  and 
to  show  that  the  precept  was  on  no  account  to 
be  violated,  or  suffered  to  fall  into  disuse,  it  is 
emphatically  repeated,  "  A  bastard  shall  not 
enter  into  the  congregation  of  the  Lord;  even 
to  his  tenth  generation  shall  he  not  enter  into 
the  congregation  of  the  Lord,"  Deut.  xxiii,  2. 
BASTINADO,  the  punishment  of  beating 
with  sticks.  It  is  also  called  tympanum,  [a 
drum,]  because  the  patient  was  beaten  like  a 
drum.  Upwards  of  a  hundred  blows  were  often 
inflicted,  and  sometimes  the  beating  was  unto 
death.  St.  Paul,  Heb.  xi,  35,  says  that  some 
of  the  saints  were  tortured,  rv/nravlfa,  suffered 
the  tympanum,  that  is,  were  stretched  on  an 
instrument  of  torture,  and  beaten  to  death. 
BAT,  rpuy,  Lev.  xi,  19 ;  Deut.  xiv,  18 ;  Isaiah 


ii,  20 ;  Baruch  vi,  22.  The  Jewish  legislator 
having  enumerated  the  animals  legally  un  clean 
as  well  beasts  as  birds,  closes  his  catalogue 
with  a  creature  whose  equivocal  properties 
seem  to  exclude  it  from  both  those  classes :  it 
is  too  much  a  bird  to  be  properly  a  mouse,  and 
too  much  a  mouse  to  be  properly  a  bird.  The 
bat  is  therefore  well  described  in  Deut.  xiv, 
18,  19,  as  the  passage  should  be  read,  "  More- 
over the  othelaph,  and  every  creeping  thing  that 
flielh,  is  unclean  to  you:  they  shall  not  be 
eaten."  This  character  is  very  descriptive, 
and  places  this  creature  at  the  head  of  a  class 
of  which  he  is  a  clear  and  well-known  instance. 
It  has  feet  or  claws  growing  out  of  its  pinions, 
and  contradicts  the  general  order  of  nature,  by 
creeping  with  the  instruments  of  its  flight. 
The  Hebrew  name  of  the  bat  is  from  bey  dark- 
ness, and  D)>  to  fly,  as  if  it  described  "the  flier 
in  darkness."  So  the  Greeks  called  the  crea- 
ture vvKTeph,  from  vi£,  night;  and  the  Latins, 
vespertilio,  from  vesper,  "evening."  It  is 
prophesied,  Isaiah  ii,  20,  "In  that  day  shall 
they  cast  away  their  idols  to  the  moles  and  to 
the  bats ;"  that  is,  they  shall  carry  them  into 
the  dark  caverns,  old  ruins,  or  desolate  places, 
to  which  they  shall  fly  for  refuge,  and  so  shall 
give  them  up,  and  relinquish  them  to  the  filthy 
animals  that  frequent  such  places,  and  have 
taken  possession  of  them  as  their  proper  habi- 
tation. 

BATH,  a  measure  of  capacity  for  things 
liquid,  being  the  same  with  the  ephah,  Ezek. 
xiv,  11,  and  containing  ten  homers,  or  seven 
gallons  and  four  pints. 

BATH-KOL,  Vip-pa,  daughter  of  the  voice. 
By  this  name  the  Jewish  writers  distinguish 
what  they  called  a  revelation  from  God,  after 
verbal  prophecy  had  ceased  in  Israel ;  that  is, 
after  the  prophets  Haggai,  Zechariah,  and 
Malachi.  The  generality  of  their  traditions 
and  customs  are  founded  on  this  Bath-Kol. 
They  pretend  that  God  revealed  them  to  their 
elders,  not  by  prophecy,  but  by  the  daughter  of 
the  voice.  The  Bath-Kol,  as  Dr.  Prideaux 
shows,  was  a  fantastical  way  of  divination, 
invented  by  the  Jews,  like  the  Sortes  Yirgilia- 
na  [divination  by  the  works  of  Virgil]  among 
the  Heathen.  For,  as  with  them,  the  words 
first  opened  upon  in  the  works  of  that  poet, 
was  the  oracle  whereby  they  prognosticated 
those  future  events  which  they  desired  to  be 
informed  of;  so  with  the  Jews  when  they  ap- 
pealed to  Bath-Kol,  the  next  words  which  they 
should  hear  drop  from  any  one's  mouth  were 
taken  as  the  desired  oracle.  With  some  it  is 
probable  that  Bath-Kol,  the  daughter  of  the 
voice,  was  only  an  elegant  personification  of 
tradition.  Others,  however,  more  bold,  said 
that  it  was  a  voice  from  heaven,  sometimes 
attended  by  a  clap  of  thunder. 

BATTLE.     See  Armies. 

BAXTERIANISM,  a  modification  of  the 
Calvin istic  doctrine  of  election  advocated  by 
the  celebrated  Baxter  in  his  treatise  of  "  Uni- 
versal Redemption,"  and  in  his  "  Methodus 
TheologitB."  The  real  author  of  the  scheme, 
at  least  in  a  systematized  form,  was  Camero, 
who  taught  divinity  at  Saumur,  and  it  was  un., 


BAX 


139 


BAX 


folded  and  defended  by  his  disciple  Amyraldus, 
whom  Curcellseus  refuted.  Baxter  says,  in  his 
preface  to  his  "  Saint's  Rest,"  "  The  middle  way 
which  Camero,  Crocius,  Martinius,  Amyral- 
dus, Davenant,  with  all  the  divines  of  Britain 
and  Bremen  in  the  synod  of  Dort,  go,  I  think 
is  nearest  the  truth  of  any  that  I  know  who 
have  written  on  these  points."  Baxter  first 
differs  from  the  majority  of  Calvinists,  though 
not  from  all,  in  his  statement  of  the  doctrine 
of  satisfaction : — 

"Christ's  sufferings  were  not  a,  fulfilling  of 
the  law's  threatening;  (though  he  bore  its  curse 
materially;)  but  a  satisfaction  for  our  not  ful- 
filling the  precept,  and  to  prevent  God's  fulfill- 
ing the  threatening  on  us.  Christ  paid  not, 
therefore,  the  idem,  but  the  tantundem,  or 
cequivalens ;  not  the  very  debt  which  we  owed 
and  the  law  required,  but  the  value:  (else  it 
were  not  strictly  satisfaction,  which  is  redditio 
aquivalentis :  [the  rendering  of  an  equivalent :] 
and  (it  being  improperly  called  the  paying  of 
a  debt,  but  properly  a  suffering  for  the  guilty) 
the  idem  is  nothing  but  supplicium  delinquentis. 
[The  punishment  of  the  guilty  individual.] 
In  criminals,  dum  alius  solvet  simul  aliud  sol- 
Titur.  [When  another  suffers,  it  is  another 
thing  also  that  is  suffered.]  The  law  knoweth 
no  vicarius  pmna;  [substitute  in  punishment;] 
though  the  law  maker  may  admit  it,  as  he  is 
above  law ;  else  there  were  no  place  for  par- 
don, if  the  proper  debt  be  paid  and  the  laiv  not 
relaxed,  but  fulfilled.  Christ  did  neither  obey 
nor  suffer  in  any  man's  stead,  by  a  strict,  pro- 
per representation  of  his  person  in  point  of  law  ; 
so  as  that  the  laic  should  take  it,  as  done  or 
suffered  by  the  party  himself.  But  only  as  a 
third  person,  as  a  mediator,  he  voluntarily  bore 
what  else  the  sinner  should  have  borne.  To 
assert  the  contrary  (especially  as  to  particular 
persons  considered  in  actual  sin)  is  to  over- 
throw all  Scripture  theology,  and  to  introduce 
all  Antinomianism ;  to  overthrow  all  possi- 
bility of  pardon,  and  assert  justification  before 
we  sinned  or  were  born,  and  to  make  ourselves 
to  have  satisfied  God.  Therefore,  we  must 
not  say  that  Christ  died  nostro  loco,  [in  our 
stead,]  so  as  to  personate  us,  or  represent  our 
persons  in  law  sense;  but  only  to  bear  what 
else  we  must  have  borne." 

This  system  explicitly  asserts,  that  Christ 
made  a  satisfaction  by  his  death  equally  for 
the  sins  of  every  man  ;  and  thus  Baxter  essen- 
tially differs  both  from  the  higher  Calvinists, 
and,  also,  from  the  Sublapsarians,  who,  though 
they  may  allow  that  the  reprobate  derive  some 
benefits  from  Christ's  death,  so  that  there  is  a 
vague  sense  in  which  he  may  be  said  to  have 
died  for  all  men,  yet  they,  of  course,  deny  to 
such  the  benefit  of  Christ's  satisfaction  or 
atonement  which  Baxter  contends  for : — 

"Neither  the  law,  whose  curse  Christ  bore, 
nor  God,  as  the  legislator  to  be  satisfied,  did 
distinguish  between  men  as  elect  and  reprobate, 
or  as  believers  and  unbelievers,  de  presenti  vel 
de  futuro;  [with  regard  to  the  present  or  the 
future ;]  and  to  impose  upon  Christ,  or  require 
from  him  satisfaction  for  the  sins  of  one  sort 
more   than   of  another,   but   for  mankind  in 


general.  God  the  Father,  and  Christ  the  Me 
diator,  now  dealeth  with  no  man  upon  the 
mere  rigorous  terms  of  the  first  law  ;  (obey  per- 
fectly and  live,  else  thou  shalt  die;)  but  giveth 
to  all  much  mercy,  which,  according  to  the 
tenor  of  that  violated  law,  they  could  not  re- 
ceive, and  calleth  them  to  repentance,  in  order 
to  their  receiving  farther  mercy  offered  them. 
And  accordingly  he  will  not  judge  any  at  last 
according  to  the  mere  law  of  works,  but  as 
they  have  obeyed  or  not  obeyed  his  conditions 
or  terms  of  grace.  It  was  not  the  sins  of  the 
elect  only,  but  of  all  mankind  fallen,  which  lay 
upon  Christ  satisfying.  And  to  assert  the 
contrary,  injuriously  diminisheth  the  honour 
of  his  sufferings ;  and  hath  other  desperate  ill 
consequences." 

The  benefits  derived  to  all  men  equally,  from 
the  satisfaction  of  Christ,  he  thus  states : — 

"All  mankind,  immediately  upon  Christ's 
satisfaction,  are  redeemed  and  delivered  from 
that  legal  necessity  of  perishing  which  they 
were  under,  (not  by  remitting  sin  or  punish- 
ment directly  to  them,  but  by  giving  up  God's 
juspuniendi  [right  of  punishing]  into  the  hands 
of  the  Redeemer;  nor  by  giving  any  right 
directly  to  them,  but  per  meram  resultantiam 
[by  mere  consequence]  this  happy  change  is 
made  for  them  in  their  relation,  upon  the  said 
remitting  of  God's  right  and  advantage  of  jus- 
tice against  them,)  and  they  are  given  up  to 
the  Redeemer  as  their  owner  and  ruler,  to  be 
dealt  with  upon  terms  of  mercy  which  have  a 
tendency  to  their  recovery.  God  the  Father 
and  Christ  the  Mediator  hath  freely,  without 
any  prerequisite  condition  on  man's  part,  en- 
acted a  law  of  grace  of  universal  extent,  in 
regard  of  its  tenor,  by  which  he  giveth,  as  a 
deed  or  gift,  Christ  himself,  with  all  his  follow- 
ing benefits  which  he  bestoweth  ;  (as  benefac- 
tor and  legislator ;)  and  this  to  all  alike,  with- 
out excluding  any  ;  upon  condition  they  believe 
and  accept  the  offer.  By  this  law,  testament, 
or  covenant,  all  men  ere  conditionally  pardoned, 
justified,  and  reconciled  to  God  already,  and  no 
man  absolutely  ;  nor  doth  it  make  a  difference, 
nor  take  notice  oi  any,  till  men's  performance 
or  non-performance  of  the  condition  makes  a 
difference.  In  the  new  law  Christ  hath  truly 
given  himself  with  a  conditional  pardon,  justifi- 
cation, and  conditional  right  to  salvation,  to  all 
men  in  the  world,  without  exception." 

But  the  peculiarity  of  Baxter's  scheme  will 
be  seen  from  the  following  farther  extracts : — 

"Though  Christ  died  equally  for  all  men,  in 
the  aforesaid  law  sense,  as  he  satisfied  the 
offended  legislator,  and  as  giving  himself  to  all 
alike  in  the  conditional  covenant;  yet  he  never 
properly  intended  or  purposed  the  actual  justify- 
ing and  saving  of  all,  nor  of  any  but  those  that 
come  to  be  justified  and  saved ;  he  did  not, 
therefore,  die  for  all,  nor  for  any  that  perish, 
with  a  decree  or  resolution  to  save  them, 
much  less  did  he  die  for  all  alike,  as  to  this  in- 
tent. Christ  hath  given  faith  to  none  by  his 
law  or  testament,  though  he  hath  revealed, 
that  to  some  he  will,  as  benefactor  and  Domin- 
us  Absolutus,  [absolute  Lord,]  give  that  grace 
which   shall  infallibly  produce   it;   and   Go<$ 


BAX 


140 


BAX 


hath  given  some  to  Christ  that  he  might  pre- 
vail with  them  accordingly;  yet  this  is  no 
giving  it  to  the  person,  nor  hath  he  in  himself 
ever  the  more  title  to  it,  nor  can  any  lay  claim 
to  it  as  their  due.  It  belongeth  not  to  Christ 
as  satisfier,  nor  yet  as  legislator,  to  make  wick- 
ed  refusers  to  become  willing,  and  receive  him 
and  the  benefits  which  he  offers ;  therefore  he 
may  do  all  for  them  that  is  fore-expressed, 
though  he  cure  not  their  unbelief.  Faith  is  a 
fruit  of  the  death  of  Christ,  (and  so  is  all  the 
good  which  we  do  enjoy,)  but  not  directly,  as 
it  is  satisfaction  to  justice;  but  only  remotely, 
as  it  proceedeth  from  that^'us  dominii  [right  of 
dominion]  which  Christ  has  received  to  send 
the  Spirit  in  what  measure  and  to  whom  he 
will,  and  to  succeed  it  accordingly ;  and  as  it 
is  necessary  to  the  attainment  of  the  farther 
ends  of  his  death  in  the  certain  gathering  and 
saving  of  the  elect." 

Thus  the  whole  theory  amounts  to  this,  that, 
although  a  conditional  salvation  has  been  pur- 
chased by  Christ  for  all  men,  and  is  offered  to 
them,  and  all  legal  difficulties  are  removed  out 
of  the  way  of  their  pardon  as  sinners  by  the 
atonement,  yet  Christ  hath  not  purchased  for 
any  man  the  gift  of  faith,  or  the  power  of  per- 
forming the  condition  of  salvation  required ;  but 
gives  this  to  some,  and  does  not  give  it  to  others, 
by  virtue  of  that  absolute  dominion  over  men 
which  he  has  purchased  for  himself,  so  that,  as 
the  Calvinists  refer  the  decree  of  election  to  the 
sovereignty  of  the  Father,  Baxter  refers  it  to  the 
sovereignty  of  the  Son;  one  makes  the  decree 
of  reprobation  to  issue  from  the   Creator  and 
Judge,  the  other,  from  the  Redeemer  himself. 
If,  however,  any  one  expects  to  find  some- 
thing in  the  form  of  system  in  Baxter's  opinions 
on  the  five  disputed  points,  he  will  be  much  dis- 
appointed.    The  parties  to  whom  he  refers  as 
the   authors  of  this  supposed  "middle  way," 
differ  as  much  among  themselves  as  Baxter  oc- 
casionally does  from  himself.  Bishop  Davenant 
and  Dr.  S.  Ward  differed  from  Amyraut,  Mar- 
tinius,  and  others  of  that  school,  on  the  topic 
of  baptismal  regeneration  ;  and,  as  the  subjects 
of  baptism,  according  to  the  sentiments  of  the 
two   former,  are  invested  with  invisible  grace, 
and  are  regenerated  in  virtue  of  the  ordinance 
when  canonically  performed,  such  divines  far 
more  easily  disposed  of  their  baptized  converts 
in  the  ranks  of  strict  predestination,  than  the 
others  could  who  did  not  hold  those  sentiments. 
But  they  exhibited  much  ingenuity  in  not  suf- 
fering it  to   "  intrench  upon  the  question   of 
perseverance."     Their  friend   Bishop   Bedell, 
however,  maintained,  that  "  reprobates  coming 
to  years  of  discretion,  after  baptism,  shall  be 
condemned  for  original  sin ;  for  their  absolu- 
tion and  washing  in  baptism  was  but  condi- 
tional and  expectative  ;  which  doth  truly  inte- 
rest them  in  all  the  promises  of  God,  but  under 
the  condition  of  repenting,  believing  and  obey- 
ing, which  they  never  perform,  and  therefore 
never  attain  the  promise."     Bishop  Overal  has 
also  been  claimed  as  a  patron  of  this  diversifi- 
ed "  middle  system ;"  but  it  will  be  evident  to 
every  one  who  peruses  his  productions,  that  his 
chief  endeavour  was  to  display  the  doctrines  of 


the  English  church  as  identical  with  those  of 
St.  Augustine,  yet  basing  them  upon  the  ante- 
cedent will  of  God  and  conditional  decrees. 
After  all  the  refined  distinctions  which  Baxter 
employed  to  render  the  theory  of  common  and 
special  grace  plausible  and  popular,  the  real 
meaning  of  the  inventors  was  frequently  elicit- 
ed when  such  a  question  as  this  was  asked, 
"  Have  any  men  in  the  world  grace  sufficient 
to  repent  and  believe  savingly  who  do  not  ?" 
After  asserting  that  he  knows  nothing  about 
the  matter,  the  reply  of  Baxter  is,  "If  we  may 
conjecture  upon  probabilities,  it  seemeth  most 
likely  that  there  is  such  a  sufficient  grace,  or 
power,  to  repent  and  believe  savingly,  in  some 
that  use  it  not,  but  perish."  "  This,"  says  one 
of  Baxter's  apologists,  "  seems  to  me  very  in- 
explicable !"  and  in  the  same  light  it  will  be 
viewed  by  all  who  recollect  that  this  "  sufficient 
grace  or  power"  is  that  "portion  of  special 
grace  which  never  fails  to  accomplish  its  de- 
sign,— the  salvation  of  the  individual  on  whom 
it  is  bestowed  1"  Baxter's  celebrated  "Apho- 
risms of  Justification,"  published  in  1649, 
afforded  employment  to  himself  and  his  theo- 
logical critics  till  near  the  close  of  his  life  ;  and 
in  the  many  modifications,  concessions,  and 
alterations  which  were  extorted  from  him  by 
men  of  different  religious  tenets,  he  sometimes 
incautiously  proved  himself  to  be  more  Calvin- 
istic  than  Calvin,  and  at  others  more  Arminian 
than  Arminius.  The  following  observations, 
from  "  Orme's  Life  of  Baxter,"  are  on  the  whole 
just  and  instructive  : — 

"  Thus  did  Baxter,  at  a  very  early  period  of 
his  life,  launch  into  the  ocean  of  controversy, 
on  some  of  the  most  interesting  subjects  that 
can  engage  the  human  mind.  The  manner  in 
which  he  began  to  treat  them  was  little  favour- 
able to  arriving  at  correct  and  satisfactory  con- 
clusions. Possessed  of  a  mind  uncommonly 
penetrating,  he  yet  seems  not  to  have  had  the 
faculty  of  compressing  within  narrow  limits 
his  own  views,  or  the  accounts  he  was  dispos- 
ed to  give  of  the  views  of  others.  All  this  arose, 
not  from  any  indisposition  to  be  explicit,  but 
from  the  peculiar  character  of  his  mind.  He 
is  perpetually  distinguishing  things  into  physi- 
cal and  moral,  real  and  nominal,  material  and 
formal.  However  important  these  distinctions 
are,  they  often  render  his  writings  tiresome  to 
the  reader,  and  his  reasonings  more  frequently 
perplexing  than  satisfactory.  Baxter  is  gene- 
rally  understood  to  have  pursued  a  middle  course 
between  Calvinism  and  Arminianism.  That 
he  tried  to  hold  and  adjust  the  balance  between 
the  two  parties,  and  that  he  was  most  anxious 
to  reconcile  them,  are  very  certain.  But  it 
seems  scarcely  less  evident,  that  he  was  much 
more  a  Calvinist  than  he  was  an  Arminian. 
While  this  seems  to  me  very  apparent,  it  must 
be  acknowledged,  that  if  certain  views  which 
have  often  been  given  of  Calvinism  are  neces- 
sary to  constitute  a  Calvinist,  Richard  Baxter 
was  no  believer  in  that  creed. 

"  While  satisfied  that  among  Baxter's  senti- 
ments,  no  important  or  vital  error  will  be  found, 
yet  in  the  style  and  method  in  which  he  too 
generally  advocated  or  defended  them,  there  is 


BAX 


141 


BAX 


much  to  censure.  The  wrangling  and  disputa- 
tious manner  in  which  he  presented  many  of 
his  views,  was  calculated  to  gender  an  unsanc- 
tified  state  of  mind  in  persons  who  either  abet- 
ted or  opposed  his  sentiments.  His  scholastic 
and  metaphysical  style  of  arguing  is  unbefit- 
ting the  simplicity  of  the  Gospel,  and  cannot 
fail  to  injure  it  wherever  such  is  employed.  It 
not  only  savours  too  much  of  the  spirit  of  the 
schools,  and  the  philosophy  of  this  world  ;  but 
places  the  truths  of  revelation  on  a  level  with 
the  rudiments  of  human  science.  I  am  not 
sure  whether  certain  effects  which  began  early 
in  the  last  century  to  appear  among  the  Pres- 
byterian part  of  the  Nonconformists,  may  not 
be  traced,  in  some  degree,  to  the  speculative 
and  argumentative  writings  of  Baxter.  His  in- 
fluence over  this  class  of  his  brethren  was  evi- 
dently very  great.  He  contributed  more  than 
any  other  man  to  mitigate  the  harsh  and  forbid- 
ding aspect  which  the  Presbyterians  presented 
during  the  civil  wars  and  the  commonwealth. 
This  was  well,  but  he  did  not  stop  here.  He 
was  inimical  to  all  the  existing  systems  of  doc- 
trine and  discipline  then  contended  for,  or  ever 
before  known  in  the  world;  while  he  did  not 
present  any  precisely  defined  system  as  his  own. 
He  opposed  Calvinism  ;  he  opposed  Arminian- 
ism ;  he  would  not  allow  himself  to  be  consider- 
ed an  Episcopalian,  in  the  ordinary  acceptation 
of  the  word  ;  he  denied  that  he  was  a  Presby- 
terian, and  scorned  to  be  thought  an  Independ- 
ent. He  held  something  in  common  with  them 
all,  and  yet  he  was  somewhat  different  from  all. 
He  contended  for  a  system  more  general,  and 
more  liberal,  than  was  then  approved ;  and,  as 
we  have  stated,  wished  to  place  a  variety  of  the- 
ological truths  on  grounds  belonging  rather  to 
philosophy  or  metaphysics,  than  to  revelation. 

"  On  himself,  this  species  of  latitudinarian- 
ism  produced  little  injurious  effect,  but  I  fear 
it  had  a  baneful  influence  on  others.  The  re- 
jection of  all  human  authority  and  influence  in 
religion,  requires  to  be  balanced  by  a  very  strong 
6ense  of  the  divine  authority,  to  prevent  its  ge- 
nerating a  state  of  mind  more  characterized  by 
pride  of  intellect,  and  independence  of  spirit, 
than  by  the  humility  and  diffidence  which  are 
essential  features  in  the  Christian  character.  It 
is  a  singular  fact,  that  the  Presbyterians,  though 
at  first  more  rigid  in  their  doctrinal  views,  and 
more  exclusive  in  their  spirit  and  system  of 
church  government,  than  the  Independents, 
became  before  the  death  of  Baxter  the  more 
liberal  party.  High  views  began  to  be  ascrib- 
ed by  them  to  their  now  moderate  brethren  ; 
and,  to  avoid  the  charge  of  Antinomianism, 
which  Baxter  was  too  ready  to  prefer  against 
such  as  differed  from  some  of  his  views,  the 
Presbyterians  seem  gradually  to  have  sunk  into 
a  state  of  low,  moderate  orthodoxy,  in  which 
there  was  little  of  the  warmth  or  vitality  of 
evangelical  religion. 

"  In  farther  illustration  of  the  influence  now 
adverted  to,  it  must  be  remarked,  that  the  first 
stage  in  that  process  of  deterioration  which 
took  place  among  the  Presbyterian  Dissenters, 
was  generally  characterized  by  the  term  Bax- 
terianism ;  a  word  to  which  it  is  difficult  to 


attach  a  definite  meaning.  It  denotes  no  sepa- 
rate sect  or  party,  but  rather  a  system  of  opi- 
nions  on  doctrinal  points,  verging  toward 
Arminianism,  and  which  ultimately  passed  to 
Arianism  and  Socinianism.  Even  during  Bax- 
ter's own  life,  while  the  Presbyterians  taxed  the 
Independents  with  Antinomianism,  the  latter 
retorted  the  charge  of  Socinianism,  or  at  least 
of  a  tendency  toward  it,  in  some  of  the  opinions 
maintained  both  by  Baxter  and  others  of  that 
party.  To  whatever  cause  it  is  to  be  attribut- 
ed, it  is  a  melancholy  fact,  that  the  declension 
which  began  even  at  this  early  period  in  the 
Presbyterian  body,  went  on  slowly,  but  surely, 
till,  from  the  most  fervid  orthodoxy,  it  finally 
arrived  at  the  frigid  zone  of  Unitarianism. 

"  I  wish  not  to  be  understood  as  stating  that 
Baxter  either  held  any  opinions  of  this  descrip- 
tion, or  was  conscious  of  a  tendency  in  his 
sentiments  toward  such  a  fearful  consumma- 
tion ;  but,  that  there  was  an  injurious  tendency 
in  his  manner  of  discussing  certain  important 
subjects.  It  was  subtle,  and  full  of  logomachy  ; 
it  tended  to  unsettle,  rather  than  to  fix  and  de- 
termine ;  it  gendered  strife,  rather  than  godly 
edifying.  It  is  not  possible  to  study  such  books 
as  his  '  Methodus,'  and  his  '  Catholic  Theology,' 
without  experiencing  that  we  are  brought  into 
a  different  region  from  Apostolic  Christianity ; 
a  region  of  fierce  debate  and  altercation  about 
words,  and  names,  and  opinions  ;  in  which  all 
that  can  be  said  for  error  is  largely  dwelt  upon, 
as  well  as  what  can  be  said  for  truth.  The  am- 
biguities of  language,  the  diversities  of  sects, 
the  uncertainties  of  human  perception  and  ar- 
gument are  urged,  till  the  force  of  revealed 
truth  is  considerably  weakened,  and  confidence 
in  our  own  judgment  of  its  meaning  greatly  im- 
paired. Erroneous  language  is  maintained  to 
be  capable  of  sound  meaning,  and  the  most 
Scriptural  phrases  to  be  susceptible  of  unscrip- 
tural  interpretation,  till  truth  and  error  almost 
change  places,  and  the  mind  is  bewildered, 
confounded,  and  paralyzed.  Into  this  mode  of 
discussing  such  subjects,  was  this  most  excel- 
lent man  led,  partly  by  the  natural  constitution 
of  his  mind,  which  has  often  been  adverted  to ; 
partly  by  his  ardent  desire  of  putting  an  end 
to  the  divisions  of  the  Christian  world,  and  pro- 
ducing universal  concord  and  harmony.  He 
failed  where  success  was  impossible,  however 
plausible  might  have  been  the  means  which  he 
employed.  He  understood  the  causes  of  differ- 
ence and  contention  better  than  their  remedies  ; 
hence  the  measures  which  he  used  frequently 
aggravated  instead  of  curing  the  disease.  While 
a  portion  of  evil,  however,  probably  resulted 
from  Baxter's  mode  of  conducting  controversy, 
and  no  great  light  was  thrown  by  him  on  some 
of  the  dark  and  difficult  subjects  which  he  so 
keenly  discussed,  I  have  no  doubt  he  contribut- 
ed considerably  to  produce  a  more  moderate 
spirit  toward  each  other,  between  Calvinists  and 
Arminians,  than  had  long  prevailed.  Though 
he  satisfied  neither  party,  he  must  have  con- 
vinced both,  that  great  difficulties  exist  on  the 
subjects  in  debate,  if  pursued  beyond  a  certain 
length ;  that  allowance  ought  to  be  made  by 
each,  for  the  weakness  or  prejudices  of  the 


BEA 


142 


BEA 


other  ;  and  that  genuine  religion  is  compatible 
with  some  diversity  of  opinion  respecting  one 
or  all  of  the  five  points."  A  similar  effect  as 
that  which  Mr.  Orme  ascribes  to  Baxter's  writ- 
ings on  the  English  Presbyterians,  followed 
also,  on  the  continent  among  the  reformed 
churches.  It  was  the  same  middle  system  with 
its  philosophical  subtleties,  which  Camero  and 
Amyraut  taught  abroad,  and  which  produced 
in  them  those  effects  that  have  been  falsely  as- 
cribed,  both  in  England  and  abroad,  to  Armi- 
nianism.     See  Amyraut  and  Cameron. 

BAY-TREE.  rniN.  It  is  mentioned  only  in 
Psalm  xxxvii,  35,  36:  "I  have  seen  the  un- 
godly in  great  power,  and  flourishing  like  a 
green  bay-tree.  Yet  he  passed  away,  and  lo, 
he  was  not.  Yea,  I  sought  him,  but  he  could 
not  be  found."  Aben  Ezra,  Jarchi,  Kimchi, 
Jerom,  and  some  others  say  that  the  original 
may  mean  only  a  native  tree;  a  tree  growing 
in  its  native  soil,  not  having  suffered  by  trans- 
plantation. Such  a  tree  spreads  itself  luxu- 
riantly. The  Septuagint  and  Vulgate  render 
it  cedars;  but  the  high  Dutch  of  Luther's  Bi- 
ble, the  old  Saxon,  the  French,  the  Spanish, 
the  Italian  of  Diodati,  and  the  version  of  Ains. 
worth,  make  it  the  laurel. 

BDELLIUM,  rv?-o,  occurs  Gen.  ii,  12,  and 
Num.  xi,  7.  Interpreters  seem  at  a  loss  to 
know  what  to  do  with  this  word,  and  have  ren- 
dered it  variously.  Many  suppose  it  a  mineral 
production.  The  Septuagint  translates  in  the 
first  place,  urOpd/ca,  a  carbuncle,  and  in  the 
second,  Kpi?a\>ov,  a  crystal.  The  rabbins  are 
followed  by  Reland  in  calling  it  a  crystal ;  but 
some,  instead  of  bedolah,  read  berolah,  chang- 
ing the  *i  into  i,  which  are  not  always  easily 
distinguished,  and  are  often  mistaken  by  trans- 
cribers ;  and  so  render  it  the  beryl,  which,  say 
they,  is  the  prime  kind  of  crystal.  The  bedoleh, 
in  Genesis,  is  undoubtedly  some  precious  stone ; 
and  its  colour,  mentioned  in  Numbers,  where 
the  manna  is  spoken  of  as  of  the  colour  of 
bdellium,  is  explained  by  a  reference  to  Exod. 
xvi,  14,  31,  where  it  is  likened  to  hoar  frost, 
which  being  like  little  fragments  of  ice,  may 
confirm  the  opinion  that  the  bdellium  is  the 
beryl,  perhaps  that  pellucid  kind,  called  by  Dr. 
Hill  the  ellipomocrostyla,  or  beryl  crystal. 

BEAN,  Vis,  occurs  2  Sam.  xvii,  28,  and 
Ezek.  iv,  9.  A  common  legume.  Those  most 
usually  cultivated  in  Syria  are  the  white  horse- 
bean,  faba  rotunda,  oblonga,  and  the  kidney- 
bean,  pkaseolis  minimus,  fructu  viridi  ovato, 
called  by  the  natives  masch.  The  Arabic  ban, 
the  nam?  of  the  coffee  berry,  corresponds  with 
our  bean,  and  is  probably  its  etymon. 

BEAR.  That  bsexs  were  common  in  Pales- 
tine appears  from  several  passages  of  the  Old 
Testament.  Their  strength,  rapacity,  and 
fierceness,  furnish  many  expressive  metaphors 
to  the  Hebrew  poets.  The  Hebrew  name  of 
this  animal  is  taken  from  his  growling;  so 
Varro  deduces  his  Latin  name  ursus  by  an 
onomatopmia  from  the  noise  which  he  makes : 
"  ursi  Lucana  origo,  vel  unde  illi,  nostri  ab 
ipsius  voce  :"  [the  origin  of  the  term  ursus  (bear) 
is  Lucanian,  (whence  also  the  bears  them- 
selves,) from  the  noise  made  by  the  animal.] 


David  had  to  defend  his  flock  against  bears  ad 
well  as  lions,  1  Sam.  xvii,  34.  And  Dr.  Shaw 
gives  us  to  understand  that  these  rugged  anL 
mals  are  not  peculiar  to  the  bleak  regions  of  the 
north,  being  found  in  Barbary;  and  "Ihevenot 
informs  us  that  they  inhabit  the  wilderness  ad- 
joining the  Holy  Land,  and that  he  saw  one  near 
the  northern  extremities  of  the  Red  Sea.  The 
ferocity  of  the  bear,  especially  when  hungry  or 
robbed  of  its  wLcip^,  has  been  mentioned  by 
many  authors.  The  Scripture  alludes  in  three 
places  to  this  furious  disposition.  The  first  is, 
2  Sam.  xvii,  8,  "They  be  mighty  men,  and 
they  be  chafed  in  their  minds  as  a  bear  robbed 
of  her  whelps  in  the  field."  The  second,  Prov. 
xvii,  12,  "  Let  a  bear  robbed  of  her  whelps 
meet  a  man  rather  than  a  fool  in  his  folly." 
And  the  third,  Hosea  xiii,  8,  "  I  will  meet  them 
as  a  bear  that  is  bereaved  of  her  whelps,  and 
will  rend  the  caul  of  their  heart." 

BEARD.  The  Hebrews  wore  their  beards, 
but  had,  doubtless,  in  common  with  other 
Asiatic  nations,  several  fashions  in  this,  as  in 
all  other  parts  of  dress.  Moses  forbids  them, 
Lev.  xix,  27,  "to  cut  off  entirely  the  angle,  or 
extremity  of  their  beard ;"  that  is,  to  avoid  the 
manner  of  the  Egyptians,  who  left  only  a  little 
tuft  of  beard  at  the  extremity  of  their  chins. 
The  Jews,  in  some  places,  at  this  day  suffer  a 
little  fillet  of  hair  to  grow  from  below  the  ears 
to  the  chin  :  where,  as  well  as  upon  their  lower 
lips,  their  beards  are  long.  When  they  mourn- 
ed, they  entirely  shaved  the  hair  of  their  heads 
and  beards,  and  neglected  to  trim  their  beards, 
to  regulate  them  into  neat  order,  or  to  remove 
what  grew  on  their  upper  lips  and  cheeks,  Jer. 
xli,  5  ;  xlviii,  37.  In  times  of  grief  and  afflic- 
tion, they  plucked  away  the  hair  of  their  heads 
and  beards,  a  mode  of  expression  common  to 
other  nations  under  great  calamities.  The 
king  of  the  Ammonites,  designing  to  insult 
David  in  the  person  of  his  ambassadors,  cut 
away  half  of  their  beards,  and  half  of  their 
clothes ;  that  is,  he  cut  off  all  their  beard  on 
one  side  of  their  faces,  2  Sam.  x,  4,  5 ;  1  Chron. 
xix,  5.  To  avoid  ridicule,  David  did  not  wish 
them  to  appear  at  his  court  till  their  beards 
were  grown  again.  When  a  leper  was  cured 
of  his  leprosy,  he  washed  himself  in  a  bath, 
and  shaved  off  all  the  hair  of  his  body ;  after 
which,  he  returned  into  the  camp,  or  city  ; 
seven  days  afterward,  he  washed  himself  and 
his  clothes  again,  shaved  off  all  his  hair,  and 
offered  the  sacrifices  appointed  for  his  purifica- 
tion, Lev.  xiv,  9.  The  Levites,  at  their  con- 
secration, were  purified  by  bathing,  and  wash- 
ing their  bodies  and  clothes ;  after  which,  they 
shaved  off  all  the  hair  of  their  bodies,  and  then 
offered  the  sacrifices  appointed  for  their  con- 
secration, Num.  viii,  7. 

Nothing  has  been  more  fluctuating  in  the 
different  ages  of  the  world  and  countries  than 
the  fashion  of  wearing  the  beard.  Some  have 
cultivated  one  part  and  some  another;  some 
have  endeavoured  to  extirpate  it  entirely,  while 
others  have  almost  idolized  it;  the  revolutions 
of  countries  have  scarcely  been  more  famous 
than  Die  revolutions  of  beards.  It  is  a  great 
mark  of  infamy  among  the  Arabs  to  cut  off  the 


BED 


143 


BEE 


beard.  Many  people  would  prefer  death  to 
this  kind  of  treatment.  As  they  would  think 
it  a  grievous  punishment  to  lose  it,  they  carry 
things  so  far  as  to  beg  for  the  sake  of  it :  "  By 
your  beard,  by  the  life  of  your  beard,  God  pre- 
serve your  blessed  beard."  When  they  would 
express  their  value  for  any  thing,  they  say, 
"  It  is  worth  more  than  a  man's  beard."  And 
hence  we  may  easily  learn  the  magnitude  of 
the  offence  of  the  Ammonites  in  their  treat- 
ment of  David's  ambassadors,  as  above  men- 
tioned ;  and  also  the  force  of  the  emblem  used 
Ezek.  v,  1-5,  where  the  inhabitants  of  Jerusa- 
lem are  compared  to  the  hair  of  his  head  and 
beard.  Though  they  had  been  dear  to  God  as 
the  hair  of  an  eastern  beard  to  its  owner,  they 
should  be  taken  away  and  consumed,  one  part 
by  pestilence  and  famine,  another  by  the  sword, 
another  by  the  calamities  incident  on  exile. 

BEASTS.  When  this  word  is  used  in  op- 
position to  man,  as  Psalm  xxxvi,  5,  any  brute 
creature  is  signified ;  when  to  creeping  things, 
as  Lev.  xi,  2,  7 ;  xxix,  30,  four-footed  animals, 
from  the  size  of  the  hare  and  upward,  are  in- 
tended ;  and  when  to  wild  creatures,  as  Gen. 
i,  25,  cattle,  or  tame  animals,  are  spoken  of. 
In  Isaiah  xiii,  21,  several  wild  animals  are 
mentioned  as  dwelling  among  the  ruins  of 
Babylon:  "Wild  beasts  of  the  desert,"  D"*, 
those  of  the  dry  wilderness,  as  the  root  of  the 
word  implies,  "  shall  dwell  there.  Their  houses 
shall  be  full  of  doleful  creatures,"  criN,  marsh 
animals.  "  Owls  shall  dwell  there,"  ostriches, 
"and  satyrs,"  Qn^tf,  shaggy  ones,  "shall 
dance  there.  And  the  wild  beasts  of  the  isl- 
ands," o^X,  oases  of  the  desert,  "  shall  cry  in 
their  desolate  houses,  and  dragons,"  Qijn,  cro- 
codiles, or  amphibious  animals,  "  shall  be  in 
their  desolate  places."  St.  Paul,  1  Cor.  xv,  32, 
speaks  of  fighting  with  beasts,  &c :  by  which 
he  does  not  mean  his  having  been  exposed  in 
the  ampitheatre  to  fight  as  a  gladiator,  as  some 
have  conjectured,  but  that  he  had  to  contend 
at  Ephesus  with  the  fierce  uproar  of  Demetrius 
and  his  associates.  Ignatius  uses  the  same 
figure  in  his  Epistle  to  the  Romans :  "  From 
Syria  even  unto  Rome  I  fight  with  wild  beasts, 
both  by  sea  and  land,  botli  night  and  day, 
being  bound  to  ten  leopards ;"  that  is,  to  a 
band  of  soldiers.  So  Lucian,  in  like  manner, 
says,  "  For  I  am  not  to  fight  with  ordinary 
wild  beasts,  but  with  men,  insolent  and  hard 
to  be  convinced."  In  Rev.  iv,  v,  vi,  mention 
is  made  of  four  beasts,  or  rather,  as  the  word 
£2a  signifies,  living  creatures,  as  in  Ezek.  i ; 
and  so  the  word  might  have  been  less  harshly 
translated.  Wild  beasts  are  used  in  Scripture 
as  emblems  of  tyrannical  and  persecuting  pow- 
ers. The  most  illustrious  conquerors  of  anti- 
quity a\so  have  not  a  more  honourable  emblem. 

BED.  Mattresses,  or  thick  cotton  quilts 
folded,  wei<j  used  for  sleeping  upon.  These 
were  laid  up^n  the  duan,  or  divan,  a  part  of 
the  room  elevated  above  the  level  of  the  rest, 
covered  with  a  carpet  in  winter,  and  a  fine  mat 
in  summer.  (See  Accuhation  and  Banquets.) 
A  divan  cushion  serves  for  a  pillow  and  bolster. 
They  do  not  keep  their  beds  made ;  the  mat- 
tresses are  rolled  up,  carried  away,  and  placed 


in  a  cupboard  till  they  are  wanted  at  night. 
And  hence  the  propriety  of  our  Lord's  address 
to  the  paralytic,  "  Arise,  take  up  thy  bed,"  or 
mattress,  "and  walk,"  Matt,  ix,  6.  The  duan 
on  which  these  mattresses  are  placed,  is  at  the 
end  of  the  chamber,  and  has  an  ascent  of  seve- 
ral steps.  Hence  Hezekiah  is  said  to  turn  his 
face  to  the  wall  when  he  prayed,  that  is,  from 
his  attendants.  In  the  day  the  duan  was  used 
as  a  seat,  and  the  place  of  honour  was  the 
corner,  Amos  iii,  12. 

BEELZEBUB,  Matt,  x,  25.  See  Baalzebuf. 
BEERSHEBA,  or  the  well  of  the  oath ;  so 
named  from  a  well  which  Abraham  dug  in  this 
place,  and  the  covenant  which  he  here  made 
with  Abimelech,  king  of  Gerar,  Gen.  xx,  31. 
Here  also  he  planted  a  grove,  as  it  would  ap- 
pear, for  the  purpose  of  retirement  for  religious 
worship.  In  process  of  time,  a  considerable 
town  was  built  on  the  same  spot,  which  retain- 
ed the  same  name.  Beersheba  was  given  by 
Joshua  to  the  tribe  of  Judah,  and  afterward 
transferred  to  Simeon,  Joshua  xv,  28.  It  was 
situated  twenty  miles  south  of  Hebron,  in  the 
extreme  south  of  the  land  of  Israel,  as  Dan 
was  on  the  north.  The  two  places  are  fre- 
quently thus  mentioned  in  Scripture,  as  "  from 
Dan  to  Beersheba,"  to  denote  the  whole  length 
of  the  country. 

BEE,  mi:n,  occurs  Deut.  i,  44 ;  Judges  xiv, 
8  ;  Psalm  cviii,  12  ;  Isa.  vii,  18.  A  well  known, 
small,  industrious  insect ;  whose  form,  propa- 
gation, economy,  and  singular  instinct  and 
ingenuity,  have  attracted  the  attention  of  the 
most  inquisitive  and  laborious  inquirers  into 
nature.  Bees  were  very  numerous  in  the  east. 
Serid,  or  Seriad,  means  "  the  land  of  the  hive  ;" 
and  Canaan  was  celebrated  as  "  a  land  flowing 
with  milk  and  honey."  The  wild  bees  formed 
their  comb  in  the  crevices  of  the  rocks,  and  in 
the  hollows  of  decayed  trees.  The  passage  in 
Isa.  vii,  8,  which  mentions  the  "hissing  for 
the  bee,"  is  supposed  to  involve  an  allusion  to 
the  practice  of  calling  out  the  bees  from  their 
hives,  by  a  hissing  or  whistling  sound,  to  their 
labour  in  the  fields,  and  summoning  them  again 
to  return  when  the  heavens  begin  to  lower,  or 
the  shadows  of  evening  to  fall.  In  this  mam. 
ner  Jehovah  threatens  to  rouse  the  enemies  of 
Judah,  and  lead  them  to  the  prey.  However 
widely  scattered,  or  far  remote  lorn  the  scene 
of  action,  they  should  hear  his  voice,  and  with 
as  much  promptitude  as  the  bee  that  has  been 
taught  to  recognise  the  signal  of  its  owner 
and  obey  his  call,  they  should  assemble  their 
forces;  and  although  weak  and  insignificant 
as  a  swarm  of  bees,  in  the  estimation  of  a  proud 
and  infatuated  people,  they  should  come,  with 
irresistible  might,  and  take  possession  of  the 
rich  and  beautiful  region  which  had  been  aban- 
doned by  its  terrified  inhabitants. 

The  bee  is  represented  by  the  ancients  as  a 
vexatious  and  even  a  formidable  enemy;  and 
the  experience  of  every  person  who  turns  his 
attention  to  the  temper  and  habits  of  this  in- 
sect attests  the  truth  of  their  assertion.  The 
allusion,  therefore,  of  Moses  to  their  fierce  hos- 
tility, Deut.  i,  44,  is  both  just  and  beautiful : 
"  The  Amorites,  which  dwelt  inthat  mount- 


BEH 


144 


BEH 


ain,  came  out  against  you,  and  chased  you  as 
bees  do,  and  destroyed  you  in  Seir  even  unto 
Honnah."  The  Ainorites,  it  appears,  were  the 
most  bitter  adversaries  to  Israel  of  all  the  na- 
tions of  Canaan.  Like  bees  that  are  easily 
irritated,  that  attack  with  great  fury  and  in- 
creasing numbers  the  person  that  dares  to  mo- 
lest their  hive,  and  persecute  him  in  his  flight 
to  a  considerable  distance,  the  incensed  Aino- 
rites had  collected  their  hostile  bands,  and 
chased  the  Israelites  from  their  territory.  The 
Psalmist  also  complains  that  his  enemies  com- 
passed him  about  like  bees ;  fiercely  attacking 
him  on  every  side.  From  these  allusions  it 
would  however  appear,  that  the  bees  of  the  east 
were  of  a  more  quarrelsome  temper  than  ours, 
which  exist  chiefly  in  a  domesticated  state. 

BEETLE.  "7.1-in.  It  occurs  only  Lev.  xi,  22. 
A  species  of  locust  is  thought  to  be  there  spoken 
of.  The  word  still  remains  in  the  Arabic,  and 
is  derived  from  an  original,  alluding  to  the  vast 
number  of  their  swarms.  Golius  explains  it  of 
the  locust  without  wings.  The  Egyptians  paid 
a  superstitious  worship  to  the  beetle.  Mr. 
Molyneaux,  in  the  "  Philosophical  Transac- 
tions," says,  "It  is  more  than  probable  that 
this  destructive  beetle  vve  are  speaking  of  was 
that  very  kind  of  scarabeeus,  which  the  idola- 
trous Egyptians  of  old  had  in  such  high  vene- 
ration as  to  pay  divine  worship  unto  it,  and  so 
frequently  engrave  its  image  upon  their  obe- 
lisks, &c,  as  we  see  at  this  day.  For  nothing 
can  be  supposed  more  natural  than  to  imagine 
a  nation,  addicted  to  polytheism,  as  the  Egyp- 
tians were,  in  a  country  frequently  suffering 
great  mischief  and  scarcity  from  swarms  of 
devouring  insects,  should,  from  a  strange  sense 
and  fear  of  evil  to  come,  (the  common  princi- 
ple of  superstition  and  idolatry,)  give  sacred 
worship  to  the  visible  authors  of  these  their 
sufferings,  in  hopes  to  render  them  more  pro- 
pitious for  the  future.     See  Fly  and  Locust. 

BEHEMOTH,  rncro.  This  term  has  greatly 
tried  the  ingenuity  of  the  critics.  By  some, 
among  whom  are  Bythner  and  Reiske,  it  is 
regarded  in  Job  xl,  16,  as  a  plural  noun  for 
beasts  in  general :  the  peculiar  name  of  the 
animal  immediately  described  not  being  men- 
tioned, as  unnecessary,  on  account  of  the  de- 
scription itself  being  so  easily  applied  at  the 
time.  In  thi»  sense  it  is  translated  in  various 
passages  in  the  Psalms.  Thus,  1,  10,  in  which 
it  is  usually  rendered  cattle,  as  the  plural  of 
nonj  it  means  unquestionably  a  beast  or  brute, 
in  the  general  signification  of  these  words  : 
"  For  every  beast  of  the  field  is  mine,  and  the 
cattle,"  behemoth,  "upon  a  thousand  hills." 
So  again,  Isa.  lxxiii,  22 :  "  So  foolish  was  I, 
and  ignorant ;  I  was  as  a  beast,"  behemoth, 
"before  thee."  It  is  also  used  in  the  same 
sense  in  chap,  xxxv,  11,  of  the  book  of  Job: 
"Who  teacheth  us  more  than  the  beasts,"  be- 
hemoth, "of  the  earth."  The  greater  number 
of  critics,  however,  have  understood  the  word 
behemoth,  in  the  singular  number,  as  the  pe- 
culiar name  of  the  quadruped  described,  Job  xl, 
of  whatever  kind  or  nature  it  may  be  ;  although 
they  have  materially  differed  upon  this  last 
point,  some  regarding  it  as  the  hippopotamus, 


or  river  horse,  and  others  as  the  elephant. 
The  evidence  in  favour  of  the  hippopotamus 
appears,  however,  to  predominate.  The  hip- 
popotamus is  nearly  as  large  as  the  rhinoceros. 
The  male  has  been  found  seventeen  feet  in 
length,  fifteen  in  circumference,  and  seven  in 
height.  The  head  is  enormously  large,  and 
the  jaws  extend  upwards  two  feet,  and  are 
armed  with  four  cutting  teeth,  each  of  which 
is  twelve  inches  in  length.  The  body  is  of  a 
lightish  colour,  thinly  covered  with  hair.  The 
legs  are  three  feet  long.  Though  amphibious, 
the  hoofs,  which  are  quadririd,  are  not  con- 
nected by  membranes.  The  hide  is  so  thick 
and  tough  as  to  resist  the  edge  of  a  sword  or 
sabre.  Although  an  inhabitant  of  the  waters, 
the  hippopotamus  is  well  known  to  breathe  air 
like  land  animals.  On  land,  indeed,  he  finds 
the  chief  part  of  his  food.  It  has  been  pre- 
tended that  he  devours  vast  quantities  of  fish  ; 
but  it  appears  with  the  fullest  evidence,  both 
from  the  relations  of  many  travellers,  and  from 
the  structure  of  the  stomach,  in  specimens  that 
have  been  dissected,  that  he  is  nourished  solely, 
or  almost  solely,  on  vegetable  food.  Though 
he  feeds  upon  aquatic  plants,  yet  he  very  often 
leaves  the  waters,  and  commits  wide  devasta- 
tions through  all  the  cultivated  fields  adjacent 
to  the  river.  Unless  when  accidentally  pro- 
voked, or  wounded,  he  is  never  offensive  ;  but 
when  he  is  assaulted  or  hurt,  his  fury  against 
the  assailants  is  terrible.  He  will  attack  a 
boat,  break  it  in  pieces  with  his  teeth ;  or, 
where  the  river  is  not  too  deep,  he  will  raise  it 
on  his  back  and  overset  it.  If  he  be  irritated 
when  on  shore,  he  will  immediately  betake 
himself  to  the  water;  and  there,  in  his  native 
element,  shows  all  his  strength  and  resolution. 
BEHMENISTS,  a  name  given  to  those 
mystics  who  adopted  the  explication  of  the 
mysteries  of  nature  and  grace,  as  given  by  Ja- 
cob Behmen.  This  writer  was  born  in  the 
year  1575,  at  Old  Siedenburg,  near  Gorlitz,  in 
Upper  Lusatia.  He  was  a  shoemaker  by  trade, 
and  is  described  as  having  been  thoughtful  and 
religious  from  his  youth  up,  taking  peculiar 
pleasure  in  frequenting  the  public  worship.  At 
length,  seriously  considering  within  himself 
that  speech  of  our  Saviour,  "Your  heavenly 
Father  will  give  the  Holy  Spirit  to  them  that 
ask  him,"  he  was  thereby  awakened  to  desire 
that  promised  Comforter ;  and,  continuing  in 
that  earnestness,  he  was  at  last,  to  use  his  own 
expression,  "  surrounded  with  a  divine  light 
for  seven  days,  and  stood  in  the  highest  con- 
templation and  kingdom  of  joys  !"  After  this, 
about  the  year  1G00,  he  was  again  surrounded 
with  a  divine  light  and  replenished  with  the 
heavenly  knowledge ;  insomuch  as,  •  going 
abroad  into  the  fields,  and  viewing  tit*  herbs 
and  grass,  by  his  inward  light,  he  savvmto  their 
essences,  uses,  and  properties,  whicn  were  dis- 
covered to  him  by  their  lineaments,  figures, 
and  signatures.  In  the  year  ?«310,  he  had  a 
third  special  illumination,  whsrein  still  farther 
mysteries  were  revealed  to  fcim  ;  but  it  was  not 
till  the  year  1612  that  Behmen  committed  these 
revelations  to  writing.  His  first  treatise  is  en- 
titled, "  Aurora,"  winch  was   seized  by   the 


BEH 


145 


BEL 


senate  of  Gorlitz  before  it  was  completed.  His 
next  production  is  called,  "The  Three  Princi- 
ples," by  which  he  means  the  dark  world,  or 
hell ;  the  light  world,  or  heaven  ;  and  the  ex- 
ternal,  or  visible  world,  which  we  inhabit.  In 
this  work  he  more  fully  illustrates  the  subjects 
treated  of  in  the  former,  and  supplies  what  is 
wanting  in  that  work,  showing,  1.  How  all 
things  came  from  a  working  will  of  the  holy, 
triune,  incomprehensible  God,  manifesting  him- 
self as  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Spirit,  through 
an  outward,  perceptible,  working,  triune  power 
of  fire,  light,  and  spirit,  in  the  kingdom  of 
heaven.  2.  How  and  what  angels  and  men 
were  in  their  creation  ;  that  they  are  in  and 
from  God,  his  real  offspring;  that  their  life 
begun  in  and  from  this  divine  fire,  which  is 
the  Father  of  Light,  generating  a  birth  of  light 
in  their  souls ;  from  both  which  proceeds  the 
Holy  Spirit,  or  breath  of  divine  love,  in  the 
triune  creature,  as  it  does  in  the  triune  Creator. 
3.  How  some  angels,  and  all  men,  are  fallen 
from  God,  and  their  first  state  of  a  divine  triune 
life  in  him  ;  what  they  are  in  their  fallen  state, 
and  the  difference  between  the  fall  of  angels 
and  that  of  man.  4.  How  the  earth,  stars,  and 
elements  were  created  in  consequence  of  the 
fall  of  angels.  5.  Whence  there  is  good  and 
evil  in  all  this  temporal  world  ;  and  what  is 
meant  by  the  curse  that  dwells  in  it.  6.  Of 
the  kingdom  of  Christ,  how  it  is  set  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  kingdom  of  hell.  7.  How  man, 
through  faith  in  Christ,  is  able  to  overcome  the 
kingdom  of  hell,  and  thereby  obtain  eternal 
salvation.  8.  How  and  why  sin  .and  misery 
shall  only  reign  for  a  time,  nntil  God  shall,  in 
a  supernatural  way,  make  fallen  man  rise  to 
the  glory  of  angels,  and  this  material  system 
shake  off  its  curse,  and  enter  into  an  everlast- 
ing union  with  that  heaven  from  whence  it  fell. 
The  next  year,  Behmen  produced  his  "  Three- 
fold Life  of  Man,"  according  to  the  three  prin- 
ciples above  mentioned.  In  this  work  he  treats 
more  largely  of  the  state  of  man  in  this  world  : 
that  he  has,  1.  That  immortal  spark  of  life, 
which  is  common  to  angels  and  devils.  2.  That 
divine  life  of  the  light  and  Spirit  of  God,  which 
makes  the  essential  difference  between  an  an- 
gel and  a  devil;  and,  3.  The  life  of  this  exter- 
nal and  visible  world.  The  first  and  last  are 
common  to  all  men ;  but  the  second  only  to  a 
true  Christian,  or  child  of  God.  Behmen  wrote 
several  other  treatises ;  but  these  are  the  basis 
of  all  his  other  writings.  His  conceptions  are 
often  clothed  under  allegorical  symbols  ;  and, 
in  his  later  works,  he  frequently  adopted  che- 
mical and  Latin  phrases,  which  he  borrowed 
from  conversation  with  learned  men.  But  as 
to  the  matter  contained  in  his  writings,  lie  dis- 
claims having  borrowed  it  either  from  men  or 
books.  He  died  in  the  year  1624  ;  and  his  last 
words  were,  "  Now  I  go  hence  into  paradise  !" 
Behmen's  principles  were  adopted  by  Mr.  Law, 
who  clothed  them  in  a  more  modern  dress,  and 
in  a  style  less  obscure.  The  essential  obscurity 
of  the  subjects  indeed  he  could  not  remedy. 
If  they  were  understood  by  the  author  himself, 
he  is  probably  the  only  one  who  ever  made  that 
attainment. 

11 


BEL,  or  Belus,  a  name  by  which  many 
Heathens,  and  particularly  the  Babylonians, 
called  their  chief  idol.  But  whether  under  this 
appellation  they  Worshipped  Nimrod,  their  first 
Baal,  or  lord,  or  Pul,  king  of  Assyria,  or  some 
other  monarch,  or  the  sun,  or  all  in  one,  is  un. 
certain.  It  is,  however,  probable,  that  Bel  is 
the  same  as  the  Phenician  Baal,  and  that  the 
worship  of  the  same  deity  passed  over  to  the 
Carthagenians,  who  were  a  colony  of  Pheni- 
cians.  Hence  the  names  Hannibal,  Asdrubal, 
&c,  compounded  with  Bel  or  Baal,  according 
to  the  custom  of  the  east,  where  great  men 
added  the  names  of  the  gods  to  their  own. 
Bel  had  a  temple  erected  to  him  in  the  city  of 
Babylon,  on  the  very  uppermost  range  of  the 
famous  tower  of  Babel,  wherein  were  many 
statues  of  this  pretended  deity  ;  and  one,  among 
the  rest,  of  massy  gold,  forty  feet  high.  The 
whole  furniture  of  this  magnificent  temple  was 
of  the  same  metal,  and  valued  at  eight  hundred 
talents  of  gold.  This  temple,  with  its  riches, 
was  in  being  till  the  time  of  Xerxes,  who,  re- 
turning from  his  unfortunate  expedition  into 
Greece,  demolished  it,  and  carried  off  the  im- 
mense wealth  which  it  contained.  It  was, 
probably,  the  statue  of  this  god  which  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, being  returned  to  Babylon  after 
the  end  of  the  Jewish  war,  set  up  and  dedicated 
in  the  plain  of  Dura  ;  the  story  of  which  is  re- 
lated at  large,  Dan.  iii.     See  Babel. 

Bel  and  the  Dragon,  an  apocryphal  and  un- 
canonical  book.  It  was  always  rejected  by  the 
Jewish  church,  and  is  extant  neither  in  the  He- 
brew, nor  in  the  Chaldee  languages;  nor  is 
there  any  proof  that  it  ever  was  so,  although 
the  council  of  Trent  allowed  it  to  be  part  of 
the  canonical  book  of  Daniel,  in  which  it 
stands  in  the  Latin  Vulgate.  There  are  two 
Greek  texts  of  this  fragment,  that  of  the  Sep- 
tuagint,  and  that  found  in  Theodotion's  Greek 
version  of  Daniel.  The  Latin  and  Arabic  ver- 
sions are  from  the  text  of  Theodotion.  Da- 
niel probably,  by  detecting  the  mercenary  con- 
trivances of  the  idolatrous  priests  of  Babylon, 
and  by  opening  the  eyes  of  the  people  to  the 
follies  of  superstition,  might  furnish  some 
foundation  for  the  story ;  but  the  whole  is  evi- 
dently charged  with  fiction,  though  introduced 
with  a  pious  intent.  St.  Jerom  gives  it  no  bet- 
ter title  than,  "The  fable  of  Bel  and  the  Dra- 
gon." Selden  thinks  that  this  history  ought 
rather  to  be  considered  as  a  poem  or  fiction, 
than  a  true  account :  as  to  the  dragon,  he  ob- 
serves, that  serpents,  dracones,  made  a  part  of 
the  hidden  mysteries  of  the  Pagan  religion,  as 
appears  from  Clemens  Alexandrinus,  Julius 
Firmicus,  Justin  Martyr,  and  others.  See 
Serpent. 

BELIAL.  The  phrase,  "sons  of  Belial,"  sig- 
nifies wicked,  worthless  men.  It  was  given  to 
the  inhabitants  of  Gibeah,  who  abused  the  Le- 
vite's  wife,  Judges  xix,  22  ;  and  to  Hophni  and 
Phineas,  the  wicked  and  profane  sons  of  Eli, 
1  Samuel  ii,  12.  In  later  times  the  name  Be- 
lial denoted  the  devil:  "What  concord  hath 
Christ  with  Belial?"  2  Cor.  vi,  15;  for  as  the 
word  literally  imports  "  one  who  will  do  no  one 
good,"  the  positive  sense  of  a  doer  of  evil  was 


BEL 


146 


BEL 


applied  to  Satan,  who  is  the  author  of  evil,  and, 
eminently,  "  the  Evil  One." 

BELLS.  Moses  ordered  that  the  lower  part 
of  the  blue  robe,  which  the  high  priest  wore  in 
religious  ceremonies,  should  be  adorned  with 
pomegranates  and  bells,  intermixed  alternately, 
at  equal  distances.  The  pomegranates  were  of 
wool,  and  in  colour,  blue  purple,  and  crimson  ; 
the  bells  were  of  gold.  Moses  adds,  "And  it 
shall  be  upon  Aaron  to  minister;  and  his  sound 
shall  be  heard  when  he  goeth  in  unto  the  holy 
place  before  the  Lord,  and  when  he  cometh 
out ;  that  he  die  not."  Some  of  the  Hebrews 
believe  that  these  little  bells  are  round  ;  others, 
that  they  were  such  as  were  commonly  in  use. 
The  ancient  kings  of  Persia  are  said  to  have 
had  the  hem  of  their  robes  adorned  like  that  of 
the  Jewish  high  priest,  with  pomegranates  and 
golden  bells.  The  Arabian  ladies,  who  are 
about  the  king's  person,  have  little  gold  bells 
fastened  to  their  legs,  their  neck,  and  elbows, 
which,  when  they  dance,  make  a  very  agree, 
able  harmony.  The  Arabian  women  of  rank, 
generally,  wear  on  their  legs  large  hollow  gold 
rings,  containing  small  flints,  that  sound  like 
little  bells  when  they  walk ;  or  they  are  large 
circles,  with  little  rings  hung  all  round,  which 
produce  the  same  effect.  These,  when  they 
walk,  give  notice  that  the  mistress  of  the  house 
is  passing,  that  so  the  servants  of  the  family 
may  behave  themselves  respectfully,  and  stran- 
gers may  retire,  to  avoid  seeing  the  person  who 
advances.  It  was,  in  all  probability,  with  some 
Buch  design  of  giving  notice  that  the  high  priest 
was  passing,  that  he  also  wore  little  bells  at  the 
hem  of  his  robe.  Their  sound  intimated  also 
when  he  was  about  to  enter  the  sanctuary,  and 
served  to  keep  up  the  attention  of  the  people. 
A  reverential  respect  for  the  Divine  Inhabitant 
was  also  indicated.  The  palace  of  kings  was 
not  to  be  entered  without  due  notice,  by  striking 
some  sonorous  body,  much  less  the  sanctuary 
of  God ;  and  the  high  priest  did,  by  the  sound 
of  his  bells  at  the  bottom  of  his  robe,  ask  leave 
to  enter.  "  And  his  sound  shall  be  heard  when 
he  goeth  into  the  holy  place  before  the  Lord, 
and  when  he  cometh  out;  that  he  die  not." 

Bells  were  a  part  of  the  martial  furniture  of 
horses  employed  in  war.  The  Jewish  warrior 
adorned  his  charger  with  these  ornaments  ; 
and  the  prophet  foretels  that  these  in  future 
times  should  be  consecrated  to  the  service  of 
God :  "  In  that  day  shall  there  be  upon  the 
bells  of  the  horses,  Holiness  unto  the  Lord." 
Chardin  observes  that  something  like  this  is 
seen  in  several  places  of  the  east ;  in  Persia, 
and  in  Turkey,  the  reins  of  their  bridles  are  of 
silk,  of  the  thickness  of  a  finger,  on  which  are 
wrought  the  name  of  God,  or  other  inscriptions. 
A  horse  which  had  not  been  trained  was  by  the 
Greeks  called,  "one  that  had  never  heard  the 
noise  of  bells." 

BELLY  is  used  in  Scripture  for  gluttony, 
Titus  i,  12;  Philip  iii,  16;  Rom.  xvi,  18.  For 
the  heart,  or  the  secrets  of  the  mind,  Prov.  XX, 
27,  30 ;  xxii,  18.  The  "  belly  of  hell"  signifies 
the  grave,  or  some  imminent  danger,  or  deep 
distress,  Jonah  ii,  2 ;  Ecclus.  ii,  5. 

BELSHAZZAR,  the  last  king  of  Babylon, 


and,  according  to  Hales  and  others,  the  grand, 
son  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  Dan.  v,  18.  During 
the  period  that  the  Jews  were  in  captivity  at 
Babylon,  a  variety  of  singular  events  concurred 
to  prove  that  the  sins  which  brought  desolation 
on  their  country,  and  subjected  them  for  a 
period  of  seventy  years  to  the  Babylonish  yoke, 
had  not  dissolved  that  covenant  relation  which, 
as  the  God  of  Abraham,  Jehovah  had  entered 
into  with  them  ;  and  that  any  act  of  indignity 
perpetrated  against  an  afflicted  people,  or  any 
insult  cast  upon  the  service  of  their  temple, 
would  be  regarded  as  an  affront  to  the  Majesty 
of  heaven,  and  not  suffered  to  pass  with 
impunity,  though  the  perpetrators  were  the 
princes  and  potentates  of  the  earth.  Belshaz- 
zar  was  a  remarkable  instance  of  this.  He  had 
an  opportunity  of  seeing,  in  the  case  of  his 
ancestor,  how  hateful  pride  is,  even  in  royalty 
itself;  how  instantly  God  can  blast  the  dignity 
of  the  brightest  crown,  and  reduce  him  that 
wears  it  to  a  level  with  the  beasts  of  the  field; 
and  consequently  how  much  the  prosperity  of 
kings  and  the  stability  of  their  thrones  depend 
upon  acknowledging  that  "the  Most  High 
ruleth  in  the  kingdom  of  men,  and  giveth  it 
to  whomsoever  he  will."  But  all  these  awful 
lessons  were  lost  upon  Belshazzar. 

The  only  circumstances  of  his  reign,  re- 
corded,  are  the  visions  of  the  Prophet  Daniel, 
in  the  first  and  third  years,  Dan.vii,  1  ;  viii,  1 ; 
and  his  sacrilegious  feast  and  violent  death, 
Dan.  v,  1-30.  Isaiah,  who  represents  the  Ba- 
bylonian dynasty  as  "  the  scourge  of  Palestine," 
styles  Nebuchadnezzar  "a  serpent,"  Evil  Me- 
rodach  "  a  cockatrice,"  and  Belshazzar  "  a  fiery 
flying  serpent,"  the  worst  of  all,  Isaiah  xiv, 
4-29.  And  Xenophon  confirms  this  prophetic 
character  by  two  atrocious  instances  of  cruelty 
and  barbarity,  exercised  by  Belshazzar  upon 
some  of  his  chief  and  most  deserving  nobles. 
He  slew  the  only  son  of  Gobryas,  in  a  trans- 
port of  rage,  because  at  a  hunting  match  he 
hit  with  his  spear  a  bear,  and  afterward  a  lion, 
when  the  king  had  missed  both  ;  and  in  a  fit  of 
jealousy,  he  brutally  castrated  Gadatus,  because 
one  of  his  concubines  had  commended  him  as 
a  handsome  man.  His  last  and  most  heinous 
offence  was  the  profanation  of  the  sacred  ves- 
sels belonging  to  the  temple  of  Jerusalem, 
which  his  wise  grandfather,  and  even  his  fool- 
ish father  Evil  Merodach,  had  respected. 
Having  made  a  great  feast  for  a  thousand  of 
his  lords,  he  ordered  those  vessels  to  be  brought 
during  the  banquet,  that  he,  his  princes,  his 
wives,  and  his  concubines,  might  drink  out  of 
them,  which  they  did ;  and  to  aggravate  sacri- 
lege by  apostasy  and  rebellion,  and  ingrati- 
tude against  the  Supreme  Author  of  all  their 
enjoyments,  "they  praised  the  gods  of  gold, 
silver,  brass,  iron,  and  stone,  but  the  God  in 
whose  hand  was  their  breath,  and  whose  were 
all  their  ways,  they  praised  or  glorified  not." 
For  these  complicated  crimes  his  doom  was 
denounced  in  the  midst  of  the  entertainment; 
a  divine  hand  appeared,  which  wrote  on  the 
plaister  of  the  wall,  opposite  to  the  king,  and 
full  in  his  view,  a  mysterious  inscription.  This 
tremendous  apparition  struck  Belshazzar  with 


BEL 


147 


BEN 


the  greatest  terror  and  agony:  "his  counte- 
nance was  changed,  and  his  thoughts  troubled 
him,  so  that  the  joints  of  his  loins  were  loosed, 
and  his  knees  smote  against  each  other."  This 
is  one  of  the  liveliest  and  finest  amplifications 
of  dismay  to  be  found  throughout  the  sacred 
classics,  and  infinitely  exceeds,  both  in  accu- 
racy and  force,  the  most  admired  of  the  Hea- 
then; such  as  "  et  corde  et  genibus  tremit,"  of 
Horace,  and  "  tarda  trementi  genua  labant,"  of 
Virgil. 

Unable  himself  to  decypher  the  writing,  Bel- 
shazzar  cried  aloud  to  bring  in  the  astrologers, 
the  Chaldeans,  and  the  soothsayers,  promising 
that  whosoever  should  read  the  writing,  and 
explain  to  him  its  meaning,  should  be  clothed 
with  scarlet,  have  a  chain  of  gold  about  his 
neck,  and  be  the  third  ruler  in  his  kingdom. 
But  the  writing  was  too  difficult  for  the  Magi ; 
at  which  the  king  was  still  more  greatly  trou- 
bled. In  this  crisis,  and  at  the  instance  of  the 
queen  mother,  the  Prophet  Daniel  was  sent  for, 
to  whom  honours  were  promised,  on  condition 
of  his  explaining  the  writing.  Daniel  refused 
the  honours  held  out  to  him ;  but  having  with 
great  faithfulness  pointedly  reproved  the  mo- 
narch for  his  ingratitude  to  God  who  had  con- 
ferred on  him  such  dignity,  and  particularly  for 
his  profanation  of  the  vessels  which  were  con- 
secrated to  his  service,  he  proceeded  to  the  in- 
terpretation of  the  words  which  had  been  writ- 
ten, and  still  stood  visible  on  the  wall.  They 
were,  Mene,  Tekcl,  Upharsin.  "This  is  the 
interpretation  of  the  thing,  Mene,  '  God  hath 
numbered  thy  kingdom  and  finished  it ;'  TeJcel, 
'  thou  art  weighed  in  the  balances  and  art  found 
wanting ;'  Peres,  '  thy  kingdom  is  divided,  and 
given  to  the  Medes  and  Persians.' "  In  that 
very  night,  in  the  midst  of  their  mirth  and  re- 
velling, the  city  was  taken  by  surprise,  Bel- 
shazzar  himself  put  to  death,  and  the  kingdom 
transferred  to  Darius  the  Mede.  If  the  cha- 
racter of  the  hand-writing  was  known  to  the 
Magi  of  Babylon,  the  meaning  could  not  be 
conjectured.  Perhaps,  however,  the  character 
was  that  of  the  ancient  Hebrew,  or  what  we 
now  call  the  Samaritan ;  and  in  that  case  it 
would  be  familiar  to  Daniel,  though  rude  and 
unintelligible  to  the  Chaldeans.  But  even  if 
Daniel  could  read  the  words,  the  import  of  this 
solemn  graphic  message  to  the  proud  and  im- 
.  pious  monarch  could  only  have  been  made 
known  to  the  prophet  by  God.  All  the  ideas 
the  three  words  convey,  are  numbering,  weigh- 
ing, and  dividing.  It  was  only  for  the  power 
which  sent  the  omen  to  unfold,  not  in  equivo- 
cal terms,  like  the  responses  of  Heathen  ora- 
cles, but  in  explicit  language,  the  decision  of 
the  righteous  Judge,  the  termination  of  his  long 
suffering,  and  the  instant  visitation  of  judg- 
ment.    See  Babylon. 

BELUS,  a  river  of  Palestine.  On  leaving 
Acre,  and  turning  toward  the  south-east,  the 
traveller  crosses  the  river  Belus,  near  its  mouth, 
where  the  stream  is  shallow  enough  to  be  easily 
forded  on  horseback.  This  river  rises  out  of  a 
lake,  computed  to  be  about  six  miles  distant, 
toward  the  south-east,  called  by  the  ancients 
Palus  Cendovia.     Of  the  sand  of  this  river,  ac- 


cording to  Pliny,  glass  was  first  made;  and 
ships  from  Italy  continued  to  convey  it  to  the 
glass  houses  of  Venice  and  Genoa,  so  late  as 
the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

BENEDICTION,  in  a  general  sense,  the 
act  of  blessing  in  the  name  of  God,  or  of  giving 
praise  to  God,  or  returning  thanks  for  his  fa- 
vours. Hence  benediction  is  the  act  of  saying 
grace  before  or  after  meals.  Neither  the  an- 
cient Jews,  nor  Christians,  ever  ate  without  a 
short  prayer.  The  Jews  are  obliged  to  rehearse 
a  hundred  benedictions  every  day;  of  which, 
eighty  are  to  be  spoken  in  the  morning*  Rabbi 
Nehemiah  Baruch,  in  1688,  published  a  dis- 
course on  the  manner  wherein  the  sacerdotal 
benediction  is  to  be  pronounced.  In  the  syna- 
gogue of  Ferrara,  it  is  rather  sung  than  spoken. 
Among  the  ancient  Jews,  as  well  as  Christians, 
benedictions  were  attended  with  the  imposition 
of  hands ;  and  Christians,  in  process  of  time, 
added  the  sign  of  the  cross,  which  was  made 
with  the  same  hand,  elevated  or  extended. 
Hence,  in  the  Romish  church,  benediction  was 
used  to  denote  the  sign  of  the  cross,  made  by 
a  bishop  or  prelate,  from  art  idea  that  it  con- 
ferred some  grace  on  the  people.  The  eustom 
of  receiving  benediction  by  bowing  the  head 
before  the  bishops,  is  very  ancient ;  and  was 
so  universal,  that  emperors  themselves  did  not 
decline  this  mark  of  submission.  Under  the 
name  benediction  the  Hebrews  also  frequently 
understood  the  presents  which  friends  made  to 
one  another ;  in  all  probability  because  they 
were  generally  attended  with  blessings  and5 
prayers,  both  from  those  who  gave  and  those 
who  received  them.  The  solemn  blessing  pro- 
nounced by  the  Jewish  high  priest  upon  thef 
people,  is  recorded  Num.  vi,  22,  &c :  "  Ther 
Lord  bless  thee,  and  keep  thee  :  the  Lord  make 
his  face  to  shine  upon  thee,  and  be  gracious 
unto  thee  :  the  Lord  lift  up  his  countenance 
upon  thee,  and  give  thee  peace."  The  great 
Christian  benediction  is,  "  The  grace  of  our7 
Lord  Jesus  Christ,  the  love  of  God  the  Father, 
and  the  fellowship  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  be  with 
you  always."     See  Blessing. 

BENHADAD,  the  son  of  Tibrimon,  king  of 
Syria,  came  to  the  assistance  of  Asa,  king  of 
Judah,  against  Baasha,  king  of  Israel,  obliging 
the  latter  to  return  home  and  succour  hh  own 
country,  and  to  abandon  Ramah,  which  he  had 
undertaken  to  fortify,  1  Kings  xv,  18.  This 
Benhadad  is  thought  by  some  to  have  been  the 
same  person  with  Hadad  the  Edomite,  who 
rebelled  against  Solomon  toward  the  end  of 
that  prince's  reign,  1  Kings  xi,  25. 

2.  Benhadad,  king  of  Syria,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, made  war  upon  Ahab,  king  of  Israel, 
but  was  defeated.  In  the  following  year,  how- 
ever, he  came  with  a  most  powerful  army  to 
Aphek,  where  Ahab  again  engaged  him,  killed 
a  hundred  thousand  of  his  men,  and  the  re- 
mainder endeavouring  to  take  refuge  in  Aphek, 
the  walls  of  the  city  fell  upon  them,  and  killed 
twenty-seven  thousand  more.  Thus  completely 
defeated,  Benhadad  submitted  to  beg  his  life  of 
the  king  of  Israel,  who  not  only  granted  his 
request,  but  gave  him  his  liberty,  and  restored 
him   to   his  crown   upon   certain   conditions, 


BEN 


148 


BEN 


1  Kings  xx.     Twelve  years  afterward,  A.  M. 
3115,  Benhadad  declared  war  against  Jehoram, 
the  son  and  successor  of  Ahab,  2  Kings  vi,  8; 
but  his  designs  were  made  known  to  Jehoram  by 
the  Prophet  Elisha,  and  they  were  accordingly 
frustrated.     Suspecting  some  treachery  in  this 
affair,  Benhadad  was  informed  that  all  his  pro- 
jects were  revealed  to  his  enemy  by  Elisha, 
and  getting  intelligence  that  the  latter  was  at 
Dothan,  he  sent  a  detachment  of  his  best  troops 
to  invest  the  city  and  apprehend  the  prophet ; 
but  they  were  struck  with  blindness  at  Elisha's 
prayer,  so  that  they  were  unable  to  distinguish 
him,  when  he  was  in  the  midst  of  them  and 
held  a  conversation  with  them.     He  then  led 
them  into  the  city  of  Samaria,  and  having  con- 
ducted them  safely  there,  he  prayed  to  God  again 
to  open  their  eyes,  and  induced  Jehoram  to  dis- 
miss them  without  violence.    Generous  as  this 
conduct  was,  it  produced  no  salutary  effect  on 
the  infatuated  Benhadad ;  for  about  four  years 
afterward,    he    laid    close    siege    to    Samaria, 
and  reduced  the  city  to  such  distress  that  the 
head  of  an  ass,  which  the  Israelites  considered 
to  be  an  unclean  animal,  was  sold  for  fourscore 
pieces  of  silver,  about  21.  9s.  sterling ;  and  the 
fourth  part  of  a  cab  of  dove's  dung,  or  rather 
three  quarters  of  a  pint  of  chick  pease,  as  Bo- 
chart  understands  the  word,  for  five  pieces  of 
silver.     In  fact,  such  was  the  pressure  of  the 
famine  at  this  time  in  Samaria,  that  mothers 
were  constrained  to  eat  their  own    children. 
Jehoram,  hearing  of  these  calamities,  attributed 
them  to  Elisha,  and  sent  orders  to  have  him  put 
to  death ;  but  before  his  messengers  could  reach 
the  prophet's  house,  he  came  thither  himself. 
Elisha  predicted  that  the  next  day,  about  the 
same  hour,  a  measure  of  fine  flour  would  be 
sold  at  the  gate  of  Samaria  for  a  shekel,  which, 
however  incredible  at  the  moment,  proved  to 
be  the  case ;  for  in  the  night,  a  general  panic, 
supernaturally  induced,  pervaded    the   Syrian 
camp ;  they  imagined  that  Jehoram  had  pro- 
cured an  army  of  Egyptians  to  come  to  his 
assistance,  and,  abandoning  their  horses,  tents, 
and  provisions,  they  all  took  to  flight.     Four 
lepers,  whose  disease  did  not  permit  them  to 
live  within  the  city,  and  being  ready  to  perish 
with  hunger,  ventured  into  the  Syrian  camp ; 
and  finding  it  deserted,  and  at  the  same  time 
abounding  with  all  sorts  of  provisions,  commu- 
nicated the  information  to  Jehoram.    The  king 
immediately  rose,  though  in  the  middle  of  the 
night;  but  reflecting  that  probably  it  was  only 
a  stratagem  of  Benhadad  to  draw   his  people 
out  of  the  town,  he  first  sent  parties  to  recon- 
noitre.   They,  however,  speedily  returned,  and 
informed  him  that  the  enemy  was  fled,  and  that 
the  roads  were  every  where  strewed  with  arms 
and    garments,  which  the  Syrians  had  aban- 
doned to  facilitate  their  flight.     As    soon   as 
the  news  was  confirmed,  the  Samaritans  went 
out,  pillaged  the  Syrian  camp,  and  brought  in 
such  quantities  of  provisions,  that  a  measure 
of  fine  flour  was,  at  the  time  specified  by  Eli- 
sha, sold  at  the  gate  of  Samaria  for  a  shekel, 
2  Kings  vii. 

The  following  year,  A.  M.  3120,  Benhadad 
fell  sick,  and  sent  Hazael,  one  of  his  officers, 


with  forty  camels,  loaded  with  valuable  pre- 
sents, to  the  Prophet  Elisha,  to  interrogate 
him,  whether  or  not  he  should  recover  of  his 
indisposition.  Elisha  fixed  his  eyes  steadfastly 
on  Hazael,  and  then  burst  into  tears:  "Go," 
said  he,  "  and  tell  Benhadad,  Thou  mayest 
certainly  recover;  though  the  Lord  hath  show- 
ed me  that  he  shall  assuredly  die."  He  a,t  the 
same  time  apprised  Hazael  that  he  himself 
would  reign  in  Syria,  and  do  infinite  mischief 
to  Israel.  Hazael  on  this  returned  and  told 
Benhadad  that  his  health  should  be  restored. 
But  on  the  next  day  he  took  a  thick  cloth, 
which,  having  dipped  in  water,  he  spread  over 
the  king's  face  and  stifled  him.  He  then  took 
possession  of  the  kingdom  of  Syria,  according 
to  the  prediction  of  Elisha,  2  Kings  viii. 

3.  Benhadad,  the  son  of  Hazael,  mentioned 
in  the  preceding  article,  succeeded  his  father 
as  king  of  Syria,  2  Kings  xiii,  24.  During  his 
reign,  Jehoash,  king  of  Israel,  recovered  from 
him  all  that  his  father  Hazael  had  taken  from 
Jehoahaz  his  predecessor.  He  defeated  him  in 
three  several  engagements,  and  compelled  him 
to  surrender  all  the  country  beyond  Jordan, 
2  Kings  xiii,  25. 

BENI  KHAIBIR,  sons  of  Keber,  the  de- 
scendants  of  the  Rechabites,  to  whom  it  was 
promised,  Jer.  xxxv,  19,  "  Thus  saith  the  Lord, 
Jonadab,  the  son  of  Rechab,  shall  not  want  a 
man  to  stand  before  me  for  ever."  They  were 
first,  brought  into  notice  in  modern  times  by 
Mr.  Samuel  Brett,  who  wrote  a  narrative  of 
the  proceedings  of  the  great  council  of  the 
Jews  in  Hungary,  A.  D.  1650.  He  says  of  the 
sect  of  the  Rechabites,  "  that  they  observe  their 
old  rules  and  customs,  and  neither  sow,  nor 
plant,  nor  build  houses ;  but  live  in  tents,  and 
often  remove  from  one  place  to  another  with 
their  whole  property  and  families."  They  are 
also  mentioned  in  Neihuhr's  travels.  Mr. 
Wolff,  a  converted  Jew,  gives  the  following 
account  in  a  late  journal.  He  inquired  of  the 
rabbins  at  Jerusalem,  relative  to  these  wander- 
ing Jews,  and  received  the  following  informa- 
tion :  "  Rabbi  Mose  Secot  is  quite  certain  that 
the  Beni  Khaibir  are  descendants  of  the  Re- 
chabites ;  at  this  present  moment  they  drink  no 
wine,  and  have  neither  vineyard,  nor  field,  nor 
seed  ;  but  dwell,  like  Arabs,  in  tents,  and  are 
wandering  nomades.  They  receive  and  ob- 
serve the  law  of  Moses  by  tradition,  for  they 
are  not  in  possession  of  the  written  law."  Mr. 
Wolff  afterward  himself  visited  this  people, 
who  have  remained,  amidst  all  the  changes  of 
nations,  a  most  remarkable  monument  of  the 
exact  fulfilment  of  a  minute,  and  apparently  at 
first  sight  an  unimportant,  prophecy.  So  true 
is  it,  that  not  one  jot  or  tittle  of  the  word  of 
God  shall  pass  away !     See  Rechabites. 

BENJAMIN,  the  youngest  son  of  Jacob  and 
Rachel,  who  was  born,  A.  M.  2272.  Jacob, 
being  on  his  journey  from  Mesopotamia,  as  he 
was  proceeding  southward  with  Rachel  in  the 
company,  Gen.  xxxv,  16,  17,  &-c,  the  pains  of 
child-bearing  came  upon  her,  about  a  quarter 
of  a  league  from  Bethlehem,  and  she  died  after 
the  delivery  of  a  son,  whom,  with  her  last 
breath,  she  named  Benoni,  that  is,  "  the  son  of 


BET 


149 


BET 


my  sorrow  ;"  but  soon  afterward  Jacob  changed 
his  name,  and  called  him  Benjamin,  that  is, 
"  the  son  of  my  right  hand."    See  Joseph. 

BEREA,  a  city  of  Macedonia,  where  St. 
Paul  preached  the  Gospel  with  great  success, 
and  where  his  hearers  were  careful  to  compare 
what  they  heard  with  the  scriptures  of  the  Old 
Testament,  Acts,  xvii,  10;  for  which  they  are 
commended,  and  held  out  to  us  as  an  example 
of  subjecting  every  doctrine  to  the  sole  test  of 
the  word  of  God. 

BERNICE,  the  daughter  of  Agrippa,  sur- 
named  the  Great,. king  of  the  Jews,  and  sister 
to  young  Agrippa,  also  king  of  the  Jews.  This 
lady  was  first  betrothed  to  Mark,  the  son  of 
Alexander  Lysimachus,  albarach  of  Alexan- 
dria; afterward  she  married  Herod,  king  of 
Chalcis,  her  own  uncle  by  the  father's  side. 
After  the  death  of  Herod,  which  happened 
A.  D.  48,  she  was  married  to  Polemon,  king 
of  Pontus,  but  did  not  long  continue  with  him. 
She  returned  to  her  brother  Agrippa,  and  with 
him  heard  the  discourse  which  Paul  delivered 
before  Festus,  Acts  xxv. 

BERYL,  !t"cnn,  a  pellucid  gem  of  a  bluish 
green  colour,  whence  it  is  called  by  the  lapi- 
daries, aqua  marina.  Its  Hebrew  name  is  a 
word  also  for  the  same  reason  given  to  the  sea, 
Psalm  xlviii,  7.  It  is  found  in  the  East  In- 
dies, Peru,  Siberia,  and  Tartary.  It  has  a 
brilliant  appearance,  and  is  generally  transpar- 
ent. It  was  the  tenth  stone  belonging  to  the 
high  priest's  pectoral,  Exod.  xxviii,  10,  20  ; 
Rev.  xxi,  20. 

BETHABARA,  or  BETIIBARAH,  signifies 
in  the  Hebrew  a  place  of  passage,  because  of  its 
ford  over  the  river  Jordan,  on  the  east  bank  of 
which  river  it  stood  over  against  Jericho,  Joshua 
ii,  7;  iii,  15,  16.  To  this  place  Gideon  sent  a 
party  to  secure  the  passage  of  the  river,  pre- 
vious to  his  attack  on  the  Midianites,  Judges 
vii,  24.  Here  John  commenced  his  baptizing, 
and  here  Christ  himself  was  baptized,  John  i, 
28.  To  this  place,  also,  Jesus  retired,  when 
the  Jews  sought  to  take  him  at  the  feast  of 
dedication  ;  and  many  who  resorted  there  to 
him  believed  on  him,  John  x,  39-42. 

BETHANY,  a  considerable  place,  situated 
on  the  ascent  of  the  mount  of  Olives,  about 
two  miles  from  Jerusalem,  John  xi,  18 ;  Matt. 
xxi,  17;  xxvi,  6,  &c.  Here  it  was  that  Mar- 
tha and  Mary  lived,  with  their  brother  Lazarus, 
whom  Jesus  raised  from  the  dead ;  and  it  was 
here  that  Mary  poured  the  perfume  on  our  Sa- 
viour's head.  Bethany  at  present  is  but  a  very 
small  village.  One  of  our  modern  travellers  tells 
us,  that,  at  the  entrance  into  it,  there  is  an  old 
ruin,  called  the  castle  of  Lazarus,  supposed  to 
have  been  the  mansion  house  where  he  and  his 
sisters  resided.  At  the  bottom  of  a  descent, 
not  far  from  the  castle,  you  see  his  sepulchre, 
which  the  Turks  hold  in  great  veneration, 
and  use  it  for  an  oratory,  or  place  for  prayer. 
Here  going  down  by  twenty-five  steps,  you 
come  at  first  into  a  small  square  room,  and  from 
thence  creep  into  another  that  is  smaller,  about 
a  yard  and  a  half  deep,  in  which  the  body  is 
said  to  have  been  laid.  About  a  bow-shot  from 
hence  you  pass  by  the  place  which  they  say 


was  Mary  Magdalene's  house  ;  and  thence  de  • 
scending  a  steep  hill,  you  come  to  the  fountain 
of  the  Apostles,  which  is  so  called  because,  as 
the  tradition  goes,  these  holy  persons  were 
wont  to  refresh  themselves  there  between  Jeru- 
salem and  Jericho, — as  it  is  very  probable  they 
might,  because  the  fountain  is  close  to  the  road 
side,  and  is  inviting  to  the  thirsty  traveller. 
Bethany  is  now  a  poor  village,  but  pleasantly 
situated,  says  Dr.  Richardson,  on  the  shady 
side  of  the  mount  of  Olives,  and  abounds  in 
trees  and  long  grass. 

BETHAVEN,  the  same  with  Bethel.  This 
city,  upon  the  revolt  of  the  ten  tribes,  belong- 
ed to  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  and  was  therefore 
one  of  the  cities  in  which  Jeroboam  set  up  his 
golden  calves.  Whence  the  prophet  in  derision 
calls  it,  "Bethaven,"  the  house  of  vanity  or 
idols,  Hosea  iv,  15,  instead  of  "  Bethel,"  the 
house  of  God,  the  name  which  Jacob  formerly 
gave  it,  when  he  had  the  vision  of  the  myste- 
rious ladder,  reaching  from  earth  to  heaven, 
Gen.  xxviii,  19. 

BETHEL,  a  city  which  lay  to  the  west  of 
Ai,  about  eight  miles  to  the  north  of  Jerusa- 
lem, in  the  confines  of  the  tribe  of  Ephraim 
and  Benjamin.  Here  Jacob  slept  and  had  his 
vision.  The  name  of  this  city  had  formerly 
been  Luz,  which  signifies  an  almond,  and  was 
probably  so  called  from  the  number  of  almond 
trees  which  grew  in  those  parts.     See  Jacob. 

BETHESDA.  This  word  signifies  the  home 
of  mercy,  and  was  the  name  of  a  pool,  or  pub- 
lic bath,  at  Jerusalem,  which  had  five  porticos, 
piazzas,  or  covered  walks  around  it.  This 
bath  was  called  Bethesda,  because,  as  some 
observe,  the  erecting  of  baths  was  an  act  of 
great  kindness  to  the  common  people,  whose 
infirmities  in  hot  countries  required  frequent 
bathing;  but  the  generality  of  expositors  think 
it  had  this  name  rather  from  the  great  good- 
ness of  God  manifested  to  his  people,  in  be- 
stowing healing  virtues  upon  its  waters.  The 
account  of  the  evangelist  is,  "Now  there  was 
at  Jerusalem,  by  the  sheep  market,  a  pool, 
which  is  called  in  the  Hebrew  tongue,  Bethes- 
da, having  five  porches.  In  these  lay  a  multi- 
tude of  impotent  folk,  of  blind,  halt,  withered, 
waiting  for  the  moving  of  the  water ;  for  an 
angel  went  down  at  a  certain  season  into  the 
pool :  whosoever  then  first  after  the  troubling- 
of  the  water  stepped  in  was  made  whole  of 
whatsoever  disease  he  ha*d,"  John  v,  2-4.  The 
genuineness  of  the  fourth  verse  has  been  dis- 
puted, because  it  is  wanting  in  some  ancient 
MSS,  and  is  written  in  the  margin  of  another 
as  a  scholion ;  but  even  were  the  spuriousness 
of  this  verse  allowed,  for  which,  however,  the 
evidence  is  by  no  means  satisfactory,  the  su- 
pernatural character  of  the  account,  as  it  is 
indicated  by  the  other  parts  of  the  narrative, 
remains  unaffected.  The  agitation  of  the 
water;  its  suddenly  healing  virtue  as  to  all 
diseases ;  and  the  limitation  to  the  first  that 
should  go  in,  are  all  miraculous  circumstances. 
Commentators  have  however  resorted  to  vari 
ous  hypotheses  to  account  for  the  whole  with- 
out divine  agency.  Dr.  Hammond  says,  "The 
sacrifices  were   exceedingly  numerous  at  the 


BET 


150 


BET 


pasaover,  tar}  xatp&v,  (once  a  year,  Chrysostom,) 
when  the  pool  being  warm  from  the  immediate 
washing  of  the  blood  and  entrails,  and  thus 
adapted  to  the  cure  of  the  blind,  the  withered, 
the  lame,  and  perhaps  the  paralytic,  was  yet 
farther  troubled,  and  the  congelations  and 
grosser  parts  stirred  up  by  an  officer  or  mes- 
senger, ayycXos,  to  give  it  the  full  effect."  To 
this  hypothesis  Whitby  acutely  replies,  1.  How 
could  this  natural  virtue  be  adapted  to,  and 
cure,  all  kinds  of  diseases  ?  2.  How  could  the 
virtue  only  extend  to  the  cure  of  one  man, 
several  probably  entering  at  the  same  instant? 
3.  How  unlikely  is  it,  if  natural,  to  take  place 
only  at  one  certain  time,  at  the  passover  ?  for 
there  was  a  multitude  of  sacrifices  slain  at  other 
of  the  feasts.  4.  Lastly,  and  decisively,  Light- 
foot  shows  that  there  was  a  laver  in  the  temple 
for  washing  the  entrails ;  therefore  they  were 
not  washed  in  this  pool  at  all. 

Others,  however,  suppose  that  the  blood  of 
the  victims  was  conveyed  from  the  temple  to 
this  pool  by  pipes;  and  Kuinoel  thinks  that  it 
cannot  be  denied  that  the  blood  of  animals 
recently  slaughtered  may  impart  a  medicinal 
property  to  water;  and  he  refers  to  Richter's 
■"  Dissertat.  de  Balneo  Animali,"  and  Michaelis 
in  he.  But  he  admits  that  it  cannot  be  proved 
whether  the  pool  was  situated  out  of  the  city 
at  the  sheep  gate,  or  in  the  city,  and  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  temple ;  nor  that  the  blood  of 
the  victims  was  ever  conveyed  thither  by  ca- 
nals. Kuinoel  justly  observes,  that  though  in 
Josephus  no  mention  is  made  of  the  baths  here 
described,  yet  this  silence  ought  not  to  induce 
us  to  question  the  truth  of  this  transaction  ; 
since  the  historian  omits  to  record  many  other 
circumstances  which  cannot  be  doubted ;  as, 
for  instance,  the  census  of  Augustus,  and  the 
murder  of  the  infants.  This  critic  also  sup- 
poses that  St.  John  only  acts  the  part  of  an 
historian,  and  gives  the  account  as  it  was  cur- 
rent among  the  Jews,  without  vouching  for  its 
truth,  or  interposing  his  own  judgment.  Mede 
follows  in  the  track  of  absurdly  attempting  to 
account  for  the  phenomenon  on  natural  prin- 
ciples:— ."I  think  the  water  of  this  pool  ac- 
quired a  medicinal  property  from  the  mud  at 
its  bottom,  which  was  heavy  with  metallic 
salts, — sulphur  perhaps,  or  alum,  or  nitre. 
Now  this  wouid,  from  the  water  being  per- 
turbed from  the  bottom  by  some  natural  cause, 
perhaps  subterranean  heat,  or  storms,  rise  up- 
ward and  be  mingled  with  it,  and  so  impart  a 
sanative  property  to  those  who  bathed  in  it  be- 
fore the  metallic  particles  had  subsided  to  the 
bottom.  That  it  should  have  done  so,  Kara 
Katpbv,  is  not  strange,  since  Bartholin  has,  by 
many  examples,  shown,  that  it  is  usual  with 
many  medicinal  baths,  to  exert  a  singular  force 
and  sanative  power  at  stated  times,  and  at 
periodical,  but  uncertain,  intervals."  Dod- 
dridge combines  the  common  hypothesis  with 
that  of  Mede;  namely,  that  the  water  had  at 
all  times  more  or  less  of  a  medicinal  property ; 
but  at  some  period,  not  far  distant  from  that  in 
which  the  transaction  here  recorded  took  place, 
it  was  endued  with  a  miraculous  power;  an 
extraordinary  commotion   being  probably  ob- 


served in  the  water,  and  Providence  so  order- 
ing it,  that  the  next  person  who  accidentally 
bathed  here,  being  under  some  great  disorder, 
found  an  immediate  and  unexpected  cure :  the 
like  phenomenon  in  some  other  desperate  case, 
was  probably  observed  on  a  second  commo- 
tion :  and  these  commotions  and  cures  might 
happen  periodically. 

All  those  hypotheses  which  exclude  miracle 
in  this  case  are  very  unsatisfactory,  nor  is  there 
any  reason  whatever  to  resort  to  them ;  for, 
when  rightly  viewed,  there  appears  a  mercy 
and  a  wisdom  in  this  miracle  which  must  strike 
every  one  who  attentively  considers  the  ac- 
count, unless  he  be  a  determined  unbeliever  in 
miraculous  interposition.  For,  1.  The  miracle 
occurred  Kara  icawov,  from  time  to  time,  that  is, 
occasionally,  perhaps  frequently.  2.  Though 
but  one  at  a  time  was  healed,  yet,  as  this  might 
often  occur,  a  singularly  gracious  provision 
was  made  for  the  relief  of  the  sick  inhabitants 
of  Jerusalem  in  desperate  cases.  3.  The  angel 
probably  acted  invisibly,  but  the  commotion  in 
the  waters  was  so  strong  and  peculiar  as  to 
mark  a  supernatural  agent.  4.  There  is  great 
probability  in  what  Doddridge,  following  Ter- 
tullian,  supposes,  that  the  waters  obtained 
their  healing  property  not  long  before  the 
ministry  of  Christ,  and  lost  it  after  his  rejec- 
tion and  crucifixion  by  the  Jews.  In  this  case 
a  connection  was  established  between  the  heal- 
ing virtue  of  the  pool  and  the  presence  of 
Christ  on  earth,  indicating  him  to  be  the  source 
of  this  benefit,  and  the  true  agent  in  conferring 
it ;  and  thus  it  became,  afterward  at  least,  a 
confirmation  of  his  mission.  5.  The  whole 
might  also  be  emblematical,  "intended,"  says 
Macknight,  "to  show  that  Ezekiel's  vision  of 
waters  issuing  out  of  the  sanctuary  was  about 
to  be  fulfilled,  of  which  waters  it  is  said,  They 
shall  be  healed,  and  every  thing  shall  liva 
where  the  river  cometh."  It  cannot  be  object- 
ed that  this  was  not  an  age  of  miracles;  and 
if  miracles  be  allowed,  we  see  in  this  particu- 
lar supernatural  visitation  obvious  reasons  of 
fitness,  as  well  as  a  divine  compassion.  If 
however  the  ends  to  be  accomplished  by  so 
public  and  notable  a  miraculous  interposition 
were  less  obvious,  still  we  must  admit  the  fact, 
or  either  force  absurd  interpretations  upon  the 
text,  or  make  the  evangelist  carelessly  give  his 
sanction  to  an  instance  of  vulgar  credulity  and 
superstition. 

Maundrell  and  Chateaubriand  both  describe 
a  bason  or  reservoir,  near  St.  Stephen's  gate, 
and  bounding  the  temple  on  the  north,  as  the 
identical  pool  of  Bethesda ;  which,  if  it  really 
be  what  it  is  represented  to  be,  is  all  that  now 
remains  of  the  primitive  architecture  of  the 
Jews  at  Jerusalem.  The  latter  says,  "  It  is  a 
reservoir,  a  hundred  and  fifty  feet  long  and 
forty  wide.  The  sides  are  walled,  and  these 
walls  are  composed  of  a  bed  of  large  stones 
joined  together  by  iron  cramps;  a  wall  of 
mixed  materials  runs  up  on  these  large  stones  ; 
a  layer  of  flints  is  stuck  upon  the  surface  of 
this  wall ;  and  a  coating  is  laid  over  these 
flints.  The  four  beds  are  perpendicular  with 
the  bottom,  aid  not  horizontal :  the  coating 


BET 


151 


BET 


was  on  the  side  next  to  the  water;  and  the 
large  stones  rested,  as  they  still  do,  against  the 
ground.  This  pool  is  now  dry,  and  half  filled 
up.  Here  grow  some  pomegranate  trees,  and 
a  species  of  wild  tamarind  of  a  bluish  colour: 
the  western  angle  is  quite  full  of  nopals.  On 
the  west  side  may  also  be  seen  two  arches, 
which  probably  led  to  an  aqueduct  that  carried 
the  water  into  the  interior  of  the  temple." 

BETH-HORON.  About  twelve  miles  from 
Jerusalem,  lies  the  Arab  village  of  Bethoor, 
where  Dr.  E.  D.  Clarke  was  by  accident  com- 
pelled to  pass  a  night.  It  is  noticed  by  no 
other  traveller;  and  yet,  there  is  the  highest 
probability  that  this  is  the  Beth-horon  of  the 
Scriptures.  St.  Jerom  associates  it  with  Rama, 
in  the  remark  that  they  were  in  his  time,  to- 
gether with  other  noble  cities  built  by  Solomon, 
only  poor  villages.  Beth-horon  stood  on  the 
confines  of  Ephraim  and  Benjamin ;  which, 
according  to  the  learned  traveller,  exactly  an- 
swers to  the  situation  of  Bethoor.  He  sup- 
poses it,  from  its  situation  on  a  hill,  to  be 
Beth-horon  the  upper,  the  Beth-horon  superior 
of  Eusebius,  of  which  frequent  notice  occurs 
in  the  apocryphal  writings.  Josephus  men- 
tions that  Cestius,  the  Roman  general,  march- 
ed upon  Jerusalem  by  way  of  Lydda  and  Beth- 
horon. 

BETHLEHEM,  a  city  in  the  tribe  of  Judah, 
Judges  xvii,  7 ;  and  likewise  called  Ephrath, 
Gen.  xlviii,  7;  or  Ephratah,  Micah  v,  2;  and 
the  inhabitants  of  it,  Ephrathites,  Ruth  i,  2  ; 
1  Sam.  xvii,  12.  Here  David  was  born,  and 
spent  his  early  years  as  a  shepherd.  And  here 
also  the  scene  of  the  beautiful  narrative  of  Ruth 
is  supposed  to  be  laid.  But  its  highest  honour 
is,  that  here  our  divine  Lord  condescended  to 
be  born  of  woman  : — "And  thou,  Bethlehem 
Ephratah,  though  thou  be  little  among  the 
thousands  of  Judah,  yet  out  of  thee  shall  he 
come  forth  unto  me,  that  is  to  be  ruler  in 
Israel,  whose  goings  forth  have  been  of  old, 
from  everlasting."  Travellers  describe  the 
first  view  of  Bethlehem  as  imposing.  The  town 
appears  covering  the  ridge  of  a  hill  on  the 
southern  side  of  a  deep  and  extensive  valley, 
and  reaching  from  east  to  west.  The  most 
conspicuous  object  is  the  monastery  erected 
over  the  supposed  "Cave  of  the  Nativity;"  its 
walls  and  battlements  have  the  air  of  a  large 
fortress.  From  this  same  point,  the  Dead  Sea 
is  seen  below  on  the  left,  seemingly  very  near, 
"but,"  says  Sandys,  "not  so  found  by  the  tra- 
veller :  for  these  high,  declining  mountains  are 
not  to  be  directly  descended."  The  road  winds 
round  the  top  of  a  valley  which  tradition  has 
fixed  on  as  the  scene  of  the  angelic  vision  which 
announced  the  birth  of  our  Lord  to  the  shep- 
herds ;  but  different  spots  have  been  selected, 
the  Romish  authorities  not  being  agreed  on  this 
head.  Bethlehem  (called  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament Bethlehem  Ephrata  and  Bethlehem 
of  Judea,  to  distinguish  it  from  Bethlehem 
of  Zabulon)  is  situated  on  a  rising  ground, 
about  two  hours'  distance,  or  not  quite  six 
miles  from  Jerusalem.  Here  the  traveller  meets 
with  a  repetition  of  the  same  puerilities  and 
disgusting  mummery  which  he  has  witnessed 


at  the  church  of  the  sepulchre.  "  The  stable," 
to  use  the  words  of  Pococke,  "  in  which  our 
Lord  was  born,  is  a  grotto  cut  out  of  the  rock, 
according  to  the  eastern  custom."  It  is  as- 
tonishing to  find  so  intelligent  a  writer  as  Dr. 
E.  D.  Clarke  gravely  citing  St.  Jerom,  who 
wrote  in  the  fifth  century,  as  an  authority  for 
the  truth  of  the  absurd  legend  by  which  the 
cave  of  the  nativity  is  supposed  to  be  identified. 
The  ancient  tombs  and  excavations  are  occa- 
sionally used  by  the  Arabs  as  places  of  shelter ; 
but  the  Gospel  narrative  affords  no  counte- 
nance to  the  notion  that  the  Virgin  took  refuge 
in  any  cave  of  this  description.  On  the  con- 
trary, it  was  evidently  a  manger  belonging  to 
the  inn  or  khan :  in  other  words,  the  upper 
rooms  being  wholly  occupied,  the  holy  family 
were  compelled  to  take  up  their  abode  in  the 
court  allotted  to  the  mules  and  horses,  or  other 
animals.  But  the  New  Testament  was  not  the 
guide  which  was  followed  by  the  mother  of 
Constantine,  to  whom  the  original  church  owed 
its  foundation.  The  present  edifice  is  repre- 
sented by  Chateaubriand  as  of  undoubtedly 
high  antiquity ;  yet  Doubdan,  an  old  traveller, 
says  that  the  monastery  was  destroyed  in  the 
year  1263  by  the  Moslems ;  and  in  its  present 
state,  at  all  events,  it  cannot  lay  claim  to  a 
higher  date.  The  convent  is  divided  among 
the  Greek,  Roman,  and  Armenian  Christians, 
to  each  of  whom  separate  parts  are  assigned  as 
places  of  worship  and  habitations  for  the  monks ; 
but,  on  certain  days,  all  may  perform  their  de- 
votions at  the  altars  erected  over  the  conse- 
crated spots.  The  church  is  built  in  the  form 
of  a  cross;  the  nave  being  adorned  with  forty- 
eight  Corinthian  columns  in  four  rows,  each 
column  being  two  feet  six  inches  in  diameter, 
and  eighteen  feet  high,  including  the  base  and 
the  capital.  The  nave,  which  is  in  possession 
of  the  Armenians,  is  separated  from  the  three 
other  branches  of  the  cross  by  a  wall,  so  that 
the  unity  of  the  edifice  is  destroyed.  The  top 
of  the  cross  is  occupied  by  the  choir,  which  be. 
longs  to  the  Greeks.  Here  is  an  altar  dedi- 
cated to  the  wise  men  of  the  east,  at  the  foot 
of  which  is  a  marble  star,  corresponding,  as  the 
monks  say,  to  the  point  of  the  heavens  where 
the  miraculous  meteor  became  stationary,  and 
directly  over  the  spot  where  the  Saviour  was 
born  in  the  subterranean  church  below !  A  flight 
of  fifteen  steps,  and  a  long  narrow  passage, 
conduct  to  the  sacred  crypt  or  grotto  of  the 
nativity,  which  is  thirty-seven  feet  six  inches 
long,  by  eleven  feet  three  inches  in  breadth, 
and  nine  feet  high.  It  is  lined  and  floored  with 
marble,  and  provided  on  each  side  with  five 
oratories,  "  answering  precisely  to  the  ten  cribs 
or  staxls  for  horses  that  the  stable  in  which  our 
Saviour  was  born  contained  !"  The  precise  spot 
of  the  birth  is  marked  by  a  glory  in  the  floor, 
composed  of  marble  and  jasper  encircled  with 
silver,  around  which  are  inscribed  the  words, 
Hie  de  Virgine  Maria  Jesas  Christus  natus  est. 
[Here  Jesus  Christ  was  born  of  the  Virgin  Mary.] 
Over  it  is  a  marble  table  or  altar,  which  rests 
against  the  side  of  the  rock,  here  cut  into  an 
arcade.  The  manger  is  at  the  distance  of  seven 
paces  from  the  altar ;  it  is  in  a  low  recess  hewn 


BET 


152 


BET 


out  of  the  rock,  to  which  you  descend  by  two 
steps,  and  consists  of  a  block  of  marble,  raised 
about  a  foot  and  a  half  above  the  floor,  and 
hollowed  out  in  the  form  of  a  manger.  Before 
it  is  the  altar  of  the  Magi.  The  chapel  is 
illuminated  by  tbirty-two  lamps,  presented  by 
different  princes  of  Christendom.  Chateau- 
briand  has  described  the  scene  in  his  usual 
florid  and  imaginative  style  :  "Nothing  can  be 
more  pleasing,  or  better  calculated  to  excite 
devotional  sentiments,  than  this  subterraneous 
church.  It  is  adorned  with  pictures  of  the 
Italian  and  Spanish  schools,  which  represent 
the  mysteries  of  the  place.  The  usual  orna- 
ments of  the  manger  are  of  blue  satin,  em- 
broidered with  silver.  Incense  is  continually 
burning  before  the  cradle  of  our  Saviour.  I 
have  heard  an  organ,  touched  by  no  ordinary 
hand,  play,  during  mass,  the  sweetest  and  most 
tender  tunes  of  the  best  Italian  composers. 
These  concerts  charm  the  Christian  Arab,  who, 
leaving  his  camels  to  feed,  repairs,  like  the 
shepherds  of  old,  to  Bethlehem,  to  adore  the 
King  of  kings  in  the  manger.  I  have  seen 
this  inhabitant  of  the  desert  communicate  at 
the  altar  of  the  Magi,  with  a  fervour,  a  piety, 
a  devotion,  unknown  among  the  Christians  of 
the  west.  The  continual  arrival  of  caravans 
from  all  the  nations  of  Christendom;  the  pub- 
lic prayers  ;  the  prostrations  ;  nay,  even  the 
richness  of  the  presents  sent  here  by  the  Chris- 
tian princes,  altogether  produce  feelings  in  the 
soul,  which  it  is  much  easier  to  conceive  than 
to  describe." 

Such  are  the  illusions  which  the  Roman 
superstition  casts  over  this  extraordinary  scene  ! 
In  another  subterraneous  chapel,  tradition 
places  the  sepulchre  of  the  Innocents.  From 
this,  the  pilgrim  is  conducted  to  the  grotto  of 
St.  Jerom,  where  they  show  the  tomb  of  that 
father,  who  passed  great  part  of  his  life  in  this 
place  ;  and  who,  in  the  grotto  shown  as  his 
oratory,  is  said  to  have  translated  that  version 
of  the  Bible  which  has  been  adopted  by  the 
church  of  Rome,  and  is  called  the  Vulgate. 
He  died  at  the  advanced  age  of  ninety-one, 
A.  D.  422.  The  village  of  Bethlehem  contains 
about  three  hundred  inhabitants,  the  greater 
part  of  whom  gain  their  livelihood  by  making 
beads,  carving  mother-of-pearl  shells  with  sa- 
cred subjects,  and  manufacturing  small  tables 
and  crucifixes,  all  which  are  eagerly  purchased 
by  the  pilgrims. 

Bethlehem  has  been  visited  by  many  modern 
travellers.  The  following  notice  of  it  by  Dr. 
E.  D.  Clarke  will  be  read  with  interest :  "  After 
travelling  for  about  an  hour  from  the  time  of 
our  leaving  Jerusalem,  we  came  in  view  of 
Bethlehem,  and  halted  to  enjoy  the  interesting 
sight.  The  town  appeared  covering  the  ridge 
of  a  hill  on  the  southern  side  of  a  deep  and 
extensive  valley,  and  reaching  from  east  to 
west ;  the  most  conspicuous  object  being  the 
monastery,  erected  over  the  cave  of  the  na- 
tivity, in  the  suburbs,  and  upon  the  eastern 
6ide.  The  battlements  and  walls  of  this  build- 
ing seemed  like  those  of  a  vast  fortress.  The 
Dead  Sea  below,  upon  our  left,  appeared  so 
near  to  us  that  we  thought  we  could  have  rode 


thither  in  a  very  short  space  of  tune.  Still 
nearer  stood  a  mountain  upon  its  western  shore, 
resembling  in  its  form  the  cone  of  Vesuvius 
near  Naples,  and  having  also  a  crater  upon  its 
top  which  was  plainly  discernible.  The  dis- 
tance, however,  is  much  greater  than  it  ap- 
pears to  be  ;  the  magnitude  of  the  objects 
beheld  in  this  fine  prospect  causing  them  to 
appear  less  remote  than  they  really  are.  The 
atmosphere  was  remarkably  clear  and  serene  ; 
but  we  saw  none  of  those  clouds  of  smoke, 
which,  by  some  writers,  are  said  to  exhale  from 
the  surface  of  the  lake,  nor  from  any  neigh, 
bouring  mountain.  Every  thing  about  it  was 
in  the  highest  degree  grand  and  awful.  Beth- 
lehem is  six  miles  from  Jerusalem.  Josephus 
describes  the  interval  between  the  two  cities 
as  equal  only  to  twenty  stadia ;  and  in  the  pas- 
sage referred  to,  he  makes  an  allusion  to  a 
celebrated  well,  which,  both  from  the  account 
given  by  him  of  its  situation,  and  more  espe- 
cially from  the  text  of  the  sacred  Scriptures, 
2  Sam.  xxiii,  15,  seems  to  have  contained  the 
identical  fountain,  of  whose  pure  and  delicious 
water  we  were  now  drinking.  Considered 
merely  in  point  of  interest,  the  narrative  is  not 
likely  to  be  surpassed  by  any  circumstance  of 
Pagan  history.  David,  being  a  native  of  Beth- 
lehem, calls  to  mind,  during  the  sultry  days  of 
harvest,  verse  13,  a  well  near  the  gate  of  the 
town,  the  delicious  waters  of  which  he  had 
often  tasted ;  and  expresses  an  earnest  desire 
to  assuage  his  thirst  by  drinking  of  that  limpid 
spring.  'And  David  longed,  and  said,  O  that 
one  would  give  me  to  drink  of  the  water  of  the 
well  of  Bethlehem,  which  is  by  the  gate  !' 
The  exclamation  is  overheard  by  '  three  of 
the  mighty  men  whom  David  had,'  namely, 
Adino,  Eleazar,  and  Shamnah,  verses  8,  9,  11. 
These  men  sallied  forth,  and  having  fought 
their  way  through  the  garrison  of  the  Philis- 
tines at  Bethlehem,  verse  14,  '  drew  water  from 
the  well  that  was  by  the  gate,'  on  the  other 
side  of  the  town,  and  brought  it  to  David. 
Coming  into  his  presence,  they  present  to 
him  the  surprising  testimony  of  their  valour 
and  affection.  The  aged  monarch  receives 
from  their  hands  a  pledge  they  had  so  dearly 
earned,  but  refuses  to  drink  of  water  every 
drop  of  which  had  been  purchased  with  blood, 
2  Sam.  xxiii,  17.  He  returns  thanks  to  the 
Almighty,  who  had  vouchsafed  the  deliverance 
of  his  warriors  from  the  jeopardy  they  had  en- 
countered ;  and  pouring  out  the  water  as  a  liba- 
tion on  the  ground,  makes  an  offering  of  it  to 
the  Lord.  The  well  still  retains  its  pristine 
renown  ;  and  many  an  expatriated  Bethlehem, 
ite  has  made  it  the  theme  of  his  longing  and 
regret." 

BETHPHAGE,  so  called  from  its  producing 
figs,  a  small  village  situated  in  Mount  Olivet, 
and,  as  it  seems,  somewhat  nearer  Jerusalem 
than  Bethany.  Jesus  being  come  from  Beth- 
any to  Bethphage,  commanded  his  disciples  to 
seek  out  an  ass  for  him  that  he  might  ride,  in 
his  triumphant  entrance  into  Jerusalem,  Matt, 
xxi,  1,  &c.  The  distance  between  Bethphage 
and  Jerusalem  is  about  fifteen  furlongs. 

BETHSAIDA,  a  city  whose  name  in  He. 


BET 


153 


BET 


brew  imports  a  place  of  fishing  or  of  hunting, 
and  for  both  of"  these  exercises  it  was  well 
situated.  As  it  belonged  to  the  tribe  of  Naph- 
tali,  it  was  in  a  country  remarkable  for  plenty 
of  deer  ;  and  as  it  lay  on  the  north  end  of  the 
lake  Gennesareth,  just  where  the  river  Jordan 
runs  into  it,  it  became  the  residence  of  fisher- 
men. Three  of  the  Apostles,  Philip,  Andrew, 
and  Peter,  were  born  in  this  city.  It  is  not 
mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament,  though  it 
frequently  occurs  in  the  New :  the  reason  is, 
that  it  was  but  a  village,  as  Josephus  tells  us, 
till  Philip  the  tetrarch  enlarged  it,  making  it  a 
magnificent  city,  and  gave  it  the  name  of  Julias, 
out  of  respect  to  Julia,  the  daughter  of  Augus- 
tus Ctesar. 

The  evangelists  speak  of  Bethsaida ;  and  yet 
it  then  possessed  that  name  no  longer  :  it  was 
enlarged  and  beautified  nearly  at  the  same  time 
as  CiEsarea,  and  called  Julias.  Thus  was  it 
called  in  the  days  of  our  Lord,  and  so  would 
the  sacred  historians  have  been  accustomed  to 
call  it.  But  if  they  knew  nothing  of  this,  what 
shall  we  say  of  their  age  ?  In  other  respects 
they  evince  the  most  accurate  knowledge  of 
the  circumstances  of  the  "time.  The  solution 
is,  that,  though  Philip  had  exalted  it  to  the  rank 
of  a  city,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  Julias, 
yet,  not  long  afterward,  this  Julia,  in  whose 
honour  the  city  received  its  name,  was  banished 
from  the  country  by  her  own  father.  The 
deeply  wounded  honour  of  Augustus  was 
even  anxious  that  the  world  might  forget  that 
she  was  his  daughter.  Tiberius,  whose  wife 
she  had  been,  consigned  the  unfortunate  prin- 
cess, after  the  death  of  Augustus,  to  the  most 
abject  poverty,  under  which  she  sank  with- 
out  assistance.  Thus  adulation  must  under 
two  reigns  have  suppressed  a  name,  from 
which  otherwise  the  city  might  have  wished  to 
derive  benefit  to  itself;  and  for  some  time  it 
was  called  by  its  ancient  name  Bethsaida  in- 
stead of  Julias.  At  a  later  period  this  name 
again  came  into  circulation,  and  appears  in  the 
catalogue  of  Jewish  cities  by  Pliny.  By  such 
incidents,  which  are  so  easily  overlooked,  and 
the  knowledge  of  which  is  afterward  lost,  do 
those  who  are  really  acquainted  with  an  age 
disclose  their  authenticity.  "  But  it  is  strange," 
some  one  will  say,  "  that  John  reckons  this 
Bethsaida,  or  Julias,  where  he  was  born,  in 
Galilee,  John  xii,  21.  Should  he  not  know  to 
what  province  his  birthplace  belonged  V  Phi- 
lip only  governed  the  eastern  districts  by  the 
sea  of  Tiberias;  but  Galilee  was  the  portion  of 
his  brother  Antipas.  Bethsaida  or  Julias  could 
therefore  not  have  been  built  by  Philip,  as  the 
case  is  ;  or  it  did  not  belong  to  Galilee,  as  John 
alleges.  In  fact,  such  an  error  were  sufficient 
to  prove  that  this  Gospel  was  not  written  by 
John.  Julias,  however,  was  situated  in  Gaul- 
onitis,  which  district  was,  for  deep  political 
reasons,  divided  from  Galilee  ;  but  the  ordinary 
language  ©f  the  time  asserted  its  own  opinion, 
and  still  reckoned  the  Gaulonitish  province  in 
Galilee.  When,  therefore,  John  does  the  same, 
he  proves,  that  the  peculiarity  of  those  days 
was  not  unknown  to  him;  for  he  expresses 
himself  after  the  ordinary  manner  of  the  period. 


Thus  Josephus  informs  us  of  Judas  the  Gaulo- 
nite  from  Gamala,  and  also  calls  him  in  the 
following  chapters,  the  Galilean  ;  and  then  in 
another  work  he  applies  the  same  expression  to 
him;  from  whence  we  may  be  convinced  that 
the  custom  of  those  days  paid  respect  to  a  more 
ancient  division  of  the  country,  and  bade  de- 
fiance, in  the  present  case,  to  the  then  existing 
political  geography.  Is  it  possible  that  histo- 
rians who,  as  it  is  evident  from  such  examples, 
discover  throughout  so  nice  a  knowledge  of 
geographical  arrangements  and  local  and  even 
temporary  circumstances,  should  have  written 
at  a  time  when  the  theatre  of  events  was  un- 
known to  them,  when  not  only  their  native 
country  was  destroyed,  but  their  nation  scat- 
tered, and  the  national  existence  of  the  Jews 
extinguished  and  extirpated  ?  On  the  contrary, 
all  this  is  in  proof  that  they  wrote  at  the  very 
period  which  they  profess,  and  it  also  proves 
the  usual  antiquity  assigned  to  the  Gospels. 

BETHSHAN,  a  city  belonging  to  the  half 
tribe  of  Manasseh,  on  the  west  of  Jordan,  and 
not  far  from  the  river.  It  was  a  considerable 
city  in  the  time  of  Eusebius  and  St.  Jerom,  and 
was  then,  as  it  had  been  for  several  ages  be- 
fore, called  Scythopolis,  or  the  city  of  the  Scy- 
thians, from  some  remarkable  occurrence  when 
the  Scythians  made  an  irruption  into  Syria.  It 
is  said  to  be  six  hundred  furlongs  from  Jerusa- 
lem, 2  Mace,  xii,  29.  After  the  battle  of  Mount 
Gilboa,  the  Philistines  took  the  body  of  Saul, 
and  hung  it  against  the  wall  of  Bethshan, 
1  Sam.  xxxi,  10.  Bethshan  is  now  called  By- 
san,  and  is  described  by  Burckhardt  as  situated 
on  rising  ground  on  the  west  of  the  Ghor,  or 
valley  of  Jordan. 

BETHSHEMESH,  a  city  of  the  tribe  of  Ju- 
dah,  belonging  to  the  priests,  Joshua  xxi,  16. 
The  Philistines  having  sent  back  the  ark  of 
the  Lord,  it  was  brought  to  Bethshemesh, 
1  Sam,  vi,  12,  where  some  of  the  people  out  of 
curiosity  having  looked  into  it,  the  Lord  de- 
stroyed seventy  of  the  principal  men  belonging 
to  the  city,  and  fifty  thousand  of  the  common 
people,  verse  19.  It  is  here  to  be  observed  that 
it  was  solemnly  enjoined,  Num.  iv,  20,  that  not 
only  tho  common  people  but  that  even  the  Le- 
vites  themselves  should  not  dare  to  look  into  the 
ark,  upon  pain  of  death.  "  It  is  a  fearful  thing," 
says  Bishop  Hall,  "  to  use  the  holy  ordinances 
of  God  with  an  irreverent  boldness;  fear  and 
trembling  become  us  in  our  access  to  the  ma- 
jesty of  the  Almighty." 

BETHUEL,  the  son  of  Nahor  and  Milcah. 
He  was  Abraham's  nephew,  and  father  to  La- 
ban  and  Rebekah,  the  wife  of  Isaac,  Genesis 
xxii,  20,  23. 

BETROTHMENT,  a  mutual  promise  or 
compact  between  two  parties  for  a  future  mar- 
riage. The  word  imports  as  much  as  giving 
one's  troth ;  that  is,  true  faith,  or  promise. 
Among  the  ancient  Jews,  the  betrothing  was 
performed  either  by  a  writing,  or  by  a  piece  of 
silver  given  to  the  bride.  After  the  marriage 
was  contracted,  the  young  people  had  the  liber- 
ty of  seeing  each  other,  which  was  not  allow- 
ed them  before.  If,  after  the  betrothment,  the 
bride  should  trespass  against  that  fidelity  she 


BIB 


154 


BIB 


owed  to  her  bridegroom  she  was  treated  as  an 
adulteress.     See  Marriage. 

BEZER,  or  Bozra,  or  Bostra,  a  city  beyond 
Jordan,  given  by  Moses  to  Reuben  :  this  town 
was  designed  by  Joshua  to  be  a  city  of  refuge  ; 
it  was  given  to  the  Levites  of  Gershom's  fami- 
ly, Deut.  iv,  43.  When  Scripture  mentions 
Bezer,  it  adds,  "  in  the  wilderness,"  because  it 
lay  in  Arabia  Deserta,  and  the  eastern  part  of 
Edom,  encompassed  with  deserts.  Eusebius 
places  Bozra  twenty-four  miles  from  Adraa,  or 
Edrai.  This  city  is  sometimes  said  to  belong 
to  Reuben,  sometimes  to  Moab,  and  sometimes 
again  to  Edom;  because,  as  it  was  a  frontier 
town  to  these  three  provinces,  it  was  occasion- 
ally in  the  hands  of  one  party,  and  then  was 
taken  by  another.  The  bishops  of  Bostra  sub- 
scribed the  decrees  of  several  councils. 

BIBLE,  the  book,  byway  of  eminence  so  call- 
ed, as  containing  the  sacred  Scriptures,  that  is, 
the  inspired  writings  of  the  Old  and  New  Tes- 
tament ;  or  the  whole  collection  of  those  which 
are  received  among  Christians  as  of  divine  au- 
thority.   The  word  Biole  comes  from  the  Greek 
hi6\os,  or  BifiXi'ov,  and  is  used  to  denote   any 
book  ;  but  is  emphatically  applied  to  the  book 
of  inspired  Scripture,  which  is  "the  book"  as 
being  superior  in  excellence  to  all  other  books. 
BtftXiov  again  comes  from  BiSXos,  the  Egyptian 
reed,  from  which  the  ancient  paper  was  pro- 
cured.    The  word  Bible  seems  to  be  used  in 
the  particular  sense  just  given  by  Chrysostom  : 
"  I  therefore  exhort  all  of  you  to  procure  to 
yourselves  Bibles,  BifiXm.     If"  you  have  nothing 
else,  take  care  to  have  the  New  Testament, 
particularly  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  and  the 
Gospels,  for  your  constant  instructers."     And 
Jerome  says,  "that  the   Scriptures  being  all 
written  by  one  Spirit,  are  one  book."   Augustine 
also  informs  us,  "  that  some  called  all  the  ca- 
nonical   Scriptures   one    book,    on   account  of 
their  wonderful  harmony  and  unity  of  design 
throughout."     It  is  not  improbable   that  this 
mode   of  speaking   gradually  introduced   the 
general  use  of  the  word  Bible  for  the  whole 
collection  of  the  Scriptures,  or  the  books  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testament.      By  the  Jews  the 
Bible,  that  is,   the   Old  Testament,   is  called 
Mikra,   that   is,    "  lecture,    or   reading."      By 
Christians  the  Bible,  comprehending  the  Old 
and  New  Testament,  is  usually  denominated 
"Scripture;"  sometimes  also  the  "Sacred  Ca- 
non," which  signifies  the  rule  of  faith  and  prac- 
tice.    These,  and  similar  appellations,  are  de- 
rived from  the  divine  original  and  authority  of 
the  Bible.     As  it  contains  an    authentic  and 
connected  history  of  the  divine  dispensations 
with  regard  to  mankind ;  as  it  was  given  by 
divine  inspiration  ;  as  its  chief  subject  is  reli- 
gion ;  and  as  the  doctrines  it  teaches,  and  the 
dutie's  it  inculcates,  pertain  to  the  conduct  of 
men,  as  rational,  moral,  and  accountable  be- 
ings, and  conduce  by  a  divine  constitution  and 
promise,  to  their  present  and  future  happiness ; 
the  Bible  deserves  to  be  held  in  the  highest  es- 
timation, and  amply  justifies  the  sentiments  of 
veneration  with  which  it  has  been  regarded, 
and  the  peculiar  and  honourable  appellations 
by  which  it  has  been  denominated. 


2.  The  list  of  the  books  contained  in  the 
Bible  constitutes  what  is  called  the  canon  of 
Scripture.     Those  books  that  are  contained  in 
the  catalogue  to  which  the  name  of  canon  has 
been  appropriated,  are  called  canonical,  by  way 
of  contradistinction  from  others  called  deutero- 
canonical,  apocryphal,  pseudo-apocryphal,  &c, 
which  either  are  not  acknowledged  as  divine 
books,  or  are  rejected  as  heretical  and  spurious. 
(See  Apocrypha.)    The  first  canon  or  catalogue 
of  the  sacred  books  was  made  by  the  Jews  ; 
but  the  original  author  of  it  is  not  satisfacto- 
rily ascertained.     It  is  certain,  however,  that 
the  five  books  of  Moses,  called  the  Pentateuch, 
were  collected  into  one  body  within  a  short 
time  after  his  death ;  since  Deuteronomy,  which 
is,  as  it  were,  the  abridgment  and  recapitulation 
of  the  other  four,  was  laid  in  the  tabernacle 
near  the  ark,  according  to  the  order  which  he 
gave  to  the  Levites,  Deut.  xxxi,  24.     Hence 
the  first  canon  of  the  sacred  writings  consist- 
ed of  the  five  books  of  Moses :  for  a  farther 
account  of  which  see  Pentateuch.     It  does  not 
appear   that  any  other  books  were   added  to 
these,  till  the  division  of  the  ten  tribes,  as  the 
Samaritans  acknowledged   no   others.     How- 
ever, after  the  time  of  Moses,  several  prophets, 
and  other  writers  divinely  inspired,  composed 
either  the  history  of  their  own  times,  or  pro- 
phetical  books  and  divine  writings,  or  psalms 
appropriated  to  the  praise  of  God.     But  these 
books  do  not  seem  to  have  been  collected  into 
one  body,  or  comprised  under  one  and  the  same 
canon,  before  the  Babylonish  captivity.     This 
was  not  done  till  after  their  return  from  the  cap- 
tivity, about  which  time  the  Jews  had  a  certain 
number  of  books  digested  into  a  canon,  which 
comprehended  none  of  those  books  that  were 
written  since  the  time  of  Nehemiah.  The  book  of 
Ecclesiasticus  affords  sufficient  evidence  that  the 
canon  of  the  sacred  books  was  completed  when 
that  tract  was  composed ;  for  that  author,  in 
chapter  xlix,  having  mentioned  among  the  fa- 
mous men  and  sacred  writers,  Isaiah,  Jeremiah, 
Ezekicl,  adds  the  twelve  minor  prophets  who 
follow  those  three  in  the  Jewish  canon  ;  and 
from  this  circumstance  we  may  infer  that  the 
prophecies  of  these  twelve  were  already  collect- 
ed and  digested  into  one  body.     It  is  farther 
evident,  that  in  the  time  of  our  Saviour  the  ca- 
non of  the  Holy  Scriptures  was  drawn  up,  since 
he  cites  the  law  of  Moses,  the  Prophets,  and 
the  Psalms,  which  are  the  three  kinds  of  books 
of  which  that  canon  is  composed,  and  which 
he  often  styles,  "the  Scriptures,"  or,  "the Holy 
Scripture,"  Matt,  xxi,  42  ;  xxii,  29 ;  xxvi,  54 ; 
John  v,  39 ;  and  by  him  therefore  the  Jewish 
canon,  as  it  existed  in  his  day,  was  fully  au- 
thenticated, by  whomsoever  or  at  what  time 
it  had  been  formed. 

3.  The  person  who  compiled  this  canon  is 
generally  allowed  to  be  Ezra.  According  to 
the  invariable  tradition  of  Jews  and  Christians, 
the  honour  is  ascribed  to  him  of  having  collect- 
ed together  and  perfected  a  complete  edition  of 
the  Holy  Scriptures.  The  original  of  the  Pen- 
tateuch had  been  carefully  preserved  in  the  side 
of  the  ark,  and  had  been  probably  introduced 
with  the  ark  into  the  temple  at  Jerusalem, 


BIB 


155 


BIB 


After  having  been  concealed  in  the  dangerous 
days  of  the  idolatrous  kings  of  Judah,  and  par- 
ticularly in  the  impious  reigns  of  Manasseh  and 
Amon,  it  was  found  in  the  days  of  Josiah,  the 
succeeding  prince,  by  Hilkiah  the  priest,  in  the 
temple.  Prideaux  thinks,  that  during  the  pre- 
ceding reigns  the  book  of  the  law  was  so  de- 
stroyed and  lost,  that,  beside  this  copy  of  it, 
there  was  then  no  other  to  be  obtained.  To 
this  purpose  he  adds,  that  the  surprise  mani- 
fested by  Hilkiah,  on  the  discovery  of  it,  and 
the  grief  expressed  by  Josiah  when  he  heard  it 
read,  plainly  show  that  neither  of  them  had 
seen  it  before.  On  the  other  hand,  Dr.  Kenni- 
cott,  with  better  reason,  supposes,  that  long  be- 
fore this  time  there  were  several  copies  of  the 
law  in  Israel,  during  the  separation  of  the  ten 
tribes,  and  that  there  were  some  copies  of  it  also 
among  the  tribes  of  Judah  and  Benjamin,  par- 
ticularly in  the  hands  of  the  prophets,  priests, 
and  Levites ;  and  that  by  the  instruction  and 
authority  of  these  MSS,  the  various  services  in 
the  temple  were  regulated,  during  the  reigns  of 
the  good  kings  of  Judah.  He  adds,  that  the 
surprise  expressed  by  Josiah  and  the  people,  at 
his  reading  the  copy  found  by  Hilkiah,  may  be 
accounted  for  by  adverting  to  the  history  of 
the  preceding  reigns,  and  by  recollecting  how 
idolatrous  a  king  Manasseh  had  been  for  fifty- 
five  years,  and  that  he  wanted  neither  power 
nor  inclination  to  destroy  the  copies  of  the  law, 
if  they  had  not  been  secreted  by  the  servants 
of  God.  The  law,  after  being  so  long  conceal- 
ed, would  be  unknown  almost  to  all  the  Jews  ; 
and  thus  the  solemn  reading  of  it  by  Josiah 
would  awaken  his  own  and  the  people's  earnest 
attention ;  more  especially,  as  the  copy  pro- 
duced was  probably  the  original  written  by 
Moses.  From  this  time  copies  of  the  law  were 
extensively  multiplied  among  the  people ;  and 
though,  within  a  few  years,  the  autograph,  or 
original  copy  of  the  law,  was  burnt  with  the 
city  and  temple  by  the  Babylonians,  yet  many 
copies  of  the  law  and  the  prophets,  and  of  all 
the  other  sacred  writings,  were  circulated  in 
the  hands  of  private  persons,  who  carried  them 
with  them  into  their  captivity.  It  is  certain  that 
Daniel  had  a  copy  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  with 
him  at  Babylon ;  for  he  quotes  the  law,  and  men- 
tions the  prophecies  of  Jeremiah,  Dan.  ix,  2,  11, 
13.  It  appears  also,  from  the  sixth  chap,  of  Ezra, 
and  from  the  ninth  chap,  of  Nehemiah,  that  co- 
pies of  the  law  were  dispersed  among  the  people. 
The  whole  which  Ezra  did  maybe  comprised  in 
the  following  particulars  :  He  collected  as  many 
copies  of  the  sacred  writings  as  he  could  find, 
and  compared  them  together,  and,  out  of  them 
all,  formed  one  complete  copy,  adjusted  the  va- 
rious readings,  and  corrected  the  errors  of 
transcribers.  He  likewise  made  additions  in 
several  parts  of  the  different  books,  which  ap- 
peared to  be  necessary  for  the  illustration,  cor- 
rection, and  completion  of  them.  To  this  class 
of  additions  we  may  refer  the  last  chapter  of 
Deuteronomy,  which,  as  it  gives  an  account  of 
the  death  and  burial  of  Moses,  and  of  the  suc- 
cession of  Joshua  after  him,  could  not  have 
been  written  by  Moses  himself.  Under  the 
same  head  have  also  been  included  some  other 


interpolations  in  the  Bible,  which  create  diffi- 
culties that  can  only  be  solved  by  allowing 
them ;  as  in  Gen.  xii,  G ;  xxii,  14 ;  xxxvi,  3 ; 
Exodus  xvi,  35  ;  Deut.ii,  12;  hi,  11,  14;  Prov. 
xxv,  1.  The  interpolations  in  these  passages 
are  ascribed  by  Prideaux  to  Ezra ;  and  others 
which  were  afterward  added,  he  attributes  to 
Simon  the  Just.  Ezra  also  changed  the  old 
names  of  several  places  that  were  become  ob- 
solete, putting  instead  of  them  the  new  names 
by  which  they  were  at  that  time  called;  in- 
stances of  which  occur  in  Genesis  xiv,  4,  where 
Dan  is  substituted  for  Laish,  and  in  several 
places  in  Genesis,  and  also  in  Numbers,  where 
Hebron  is  put  for  Kirjath  Arba,  &c.  He  like- 
wise wrote  out  the  whole  in  the  Chaldee  charac- 
ter, changing  for  it  the  old  Hebrew  character, 
which  has  since  that  time  been  retained  only  by 
the  Samaritans,  and  among  whom  it  is  preserv- 
ed even  to  this  day.  The  canon  of  the  whole 
Hebrew  Bible  seems,  says  Kennicott,  to  have 
been  closed  by  Malachi,  the  latest  of  the  Jew- 
ish prophets,  about  fifty  years  after  Ezra  had 
collected  together  all  the  sacred  books  which 
had  been  composed  before  and  during  his  time. 
Prideaux  supposes  the  canon  was  completed  by 
Simon  the  Just,  about  one  hundred  and  fifty 
years  after  Malachi:  but,  as  his  opinion  is 
founded  merely  on  a  few  proper  names  at  tho 
end  of  the  two  genealogies,  1  Chron.  iii,  19 ; 
Nehem.  xii,  22,  which  few  names  might  very 
easily  be  added  by  a  transcriber  afterward,  it  is 
more  probable,  as  Kennicott  thinks,  that  the 
canon  was  finished  by  the  last  of  the  prophets, 
about  four  hundred  years  before  Christ. 

4.  It  is  an  inquiry  of  considerable  import- 
ance, in  its  relation  to  the  subject  of  this  arti- 
cle, what  books  were  contained  in  the  canon 
of  the  Jews.  The  Old  Testament,  according 
to  our  Bibles,  comprises  thirty-nine  books,  viz. 
the  Pentateuch  or  five  books  of  Moses,  called 
Genesis,  Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers,  and 
Deuteronomy,  the  books  of  Joshua,  Judges, 
Ruth,  1  &  2  Samuel,  1  &  2  Kings,  1  &.  2 
Chronicles,  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  Esther,  Job, 
Psalms,  Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes,  the  Song  of 
Solomon,  the  prophecies  of  Isaiah,  Jeremiah 
with  his  LamenUtions,  Ezekiel,  Daniel,  Hosea, 
Joel,  Amos,  Obadiah,  Jonah,  Micah,  Nahum, 
Habakkuk,  Zephaniah,  Haggai,  Zechariah,  and 
Malachi.  But,  among  the  ancient  Jews,  they 
formed  onlv  twenty-two  books,  according  to 
the  letters  of  their  alphabet,  which  were 
twenty-two  in  number;  reckoning  Judges  and 
Ruth,  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  Jeremiah  a-nd  his 
Lamentttions,  and  the  twelve  minor  prophets, 
(so  called  from  the  comparative  brevity  of  their 
compositions,)  respectively  as  one  book.  Jose- 
phussays,  "We  have  not  thousands  of  books, 
discordant,  and  contradicting  each  other:  but 
we  have  only  twenty-two,  which  comprehend 
the  history  of  all  former  ages,  and  are  justly 
regarded  as  divine.  Five  of  them  proceed  from 
Moses;  they  include  as  well  the  laws,  as  an 
account  of  the  creation  of  man,  extending  to 
the  time  of  his  (Moses)  death.  This  period 
comprehends  nearly  three  thousand  years. 
From  the  death  of  Moses  to  that  of  Artaxerxes, 
who  was  king  of  Persia  after  Xerxes,  the  pro- 


BIB 


156 


BIB 


phets,  who  succeeded  Moses,  committed  to  writ- 
ing, in  thirteen  books,  what  was  done  in  their 
days.  The  remaining  four  books  contain 
hymns  to  God,  (the  Psalms,)  and  instructions 
of  life  for  man."  The  threefold  division  of  the 
Old  Testament  into  the  Law,  the  Prophets,  and 
the  Psalms,  mentioned  by  Josephus,  was  ex- 
pressly recognised  before  his  time  by  Jesus 
Christ,  as  well  as  by  the  subsequent  writers  of 
the  New  Testament.  We  have  therefore  suffi- 
cient evidence  that  the  Old  Testament  existed 
at  that  time ;  and  if  it  be  only  allowed  that 
Jesus  Christ  was  a  teacher  of  a  fearless  and 
irreproachable  character,  it  must  be  acknow- 
ledged that  we  draw  a  fair  conclusion,  when  we 
assert  that  the  Scriptures  were  not  corrupted  in 
his  time :  for,  when  he  accused  the  Pharisees 
of  making  the  law  of  no  effect  by  their  tradi- 
tions, and  when  he  enjoined  his  hearers  to 
search  the  Scriptures,  he  could  not  have  failed 
to  mention  the  corruptions  or  forgeries  of 
Scripture,  if  any  had  existed  in  that  age. 
About  fifty  years  before  the  time  of  Christ 
were  written  the  Targums  of  Onkelos  on  the 
Pentateuch,  and  of  Jonathan  Ben-Uzziel  on  the 
Prophets ;  (according  to  the  Jewish  classifica- 
tion of  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament ;)  which 
are  evidence  of  the  genuineness  of  those  books 
at  that  time.  We  have,  however,  unquestion- 
able testimony  of  the  genuineness  of  the  Old 
Testament,  in  the  fact  that  its  canon  was  fixed 
some  centuries  before  the  birth  of  Jesus  Christ. 
Jesus  the  son  of  Sirac'u,  author  of  the  book  of 
Ecclesiasticus,  makes  evident  references  to  the 
prophecies  of  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  and  Ezekiel, 
and  mentions  these  prophets  by  name :  he 
speaks  also  of  the  twelve  minor  prophets.  It 
likewise  appears  from  the  prologue  to  that 
book,  that  the  law  and  the  prophets,  and  other 
ancient  books,  were  extant  at  the  same  period. 
The  book  of  Ecclesiasticus,  according  to  the 
best  chronologers,  was  written  in  the  Syro- 
Chaldaic  dialect  A.  M.  3772,  that  is,  two  hun- 
dred and  thirty-two  years  before  the  Christian 
sera,  and  was  translated  by  the  grandson  of 
Jesus  into  Greek,  for  the  use  of  the  Alexan- 
drian Jews.  The  prologue  was  added  by  the 
translator ;  but  this  circumstance  does  not  di- 
minish the  evidence  for  the  antiquity  of  the  Old 
Testament:  for  he  informs  us,  that  the  law 
and  the  prophets,  and  the  other  hooks  of  their 
fathers,  were  studied  by  his  grandfather ;  a  suf- 
ficient proof  that  they  were  extant  in  his  time. 
Fifty  years,  indeed,  before  the  age  of  the  au- 
thor of  Ecclesiasticus,  or  two  hundred  and 
eighty-two  years  before  the  Christian  cera,  the 
Greek  version  of  the  Old  Testament,  usually 
called  the  Septuagint,  was  executed  at  Alex- 
andria, the  books  of  which  are  the  same  as  in 
our  Bibles ;  whence  it  is  evident  that  we  still 
have  those  identical  books,  which  the  mostan- 
cient  Jews  attested  to  be  genuine.  The  Chris- 
tian fathers  too,  Origen,  Athanasius,  Hilarj, 
Gregory,  Nazianzen,  Epiphanius,  and  Jeroii>, 
speaking  of  the  books  that  are  allowed  by  the 
Jews  as  sacred  and  canonical,  agree  in  saying 
that  they  are  the  same  in  number  with  the  let- 
ters in  the  Hebrew  alphabet,  that  is,  twenty- 
two,  and  reckon  particularly  those  books  which 


we  have  already  mentioned.  Nothing  can  be 
more  satisfactory  and  conclusive  than  all  the 
parts  of  the  evidence  for  the  authenticity  and  in- 
tegrity of  the  canon  of  the  Old  Testament  scrip- 
tures. The  Jews,  to  whom  they  were  first  com- 
mitted, never  varied  respecting  them;  while 
they  were  fully  recognised  by  our  Lord  and  his 
Apostles ;  and,  consequently,  their  authenticity 
is  established  by  express  revelation.  And  that 
we  now  possess  them  as  thus  delivered  and  au- 
thenticated, we  have  the  concurrent  testimony 
of  the  whole  succession  of  the  most  distin- 
guished early  Christian  writers,  as  well  as  of 
the  Jews  to  this  day,  who,  in  every  age,  and 
in  all  countries,  the  most  remote  from  one 
another,  have  constantly  been  in  the  habit  of 
reading  them  in  their  synagogues. 

5.  The  five  books  of  the  law  are  divided  into 
fifty-four  sections,  which  division  is  attributed 
to  Ezra,  and  was  intended  for  the  use  of  their 
synagogues,  and  for  the  better  instruction  of 
the  people  in  the  law  of  God.  For,  one  of 
these  sections  was  read  every  Sabbath  in  their 
synagogues.  They  ended  the  last  section  with 
the  last  words  of  Deuteronomy  on  the  Sabbath 
of  the  feast  of  the  tabernacles,  and  then  began 
anew  with  the  first  section  from  the  beginning 
of  Genesis  the  next  Sabbath  after,  and  so  went 
round  in  this  circle  every  year.  The  number 
of  these  sections  was  fifty-four,  because  in  their 
intercalated  years  (a  month  being  then  added) 
there  were  fifty-four  Sabbaths.  On  other  years 
they  reduced  them  to  the  number  of  the  Sab- 
baths which  were  in  those  years,  by  joining 
two  short  ones  several  times  into  one.  For 
they  held  themselves  obliged  to  have  the  whole 
law  thus  read  over  in  their  synagogues  every 
year.  Till  the  time  of  the  persecution  of  An- 
tiochus  Epiphanes,  they  read  only  the  law  ;  but 
being  then  prohibited  from  reading  it  any  more, 
they  substituted  in  the  room  of  the  fifty-four 
sections  of  the  law,  fifty-four  sections  out  of 
the  prophets,  the  reading  of  which  they  ever 
after  continued.  Thus,  when  the  reading  of 
the  law  was  restored  by  the  Maccabees,  the 
section  which  was  read  every  Sabbath  out  of 
the  law  served  for  their  first  lesson,  and  the 
section  out  of  the  prophets  for  their  second  les- 
son ;  and  this  practice  was  continued  to  the 
times  of  the  Apostles,  Acts  xiii,  15,  27.  These 
sections  were  divided  into  verses,  called  by  the 
Jews  pesukim,  and  they  are  marked  out  in  the 
Hebrew  Eible  by  two  great  points  at  the  end  of 
them,  called  from  hence,  sup/i-pasufc,  that  is, 
the  end  of  the  verse.  This  division,  if  not  made 
by  Ezra,  is  very  ancient ;  for  when  the  Chal- 
dee  came  into  use  in  the  room  of  the  Hebrew 
language,  after  the  return  of  the  Jews  from 
their  captivity  in  Babylon,  the  law  was  read  to 
the  people  first  in  the  Hebrew  language,  and 
then  rendered  by  an  interpreter  into  the  Chal- 
dee  language;  and  this  was  done  period  by 
period.  The  division  of  the  Holy  Scriptures 
into  chapters  is  of  a  much  later  date.  The 
Psalms,  indeed,  appear  to  have  been  always  di- 
vided as  they  are  at  present,  Acts  xiii,  33  ;  but 
as  to  the  rest  of  the  Bible,  the  present  division 
into  chapters  was  unknown  to  the  ancients. 

6.  From  the  time  when  the  Old  Testament 


BIB 


157 


BIB 


was  completed  by  Malachi,  the  last  of  the  pro- 
phets,  till  the  publication  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, about  four  hundred  and  sixty  years 
elapsed.  During  the  life  of  Jesus  Christ,  and 
for  some  time  after  his  ascension,  nothing  on 
the  subject  of  his  mission  was  committed  to 
writing.  The  period  of  his  remaining  upon 
earth  may  be  regarded  as  an  intermediate  state 
between  the  old  and  new  dispensations.  His 
personal  ministry  was  confined  to  the  land  of 
Judea ;  and,  by  means  of  his  miracles  and  dis- 
courses, together  with  those  of  his  disciples,  the 
attention  of  men,  in  that  country,  was  suffi- 
ciently directed  to  his  doctrine.  They  were  also 
in  possession  of  the  Old  Testament  scriptures; 
which,  at  that  season,  it  was  of  the  greatest 
importance  they  should  consult,  in  order  to 
compare  the  ancient  predictions  with  what 
was  then  taking  place.  Immediately  after  the 
resurrection  of  Jesus  Christ,  his  disciples,  in 
the  most  public  manner,  and  in  the  place  where 
he  had  been  crucified,  proclaimed  that  event, 
and  the  whole  of  the  doctrine  which  he  had 
commanded  them  to  preach.  In  this  service 
they  continued  personally  to  labour  for  a  con- 
siderable time,  first  among  their  countrymen  the 
Jews,  and  then  among  the  other  nations.  Dur- 
ing the  period  between  the  resurrection  and  the 
publication  of  the  New  Testament,  the  churches 
possessed  miraculous  gifts,  and  the  prophets 
were  enabled  to  explain  the  predictions  of  the 
Old  Testament,  and  to  show  their  fulfilment. 
After  their  doctrine  had  every  where  attracted 
attention,  and,  in  spite  of  the  most  violent 
opposition,  had  forced  its  way  through  the 
civilized  world;  and  when  churches  or  socie- 
ties of  Christians  were  collected,  not  only  in 
Judea,  but  in  the  most  celebrated  cities  of  Italy, 
Greece,  and  Asia  Minor,  the  scriptures  of  the 
New  Testament  were  written  by  the  Apostles, 
and  other  inspired  men,  and  intrusted  to  the 
keeping  of  these  churches. 

The  whole  of  the  New  Testament  was  not 
written  at  once,  but  in  different  parts,  and  on 
various  occasions.  Six  of  the  Apostles,  and 
two  inspired  disciples  who  accompanied  them 
in  their  journeys,  were  employed  in  this  work. 
The  histories  which  it  contains  of  the  life  of 
Christ,  known  by  the  name  of  the  Gospels, 
were  composed  by  four  of  his  contemporaries, 
two  of  whom  had  been  constant  attendants  on 
his  public  ministry.  The  first  of  these  was 
published  within  a  few  years  after  his  death,  in 
that  very  country  where  he  had  lived,  and 
among  the  people  who  had  seen  him  and  ob- 
served his  conduct.  The  history  called  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles,  which  contains  an  ac- 
count of  their  proceedings,  and  of  the  progress 
of  the  Gospel,  from  Jerusalem,  among  the 
Gentile  nations,  was  published  about  the  year 
64,  being  thirty  years  after  our  Lord's  cruci- 
fixion, by  one  who,  though  not  an  Apostle, 
declares  that  he  had  "perfect  understanding 
of  all  things,  from  the  very  first,"  and  who  had 
written  one  of  the  Gospels.  This  book,  com- 
mencing with  a  detail  of  proceedings,  from  the 
resurrection  of  Jesus  Christ,  carries  down  the 
evangelical  history  till  the  arrival  of  Paul  as  a 
prisoner  at  Rome.     The  Epistles,  addressed  to 


churches  in  particular  places,  to  believers  scat- 
tered  up  and  down  in  different  countries,  or  to 
individuals,  in  all  twenty-one  in  number,  were 
separately  written,  by  five  of  the  Apostles, 
from  seventeen,  to  twenty,  thirty,  and  thirty- 
five  years  after  the  death  of  Christ.  Four  of 
these  writers  had  accompanied  the  Lord  Jesus 
during  his  life,  and  had  been  "  eye  witnesses  of 
his  majesty."  The  fifth  was  the  Apostle  Paul, 
who,  as  he  expresses  it,  was  •'  one  born  out  of 
due  time,"  but  who  had  likewise  seen  Jesus 
Christ,  and  had  been  empowered  by  him  to 
work  miracles,  which  were  "the  signs  of  an 
Apostle."  One  of  these  five  also  wrote  the 
book  of  Revelation,  about  the  year  A.  D.  96, 
addressed  to  seven  churches  in  Asia,  contain- 
ing Epistles  to  these  churches  from  Jesus  Christ 
himself,  with  various  instructions  for  the  im- 
mediate use  of  all  Christians,  together  with  a 
prophetical  view  of  the  kingdom  of  God  till 
the  end  of  time.  These  several  pieces,  which 
compose  the  scriptures  of  the  New  Testament, 
were  received  by  the  churches  with  the  highest 
veneration ;  and,  as  the  instructions  they  con- 
tain, though  partially  addressed,  were  equally 
intended  for  all,  they  were  immediately  copied, 
and  handed  about  from  one  church  to  another, 
till  each  was  in  possession  of  the  whole.  The 
volume  of  the  New  Testament  was  thus  com- 
pleted before  the  death  of  the  last  of  the  Apos- 
tles, most,  of  whom  had  sealed  their  testimony 
with  their  blood.  From  the  maimer  in  which 
these  scriptures  were  at  first  circulated,  some 
of  their  parts  were  necessarily  longer  in  reach- 
ing certain  places  than  others.  These,  of 
course,  could  not  be  so  soon  received  into  the 
canon  as  the  rest.  Owing  to  this  circumstance, 
and  to  that  of  a  few  of  the  boohs  being  address- 
ed to  individual  believers,  or  to  'Jieir  not  having 
the  names  of  their  writers  affixed,  or  the  de- 
signation of  Apostle  added,  a  doubt  for  a  time 
existed  among  some  respecting  the  genuineness 
of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  the  Epistle  of 
James,  the  second  Epistle  of  Peter,  the  second 
and  third  Epistles  of  John,  the  Epistle  of  Jude, 
and  the  book  of  Revelation.  These,  however, 
though  not  universally,  were  generally  acknow , 
ledged ;  while  all  the  other  books  of  the  New 
Testament  were  without  dispute  received  from 
the  beginning.  This  discrimination  proves  the 
scrupulous  care  of  the  first  churches  on  this 
highly  important  subject. 

At  length  these  books,  which  had  not  at  first 
been  admitted,  were,  like  the  rest,  universally 
received,  not  by  the  votes  of  a  council,  as  is 
sometimes  asserted,  but  after  deliberate  and 
free  inquiry  by  many  separate  churches,  under 
the  superintending  providence  of  God,  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  world.  It  is  at  the  same 
time  a  certain  fact,  chat  no  other  books  beside 
those  which  at  present  compose  the  volume  of 
the  New  Testament,  were  admitted  by  the 
churches.  Several  apocryphal  writings  were 
published  under  the  name  of  Jesus  Christ  and 
his  Apostles,  which  are  mentioned  by  the  writ- 
ers of  the  first  four  centuries,  most  of  which 
have  perished,  though  some  are  still  extant. 
Few  or  none  of  them  were  composed  before 
the  second  century,  and  several  of  them  were 


BIB 


158 


BIB 


forged  as  late  as  the  third  century.     But  they 
were    not  acknowledged  as    authentic  by  the 
first  Christians ;   and  were  rejected   by   those 
who  have  noticed  them,  as  spurious  and  he- 
retical.     Histories,  too,   as  might  have  been 
expected,  were  written  of  the  life  of  Christ ; 
and   one  forgery  was  attempted,   of  a   letter 
said  to  have  been  written  by  Jesus  himself  to 
Abgarus,    king    of  Edessa ;    but   of  the  first, 
none  were  received  as  of  any  authority,  and 
the  last   was   universally   rejected.      "Beside 
our  Gospels,  and  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,"  says 
Paley,  "  no  Christian  history  claiming  to  be 
written  by  an   Apostle,   or   Apostolical  man, 
is  quoted  within  three  hundred  years  after  the 
birth  of  Christ,  by  any  writer  now  extant  or 
known,  or,  if  quoted,  is  quoted  with  marks  of 
censure    and    rejection."     This    agreement  of 
Christians  respecting  the  Scriptures,  when  we 
consider    their  many  differences  in  other  re- 
spects, is  the  more  remarkable,  since  it  took 
place  without  any  public  authority  being  inter- 
posed.    "  We  have  no   knowledge,"  says  the 
above  author,  "  of  any  interference  of  authority 
in  the  question  before  the  council  of  Laodicea, 
in  the  year  363.     Probably  the  decree  of  this 
council    rather    declared    than    regulated   the 
public  judgment,  or,  more  properly  speaking, 
the  judgment  of  some  neighbouring  churches, 
the  council  itself  consisting  of  no  more  than 
thirty  or  forty  bishops  of  Lydia  and  the  adjoin- 
ing countries.     Nor  does  its  authority  seem  to 
have  extended  farther."     But  the  fact,  that  no 
public  authority  was  interposed,  does  not  re- 
quire to  be  supported  by  the  above  reasoning. 
The  churches  it  the  beginning,  being  widely 
separated  from  3ach  other,  necessarily  judged 
for  themselves    n  this  matter,  and  the  decree 
of  the  council  was  founded  on  the  coincidence 
of  their  judgment.     In  delivering  this  part  of 
his  written   revelation,  God  proceeded    as  he 
had  done  in  the  publication  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment scriptures.     For  a  considerable  time,  his 
will  was  declared  to  mankind  through  the  me- 
dium of  oral  tradition.    At  length  he  saw  meet, 
in  his  wisdom,  to  give  it  a  more  permanent 
form.    But  Uiis  did  not  take  place  till  a  nation, 
separated  from  all  others,  was  provided  for  its 
reception.     In  the  same  manner,  when  Jesus 
Christ   set  up    his  kingdom  in  the  world,  of 
which  the  nation  of  Israel  was  a  type,  he  first 
made  knovn  his  will  by  means  of  verbal  com- 
munication, through    his    servants   whom  he 
commissioned  and  sent  out  for  that  purpose ; 
and  when,  t'nrough  their  means,  he  had  pre- 
pared   his   subjects   and   collected   them   into 
churches,  to  be  the  depositaries  of  his  word,  he 
caused  it  to  be  delivered  to  them  in  writing. 
His  kingdom  was  not  to  consist  of  any  particu- 
lar nation,  like  that  of  Israel,  but  of  all  those 
individuals,  in  every  part  af  the  world,  who 
should  believe  in  his  name.    Tt  was  to  be  ruled, 
not  by  means  of  human  authority,  or  compul- 
sion of  any  kind,  but  solely  by  his  authority. 
These  sacred  writings  were  thus  intrusted  to  a 
people  prepared  for  their  reception, — a  nation 
among  the  nations,  but  singularly  distinct  from 
all  the  rest,  who  guarded  and  preserved  them 
with   the   same  inviolable  attachment  as  the 


Old  Testament  scriptures  had  experienced  from 
the  Jews. 

7.  Respecting  the  lateness  of  the  time  when 
the  scriptures  of  the  New  Testament  were 
written,  no  objection  can  be  offered,  since  they 
were  published  before  that  generation  passed 
away  which  had  witnessed  the  transactions 
they  record.  The  dates  ,of  these  writings  fall 
within  the  period  of  the  lives  of  many  who 
were  in  full  manhood  when  the  Lord  Jesus  was 
upon  earth ;  and  the  facts  detailed  in  the  his- 
tories, and  referred  to  in  the  Epistles,  being  of 
the  most  public  nature,  were  still  open  to  full 
investigation.  It  must  also  be  recollected,  that 
the  Apostles  and  disciples,  during  the  whole 
intermediate  period,  were  publicly  proclaiming 
to  the  world  the  same  things  which  were  after- 
ward recorded  in  their  writings.  Thus  were 
the  Scriptures,  as  we  now  possess  them,  deli- 
vered to  the  first  churches.  By  the  concurrent 
testimony  of  all  antiquity,  both  of  friends  and 
foes,  they  were  received  by  Christians  of  differ- 
ent sects,  and  were  constantly  appealed  to  on 
all  hands,  in  the  controversies  that  arose  among 
them.  Commentaries  upon  them  were  written 
at  a  very  early  period,  and  translations  made 
into  different  languages.  Formal  catalogues 
of  them  were  published,  and  they  were  attack- 
ed by  the  adversaries  of  Christianity,  who  not 
only  did  not  question,  but  expressly  admitted, 
the  facts  they  contained,  and  that  they  were 
the  genuine  productions  of  the  persons  whose 
names  they  bore.  In  this  manner  the  Scrip- 
tures were  also  secured  from  the  danger  of 
being  in  any  respect  altered  or  vitiated.  "  The 
books  of  Scripture,"  says  Augustine,  "could 
not  have  been  corrupted.  If  such  an  attempt 
had  been  made  by  any  one,  his  design  would  have 
been  prevented  and  defeated.  His  alterations 
would  have  been  immediately  detected  by  many 
and  more  ancient  copies."  The  difficulty 
of  succeeding  in  such  an  attempt  is  apparent 
hence,  that  the  Scriptures  were  early  translated 
into  divers  languages,  and  copies  of  them  were 
numerous.  The  alterations  which  any  one 
attempted  to  make  would  have  been  soon  per- 
ceived ;  just  even  as  now,  in  fact,  lesser  faults 
in  some  copies  are  amended  by  comparing 
ancient  copies  or  those  of  the  original.  "If 
any  one,"  continues  Augustine,  "  should  charge 
you  with  having  interpolated  some  texts  alleged 
by  you  as  favourable  to  your  cause,  what  would 
you  say  ?  Would  you  not  immediately  answer 
that  it  is  impossible  for  you  to  do  such  a  thing 
in  books  read  by  all  Christians;  and  that  if 
any  such  attempt  had  been  made  by  you,  it 
would  have  been  presently  discerned  and  de- 
feated by  comparing  the  ancient  copies  ?  Well, 
then,  for  the  same  reason  that  the  Scriptures 
cannot  be  corrupted  by  you,  neither  could  they 
be  corrupted  by  any  other  people."  Accord- 
ingly, the  uniformity  of  the  manuscripts  of 
the  Holy  Scriptures  that  are  extant,  which  are 
incomparably  more  numerous  than  those  of 
any  ancient  author,  and  which  are  dispersed 
through  so  many  countries,  and  in  so  great  a 
variety  of  languages,  is  truly  astonishing.  It 
demonstrates  both  the  veneration  in  which  the 
Scriptures  have  been  always  held,  and  the  sin 


BIB 


159 


BIB 


gular  care  that  has  been  taken  in  transcribing 
them.     The  number  of  various  readings,  that 
by  the  most  minute  and  laborious  investigation 
and  collations  of  manuscripts  have  been  dis- 
covered in  them,  are  said  to  amount  to  one 
hundred   and  fifty  thousand;   though  at   first 
sight   they  may  seem   calculated  to  diminish 
confidence  in  the  sacred  text,  yet  in  no  degree 
whatever  do  they  affect  its  credit  and  integrity. 
They  consist  almost  wholly  in  palpable  errors 
in  transcription,  grammatical  and  verbal  differ- 
ences, such  as  the  insertion  or  omission  of  a 
letter  or  article,  the  substitution  of  a  word  for 
its  equivalent,  or  the  transposition  of  a  word 
or  two  in  a  sentence.     Taken  altogether,  they 
neither  change  nor  affect  a  single  doctrine  or 
duty  announced  or   enjoined  in  the  word  of 
God.     When,  therefore,  we  consider  the  great 
antiquity  of  the  sacred  books,  the  almost  infi- 
nite number  of  copies,  of  versions,  and  of  edi- 
tions, which  have  been  made  of  them  in  all 
languages,  in  languages  which  have  not  any 
analogy    one    with    another,    among    nations 
differing  so  much  in  their  customs  and  their 
religious  opinions, — when  we    consider  these 
things,  it  is  truly  astonishing,  and  can  only  be 
ascribed  to  the  watchful    providence  of  God 
over  his  own  word,  that,  among  the  various 
readings,  nothing  truly  essential  can  be  dis- 
cerned, which  relates  to  either  precept  or  doc- 
trine, or  which  breaks  that  connection,  that 
unity  which  subsists  in  all  the  various  parts  of 
divine  revelation,  and  which  demonstrates  the 
whole  to  be  the  work  of  one  and  the  same  Spirit. 
8.  Having  considered   the    appellations    by 
which  the  Bible  is  distinguished,  the  books  of 
which  it  consists,  the  time  and  manner  in  which 
they  were  collected,  it  may  not  be  improper  to 
subjoin  a  few  observations  on  the  genuineness 
and  authenticity  of  the  Scriptures,  on  their  high 
original  and  divine  authority,  and  on  their  great 
importance  and  utility. 

It  should  here  be  considered,  that  the  genu- 
ineness   of  the    Scriptures    proves   the   truth 
of  the  principal  facts  contained  in  them  ;  to 
which    purpose    we    may   observe    that    it   is 
very  rare  to  meet  with  any  genuine  writings 
of  the  historical  kind,  in  which  the  principal 
facts  are  not  true,  unless  it  be   in  instances 
where  both  the  motives  which  engaged  the  au- 
thor to  falsify,  and  the  circumstances  which 
gave  some  plausibility  to  the  fiction,  are  appar- 
ent; neither  of  which  can  be  alleged  in  the 
present  case  with  any  colour  of  reason.     As 
this  is  rare  in  general,  it  is  more  rare  when  the 
writer  treats  of  things  that  happened  in    his 
own  time,  and  under  his  own  cognizance  and 
direction,  and  communicates  his  history  to  per- 
sons under  the  same  circumstances  ;  all  which 
may  be  said  of  the  writers  of  the  Scripture  his- 
tory.    Beside,  the  great  importance  of  the  facts 
mentioned  in  the  Scriptures  makes  it  more  im- 
probable, that  the  several  authors  should  either 
have  attempted  to  falsify,  or  have  succeeded  in 
such  an  attempt.     The  same  observation  may 
be  applied  to  the  great  number  of  particular  cir- 
cumstances of  time,  place,  persons,  &c,  men- 
tioned in  the  Scriptures,  and  to  the  harmony  of 
the  books  with  themselves,  and  with  each  other. 


These  are  arguments  both  for  the  genuineness 
of  the  books,  and  truth  of  the  facts  distinctly 
considered,  and  also  arguments  for  deducing 
the  truth  from  the  genuineness.     Moreover,  if 
the   books  of  the   Old  and  New  Testaments 
were  written  by  the  persons  to  whom  they  have 
been  ascribed,  that  is,  if  they  be  genuine,  the 
moral  characters  of  these  writers   afford  the 
strongest  assurance,  that  the  facts  asserted  by 
them  are  true.     The  sufferings  which  several 
of  the  writers  underwent  both  in  life  and  in 
death,  in  attestation  of  the  facts  delivered  by 
them,  furnish  a  particular  argument  in  favour 
of  these   facts.      Again,   the   arguments  here 
alleged  for  proving  the  truth  of  the  Scripture 
history  from  the  genuineness  of  the  books,  are 
as  conclusive  in  respect  of  the  miraculous  facts, 
as  of  the  common  ones.     It  may  also  be  ob. 
served,  that  if  we  allow  the  genuineness  of  the 
books  to  be  a  sufficient  evidence  of  the  com- 
mon facts  which  they  record,  the  miraculous 
facts  must  also  be  allowed  from  their  close  con- 
nection with  the  others.      It  is  necessary  to 
admit  both  or  neither.     We  cannot  conceive 
that  Moses  should  have  delivered  the  Israelites 
from  their  slavery  in  Egypt,  or  conducted  them 
through  the  wilderness  for  forty  years,  at  all  in 
such  manner  as   the  common    history  repre- 
sents, unless  we  suppose  the  miraculous  facts 
intermixed  with  it  to  be  true  also.    In  like  man- 
ner, the  fame  of  Christ's  miracles,  the  multi 
tudes  which  followed  him,  the  adherence  of  his 
disciples,  the  jealousy  and  hatred  of  the  chief 
priests,  scribes,  and  Pharisees,  with  many  other 
facts  of  a  common  nature,  are  impossible  to  be 
accounted  for,  unless  we  allow  that  he  did  real- 
ly work  miracles      And  the  same  observations 
hold,  in  general,  of  the  other  parts  of  the  Scrip- 
ture history.     We  might  urge  that  a  particular 
argument  in  favour  of  the  miraculous  part  of 
the  Scripture  history,  maybe  deduced  from  the 
reluctance  of  mankind  to  receive  miraculous 
facts  ;  which  would  put  the  writers  and  readers 
very  much  upon  their  guard,  and  would  ope- 
rate as  a  strong  check  upon  the  publication  of 
a  miraculous  history  at  or  near  the  time  when 
the  miracle  were  said  to  be  performed ;   and 
thus  it  would  serve  as  a  strong  confirmation  of 
such  a  history,  if  its  genuineness  be  previously 
granted. 

9.  In  connection  with  the  preceding  propo- 
sition we  may  observe,  that  the  genuineness  of 
the  Scriptures  proves  their  divine  authority. 
Porphyry  in  effect  acknowledges  the  truth  of 
this  proposition,  in  its  reference  to  the  book  of 
Daniel,  by  being  unable  to  devise  a  method  of 
invalidating  its  divine  authority  implied  in  the 
accomplishment  of  the  prophecies  which  it  con- 
tains, without  asserting  that  they  were  written 
after  the  event,  or  that  they  were  forgeries. 
Many  of  the  other  books  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments  have  unquestionable  evidences  of 
the  divine  foreknowledge,  if  they  be  allowed 
genuine ;  such  are  those  supplied  by  Moses's 
prophecy  concerning  the  captivity  of  the  Israel- 
ites, or  of  a  state  not  yet  erected ;  Isaiah's  con- 
cerning Cyrus ;  Jeremiah's  concerning  the  du- 
ration of  the  Babylonish  captivity ;  Christ's 
concerning  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  and 


BIB 


160 


BIB 


the  captivity  that  was  to  follow ;  St.  John's  con- 
cerning the  great  corruption  of  the  Christian 
church ;  and  Daniel's  concerning  the  fourth 
empire  in  its  declension  ;  which  last  was  ex- 
tant in  the  time  of  Porphyry,  at  least ;  that  is, 
before  the  events  which  it  represents.  The  truth 
of  the  proposition  might  also  be  argued  from  the 
sublimity  and  excellence  of  the  doctrines  con- 
tained in  the  Scriptures  ;  in  no  respect  suiting 
the  supposed  authors,  or  the  ages  in  which  they 
lived,  their  education  or  occupation  ;  so  that, 
if  they  were  the  real  authors,  we  are  under  the 
necessity  of  admitting  the  divine  assistance. 
The  converse  of  this  proposition,  namely,  that 
the  divine  authority  of  the  Scriptures  infers 
their  genuineness,  will  be  readily  and  univer- 
sally acknowledged.  Moreover,  the  truth  of 
the  principal  facts  contained  in  the  Scriptures 
proves  their  divine  authority.  Such  is  the  frame 
of  the  human  mind,  that  the  Scripture  history, 
allowed  to  be  true,  must  convince  us  that 
Christ,  the  Prophets,  and  the  Apostles,  were 
endued  with  a  power  greater  than  human,  and 
acted  by  the  authority  of  a  Being  of  the  high- 
est wisdom  and  goodness.  By  such  mode  of 
reasoning  it  is  shown  that  the  genuineness  of1 
the  Scriptures,  the  truth  of  the  princpal  facts 
contained  in  them,  and  their  divine  authority, 
appear  to  be  so  connected  with  each  other, 
that,  any  one  being  established  upon  independ- 
ent principles,  the  other  two  may  be  inferred 
from  it.  On  the  subject  of  the  inspiration  of 
the  Scriptures,  see  Inspiration. 

10.  Another  argument  in  favour  of  the  genu- 
ineness of  the  books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments, and  of  the  truth  of  the  principal  facts 
contained  in  them,  may  be  deduced  from  the 
manner  in  which  they  have  been  transmitted 
down  from  one  age  to  another ;  resembling 
that  in  which  all  other  genuine  books  and  true 
histories  have  been  conveyed  down  to  posterity. 
As  the  works  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  writers 
were  considered  by  these  nations  as  having 
been  transmitted  to  them  by  their  ancestors  in 
a  continued  succession  from  the  times  when 
the  respective  authors  lived,  so  have  the  books 
of  the  Old  Testament  been  accounted  by  the 
Jews,  and  those  of  the  New  by  the  Christians ; 
and  it  is  an  additional  evidence  in  the  last  case, 
that  the  primitive  Christians  were  not  a  distinct 
nation,  but  a  great  multitude  of  people  dispers- 
ed through  all  the  nations  of  the  Roman  em- 
pire, and  even  extending  itself  beyond  the 
bounds  of  that  empire.  As  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  always  believed  the  principal  facts  of 
their  historical  books,  so  the  Jews  and  Chris- 
tians did  more,  and  never  seem  to  have  doubt- 
ed of  the  truth  of  any  part  of  theirs.  In  short 
— whatever  can  be  said  of  the  traditional  au- 
thority due  to  the  Greek  and  Roman  writers — 
something  analogous  to  this,  and  for  the  most 
part  of  greater  weight,  may  be  urged  for  the 
Jewish  and  Christian.  Now,  as  all  sober  mind- 
ed persons  admit  the  books  usually  ascribed  to 
the  Greek  and  Roman  historians,  philosophers, 
&,c,  to  be  genuine,  and  the  principal  facts  re- 
lated or  alluded  to  in  them  to  be  true,  and  that 
one  chief  evidence  for  this  is  the  general  tradi- 
tionary one  here  recited,  they  ought,  therefore, 


to  pay  the  same  regard  to  the  books  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments,  since  there  are  the  same, 
or  even  greater,  reasons  for  it.  Beside,  these 
traditionary  evidences  are  sufficient ;  and  we 
thus  obtain  a  real  argument,  as  well  as  one  ad 
hominem,  for  receiving  books  thus  handed  down 
to  us.  For  it  is  not  conceivable,  that  whole 
nations  should  either  be  imposed  upon  them- 
selves, or  concur  to  deceive  others  by  forgeries 
of  books  or  of  facts.  These  books  and  facts 
must  therefore,  in  general,  be  genuine  and  true; 
and  it  is  a  strong  additional  evidence  of  this, 
that  all  nations  must  be  jealous  of  forgeries  for 
the  same  reasons  as  we  are. 

11.  We  may  proceed  to  state  farther,  that 
the  great  importance  of  the  histories,  precepts, 
promises,  threatenings,  and  prophecies  con- 
tained in  the  Scriptures,  is  in  evidence  both  of 
their  genuineness,  and  of  the  truth  of  the  prin- 
cipal facts  mentioned  in  them.  The  history 
of  the  creation,  fall,  deluge,  longevity  of  the 
patriarchs,  dispersion  of  mankind,  calling  of 
Abraham,  descent  of  Jacob  with  his  family  into 
Egypt,  and  the  precepts  of  abstaining  from 
blood,  and  of  circumcision,  were  of  such  con- 
cern, either  to  mankind  in  general,  or  to  the 
Israelites  in  particular,  and  some  of  them  of  so 
extraordinary  a  nature,  as  that  it  could  not  be 
a  matter  of  indifference  to  the  people  among 
whom  the  account  given  of  them  in  Genesis 
was  first  published,  whether  they  received  them 
or  not.  On  the  supposition  that  this  account 
was  first  published  among  the  Israelites  by 
Moses,  and  then  confirmed  by  clear,  universal, 
uninterrupted  tradition,  it  will  be  easy  to  con- 
ceive how  it  should  be  handed  down  from  age 
to  age  among  the  Jews,  and  received  by  them 
as  indubitable.  But,  supposing  the  account  to 
be  false,  or  that  there  were  no  such  vestiges 
and  evidences  of  these  histories  and  precepts, 
it  will  be  difficult  to  conceive  how  this  could 
have  happened,  let  the  time  of  publication  be 
what  it  may.  If  early,  the  people  would  reject 
at  once  the  account,  for  want  of  a  clear  tra- 
dition ;  if  late,  it  would  be  natural  to  inquire 
how  the  author  was  informed  of  things  never 
known  before  to  others.  As  to  other  cosmo- 
gonies and  theogonies  current  among  Pagans, 
which  are  evident  fictions,  they  furnish  no  just 
objection  against  the  Mosaic  history,  because 
thby  were  generally  regarded  merely  as  amus- 
ing fictions  ;  and  yet  they  concealed  in  figures, 
or  expressed  in  plain  words,  some  truths  which 
agree  with  the  book  of  Genesis,  and  afford  a 
strong  presumptive  evidence  in  favour  of  this 
book.  With  respect  to  the  law  of  Moses,  this 
was  extremely  burdensome,  expensive,  and 
severe,  particularly  in  its  reference  to  the 
crime  of  idolatry,  to  which  mankind  were  then 
extravagantly  prone ;  and  it  was  absurd,  ac- 
cording to  human  judgment,  in  the  instances 
of  prohibiting  their  furnishing  themselves  with 
horses  for  war,  and  of  commanding  all  the 
males  of  the  whole  nation  to  appear  at  Jerusa- 
lem three  times  a  year.  Nevertheless,  it  claims 
a  divine  authority,  and  appeals  to  facts  of  the 
most  notorious  kind,  and  to  customs  and  cere- 
monies of  the  most  peculiar  nature,  as  the 
memorials  of  these  facts.     Can  we  then  con- 


BIB 


161 


BIB 


ceive  that  any  nation,  with  such  motives  to 
reject,  and  such  opportunities  of  detecting,  the 
forgery  of  the  books  of  Exodus,  Leviticus, 
Numbers,  and  Deuteronomy,  should  yet  receive 
them,  and  submit  to  this  heavy  yoke  ?  That 
the  Jews  did  submit  to  the  law  of  Moses  in 
these  circumstances,  is  evident  from  the  books 
of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  if  we  allow 
them  the  least  truth  and  genuineness,  or  even 
from  profane  writers,  and  from  the  present 
observance  of  it  by  the  Jews  scattered  through 
all  the  kingdoms  of  the  world.  Should  it  be 
said  that  other  nations  have  ascribed  divine 
authority  to  their  lawgivers,  and  submitted  to 
very  severe  laws,  it  may  be  alleged  in  reply  to 
this,  that  the  pretences  of  lawgivers  among 
the  Pagans  to  inspiration,  and  the  submission 
of  the  people,  may  be  accounted  for  from  their 
peculiar  circumstances  at  the  time,  without 
recurring  to  real  inspiration  ;  and  more  espe- 
cially if  we  admit  the  patriarchal  revelations 
related  by  Moses,  and  his  own  divine  legation, 
as  Heathen  lawgivers  copied  after  these,  and 
hence  we  derive  a  strong  argument  in  their 
favour.  Beside,  no  instance  occurs  among 
the  Pagans  of  a  body  of  laws  framed  at  once 
and  remaining  invariable ;  whereas  the  body 
politic  of  the  Israelites  assumed  a  complete 
form  at  once,  and  has  preserved  it,  with  little 
variation,  to  the  present  time,  and  under  many 
external  disadvantages ;  thus  supplying  us  with 
an  instance  altogether  without  parallel,  and 
showing  the  high  opinion  which  they  enter- 
tained of  the  great  importance  of  their  law. 
In  short,  of  all  the  fictions  or  forgeries  that 
can  happen  among  any  people,  the  most  im- 
probable is  that  of  the  Jewish  body  of  civil 
laws,  and  seems  to  be  utterly  impossible. 

12.  If  we  farther  examine  the  history  con- 
tained in  the  books  of  Joshua,  Judges,  Ruth, 
Samuel,  Kings,  Chronicles,  Ezra,  and  Nehe- 
miah,  and  extending  from  the  death  of  Moses 
to  the  reestablishment  of  the  Jews  after  the 
Babylonish  captivity  by  Ezra  and  Nehemiah, 
we  shall  find  a  variety  of  important  facts,  most 
of  which  must  be  supposed  to  leave  such  ves- 
tiges of  themselves,  either  external  and  visible, 
or  internal  in  the  minds  and  memories  of  the 
people,  as  would  verify  them  if  true,  or  cause 
them  to  be  rejected  if  false.  The  conquest  of 
the  land  of  Canaan,  the  division  of  it,  and  the 
appointment  of  cities  for  the  priests  and  Le- 
vites  by  Joshua  ;  the  frequent  slaveries  of  the 
Israelites  to  the  neighbouring  kings,  and  their 
deliverance  by  the  judges ;  the  creation  of  a 
kingdom  by  Samuel;  the  translation  of  this 
kingdom  from  Saul's  family  to  David,  with  his 
conquests ;  the  glory  of  Solomon's  kingdom  ; 
the  building  of  the  temple  ;  the  division  of  the 
kingdom  ;  the  idolatrous  worship  set  up  at  Dan 
and  Bethel;  the  captivity  of  the  Israelites  by 
the  kings  of  Assyria  ;  the  captivity  of  the  Jews 
by  Nebuchadnezzar ;  the  destruction  of  their 
temple ;  their  return  under  Cyrus,  rebuilding 
the  temple  under  Darius  Hystaspes,  and  re- 
establishment  under  Artaxerxes  Longimanus, 
by  Ezra  and  Nehemiah: — these  events  are 
some  of  them  the  most  glorious,  and  some  of 
hem  the  most  reproachful,  that  can  happen  to 
12 


any  people.  How  can  we  reconcile  forgeries 
of  such  opposite  kinds,  and  especially  as  they 
are  interwoven  together  by  various  complicated 
and  necessary  connections,  which  do  not  ad- 
mit of  separation  ?  The  facts,  indeed,  are  of 
such  importance,  notoriety,  and  permanency 
in  their  effects,  that  no  particular  persons 
among  the  Israelites  could  first  project  the 
design  of  feigning  them,  that  their  own  people 
would  not  concur  with  such  a  design,  and  that 
neighbouring  nations  would  not  permit  the  fic- 
tion to  pass.  Nothing  but  the  invincible  evi- 
dence of  the  facts  here  alleged,  could  induce 
a  jealous  multitude  among  the  Israelites  or 
neighbouring  nations  to  acquiesce.  This  must 
be  acknowledged  upon  the  supposition  that  the 
several  books  were  published  in  or  near  the 
times  when  the  facts  that  are  recorded  in  them 
happened.  But  suppose  all  these  historical 
books  forged  by  Ezra ;  the  hypothesis  is  evi- 
dently impossible.  Things  so  important  and 
notorious,  so  honourable  and  so  reproachful  to 
the  people  for  whose  sake  they  were  forged, 
would  have  been  rejected  with  the  utmost  in- 
dignation, unless  there  were  the  strongest  and 
most  genuine  traces  of  these  things  already 
among  the  people.  They  must  therefore,  in 
part  at  least,  be  true.  If  it  be  said  that  addi- 
tions were  made  by  Ezra,  these  additions  must 
have  been  either  of  important  or  trivial  mat- 
ters. On  the  first  supposition,  the  difficulty 
already  stated  recurs ;  and  if  the  important 
facts  are  true,  what  possible  motive  could  have 
induced  Ezra  to  make  additions  of  no  impor- 
tance ?  Beside,  if  any  ancient  writings  were 
extant,  Ezra  must  either  copy  after  them,  which 
destroys  the  present  supposition,  or  differ  from 
and  oppose  them,  which  would  betray  him.  If 
there  were  no  such  ancient  writings,  the  peo- 
ple would  be  led  to  inquire  with  regard  to  mat- 
ters of  importance,  for  what  reason  Ezra  was 
so  particular  in  things  of  which  there  was 
neither  any  memory,  nor  account  in  writing. 
Should  it  be  said  that  the  people  did  not  regard 
what  Ezra  had  thus  forged,  this  reduces  the 
subject  in  question  to  matters  of  small  or  of  no 
importance.  Beside,  why  should  Ezra  write 
if  no  one  would  read  or  regard  ?  Farther :  Ezra 
must  have  had,  like  other  men,  friends,  ene- 
mies, and  rivals ;  and  some,  or  all  of  these, 
would  have  been  a  check  upon  him,  and  a  se- 
curity against  him,  in  matters  of  importance. 
If  we  suppose  these  books,  instead  of  having 
been  forged  at  once,  to  have  been  forged  suc- 
cessively, at  the  interval  of  one,  two,  or  three 
centuries  after  the  facts  related,  we  shall  in- 
volve ourselves  in  the  same  or  similar  difficul- 
ties. Upon  the  whole,  then,  we  may  conclude, 
that  the  forgery  of  the  annals  of  the  Israelites 
appears  to  be  impossible,  as  well  as  that  of  tho 
body  of  their  civil  laws.  It  is  needless  to  ex- 
amine the  books  of  Esther,  Job,  the  Psalms, 
Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes,  and  Canticles  ;  and  we 
might  proceed  to  the  Prophecies ;  but  this  will 
be  resumed  under  the  article  Prophecy.  For 
the  subjects  comprehended  in  the  books  of  the 
New  Testament.      See   Gospel,    and  Chris. 

TIANITY. 

13.  We  shall  here  subjoin  some  general  ovi. 


BIB 


162 


BIB 


dences  in  attestation  of  the  truth  of  the  books 
of  Scripture.  That  Jews  and  Christians  have 
thought  their  sacred  books  very  highly  impor- 
tant, most  genuine,  and  true,  appears  from  the 
persecutions  and  sufferings  which  they  have 
undergone  on  account  of  their  attachment  to 
them,  and  because  they  would  not  be  prevailed 
upon  to  surrender  them.  The  preservation  of 
the  law  of  Moses,  probably  the  first  book  writ- 
ten in  any  language,  whilst  many  others  of  a 
later  date  have  been  lost,  shows  the  great  re- 
gard that  has  been  paid  to  it;  and  from  this 
circumstance  we  may  infer  that  this  and  the 
other  books  of  the  Old  Testament  have  been 
preserved  on  account  of  their  importance,  or 
from  some  other  cause,  equally  evincing  their 
genuineness  and  truth.  The  great  value  set 
upon  these  books  appears  also  from  the  many 
early  translations  and  paraphrases  of  them ;  and 
these  translations  and  paraphrases  serve  to  cor- 
rect errors  that  are  unavoidable  in  the  lapse  of 
time,  and  to  secure  their  integrity  and  purity. 
The  hesitation  and  difficulty  with  which  some 
few  books  of  the  New  Testament  were  received 
into  the  canon,  show  the  great  care  and  con- 
cern of  the  primitive  Christians  about  the 
canon,  and  the  high  importance  of  the  books 
admitted  into  it ;  and  afford  a  strong  evidence 
of  their  genuineness  and  truth.  The  same 
observation  is  in  a  degree  applicable  to  the 
Jewish  canon.  Moreover,  the  religious  hatred 
and  animosity  which  subsisted  between  the 
Jews  and  Samaritans,  and  between  several  of 
the  ancient  sects  among  the  Christians,  con- 
vince us  of  what  importance  they  all  thought 
their  sacred  books,  and  disposed  them  to  watch 
over  one  another  with  a  jealous  eye.  Farther  : 
the  genuineness  of  the  books  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments  may  be  evinced  from  the  lan- 
guage, style,  and  manner  of  writing  used  in 
them.  The  Hebrew  language,  in  which  the 
Old  Testament  was  written,  being  the  language 
of  an  ancient  people,  who  had  little  intercourse 
with  their  neighbours,  would  not  change  so 
fast  as  modern  languages  have  done,  since  dif- 
ferent nations  have  been  variously  blended  with 
one  another  by  the  extension  of  trade,  arts,  and 
sciences  ;  and  yet  some  changes  must  have  oc- 
curred in  the  interval  that  elapsed  between  the 
time  of  Moses  and  that  of  Malachi.  The  bib- 
lical Hebrew  corresponds  so  exactly  to  this  cri- 
terion, as  to  afford  a  considerable  argument  in 
favour  of  the  genuineness  of  the  books  of  the 
Old  Testament.  Beside,  these  books  have  too 
great  a  diversity  of  style  to  be  the  work  of 
either  one  Jew,  or  of  any  set  of  contemporary 
Jews.  If  they  be  forgeries,  there  must  have 
been  a  succession  of  impostors  in  different  ages, 
who  concurred  in  the  same  iniquitous  design. 
Again:  the  Hebrew  language  ceased  to  be 
spoken,  as  a  living  language,  soon  after  the 
time  of  the  Babylonish  captivity  ;  and  it  would 
be  difficult  or  impossible  to  forge  any  thing  in 
it  after  it  became  a  dead  language.  Hence  it 
appears,  that  all  the  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment must  at  least  be  nearly  as  ancient  as  the 
Babylonish  captivity ;  and  as  they  could  not 
all  be  written  in  the  same  age,  some  must  be 
much  more  ancient,  and  this  would  reduce  us 


to  the  necessity  of  supposing  a  succession  of 
conspiring  impostors.  Moreover,  there  is,  as 
we  have  already  observed,  a  simplicity  of  style, 
and  an  unaffected  manner  of  writing,  in  all  the 
books  of  the  Old  Testament,  which  is  a  strong 
evidence  of  their  genuineness.  The  style  of 
the  New  Testament,  in  particular,  is  not  only 
simple  and  unaffected,  but  is  Greek  influenced 
by  the  Hebrew  idiom,  and  exactly  answers  to 
the  circumstances  of  time,  places,  and  persons. 
To  which  we  may  add,  that  the  narrations  and 
precepts  of  both  the  Old  and  New  Testament 
are  delivered  without  hesitation ;  the  writers 
teaching  as  having  authority  :  and  this  circum- 
stance is  peculiar  to  those  who  unite,  with  a 
clear  knowledge  of  what  they  deliver,  a  perfect 
integrity  of  heart.  But  a  farther  argument  for 
the  genuineness  and  truth  of  the  Scriptures  is 
supplied  by  the  very  great  number  of  particu- 
lar circumstances  of  time,  place,  persons,  &c, 
mentioned  in  them.  It  is  needless  to  recount 
these ;  but  they  are  incompatible  with  forged 
and  false  accounts,  that  do  not  abound  in  such 
particularities,  and  the  want  of  which  furnishes 
a  suspicion  to  their  discredit.  Compare,  in 
this  respect,  Manetho's  account  of  the  dynas- 
ties of  Egypt,  Ctesias's  of  the  Assyrian  kings-, 
and  those  which  the  technical  chronologera 
have  given  of  the  ancient  kingdoms  of  Greece, 
which  are  defective  in  such  particulars,  with 
the  history  by  Thucydides  of  the  Peloponne- 
sian  war,  and  with  Caesar's  of  the  war  in  Gaul, 
and  the  difference  will  be  sufficiently  apparent. 
Dr.  Paley's  admirable  treatise,  entitled,  "  Horn 
Panl/ncr,"  affords  very  valuable  illustrations  of 
this  argument  as  it  respects  the  genuineness  of 
the  books  of  the  New  Testament.  The  agree- 
ment of  the  Scriptures  with  history,  natural 
and  civil,  is  a  farther  proof  of  their  genuine- 
ness and  truth.  The  history  of  the  fall  agrees 
in  an  eminent  manner  both  with  the  obvious 
facts  of  labour,  sorrow,  pain,  and  death,  with 
what  we  see  and  feel  every  day,  and  with  all 
our  philosophical  inquiries  into  the  frame  of 
the  human  mind,  the  nature  of  social  life,  and 
the  origin  of  evil.  Natural  history  bears  a 
strong  testimony  to  Moses's  account  of  the 
deluge.  Civil  history  affords  many  evidences 
which  corroborate  the  same  account.  (See 
Deluge.)  The  Mosaic  account  of  the  confusion 
of  languages,  of  the  dispersion  of  Noah's  sons, 
and  of  the  state  of  religion  in  the  ancient  post- 
diluvian world,  is  not  only  rendered  probable, 
but  is  in  a  very  high  degree  established,  by 
many  collateral  arguments.  See  Confusion  of 
Languages,  and  Division  of  the  Earth. 

14.  The  agreement  of  the  books  of  the  016! 
and  New  Testaments  with  themselves  and  with 
each  other,  affords  another  argument  both  of 
their  genuineness  and  truth.  The  laws  of  the 
Israelites  are  contained  in  the  Pentateuch,  and 
referred  to,  in  a  great  variety  of  ways,  direct 
and  indirect,  in  the  historical  books,  in  the 
Psalms,  and  in  the  Prophecies.  The  histo- 
rical facts  also  in  the  preceding  books  are 
often  referred  to  in  those  that  succeed,  and  in 
the  Psalms  and  Prophecies.  In  like  manner, 
the  Gospels  have  the  greatest  harmony  with 
each  other,  and  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul  with 


BIB 


163 


BIB 


the  Acts  of  the  Apostles ;  and,  indeed,  there  is 
scarcely  any  book  of  either  the  Old  or  New 
Testament,  which  may  not  be  shown  to  refer 
to  many  of  the  rest,  in  one  way  or  other.  For 
the  illustration  of  this  argument,  let  us  suppose 
that  no  more  remained  of  the  Roman  writers 
than  Livy,  Tully,  and  Horace  ;  would  they  not, 
by  their  references  to  the  same  facts  and  cus. 
toms,  by  the  sameness  of  style  in  the  same 
writer,  and  difference  in  the  different  ones,  and 
numberless  other  such  like  circumstances  of  cri- 
tical consideration,  prove  themselves,  and  one 
another  to  be  genuine,  and  the  principal  facts 
related,  or  alluded  to,  to  be  true  ?  Whoever 
will  apply  this  reasoning  to  tbe  present  case 
will  perceive,  that  the  numberless  minute,  di- 
rect, and  indirect  agreements  and  coincidences, 
that  present  themselves  to  all  diligent  readers 
of  the  Scriptures,  prove  their  truth  and  genu- 
ineness beyond  all  contradiction. 

The  harmony  and  agreement  of  the  several 
writers  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament  appear 
the  more  remarkable,  when  it  is  considered  that 
their  various  parts  were  penned  by  several 
hands  in  very  different  conditions  of  life,  from 
the  throne  and  sceptre  down  to  the  lowest  de- 
gree, and  in  very  distant  ages,  through  a  long 
interval  of  time ;  which  would  naturally  have 
led  a  spirit  of  imposture  to  have  varied  its 
schemes,  and  to  have  adapted  them  to  different 
stations  in  the  world,  and  to  the  different  vicis- 
situdes of  every  age.  David  wrote  about  four 
hundred  years  after  Moses,  and  Isaiah  about 
two  hundred  and  fifty  after  David,  and  Matthew 
more  than  seven  hundred  years  after  Isaiah ; 
and  yet  these  authors,  with  all  the  other  Pro- 
phets and  Apostles,  write  in  perfect  harmony, 
confirming  the  authority  of  their  predecessors, 
labouring  to  reduce  the  people  to  the  observ- 
ance of  their  instructions,  and  loudly  exclaim- 
ing against  the  neglect  and  contempt  of  them, 
and  denouncing  the  severest  judgments  against 
such  as  continued  disobedient.  Consequently, 
as  the  writers  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  though 
they  all  claim  a  divine  authority,  yet  write  in 
perfect  connection  and  harmony,  mutually  con- 
firming the  doctrine  and  testimony  of  each  other, 
and  concurring  to  establish  the  very  same  reli- 
gious truths  and  principles,  it  is  a  strong  proof 
that  they  all  derived  their  instructions  from  the 
same  fountain,  the  wisdom  of  God,  and  were  in- 
deed under  the  direction  and  illumination  of, 
the  same  Spirit.  This  leads  us  to  add,  that  the 
unity  of  design,  which  appears  in  the  dispensa- 
tions recorded  in  the  Scriptures,  is  an  argument 
not  only  of  their  truth  and  genuineness,  but  also 
of  their  divine  authority.  In  order  to  perceive 
the  force  of  this  argument,  it  is  only  necessary 
to  inquire  what  this  design  is,  and  how  it  is 
pursued  by  the  series  of  events  and  divine  in- 
terpositions recorded  in  the  Scriptures.  (See 
Dispensation.)  It  should  also  be  considered, 
that  the  historical  evidences  in  favour  of  the 
genuineness,  truth,  and  divine  authority  of  the 
Scriptures,  do  not  become  less  from  age  to  age  ; 
but,  on  the  contrary,  it  may  rather  be  presumed 
that  they  increase.  Since  the  three  great  con- 
curring events  of  printing,  the  reformation  of 
religion  in  these  western  parts,  and  the  restora- 


tion of  letters,  so  many  more  evidences  and  co- 
incidences  have  been  discovered  in  favour  of  the 
Jewish  and  Christian  histories,  as  may  serve, 
in  some  measure,  to  supply  the  want  of  those 
that  have  been  lost  in  the  preceding  times ; 
and  as  this  accumulation  of  evidences  is  likely 
to  continue,  there  is  great  reason  to  hope  that 
it  will  at  length  become  irresistible  to  all  and 
silence  even  every  gainsayer. 

15.  The  moral  characters  of  the  Prophets, 
and  the  Apostles,  prove  the  truth  and  divine 
authority  of  the  Scriptures.  The  characters  of 
the  persons  who  are  said  in  the  Scriptures  to 
have  had  divine  communications,  and  a  divine 
mission,  are  so  much  superior  to  the  charac- 
ters that  occur  in  common  life,  that  we  can 
scarcely  account  for  the  more  eminent  indivi- 
duals, and  much  less  so  for  so  large  a  succes- 
sion of  them,  continued  through  so  many  ages, 
without  allowing  the  divine  communications 
and  assistance  which  they  allege.  Notwith- 
standing considerable  imperfections  that  per- 
tained to  many  of  these  eminent  persons,  and 
the  occasional  offences  chargeable  upon  one 
or  two  of  them,  yet  the  impartial  reader  should 
consider  whether  the  Prophets,  Apostles,  &c, 
were  not  so  much  superior,  not  only  to  man- 
kind at  an  average,  but  even  to  the  best  men 
among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  as  is  not  fair- 
ly to  be  accounted  for  by  the  mere  powers  of 
human  nature.  If  this  statement  should  not 
be  conceded,  their  characters,  however,  are  too 
good  to  allow  the  supposition  of  an  impious  fraud 
and  imposture,  which  must  have  been  the  case 
if  they  had  not  divine  authority.  Beside,  it 
should  be  recollected,  that  the  undisguised  and 
impartial  manner  in  which  the  imperfections 
and  faults  of  the  eminent  persons  mentioned  in 
Scripture  are  related,  furnishes  a  remarkable 
additional  evidence  for  the  truth  of  those  parts 
of  the  Scripture  history  in  which  such  rela- 
tions occur,  beside  such  evidences  as  extend  to 
the  whole. 

16.  The  excellence  of  the  doctrine  contain- 
ed in  the  Scriptures  is  an  additional  evidence 
of  their  authority.  This  argument  has  great 
force  independently  of  all  other  considerations. 
Suppose,  for  instance,  that  the  author  of  the 
Gospel,  which  goes  under  the  name  of  St.  Mat- 
thew, was  not  known,  and  that  it  was  unsup- 
ported by  the  writers  of  the  primitive  times; 
yet  such  are  the  unaffected  simplicity  of  the 
narrations,  the  purity  of  the  doctrine,  and  the 
sincere  piety  and  goodness  of  the  sentiments, 
that  it  carries  its  own  authority  with  it.  The 
same  observation  is  applicable  in  general  to  all 
the  books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments;  so 
that  if  there  was  no  other  book  in  the  world 
beside  the  Bible,  a  man  could  not  reasonably 
doubt  of  the  truth  of  revealed  religion.  If  all 
other  arguments  were  set  aside,  we  may  con- 
clude from  this  single  consideration,  that  the 
authors  of  the  books  of  the  Old  and  New  Tes- 
taments, whoever  they  were,  cannot  have  made 
a  false  claim  to  divine  authority.  The  Scrip- 
tures contain  doctrines  concerning  God,  pro- 
vidence, a  future  state,  the  duty  of  man,  &c, 
far  more  pure  and  sublime  than  can  in  any 
way  be  accounted  for  from  the  natural  powers 


BIR 


164 


BIR 


of  men,  so  circumstanced  as  the  sacred  writers 
were.  Let  the  reader  consider  whether  it  can 
be  reasonably  supposed,  that  Jewish  shepherds, 
fishermen,  &c,  should,  both  before  and  after 
the  rise  of  the  Heathen  philosophy,  so  far  ex- 
ceed men  of  the  greatest  abilities  and  accom- 
plishments in  other  nations,  by  any  other  means 
than  divine  communications.  Indeed,  no  writ- 
ers, from  the  invention  of  letters  to  the  present 
times,  are  equal  to  the  penmen  of  the  books  of 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments  in  true  excel- 
lence, utility  and  dignity  ;  and  this  is  surely 
such  an  internal  criterion  of  their  divine  au- 
thority, as  ought  not  to  be  resisted. 

17.  The  many  and  great  advantages  which 
have  accrued  to  the  world  from  the  patriarchal, 
Judaical,  and  Christian  revelations,  confirm  the 
whole.  These  advantages  relate  partly  to  the 
knowledge,  and  partly  to  the  practice,  of  reli- 
gion. The  internal  worth  and  excellence  of 
the  Scriptures,  as  containing  the  best  princi- 
ples of  knowledge,  holiness,  consolation,  and 
hope,  and  their  consequent  utility  and  import- 
ance in  a  moral  and  practical  view,  fully  and 
directly  demonstrate  their  divine  original.  For 
an  enlarged  view  of  this  branch  of  evidence  see 
Christianity. 

BIBLISTS,  or  BIBLICI,  a  term  applied  to 
certain  doctors  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth 
centuries,  who  expounded  the  sacred  writings 
in  their  public  schools,  and  endeavoured  to  es- 
tablish their  doctrines  by  the  authority  of  Scrip- 
ture, in  opposition  to  uncertain  traditions,  or 
the  speculations  of  the  schools.  Upon  the  same 
principle,  the  Pietists  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury formed  what  they  called  Biblical  colleges, 
for  expounding  the  Scriptures. 
BIER.     See  Burial. 

BILDAD,  the  Shuhite,  one  of  Job's  friends, 
thought  by  some  to  have  descended  from  Shuah, 
the  son  of  Abraham,  by  Keturah,  Job  ii,  11 ; 
viii,  xviii,  xxv. 

BILHAH,  Rachel's  handmaid,  given  by  her 
to  Jacob  her  husband,  as  a  concubinary  wife, 
that,  through  her  she  might  have  a  son,  Gen. 
xxx,  3,  4,  &c.     See  Barrenness. 

BIND.  To  bind  and  loose  are  taken  for 
condemning  and  absolving:  "And  I  will  give 
unto  thee  the  keys  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven : 
and  whatsoever  thou  shalt  bind  on  earth  shall 
be  bound  in  heaven :  and  whatsoever  thou 
shalt  loose  on  earth  shall  be  loosed  in  heaven," 
Matt,  xvi,  19.  By  binding  and  loosing,  in  the 
language  of  the  Jews,  is  understood,  likewise, 
permitting  and  forbidding;  or  declaring  any 
thing  in  a  judicial  manner  to  be  permitted  or 
forbidden  ;  and  on  the  promotion  of  their  doc- 
tors, they  put  the  keys  into  their  hands  with 
these  words,  "  Receive  the  power  of  binding 
and  loosing."  So  our  Lord  says,  "  I  am  not 
come  to  destroy,"  to  unloose  or  dissolve,  "the 
law,  but  to  fulfil,"  that  is,  to  confirm  and  es- 
tablish it,  Matt,  v,  17.     See  Keys. 

BIRD,  -nex,  a  common  name  for  all  birds, 
but  is  sometimes  used  for  the  sparrow  in  par- 
ticular. 

Birds  are  distinguished  by  the  Jewish  legis- 
lator into  clean  and  unclean.  Such  as  fed 
upon  grain  and  seeds  were  allowed  for  food, 


and  such  as  devoured  flesh  and  carrion  were 
prohibited. 

Moses,  to  inspire  the  Israelites  with  senti- 
ments of  tenderness  toward  the  brute  creation, 
commands  them,  if  they  find  a  bird's  nest,  not 
to  take  the  dam  with  the  young,  but  to  suffer 
the  old  one  to  fly  away,  and  to  take  the  young 
only,  Deut.  xxii,  6.  This  is  one  of  those  mer- 
ciful constitutions  in  the  law  of  Moses  which 
respect  the  animal  creation,  and  tended  to  hu- 
manize the  heart  of  that  people,  to  excite  in 
them  a  sense  of  the  divine  providence  extend- 
ing itself  to  all  creatures,  and  to  teach  them  to 
exercise  their  dominion  over  them  with  gentle- 
ness. Beside,  the  young  never  knew  the  sweets 
of  liberty  ;  the  dam  did  :  they  might  be  taken 
and  used  for  any  lawful  purpose  ;  but  the  dam 
must  not  be  brought  into  a  state  of  captivity. 
The  poet  Phocylides  has  a  maxim,  in  his  ad- 
monitory poem,  very  similar  to  that  in  the 
sacred  texts : — 

NltjSi  tis  opiidas  Ka\irj$  ajxa  rzdvra;  f^icOu, 

MrjTipa  <5'  iK-npol'inrif,  IV  t)(t]f  KuAi  rrioie  vtOTToii. 
Nor  from  a  nest  take  all  tlic  birds  away, 
The  mother  spare,  she'll  breed  a  future  day. 

It  appears  that  the  ancients  hunted  birds. 
Baruch,  iii,  17,  speaking  of  the  kings  of  Baby- 
lon, says,  "  They  had  their  pastime  with  the 
fowls  of  the  air ;"  and  Daniel,  iii,  38,  tells 
Nebuchadnezzar  that  God  had  made  the  fowls 
of  the  air  subject  to  him. 

Birds  were  offered  in  sacrifice  on  many  oc- 
casions. In  the  sacrifices  for  sin,  he  who  had 
not  a  lamb,  or  a  kid,  "  might  offer  two  turtles, 
or  two  young  pigeons;  one  for  a  sin-offering, 
the  other  for  a  burnt-offering.  These  he  pre- 
sented to  the  priest,  who  offered  that  first 
which  was  for  the  sin-offering,  and  wrung  off 
the  head  from  the  neck,  but  did  not  divide  it 
asunder  :  the  other  he  was  to  offer  for  a  burnt- 
offering,"  Lev.  v,  7,  8.  When  a  man  who  had 
been  smitten  with  a  leprosy  was  healed,  he 
came  to  the  entrance  of  the  camp  of  Israel,  and 
the  priest  went  out  to  inspect  him,  whether  he 
were  entirely  cured,  Lev.  xiv,  5,  6.  After  this 
inspection,  the  leprous  person  came  to  the 
door  of  the  tabernacle,  and  offered  two  living 
sparrows,  or  two  birds ;  (pure  birds,  those  of 
which  it  was  lawful  to  eat ;)  he  made  a  wisp 
with  branches  of  cedar  and  hyssop,  tied  to- 
gether with  a  thread,  or  scarlet  ribbon ;  he 
filled  an  earthen  pot  with  running  water,  that 
the  blood  of  the  bird  might  be  mingled  with  it; 
then  the  priest,  dipping  the  bunch  of  hyssop 
and  cedar  into  the  water,  sprinkled  with  it  the 
leper  who  was  healed  ;  after  which  he  let  loose 
the  living  bird,  to  fly  where  it  would.  In  Pales- 
tine dead  bodies  were  sometimes  left  exposed 
to  birds  of  prey,  as  appears  from  Scripture  J 
but,  generally,  they  were  buried  in  the  even- 
ing :  even  criminals  were  taken  down  from  the 
gallows. 

BIRTHRIGHT,  or  PRIMOGENITURE, 
the  right  of  the  first-born  or  eldest  son.  The 
birthright,  or  right  of  primogeniture,  had  many 
privileges  annexed  to  it.  The  first-born  was 
consecrated  to  the  Lord,  Exod.  xxii,  29 ;  had  a 
double  portion  of  the  estate  allotted  him,  Deut. 
xxi,  17;  had  a  dignity  and  authority  over  his 


BIT 


165 


BIT 


brethren,  Gen.  xlix,  3 ;  succeeded  in  the  govern- 
ment of  the  family  or  kingdom,  2  Chron.  xxi,  3 ; 
and,  as  some  with  good  reason  suppose,  in  ancient 
times  to  the  priesthood  or  chief  government  in 
matters  ecclesiastical.  Jacob,  having  bought 
Esau's  birthright,  acquired  a  title  to  the  par- 
ticular blessing  of  his  dying  father;  and,  ac- 
cordingly, he  had  consigned  to  him  the  privi- 
lege of  the  covenant  which  God  made  with 
Abraham,  that  from  his  loins  the  Messiah 
should  spring :  a  prerogative  which  descended 
to  his  posterity.  Reuben  forfeited  the  blessings 
of  his  birthright,  as  we  see  by  the  express 
declaration  of  his  father  Jacob,  in  his  benedic- 
tion of  his  children,  Gen.  xlix,  1,  &c,  for  the 
crime  of  incest  with  his  father's  concubine,  on 
account  of  which  his  tribe  continued  all  along 
in  obscurity  ;  while  the  priesthood  was  confer- 
red on  Levi,  the  government  on  Judah,  and  the 
double  portion  on  Joseph,  to  descend  to  their 
respective  tribes.  And  this  preeminence  of 
the  first-born  took  place  from  the  beginning, 
and  as  much  belonged  to  Cain,  before  his  for- 
feiture of  it,  as  it  did  to  Reuben  before  his. 
See  Genesis  iv,  7 ;  xlix,  3.  Thus  the  patri- 
archs, Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob,  offered 
sacrifices,  and  were  priests  as  well  as  kings  in 
their  respective  families,  Gen.  xii,  7,  8 ;  xiii, 
18;  xvii,  7;  xxvi,  25;  xxxi,  54;  xxxv,  7.  Job, 
in  Arabia,  acted  in  the  same  capacity,  Job,  i, 
5 ;  and  it  is  highly  probable  that,  among  the 
ancient  Heathen  nations  in  general,  the  first- 
born were  entitled  not  only  to  the  civil  autho- 
rity, but  also  to  the  priesthood.  This  seems  to 
have  been  the  case  in  Egypt,  in  the  time  of 
Moses :  and  hence  Jehovah's  destroying  their 
first-born,  as  it  was  the  last  miracle  wrought  in 
that  country  before  the  Exodus,  so  was  it  the 
most  dreadful,  and  most  effectual  in  prevailing 
on  Pharaoh  and  the  Egyptians  to  dismiss  the 
Israelites. 

BISHOP,  -Pps,  inicKonos,  signifies  an  overseer, 
or  one  who  has  the  inspection  and  direction  of 
any  thing.  Nehemiah  speaks  of  the  overseer 
of  the  Levites  at  Jerusalem,  Neh.  xi,  22.  The 
most  common  acceptation  of  the  word  bishop 
is  that  in  Actsxx,  28,  and  in  St.  Paul's  Epistles, 
Philip,  i,  1,  where  it  signifies  the  pastor  of  a 
church.  St.  Peter  calls  Jesus  Christ  "  the  Shep- 
herd and  Bishop  of  our  souls,"  1  Peter  ii,  25  ; 
and  St.  Paul  describes  the  qualities  requisite  in 
a  bishop,  1  Tim.  iii,  2 ;  Titus  1,  2,  &c.  It  is 
not  improbable  that  the  overseers  of  Christ's 
church  are  in  the  New  Testament  called  imaKo- 
ttoi,  from  the  following  passage  in  Isaiah :  "  I 
will  also  make  thy  officers  peace,  and  thine 
overseers"  (f7n<nc<j7raj,)  "righteousness,"  Isa.  lx, 
17.  The  word,  as  used  by  the  Apostolic  writ- 
ers, when  referring  to  the  pastors  of  Christian 
churches,  is  evidently  of  the  same  import  as 
presbyter  or  elder;  for  the  terms,  as  they  occur 
in  the  New  Testament,  appear  to  be  synony- 
mous, and  are  used  indifferently.  Thus  the 
same  persons  that  are  called  imtsKSirot,  bishops 
are  also  called  TzpicSirtpoi,  elders.  Hence,  when 
St.  Paul  came  to  Miletus,  he  sent  to  Ephesus 
for  the  presbyters  of  the  church,  and  thus  ad- 
dressed  them :  "  Take  heed  unto  yourselves, 
and  to  all  the  flock  over  which  the  Holy  Ghost 


hath  made  you"  (the  presbyters)  "  iirioKSrrvc, 
bishops,"  or  overseers,  Acts  xx,  17.  "Here," 
says  Dr.  Campbell,  "  there  can  be  no  question 
that  the  same  persons  are  denominated  pres- 
byters and  bishops."  Nor  is  this  the  only  pas- 
sage in  which  we  find  the  terms  used  converti- 
bly.  In  Titus  i,  5,  it  is  said,  "  For  this  cause 
left  I  thee  in  Crete,  that  thou  shouldest  set  in 
order  the  things  that  are  wanting,  and  ordain 
elders"  (Greek,  zspeoBvTipas)  "in  every  city," 
and  then  it  follows  in  verse  7,  "  For  a  bishop" 
(tmaKonov)  "  must  be  blameless."  In  like  man- 
ner, the  Apostle  Peter,  1  Peter  v,  1:  "The 
elders"  (ppto6vripus)  "  which  are  among  you  I 
exhort ;  feed  the  flock  of  God  which  is  among 
you,  taking  the  oversight  thereof;  einaKOTrovvTc;, 
that  is,  discharging  the  office  of  bishops."  See 
Episcopacy. 

BITHYNIA,  a  country  of  Asia  Minor, 
stretching  along  the  shore  of  the  Pontus  Euxi- 
nus,  or  Black  Sea,  from  Mysia  to  Paphlagonia ; 
having  Phrygia  and  Galatia  on  the  south.  In 
it  are  the  two  cities  of  Nicasa,  or  Nice,  and 
Chalcedon  :  both  celebrated  in  ecclesiastical 
history,  on  account  of  the  general  councils 
held  in  them,  and  called  after  their  names, 
The  former  city  is  at  present  called  Is-Nick, 
and  the  latter  Kadi-Keni.  Within  this  country, 
also,  are  the  celebrated  mountains  of  Olympus. 
St.  Peter  addressed  his  first  Epistle  to  the  He- 
brew Christians  who  were  scattered  through 
this  and  the  neighbouring  countries. 

BITTER  HERBS,  anno.  Exod.  xii,  8, 
and  Num.  ix,  11.  The  Jews  were  commanded 
to  eat  their  passover  with  a  salad  of  bitter 
herbs;  but  whether  one  particular  plant  was 
intended,  or  any  kind  of  bitter  herbs,  has  been 
made  a  question.  By  the  Septuagint  it  is  ren- 
dered £7»  aiKptSuiv ;  by  Jerom,  "cum  lactucis 
agrestibus ;"  and  by  the  Gr.  Venet.,  cm  zstxpiatv. 
Dr.  Geddes  remarks,  that  "it  is  highly  proba. 
ble  that  the  succory  or  wild  lettuce  is  meant." 
The  Mischna  in  Pesachim,  cap.  2,  reckons  five 
species  of  these  bitter  herbs:  1.  Chazareth, 
taken  for  lettuce :  2.  Ulsin,  supposed  to  be 
endive  or  succory  :  3.  Tamca,  probably  tansy : 
4.  Charubbinim,  which  Bochart  thought  might 
be  the  nettle,  but  Scheuchzer  shows  to  be  the 
camomile :  5.  Meror,  the  sow-thistle,  or  dent, 
de-lion,  or  wild  lettuce.  Mr.  Forskal  says, 
"the  Jews  in  Sana  and  in  Egypt  eat  the  let. 
tuce  with  the  paschal  lamb."  He  also  remarks, 
that  moru  is  centaury,  of  which  the  young 
stems  are  eaten  in  February  and  March. 

BITTERN.  -ncr>.  Isa.  xiv,  23;  xxxiv,  11; 
and  Zephaniah  ii,  14.  Interpreters  have  ren- 
dered this  word  variouslj  :  an  owl,  an  osprey,  a 
tortoise,  a  porcupine,  and  even  an  otter,  f*  How 
unhappy,"  says  Mr.  Harmer,  "that  a  word  which 
occurs  but  three  nmes  in  the  Hebrew  Bible 
should  be  translated  by  three  different  words, 
and  that  one  of  them  should  be  otter.'"  Isaiah, 
prophesying  the  destruction  of  Babylon,  says 
that  "  tie  Lord  will  make  it  a  possession  for 
the  bittern,  and  pools  of  water  f  and  Zepha- 
niah, ii,  14,  prophesying  against  Nineveh,  says 
chat  "  the  cormorant  and  bittern  shall  lodge  in 
the  upper  lintels  of  it :  their  voice  shall  sing  in 
the  windows."    The  Arabic  version  reads  "  al 


BLA 


166 


BLA 


koubara."  According  to  Dr.  Shaw,  the  hou- 
bara  is  "  of  the  bigness  of  a  capon,  but  of  a 
longer  body.  It  feeds  on  little  shrubs  and 
insects,  like  the  gnab  el  Sahara;  frequenting, 
in  like  manner,  the  confines  of  the  desert." 
Golius  interprets  it  the  bustanl ;  and  Dr.  Russel 
says  that  the  Arabic  name  of  the  bustard  is 
"  houbry." 

BITTERNESS,  loaters  of.    See  Adultery. 
BLASPHEMY,  /3W</>i;/<i(i,  properly  denotes 
calumny,  detraction,  reproachful  or  abusive  lan- 
guage, against  whomsoever  it  be  vented.    That 
fiXaa<pri^la  and  its  conjugates  are  very  often  ap- 
plied, says  Dr.    Campbell,  to  reproaches    not 
aimed  against  God,  is  evident  from  the  follow- 
ing  passages  :    Matt,   xii,  31,  32 ;   xxvii,  39 ; 
Mark  xv,  29;  Luke  xxii,  65;  xxiii,  39;  Rom. 
iii,  8 ;  xiv,  16 ;  1  Cor.  iv,  13 ;  x,  30  ;  Eph.  iv, 
31 ;  1  Tim.  vi,  4 ;  Titus  iii,  2 ;  1  Pet.  iv,  14 ; 
Jude  9,  10 ;  Acts  vi,  11,  13;  2  Pet.  ii,  10,  11 ; 
in  the  much  greater  part  of  which  the  English 
translators,  sensible  that  they  could  admit  no 
such  application,  have  not  used  the  words  blas- 
pheme or  blasphemy,  but  rail,  revile,  speak  evil, 
&c.    In  one  of  the  passages  quoted,  a  reproach- 
ful charge  brought  even  against  the  devil  is 
called  Kpias  ^aa4>t]jxias,  Jude  9  ;    and  rendered 
by  them,   "railing   accusation."     The  import 
of  the  word  j3Xao</»ty«'(z  is  malcdicentia,  in  the 
largest  acceptation ;  comprehending  all  sorts 
of  verbal  abuse,  imprecation,  reviling,  and  ca- 
lumny.    And    let   it   be  observed,  that  when 
such   abuse    is   mentioned    as  uttered  against 
God,  there  is  properly  no  change  made  in  the 
signification  of  the  word:  the  change  is  only 
in  the  application;  that  is,  in  the  reference  to 
a.  different  object.     The  idea  conveyed  in  the 
.expiration    now    given    is   always    included, 
against  whomsoever  the  crime  be  committed. 
In  this  manner  every  term  is  understood  that 
is  applicable  to  both  God  and  man.     Thus  the 
meaning    of  the    word    disobey   is   the    same, 
whether  we    speak  of  disobeying    God  or  of 
disobeying  man.     The  same  may  be   said  of 
believe,  honour,  fear,  &c.     As,  therefore,   the 
sense  of  the  term  is  the  same,  though  differ- 
ently applied,  what  is  essential  to  constitute 
the  crime  of  detraction  in  the  one  case,  is  es- 
sential also  in  the  other.     But  it  is  essential  to 
this   crime,    as   commonly   understood,  when 
committed  lay  one  man  against  another,  that 
there  be  in  the  injurious  person   the  will  or 
disposition  to  detract  from  the  person  abused. 
Mere  mistake  in  regard  to  character,  especially 
when  the  mistake  is  not  conceived  by  him  who 
entertains  it  to  lessen  the  character,  nay,  i6 
supposed,  however  fcrroneously,  to  exalt  it,  is 
never  construed  by  any  into  the  crime  of  de- 
famation.   Now,  as  blasphemy  is  in  its  essence 
the  same  crime,  but  immensely  aggravated  by 
being  commtted  against  an  object  infinitely 
superior  to  man,  what  is  fundamental  to  the 
very  existence  of  the  crime  will  \»e  found  in 
this,  as  in  every  other   species  which  comes 


blasphemer  is  no  other  than  the  calumniator 
of  Almighty  God.     To  constitute  the  crime,  it 
is  as  necessary  that  this  species  of  calumny  be 
intentional.     He  must  be  one,  therefore,  who 
by  his  impious  talk  endeavours  to  inspire  others 
with  the  same  irreverence  toward  the  Deity, 
or  perhaps,  abhorrence  of  him,  which  he  in- 
dulges in  himself.    And  though,  for  the  honour 
of  human  nature,  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  very 
few  arrive  at  this  enormous  guilt,  it  ought  not 
to  be  dissembled,  that  the  habitual  profanation 
of  the  name  and  attributes  of  God  by  common 
swearing,  is  but  too  mani'bst  an  approach  to- 
ward it.     There  is  not  an  entire  coincidence : 
the  latter  of  these  vices  may  be  considered  as 
resulting  solely  from  the  defect  of  what  is  good 
in  principle  and  disposition ;  the  former  from 
the  acquisition  of  what  is  evil  in  the  extreme : 
but  there  is  a  close  connection  between  them, 
and  an  insensible  gradation  from  the  one  to 
the  other.    To  accustom  one's  self  to  treat  the 
Sovereign  of  the  universe  with  irreverent  fa- 
miliarity, is  the  first  step ;  malignly  to  arraign 
his  attributes,  and  revile  his  providence,  is  the 
last.    The  first  divine  law  published  against  it, 
"  He  that  blasphemeth  the  name  of  the  Lord" 
(or  Jehovah,  as  it  is  in  the  Hebrew)  "  shall  be 
put  to  death,"  Lev.  xxiv,  16,  when  considered 
along  with   the  incident   that    occasioned  it, 
suggests  a  very  atrocious  offence  in  words,  no 
less  than  abuse  or  imprecations  vented  against 
the  Deity.    For,  in  what  way  soever  the  crime 
of  the  man  there  mentioned  be  interpreted, — 
whether  as  committed  against  the  true  God,  the 
God  of  Israel,  or  against  any  of  the  false  gods 
whom  his  Egyptian  father  worshipped, — the  law 
in  the  words  now  quoted  is  sufficiently  explicit ; 
and  the  circumstances  of  the  story  plainly  show, 
that  the  words  which  he  had  used  were  deroga- 
tory from  the  Godhead,  and  shocking  to  the 
hearers.     And  if  we  add  to  this  the  only  other 
memorable  instance  in  sacred  history,  namely, 
that  of  Rabshakeh,  it  -will  lead  us  to  conclude 
that  it  is  solely  a  malignant  attempt,  in  words, 
to  lessen  men's  reverence  of  the  true  God,  and, 
by  vilifying  his  perfections,  to  prevent  their 
placing  confidence  in  him,  which  is  called  in 
Scripture  blasphemy,    when    the  word-  is  em- 
ployed  to    denote    a    sin    committed   directly 
against  God.    This  was  manifestly  the  attempt 
of  Rabshakeh,    when    he    said,    "Neither   let 
Hezekiah  make  you  trust  in  the  Lord,"  (the 
word    is    Jehovah,)    "saying,     Jehovah     will 
surely  deliver  us.     Hath  any  of  the  gods  of  the 
nations  delivered  his  land  out  of  the  hand  of 
the  king  of  Assyria?     Where  are  the  gods  of 
Hamath  and  of  Arpad  ?     Where  are  the  gods 
of  Sepharvaim,  Hena,  and  Iva  ?     Have  they 
delivered  Samaria  out  of  my  hand?     Who  are 
they,  among  all  the  gods  of  the  countries,  that 
have  delivered  their  country  out  of  mine  hand, 
that  Jehovah  should  deliver  Jerusalem  out  of 
mine  hand  ?"  2  Kings  xviii,  30,  33-35. 

2.  It  will    natural!)'  occur  to  inquire,  what 


under  the  general  name.  There  can  he  no  that  is,  in  particular,  which  our  Lord  denomi- 
blasphemy,  therefore,  where  there  is  not  an  nates  "  blasphemy  against  the  Holy  Spirit," 
impious  purpose  to  derogate  from  the  Divine  I  Matt,  xii,  31,  32;  Mark  iii,  28,  29;  Luke 
Majesty,  and  to  alienate  the  minds  of  others  I  au,  10.  But  without  entering  minutely  into 
from  the  love  and   reverence   of  God.     The  |  the  discussion  of  this  question,  it  may  suffice 


BLA 


167 


BLE 


here  to  observe,  that  this  blasphemy  is  certainly 
not  of  the  constructive  kind,  but  direct,  mani- 
fest, and  malignant.  First,  it  is  mentioned  as 
comprehended  under  the  same  genus  with 
abuse  against  men,  and  contradistinguished 
only  by  the  object.  Secondly,  it  is  farther  ex- 
plained by  being  called  speaking  against  in 
both  cases  :  os  uv  ii-ny  \6yov  Karu  tov  viov  tov  av- 
8ptZ>iryf — os   6'   av  tiny   Kara,    tov   zzi'tipaTOS   tov  ayin. 

"  Whosoever  speaketh  a  word  against  the  Son 
of  Man." — "  Whosoever  speaketh  against  the 
Holy  Ghost."  The  expressions  are  the  same, 
in  effect,  in  all  the  Evangelists  who  mention 
it,  and  imply  such  an  opposition  as  is  both  in- 
tentional and  malevolent.  This  cannot  have 
been  the  case  of  all  who  disbelieved  the  mis- 
sion of  Jesus,  and  even  decried  his  miracles; 
many  of  whom,  we  have  reason  to  think,  were 
afterward  converted  by  the  Apostles.  But  it 
was  the  wretched  case  of  some  who,  instigated 
by  worldly  ambition  and  avarice,  slandered 
what  they  knew  to  be  the  cause  of  God  ;  and, 
against  conviction,  reviled  his  work  as  the 
operation  of  evil  spirits.  This  view  of  the  sin 
against  the  Holy  Ghost  is  confirmed  by  the 
circumstances  under  which  our  Lord  spoke. 

If  we  consider  the  Scripture  account  of  this 
sin,  nothing  can  be  plainer  than  that  it  is  to 
be  understood  of  the  Pharisees'  imputing  the 
miracles  wrought  by  the  power  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  to  the  power  of  the  devil ;  for  our  Lord 
had  just  healed  one  possessed  of  a  devil,  and 
upon  this  the  Pharisees  gave  this  malicious 
turn  to  the  miracle.  This  led  our  Saviour  to 
discourse  on  the  sin  of  blasphemy.  The 
Pharisees  were  the  persons  charged  with  the 
crime :  the  sin  itself  manifestly  consisted  in 
ascribing  what  was  done  by  the  finger  of  God 
to  the  agency  of  the  devil ;  and  the  reason, 
therefore,  why  our  Lord  pronounced  it  unpar- 
donable, is  plain  ;  because,  by  withstanding  the 
evidence  of  miracles,  they  resisted  the  strong- 
est means  of  conviction,  and  that  wilfully  and 
malignantly ;  and,  giving  way  to  their  pas- 
sions, opprobriously  treated  that  Holy  Spirit 
whom  they  ought  to  have  adored.  From  all 
which  it  will  probably  follow,  that- no  person 
can  now  be  guilty  of  the  blasphemy  against 
the  Holy  Ghost,  in  the  sense  in  which  our 
Saviour  originally  intended  it ;  but  there  may 
be  sins  which  bear  a  very  near  resemblance  to 
it.  This  appears  from  the  case  of  the  apos- 
tates mentioned  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews, 
to  whom  "no  more  sacrifice  for  sins"  is  said 
to  remain ;  whose  defection,  however,  is  not 
represented  so  much  as  a  direct  sin  against 
the  Holy  Ghost  as  against  Christ,  whom  .the 
apostate  Jews  blasphemed  in  the  synagogues. 
It  implied,  however,  a  high  offence  against  the 
Holy  Spirit  also,  with  whose  gifts  they  had, 
probably,  been  endowed,  and  their  conduct 
must  be  considered,  if  not  the  same  sin  as  that 
committed  by  the  Pharisees,  yet  as  a  consent- 
ing with  it,  and  thus  as  placing  them  in  nearly, 
if  not  altogether,  the  same  desperate  condition. 
Even  apostasy  in  the  present  day,  although  a 
most  aggravated  and  perilous  offence,  cannot 
be  committed  with  circumstances  of  equal 
aggravation  to  those  which  were  found  in  the 


case  of  the  persons  mentioned  by  St.  Paul ; 
and  it  may  be  laid  down  as  certain,  for  the 
relief  of  those  who  may  be  tempted  to  think 
that  they  have  committed  the  unpardonable 
sin,  that  their  horror  of  it,  and  the  trouble 
which  the  very  apprehension  causes  them,  are 
the  sure  proofs  that  they  are  mistaken.  But 
although  there  may  be  now  fearful  approaches 
to  the  unpardonable  offence,  it  is  to  be  remem- 
bered that  there  may  be  many  dangerous  and 
fatal  sins  against  the  Holy  Ghost,  which  are 
not  the  sin  against  him,  which  has  no  for- 
giveness. 

BLEMISH,  whatever  renders  a  person  or 
thing  imperfect  or  uncomely.  The  Jewish  law 
required  the  priests  to  be  free  from  blemishes 
of  person,  Lev.  xxi,  17-23  ;  xxii,  20-24.  Scan- 
dalous professors  are  blemishes  to  the  church 
of  God,  2  Peter  ii,  13;  Jude  12,  and  therefore 
ought  to  be  put  away  from  it,  in  the  exercise 
of  a  godly  discipline. 

BLESS,  BLESSING.  There  are  three 
points  of  view  in  which  the  acts  of  blessing 
may  be  considered.  The  first  is,  when  men 
are  said  to  bless  God,  as  in  Psalm  ciii,  1,  2. 
We  are  then  not  to  suppose  that  the  divine 
Being,  who  is  over  all,  and,  in  himself,  blessed 
for  evermore,  is  capable  of  receiving  any  aug- 
mentation of  his  happiness,  from  all  the  crea- 
tures which  he  has  made  :  such  a  supposition, 
as  it  would  imply  something  of  imperfection 
in  the  divine  nature,  must  ever  be  rejected  with 
abhorrence  ;  and,  therefore,  when  the  creatures 
bless  the  adorable  Creator,  they  only  ascribe  to 
him  that  praise  and  dominion,  and  honour,  and 
glory,  and  blessing,  which  it  is  equally  the 
duty  and  joy  of  his  creatures  to  render.  But 
when  God  is  said  to  bless  his  people,  Gen.  i, 
22 ;  Eph.  i,  3 ;  the  meaning  is,  that  he  confers 
benefits  upon  them,  either  temporal  or  spiritual, 
and  so  communicates  to  them  some  portion  of 
that  blessedness  which,  in  infinite  fulness, 
dwells  in  himself,  James  i,  17 ;  Psalm  civ,  24, 
28 ;  Luke  xi,  9-13.  In  the  third  place  men 
are  said  to  bless  their  fellow  creatures.  From 
the  time  that  God  entered  into  covenant  with 
Abraham,  and  promised  extraordinary  bless, 
ings  to  his  posterity,  it  appears  to  have  been 
customary  for  the  father  of  each  family,  in  the 
direct  line,  or  line  of  promise,  previous  to  his 
death,  to  call  his  children  around  him,  and  to 
inform  them,  according  to  the  knowledge 
which  it  pleased  God  then  to  give  him,  how, 
and  in  what  manner,  the  divine  blessing  con- 
ferred upon  Abraham  was  to  descend  among 
them.  Upon  these  occasions,  fie  patriarchs 
enjoyed  a  divine  illumination :  and  under  its 
influence,  their  benediction  was  deemed  a 
prophetic  oracle,  foretelling  events  with  the 
utmost  certainty,  and  extending  to  the  remot- 
est period  of  time.  Thus  Jacob  blessed  his 
sons,  Gen.  xlix;  and  Moses,  the  children  of 
Israel,  Deut.  xxxiii.  When  Melchizedeck 
blessed  Abraham,  the  act  of  benediction  in. 
eluded  in  it  not  merely  the  pronouncing  solemn 
good  wishes,  but  also  a  petitionary  address  to 
God  that  he  would  be  pleased  to  ratify  the 
benediction  by  his  concurrence  with  what  was 
prayed  for.     Thus   Moses  instructed  Aaron, 


BLI 


168 


BLO 


and  his  descendants,  to  bless  the  congregation, 
"  In  this  wise  shall  ye  bless  the  children  of 
Israel,  saying  unto  them,  The  Lord  bless  thee, 
and  keep  thee ;  the  Lord  make  his  face  to 
shine  upon  thee ;  the  Lord  lift  up  his  counte- 
nance upon  thee,  and  give  thee  peace,"  Num. 
iv,  23.  David  says,  "  I  will  take  the  cup  of 
salvation,  and  call  upon  the  name  of  the  Lord," 
Psalm  cxvi,  13.  This  phrase  appears  to  be 
taken  from  the  practice  of  the  Jews  in  their 
thank-offerings,  in  which  a  feast  was  made  of 
the  remainder  of  their  sacrifices,  and  the  offer- 
ers, together  with  the  priests,  did  eat  and  drink 
before  the  Lord  ;  when,  among  other  rites,  the 
master  of  the  feast  took  a  cup  of  wine  in  his 
hand  and  solemnly  blessed  God  for  it,  and  for 
the  mercies  which  were  then  acknowledged, 
and  gave  it  to  all  the  guests,  every  one  of 
whom  drank  in  his  turn.  To  this  custom  it  is 
supposed  our  blessed  Lord  alludes  in  the  insti- 
tution of  the  cup,  which  also  is  called,  1  Cor. 
x,  16,  "the  cup  of  blessing."  At  the  family 
feasts  also,  and  especially  that  of  the  passover, 
both  wine  and  bread  were  in  this  solemn  and 
religious  manner  distributed,  and  God  was 
blessed,  and  his  mercies  acknowledged.  They 
blessed  God  for  their  present  refreshment,  for 
their  deliverance  out  of  Egypt,  for  the  cove- 
nant of  circumcision,  and  for  the  law  given  by 
Moses ;  and  prayed  that  God  would  be  merci- 
ful to  his  people  Israel,  that  he  would  send  the 
Prophet  Elijah,  and  that  he  would  render  them 
worthy  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Messiah.  See 
also  1  Chron.  xvi,  2,  3.  In  the  Mosaic  law, 
the  manner  of  blessing  is  appointed  by  the 
lifting  up  of  hands.  Our  Lord  lifted  up  his 
hands,  and  blessed  his  disciples.  It  is  probable 
that  this  action  was  constantly  used  on  such 
occasions.  The  palm  of  the  hand  held  up  was 
precatory ;  and  the  palm  turned  outward  or 
downward  was  benedictory.  See  Benediction 
and  Lord's  Supper. 

BLINDFOLDING.  This  is  the  treatment 
which  Christ  received  from  his  enemies.  It 
refers  to  a  sport  which  was  common  among 
children,  called  pvivSa,  in  which  it  was  the  man- 
ner first  to  blindfold,  then  to  strike,  and  to  ask 
who  gave  the  blow,  and  not  to  let  the  person 
go  till  he  had  named  the  right  man  who  had 
struck  him.  It  was  used  in  reproach  of  our 
blessed  Lord  as  a  Prophet,  or  divine  instructor, 
and  toexpose  him  to  ridicule,  Luke  xxii,  63,  64. 
BLINDNESS  is  often  used  in  Scripture  to 
express  ignorance  or  want  of  discernment  in 
divine  things,  as  well  as  the  being  destitute  of 
natural  sight,  See  Isa.  xlii,  18,  19;  vi,  10; 
Matt,  xv,  14.  "  Blindness  of  heart "  is  the  want 
of  understanding  arising  from  the  influence 
of  vicious  passionr..  "Hardness  of  heart"  is 
stubbornness  of  will,  and  destitution  of  moral 
feeling.  Moses  says,  "  Thou  shalt  not  put  a 
stumbling  block  before  the  blind,"  Lev.  xix,  14, 
which  may  be  understood  \iterally ;  or  figura- 
tively, as  if  Moses  recommended  that  charity 
and  instruction  should  be  shown  to  them  who 
want  light  and  counsel,  or  to  thoso  who  are 
in  danger  of  going  wrong  through  their  igno- 
rance. Moses  says  also,  "  Cursed  be  he  who 
maketh  the  blind  to  wander  out  of  his  way," 


Deut.  xxvii,  18,  which  may  also  be  taken  in 
the  same  manner.  An  ignorant  or  erring 
teacher  is  compared  by  our  Lord  to  a  blind 
man  leading  a  blind  man  ; — a  strong  repre- 
sentation of  the  presumption  of  him  that  pro- 
fesses to  teach  the  way  of  salvation  without  duo 
qualifications,  and  of  the  danger  of  that  impli- 
cit faitli  which  is  often  placed  by  the  people  in 
the  authority  of  man,  to  the  neglect  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures. 

BLOOD.  Beside  its  proper  sense,  the  fluid 
of  the  veins  of  men  and  animals,  the  term  in 
Scripture  is  used,  1.  For  life.  "  God  will  re- 
quire the  blood  of  a  man,"  he  will  punish  mur- 
der in  what  manner  soever  committed.  "  His 
blood  be  upon  us,"  let  the  guilt  of  his  death  be 
imputed  to  us.  "  The  voice  of  thy  brother's 
blood  crieth;"  the  murder  committed  on  him 
crieth  for  vengeance.  "  The  avenger  of  blood :" 
lie  who  is  to  avenge  the  death  of  his  relative, 
Num.  xxxv,  24,  27.  2.  Blood  means  relation- 
ship, or  consanguinity.  3.  Flesh  and  blood 
ere  placed  in  opposition  to  a  superior  nature: 
"  Flesh  and  blood  hath  not  revealed  it  unto 
thee,  but  my  Father  who  is  in  heaven,"  Matt, 
xvi,  17.  4.  They  are  also  opposed  to  the  glo- 
rified body:  "Flesh  and  blood  cannot  inherit 
the  kingdom  of  God,"  1  Cor.  xv,  50.  5.  They 
are  opposed  also  to  evil  spirits :  "  We  wrestle 
not  against  flesh  and  blood,"  against  visible 
enemies  composed  of  flesh  and  blood,  "but 
against  principalities  and  powers,"  &c,  Eph. 
vi,  12.  6.  Wine  is  called  the  pure  blood  of  the 
grape  :  "  Judah  shall  wash  his  garments  in  the 
blood  of  the  grape,"  Gen.  xlix,  11 ;  Deut.  xxxii. 
14.  7.  The  priests  were  established  by  God  to 
judge  between  blood  and  blood ;  that  is,  in 
criminal  matters,  and  where  the  life  of  man  is 
at  stake ; — to  determine  whether  the  murder 
be  casual,  or  voluntary ;  whether  a  crime  de- 
serve death,  or  admit  of  remission,  &c.  8.  In 
its  most  eminent  sense  blood  is  used  for  the 
sacrificial  death  of  Christ ;  whose  blood  or 
death  is  the  price  of  our  salvation.  His  blood 
has  "  purchased  the  church,"  Acts  xx,  28.  "  We 
are  justified  by  his  blood,"  Rom.  v,  9.  "  We 
have  redemption  through  his  blood,"  Eph.  i,  7, 
&c.     See  Atonement. 

That  singular  and  emphatic  prohibition  of 
blood  for  food  from  the  earliest  times,  which 
we  find  in  the  Holy  Scriptures,  deserves  par- 
ticular attention.  God  expressly  forbade  the 
eating  of  blood  alone,  or  of  blood  mixed  with 
the  flesh  of  animals,  as  when  any  creature  was 
suffocated,  or  strangled,  or  killed  without  draw- 
ing its  blood  from  the  carcass.  For  when  the 
grant  of  animal  food  was  made  to  Noah,  in 
those  comprehensive  words,  "  Even  as  the 
green  herb  have  I  given  you  all  things,"  it 
was  added,  "but  flesh  with  the  life  thereof, 
namely,  its  blood,  ye  shall  not  eat,"  Gen.  ix,  4. 
And  when  the  law  was  given  to  the  children 
of  Israel,  we  find  the  prohibition  against  the 
eating  of  blood  still  more  explicitly  enforced, 
both  upon  Jews  and  Gentiles,  in  the  following 
words,  "  Whatsoever  man  there  be  of  the  house 
of  Israel,  or  of  the  strangers  that  sojourn  among 
you,  that  eateth  any  manner  of  blood ;  I  will 
even  set  my  face  against  that  soul  that  eatoth 


BLO 


169 


BOA 


blood,  and  will  cut  him  off  from  among  his 
people  :  for  the  life  of  the  flesh  is  in  the  blood ; 
and  I  have  given  it  to  you  upon  the  altar  to 
make  atonement  for  your  souls :    for  it  is  the 
blood  that  maketh  an  atonement  for  the  soul," 
Lev.  xvii,  10,  11.     And  to  cut  off  all  possibility 
of  mistake  upon  this  particular  point,  it  is  add- 
ed :  "  Therefore  I  said  unto  the    children  of 
Israel,  No  soul  of  you  shall  eat  blood,  neither 
shall  any  stranger  that  sojourneth  among  you 
eat  blood ;  and  whatsoever  man  there  be  of  the 
children  of  Israel,  or  of  the  strangers  that  so- 
journ among  you,  which  hunteth  and  catcheth 
any  beast  or  fowl  that  may  be  eaten ;  he  shall 
even  pour  out  the  blood  thereof  and  cover  it 
with  dust,  for  it  is  the  life  of  all  flesh  ;  the  blood 
of  it  is  for  the  life  thereof;  therefore  I  said  unto 
the  children  of  Israel,  Ye  shall  eat  the  blood  of 
no  manner  of  flesh :  for  the  life  of  all  flesh  is 
the  blood  thereof;  whosoever  eateth  it  shall  be 
cut  off,"  verses  12-14.      This  restraint,  than 
which  nothing  can  be  more  express,  was  also, 
under  the   new  covenant,    enjoined  upon  be- 
lieving Gentiles,    as  "a  burden"  which    "it 
seemed  necessary  to  the  Holy  Spirit  to  impose 
upon  them,"  Acts  xv,  28,  20.      For  this  pro- 
hibition no  moral  reason  seems  capable  of  be- 
ing offered  ;    nor  does  it  clearly  appear   that 
blood  is  an  unwholesome  aliment,  which  some 
think  was  the  physical  reason  of  its  being  in- 
hibited; and  if,  in  fact,  blood  is  deleterious  as 
food,  there  seems  no  greater  reason  why  this 
should  be  pointed  out  by  special  revelation  to 
man,  to  guard  him  against  injury,  than  many 
other  unwholesome  aliments.     There  is  little 
force  in  the  remark,  that  the  eating  of  blood 
produces  a  ferocious  disposition  ;  for  those  na- 
tions that  eat  strangled  things,  or  blood  cooked 
with  other  aliments,  do  not  exhibit  more  fero- 
city than   others.     The  true    reason  was,   no 
doubt,  a  sacrificial  one.     When  animals  were 
granted  to  Noah  for  food,  the  blood  was  re- 
served; and  when  the  same  law  was  reenacted 
among  the  Israelites,  the  original  prohibition 
is  repeated  with  an  explanation  which  at  once 
shows  the  original  ground  upon  which  it  rest- 
ed:  "I  have  given  it  upon  the  altar  to  make 
an    atonement    for   your   souls."      From    this 
"  additional  reason,"  as  it  has  been  called,  it 
has  been  argued,  that  the  doctrine  of  the  aton- 
ing power  of  blood  was  new,  and  was,  then,  for 
the  first  time,  announced  by  Moses,  or  the  same 
cause  for  the  prohibition  would  have  been  as- 
signed to  Noah.    To  this  we  may  reply,  1.  That 
unless  the    same  reason  be  supposed  as    the 
ground  of  the  prohibition  of  blood  to  Noah,  as 
that  given  by  Moses  to  the  Jews,  no  reason  at 
all  can  be  conceived  for  this  restraint  being  put 
upon  the  appetite  of  mankind  from  Noah  to 
Moses ;  and  yet  we  have  a  prohibition  of  a  most 
solemn  kind,  which  in   itself  could  have   no 
reason,  enjoined  without  any  external  reason 
being  either  given  or  conceivable.     2.  That  it 
is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  the  declaration  of 
Moses  to  the  Jews,  that  God  had  "  given  them 
the  blood  for  an  atonement,"  is  an  "  additional 
reason"  for  the  interdict,  not  to  be  found  in  the 
original  prohibition  to  Noah.     The  whole  pas- 
sage occurs  in  Lev.  xvii ;  and  the  great  reason 


there  given  of  the  prohibition  of  blood  is,  that 
it  is  "  the  life ;"  and  what  follows  respecting 
"atonement,"  is  exegetical  of  this  reason; — 
the  life  is  in  the  blood,  and  the  blood  or  life  is 
given  as  an  atonement.  Now,  by  turning  to 
the  original  prohibition  in  Genesis  we  find  that 
precisely  the  same  reason  is  given:  "But  the 
flesh  with  the  blood,  which  is  the  life  thereof, 
shall  ye  not  eat."  The  reason,  then,  being  the 
same,  the  question  is,  whether  the  exegesis 
added  by  Moses  must  not  necessarily  be  under- 
stood in  the  general  reason  given  for  the  re- 
straint to  Noah.  Blood  is  prohibited  because 
it  is  the  life;  and  Moses  adds,  that  it  is  "the 
blood,"  or  life,  "  which  makes  atonement." 
Let  any  one  attempt  to  discover  any  reason  for 
the  prohibition  of  blood  to  Noah,  in  the  mere 
circumstance  that  it  is  "the  life,"  and  he  will 
find  it  impossible.  It  is  no  reason  at  all,  moral 
or  instituted,  except  that  as  it  was  life  substi- 
tuted for  life,  the  life  of  the  animal  in  sacri- 
fice for  the  life  of  man,  and  that,  therefore, 
blood  had  a  sacred  appropriation.  The  man- 
ner, too,  in  which  Moses  introduces  the  sub- 
ject, is  indicative  that,  though  he  was  renew- 
ing a  prohibition,  he  was  not  publishing  a  new 
doctrine ;  he  does  not  teach  his  people  that 
God  had  then  given,  or  appointed,  blood  to 
make  atonement ;  but  he  prohibits  them  from 
eating  it,  because  he  had  already  made  this  ap- 
pointment, without  reference  to  time,  and  as  a 
subject  with  which  they  were  familiar.  Be- 
cause the  blood  was  the  life,  it  was  sprinkled 
upon,  and  poured  out  at,  the  altar:  and  we 
have  in  the  sacrifice  of  the  paschal  lamb,  and 
the  sprinkling  of  its  blood,  a  sufficient  proof 
that,  before  the  giving  of  the  law,  not  only 
was  blood  not  eaten,  but  was  appropriated  to 
a  sacred  sacrificial  purpose.  Nor  was  this  con- 
fined to  the  Jews;  it  was  customary  with  the 
Romans  and  Greeks,  who,  in  like  manner, 
poured  out  and  sprinkled  the  blood  of  victims 
at  their  altars  ;  a  rite  derived,  probably,  from 
tho  Egyptians,  who  deduced  it,  not  from  Moses, 
but  from  the  sons  of  Noah.  The  notion,  in- 
deed, that  the  blood  of  the  victims  was  pecu- 
liarly sacred  to  the  gods,  is  impressed  upon  all 
ancient  Pagan  mythology. 

BOANERGES.  This  word  is  neither  He- 
brew nor  Syriac,  and  some  have  thought  that 
the  transcribers  have  not  exactly  copied  it,  and 
that  the  word  was  benereen,  Savc^eiv,  which  ex- 
presses the  sound  of  the  Hebrew  of  the  phrase, 
"  sons  of  thunder."  Parkhurst  judges  the  word 
to  be  the  Galilean  pronunciation  of  the  He- 
brew a'jrn  i)2  expressed  in  Greek  letters.  Now, 
ti'jn  properly  signifies  a  violent  trembling  or 
commotion,  and  may  therefore  be  well  render- 
ed by  &po\>Tr),  thunder,  which  is  a  violent  com- 
motion in  the  air ;  so,  vice  versa,  any  violent 
commotion  is  figuratively,  and  not  unusually, 
in  all  languages,  called  thunder.  When  our 
Saviour  named  the  sons  of  Zebedee,  Boanerges, 
he  perhaps  had  an  eye  to  that  prophecy  of  Hag- 
gai,  "  Yet  once,  and  I  will  shake  the  heavens 
and  the  earth,"  ii,  6 ;  which  is  by  the  Apostle 
to  the  Hebrews,  xii,  26,  applied  to  the  great 
alteration  made  in  the  economy  of  the  Jews 
by  the  publication  of  the  Gospel.    The  name 


BON 


170 


BOO 


Boanerges,  therefore,  given  to  James  and  John, 
imports  that  they  should  be  eminent  instru- 
ments in  accomplishing  the  wondrous  change, 
and  should,  like  an  earthquake  or  thunder, 
mightily  bear  down  all  opposition,  by  their 
inspired  preaching  and  miraculous  powers. 
That  it  does  not  relate  to  their  mode  of  preach- 
ing is  certain  ;  for  that  clearly  appears  to  have 
been  calmly  argumentative,  and  sweetly  per- 
suasive— the  very  reverse  of  what  is  usually 
called  a  thundering  ministry. 

BOAR,  -pin.  The  wild  boar  is  considered 
as  the  parent  stock  of  our  domestic  hog.  He 
is  smaller,  but  at  the  same  time  stronger  and 
more  undaunted,  than  the  hog.  In  his  own 
defence,  he  will  turn  on  men  or  dogs ;  and 
scarcely  shuns  any  denizen  of  the  forests,  in 
the  haunts  where  he  ranges.  His  colour  is 
always  an  iron  grey,  inclining  to  black.  His 
snout  is  longer  than  that  of  the  common  breed, 
and  his  ears  are  comparatively  short.  His 
tusks  are  very  formidable,  and  all  his  habits  are 
fierce  and  savage.  It  should  seem,  from  the 
accounts  of  ancient  authors,  that  the  ravages 
of  the  wild  boar  were  considered  as  more  formi- 
dable than  those  of  other  savage  animals.  The 
conquest  of  the  Erymanthian  boar  was  one  of 
the  fated  labours  of  Hercules ;  and  the  story  of 
the  Calydonian  boar  is  one  of  the  most  beauti- 
ful in  Ovid.  The  destructive  ravages  of  these 
animals  are  mentioned  in  Psalm  lxxx,  14.  Dr. 
Pococke  observed  very  large  herds  of  wild 
boars  on  the  side  of  Jordan,  where  it  flows  out 
of  the  sea  of  Tiberias ;  and  saw  several  of  them 
on  the  other  side  lying  among  the  reeds  by  the 
sea.  The  wild  boars  of  other  countries  delight 
in  the  like  moist  retreats.  These  shady  marsh- 
es then,  it  should  seem,  are  called  in  the  Scrip- 
ture, "  woods  ;"  for  it  calls  these  animals,  "  the 
wild  boars  of  the  woods." 

BOHEMIAN  BRETHREN,  a  sect  of  he- 
retics, according  to  the  church  of  Rome ;  but, 
in  truth,  a  race  of  early  reformers,  who  preced- 
ed Luther.  At  first  they  were  charged  with 
so  many  heresies,  that  the  great  reformer  was 
shy  of  them;  but,  upon  receiving  from  them- 
selves an  account  of  their  tenets,  in  1522,  he 
readily  acknowledged  them  as  brethren,  and 
received  them  into  communion.  Some  time 
after  this,  they  were  driven  by  persecution 
from  their  native  country,  and  entered  into 
communion  with  the  Swiss  church,  as  reformed 
by  Zuinglius ;  and  from  thence  sprang  the 
church  of  the  United  Brethren. 

BONDS  were  of  two  kinds,  public  and  pri- 
vate ;  the  former  were  employed  to  secure  a 
prisoner  in  the  public  jail,  after  confession  or 
conviction ;  the  latter  when  he  was  delivered 
to  a  magistrate,  or  even  to  private  persons,  to 
be  kept  at  their  houses  till  he  should  be  tried. 
The  Apostle  Paul  was  subjected  to  private 
bonds  by  Felix,  the  Roman  governor,  who 
"  commanded  a  centurion  to  keep  him,  and  to 
let  him  have  liberty,  and  that  he  should  forbid 
none  of  his  acquaintance  to  minister,  or  come 
unto  him,"  Acts  xxiv,  23.  And  after  he  was 
carried  prisoner  to  Rome,  he  "  dwelt  two  whole 
years  in  his  own  hired  house,  and  received  all 
that  came  in  unto  him,"  xxviii,  30. 


BONNET  was  a  covering  for  the  head,  worn 
by  the  Jewish  priests.  Josephus  says,  that  the 
bonnet  worn  by  the  private  priests  was  com- 
posed  of  several  rounds  of  linen  cloth,  turned 
in  and  sewed  together,  so  as  to  appear  like  a 
thick  linen  crown.  The  whole  was  entirely 
covered  with  another  piece  of  linen,  which 
came  down  as  low  as  their  forehead,  and  con- 
cealed the  deformity  of  the  seams.  See  Exo- 
dus xxviii,  40.  The  high  priest's  bonnet  was 
not  much  different  from  that  which  has  been 
described. 

BOOK,  a  writing  composed  on  some  point 
of  knowledge  by  a  person  intelligent  therein, 
for  the  instruction  or  amusement  of  the  reader. 
The  word,  is  formed  from  the  Gothic  boka,  or 
Saxon  hoc,  which  comes  from  the  Northern 
bticch,  of  bvechaus,  a  beech  or  service  tree,  on 
the  bark  of  which  our  ancestors  used  to  write. 
Book  is  distinguished  from  pamphlet,  or  single 
paper,  by  its  greater  length ;  and  from  tome  or 
volume,  by  its  containing  the  whole  writing 
on  the  subject.  Isidore  makes  this  distinction 
between  liber  and  codex ;  that  the  former  de- 
notes a  single  book,  the  latter  a  collection  of 
several ;  though,  according  to  Scipio  Maffei, 
codex  signifies  a  book  in  the  square  form  ;  liber, 
a  book  in  the  roll.  form.  The  primary  distinc- 
tion between  liber  and  codex  seems  to  have 
been  derived,  as  Dr.  Heylin  has  observed,  from 
the  different  materials  used  for  writing,  among 
the  ancients :  from  the  innerside  of  the  bark 
of  a  tree,  used  for  this  purpose,  and  called  in 
Latin  liber,  the  name  of  liber  applied  to  a  book 
was  deduced ;  and  from  that  tablet,  formed 
from  the  main  body  of  a  tree,  called  caudex, 
was  derived  the  appellation  of  codex. 

2.  Several  sorts  of  materials  were  formerly 
used  in  making  books:  stone  and  wood  were 
the  first  materials  employed  to  engrave  such 
things  upon  as  men  were  desirous  of  having 
transmitted  to  posterity.  Porphyry  makes  men- 
tion of  some  pillars  preserved  in  Crete,  on 
which  the  ceremonies  observed  by  the  Cory- 
bantes  in  their  sacrifices  were  recorded.  The 
works  of  Hesiod  were  originally  written  on 
tables  of  lead,  and  deposited  in  the  temple  of 
the  Muses  in  Breotia.  The  laws  of  Jehovah 
were  written  on  tables  of  stone,  and  those  of 
Solon  on  wooden  planks.  Tables  of  wood  and 
ivory  were  common  among  the  ancients  :  those 
of  wood,  were  very  frequently  covered  with 
wax,  that  persons  might  write  on  them  with 
more  ease,  or  blot  out  what  they  had  written. 
And  the  instrument  used  to  write  with  was  a 
piece  oi  iron,  called  a  style;  and  hence  the 
word  "style"  came  to  be  taken  for  the  compo- 
sition of  the  writing.  The  leaves  of  the  palm- 
tree  were  afterward  used  instead  of  wooden 
planks,  and  the  finest  and  thinnest  part  of  the 
bark  of  such  trees  as  the  lime,  ash,  maple,  and 
elm  ;  and  especially  the  tilio,  or  phillyrea,  and 
Egyptian  papyrus.  Hence  came  the  word  hber, 
(a  book,)  which  signifies  the  inner  bark  of  the 
trees.  And  as  these  barks  were  rolled  up  in 
order  to  be  removed  with  greater  ease,  each 
roll  was  called  volumen,  a  volume ;  a  name 
afterward  given  to  the  like  rolls  of  paper  or 
parchment.     From  tho  Egyptian  papyrus  the 


BOO 


171 


BOO 


word  paper  is  derived.  After  this,  leather  was 
introduced,  especially  the  skins  of  goats  and 
sheep.  For  the  king  of  Pergamus,  in  collect- 
ing his  library,  was  led  to  the  invention  of 
parchment  made  of  those  skins.  The  ancients 
likewise  wrote  upon  linen.  Pliny  says,  the 
Parthians,  even  in  his  time,  wrote  upon  their 
clothes ;  and  Livy  speaks  of  certain  books  made 
of  linen,  lintei  libri,  upon  which  the  names  of 
magistrates,  and  the  history  of  the  Roman 
commonwealth,  were  written,  and  preserved  in 
the  temple  of  the  goddess  Moneta. 

3.  The  materials  generally  used  by  the 
ancients  for  their  books,  were  liable  to  be 
easily  destroyed  by  the  damp,  when  hidden  in 
the  earth ;  and  in  times  of  war,  devastation, 
and  rapacity,  it  was  necessary  to  bury  in  the 
earth  whatever  they  wished  to  preserve  from 
the  attacks  of  fraud  and  violence.  With  this 
view,  Jeremiah  ordered  the  writings,  which  he 
delivered  to  Baruch,  to  be  put  in  an  earthen 
vessel,  Jer.  xxxii.  In  the  same  manner  the 
ancient  Egyptians  made  use  of  earthen  urns, 
or  pots  of  a  proper  shape,  for  containing  what- 
ever they  wanted  to  inter  in  the  earth,  and 
which,  without  such  care,  would  have  been 
soon  destroyed.  We  need  not  wonder  then, 
that  the  Prophet  Jeremiah  should  think  it 
necessary  to  inclose  those  writings  in  an  earth- 
en pot,  which  were  to  be  buried  in  Judea,  in 
some  place  where  they  might  be  found  without 
much  difficulty  on  the  return  of  the  Jews  from 
captivity.  Accordingly  two  different  writings, 
or  small  rolls  of  writing,  called  books  in  the 
original  Hebrew,  were  designed  to  be  inclosed 
in  such  an  earthen  vessel ;  but  commentators 
have  been  much  embarrassed  in  giving  any 
probable  account  of  the  necessity  of  two  writ- 
ings, one  sealed,  the  other  open;  or,  as  the 
passage  has  been  commonly  understood,  the 
one  sealed  up,  the  other  left  open  for  any  one 
to  read ;  more  especially,  as  both  were  to  be 
alike  buried  in  the  earth  and  concealed  from 
every  eye,  and  both  were  to  be  examined  at  the 
return  from  the  captivity.  But  the  word  trans- 
lated open,  in  reference  to  the  evidence,  or 
book  which  was  open,  (1  Sam.  iii,  7,  21 ;  Dan. 
ii,  19,  30;  x,  1,)  signifies  the  revealing  of  future 
events  to  the  minds  of  men  by  a  divine  agency  ; 
and  it  is  particularly  used  in  the  book  of  Esther, 
viii,  13,  to  express  a  book's  making  known  the 
decree  of  an  earthly  king.  Consequently  the 
open  book  of  Jeremiah  seems  to  signify,  not 
its  being  then  lying  open  or  unrolled  before 
them,  while  the  other  was  sealed  up;  but  the 
book  that  had  revealed  the  will  of  God,  to 
bring  back  Israel  into  their  own  country,  and 
to  cause  buying  and  selling  of  houses  and  lands 
again  to  take  place  among  them.  This  was  a 
book  of  prophecy,  opening  and  revealing  the 
future  return  of  Israel,  and  the  other  little 
hook,  which  was  ordered  to  be  buried  along 
with  it,  was  the  purchase  deed. 

4.  By  adverting  to  the  different  modes  of 
writing  in  eastern  countries,  we  obtain  a  satis- 
factory interpretation  of  a  passage  in  the  book 
of  Job,  xix,  23,  24,  and  a  distinct  view  of  the 
beautiful  gradation  which  is  lost  in  our  trans- 
lation :  "  O  that  rny  words  were  now  written  ! 


O  that  they  were  printed  (written)  in  a  book  I 
that  they  were  graven  with  an  iron  pen  and 
lead  in  the  rock  for  ever !"  In  the  east  there  is 
a  mode  of  writing,  which  is  designed  to  fix 
words  in  the  memory,  but  the  writing  is  not 
intended  for  duration.  Accordingly  we  are 
informed  by  Dr.  Shaw,  that  children  learn  to 
write  in  Barbary  by  means  of  a  smooth  thin 
board,  slightly  covered  with  whiting,  which 
may  be  wiped  off  or  renewed  at  pleasure.  Job 
expresses  his  wish  not  only  that  his  words  were 
written,  but  also  written  in  a  book,  from  which 
they  should  not  be  blotted  out,  nay,  still  farther, 
graven  in  a  rock,  the  most  permanent  mode  of 
recording  them,  and  especially  if  the  engraved 
letters  were  filled  with  lead ;  or  the  rock  was 
made  to  receive  leaden  tablets,  the  use  of 
which  was  known  among  the  ancients.  So 
Pliny,  "  At  first  men  wrote  on  the  leaves  of 
palm,  and  the  bark  of  certain  trees,  but  after- 
ward public  documents  were  preserved  on  lead- 
en plates,  and  those  of  a  private  nature  on  wax, 
or  linen." 

5.  The  first  books  were  in  the  form  of  blocks 
and  tables,  of  which  we  find  frequent  mention 
in  Scripture,  under  the  appellation  sepher, 
which  the  Septuagint  render  a^ivcg,  that  is, 
square  tables :  of  which  form  the  book  of  the 
covenant,  book  of  the  law,  book,  or  bill  of  di- 
vorce, book  of  curses,  &c,  appear  to  have  been. 
As  flexible  matters  came  to  be  written  on,  they 
found  it  more  convenient  to  make  their  books 
in  form  of  rolls,  called  by  the  Greeks  KovrdKia, 
by  the  Latins  volumina,  which  appear  to  have 
been  in  use  among  the  ancient  Jews  as  well  as 
the  Grecians,  Romans,  Persians,  and  even  In- 
dians ;  and  of  such  did  the  libraries  chiefly  con- 
sist, till  some  centuries  after  Christ.  The  form 
which  obtains  among  us  is  the  square,  compos- 
ed of  separate  leaves  ;  which  was  also  known, 
though  little  used,  among  the  ancients  ;  having 
been  invented  by  Attalus,  king  of  Pergamus, 
the  same  who  also  invented  parchment :  but  it 
has  now  been  so  long  in  possession,  that  the 
oldest  manuscripts  are  found  in  it.  Montfau- 
con  assures  us,  that  of  all  the  ancient  Greek 
manuscripts  he  has  seen,  there  are  but  two  in 
the  roll  form ;  the  rest  being  made  up  much 
after  the  manner  of  the  modern  books.  The 
rolls,  or  volumes,  were  composed  of  several 
sheets,  fastened  to  each  other,  and  rolled  upon 
a  stick,  or  umbilicus ;  the  whole  making  a  kind 
of  column,  or  cylinder,  which  was  to  be  man- 
aged by  the  umbilicus,  as  a  handle  ;  it  being 
reputed  a  kind  of  crime  to  take  hold  of  the  roll 
itself.  The  outside  of  the  volume  was  called 
frons ;  the  ends  .  of  the  umbilicus  were  called 
corniia,  "  horns  ;"  which  were  usually  carved 
and  adorned  likewise  with  silver,  ivory,  or  even 
gold  and  precious  stones.  Whilst  the  Egyp- 
tian papyrus  was  in  common  use,  its  brittle  na- 
ture made  it  proper  to  roll  up  what  they  wrote ; 
and  as  this  had  been  a  customary  practice, 
many  continued  it  when  they  used  other  mate- 
rials, which  might  very  safely  have  been  treat- 
ed in  a  different  manner.  To  the  form  of  books 
belongs  the  economy  of  the  inside,  or  the  order 
and  arrangement  of  points  and  letters  into  linos 
and  pages,  with  margins  and  other  appurt©. 


BOO 


172 


BOO 


nances.  This  has  undergone  many  varieties  : 
at  first,  the  letters  were  only  divided  into  lines, 
then  into  separate  words  ;  which,  by  degrees, 
were  noted  with  accents,  and  distributed  by 
points  and  stops  into  periods,  paragraphs,  chap- 
ters, and  other  divisions.  In  some  countries,  as 
among  the  orientals,  the  lines  began  from  the 
right,  and  ran  to  the  left ;  in  others,  as  in  north- 
ern and  western  nations,  from  the  left  to  the 
right ;  others,  as  the  Grecians,  followed  both 
directions  alternately,  going  in  the  one  and  re- 
turning in  the  other,  called  boustrophedon,  be- 
cause it  was  after  the  manner  of  oxen  turning 
when  at  plough.  In  the  Chinese  books,  the 
lines  ran  from  top  to  bottom.  Again  :  the  page 
in  some  is  entire,  and  uniform  ;  in  others,  divid- 
ed into  columns  ;  in  others  distinguished  into 
texts  and  notes,  either  marginal,  or  at  the  bot- 
tom :  usually  it  is  furnished  with  signatures  and 
catch  words  ;  also  with  a  register  to  discover 
whether  the  book  be  complete.  To  these  are 
occasionally  added  the  apparatus  of  summaries, 
or  side  notes;  the  embellishments  of  red,  gold, 
or  figured  initial  letters,  head  pieces,  tail  pieces, 
effigies,  schemes,  maps,  and  the  like.  The  end 
of  the  book  now  denoted  by  finis,  was  ancient- 
ly marked  with  a  <\,  called  coronis,  and  the 
whole  frequently  washed  with  an  oil  drawn 
from  cedar,  or  citron  chips,  strewed  between 
the  leaves  to  preserve  it  from  rotting.  There 
also  occur  certain  formula  at  the  beginning  and 
end  of  books ;  as  among  the  Jews,  the  word 
prn,  esto  for/is,  which  we  find  at  the  end  of 
the  books  of  Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers,  Eze- 
kiel,  &c,  to  exhort  the  reader  to  be  courageous, 
and  proceed  on  to  the  following  book.  The 
conclusions  were  also  often  guarded  with  im- 
precations against  such  as  should  falsify  them  ; 
of  which  we  have  an  instance  in  the  Apoca- 
lypse. The  Mohammedans,  for  the  like  rea- 
son, place  the  name  of  God  at  the  beginning 
of  all  their  books,  which  cannot  fail  to  procure 
them  protection,  on  account  of  the  infinite  re- 
gard which  they  pay  to  that  name,  wherever 
found.  For  the  like  reason  it  is,  that  divers  of 
the  laws  of  the  ancient  emperors  begin  with 
the  formula,  In  nomine  Dei.  [In  the  name  of 
God.]  At  the  end  of  each  book  the  Jews  also 
added  the  number  of  verses  contained  in  it,  and 
at  the  end  of  the  Pentateuch  the  number  of 
sections  ;  that  it  might  be  transmitted  to  poster- 
ity entire.  The  Masorites  and  Mohammedan 
doctors  have  gone  farther ;  so  as  to  number 
the  several  words  and  letters  in  each  book,  chap- 
ter, verse,  &c,  of  the  Old  Testament  and  the 
Alcoran.  The  scarcity  and  high  price  of  books 
in  former  ages,  ought  to  render  us  the  more 
grateful  for  the  discovery  of  the  great  art  of 
printing,  as  especially  by  that  means  the  Holy 
Bible,  "  the  word  of  truth  and  Gospel  of  our 
salvation,"  is  made  familiar  to  all  classes. 

The  universal  ignorance  that  prevailed  in 
Europe,  from  the  seventh  to  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury, may  be  ascribed  to  the  scarcity  of  books 
during  that  period,  and  the  difficulty  of  render- 
ing them  more  common,  concurring  with  other 
causes  arising  from  the  state  of  government 
and  manners.  The  Romans  wrote  their  books 
either  on  parchment,  or  on  paper  made  of  the 


Egyptian  papyrus.  The  latter,  being  the  cheap. 
est,  was  of  course  the  most  commonly  used. 
But  after  the  Saracens  conquered  Egypt,  in 
the  seventh  century,  the  communication  be- 
tween that  country  and  the  people  settled  in 
Italy,  or  in  other  parts  of  Europe,  was  almost 
entirely  broken  off,  and  the  papyrus  was  no 
longer  in  use  among  them.  They  were  oblig- 
ed on  that  account  to  write  all  their  books  upon 
parchment ;  and  as  the  price  of  that  was  high, 
books  became  extremely  rare  and  of  great 
value.  We  may  judge  of  the  scarcity  of  mate- 
rials for  writing  them  from  one  circumstance. 
There  still  remain  several  manuscripts  of  the 
eighth,  ninth,  and  following  centuries,  written 
on  parchment,  from  which  some  former  writing 
had  been  erased,  in  order  to  substitute  a  new 
composition  in  its  place.  Thus,  it  is  probable, 
several  of  the  works  of  the  ancients  perished. 
A  book  of  Livy  or  of  Tacitus  might  be  erased, 
to  make  room  for  the  legendary  tale  of  a  saint, 
or  the  superstitious  prayers  of  a  missal.  Nay, 
worse  instances  are  recorded,  of  obliterating 
copies  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  to  make  room  for 
the  lucubrations  of  some  of  the  more  modern 
fathers  of  the  church.  Manuscripts  thus  de- 
faced, the  vellum  or  parchment  of  which  is  oc- 
cupied with  some  other  writings,  are  called 
"palimpsests,"  codices  rescripti  or  palimpsesti, 
from  G7aX/fn|'>;j-o£,  "  that  which  has  been  twice 
scraped."  As  this  want  of  materials  for  writ- 
ing will  serve  to  account  for  the  loss  of  many 
of  the  works  of  the  ancients,  and  for  the  small 
number  of  MSS.  previous  to  the  eleventh 
century,  many  facts  prove  the  scarcity  of  books 
at  this  period.  Private  persons  seldom  possess- 
ed any  books  whatever ;  and  even  monasteries 
of  note  had  only  one  missal.  In  1299,  John  de 
Pontissara,  bishop  of  Winchester,  borrows  of 
his  cathedral  convent  of  St.  Swithin,  at  Win- 
chester, "bibliam  bene  glossatam"  that  is,  the 
Bible,  with  marginal  annotations,  in  two  folio 
volumes  ;  but  gives  a  bond  for  the  return  of  it, 
drawn  up  with  great  solemnity.  For  the  be- 
quest of  this  Bible  to  the  convent,  and  one  hun- 
dred marks,  the  monks  founded  a  daily  mass 
for  the  soul  of  the  donor.  If  any  person  gave 
a  book  to  a  religious  house,  he  believed  that  so 
valuable  a  donation  merited  eternal  salvation, 
and  he  offered  it  on  the  altar  with  great  cere- 
mony. The  prior  and  convent  of  Rochester 
declare,  that  they  will  every  year  pronounce 
the  irrevocable  sentence  of  damnation  on  him 
who  shall  purloin  or  conceal  a  Latin  transla- 
tion of  Aristotle's  Poetics,  or  even  obliterate 
the  title.  Sometimes  a  book  was  given  to  a 
monastery,  on  condition  that  the  donor  should 
have  the  use  of  it  for  his  life;  and  sometimes 
to  a  private  person,  with  the  reservation  that 
he  who  receives  it  should  pray  for  the  soul  of  his 
benefactor.  In  the  year  1225,  Roger  de  In- 
sula, dean  of  York,  gave  several  Latin  Bibles 
to  the  university  of  Oxford,  on  condition  that 
the  students  who  perused  them  should  de- 
posit a  cautionary  pledge.  The  library  of  that 
university,  before  the  year  1300,  consisted  only 
of  a  few  tracts,  chained  or  kept  in  chests,  in 
the  choir  of  St.  Mary's  church.  The  price  of 
books  became  so  high,  that  persons  of  a  mode? 


BOO 


173 


BOO 


rate  fortune  could  not  afford  to  purchase  them. 
In  the  year  1174,  Walter,  prior  of  St.  Swithin's 
at  Winchester,  purchased  of  the  monks  of  Dor- 
Chester,  in  Oxfordshire,  Bede's  homilies,  and  St. 
Austin's  psalter  for  twelve  measures  of  barley 
and  a  pall,  on  which  was  embroidered  in  silver 
the  history  of  St.  Birinus  converting  a  Saxon 
king.  About  the  year  1400,  a  copy  of  John  of 
Meun's  "  Roman  de  la  Rose"  was  sold  before  the 
palace  gate  at  Paris  for  forty  crowns,  or  33L  6s. 
6d.  The  countess  of  Anjou  paid,  for  a  copy  of 
the  homilies  of  Haimon,  bishop  of  Halberstadt, 
two  hundred  sheep,  five  quarters  of  wheat, 
and  the  same  quantity  of  rye  and  millet.  Even 
so  late  as  the  year  1471,  when  Louis  XI.  of 
France  borrowed  the  works  of  Rhasis,  the  Ara- 
bian physician,  from  the  faculty  of  medicine  at 
Paris,  he  not  only  deposited  by  way  of  pledge 
a  considerable  quantity  of  plate,  but  he  was 
obliged  to  procure  a  nobleman  to  join  with  him 
as  surety  in  a  deed,  binding  himself  under  a 
great  forfeiture  to  restore  it.  But  when,  in  the 
eleventh  century,  the  art  of  making  paper 
was  invented,  and  more  especially  after  the 
manufacture  became  general,  the  number  of 
MSS.  increased,  and  the  study  of  the  sciences 
was  wonderfully  facilitated.  Indeed,  the  inven- 
tion of  the  art  of  making  paper,  and  the  inven- 
tion of  the  art  of  printing,  are  two  very  memo- 
rable events  in  the  history  of  literature  and  of 
human  civilization.  It  is  remarkable,  that  the 
former  preceded  the  first  dawning  of  letters  and 
improvement  in  knowledge,  toward  the  close 
of  the  eleventh  century  ;  and  the  latter  ushered 
in  the  light  which  spread  over  Europe  at  the 
oera  of  the  reformation. 

6.  If  the  ancient  books  were  large,  they  were 
formed  of  a  number  of  skins,  of  a  number  of 
pieces  of  linen  and  cotton  cloth,  or  of  papyrus, 
or  parchment,  connected  together.  The  leaves 
were  rarely  written  over  on  both  sides,  Ezek. 
ii,  9;  Zech.  v,  1.  Books,  when  written  upon 
very  flexible  materials,  were,  as  stated  above, 
rolled  round  a  stick ;  and,  if  they  were  very 
long,  round  two,  from  the  two  extremities. 
The  reader  unrolled  the  book  to  the  place  which 
he  wanted,  avairrv^as  to  pifiMov,  and  rolled  it  up 
again,  when  he  had  read  it,  nriSfas  to  (ji6\iov, 
Luke  iv,  17-20  ;  whence  the  name  n^JD,  a 
volume,  or  thing  rolled  up,  Psalm  xl,  7  ;  Isaiah 
xxxiv,  4;  Ezek.  ii,  9;  2  Kings  xix,  14;  Ezra 
vi,  2..  The  leaves  thus  rolled  round  the  stick, 
which  has  been  mentioned,  and  bound  with  a 
string,  could  be  easily  sealed,  Isaiah  xxix,  11; 
Dan.  xii,  4  ;  Rev.  v,  1 ;  vi,  7.  Those  books, 
which  were  inscribed  on  tablets  of  wood,  lead, 
brass,  or  ivory,  were  connected  together  by 
rings  at  the  back,  through  which  a  rod  was 
passed  to  carry  them  by.  The  orientals  ap- 
pear to  have  taken  pleasure  in  giving  tropical 
or  enigmatical  titles  to  their  books.  The  titles, 
prefixed  to  the  fifty-sixth,  sixtieth,  and  eightieth 
psalms  appear  to  be  of  this  description.  And 
there  can  be  no  doubt,  that  David's  elegy  upon 
Saul  and  Jonathan,  2  Sam.  i,  18,  is  called  riirp 
or  the  bow,  in  conformity  with  this  peculiarity 
of  taste. 

The  book,  or  flying  roll,  spoken  of  in  Zech. 
v,  1,  2,  twenty  cubits  long  and  ten  wide,  was 


one  of  the  ancient  rolls,  composed  of  many 
skins,  or  parchments,  glued  or  sewed  together 
at  the  end.  Though  some  of  these  rolls  or 
volumes  were  very  long,  yet  none,  probably, 
was  ever  made  of  such  a  size  as  this  This 
contained  the  curses  and  calamities  which 
should  befal  the  Jews.  The  extreme  length 
and  breadth  of  it  shows  the  excessive  number 
and  enormity  of  their  sins,  and  the  extent  of 
their  punishment. 

Isaiah,  describing  the  effects  of  God's  wrath, 
says,  "  The  heavens  shall  be  folded  up  like  a 
book,"  (scroll,)  Isaiah  xxxiv,  4.  He  alludes  to 
the  way  among  the  ancients,  of  rolling  up 
books,  when  they  purposed  to  close  them.  A 
volume  of  several  feet  in  length  was  suddenly 
rolled  up  into  a  very  small  compass.  Thus  the 
heavens  should  shrink  into  themselves,  and 
disappear,  as  it  were,  from  the  eyes  of  God, 
when  his  wrath  should  be  kindled.  These  ways 
of  speaking  are  figurative,  and  very  energetic. 

7.  Book  is  sometimes  used  for  letters,  me- 
moirs, an  edict,  or  contract.  In  short,  the 
word  book,  in  Hebrew,  sepher,  is  much  more 
extensive  than  the  Latin  liber.  The  letters 
which  Rabshakeh  delivered  from  Sennacherib 
to  Hezekiah  are  called  a  book.  The  English 
translation,  indeed,  reads  letter  ;  but  the  Septu- 
agint  has  (it6\iov,  and  the  Hebrew  text,  onflDn. 
The  contract,  confirmed  by  Jeremiah  for  the 
purchase  of  a  field,  is  called  by  the  same  name, 
Jer.  xxxii,  10;  and  also  the  edict  of  Ahasuerus 
in  favour  of  the  Jews,  Esther  ix,  20,  though 
our  translators  have  called  it  letters.  The 
writing  which  a  man  gave  to  his  wife  when  he 
divorced  her,  was  denominated,  in  Hebrew, 
"  a  book  of  divorce,"  Dent.  xxiv. 

Books,  Writers  of.  The  ancients  seldom 
wrote  their  treatises  with  their  own  hand,  but 
dictated  them  to  their  freedmen  and  slaves. 
These  were  either  Ta^vypdfot,  amanuenses,  no- 
tar  ii,  "  hasty  writers,"  or  KaWiypdQoi,  librarii, 
"  fair  writers,"  or  (liG'XtoypdQoi,  librarii,  "  copy- 
ists." The  office  of  these  last  was  to  tran- 
scribe fairly  that  which  the  former  had  written 
hastily  and  from  dictation ;  they  were  those  who 
were  obliged  to  write  books  and  other  docu- 
ments which  were  intended  to  be  durable.  The 
correctness  of  the  copies  was  under  the  care  of 
the  emendator,  corrector,  b  SoKifid^vrd  yzypa/ipiva. 
A  great  part  of  the  books  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment was  dictated  after  this  custom.  St.  Paul 
noted  it  as  a  particular  circumstance  in  the 
Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  that  he  had  written  it 
with  his  own  hand,  Gal.  vi,  11.  But  he  affixed 
the  salutation  with  his  own  hand,  2  Thess.  hi, 
17;  1  Cor.  xvi,  21;  Col.  iv,  18.  The  amanu- 
ensis who  wrote  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans, 
has  mentioned  himself  near  the  conclusion, 
Rom.  xvi,  22. 

Books,  modes  of  publication.  Works  could 
only  be  multiplied  by  means  of  transcripts. 
Whenever  in  this  way  they  passed  over  to 
others,  they  were  beyond  the  control  of  the 
author,  and  published.  The  edition,  or  publica- 
tion, by  means  of  the  booksellers,  was,  only 
at  a  later  period,  advantageous  to  the  Chris- 
tians. The  recitatio  [reading  aloud]  preceded 
the  publication,  which  took  place  often  merely 


BOO 


174 


BOO 


among  some  few  friends,  and  often  with  great 
preparations  before  many  persons,  who  were 
invited  for  that  purpose.  From  hence  the 
author  became  known  as  the  writer,  and  the 
world  became  previously  informed  of  all  which 
they  might  expect  from  the  work.  If  the  com- 
position  pleased  them,  he  was  requested  to  per- 
mit its  transcription  ;  and  thus  the  work  left 
the  hands  of  the  author,  and  belonged  to  the 
publicum:  [public]  Frequently  an  individual 
sent  his  literary  labours  to  some  illustrious  man, 
as  a  present,  strejia,  [a  new-year's  gift,]  munus- 
culum;  [a  small  present;]  or  he  prefixed  his 
name  to  it,  for  the  sake  of  giving  him  a  proof 
of  friendship  or  regard,  by  means  of  this  ox- 
press  and  particular  direction  of  his  work. 
When  it  was  only  thus  presented  or  sent  to 
him,  and  he  accepted  it,  he  was  considered  as 
the  person  bound  to  introduce  it  to  the  world, 
or  as  the  patronus  libri,  [patron  of  the  book,] 
who  had  pledged  himself,  as  the  patronus  pet- 
son<c  [patron  of  the  person]  to  this  duty.  It 
now  became  his  office  to  provide  for  its  pub- 
lication by  means  of  transcripts,  to  facilitate  its 
approach  ad  li/ni na  poteniiorum  to  the  gates  of 
men  of  great  influence,  and  to  be  its  defensor. 
Thus  the  works  of  the  first  founders  of  the 
Christian  church  made  their  appearance  before 
their  community.  Their  Epistles  were  read  in 
those  congregations  to  which  they  were  direct- 
ed ;  and  whoever  wished  to  possess  them  either 
took  a  transcript  of  them,  or  caused  one  to  be 
procured  for  him.  The  historical  works  were 
made  known  by  the  authors  in  the  congrega- 
tions of  the  Christians,  per  recitationem :  [by 
reading  aloud  :]  the  object  and  general  interest 
in  them  procured  for  them  readers  and  tran- 
scribers. St.  Luke  dedicated  his  writings  to  an 
illustrious  man  of  the  name  of  Theophilus. 

Book  of  Life,  or  Book  of  the  Living,  or 
Book  of  the  Lord,  Psalm  lxix,  28.  Some  have 
thought  it  very  probable  that  these  descriptive 
phrases,  which  are  frequent  in  Scripture,  are 
taken  from  the  custom,  observed  generally  in 
the  courts  of  princes,  of  keeping  a  list  of  per- 
sons who  are  in  their  service,  of  the  provinces 
which  they  govern,  of  the  officers  of  their 
armies,  of  the  number  of  their  troops,  and 
sometimes  even  of  the  names  of  their  soldiers. 
Thus,  when  it  is  said  that  any  one  is  written 
in  the  book  of  life,  it  means  that  he  particu- 
larly belongs  to  God,  and  is  enrolled  among 
the  number  of  his  friends  and  servants  :  and 
to  be  "  blotted  out  of  the  book  of  life,"  is  to  be 
erased  from  the  list  of  God's  friends  and  serv- 
ants, as  those  who  -are  guilty  of  treachery 
are  struck  offthe  roll  of  officers  belonging  to  a 
prince.  The  most  satisfactory  explanation  of 
these  phrases  is,  however,  that  which  refers 
them  to  the  genealogical  lists  of  the  Jews,  or  to 
the  registers  kept  of  the  living,  from  which  the 
names  of  all  the  dead  were  blotted  out. 

Book  of  Judgment.  Daniel,  speaking  of 
God's  judgment,  says,  "The  judgment  was  set, 
and  the  books  were  opened,"  Uan.  vii,  10.  This 
is  an  allusion  to  what  was  practised  when  a 
prince  called  his  servants  to  account.  The 
accounts  are  produced  and  examined.  It  is 
possible  he  might  allude,  also,  to  a  custom  of 


the  Persians,  among  whom  it  was  a  constant 
practice  every  day  to  write  down  the  services 
rendered  to  the  king,  and  the  rewards  given  to 
those  who  had  performed  them.  Of  this  we 
see  an  instance  in  the  history  of  Ahasuerus  and 
Mordecai,  Esther  iv,  12,  34.  When,  there- 
fore, the  king  sits  in  judgment,  the  books  are 
opened :  he  obliges  all  his  servants  to  reckon 
with  him;  he  punishes  those  who  have  failed 
in  their  duty ;  he  compels  those  to  pay  who 
are  indebted  to  him  ;  and  he  rewards  those  who 
have  done  him  services.  A  similar  proceed, 
ing  will  take  place  at  the  day  of  God's  final 
judgment. 

Sealed  Book,  mentioned  Isa.  xxix,  11,  and 
the  book  sealed  with  seven  seals,  in  the  Reve- 
lation v,  1-3,  are  the  prophecies  of  Isaiah  and 
of  John,  which  were  written  in  a  book,  or  roll, 
after  the  manner  of  the  ancients,  and  were 
sealed,  which  figure  truly  signifies  that  they 
were  mysterious:  they  had  respect  to  times 
remote,  and  to  future  events  •  so  that  a  com- 
plete knowledge  of  their  meaning  could  not  be 
obtained  till  after  what  was  foretold  should 
happen,  and  the  seals,  as  it  were  taken  off. 
In  old  times,  letters,  and  other  writings  that 
were  to  be  sealed,  were  first  wrapped  round 
with  thread  or  flax,  and  then  wax  and  the  seal 
were  applied  to  them.  To  read  them,  it  was 
necessary  to  cut  the  thread  or  flax,  and  to  break 
the  seals. 

BOOTY,  spoils  taken  in  war,  Num.  xxxi, 
27-32.  According  to  the  law  of  Moses,  the 
booty  was  to  be  divided  equally  between  those 
who  were  in  the  battle  and  those  who  were  in 
the  camp,  whatever  disparity  there  might  be 
in  the  number  of  each  party.  The  law  farther 
required  that,  out  of  that  part  of  the  spoils 
which  was  assigned  to  the  fighting  men,  the 
Lord's  share  should  be  separated  ;  and  fir  every 
five  hundred  men,  oxen,  asses,  sheep,  &c,  they 
were  to  take  one  for  the  high  priest,  as  being 
the  Lord's  first  fruits.  And  out  of  the  other 
moiety,  belonging  to  the  children  of  Israel, 
they  were  to  give  for  every  fifty  men,  oxen, 
asses,  sheep,  &c,  one  to  the  Levites. 

BOOZ,  or  BOAZ,  the  son  of  Salmon  and 
Rahab,  Ruth  iv,  21,  &c;  Matt,  i,  5.  Rahab, 
we  know,  was  a  Canaanite  of  Jericho,  Joshua 
ii,  1.  Salmon,  who  was  of  the  tribe  of  Judah, 
married  her,  and  she  bore  him  Booz,  one  of 
our  Saviour's  ancestors  according  to  the  flesh- 
Some  say  there  were  three  of  this  name,  the 
son,  the  grandson,  and  the  great  grandson,  of 
Salmon :  the  last  Booz  was  Ruth's  husband, 
and  the  father  of  Obed. 

2.  Booz,  or  Boaz,  was  the  name  of  one  of 
the  two  brazen  pillars  which  Solomon  erected 
in  the  porch  of  the  temple,  the  other  column 
being  called  Jachin.  This  last  pillar  was  on 
the  right  hand  of  the  entrance  into  the  temple, 
ami  Booz  on  the  left,  1  Kings  vii,  21.  The 
word  signifies  strength  or  firmness.  Mr.  Hutch- 
inson has  an  express  treatise  upon  these  two 
columns,  attempting  to  show  that  they  repre- 
sented the  true  system  of  the  universe,  which 
he  insists  was  given  by  God  to  David,  and  by 
him  to  Solomon,  and  was  wrought  by  Hirara 
_upon  these  pillars 


BOT 


175 


BOU 


BOSOM.     See  Accubation. 

BOSSES,  the  thickest  and  strongest  parts 
of  a  buckler,  Job  xv,  20. 

BOTTLE.  The  eastern  bottle  is  made  of  a 
goat  or  kid  skin,  stripped  off  without  opening 
the  belly;  the  apertures  made  by  cutting  off* 
the  tail  and  legs  are  sewed  up,  and,  when  filled, 
it  is  tied  about  the  neck.  The  Arabs  and 
Persians  never  go  a  journey  without  a  small 
leathern  bottle  of  water  hanging  by  their  side 
like  a  scrip.  These  skin  bottles  preserve  their 
water,  milk,  and  other  liquids,  in  a  fresher 
state  than  any  other  vessels  they  can  use.  The 
people  of  the  east,  indeed,  put  into  them  every 
thing  they  mean  to  carry  to  a  distance,  whether 
dry  or  liquid,  and  very  rarely  make  use  of  boxes 
and  pots,  unless  to  preserve  such  tilings  as  are 
liable  to  be  broken.  They  enclose  these  leathern 
bottles  in  woollen  sacks,  because  their  beasts 
of  carriage  often  fall  down  under  their  load,  or 
cast  it  down  on  the  sandy  desert.  These  skin 
bottles  were  not  confined  to  the  countries  of 
Asia;  the  roving  tribes,  which  passed  the  Hel- 
lespont soon  after  the  deluge,  and  settled  in 
Greece  and  Italy,  probably  introduced  them 
into  those  countries.  We  learn  from  Homer, 
that  they  were  in  common  use  among  the 
Greeks  at  the  siege  of  Troy ;  for,  with  a  view 
to  an  accommodation  between  the  hostile  ar- 
mies, the  heralds  carried  through  the  city  the 
things  which  were  necessary  to  ratify  the  com- 
pact, two  lambs,  and  exhilarating  wine,  the 
fruit  of  the  earth,  in  a  bottle  of  goat  skin  : 

*Api'£  Svo),  teat  otvov  iv(ppova,  Kapvbv  upovprjs, 
'Aff/cip  iv  aiycio).      II.  lib.  iii,  1.  246. 

The  bottle  of  wine  which  Samuel's  mother 
brought  to  Eli,  1  Sam.  i,  24,  is  called  *?2J,  and 
was  an  earthen  jug.  Another  word  is  used  to 
signify  the  vessel  out  of  which  Jael  gave  milk 
to  Sisera:  she  opened  a  bottle  of  milk,  and 
gave  him  drink,  Judges  iv,  19.  This  is  called 
•JWJ,  which  refers  to  something  supple,  moist, 
oozing,  or,  perhaps,  imports  moistened  into 
•pliancy,  as  that  skin  must  be  which  is  kept 
constantly  filled  with  milk.  This  kind  was 
usually  made  of  goat  skins.  This  word  is  also 
used  to  denote  the  bottle  in  which  Jesse  sent 
wine  by  David  to  Saul,  1  Sam.  xvi,  20.  It  is 
likewise  employed  to  express  the  bottle  into 
which  the  Psalmist  desires  his  tears  may  be 
collected,  Psalm  lvi,  8 ;  and  that  to  which  he 
resembles  himself,  and  which  he  calls  a  bottle 
in  the  smoke,  Psalm  cxix,  83,  that  is,  a  skin 
bottle,  blackened  and  shrivelled.  Beside  the 
words  already  considered,  another  pun,  in  the 
plural,  is  used,  Job  xxxii,  19.  This  signifies, 
in  general,  to  swell  or  distend.  On  receiving 
the  liquor  poured  into  it,  a  skin  bottle  must  be 
greatly  swelled  and  distended ;  and  it  must  be 
swelled  still  farther  by  the  fermentation  of  the 
liquor  within  it,  as  that  advances  to  ripeness. 
In  this  state,  if  no  vent  be  given  to  the  liquor, 
it  may  overpower  the  strength  of  the  bottle,  or 
it  may  penetrate  by  some  secret  crevice  or 
weaker  part.  Hence  arises  the  propriety  of 
putting  new  wine  into  new  bottles,  which,  be- 
ing strong,  may  resist  the  expansion,  the  inter- 
nal pressure  of  their  contents,  and  preserve  the 


wine  to  due  maturity ;  while  old  bottles  may, 
without  danger,  contain  old  wine,  whose  fer- 
mentation is  already  past,  Matt,  ix,  17 ;  Luke 
v,  38. 

BOUDDHISTS,  or  BUDHISTS,  one  of  the 
three  great  sects  of  India,  distinct  both  from 
the  Brahminical  sect,  and  the  Jainas.  The 
Bouddhists  do  not  believe  in  a  First  Cause :  they 
consider  matter  as  eternal ;  that  every  portion 
of  animated  existence  has  in  itself  its  own  rise, 
tendency,  and  destiny;  that  the  condition  of 
creatures  on  earth  is  regulated  by  works  of 
merit  and  demerit ;  that  works  of  merit  not 
only  raise  individuals  to  happiness,  but,  as  they 
prevail,  exalt  the  world  itself  to  prosperity ; 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  when  vice  is  predomi- 
nant, the  world  degenerates  till  the  universe 
itself  is  dissolved.  They  suppose,  however, 
that  there  is  always  some  superior  deity,  who 
has  attained  to  this  elevation  by  religious  merit ; 
but  they  do  not  regard  him  as  the  governor  of 
the  world.  To  the  present  grand  period,  com- 
prehending all  the  time  included  in  a  "kulpu," 
they  assign  rive  deities,  four  of  whom  have 
already  appeared,  including  Goutumu,  or  Boudd- 
hu,  whose  exaltation  continues  five  thousand 
years,  two  thousand  three  hundred  and  fifty-six 
of  which  had  expired,  A.  D.  1814.  After  the 
expiration  of  the  five  thousand  years,  another 
saint  will  obtain  the  ascendancy,  and  be  deified. 
Six  hundred  millions  of  saints  are  said  to  be 
canonized  with  each  deity,  though  it  is  admit- 
ted that  Bouddhu  took  only  twenty-four  thou- 
sand devotees  to  heaven  with  him.  The  low- 
est state  of  existence  is  in  hell ;  the  next  is  that 
in  the  forms  of  brutes  :  both  these  are  states  of 
punishment.  The  next  ascent  is  to  that  of 
man,  which  is  probationary.  The  next  in- 
cludes many  degrees  of  honour  and  happiness 
up  to  demigods,  &c,  which  are  states  of  reward 
for  works  of  merit.  The  ascent  to  superior 
deity  is  from  the  state  of  man.  The  Boudd- 
hists are  taught  that  there  are  four  superior 
heavens  which  are  not  destroyed  at  the  end  of 
"  kulpu ;"  that  below  these  there  are  twelve 
other  heavens,  followed  by  six  inferior  hea- 
vens; after  which  follows  the  earth;  then  the 
world  of  snakes ;  and  then  thirty -two  chief 
hells :  to  which  are  to  be  added,  one  hundred 
and  twenty  hells  of  milder  torments.  The 
highest  state  of  glory  is  absorption.  The  per- 
son who  is  unchangeable  in  his  resolution ; 
who  has  obtained  the  knowledge  of  things 
past,  present,  and  to  come,  through  one  "kul- 
pu ;"  who  can  make  himself  invisible ;  go 
where  he  pleases ;  and  who  has  attained  to 
complete  abstraction ;  will  enjoy  absorption. 
Those  who  perform  works  of  merit  are  admit- 
ted to  the  heavens  of  the  different  gods,  or  are 
made  kings  or  great  men  on  earth ;  and  those 
who  are  wicked  are  born  in  the  forms  of  difl 
ferent  animals,  or  consigned  to  different  hells. 
The  happiness  of  these  heavens  is  described  as 
entirely  sensual.  The  Bouddhists  believe  that  at 
the  end  of  a  "  kulpu"  the  universe  is  destroyed. 
To  convey  some  idea  of  the  extent  of  this 
period,  the  illiterate  Cingalese  use  this  com- 
parison :  "  If  a  man  were  to  ascend  a  mountain 
nine  miles  high,  and  to  renew  these  journeys 


BOU 


176 


BRA 


once  m  every  hundred  years,  till  the  mountain 
were  worn  down  by  his  feet  to  an  atom,  the 
time  required  to  do  this  would  be  nothing  to 
the  fourth  part  of  a  *  kulpu.'"  Bouddhu,  be- 
fore his  exaltation,  taught  his  followers  that, 
after  his  death,  the  remains  of  his  body,  his 
doctrine,  or  an  assembly  of  his  disciples,  were  to 
be  held  in  equal  reverence  with  himself.  When 
a  Cingalese,  therefore,  approaches  an  image  of 
Bouddhu,  he  says,  "  I  take  refuge  in  Bouddhu  ; 
I  take  refuge  in  his  doctrine  ;  I  take  refuge  in 
his  followers."  There  are  five  commands  given 
to  the  common  Bouddhists ;  the  first  forbids 
the  destruction  of  animal  life;  the  second  for- 
bids theft;  the  third,  adultery;  the  fourth, 
falsehood ;  the  fifth,  the  use  of  spirituous  li- 
quors. There  are  other  commands  for  supe. 
rior  classes,  or  devotees,  which  forbid  dancing, 
songs,  music,  festivals,  perfumes,  elegant  dress- 
es, elevated  seats,  &.c.  Among  works  of  the 
highest  merit,  one  is  the  feeding  of  a  hungry 
infirm  tiger  with  a  person's  own  flesh. 

BOURIGNONISTS,  the  followers  of  the 
celebrated  Mad.  Antoinette  Bourignon  de  la 
Ponte,  a  native  of  Flanders,  born  at  Lisle,  in 
1616.  She  was  so  much  deformed  at  her  birth, 
that  it  was  even  debated  whether  she  should 
not  be  stifled  as  a  monster.  As  she  grew  up, 
however,  this  deformity  greatly  decreased,  and 
she  discovered  a  superior  mind,  a  strong  ima- 
gination, and  very  early  indications  of  a  devo- 
tional spirit,  strongly  tinctured  with  mysticism. 
She  conceived  herself  to  be  divinely  called, 
and  set  apart  to  revive  the  true  spirit  of  Chris- 
tianity that  had  been  extinguished  by  theolo- 
gical animosities  and  debates.  In  her  confession 
of  faith,  she  professes  her  belief  in  the  Scrip- 
tures, and  in  the  divinity  and  atonement  of 
Christ.  The  leading  principles  which  pervade 
her  productions  are  these  :  that  man  is  perfectly 
free  to  resist  or  receive  divine  grace  ;  that  God 
is  ever  unchangeable  in  love  toward  all  his 
creatures,  and  does  not  inflict  any  arbitrary 
punishment,  but  that  the  evils  they  suffer  are 
the  natural  consequenoes  of  sin ;  that  true 
religion  consists  not  in  any  outward  forms  of 
worship,  nor  systems  of  faith,  but  in  imme- 
diate communion  with  the  Deity,  by  internal 
feelings  and  impulses,  and  by  a  perfect  acqui- 
escence in  his  will. 

This  lady  was  educated  in  the  Roman  Ca- 
tholic religion ;  but  she  declaimed  equally 
against  the  corruptions  of  the  church  of  Rome 
and  those  of  the  Reformed  churches  :  hence  she 
was  opposed  and  persecuted  by  both  Catholics 
and  Protestants,  and  after  being  driven  about 
from  place  to  place,  she  died  at  Franeker,  in 
1680.  She  maintained  that  there  ought  to  be 
a  general  toleration  of  all  religions.  Her  no- 
tion on  God's  foreknowledge  was,  that  God 
was  capable  of  foreknowing  all  events,  but,  his 
power  being  equal  to  his  knowledge,  he  pur- 
posely withheld  from  himself  that  knowledge 
in  certain  cases,  that  he  might  not  interfere 
with  the  free  agency  and  responsibility  of  his 
creatures.  Her  works  are  very  numerous, 
making  eighteen  volumes  in  octavo  :  of  which 
the  principal  are,  "The  Light  of  the  World;" 
"The  Testimony  of  Truth;"  and  "The  Reno- 


vation of  the  Gospel  Spirit ;"  which  are  much 
in  esteem  among  the  admirers  of  mystical  the- 
ology. 

BOW.  The  expression,  "  to  break  the  bow," 
so  frequent  in  Scripture,  signifies  to  destroy  the 
power  of  a  people,  because  the  principal  offen- 
sive weapon  of  armies  was  anciently  the  bow. 
"  A  deceitful  bow"  is  one  that,  from  some 
defect,  either  in  bending  or  the  string,  carries 
the  arrow  wide  of  the  mark,  however  well 
aimed.     See  Arms. 

BOWELS.  The  bowels  are  the  seat  of 
mercy,  tenderness,  and  compassion.  Joseph's 
bowels  were  moved  at  the  sight  of  his  brother 
Benjamin ;  that  is,  he  felt  himself  softened  and 
affected.  The  true  mother  of  the  child  whom 
Solomon  commanded  to  be  divided,  felt  her 
bowels  move,  and  consented  that  it  should  be 
given  to  the  woman  who  was  not  its  real  mo- 
ther, 1  Kings,  iii,  26.  The  Hebrews  also  some, 
times  place  wisdom  and  understanding  in  the 
bowels,  "  Who  hath  put  wisdom  in  the  inner 
parts  ?"  or  bowels,  Job  xxxviii,  36.  The 
Psalmist  says,  "Thy  law  is  within  my  heart," 
literally,  in  the  midst  of  my  bowels, — it  is  by 
me  strongly  and  affectionately  regarded,  Psalm 
xl,  8. 

BOX  TREE,  moan,  Isa.  xli,  9;  lx,  13; 
Ezek.  xxvii,  6 ;  2  Esdras  xiv,  24,  where  the 
word  appears  to  be  used  for  tablets.  Most  ot 
the  ancient,  and  several  of  the  modern,  trans- 
lators render  this  word  the  buxus,  or  "  box 
tree  ;"  but  from  its  being  mentioned  along  with 
trees  of  the  forest,  some  more  stately  tree  must 
be  intended,  probably  the  cedar. 

BRACELET.  A  bracelet  is  commonly  worn 
by  the  oriental  princes,  as  a  badge  of  power 
and  authority.  When  the  calif  Cayem  Bem- 
rillah  granted  the  investiture  of  certain  domi- 
nions to  an  eastern  prince,  he  sent  him  letters 
patent,  a  crown,  a  chain,  and  bracelets.  This 
was  probably  the  reason  that  the  Amalek- 
ite  brought  the  bracelet  which  he  found  on 
Saul's  arm,  along  with  his  crown,  to  David, 
2  Sam.  i,  10.  It  was  a  royal  ornament,  and 
belonged  to  the  regalia  of  the  kingdom.  The 
bracelet,  it  must  be  acknowledged,  was  worn 
both  by  men  and  women  of  different  ranks  ;  but 
the  original  word,  in  the  second  book  of  Samuel, 
occurs  only  in  two  other  places,  and  is  quite 
different  from  the  term  which  is  employed  to 
express  the  more  common  ornament  known  by 
that  name.  And  beside,  this  ornament  was 
worn  by  kings  and  princes  in  a  different  man- 
ner from  their  subjects.  It  was  fastened  above 
the  elbow  ;  and  was  commonly  of  great  value. 

BRAHMINS,  or  BRACHMINS,  the  high- 
est caste  of  Hindoos,  to  whom  is  confined  the 
priesthood,  and,  in  general,  all  their  ancient 
learning,  which  is  locked  up  in  their  sacred 
language,  called  the  Sanscrit.  The  Brahmins 
derive  that  name  from  Brahma,  the  Creator ; 
for  they  maintain  the  doctrine  of  three  embo- 
died energies,  the  creative,  the  preserving,  and 
the  destroying;  personified  under  the  names  of 
Brahma,  Vishnu,  and  Shiva,  all  sprung  from 
Brimh  ;  and  to  each  of  them  is  assigned  a  kind 
of  celestial  consort,  a  female  deity,  which  they 
describe  as  a  passive  energy. 


BRA 


177 


BRA 


Like  the  philosophers  of  Greece,  they  seem 
to  have  had  an  open  and  a  secret  doctrine : 
the  latter,  a  species  of  Spinozism,  considering 
the  great  Supreme  as  "the  soul  of  the  world;" 
endowed  with  no  other  quality  than  ubiquity ; 
requiring  no  worship,  and  exerting  no  power, 
but  in  the  production  of  the  three  great  ener- 
gies abovp.  mentioned.  These  are  so  inge- 
niously diversified  as  to  produce  three  hundred 
and  thirty  millions  of  gods,  or  objects  of  idola- 
try ;  so  various  in  character  as  to  suit  every 
man's  taste  or  humour,  and  to  furnish  exam- 
ples of  every  vice  and  folly  to  which  humanity 
is  subject. 

As  it  respects  a  future  state,  two  of  the  prin- 
cipal doctrines  of  Brachminism  are  transmi- 
gration and  absorption.  After  death,  the  per- 
son is  conveyed,  by  the  messengers  of  Yurnu, 
through  the  air  to  the  place  of  judgment.  After 
receiving  his  sentence,  he  wanders  about  the 
earth  for  twelve  months,  as  an  aerial  being  or 
ghost ;  and  then  takes  a  body  suited  to  his 
future  condition,  whether  he  ascend  to  the 
gods,  or  suffer  in  a  new  body,  or  be  hurled  into 
some  hell.  This  is  the  doctrine  of  several 
"  pooranus ;"  others  maintain,  that  immediately 
after  death  and  judgment,  the  person  suffers 
the  pains  of  hell,  and  removes  his  sin  by  suffer- 
ing ;  and  then  returns  to  the  earth  in  some 
bodily  form.  The  descriptions  which  the 
"pooranus"  give  of  the  heavens  of  the  gods 
are  truly  in  the  eastern  style ;  all  things,  even 
the  beds  of  the  gods,  are  made  of  gold  and 
precious  stones.  All  the  pleasures  of  these 
heavens  are  exactly  what  we  should  expect  in 
a  system  formed  by  uninspired  ajid  unrenewed 
men  :  like  the  paradise  of  Mohammed,  they  are 
brothels,  rather  than  places  of  rewards  for 
"  the  pure  in  heart."  Here  all  the  vicious 
passions  are  personified,  or  rather,  deified :  the 
quarrels  and  licentious  intrigues  of  the  gods  fill 
these  places  with  perpetual  uproar,  while  their 
impurities  are  described  with  the  same  literality 
and  gross  detail,  as  similar  things  are  talked  of 
among  these  idolaters  on  earth. 

But  the  highest  degree  of  happiness  is  ab- 
sorption. God,  as  separated  from  matter,  the 
Hindoos  contemplate  as  a  being  reposing  in 
his  own  happiness,  destitute  of  ideas ;  as  infi- 
nite placidity  ;  as  an  unruffled  sea  of  bliss ;  as 
being  perfectly  abstracted,  and  void  of  con- 
sciousness. They  therefore  deem  it  the  height 
of  perfection  to  be  like  this  being.  Hence 
Krishnu,  in  his  discourse  to  Urjoonu,  praises  the 
man  "  who  forsaketh  every  desire  that  entereth 
into  his  heart ;  who  is  happy  of  himself;  who 
is  without  affection ;  who  rejoiceth  not  either 
in  good  or  evil ;  who,  like  the  tortoise,  can 
restrain  his  members  from  their  wonted  pur- 
pose ;  to  whom  pleasure  and  pain,  gold,  iron, 
and  stones  are  the  same."  "  The  learned," 
adds  Krushnu,  "behold  Brumhu  alike  in  the 
reverend  « branhun,'  perfected  in  knowledge ; 
in  the  ox,  and  in  the  elephant ;  in  the  dog,  and 
in  him  who  eateth  of  the  flesh  of  dogs."  The 
person  whose  very  nature,  say  they,  is  absorbed 
in  divine  meditation  ;  whose  life  is  like  a  sweet 
sleep,  unconscious  and  undisturbed  ;  who  does 
not  even  desire  God,  and  who  is  thus  changed 
13 


into  the  image  of  the  ever  blessed;  obtains 
absorption  into  Brumhu.  The  ceremonies 
leading  to  absorption  are  called  by  the  name  of 
"tupushya,"  and  the  persons  performing  them, 
a  " tupushwee."  Forsaking  the  world;  retir- 
ing to  a  forest ;  fasting,  living  on  roots,  fruits, 
&.c  ; — remaining  in  certain  postures  ;  exposure 
to  all  the  inclemencies  of  the  weather,  &c ; 
these,  and  many  other  austere  practices  are 
prescribed,  to  subdue  the  passions,  to  fix  the 
mind,  habituate  it  to  meditation,  and  fill  it  with 
that  serenity  and  indifference  to  the  world 
which  is  to  prepare  it  for  absorption,  and  place 
it  beyond  the  reach  of  future  birth. 

BRAMBLE,  nax,  a  prickly  shrub,  Judges 
ix,  14,  15 ;  Psalm  lviii,  9.  In  the  latter  place 
it  is  translated  "  thorn."  Hiller  supposes  atad 
to  be  the  cynobastus,  or  sweetbrier.  The  au- 
thor of  "Scripture  Illustrated"  says,  that  the 
bramble  seems  to  be  well  chosen  as  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  original ;  which  should  be  a 
plant  bearing  fruit  of  some  kind,  being  asso- 
ciated, Judges  ix,  14,  though  by  opposition, 
with  the  vine.  The  apologue  or  fable  of  Jo- 
tham  has  always  been  admired  for  its  spirit  and 
application.  It  has  also  been  considered  as  the 
oldest  fable  extant. 

BRANCH,  a  title  of  Messiah:  "And  there 
shall  come  forth  a  rod,  out  of  the  stem  of  Jesse, 
and  a  Branch  shall  grow  out  of  his  roots," 
Isaiah  xi,  1.  See  also  Zech.  iii,  8 ;  vi,  12 ; 
Jer.  xxiii,  5 ;  xxxiii,  15.  When  Christ  is  repre- 
sented as  a  slender  twig,  shooting  out  from 
the  trunk  of  an  old  tree  lopped  to  the  very  root 
and  decayed,  and  becoming  itself  a  mighty  tree, 
reference  is  made,  1.  To  the  kingly  dignity  of 
Christ,  springing  up  from  the  decayed  house  of 
David  ;  2.  To  the  exaltation  which  was  to  suc- 
ceed his  humbled  condition  on  earth,  and  to  the 
glory  and  vigour  of  his  mediatorial  reign. 

BRASS,  pbtij.  The  word  brass  occurs 
very  often  in  our  translation  of  the  Bible ;  but 
that  is  a  mixed  metal,  for  the  making  of  which 
we  are  indebted  to  the  German  metallurgists 
of  the  thirteenth  century.  That  the  ancients 
knew  not  the  art  of  making  it,  is  almost  cer- 
tain. None  of  their  writings  even  hint  at  the 
process.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  copper 
is  the  original  metal  intended.  This  is  spoken 
of  as  known  prior  to  the  flood ;  and  to  have 
been  discovered,  or  at  least  wrought,  as  was 
also  iron,  in  the  seventh  generation  from 
Adam,  by  Tubal-cain :  whence  the  name  Vul- 
can. The  knowledge  of  these  two  metals 
must  have  been  carried  over  the  world  after- 
ward with  the  spreading  colonies  of  the  Noa- 
chidoe.  Agreeably  to  this,  the  ancient  histories 
of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  speak  of  Cadmus 
as  the  inventor  of  the  metal  which  by  the 
former  is  called  ^oXkos,  and  by  the  latter  ces; 
and  from  him  had  the  denomination  cadmea. 
According  to  others,  Cadmus  discovered  a 
mine,  of  which  he  taught  the  use.  The  name 
of  the  person  here  spoken  of  was  undoubtedly 
the  same  with  Ham,  or  Cam,  the  son  of  Noah, 
who  probably  learned  the  art  of  assaying 
metals  from  the  family  of  Tubal-cain,  and 
communicated  that  knowledge  to  the  people 
of  the  colony  which  he  settled. 


BRE 


178 


BRE 


BRASEN  SERPENT,  the,  was  an  image 
of  polished  brass,  in  the  form  of  one  of  those 
fiery  serpents  which  were  sent  to  chastise  the 
murmuring  Israelites  in  the  wilderness,  and 
whose  bite  caused  violent  heat,  thirst,  and  in- 
flammation. By  divine  command  "  Moses 
made  a  serpent  uf  brass,"  or  copper,  and  "  put 
it  upon  a  pole ;  and  it  came  to  pass,  that  if  a 
serpent  had  bitten  any  man,  when  he  beheld 
the  serpent  of  brass,  he  lived,"  Num.  xxi,  6-9. 
This  brasen  serpent  was  preserved  as  a  monu- 
ment of  the  divine  mercy,  but  in  process  of 
time  became  an  instrument  of  idolatry.  When 
this  superstition  began,  it  is  difficult  to  deter- 
mine ;  but  the  best  account  is  given  by  the 
Jewish  rabbi,  David  Kimchi,  in  the  following 
manner :  From  the  time  that  the  kings  of 
Israel  did  evil,  and  the  children  of  Israel  fol- 
lowed idolatry,  till  the  reign  of  Hezekiah,  they 
offered  incense  to  it ;  for  it  being  written  in 
the  law  of  Moses,  "Whoever  looketh  upon  it 
shall  live,"  they  fancied  they  might  obtain 
blessings  by  its  mediation,  and  therefore 
thought  it  worthy  to  be  worshipped.  It  had 
been  kept  from  the  days  of  Moses,  in  memory 
of  a  miracle,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  pot  of 
manna  was  :  and  Asa  and  Jehoshaphat  did  not 
extirpate  it  when  they  rooted  out  idolatry,  be- 
cause in  their  reign  they  did  not  observe  that 
the  people  worshipped  this  serpent,  or  burnt 
incense  to  it ;  and  therefore  they  left  it  as  a 
memorial.  But  Hezekiah  thought  fit  to  take 
it  quite  away,  when  he  abolished  other  idolatry, 
because  in  the  time  of*  his  father  they  adored 
it  as  an  idol ;  and  though  pious  people  among 
them  accounted  it  only  as  a  memorial  of  a 
wonderful  work,  yet  he  judged  it  better  to 
abolish  it,  though  the  memory  of  the  miracle 
should  happen  to  be  lost,  than  suffer  it  to  re- 
main, and  leave  the  Israelites  in  danger  to 
commit  idolatry  hereafter  with  it.  On  the  sub- 
ject of  the  serpent-bitten  Israelites  being  heal- 
ed by  looking  at  the  brasen  serpent,  there  is  a 
good  comment  in  the  book  of  Wisdom,  chap, 
xvi,  4-12,  in  which  are  these  remarkable 
words: — "They  were  admonished,  having  a 
sign  of  salvation,"  that  is,  the  brasen  serpent, 
"  to  put  them  in  remembrance  of  the  command- 
ments of  thy  law.  For  he  that  turned  himself 
toward  it,  was  not  saved  by  the  thing  that  he 
saw,  but  by  thee,  that  art  the  Saviour  of  all," 
verses  6,  7.  To  the  circumstance  of  looking 
at  the  brasen  serpent  in  order  to  be  healed, 
our  Lord  refers,  John  iii,  14,  15:  "As  Moses 
lifted  up  the  (brasen)  serpent  in  the  wilderness, 
even  so  must  the  Son  of  man  be  lifted  up,  that 
whosoever  believeth  in  him  should  not  perish, 
but  have  eternal  life." 

BREAD,  a  term  which  in  Scripture  is  used, 
as  by  us,  frequently  for  food  in  general ;  but  is 
also  often  found  in  its  proper  sense.  Sparing 
in  the  use  of  flesh,  like  all  the  nations  of  the 
east,  the  chosen  people  usually  satisfied  their 
hunger  with  bread,  and  quenched  their  thirst 
in  the  running  stream.  Their  bread  was  gene- 
rally made  of  wheat  or  barley,  or  lentiles  and 
beans.  Bread  of  wheat  flour,  as  being  the 
most  excellent,  was  preferred :  barley  bread 
was  used  only  in  times  of  scarcity  and  distress. 


So  mean  and  contemptible,  in  the  estimation 
of  the  numerous  and  well-appointed  armies  of 
Midian,  was  Gideon,  with  his  handful  of  undis- 
ciplined militia,  that  he  seems  to  have  been 
compared  to  bread  of  this  inferior  quality, 
which  may  account  for  the  ready  interpreta- 
tion of  the  dream  of  the  Midianite  respecting 
him:  "And  when  Gideon  was  come,  behold, 
there  was  a  man  that  told  a  dream  unto  his 
fellow,  and  said,  Behold,  I  dreamed  a  dream, 
and  lo,  a  cake  of  barley  bread  tumbled  into  the 
host  of  Midian,  and  came  unto  a  tent  and 
smote  it  that  it  fell,  and  overturned  it,  that  the 
tent  lay  along.  And  his  fellow  answered  and 
said,  This  is  nothing  else  save  the  sword  of 
Gideon,  the  son  of  Joash,  a  man  of  Israel ;  for 
into  his  hand  hath  God  delivered  Midian,  and 
all  the  host."  In  the  cities  and  villages  of 
Barbary,  where  public  ovens  are  established, 
the  bread  is  usually  leavened;  but  among  the 
Bedoweens  and  Kabyles,  as  soon  as  the  dough 
is  kneaded,  it  is  made  into  thin  cakes,  either 
to  be  baked  immediately  upon  the  coals,  or 
else  in  a  shallow  earthen  vessel  like  a  frying- 
pan,  called  Tajen.  Such  were  the  unleavened 
cakes  which  we  so  frequently  read  of  in  Scrip- 
ture ;  and  those  also  which  Sarah  made  quick- 
ly upon  the  hearth.  These  last  are  about  an 
inch  thick;  and,  being  commonly  prepared  in 
woody  countries,  are  used  all  along  the  shores 
of  the  Black  Sea,  from  the  Palus  Moeotis  to  the 
Caspian,  in  Chaldea  and  Mesopotamia,  except 
in  towns.  A  fire  is  made  in  the  middle  of  the 
room  :  and  when  the  bread  is  ready  for  baking, 
a  corner  of  the  hearth  is  swept,  the  bread  is 
laid  upon  it,  and  covered  with  ashes  and  em- 
bers; in  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  they  turn  it. 
Sometimes  they  use  small  convex  plates  of 
iron,  which  are  most  common  in  Persia,  and 
among  the  nomadic  tribes,  as  being  the  easiest 
way  of  baking,  and  done  with  the  least  ex- 
pense ;  for  the  bread  is  extremely  thin,  and 
soon  prepared.  The  oven  is  also  used  in  every 
part  of  Asia :  it  is  made  in  the  ground,  four  or 
five  feet  deep,  and  three  in  diameter,  well 
plastered  with  mortar.  When  it  is  hot,  they 
place  the  bread  (which  is  commonly  long,  and 
not  thicker  than  a  finger)  against  the  sides:  it 
is  baked  in  a  moment.  Ovens,  Chardin  appre- 
hends, were  not  used  in  Canaan  in  the  patri- 
archal age:  all  the  bread  of  that  time  was 
baked  upon  a  plate,  or  under  the  ashes ;  and 
he  supposes,  what  is  nearly  self-evident,  that 
the  cakes  which  Sarah  baked  on  the  hearth 
were  of  the  last  sort,  and  that  the  shew  bread 
was  of  the  same  kind.  The  Arabs  about 
Mount  Carmel  use  a  great  strong  pitcher,  in 
which  they  kindle  a  fire ;  and  when  it  is  heat- 
ed, they  mix  meal  and  water,  which  they  ap- 
ply with  the  hollow  of  their  hands  to  the  out- 
side of  the  pitcher;  and  this  extremely  soft 
paste,  spreading  itself,  is  baked  in  an  instant. 
The  heat  of  the  pitcher  having  dried  up  all  the 
moisture,  the  bread  comes  off  as  thin  as  our 
wafers;  and  the  operation  is  so  speedily  per- 
formed, that  in  a  very  little  time  a  sufficient 
quantity  is  made.  But  their  best  sort  of  bread 
they  bake,  either  by  heating  an  oven,  or  a 
large  pitcher  full  of  little  smooth  shining  flints, 


BRE 


179 


hki; 


upon  which  they  lay  the  dough,  spread  out  in 
the  form  of  a  thin  broad  cake.  Sometimes 
they  use  a  shallow  earthen  vessel,  resembling 
a  frying  pan,  which  seems  to  be  the  pan  men- 
tioned by  Moses,  in  which  the  meat-offering 
was  baked.  This  vessel,  Dr.  Shaw  informs 
us,  serves  both  for  baking  and  frying ;  for  the 
bagreah  of  the  people  of  Barbary  differs  not 
much  from  our  pancakes;  only,  instead  of  rub- 
bing the  pan  in  which  they  fry  them  with  but- 
ter, they  rub  it  with  soap,  to  make  them  like  a 
honey-comb.  If  these  accounts  of  the  Arab 
stone  pitcher,  the  pan,  and  the  iron  hearth  or 
copper  plate,  be  attended  to,  it  will  not  be  dif- 
ficult to  understand  the  laws  of  Moses  in  the 
second  chapter  of  Leviticus:  they  will  be 
found  to  answer  perfectly  well  to  the  descrip- 
tion which  he  gives  us  of  the  different  ways  of 
preparing  the  meat-offerings.  As  the  Hebrews 
made  their  bread  thin,  in  the  form  of  little  flat 
cakes,  they  did  not  cut  it  with  a  knife,  but 
broke  it;  which  gave  rise  to  the  expression, 
breaking  bread,  so  frequent  in  Scripture. 

The  Arabians  and  other  eastern  people, 
among  whom  wood  is  scarce,  often  bake  their 
bread  between  two  fires  made  of  cow  dung, 
which  burns  slowly,  and  bakes  the  bread  very 
leisurely.  The  crumb  of  it  is  very  good,  if  it 
be  eaten  the  same  day;  but  the  crust  is  black 
and  burnt,  and  retains  a  smell  of  the  materials 
that  were  used  in  baking  it.  This  may  serve 
to  explain  a  passage  in  Ezekiel,  iv,  9-13.  The 
straits  of  a  siege  and  the  scarcity  of  fuel  were 
thus  intimated  to  the  Prophet.  During  the 
whole  octave  of  the  passover,  the  Hebrews  use 
only  unleavened  bread,  as  a  memorial  that  at 
the  time  of  their  departure  out  of  F.gypt  they 
wanted  leisure  to  bake  leavened  bread;  and, 
having  left  the  country  with  precipitation,  they 
were  content  to  bake  bread  which  was  not 
leavened,  Exod.  xii,  8.  The  practice  of  the 
Jews  at  this  day,  with  relation  to  the  use  of 
unleavened  bread,  is  as  follows :  They  forbid 
to  eat,  or  have  in  their  houses,  or  in  any  place 
belonging  to  them,  either  leavened  bread  or 
any  thing  else  that  is  leavened.  That  they 
may  the  better  observe  this  rule,  they  search 
into  all  the  corners  of  the  house  with  scrupu- 
lous exactness  for  all  bread  or  paste,  or  any 
thing  that  is  leavened.  After  they  have  thus 
well  cleansed  their  houses,  they  whiten  them, 
and  furnish  them  with  kitchen  and  table  uten- 
sils, all  new,  and  with  others  which  are  to  be 
used  only  on  that  day.  If  they  are  movables, 
which  have  served  only  for  something  else, 
and  are  made  of  metal,  they  have  them  polish- 
ed, and  put  into  the  fire,  to  take  away  all  the 
impurity  which  they  may  have  contracted  by 
touching  any  thing  leavened.  All  this  is  done 
on  the  thirteenth  day  of  Nisan,  or  on  the  vigil 
of  the  feast  of  the  passover,  which  begins  with 
the  fifteenth  of  the  same  month,  or  the  four- 
teenth day  in  the  evening;  for  the  Hebrews 
reckon  their  days  from  one  evening  to  another. 
On  the  fourteenth  of  Nisan,  at  eleven  o'clock, 
they  burn  the  common  bread,  to  show  that  the 
prohibition  of  eating  leavened  bread  is  then 
commenced ;  and  this  action  is  attended  with 
words,  whereby  the  master  of  the   house  de- 


clares that  he  has  no  longer  any  thing  leaven- 
ed in  his  keeping;  that,  at  least,  he  believea 
so.  In  allusion  to  this  practice,  we  are  com- 
manded to  "  purge  out  the  old  leaven ;"  by 
which  "malice  and  wickedness"  are  intended; 
and  to  feed  only  on  the  "unleavened  bread  of 
sincerity  and  truth." 

2.  Shew  Bread,  or,  according  to  the  He- 
brews, the  bread  of  faces,  was  bread  offered 
every  Sabbath  day  upon  the  golden  table  in  the 
holy  place,  Exod.  xxv,  30.  The  Hebrews 
affirm  that  these  loaves  were  square,  and  had 
four  sides,  and  were  covered  with  leaves  of 
gold.  They  were  twelve  in  number,  according 
to  the  number  of  the  twelve  tribes,  in  whose 
names  they  were  offered.  Every  loaf  was  com- 
posed of  two  assarons  of  flour,  which  make 
about  five  pints  and  one-tenth.  These  loaves 
were  unleavened.  They  were  presented  hot 
every  Sabbath  day,  the  old  ones  being  taken 
away  and  eaten  by  the  priests  only.  This 
offering  was  accompanied  with  salt  and  frank- 
incense, and  even  with  wine,  according  to 
some  commentators.  The  Scripture  mentions 
only  salt  and  incense  ;  but  it  is  presumed  that 
wine  was  added,  because  it  was  not  wanting  in 
other  sacrifices  and  offerings.  It  is  believed 
that  these  loaves  were  placed  one  upon  another, 
in  two  piles  of  six  each  ;  and  that  between  every 
loaf  were  two  thin  plates  of  gold,  folded  back 
in  a  semicircle  the  whole  length  of  them,  to 
admit  air,  and  to  prevent  the  loaves  from  grow, 
ing  mouldy.  These  golden  plates,  thus  turned 
in,  were  supported  at  their  extremities  by  two 
golden  forks,  which  rested  on  the  ground. 
The  twelve  loaves,  because  they  stood  before 
the  Lord,  were  called  a^Bn  anV,  up-oi  vpodiacuis, 
or  huTrioi,  the  bread  of  faces,  or  of  the  presence  ; 
and  are  therefore  denominated  in  our  English 
translation  the  shew  bread. 

Since  part  of  the  frankincense  put  upon  the 
bread  was  to  be  burnt  on  the  altar  for  a  me- 
morial, even  an  offering  made  by  fire  unto  the 
Lord ;  and  since  Aaron  and  his  sons  were  to 
eat  it  in  the  holy  place,  Lev.  xxiv,  5-9,  it  is 
probable  that  this  bread  typified  Christ,  first 
presented  as  a  sacrifice  to  Jehovah,  and  then 
becoming  spiritual  food  to  such  as  in  and 
through  him  are  spiritual  priests  to  God,  even 
his  Father,  Rev.  i,  6 ;  v,  10 ;  xx,  6 ;  1  Peter 
ii,  5.  It  appears,  from  some  places  in  Scripture, 
(see  Exodus  xxix,  32,  and  Numbers  vi,  15,)  that 
there  was  always  near  the  altar  a  basket  full  of 
bread,  in  order  to  be  offered  together  with  the 
ordinary  sacrifices. 

BREASTPLATE,  or  PECTORAL,  one  part 
of  the  priestly  vestments,  belonging  to  the  Jew- 
ish high  priests.  It  was  about  ten  inches 
square,  Exod.  xxviii,  13-31 ;  and  consisted  of 
a  folded  piece  of  the  same  rich  embroidered  stuff 
of  which  the  ephod  was  made.  It  was  worn 
on  the  breast  of  the  high  priest,  and  was  set 
with  twelve  precious  stones,  on  each  of  which 
was  engraven  the  riame  of  one  of  the  tribes. 
They  were  set  in  four  rows,  three  in  each  row, 
and  were  divided  from  each  other  by  the  little 
golden  squares  or  partitions  in  which  they  were 
set.  The  names  of  these  stones,  and  that  of 
the  tribe  engraven  on  them,  aB  also  their  dis- 


BRE 


180 


BRI 


position  on  the  breastplate,  are  usually  given 
as  follows ;  but  what  stones  really  answer  to 
the  Hebrew  name,  is  for  the  most  part  very 
uncertain : — 

Sardine,  Topaz,  Carbuncle, 

Reuben.  Simeon.  Levi. 

Emerald,  Sapphire,  Diamond, 

Judah.  Dan.  Naphtali. 


Ligure, 
Gad. 

Beryl, 
Zebulun. 


Agate, 
Asher. 
Onyx, 
Joseph. 


Amethyst, 

Issachar. 

Jasper, 

Benjamin. 


This  breastplate  was  fastened  at  the  four 
corners,  those  on  the  top  to  each  shoulder,  by  a 
golden  hook  or  ring,  at  the  end  of  a  wreathen 
chain ;  and  those  below  to  the  girdle  of  the 
ephod,  by  two  strings  or  ribbons,  which  had 
likewise  two  rings  or  hooks.  This  ornament 
Was  never  to  be  separated  from  the  priestly  gar- 
ment ;  and  it  was  called  the  memorial,  because 
it  was  a  sign  whereby  the  children  of  Israel 
might  know  that  they  were  presented  to  God, 
and  that  they  were  had  in  remembrance  by 
him.  It  was  also  called  the  breastplate  of  judg- 
ment, because  it  had  the  divine  oracle  of  Urim 
and  Thummim  annexed  to  it.  These  words  sig- 
nify lights  and  perfections,  and  are  mentioned 
as  in  the  high  priest's  breastplate ;  but  what 
they  were,  we  cannot  determine.  Some  think 
they  were  two  precious  stones  added  to  the 
other  twelve,  by  the  extraordinary  lustre  of 
which,  God  marked  his  approbation  of  a  design, 
and,  by  their  becoming  dim,  his  disallowance 
of  it ;  others,  that  these  two  words  were  writ- 
ten on  a  precious  stone,  or  plate,  of  gold,  fixed 
in  the  breastplate ;  others,  that  the  letters  of 
the  names  of  the  tribes,  were  the  Urim  and 
Thummim  ;  and  that  the  letters  by  standing 
out,  or  by  an  extraordinary  illumination, 
marked  such  words  as  contained  the  answer 
of  God  to  him  who  consulted  this  oracle. 
Le  Clerc  will  have  them  to  be  the  names  of 
two  precious  stones,  set  in  a  golden  collar 
of  the  high  priest,  and  coming  down  to  his 
breast,  as  the  magistrates  of  Egypt  wore  a 
golden  chain,  at  the  end  of  which  hung  the 
figure  of  truth,  engraven  on  a  precious  stone. 
Prideaux  thinks  the  words  chiefly  denote  the 
clearness  of  the  oracles  dictated  to  the  high 
priest,  though  perhaps  the  lustre  of  the  stones 
in  his  breastplate  might  represent  this  clear- 
ness. Jahn  says  the  most  probable  opinion  is, 
that  Urim  and  Thummim  (onix,  D>Dm,  light 
and  justice,  Septuagint,  6rj\b>ais  xal  ahfidua) 
[manifestation  and  truth]  was  a  sacred  lot, 
1  Samuel  xiv,  41,  42.  There  were  employed, 
perhaps,  in  determining  this  lot,  three  precious 
stones,  on  one  of  which  was  engraven  "p,  yes ; 
on  the  other,  N1?,  no;  the  third  being  destitute 
of  any  inscription.  The  question  proposed, 
therefore,  was  always  to  be  put  in  such  a  way, 
that  the  answer  might  be  direct,  either  yes  or 
no,  provided  any  answer  was  given  at  all. 
These  stones  were  carried  in  the  purse  or  bag, 
formed  by  the  lining  or  interior  of  the  pecto- 
ral ;  and  when  the  question  was  proposed,  if 
the  high  priest  drew  out  the  stone  which  ex- 
hibited yes,  the  answer  was  affirmative  ;  if  the 


one  on  which  no  was  written,  the  answer  was 
negative ;  if  the  third,  no  answer  was  to  be 
given,  Joshua  vii,  13-21 ;  1  Sam.  xiv,  40-43 ; 
xxviii,  6.  In  the  midst  of  all  this  conjecture, 
only  two  things  are  certain:  1.  That  one  of 
the  appointed  methods  of  consulting  God,  on 
extraordinary  emergencies,  was  by  Urim  and 
Thummim  :  2.  That  the  oracles  of  God  rejected 
all  equivocal  and  enigmatical  replies,  which 
was  the  character  of  the  Heathen  pretended 
oracles.  "The  words  of  the  Lord  are  pure 
words."  His  own  oracle  bears,  therefore,  an 
inscription  which  signifies  lights  and  perfec- 
tions, or,  the  shining  and  the  perfect ;  or,  accord- 
ing to  the  LXX,  manifestation  and  truth.  In 
this  respect  it  might  be  a  type  of  the  Christian 
revelation  made  to  the  true  Israel,  the  Christian 
church,  by  the  Gospel.  St.  Paul  seems  espe- 
cially to  allude  to  this  translation  of  Urim  and 
Thummim  by  the  Septuagint,  when  he  speaks 
of  himself  and  his  fellow  labourers,  "com- 
mending themselves  to  every  man's  conscience 
by  manifestation  of  the  truth  ;"  in  opposition  to 
those  who  by  their  errors  and  compliances  with 
the  Jewish  prejudices,  or  with  the  philosophi- 
cal taste  of  the  Greeks,  obscured  the  truth,  and 
rendered  ambiguous  the  guidance  of  Christian 
doctrine.  His  preaching  is  thus  tacitly  com- 
pared to  the  oracles  of  God  ;  theirs,  to  the  mis- 
leading and  perplexed  oracles  of  the  Heathen. 
BRIDE  and  BRIDEGROOM.  Under  this 
head  an  account  of  the  marriage  customs  of 
ancient  times,  the  knowledge  of  which  is  so 
necessary  to  explain  many  allusions  in  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  may  be  properly  introduced.  Among 
the  Jews,  the  state  of  marriage  was,  from  the 
remotest  periods  of  their  history,  reckoned  so 
honourable,  that  the  person  who  neglected  or 
declined  to  enter  into  it  without  a  good  reason, 
was  thought  to  be  guilty  of  a  great  crime. 
Such  a  mode  of  thinking  was  not  confined  to 
them  ;  in  several  of  the  Grecian  states,  mar- 
riage was  held  in  equal  respect.  The  Jews  did 
not  allow  marriageable  persons  to  enter  into 
that  honourable  state  without  restriction ;  the 
high  priest  was  forbidden  by  law  to  marry  a 
widow;  and  the  priests  of  every  rank,  to  take 
a  harlot  to  wife,  a  profane  woman,  or  one  put 
away  from  her  husband.  To  prevent  the  alien- 
ation of  inheritances,  an  heiress  could  not  mar- 
ry but  into  her  own  tribe.  The  whole  people 
of  Israel,  being  a  holy  nation,  separated  from 
all  the  earth  to  the  service  of  the  true  God,  and 
to  be  the  depositaries  of  his  law,  were  forbid- 
den to  contract  matrimonial  alliances  with  the 
idolatrous  nations  in  their  vicinity.  The 
marriage  engagement  of  a  minor,  without  the 
knowledge  and  consent  of  the  parents,  was  of 
no  force ;  so  sacred  was  the  parental  authority 
held  among  that  people.  These  customs  ap- 
pear to  have  been  derived  from  a  very  remote 
antiquity  ;  for  when  Eliezer  of  Damascus  went 
to  Mesopotamia  to  take  a  wife  from  thence 
unto  his  master's  son,  he  disclosed  the  motives 
of  Ills  journey  to  the  father  and  brother  of  Re- 
becca ;  and  Hamor  applied  to  Jacob  and  his 
sons,  for  their  consent  to  the  union  of  Dinah 
with  his  son  Shechem.  Samson  also  consulted 
his  parents  about  his  marriage ;  and  entreated 


BRI 


181 


BRI 


them  to  get  for  him  the  object  of  his  choice. 
Marriage  contracts  seem  to  have  been  made  in 
the  primitive  ages  with  little  ceremony.  The 
suitor  himself,  or  his  father,  sent  a  messenger 
to  the  father  of  the  woman,  to  ask  her  in  mar- 
riage. In  the  remote  ages  of  antiquity,  women 
were  literally  purchased  by  their  husbands ; 
and  the  presents  made  to  their  parents  or  other 
relations  were  called  their  dowry.  Thus,  we 
find  Shechem  bargaining  with  Jacob  and  his 
sons  for  Dinah :  "  Let  me  find  grace  in  your 
eyes,  and  what  ye  shall  say  unto  me,  I  will 
give :  ask  me  never  so  much  dowry  and  gift, 
and  I  will  give  according  as  ye  shall  say  unto 
me ;  but  give  me  the  damsel  to  wife,"  Gen. 
xxxiv,  2.  The  practice  still  continues  in  the 
country  of  Shechem;  for  when  a  young  Arab 
wishes  to  marry,  he  must  purchase  his  wife ; 
and  for  this  reason,  fathers,  among  the  Arabs, 
are  never  more  happy  than  when  they  have 
many  daughters.  They  are  reckoned  the  prin- 
cipal riches  of  a  house.  An  Arabian  suitor  will 
offer  fifty  sheep,  six  camels,  or  a  dozen  of  cows  : 
if  he  be  not  rich  enough  to  make  such  offers, 
he  proposes  to  give  a  mare  or  a  colt,  consider- 
ing in  the  offer  the  merit  of  the  young  woman, 
the  rank  of  her  family,  and  his  own  circum- 
stances. In  the  primitive  times  of  Greece,  a 
well-educated  lady  was  valued  at  four  oxen. 
When  they  are  agreed  on  both  sides,  the  con- 
tract is  drawn  up  by  him  that  acts  as  cadi  or 
judge  among  these  Arabs.  In  some  parts  of 
the  east,  a  measure  of  corn  is  formally  men- 
tioned in  contracts  for  their  concubines,  or 
temporary  wives,  beside  the  sum  of  money 
which  is  stipulated  by  way  of  dowry.  This  cus- 
tom is  probably  as  ancient  as  concubinage,  with 
which  it  is  connected  ;  and  if  so,  it  will  perhaps 
account  for  the  Prophet  Hosea's  purchasing  a 
wife  of  this  kind,  for  fifteen  pieces  of  silver,  and 
for  a  homer  of  barley,  and  a  half  homer  of 
barley.  When  the  intended  husband  was  not 
able  to  give  a  dowry,  he  offered  an  equivalent. 
The  patriarch  Jacob,  who  came  to  Laban  with 
only  his  staff,  offered  to  serve  him  seven  years 
for  Rachel:  a  proposal  which  Laban  accepted. 
This  custom  has  descended  to  modern  times ; 
for  in  Cabul  the  young  men  who  are  unable  to 
advance  the  required  dowry  "  live  with  their  fu- 
ture father-in-law,  and  earn  their  bride  by  their 
services,  without  ever  seeing  the  object  of  their 
wishes."  The  contract  of  marriage  was  made  in 
the  house  of  the  woman's  father,  before  the  el- 
ders and  governors  of  the  city  or  district.  The 
espousals  by  money,  or  a  written  instrument, 
were  performed  by  the  man  and  woman  under 
a  tent  or  canopy  erected  for  that  purpose.  Into 
this  chamber  the  bridegroom  was  accustomed 
to  go  with  his  bride,  that  he  might  talk  with 
her  more  familiarly ;  which  was  considered  as 
U  ceremony  of  confirmation  to  the  wedlock. 
While  he  was  there,  no  person  was  allowed  to 
enter:  his  friends  and  attendants  waited  for 
him  at  the  door,  with  torches  and  lamps  in 
their  hands ;  and  when  he  came  out,  he  was 
received  by  all  that  were  present  with  great 
joy  and  acclamation.  To  this  ancient  custom, 
the  Psalmist  alludes  in  his  magnificent  descrip- 
tion of  the  heavens :  "  In  them  he  set  a  taber- 


nacle for  the  sun;  which,  as  a  bridegroom 
coming  out  of  his  chamber,  rejoices  as  a  strong 
man  to  run  a  race,"  Psalm  xix,  4.  A  Jewish 
virgin  legally  betrothed  was  considered  as  a 
lawful  wife  ;  and,  by  consequence,  could  not  be 
put  away  without  a  bill  of  divorce.  And  if  she 
proved  unfaithful  to  her  betrothed  husband, 
she  was  punished  as  an  adulteress;  and  her 
seducer  incurred  the  same  punishment  as  if  he 
had  polluted  the  wife  of  his  neighbour.  This 
is  the  reason  that  the  angel  addressed  Joseph, 
the  betrothed  husband  of  Mary,  in  these  terms  : 
"Joseph,  thou  son  of  David,  fear  not  to  take 
unto  thee  Mary  thy  wife;  for  that  which  is 
conceived  in  her  is  of  the  Holy  Ghost."  The 
Evangelist  Luke  gives  herthe  same  title  :  "And 
Joseph  also  went  up  from  Galilee  unto  Bethle- 
hem, to  be  taxed,  with  Mary  his  espoused  wife," 
Luke  ii,  4,  5. 

2.  Ten  or  twelve  months  commonly  inter- 
vened between  the  ceremony  of  espousals  and 
the  marriage :  during  this  interval,  the  espoused 
wife  continued  with  her  parents,  that  she  might 
provide  herself  with  nuptial  ornaments  suitable 
to  her  station.  This  custom  serves  to  explain 
a  circumstance  in  Samson's  marriage,  which 
is  involved  in  some  obscurity.  "  He  went 
down,"  says  the  historian,  "  and  talked  with 
the  woman,"  (whom  he  had  seen  at  Timnath,) 
"  and  she  pleased  him  well,"  Judges  xiv,  7,  &c. 
These  words  seem  to  refer  to  the  ceremony  of 
espousals  ;  the  following,  to  the  subsequent 
marriage:  "And  after  a  time  he  returned  to 
take  her,"  Judges  xiv,  8.  Hence  a  consider- 
able time  intervened  between  the  espousals 
and  their  actual  union.  From  the  time  of  the 
espousals,  the  bridegroom  was  at  liberty  to 
visit  his  espoused  wife  in  the  house  of  her  faT 
ther ;  yet  neither  of  the  parties  left  their  own 
abode  during  eight  days  before  the  marriage ; 
but  persons  of  the  same  age  visited  the  bride- 
groom, and  made  merry  with  him.  These  cir- 
cumstances are  distinctly  marked  in  the  account 
which  the  sacred  historian  has  given  us  of  Sam- 
son's marriage :  "  So  his  father  went  down  unto 
the  woman,  and  made  there  a  feast ;  for  so  used 
the  young  men  to  do.  And  it  came  to  pass 
when  they  saw  him,  that  they  brought  thirty 
companions  to  be  with  him,"  Judges  xiv,  10, 
These  companions  were  the  children  of  the 
bride  chamber,  of  whom  our  Lord  speaks : 
"  Can  the  children  of  the  bride  chamber  mourn 
as  long  as  the  bridegroom  is  with  them  ?" 
Matt,  xix,  15.  The  marriage  ceremony  was 
commonly  performed  in  a  garden,  or  in  the 
open  air ;  the  bride  was  placed  under  a  canopy, 
supported  by  four  youths,  and  adorned  with 
jewels  according  to  the  rank  of  the  married 
persons;  all  the  company  crying  out  with  joy- 
ful acclamations,  "  Blessed  be  he  that  cometh  !" 
It  was  anciently  the  custom,  at  the  conclusion 
of  the  ceremony,  for  the  father  and  mother  and 
kindred  of  the  woman,  to  pray  for  a  blessing 
upon  the  parties.  Bethuel  and  Laban,  and  the 
other  members  of  their  family,  pronounced  a 
solemn  benediction  upon  Rebecca  before  her 
departure:  "And  they  blessed  Rebecca,  and 
said  unto  her,  Thou  art  our  sister,  be  thou  the 
mother  of  thousands  of  millions ;  and  let  thy 


BRl 


182 


BRI 


need  possess  the  gate  of  those  tliat  hate  them," 
Gen.  xxiv,  60.  And  in  times  long  posterior  to 
the  age  of  Isaac,  when  Ruth,  the  Moabitess,  was 
espoused  to  Boaz,  "  all  the  people  that  were  in 
the  gate,  and  the  elders,  said,  We  are  witnesses : 
the  Lord  make  the  woman  that  is  come  into 
thine  house  like  Rachel,  and  like  Leah,  which 
two  did  build  the  house  of  Israel;  and  do  thou 
worthily  in  Ephratah,  and  be  famous  in  Beth- 
lehem," Ruth  iv,  11,  12.  After  the  benedic- 
tions, the  bride  is  conducted  with  great  pomp 
to  the  house  of  her  husband :  this  is  usually 
done  in  the  evening;  and  as  the  procession 
moved  along,  money,  sweetmeats,  flowers,  and 
other  articles,  were  thrown  among  the  popu- 
lace, which  they  caught  in  cloths  made  for  such 
occasions,  stretched  in  a  particular  manner 
upon  frames.  The  use  of  perfumes  at  eastern 
marriages  is  common :  and  upon  great  occa- 
sions very  profuse, 

3.  It  was  the  custom  among  the  ancient 
Greeks,  and  the  nations  around  them,  to  con- 
duct the  new-married  couple  with  torches  and 
lamps  to  their  dwelling;  as  appears  from  the 
messenger  in  Euripides,  who  says  he  called  to 
mind  the  time  when  he  bore  torches  before 
Menelaus  and  Helena.  These  torches  were 
usually  carried  by  servants  ;  and  the  proces- 
sion was  sometimes  attended  by  singers  and 
dancers.  Thus  Homer,  in  his  description  of 
the  shield  of  Achilles  : — 

- —  iv  Trj  jurv  j)a  yiijxoi  r   taav  iiKavivai  re, 
Nii/j^as  6'  ik  OaXd/iUiv,  Satduiv  inro  \ajfrro^tvuwv, 
'Hyiveov  aiu  aarv.      k.  t.  X.      II.  lib.  xviii,  1.  490. 

"In  one  of  the  sculptured  cities,  nuptials  were 
celebrating,  and  solemn  feasts  ;  through  the 
city  they  conducted  the  new-married  pair  from 
their  chambers,  witli  flaming  torches,  while 
frequent  shouts  of  Hymen  burst  from  the  at- 
tending throng,  and  young  men  danced  in 
skilful  measures  to  the  sound  of  the  pipe  and 
the  harp." 

A  similar  custom  is  observed  among  the  Hin- 
doos. The  husband  and  wife,  on  the  day  of 
their  marriage,  being  both  in  the  same  palan- 
quin, go  about  seven  and  eight  o'clock  at  night, 
accompanied  with  all  their  kindred  and  friends  ; 
the  trumpets  and  drums  go  before  them ;  and 
they  are  lighted  by  a  number  of  flambeaux  ; 
immediately  before  the  palanquin  walk  many 
women,  whose  business  it  is  to  sing  verses,  in 
which  they  wish  them  all  manner  of  prosperity. 
They  march  in  this  equipage  through  the  streets 
for  the  space  of  some  hours,  after  which  they 
return  to  their  own  house,  where  the  domestics 
are  in  waiting.  The  whole  house  is  illumined 
with  small  lamps  ;  and  many  of  those  flam- 
beaux already  mentioned  are  kept  ready  for 
their  arrival,  beside  those  which  accompany 
them,  and  we  carried  before  the  palanquin. 
These  flambeaus  are  composed  of  many  pieces 
of  old  linen,  squeezed  hard  against  one  ano- 
ther in  a  round  figure,  and  thrust  down  into  a 
mould  of  copper.  The  persons  that  hold  them 
in  one  hand  have  in  the  other  a  battle  of  the 
6ame  metal  with  the  copper  mould,  which  is 
full  of  oil,  which  they  take  care  to  pour  out 
from  time  to  time  upon  the  linen,  which  other- 


wise gives  no  light.  The  Roman  ladies  also 
were  led  home  to  their  husbands  in  the  even- 
ing by  the  light  of  torches.  A  Jewish  mar- 
riage seems  to  have  been  conducted  in  much 
the  same  wTay ;  for  in  that  beautiful  psalm, 
where  David  describes  the  majesty  of  Christ's 
kingdom,  we  meet  with  this  passage:  "And 
the  daughter  of  Tyre  shall  be  there  with  a  gift ; 
even  the  rich  among  the  people  shall  entreat 
thy  favour.  The  king's  daughter  is  all-glori- 
ous within ;  her  clothing  is  of  wrought  gold. 
She  shall  be  brought  unto  the  king  in  raiment 
of  needle  work ;  the  virgins,  her  companions 
that  follow  her,  shall  be  brought  unto  thee. 
With  gladness  and  rejoicing  shall  they  be 
brought:  they  shall  enter  into  the  king's  pa- 
lace," Psalm  xlv,  12,  &c.  In  the  parable  of 
the  ten  virgins,  the  same  circumstances  are 
introduced :  "  They  that  were  foolish  took 
their  lamps,  and  took  no  oil  with  them  :  but 
the  wise  took  oil  in  their  vessels  with  their 
lamps.  While  the  bridegroom  tarried,"  lead- 
ing the  procession  through  the  streets  of  the 
city,  the  women  and  domestics  that  were  ap- 
pointed to  wait  his  arrival  at  home,  "  all  slum- 
bered and  slept.  And  at  midnight  there  was  - 
a  cry  made,  Behold,  the  bridegroom  cometh ! 
Go  ye  out  to  meet  him.  Then  all  those  vir- 
gins arose  and  trimmed  their  lamps.  And  the 
foolish  said  unto  the  wise,  Give  us  of  your  oil ; 
for  our  lamps  are  gone  out,"  Matt,  xxv,  6. 

The  following  extract  from  Ward's  "View 
of  the  Hindoos"  very  strikingly  illustrates  this 
parable  :  "At  a  marriage,  the  procession  of 
which  I  saw  some  years  ago,  the  bridegroom 
came  from  a  distance,  and  the  bride  lived  at 
Serampore,  to  which  place  the  bridegroom  was 
to  come  by  water.  After  waiting  two  or  three 
hours,  at  length,  near  midnight,  it  was  an- 
nounced, as  if  in  the  very  words  of  Scripture, 
'  Behold,  the  bridegroom  cometh  !  Go  ye  out 
to  meet  him.'  All  the  persons  employed  now 
lighted  their  lamps,  and  ran  with  them  in  their 
hands  to  fill  up  their  stations  in  the  procession  ; 
some  of  them  had  lost  their  lights,  and  were 
unprepared ;  but  it  was  then  too  late  to  seek 
them,  and  the  cavalcade  moved  forward  to  the 
house  of  the  bride,  at  which  place  the  com- 
pany entered  a  large  and  splendidly  illuminat- 
ed area,  before  the  house  covered  with  an  awn- 
ing, where  a  great  multitude  of  friends  dressed 
in  their  best  apparel  were  seated  upon  mats. 
The  bridegroom  was  carried  in  the  arms  of  a 
friend,  and  placed  on  a  superb  seat  in  the  midst 
of  the  company,  where  he  sat  a  short  time,  and 
then  went  into  the  house,  the  door  of  which 
was  immediately  shut,  and  guarded  by  Se- 
poys. I  and  others  expostulated  with  the 
door  keepers,  but  in  vain." 

4.  But  among  the  Jews,  the  bridegroom  was 
not  always  permitted  to  accompany  his  bride 
from  her  father's  house ;  an  intimate  friend 
was  often  sent  to  conduct  her,  while  he 
remained  at  home  to  receive  her  in  his  apart- 
ment. Her  female  attendants  bad  the  honour 
to  introduce  her;  and  whenever  they  changed 
the  bride's  dress,  which  is  often  done,  they  pre- 
sented her  to  the  bridegroom.  It  is  the  custom, 
and   belongs  to  their  ideas  of  magnificence, 


BRI 


183 


BRI 


frequently  to  dress  and  undress  the  bride,  and 
to  cause  her  to  wear  on  that  same  day  all  the 
clothes  made  up  for  her  nuptials.  These  cir- 
cumstances discover  the  force  of  St.  John's 
language,  in  his  magnificent  description  of  the 
Christian  church  in  her  millennial  state  :  "  And 

1,  John,  saw  the  holy  city,  New  Jerusalem, 
coming  down  from  God  out  of  heaven,  pre- 
pared as  a  bride  adorned  for  her  husband," 
Rev.  xxi,  2. 

5.  Those  that  were  invited  to  the  marriage 
were  expected  to  appear  in  their  best  and  gay- 
est attire.  If  the  bridegroom  was  in  circum- 
stances to  afford  it,  wedding  garments  were 
prepared  for  all  the  guests,  which  were  hung 
up  in  the  antechamber  for  them  to  put  on  over 
the  rest  of  their  clothes,  as  they  entered  the 
apartments  where  the  marriage  feast  was  pre- 
pared. To  refuse,  or  even  to  neglect,  putting 
on  the  wedding  garment,  was  reckoned  an 
insult  to  the  b/idegroom;  aggravated  by  the 
circumstance  that  it  was  provided  by  himself 
for  the  very  purpose  of  being  worn  on  that 
occasion,  and  was  hung  up  in  the  way  to  the 
inner  apartment,  that  the  guests  must  have 
seen  it,  and  recollected  the  design  of  its  sus- 
pension. This  accounts  for  the  severity  of  the 
sentence  pronounced  by  the  king,  who  came 
in  to  see  the  guests,  and  found  among  them 
one  who  had  neglected  to  put  it  on  :  "  And  he 
saith  unto  him,  Friend,  how  earnest  thou  in 
hither,  not  having  a  wedding  garment  ?  And 
he  was  speechless,"  Matt,  xxii,  11,  because  it 
was  provided  at  the  expense  of  the  entertainer, 
and  placed  full  in  his  view.  "  Then  said  the 
king  to  the  servants,  Bind  him  hand  and  foot, 
and  take  him  away,  and  cast  him  into  outer 
darkness  :  there  shall  be  weeping  and  gnashing 
of  teeth." 

The  following  extract  will  show  the  import- 
ance of  having  a  suitable  garment  for  a  mar- 
riage feast,  and  the  offence  taken  against  those 
who  refuse  it  when  presented  as  a  gift.  "The 
next  day,  Dec.  3d,  the  king  sent  to  invite  the 
ambassadors  to  dine  with  him  once  more.  The 
Meheniander  told  them,  it  was  the  custom  that 
they  should  wear  over  their  own  clothes  the  best 
of  those  garments  which  the  king  had  sent 
them.  The  ambassadors  at  first  made  some  scru- 
ple of  that  compliance ;  but  when  they  were 
told  that  it  was  a  custom  observed  by  all  am- 
bassadors, and  that  no  doubt  the  king  would 
take  it  very  ill  at  their  hands  if  they  presented 
themselves  before  him  without  the  marks  of 
his  liberality,  they  at  last  resolved  to  do  it; 
and,  after  their  example,  all  the  rest  of  the 
retinue." 

BRIER.  This  word  occurs  several  times  in 
our  translation  of  the  Bible,  but  with  various 
authorities  from  the  original.  1.  cjp-on, 
Judges  viii,  7,  1G,  is  a  particular  kind  of  thorn. 

2.  pin,  Prov.  xv,  19;  Micah  vii,  4.  It  seems 
hardly  possible  to  determine  what  kind  of  plant 
this  is.  Some  kind  of  tangling  prickly  shrub 
is  undoubtedly  meant.  In  the  former  passage 
there  is  a  beautiful  opposition,  which  is  lost  in 
our  rendering :  "  The  narrow  way  of  the  sloth- 
ful is  like  a  perplexed  path  among  briers; 
Whereas  the  broad  road"  (elsewhere  rendered 


causeway)  "of  the  righteous  is  a  high  bank;" 
that  is,  free  from  obstructions,  direct,  con- 
spicuous, and  open.  The  common  course  of 
life  of  these  two  characters  answers  to  this 
comparison.  Their  manner  of  going  about 
business,  or  of  transacting  it,  answers  to  this. 
An  idle  man  always  takes  the  most  intricate, 
the  most  oblique,  and  eventually  the  most 
thorny,  measures  to  accomplish  his  purpose; 
the  honest  and  diligent  man  prefers  the  most 
open  and  direct.  In  Micah,  the  unjust  judge, 
taking  bribes,  is  a  brier,  holding  every  thing 
that  comes  within  his  reach,  hooking  all  that 
he  can  catch.  3.  doid,  Ezek.  ii,  6.  This 
word  is  translated  by  the  Septuagint,  Tropois-piJ- 
aovaiv,  stung  by  the  oestrus,  or  gadfly  ;  and  they 
use  the  like  word  in  Hosea  iv,  16,  where,  what 
in  our  version  is  "  a  backsliding  heifer,"  they 
render  "a  heifer  stung  by  the  oestrus."  These 
coincident  renderings  lead  to  the  belief  that 
both  places  may  be  understood  of  some  venom, 
ous  insect.  The  word  tnd  may  lead  us  to  sar- 
ran,  by  which  the  Arabs  thus  describe  "  a  great 
bluish  fly,  having  greenish  eyes,  its  tail  armed 
with  a  piercer,  by  which  it  pesters  almost  all 
horned  cattle,  settling  on  their  heads,  &c. 
Often  it  creeps  up  the  noses  of  asses.  It  is  a 
species  of  gadfly ;  but  carrying  its  sting  in  its 
tail."  4.  ]V7D,  Ezek.  xxviii,  24,  and  CJi^D, 
Ezek.  ii,  6,  must  be  classed  among  thorns. 
The  second  word  Parkhurst  supposes  to  be  a 
kind  of  thorn,  overspreading  a  large  surface  of 
ground,  as  the  dewbrier.  It  is  used  in  con- 
nection with  Sip,  which,  in  Gen.  iii,  18,  is 
rendered  thorns.  The  author  of  "Scripture 
Illustrated"  queries,  however,  whether,  as  it  is 
associated  with  "scorpions"  in  Ezek.  ii,  6, 
both  this  word  and  serebim  may  not  mean 
some  species  of  venomous  insects.  5.  ne"»D, 
mentioned  only  in  Isaiah  lv,  13,  probably 
means  a  prickly  plant;  but  what  particular 
kind  it  is  impossible  to  determine.  6.  -VDtt\ 
This  word  is  used  only  by  the  Prophet  Isaiah, 
and  in  the  following  places :  Isa.  v,  6 ;  vii, 
23-25;  ix,  17;  x,  17;  xxvii,  4;  and  xxxii,  13, 
It  is  probably  a  brier  of  a  low  kind;  such  as 
overruns  uncultivated  lands. 

BRIMSTONE,  nnDJ,  Gen.  xix,  24;  Deut. 
xxix,  23;  Job  xviii,  15;  Psalm  xi,  G;  Isaiah 
xxx,  33 ;  xxxiv,  9 ;  Ezek.  xxxviii,  22.  It  is 
rendered  Sziov  by  the  Septiragint,  and  is  so 
called  in  Luke  xvii,  29.  Fire  and  brimstone 
are  represented  in  many  passages  of  Scripture 
as  the  elements  by  which  God  punishes  the 
wicked  ;  both  in  this  life,  and  another.  There 
is  in  this  a  manifest  allusion  to  the  overthrow 
of  the  cities  of  the  plain  of  the  Jordan,  by 
showers  of  ignited  sulphur,  to  which  the  phy- 
sical appearances  of  the  country  bear  witness 
to  this  day.  The  soil  is  bituir  inous,  and  might 
be  raised  by  eruptions  into  the  air,  and  then 
inflamed  and  return  in  horrid  showers  of  over- 
whelming fire.  This  awful  catastrophe,  there- 
fore, stands  as  a  type  of  the  final  and  eternal 
punishment  of  the  wicked  in  another  world. 
In  Job.  xviii,  15,  Bildad,  describing  the  ca- 
lamities which  overtake  the  wicked  person, 
says,  "Brimstone  shall  be  scattered  upon  his 
habitation."   This  may  be  a  general  expression, 


BUL 


184 


BUL 


to  designate  any  great  destruction  :  as  that  in 
Psalm  xi,  6,  "  Upon  the  wicked  he  shall  rain 
fire  and  brimstone."  Moses,  among  other 
calamities  which  he  sets  forth  in  case  of  the 
people's  disobedience,  threatens  them  with 
the  fall  of  brimstone,  salt,  and  burning  like 
the  overthrow  of  Sodom,  &c,  Deut.  xxix,  23. 
The  Prophet  Isaiah,  xxxiv,  9,  writes  that  the 
anger  of  the  Lord  shall  be  shown  by  the  streams 
of  the  land  being  turned  into  pitch,  and  the 
dust  thereof  into  brimstone.     See  Dead  Sea. 

BROOK  is  distinguished  from  a  river  by  its 
flowing  only  at  particular  times ;  for  example, 
after  great  rains,  or  the  melting  of  the  snow  ; 
whereas  a  river  flows  constantly  at  all  seasons. 
However,  this  distinction  is  not  always  observed 
in  the  Scripture;  and  one  is  not  unfrequently 
taken  for  the  other, — the  great  rivers,  such  as 
the  Euphrates,  the  Nile,  the  Jordan,  and  others 
being  called  brooks.  Thus  the  Euphrates, 
Isaiah  xv,  7,  is  called  the  brook  of  willows. 
It  is  observed  that  the  Hebrew  word,  ^ru,  which 
signifies  a  brook,  is  also  the  term  for  a  valley, 
whence  the  one  is  often  placed  for  the  other, 
in  different  translations  of  the  Scriptures.  To 
deal  deceitfully  "as  a  brook,"  and  to  "pass 
away  as  the  stream  thereof,"  is  to  deceive  our 
friend  when  he  most  needs  and  expects  our  help 
and  comfort,  Job  vi,  15  ;  because  brooks,  being 
temporary  streams,  are  dried  up  in  the  heats  of 
summer,  when  the  traveller  most  needs  a  sup- 
ply of  water  on  his  journey. 

BROTHER.  1.  A  brother  by  the  same 
mother,  a  uterine  brother.  Matt,  iv,  21  ; 
xx,  20.  2.  A  brother,  though  not  by  the  same 
mother,  Matt,  i,  2.  3.  A  near  kinsman,  a 
cousin,  Matt,  xiii,  55 ;  Mark  vi,  3.  Observe, 
that  in  Matt,  xiii,  .55,  Jam.es,  and  Joses,  and 
Judas,  are  called  the  aSc^foi,  brethren,  of  Christ, 
hut  were  most  probably  only  his  cousins  by  his 
mother's  side ;  for  James  and  Joses  were  the 
sons  of  Mary,  Matt,  xxvii,  56 ;  and  James  and 
Judas,  the  sons  of  Alpheus,  Luke  vi,  15,  1G ; 
which  Alpheus  is  therefore  probably  the  same 
with  Cleopas,  the  husband  of  Mary,  sister  to 
our  Lord's  mother,  John  xix,  25. 
BUCKLER.  See  Arms. 
BUILD.  Beside  the  proper  and  literal  sig. 
nification  of  this  word,  it  is  used  with  reference 
to  children  and  a<  numerous  posterity.  Sarah 
desires  Abraham  to  take  Hagar  to  wife,  that 
by  her  she  may  be  builded  up,  that  is,  have 
children  to  uphold  her  family,  Gen.  xvi,  2. 
The  midwives  who  refused  obedience  to  Pha- 
raoh's orders,  when  he  commanded  them  to  put 
to  death  all  the  male  children  of  the  Hebrews, 
were  rewarded  for  it ;  God  built  them  houses, 
that  is,  he  gave  them  a  numerous  posterity. 
The  Prophet  Nathan  tells  David  that  God 
would  build  his  house ;  that  is,  give  him  chil- 
dren and  successors,  2  Sam.  vii,  27.  Moses, 
speaking  of  the  formation  of  the  first  woman, 
says,  God  built  her  with  the  rib  of  Adam,  Gen. 
ii,  22. 

BUL,  the  eighth  month  of  the  ecclesiastical 
year  of  the  Jews,  and  the  second  month  of  the 
civil  year.  It  answers  to  October,  and  consists 
of  twenty-nine  days.  On  the  sixth  day  of  this 
month  the  Jews  fasted,  because  on  that  day 


Nebuchadnezzar  put  to  death  the  children  of 
Zedekiah  in  the  presence  of  their  unhappy 
fatber,  whose  eyes,  after  they  had  been  wit- 
nesses of  this  sad  spectacle,  he  ordered  to  be  put 
out,  2  Kings  xxv,  7.  We  find  the  name  of 
this  month  mentioned  in  Scripture  but  once, 
1  Kings  vi,  38. 

BULL,  the  male  of  the  heeve  kind ;  and  it 
is  to  be  recollected  that  the  Hebrews  never 
castrated  animals.  There  are  several  words 
translated  "bull"  in  Scripture,  of  which  the 
following  is  a  list,  with  the  meaning  of  each : 
-\vv,  a  bove,  or  cow,  of  any  age.  lNp,  the  wild 
bull,  oryx,  or  buffalo,  occurs  only  DcuK  xiv,  5 ; 
and  in  Isaiah  li,  20,  Nip,  with  the  interchange 
of  the  two  last  letters,  VT3K,  a  word  implying 
strength,  translated  "  bulls,"  Psalm  xxii,  12 ; 
1,  13  ;  lxviii,  30  ;  Isaiah  xxxiv,  7  ;  Jer.  xlvi,  15. 
"1(53,  herds,  horned  cattle  of  full  age.  no,  a  full 
grown  bull,  or  cow,  fit  for  propagating,  ^jy,  a 
full  grown,  plump  young  bull  ;'and  in  the  femi- 
nine, a  heifer.  Tin,  Chaldee  tnur,  and  Latin 
iaurus;  the  ox  accustomed  to  the  yoke:  oc- 
curs only  in  Ezra  vi,  9,  17;  vii,  17;  Dan.  iv, 
25,  32,  33;  xxii,  29,  30. 

This  animal  was  reputed  by  the  Hebrews  to 
be  clean,  and  was  generally  made  use  of  by 
them  for  sacrifices.  The  Egyptians  had  a 
particular  veneration  for  it,  and  paid  divine 
honours  to  it;  and  the  Jews  imitated  them  in 
the  worship  of  the  golden  calves  or  bulls,  in  the 
wilderness,  and  in  the  kingdom  of  Israel.  The 
wild  bull  is  found  in  the  Syrian  and  Arabian 
deserts.  It  is  frequently  mentioned  by  the 
Arabian  poets,  who  are  copious  in  their  de- 
scriptions of  hunting  it,  and  borrow  many 
images  from  its  beauty,  strength,  swiftness,  and 
the  loftiness  of  its  horns.  They  represent  it 
as  fierce  and  untamable  ;  as  being  white  on  the 
back,  and  having  large  shining  eyes.  Bulls,  in 
a  figurative  and  allegorical  sense,  are  taken  for 
powerful,  fierce,  and  insolent  enemies,  Psalm 
xxii,  12;  lxviii,  30. 

BULRUSH,  ncj,  Exodus  ii,  3;  Job  viii,  11 ; 
Isaiah  xviii,  2 ;  xxxv,  7.  A  plant  growing  on 
the  banks  of  the  Nile,  and  in  marshy  grounds. 
The  stalk  rises  to  the  height  of  six  or  seven 
cubits,  beside  two  under  water.  This  stalk 
is  triangular,  and  terminates  in  a  crown  of 
small  filaments  resembling  hair,  which  the 
ancients  used  to  compare  to  a  thyrsus.  This 
reed,  the  Cyperus  papyrus  of  Linnaeus,  com- 
monly called  "the  Egyptian  reed,"  was  of  the 
greatest  use  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  country 
where  it  grew  ;  the  pith  contained  in  the  stock 
served  them  for  food,  and  the  woody  part  for 
building  vessels,  figures  of  which  are  to  be  seen 
on  the  engraven  stones  and  other  monuments 
of  Egyptian  antiquity.  For  this  purpose  they 
made  it  up,  ljke  rushes,  into  bundles ;  and,  by 
tying  these  bundles  together,  gave  their  vessels 
the  necessary  shape  and  solidity.  "  The  ves- 
sels of  bulrushes,"  or  papyrus,  "that  are  men- 
tioned in  sacred  and  profane  history,"  says 
Dr.  Shaw,  "were  no  other  than  large  fabrics 
of  the  same  kind  with  that  of  Moses,  Exodus 
ii,  3 ;  which,  from  the  late  introduction  of 
plank  and  stronger  materials,  are  now  laid 
aside."     Thus  Pliny  takes  notice  of  the  "  naves 


BUR 


185 


EUR 


pnpyraceas  armamentaque  Nili,"  "ships  made 
of  papyrus,  and  the  equipments  of  the  N'ile  ;" 
and  he  observes,  "  ex  ipsa  quidem  papyro  navi- 
gia  texunt,"  "  of  the  papyrus  itself  they  con- 
struct sailing  vessels."  Herodotus  and  Diodo. 
rus  have  recorded  the  same  fact ;  and  among 
the  poets,  Lucan,  "  Conseritur  bibul'i  Memphitis 
cymba  papyro,"  "the  Memphian"  or  Egyptian 
"  boat  is  made  of  the  thirsty  papyrus  ;  where 
the  epithet  bibuU,  "drinking,"  "soaking," 
"thirsty,"  is  particularly  remarkable,  as  cor- 
responding with  great  exactness  to  the  nature 
of  the  plant,  and  to  its  Hebrew  name,  which 
signifies  to  soak  or  drink  up.  These  vegetables 
require  much  water  for  their  growth ;  when, 
therefore,  the  river  on  whose  banks  they  grew 
was  reduced,  they  perished  sooner  than  other 
plants.  This  explains  Job  viii,  11,  where  the 
circumstance  is  referred  to  as  an  image  of 
transient  prosperity  :  "  Can  the  flag  grow  with- 
out water  ?  Whilst  it  is  yet  in  its  greenness, 
and  not  cut  down,  it  withereth  before  any  other 
herb." 

BURIAL,  the  interment  of  a  deceased  per- 
son ;  an  office  held  so  sacred,  that  they  who 
neglected  it  have  in  all  nations  been  held  in 
abhorrence.  As  soon  as  the  last  breath  had 
fled,  the  nearest  relation,  or  the  dearest  friend, 
gave  the  lifeless  body  the  parting  kiss,  the  la  ft 
farewell  and  sign  of  affection  to  the  departed 
relative.  This  was  a  custom  of  immemorial 
antiquity  ;  for  the  patriarch  Jacob  had  no  sooner 
yielded  up  his  spirit,  than  his  beloved  Joseph, 
claiming  for  once  the  right  of  the  first-born, 
"fell  upon  his  face  and  kissed  him."  It  is 
probable  he  first  closed  his  eyes,  as  God  had 
promised  he  should  do  :  "  Joseph  shall  put  his 
hands  upon  thine  eyes."  The  parting  kiss 
being  given,  the  company  rent  their  clothes, 
which  was  a  custom  of  great  antiquity,  and  the 
highest  expression  of  grief  in  the  primitive 
ages.  This  ceremony  was  never  omitted  by 
the  Hebrews  when  any  mournful  event  hap- 
pened, and  was  performed  in  the  following 
manner :  they  took  a  knife,  and  holding  the 
blade  downward,  gave  the  upper  garment  a  cut 
in  the  right  side,  and  rent  it  a  hand's  breadth. 
For  very  near  relations,  all  the  garments  are 
rent  on  the  right  side.  After  closing  the  eyes, 
the  next  care  was  to  bind  up  the  face,  which 
it  was  no  more  lawful  to  behold.  The  next 
care  of  surviving  friends  was  to  wash  the  body, 
probably,  that  the  ointments  and  perfumes  with 
which  it  was  to  be  wrapped  up,  might  enter 
more  easily  into  the  pores,  when  opened  by 
warm  water.  This  ablution,  which  was  alwaj's 
esteemed  an  act  of  great  charity  and  devotion, 
was  performed  by  women.  Thus  the  body  of 
Dorcas  was  washed,  and  laid  in  an  upper  room, 
till  the  arrival  of  the  Apostle  Peter,  in  the  hope 
that  his  prayers  might  restore  her  to  life.  After 
the  body  was  washed,  it  was  shrouded,  and 
swathed  with  a  linen  cloth,  although  in  most 
places,  they  only  put  on  a  pair  of  drawers  and 
a  white  tunic ;  and  the  head  was  bound  about 
with  a  napkin.  Such  were  the  napkin  and 
grave  clothes  in  which  the  Saviour  was  buried. 

2.  The  body  was  sometimes  embalmed,  which 
was  performed  by  the  Egyptians  after  the  fol- 


lowing method :  the  brain  was  removed  with 
a  bent  iron,  and  the  vacuity  filled  up  with  me- 
dicaments ;  the  bowels  were  also  drawn  out, 
and  the  trunk  being  stuffed  with  myrrh,  cassia, 
and  other  spices,  except  frankincense,  which 
were  proper  to  exsiccate  the  humours,  it  was 
pickled  in  nitre,  in  which  it  lay  for  seventy 
days.  After  this  period,  it  was  wrapped  in 
bandages  of  fine  linen  and  gums,  to  make  it 
adhere  ;  and  was  then  delivered  to  the  relations 
of  the  deceased  entire  ;  all  its  features,  and  the 
very  hairs  of  the  eyelids,  being  preserved.  In 
this  manner  were  the  kings  of  Judah  embalmed 
for  many  ages.  But  when  the  funeral  obse- 
quies were  not  long  delayed,  they  used  another 
kind  of  embalming.  They  wrapped  up  the  body 
with  sweet  spices  and  odours,  without  extract- 
ing the  brain,  or  removing  the  bowels.  This 
is  the  way  in  which  it  was  proposed  to  embalm 
the  lifeless  body  of  our  Saviour ;  which  was 
prevented  by  his  resurrection.  The  meaner 
sort  of  people  seem  to  have  been  interred  in 
their  grave  clothes,  without  a  coffin.  In  this 
manner  was  the  sacred  body  of  our  Lord  com- 
mitted to  the  tomb.  The  body  was  sometimes 
placed  upon  a  bier,  which  bore  some  resemblance 
to  a  coffin  or  bed,  in  order  to  be  carried  out  to 
burial.  Upon  one  of  these  was  carried  forth 
the  widow's  son  of  Nain,  whom  our  compas- 
sionate Lord  raised  to  life,  and  restored  to  his 
mother.  We  are  informed  in  the  history  of 
the  kings  of  Judah,  that,  Asa  being  dead,  they 
laid  him  in  the  bed,  or  bier,  which  was  filled 
with  sweet  odours.  Josephus,  the  Jewish  his- 
torian, describing  the  funeral  of  Herod  the 
Great,  says,  His  bed  was  adorned  with  precious 
stones ;  his  body  rested  under  a  purple  cover- 
ing ;  he  had  a  diadem  and  a  crown  of  gold 
upon  his  4iead,  a  sceptre  in  his  hand  ;  and  all 
his  house  followed  the  bed.  The  bier  used  by 
the  Turks  at  Aleppo  is  a  kind  of  coffin,  much 
in  the  form  of  ours,  only  the  lid  rises  with  a 
ledge  in  the  middle. 

3.  The  Israelites  committed  the  dead  to  their 
native  dust ;  and  from  the  Egyptians,  probably, 
borrowed  the  practice  of  burning  many  spices 
at  their  funerals.  "They  buried  Asa  in  his 
own  sepulchres,  which  he  made  for  himself  in 
the  city  of  David,  and  laid  him  in  the  bed 
which  was  filled  with  sweet  odours,  and  divers 
kinds  of  spices,  prepared  by  the  apothecaries' 
art ;  and  they  made  a  very  great  burning  for 
him,"  2  Chron.  xvi,  14.  Thus  the  Old  Testa- 
ment historian  entirely  justifies  the  account 
which  the  Evangelist  gives,  of  the  quantity  of 
spices  with  which  the  sacred  body  of  Christ 
was  swathed.  The  Jews  object  to  the  quantity 
used  on  that  occasion,  as  unnecessarily  pro- 
fuse, and  even  incredible ;  but  it  appears  from 
their  own  writings,  that  spices  were  used  at 
such  times  in  great  abundance.  In  the  Tal- 
mud it  is  said,  that  no  less  than  eighty  pounds 
of  spices  were  consumed  at  the  funeral  of  rabbi 
Gamaliel  the  elder.  And  at  the  funeral  of 
Herod,  if  we  may  believe  the  account  of  their 
most  celebrated  historian,  the  procession  was 
followed  by  five  hundred  of  his  domestics  car- 
rying spices.  Why  then  should  it  be  reckoned 
incredible,  that  Nicodemus  brought  of  myrrh 


13  111 


186 


BUT 


and  aloes  about  a  hundred  pounds'  weight,  to 
embalm  the  body  of  Jesus  ? 

4.  The  funeral  procession  was  attended  by 
professional  mourners,  eminently  skilled  in  the 
art  of  lamentation,  whom  the  friends  and  rela- 
tions of  the  deceased  hired,  to  assist  them  in 
expressing  their  sorrow.  They  began  the 
ceremony  with  the  stridulous  voices  of  old 
women,  who  strove,  by  their  doleful  modula- 
tions, to  extort  grief  from  those  that  were 
present.  The  children  in  the  streets  through 
which  they  passed,  often  suspended  their  sports, 
to  imitate  the  sounds,  and  joined  with  equal 
sincerity  in  the  lamentations.  "But  where- 
unto  shall  I  liken  this  generation  ?  It  is  like 
unto  children  sitting  in  the  markets,  and  call- 
ing unto  their  fellows,  and  saying,  We  have 
mourned  unto  you,  and  ye  have  not  lamented," 
Matt,  ix,  17.  Music  was  afterward  introduced 
to  aid  the  voices  of  the  mourners  :  the  trumpet 
was  used  at  the  funerals  of  the  great,  and  the 
small  pipe  or  flute  for  those  of  meaner  condi- 
tion. Hired  mourners  were  in  use  among  the 
Greeks  as  early  as  the  Trojan  war,  and  proba- 
bly in  ages  long  before ;  for  in  Homer,  a  choir 
of  mourners  were  planted  around  the  couch  on 
which  the  body  of  Hector  was  laid  out,  who 
sung  his  funeral  dirge  with  many  sighs  and 
tears  : — 

Oi  &'  ittci  licdyayov  k\vtu  bufiara,  tov  ptv  cirura 
Tpijrois  iv  Xtj^ftffoi  &hav,  Zuapu  &'  atrav  aoiiovg, 
Qptjvuv  i^dp^us.     k.  r.  A.     //.  lib.  xxiv,  1.  720. 
"  A  melancholy  choir  attend  around, 

With  plaintive  sighs  and  music's  solemn  sound  ; 

Alternately  they  sing,  alternate  flow 

The  obedient  tears,  melodious  in  their  wo."     Pope. 

In  Egypt,  the  lower  class  of  people  call  in 
women  who  play  on  the  tabor  ;  and  whose 
business  it  is,  like  the  hired  mournere  in  other 
countries,  to  sing  elegiac  airs  to  the  sound  of 
that  instrument,  which  they  accompany  with 
the  most  frightful  distortions  of  their  limbs. 
These  women  attend  the  corpse  to  the  grave, 
intermixed  with  the  female  relations  and  friends 
of  the  deceased,  who  commonly  have  their  hair 
in  the  utmost  disorder ;  their  heads  covered 
witli  dust ;  their  faces  daubed  with  indigo,  or 
at  least  rubbed  with  mud ; '  and  howling  like 
maniacs.  Such  were  the  minstrels  whom  our 
Lord  found  in  the  house  of  Jairus,  making  so 
great  a  noise  round  the  bed  on  which  the  dead 
body  of  his  daughter  lay.  The  noise  and  tu- 
mult of  these  retained  mourners,  and  the  other 
attendants,  appear  to  have  begun  immediately 
after  the  person  expired.  It  is  evident  that 
this  sort  of  mourning  and  lamentation  was  a 
kind  of  art  among  the  Jews:  "Wailing  shall 
be  in  the  streets ;  and  they  shall  call  such  as 
are  skilful  of  lamentation  to  wail,"  Amos  v, 
16.  Mourners  are  still  hired  at  the  obsequies 
of  Hindoos  and  Mohammedans,  as  in  former 
times.  To  the  dreadful  noise  and  tumult  of 
the  hired  mourners,  the  following  passage  of 
Jeremiah  indisputably  refers;  and  shows  the 
custom  to  be  derived  from  a  very  remote  anti- 
quity:  "Call  for  the  mourning  women  that 
they  may  come  ;  and  send  for  cunning  women, 
that  they  may  come,  and  let  them  make  haste, 
and  take  up  a  wailing  for  us,  that  our  eyes  may 


run  down  with  tears,  and  our  eyelids  gush  out 
with  waters,"  Jer.  ix,  17.  The  funeral  pro- 
cessions  of  the  Jews  in  Barbary  are  conducted 
nearly  in  the  same  manner  as  those  in  Syria. 
The  corpse  is  borne  by  four  to  the  place  of 
burial :  in  the  first  rank  march  the  priests, 
next  to  them  the  kindred  of  the  deceased  ;  after 
whom  come  those  that  are  invited  to  the  fune- 
ral ;  and  all  singing  in  a  sort  of  plain  song,  the 
forty-ninth  Psalm.  Hence  the  Prophet,  Amos 
viii,  3,  warns  his  people  that  public  calamities 
were  approaching,  so  numerous  and  severe,  as 
should  make  them  forget  the  usual  rites  of 
burial,  and  even  to  sing  one  of  the  songs  of 
Zion  over  the  dust  of  a  departed  relative. 
This  appears  to  be  confirmed  by  a  prediction 
in  the  eighth  chapter :  "  And  the  songs  of  the 
temple  shall  be  howlings  in  that  day,  saith  the 
Lord  God ;  there  shall  be  many  dead  bodies  in 
every  place ;  they  shall  cast  them  forth  with 
silence;"  they  shall  have  none  to  lament  and 
bewail ;  none  to  blow  the  funeral  trump  or 
touch  the  pipe  and  tabor ;  none  to  sing  the 
plaintive  dirge,  or  express  their  hope  of  a  bless, 
ed  resurrection,  in  the  strains  of  inspiration. 
All  shall  be  silent  despair.     See  Sepulchres. 

BUSH.  njo.  This  word  occurs  in  Exod. 
iii,  2,  4,  and  Deut.  xxxiii,  16,  as  the  name  of 
the  bush  in  which  God  appeared  to  Moses.  If 
it  be  the  ^«»<os  mentioned  by  Dioscorides,  it  is 
the  white  thorn.  Celsius  calls  it  the  rubus 
fructicosus.  The  number  of  these  bushes  in 
this  region  seems  to  have  given  the  name  to 
the  mountain  Sinai.  The  word  D'V^nj,  found 
only  in  Isa.  vii,  19,  and  there  rendered  "bush- 
es," means  fruitful  jmstures. 

BUTTER  is  taken  in  Scripture,  as  it  has 
been  almost  perpetually  in  the  east,  for  cream 
or  liquid  butter,  Prov.  xxx,  33  ;  2  Sam.  xvii,  29. 
The  ancient  way  of  making  butter  in  Arabia 
and  Palestine  was  probably  nearly  the  same  as 
is  still  practised  by  the  Bedoween  Arabs,  and 
Moors  in  Barbary,  and  which  is  thus  described 
by  Dr.  Shaw  :  "Their  method  of  making  but- 
ter is  by  putting  the  milk  or  cream  into  a  goat's 
skin  turned  inside  out,  which  they  suspend 
from  one  side  of  the  tent  to  the  other ;  and  then 
pressing  it  to  and  fro  in  one  uniform  direction, 
they  quickly  separate  the  unctious  and  wheyey 
parts.  In  the  Levant  they  tread  upon  the  skin 
with  their  feet,  which  produces  the  same  effect." 
The  last  method  of  separating  the  butter  from 
the  milk,  perhaps  may  throw  light  upon  a  pas- 
sage in  Job  of  some  difficulty :  "  When  I  wash- 
ed my  steps  with  butter,  and  the  rock  poured  me 
out  rivers  of  oil,"  Job  xxxi,  6.  The  method  of 
making  butter  in  the  east  illustrates  the  con- 
duct of  Jael,  the  wife  of  Heber,  described  in 
the  book  of  Judges  :  "  And  Sisera  said  unto 
her,  Give  me,  I  pray  thee,  a  little  water  to 
drink,  for  lam  thirsty  :  and  she  opened  a  bot- 
tle of  milk,  and  gave  him  drink  and  covered 
him."  In  the  Song  of  Deborah,  the  statement 
is  repeated  :  "  He  asked  water,  and  she  gave 
him  milk  ;  she  brought  forth  butter  in  a  lordly 
dish,"  Judges  iv,  19 ;  v,  25.  The  word  nNcn, 
which  our  translators  rendered  butter,  properly 
signifies  cream ;  which  is  undoubtedly  the 
meaning  of  it  in  this  passage :  for  Sisera  com- 


CAB 


1S7 


CAB 


plained  of  thirst,  and  asked  a  little  water  to 
quench  it; — a  purpose  to  which  butter  is  but 
little  adapted.  Mr.  Harmer,  indeed,  urges  the 
same  objection  to  cream,  which,  he  contends, 
few  people  would  think  a  very  proper  beverage 
for  one  that  was  extremely  thirsty ;  and  con- 
cludes that  it  must  have  been  butter-milk  which 
Jael,  who  had  just  been  churning,  gave  toSisera. 
But  the  opinion  of  Dr.  Russel  is  preferable, — 
that  the  hemah  of  the  Scriptures  is  probably  the 
same  as  the  haymak  of  the  Arabs,  which  is  not, 
as  Harmer  supposed,  simple  cream,  but  cream 
produced  by  simmering  fresh  sheep's  milk  for 
some  hours  over  a  slow  fire.  It  could  not  be 
butter  newly  churned,  which  Jael  presented  to 
Sisera,  because  the  Aral)  butter  is  apt  to  be  foul, 
and  is  commonly  passed  through  a  strainer  be- 
fore it  is  used :  and  Russel  declares,  he  never 
saw  butter  offered  to  a  stranger,  but  always 
haymak;  nor  did  he  ever  observe  the  orientals 
drink  butter-milk,  but  always  leban,  which  is 
coagulated  sour  milk,  diluted  with  water.  It 
was  leban,  therefore,  which  Pococke  mistook 
for  butter-milk,  with  which  the  Arabs  treated 
him  in  the  Holy  Land.  A  similar  conclusion 
may  be  drawn  concerning  the  butter  and  milk 
which  the  wife  of  Heber  presented  to  Sisera  : 
they  were  forced  cream  or  haymak,  and  leban, 
or  coagulated  sour  milk,  diluted  with  water, 
which  is  a  common  and  refreshing  beverage 
in  those  sultry  regions.  In  Isaiah  vii,  15,  but- 
ter and  honey  are  mentioned  as  food  which,  in 
Egypt  and  other  places  in  the  east,  is  in  use  to 
this  day.  The  butter  and  honey  are  mixed, 
and  the  bread  is  then  dipped  in  it. 

BYSSUS.  By  this  word  we  generally  un- 
derstand that  fine  Egyptian  linen  of  which  the 
priests'  tunics  were  made.  But  we  must  dis- 
tinguish three  kinds  of  commodities,  which  are 
generally  comprehended  under  the  name  of 
linen:  1.  The  Hebrew  "O,  which  signifies  linen  : 
2.  w,  which  signifies  cotton  :  3.  yi3,  which  is 
commonly  called  bussus,  and  is  the  silk  grow- 
ing from  a  certain  shell  fish,  called  pinna.  We 
do  not  find  the  name  butz  in  the  text  of  Mo- 
ses, though  the  Greek  and  Latin  use  *he  word 
byssus,  to  signify  the  fine  linen  of  certain  habits 
belonging  to  the  priests.  The  word  butz  oc- 
curs only  in  1  Chron.  xv,  27  ;  Ezek.  xxvii,  16  ; 
Esther  i,  6.  In  the  Chronicles  we  see  David 
dressed  in  a  mantle  of  butz,  with  the  singers 
and  Levites.  Solomon  used  butz  in  the  veils 
of  the  temple  and  sanctuary.  Ahasuerus's  tents 
were  upheld  by  cords  of  butz ;  and  Mordecai 
was  clothed  with  a  mantle  of  purple  and  butz, 
when  king  Ahasuerus  honoured  him  with  the 
first  employment  in  his  kingdom.  Lastly,  it  is 
observed  that  there  was  a  manufacture  of  butz 
in  the  city  of  Beersheba,  in  Palestine.  This  butz 
must  have  been  different  from  common  linen, 
since  in  the  same  place  where  it  is  said,  David 
wore  a  mantle  of  byssus,  we  read  likewise  that 
he  had  on  a  linen  ephod. 

CAB,  or  KAB,  a  Hebrew  measure,  contain- 
ing three  pints  one-third  of  our  wine  measure, 
or  two  pints  five-sixths  of  our  corn  measure. 

CABBALA,  a  mysterious  kind  of  science, 
delivered  to  the  ancient  Jews,  as  they  pretend, 


by  revelation,  and  transmitted  by  oral  tradition 
to  those  of  our  times  ;  serving  for  the  inter- 
pretation of  the  books  both  of  nature  and 
Scripture.  The  word  is  variously  written,  as 
Cabala,  Caballa,  Kabbala,  Kabala,  Cabalistica, 
Ars  Cabala,  and  Gaballa.  It  is  originally  He- 
brew, rbsp,  and  properly  signifies  reception; 
formed  from  the  verb  ^2?,  to  receive  by  tradition, 
or  from  father  to  son;  especially  in  the  Chaldee 
and  Rabbinical  Hebrew.  Cahbala,  then,  pri- 
marily denotes  any  sentiment,  opinion,  usage, 
or  explication  of  Scripture,  transmitted  from 
father  to  son.  In  this  sense  the  word  cabbala 
is  not  only  applied  to  the  whole  art,  but  also  to 
each  operation  performed  according  to  the 
rules  of  that  art.  Thus  it  is,  rabbi  Jacob  Ben 
Ascher,  surnamed  Baal-Hatturim,  is  said  to 
have  co-.nj.iled  most  of  the  cabbalas  invented 
on  the  booKS  of  Moses  before  his  time.  As  to 
the  origin  of  the  cabbala,  the  Jews  relate  many 
marvellous  tales.  They  derive  the  mysteries 
contained  in  it  from  Adam  ;  and  assert,  that 
whilst  the  first  man  was  in  paradise,  the  angel 
Raphael  brought  him  a  book  from  heaven, 
which  contained  the  doctrines  of  heavenly  wis- 
dom ;  and  that  when  Adam  received  this  book, 
angels  came  down  from  heaven  to  learn  its 
contents ;  but  that  he  refused  to  admit  them  to 
the  knowledge  of  sacred  things,  intrusted  to 
himself  alone  :  that,  after  the  fall,  this  book 
was  taken  back  into  heaven  ;  that,  after  many 
prayers  and  tears,  God  restored  it  to  Adam ; 
and  that  it  passed  from  Adam  to  Seth.  The 
Jewish  fables  farther  relate,  that  the  book 
being  lost,  and  the  mysteries  contained  in  it 
almost  forgotten,  in  the  degenerate  age  pre- 
ceding the  Hood,  they  were  restored  by  special 
revelation  to  Abraham,  who  transmitted  them 
to  writing  in  the  book  "  Jezirah ;"  and  that  the 
revelation  was  renewed  to  Moses,  who  receiv- 
ed a  traditionary  and  mystical,  as  well  as  a 
written  and  preceptive,  law  from  God.  Ac- 
cordingly, the  Jews  believe  that  God  gave  to 
Moses  on  Mount  Sinai,  not  only  the  law,  but 
also  the  explication  of  that  law ;  and  that 
Moses,  after  his  coming  down,  retiring  to  his 
tent,  rehearsed  to  Aaron  both  the  one  and 
the  other.  When  he  had  done,  the  sons  of 
Aaron,  Eleazar  and  Ithamar,  were  intro- 
duced to  a  second  rehearsal.  This  being 
over,  the  seventy  elders  that  composed  the 
sanhedrim  were  admitted ;  and,  lastly,  the 
people,  as  many  as  pleased  ;  to  all  of  whom 
Moses  again  repeated  both  the  law  and  expla- 
nation, as  he  received  them  from  God  :  so  that 
Aaron  heard  it  four  times,  his  sons  thrice,  the 
elders  twice,  and  the  people  once.  Now,  of 
the  two  things  which  Moses  taught  them,  the 
laws  and  the  explanation,  only  the  first  were 
committed  to  writing  ;  which  is  what  we  have 
in  Exodus,  Leviticus,  and  Numbers.  As  to  the 
second,  or  the  explication  of  those  laws,  they 
were  contented  to  impress  it  well  in  their  me- 
mory, to  teach  it  their  children  ;  they  to  theirs, 
&c.  Hence  the  first  part  they  call  simply  the 
law,  or  the  written  law ;  the  second,  the  oral 
law,  or  cabbala.  Such  is  the  original  notion 
of  the  cabbala. 
2.  The  cabbala  being  again  lost  amidst  tho 


CAB 


188 


CAB 


calamities  of  the  Babylonish  captivity,  was 
once  more  revealed  to  Esdras  ;  and  it  is  said  to 
have  been  preserved  in  Egypt,  and  transmitted 
to  posterity  through  the  hands  of  Simeon  Ben 
Setach,  Elkanah,  Akibha,  Simeon  Ben  Jochai, 
and  others.  The  only  warrantable  inference 
from  these  accounts,  which  bear  the  obvious 
marks  of  fiction,  is,  that  the  cabbalistic  doctrine 
obtained  early  credit  among  the  Jews  as  a  part 
of  their  sacred  tradition,  and  was  transmitted, 
under  this  notion,  by  the  Jews  in  Egypt  to  their 
brethren  in  Palestine.  Under  the  sanction  of 
ancient  names,  many  fictitious  writings  were 
produced,  which  greatly  contributed  to  the 
spreading  of  this  mystical  system.  Among 
these  were  "Sepher  Happeliah,"  or  the  book  of 
wonders  ;  "  Sepher  Hakkaneh,"  or  the  book  of 
the  pen  ;  and  "  Sepher  Habbahir,"  or  the  book 
of  light.  The  first  unfolds  many  doctrines  said 
to  have  been  delivered  by  Elias  to  the  rabbi 
Elkanah ;  the  second  contains  n^stical  com. 
mentaries  on  the  divine  commands ;  and  the 
third  illustrates  the  most  sublime  mysteries. 
Among  the  profound  doctors  who,  beside  the 
study  of  tradition,  cultivated  with  great  indus- 
try the  cabbalistic  philosophy,  the  most  cele- 
brated persons  are  the  rabbis  Akibba,  who  lived 
soon  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  and 
Simeon  Ben  Jochai,  who  flourished  in  the 
second  century.  To  the  former  is  ascribed  the 
book  entitled  "  Jezirah,"  concerning  the  crea- 
tion ;  and  to  the  latter,  the  book  "  Sohar,"  or 
brightness  ;  and  these  are  the  principal  sources 
from  which  we  derive  our  knowledge  of  the 
cabbala. 

3.  That  this  system  of  the  cabbalistic  philo- 
sophy, which  we  may  consider  as  the  acroaina- 
tic,  esoretic,  or  concealed  doctrine  of  the  Jews, 
by  wa}^  of  contradistinction  from  the  exoretic 
or  popular  doctrine,  was  not  of  Hebrew  origin, 
we  may  conclude  with  a  very  great  degree  of 
probability,  from  the  total  dissimilarity  of  its 
abstruse  and  mysterious  doctrines  to  the  simple 
principles  of  religion  taught  in  the  Mosaic  law; 
and  that  it  was  borrowed  from  the  Egyptian 
schools  will  sufficiently  appear  from  a  com- 
parison of  its  tenets  with  those  of  the  oriental 
and  Alexandrian  philosophy.  Many  writers 
have,  indeed,  imagined  that  they  have  found  in 
the  cabbalistic  dogmas  a  near  resemblance  of  the 
doctrines  of  Christianity ;  and  they  have  thought 
that  the  fundamental  principles  of  this  mys- 
tical system  were  derived  from  divine  revela- 
tion. This  opinion,  however,  may  be  traced 
up  to  a  prejudice  which  originated  with  the 
Jews,  and  passed  from  them  to  the  Christian 
fathers,  by  which  they  were  led  to  ascribe  all 
Pagan  wisdom  to  a  Hebrew  origin :  a  notion 
which  very  probably  took  its  rise  in  Egypt, 
when  Pagan  tenets  first  crept  in  among  the 
Jews.  Philo,  Josephus,  and  other  learned  Jews, 
in  order  to  flatter  their  own  vanity,  and  that  of 
their  countrymen,  industriously  propagated  this 
opinion  ;  and  the  more  learned  fathers  of  the 
Christian  church,  who  entertained  a  high 
opinion  of  the  Platonic  philosophy,  hastily 
adopted  it,  from  an  imagination  that  if  they 
could  trace  back  the  most  valuable  doctrines 
of  Paganism  to  a  Hebrew  origin,  this  could 


not  fail  to  recommend  the  Jewish  and  Christian 
religions  to  the  attention  of  the  Gentile  phi- 
losophers. Many  learned  moderns,  relying 
implicitly  upon  these  authorities,  have  main- 
tained the  same  opinion  ;  and  have  thence  been 
inclined  to  credit  the  report  of  the  divine  ori- 
ginal of  the  Jewish  cabbala.  But  the  opinion 
is  unfounded ;  and  the  cabbalistic  system  is 
essentially  inconsistent  with  the  pure  doctrine 
of  divine  revelation.  The  true  state  of  the  case 
seems  to  be,  that  during  the  prophetic  ages,  the 
traditions  of  the  Jews  consisted  in  a  simple  ex- 
planation of  those  divine  truths  which  the  pro- 
phets delivered,  or  their  law  exhibited,  under 
the  veil  of  emblems.  After  this  period,  when 
the  sects  of  the  Essenes  and  Therapeuta?  were 
formed  in  Egypt,  foreign  tenets  and  institu- 
tions were  borrowed  from  the  Egyptians  and 
Greeks ;  and,  in  the  form  of  allegorical  inter- 
pretations of  the  law,  were  admitted  into  what 
might  then  be  called  the  Jewish  mysteries,  or 
secret  doctrines.  These  innovations  chiefly 
consisted  in  certain  dogmas  concerning  God 
and  divine  things,  at  this  time  received  in  the 
Egyptian  schools  ;  particularly  at  Alexandria, 
where  the  Platonic  and  Pythagorean  doctrines 
on  these  subjects  had  been  blended  with  the 
oriental  philosophy.  The  Jewish  mysteries, 
thus  enlarged  by  the  accession  of  Pagan  dog- 
mas, were  conveyed  from  Egypt  to  Palestine, 
at  the  time  when  the  Pharisees,  who  had  been 
driven  into  Egypt  under  Hyrcanus,  returned 
with  many  other  Jews  into  their  own  country. 
From  this  time  the  cabbalistic  mysteries  con- 
tinued to  be  taught  in  the  Jewish  schools ;  but 
at  length  they  were  adulterated  by  a  mixture  of 
Peripatetic  doctrines,  and  other  tenets.  These 
mysteries  were  not,  probably,  reduced  to  any 
systematic  forms  in  writing,  till  after  the  dis- 
persion of  the  Jews;  when  in  consequence  of 
their  national  calamities,  they  became  appre- 
hensive that  those  sacred  treasures  would  be 
corrupted  or  lost.  In  preceding  periods,  the 
cabbalistic  doctrines  underwent  various  corrup. 
tions,  particularly  from  the  prevalence  of  the 
Aristotelian  philosophy.  The  similarity,  or 
rather  the  coincidence,  of  the  cabbalistic,  Alex- 
andrian, and  oriental  philosophy,  will  be  suffi- 
ciently evinced  by  briefly  stating  the  common 
tenets  in  which  these  different  systems  agreed. 
They  are  as  follow: — "All  things  are  derived 
by  emanation  from  one  principle  ;  and  this  prin- 
ciple is  God.  From  him  a  substantial  power 
immediately  proceeds,  which  is  the  image  of 
God,  and  the  source  of  all  subsequent  emana- 
tions. This  second  principle  sends  forth,  by 
the  energy  of  emanation,  other  natures,  which 
are  more  or  less  perfect,  according  to  their 
different  degrees  of  distance,  in  the  scale  of 
emanation,  from  the  first  source  of  existence, 
and  which  constitute  different  worlds  or  orders 
of  being,  all  united  to  the  eternal  power  from 
which  they  proceed.  Matter  is  nothing  more 
than  the  most  remote  effect  of  the  emanative 
energy  of  the  Deity.  The  material  world 
receives  its  form  from  the  immediate  agency 
of  powers  far  beneath  the  first  source  of  being 
Evil  is  the  necessary  effect  of  the  imperfection 
of  matter.     Human  souls  are  distant  emana- 


CAB 


189 


C^ES 


tions  from  Deity ;  and,  after  they  are  liberated 
from  their  material  vehicles,  will  return,  through 
various  stages  of  purification,  to  the  fountain 
whence  they  first  proceeded."  From  this  brief 
view  it  appears,  that  the  cabbalistic  system, 
which  is  the  offspring  of  the  other  two,  is  a 
fanatical  kind  of  philosophy,  originating  in 
defect  of  judgment  and  eccentricity  of  imagi- 
nation, and  tending  to  produce  a  wild  and  per- 
nicious enthusiasm. 

4.  Among  the  explications  of  the  law  which 
are  furnished  by  the  cabbala,  and  which,  in 
reality,  are  little  else  but  the  several  interpre- 
tations and  decisions  of  the  rabbins  on  the 
laws  of  Moses,  some  are  mystical ;  consisting 
of  odd  abstruse  significations  given  to  a  word, 
or  even  to  the  letters  whereof  it  is  composed  : 
whence,  by  different  combinations,  they  draw 
meanings  from  Scripture  very  different  from 
those  it  seems  naturally  to  import.  The  art  of 
interpreting^Scripture  after  this  manner  is  call- 
ed more  particularly  cabbala;  and  it  is  in  this 
last  sense  the  word  is  more  ordinarily  used 
among  us.  This  cabbala,  called  also  artificial 
cabbala,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  first  kind, 
or  simple  tradition,  is  divided  into  three  sorts. 
The  first,  called  gematria,  consists  in  taking 
letters  as  figures,  or  arithmetical  numbers,  and 
explaining  each  word  by  the  arithmetical  value 
of  the  letters  whereof  it  is  composed;  which  is 
done  various  ways :  the  second  is  called  nota- 
ricon,  and  consists  either  in  taking  each  letter 
of  a  word  for  an  entire  diction,  or  in  making 
one  entire  diction  out  of  the  initial  letters  of 
many  :  the  third  kind,  called  themurah,  that  is, 
changing,  consists  in  changing  and  transposing 
the  letters  of  a  word ;  which  is  done  various 
ways.  The  generality  of  the  Jews  prefer  the 
cabbala  to  the  literal  Scripture  ;  comparing  the 
former  to  the  sparkling  lustre  of  a  precious 
stone,  and  the  latter  to  the  fainter  glimmering 
of  a  candle.  The  cabbala  only  differs  from 
masorah,  as  the  latter  denotes  the  science  of 
reading  the  Scripture;  the  former,  of  interpret- 
ing it.  Both  are  supposed  to  have  been  handed 
down  from  generation  to  generation  by  oral 
tradition  only,  till  at  length  the  readings  were 
fixed  by  the  vowels  and  accents,  as  the  inter- 
pretations were  by  the  gemara. 

5.  Cabbala  is  also  applied  to  the  use,  or 
rather  abuse,  which  visionaries  and  enthusi- 
asts make  of  Scripture,  for  discovering  futurity 
by  the  study  and  consideration  of  the  combi- 
nation of  certain  words,  letters,  and  numbers, 
in  the  sacred  writings.  All  the  words,  terms, 
magic  figures,  numbers,  letters,  charms,  &c, 
used  in  the  Jewish  magic,  as  also  in  the  her- 
metical  science,  are  comprised  under  this  spe- 
cies of  cabbala ;  which  professes  to  teach  the 
art  of  curing  diseases,  and  performing  other 
wonders,  by  means  of  certain  arrangements 
of  sacred  letters  and  words.  But  it  is  only 
the  Christians  that  call  it  by  this  name,  on 
account  of  the  resemblance  this  art  bears  to 
the  explications  of  the  Jewish  cabbala  :  for 
the  Jews  never  used  the  word  cabbala  in  any 
such  sense  ;  but  ever  with  the  utmost  respect 
and  veneration.  It  is  not,  however,  the 
magic  of  the  Jews  alone  which  we  call  cab- 


bala ;  but  the  word  is  also  used  for  any  kind 
of  magic. 

CABUL,  the  name  which  Hiram,  king  of 
Tyre,  gave  to  the  twenty  cities  in  the  land  of 
Galilee,  of  which  Solomon  made  him  a  present, 
in  acknowledgment  for  the  great  services  in 
building  the  temple,  1  Kings  ix,  31.  These 
cities  not  being  agreeable  to  Hiram,  on  view- 
ing them,  he  called  them  the  land  of  Cabul, 
which  in  the  Hebrew  tongue  denotes  displeas- 
ing; others  take  it  to  signify  binding  or  adhe- 
sive, from  the  clayey  nature  of  the  soil. 

CiESAR,  a  title  borne  by  all  the  Roman 
emperors  till  the  destruction  of  the  empire.  It 
took  its  rise  from  the  surname  of  the  first  em- 
peror, Caius  Julius  Ccesar ;  and  this  title,  by  a 
decree  of  the  senate,  all  the  succeeding  empe- 
rors were  to  bear.  In  Scripture,  the  reigning 
emperor  is  generally  mentioned  by  the  name 
of  Caesar,  without  expressing  any  other  distinc- 
tion: soinMatt.xxii,21,  "Render  unto  Caesar," 
&c,  Tiberias  is  meant ;  and  in  Acts  xxv,  10, 
"  I  appeal  unto  Caesar,"  Nero  is  intended. 

CAESAREA,  a  city  and  port  of  Palestine, 
built  by  Herod  the  Great,  and  thus  called  in 
honour  of  Augustus  Caesar.  It  was  on  the  site 
of  the  tower  of  Strato.  This  city,  which  was 
six  hundred  furlongs  from  Jerusalem,  is  often 
mentioned  in  the  New  Testament.  Here  it 
was  that  Herod  Agrippa  was  smitten  of  the 
Lord  for  not  giving  God  the  glory,  when  the 
people  were  so  extravagant  in  his  praise.  Cor- 
nelius the  centurion,  who  was  baptized  by  St. 
Peter,  resided  here,  Acts  x,  1,  &c ;  and  also 
Philip  the  deacon,  with  his  four  maiden  daugh- 
ters. At  Caesarea  the  Prophet  Agabus  foretold 
that  Paul  would  be  bound  and  persecuted  at 
Jerusalem.  Lastly,  the  Apostle  himself  con. 
tinued  two  years  a  prisoner  at  Caesarea,  till  he 
was  conducted  to  Rome.  When  Judea  was 
reduced  to  the  state  of  a  Roman  province, 
Caesarea  became  the  stated  residence  of  the 
proconsul,  which  accounts  for  the  circumstance 
of  Paul  being  carried  thither  from  Jerusalem, 
to  defend  himself. 

Dr.  E.  D.  Clarke's  remarks  upon  this  once 
celebrated  city  will  be  read  with  interest :  "  On 
the  15th  of  July,  1801,  we  embarked,  after  sun- 
set, for  Acre,  to  avail  ourselves  of  the  land 
wind,  which  blows  during  the  night,  at  this- 
season  of  the  year.  By  day  break,  the  next 
morning,  we  were  off  the  coast  of  Caesarea ; 
and  so  near  with  the  land  that  we  could  very 
distinctly  perceive  the  appearance  of  its  numer- 
ous and  extensive  ruins.  The  remains  of  this 
city,  although  still  considerable,  have  long 
been  resorted  to  as  a  quarry,  whenever  build- 
ing materials  are  required  at  Acre.  Djezzar 
Pacha  brought  from  hence  the  columns  of  rare 
and  beautiful  marble,  as  well  as  the  other  orna- 
ments of  hispalaee,  bath,  fountain,  and  mosque 
at  Acre.  The  place  at  present  is  inhabited 
only  by  jackals  and  beasts  of  prey.  As  we 
were  becalmed  during  the  night,  we  heard  the 
cries  of  these  animals  until  day  break.  Po- 
cocke  mentions  the  curious  fact  of  the  former 
existence  of  crocodiles  in  the  river  of  Caesarea. 
Perhaps  there  has  not  been  in  the  history  of 
the  world  an  example  of  any  city,  that  in  so 


CJES 


190 


CAI 


short  a  space  of  time  rose  to  such  an  extraor- 
dinary height  of  splendour  as  did  this  of  Cresa- 
rea  ;  or  that  exhihits  a  more  awful  contrast  to 
its  former  magnificence,  by  the  present  deso- 
late appearance  of  its  ruins.  Not  a  single  in- 
habitant remains.  Its  theatres,  once  resound- 
ing with  the  shouts  of  multitudes,  echo  no 
other  sound  than  the  nightly  cries  of  animals 
roaming  for  their  prey.  Of  its  gorgeous 
palaces  and  temples,  enriched  with  the  choic- 
est works  of  art,  and  decorated  with  the  most 
precious  marbles,  scarcely  a  trace  can  be  dis- 
cerned. Within  the  space  of  ten  years  after 
laying  the  foundation,  from  an  obscure  fortress, 
it  became  the  most  celebrated  and  flourishing 
city  of  all  Syria.  It  was  named  Cassarea  by 
Herod,  in  honour  of  Augustus,  and  dedicated 
by  him  to  that  emperor,  in  the  twenty-eighth 
year  of  his  reign.  Upon  this  occasion,  that 
the  ceremony  might  be  rendered  illustrious,  by 
a  degree  of  profusion  unknown  in  any  former 
instance,  Herod  assembled  the  most  skilful 
musicians,  wrestlers,  and  gladiators  from  all 
parts  of  the  world.  This  solemnity  was  to  be 
renewed  every  fifth  year.  But,  as  we  viewed 
the  ruins  of  this  memorable  city,  every  other 
circumstance  respecting  its  history  was  absorb- 
ed in  the  consideration  that  we  were  actually 
beholding  the  very  spot  where  the  scholar  of 
Tarsus,  after  two  years'  imprisonment,  made 
that  eloquent  appeal,  in  the  audience  of  the 
king  of  Judea,  which  must  ever  be  remember- 
ed with  piety  and  delight.  In  the  history  of 
the  actions  of  the  holy  Apostles,  whether  we 
regard  the  internal  evidence  of  the  narrative, 
or  the  interest  excited  by  a  story  so  wonder- 
fully appalling  to  our  passions  and  affections, 
there  is  nothing  that  we  call  to  mind  with  ful- 
ler emotions  of  sublimity  and  satisfaction.  '  In 
the  demonstration  of  the  .Spirit  and  of  power,' 
the  mighty  advocate  for  the  Christian  faith  had 
before  '  reasoned  of  righteousness,  temperance, 
and  judgment  to  come,'  till  the  Roman  govern- 
or, Felix,  trembled  as  he  spoke.  Not  all  the 
oratory  of  Tertullus  ;  not  the  clamour  of  his 
numerous  adversaries  ;  not  even  the  counte- 
nance of  the  most  profligate  of  tyrants  availed 
against  the  firmness  and  intrepidity  of  the 
oracle  of  God.  The  judge  had  trembled  be- 
fore his  prisoner ;  and  now  a  second  occasion 
offered,  in  which,  for  the  admiration  and  the 
triumph  of  the  Christian  world,  one  of  the 
bitterest  persecutors  of  the  name  of  Christ,  and 
a  Jew,  appeals,  in  the  public  tribunal  of  a  large 
and  populous  city,  to  all  its  chiefs  and  its 
rulers,  its  governor  and  its  king,  for  the  truth 
of  his  conversion  founded  on  the  highest  evi- 
dence." 

C.ESAREA  PHILIPPI  was  first  called 
Laish  or  Leshem,  Judg.  xviii,  7.  After  it  was 
subdued  by  the  Danites,  Judg.  v,  29,  it  received 
the  name  of  Dan  ;  and  is  by  Heathen  writers 
called  Paneas.  Philip,  the  youngest  son  of 
Herod  the  Great,  made  it  the  capital  of  his 
tetrarchy,  enlarged  and  embellished  it,  and 
gave  it  the  name  of  Cajsarea  Pliilippi.  It  was 
situated  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Hermon,  near  the 
head  of  the  Jordan  ;  and  was  about  fifty  miles 
from  Damascus,  and  thirty  from  Tyre.     Our 


Saviour  visited  and  taught  in  this  place,  and 
healed  one  who  was  possessed  of  an  evil  spirit : 
here  also  he  gave  the  memorable  rebuke  to 
Peter,  Mark  viii. 

CAIAPHAS,  high  priest  of  the  Jews,  suc- 
ceeded Simon,  son  of  Camith  ;  and  after  pos- 
sessing this  dignity  nine  years,  from  A.  M. 
4029  to  4038,  he  was  succeeded  by  Jonathan, 
son  of  Ananas,  or  Annas.  Caiaphas  was  high 
priest,  A.  M.  4037,  which  was  the  year  of  Jesus 
Christ's  death.  He  married  a  daughter  of  An- 
nas, who  also  is  called  high  priest  in  the  Gos- 
pel, because  he  had  long  enjoyed  that  dignity. 
When  the  priests  deliberated  on  the  seizure 
and  death  of  Jesus  Christ,  Caiaphas  declared, 
that  there  was  no  room  for  debate  on  that 
matter,  "  because  it  was  expedient  that  one 
man  should  die  for  the  people,  that  the  whole 
nation  should  not  perish,"  John  xi,  49,  50. 
This  sentiment  was  a  prophecy,  which  God 
suffered  to  proceed  from  the  mouth  of  the  high 
priest  on  this  occasion,  importing,  that  the 
death  of  Jesus  would  be  for  the  salvation  of  the 
world.  When  Judas  had  betrayed  Jesus,  ho 
was  first  taken  before  Annas,  who  sent  him  to 
his  son-in-law,  Caiaphas,  who  possibly  lived  in 
the  same  house,  John  xviii,  24.  The  priests 
and  doctors  of  the  law  there  assembled  to  judge 
our  Saviour,  and  to  condemn  him.  The  depo- 
sitions of  certain  false  witnesses  being  insuffi- 
cient to  justify  a  sentence  of  death  against  him, 
and  Jesus  continuing  silent,  Caiaphas,  as  high 
priest,  said  to  him,  "I  adjure  thee  by  the  living 
God,  that  thou  tell  us  whether  thou  art  the 
Christ,  the  Son  of  God  !"  To  this  adjuration, 
so  solemnly  made  by  the  superior  judge,  Jesus 
answered,  "  Thou  hast  said  ;  nevertheless  I  say 
unto  you,  Hereafter  shall  ye  see  the  Son  of  man 
sitting  on  the  right  hand  of  power,  and  coming 
in  the  clouds  of  heaven."  On  hearing  these 
words,  Caiaphas  rent  his  clothes,  saying, 
"  What  farther  need  have  we  of  witnesses  ? 
Behold,  now  you  have  heard  his  blasphemy. 
What  think  ye  ?"  They  answered,  "  He  is 
worthy  of  death."  And  as  the  power  of  life 
and  death  was  not  at  this  time  in  their  hands, 
but  was  reserved  by  the  Romans,  they  conducted 
him  to  Pilate,  that  he  might  confirm  their  sen- 
tence, and  order  his  execution. 

Two  years  after  this,  Vitellus,  governor  of 
Syria,  coming  to  Jerusalem  at  the  passover, 
was  received  very  magnificently  by  the  people. 
As  an  acknowledgment  for  this  honour,  he 
restored  the  custody  of  the  high  priest's  orna- 
ments to  the  priests,  he  remitted  certain  duties 
raised  on  the  fruits  of  the  earth,  and  deposed 
the  high  priest  Caiaphas.  From  this  it  appears 
that  Caiaphas  had  fallen  under  popular  odium, 
for  his  deposition  was  to  gratify  the  people. 

CAIN,  the  eldest  son  of  Adam  and  Eve.  He 
was  the  first  man  who  had  been  a  child,  and 
the  first  man  born  of  woman.  For  his  history, 
as  connected  with  that  of  Abel,  see  Abel.  The 
curse  pronounced  upon  Cain,  on  account  of 
his  fratricide,  is  thus  expressed:  "And  tho 
Lord  said  unto  Cain,  Where  is  thy  brother 
Abel  ?  And  he  said,  I  know  not :  am  I  my 
brother's  keeper  ?  And  God  said,  What  hast 
thou  done  ?    The  voice  of  thy  brother's  blood 


CAL 


191 


CAL 


cneth  unto  me  from  the  ground.  And  now 
art  thou  cursed  from  the  earth,  which  hath 
opened  her  mouth  to  receive  thy  brother's  blood 
from  thy  hand.  When  thou  tillest  it,  it  shall 
not  henceforth  yield  unto  thee  its  strength ;  a 
fugitive  and  a  vagabond  shalt  thou  be  in  the 
earth.  And  Cain  said  unto  the  Lord,  My 
punishment  is  greater  than  I  can  bear.  Be- 
hold, thou  hast  driven  me  out  this  day  from 
the  face  of  the  earth"  meaning,  probably,  from 
his  own  native  district,  and  from  the  presence 
of  his  kindred,  "  and  from  'thy  face  shall  I  be 
hid ;"  by  which  he  probably  intended  the  divine 
glory,  or  Shekinah,  whose  appearance  sancti- 
fied the  place  of  primitive  worship,  and  was 
the  pledge  of  acceptance  and  protection.  The 
mark  set  upon  Cain  "lest  any  one  finding  him 
should  kill  him,"  has  been  variously  interpreted. 
Some  have  supposed  it  a  change  in  the  colour 
of  his  skin,  others  a  certain  horror  of  counte- 
nance. The  LXX.  understood  the  passage  to 
mean,  that  the  Lord  gave  him  a  sign,  to  assure 
him  that  his  life  should  be  preserved.  What- 
ever it  was,  its  object  was  not  to  aggravate, 
but  to  mitigate,  his  punishment,  which  may 
intimate  that  Cain  had  manifested  repentance. 
Cain,  being  thus  banished  from  the  presence  of 
the  Lord,  retired  into  the  land  of  Nod,  lying 
east  from  the  province  of  Eden.  While  he 
dwelt  in  this  country,  which  is  generally  under- 
stood to  be  Susiana,  or  Chusistan,  he  had  a  son, 
whom  he  named  Enoch,  in  memory  of  whom 
he  built  a  city  of  the  same  name.  This  is  all 
we  learn  from  Scripture  concerning  Cain. 

CAKE.     See  Bread. 

CALAH,  a  city  of  Assyria,  built  by  Ashur, 
Gen.  x,  12.  From  it  the  adjacent  country,  on 
the  north-east  of  the  Tigris,  and  south  of  the 
Gordian  mountains  of  Armenia,  was  called 
Callachene,  or  Callacine. 

CALAMUS,  rup.  Exod.  xxx,  23;  Cantic. 
jv,  14;  Isa.  xliii,  24;  Jer.  vi,  20;  Ezek.  xxvii, 
19.  An  aromatic  reed,  growing  in  moist  places 
in  Egypt,  in  Judea  near  lake  Genezareth,  and 
in  several  parts  of  Syria.  It  grows  to  about 
two  feet  in  height ;  bearing  from  the  root  a 
knotted  stalk,  quite  round,  containing  in  its 
cavity  a  soft  white  pith.  The  whole  is  of  an 
agreeable  aromatic  smell ;  and  the  plant  is  said 
to  scent  the  air  with  a  fragrance  even  while 
growing.  When  cut  down,  dried,  and  pow- 
dered, it  makes  an  ingredient  in  the  richest 
perfumes.  It  was  used  for  this  purpose  by  the 
Jews. 

Calamus  Scriptorius,  a  reed  answering  the 
purpose  of  a  pen  to  write  with.  The  ancients 
used  styles,  to  write  on  tablets  covered  with 
wax ;  but  reeds,  to  write  on  parchment  or 
papyrus.  The  Psalmist  says,  "  My  tongue  is 
the  pen  of  a  ready  writer,"  xlv,  1.  The  He- 
brew signifies  rather  a  style.  The  third  book 
of  Maccabees  states,  that  the  writers  employed 
in  making  a  list  of  the  Jews  in  Egypt,  produc- 
ed their  reeds  quite  worn  out.  Baruch  wrote 
his  prophecies  with  ink,  Jer.  xxxvi,  4;  and, 
consequently,  used  reeds;  for  it  does  not  ap- 
pear that  quills  were  then  used  to  write  with. 
In  third  John  13,  the  Apostle  says,  he  did  not 
design  to  write  with  pen  (reed)  and  ink.    The 


Arabians,  Persians,  Turks,  Greeks,  and  Arme- 
nians, to  this  day,  write  with  reeds  or  rushes. 

CALEB,  the  son  of  Jephunneh,  of  the  tribe 
of  Judah,  was  one  of  those  who  accompanied 
Joshua,  when  he  was  deputed  by  Moses  to  view 
the  land  of  Canaan,  which  the  Lord  had  pro- 
mised them  for  an  inheritance,  Num.  xiii.  The 
deputies  sent  on  this  occasion  were  twelve  in 
number,  selected  one  out  of  each  of  the  tribes, 
and  they  performed  their  commission  with 
great  promptitude  and  skill ;  they  traversed  the 
country  in  every  direction,  bringing  with  them, 
on  their  return,  some  of  its  finest  fruits  for  the 
inspection  of  their  brethren.  Some  of  them, 
however,  after  making  the  report  of  the  beauty 
and  goodness  of  the  country,  which  they  de- 
scribed to  be  a  land  flowing  with  milk  and 
honey,  added,  that  the  inhabitants  of  it  were 
remarkable  for  their  strength,  while  its  cities 
were  large  and  enclosed  with  walls.  These 
later  particulars  having  excited  a  spirit  of  mur- 
muring among  the  Israelites,  Caleb  endeavour- 
ed to  animate  their  courage  by  dwelling  upon 
the  fertility  of  the  country,  and  exhorting  them 
to  go  boldly  and  take  possession  of  it.  Others, 
however,  dissuaded  the  people  from  making 
the  attempt,  assuring  them  that  they  would 
never  make  themselves  masters  of  it.  We 
have  seen  giants  there,  said  they,  in  comparison 
of  whom  we  were  as  grasshoppers ;  on  which 
the  people  declared  against  the  project,  and 
intimated  their  wish  to  return  again  into  Egypt. 
Moses  and  Aaron  no  sooner  heard  this  than  they 
fell  upon  their  faces  before  the  whole  congrega- 
tion, and  Joshua  and  Caleb  rent  their  clothes, 
imploring  them  to  take  courage  and  march 
boldly  on  ;  since,  if  God  were  with  them,  they 
might  easily  make  a  conquest  of  the  whole 
land.  So  exasperated,  however,  were  the  mul- 
titude, that  they  were  proceeding  to  stone 
Caleb  and  Joshua,  when  the  glory  of  the  Lord 
appeared  upon  the  tabernacle,  and  threatened 
their  extermination.  Moses,  having  fervently 
interceded  for  them,  the  Lord  graciously  heard 
his  prayer;  but  though  he  was  pleased  not  to 
destroy  them  immediately,  he  protested  with  an 
oath,  that  none  of  those  who  had  murmured 
against  him  should  see  the  land  of  Canaan, 
but  that  they  should  all  die  in  the  wilderness. 
"  As  for  my  servant  Caleb,"  it  was  added, 
"who  hath  faithfully  followed  me,  him  will  I 
bring  into  the  land,  and  he  shall  possess  it,  he 
and  his  children  after  him,"  Num.  xiv,  1-24. 
Joshua  also  obtained  a  similar  exception,  verses 
30,  38.  When  Joshua  had  entered  the  pro- 
mised land,  and  conquered  a  considerable  part 
of  it,  Caleb,  with  the  people  of  his  tribe,  came 
to  meet  him  at  Gilgal,  and  finding  that  he  was 
about  to  divide  the  land  among  the  twelve 
tribes,  Caleb  petitioned  to  have  the  country 
which  was  inhabited  by  the  giants  allotted  to 
him,  on  which  Joshua  blessed  him  and  granted 
his  request.  Assisted  by  a  portion  of  his  tribe, 
he  marched  against  Hebron,  and  slew  the 
children  of  Anak :  thence  he  proceeded  to 
Debir,  and  finding  the  place  almost  impregna- 
ble, he  offered  his  daughter  Achsah  in  marriage 
to  the  hero  that  should  take  it.  This  was  done 
by  his  nephew  Othniel,  who  in  consequence 

•  i 


CAL 


192 


CAL 


obtained  Achsah  with  a  considerable  portion 
also  of  territory.  We  are  not  informed  of  the 
particular  time  or  manner  of  the  death  of  Ca- 
leb ;  but  by  his  three  sons,  Iru,  Elah,  and 
Naam,  he  had  a  numerous  posterity,  who  main- 
tained an  honourable  rank  among  their  bre- 
thren. Sec  Num.  xiii,  xiv,  Josh,  xiv,  6-15  ;  xv, 
13-19  ;  Judges  i,  9-15  ;  1  Chron.  iv,  15-20. 

CALF,  *?jy.  The  young  of  the  ox  kind. 
There  is  frequent  mention  in  Scripture  of 
calves,  because  they  were  made  use  of  com- 
monly in  sacrifices.  The  "fatted  calf,"  men- 
tioned in  several  places,  as  in  1  Sam.  xxviii, 
24,  and  Luke  xv,  23,  was  stall  fed,  with  special 
reference  to  a  particular  festival  or  extraordi- 
nary sacrifice.  The  "calves  of  the  lips," 
mentioned  by  Hosea,  xiv,  2,  signify  the  sacri- 
fices of  praise  which  the  captives  of  Babylon 
addressed  to  God,  being  no  longer  in  a  condi- 
tion to  offer  sacrifices  in  his  temple.  The 
Septuagint  render  it  the  "  fruit  of  the  lips  ;" 
and  their  reading  is  followed  by  the  Syriac, 
and  by  the  Apostle  td  the  Hebrews,  xiii,  15. 
The  "golden  calf"  was  an  idol  set  up  and 
worshipped  by  the  Israelites  at  the  foot  of 
mount  Sinai  in  their  passage  through  the  wil- 
derness to  the  land  of  Canaan.  Having  been 
conducted  through  the  wilderness  by  a  pillar 
of  cloud  and  fire,  which  preceded  them  in  their 
marches,  while  Moses  was  receiving  the  divine 
commands  that  cloud  covered  the  mountain, 
and  they  probably  imagined  that  it  would  no 
longer  be  their  guide ;  and,  therefore,  applied 
to  Aaron  to  make  for  them  a  sacred  sign  or 
symbol,  as  other  nations  had,  which  might 
visibly  represent  God.  With  this  request, 
preferred  tumultuously,  and  in  a  menacing 
manner,  Aaron  in  a  moment  of  weakness  com- 
plied. The  image  thus  formed  is  supposed  to 
have  been  like  the  Egyptian  deity,  Apis,  which 
was  an  ox,  an  animal  used  in  agriculture,  and 
so  a  symbol  of  the  god  who  presided  over  their 
fields,  or  of  the  productive  power  of  the  Deity. 
The  means  by  which  Moses  reduced  the  golden 
calf  to  powder,  so  that  when  mixed  with  water 
he  made  the  people  drink  it,  in  contempt,  has 
puzzled  commentators.  Some  understand  that 
he  did  this  by  a  chymical  process,  then  well 
known,  but  now  a  secret ;  others,  that  he  beat 
it  into  gold  leaf,  and  then  separated  this  into 
parts  so  fine,  as  to  be  easily  potable  ;  others,  that 
he  reduced  it  by  filing.  The  account  says, 
that  he  took  the  calf,  burned  it  to  powder,  and 
mixed  the  powder  with  water;  from  which  it 
is  probable,  as  several  Jewish  writers  have 
thought,  that  the  calf  was  not  wholly  made  of 
gold,  but  of  wood,  covered  with  a  profusion  of 
gold  ornaments  cast  and  fashioned  for  the 
occasion.  For  this  reason  it  obtained  the 
epithet  golden,  as  afterward  some  ornaments 
of  the  temple  were  called,  which  we  know 
were  only  overlaid  with  gold.  It  would  in 
that  case  be  enough  to  reduce  the  wood  to 
powder  in  the  fire,  which  would  also  blacken 
and  deface  the  golden  ornaments;  but  there  is 
no  need  to  suppose  they  were  also  reduced  to 
powder.  It  is  plain  from  Aaron's  proclaiming 
a  fast  to  Jehovah,  Exod.  xxxii,  4,  and  from  the 
worship  of  Jeroboam's  calves  being  so  expressly 


distinguished  from  that  of  Baal,  2  Kings  x, 
28-31,  that  both  Aaron  and  Jeroboam  meant 
the  calves  they  formed  and  set  up  for  worship 
to  be  emblems  of  Jehovah.  Nevertheless,  the 
inspired  Psalmist  speaks  of  Aaron's  calf  with 
the  utmost  abhorrence,  and  declares  that,  by 
worshipping  it,  they  forgat  God  their  Saviour, 
(see  1  Cor.  x,  9,)  who  had  wrought  so  many 
miracles  for  them,  and  that  for  this  crime  God 
threatened  to  destroy  them,  Psalm  cvi,  19-24; 
Exod.  xxxii,  10;  and  St.  Stephen  calls  it 
plainly  e'iou\ov,  an  idol,  Acts  vii,  41.  As  for 
Jeroboam,  after  he  had,  for  political  reasons, 
1  Kings  xii,  27,  &c,  made  a  schism  in  the  Jew- 
ish church,  and  set  up  two  calves  in  Dan  and 
Bethel,  as  objects  of  worship,  he  is  scarcely 
ever  mentioned  in  Scripture  but  with  a  particu- 
lar stigma  set  upon  him:  "Jeroboam,  the  son 
of  Nebat,  who  made  Israel  to  sin." 

CALL,  to  name  a  person  or  thing,  Acts  xi, 
26;  Rom.  vii,  3.  2.  To  cry  to  another  for 
help ;  and  hence,  to  pray.  The  first  passage 
in  the  Old  Testament  in  which  we  meet  with 
this  phrase,  is  Gen.  iv,  26,  where  we  read, 
"Then  began  men  to  call  on  the  name  of  the 
Lord,"  or  Jehovah ;  the  meaning  of  which 
seems  to  be,  that  they  then  first  began  to  wor 
ship  him  in  public  assemblies.  In  both  the 
Old  and  New  Testament,  to  call  upon  the 
name  of  the  Lord,  imports  invoking  the  true 
God  in  prayer,  with  a  confession  that  he  is  Je- 
hovah, that  is,  with  an  acknowledgment  of  his 
essential  and  incommunicable  attributes.  In 
this  view  the  phrase  is  applied  to  the  worship 
of  Christ. 

CALLING,  a  term  in  theology,  which  is 
taken  in  a  different  sense  by  the  advocates  and 
the  impugners  of  the  Calvinistic  doctrine  of 
grace.  By  the  former  it  is  thus  stated  :  In  the 
golden  chain  of  spiritual  blessings  which  the 
Apostle  enumerates  in  Rom.  viii,  30,  originat- 
ing in  the  divine  predestination,  and  terminat. 
ing  in  the  bestowment  of  eternal  glory  on  the 
heirs  of  salvation,  that  of  calling  forms  an  im- 
portant link.  "Moreover,  whom  he  did  pre- 
destinate, them  he  also  called  ;  and  whom  he 
called,  them  he  also  glorified."  Hence  we  read 
of  "  the  called  according  to  his  purpose,"  Rom. 
viii,  28.  There  is  indeed  a  universal  call  of 
the  Gospel  to  all  men ;  for  wherever  it  comes 
it  is  the  voice  of  God  to  those  who  hear  it, 
calling  them  to  repent  and  believe  the  divine 
testimony  unto  the  salvation  of  their  souls ; 
and  it  leaves  them  inexcusable  in  rejecting  it, 
John  iii,  14-19 ;  but  this  universal  call  is  not 
inseparably  connected  with  salvation;  for  it  is 
in  reference  to  it  that  Christ  says,  "  Many  are 
called,  but  few  are  chosen,"  Matt.xxii,  14.  But 
the  Scripture  also  speaks  of  a  calling  which  is 
effectual,  and  which  consequently  is  more  than 
the  outward  ministry  of  the  word ;  yea,  more 
than  some  of  its  partial  and  temporary  effects 
upon  many  who  hear  it,  for  it  is  always  as. 
cribed  to  God's  making  his  word  effectual 
through  the  enlightening  and  sanctifying  in- 
fluences of  his  Holy  Spirit.  Thus  it  is  said, 
"Paul  may  plant,  and  Apollos  water,  but  God 
giveth  the  increase,"  1  Cor.  iii,  6,  7.  Again, 
he  is  said  to  have  "opened  the  heart  of  Lydia, 


CAL 


193 


CAL 


that  she  attended  to  the  doctrine  of  Paul,"  Acts 
xvi,  14,     "  No  man  can  come  unto  Christ,  ex- 
cept the  Father  draw  him,"  John  vi,  44.  Hence 
faith  is  said  to  be  the  gift  of  God,  Eph.  ii,  8 ; 
Phil,  i,  29.     The  Spirit  takes  of  the  things  of 
Christ  and  shows  them  to  men,  John  xvi,  14; 
and  thus  opens  their  eyes,  turning  them  from 
darkness  to  light,  and  from  the  power  of  Satan 
unto  God,  Acts  xxvi,  18.     And  so  God  saves 
his  people,  not  by  works  of  righteousness  which 
they  have  done,  but  according  to  his  mercy, 
by  the  washing  of  regeneration  and  renewing 
of  the  Holy  Spirit,  Titus  iii,  5.     Thus  they  are 
saved,  and  called  with  a  holy  calling,  not  ac- 
cording to  their  works,  but  according  to  the 
divine  purpose  and  grace  which  was  given  them 
in  Christ  Jesus  before  the  world  began,  2  Tim.i,9. 
2.  To  this  it  is  replied,  that  this  whole  state- 
ment respecting  a  believer's  calling  is  without 
any  support  from  the  Scriptures,  and  is  either 
a  misunderstanding,  or  a  misapplication  of  their 
sense.    "  To  call "  signifies  to  invite  to  the  bless- 
ings of  the  Gospel,  to  offer  salvation  through 
Christ,    either  by  God  himself,  or,  under  his 
appointment,  by  his  servants ;  and  in  the  pa- 
rable of  the  marriage  of  the  king's  son,  Matt, 
xxii,  1-14,  which  appears  to  have  given  rise, 
in  many  instances,  to  the  use  of  this  term  in 
the    Epistles,  we    have    three  descriptions    of 
"called"  or  invited  persons.      First,  the  dis- 
obedient, who  would  not  come  in  at  the  call, 
but  made  light  of  it.     Second,  the  class  of  per- 
sons represented  by  the  man  who,  when  the 
king  came  in  to  see  his  guests,  had  not  on  the 
wedding  garment ;  and  with  respect  to  whom 
our  Lord  makes  the    general   remark,   "  For 
many  are  called,  but  few  are  chosen;"  so  that 
the  persons  thus  represented  by  this  individual 
culprit  were  not  only  "  called,"  but  actually 
came  into  the  company.     Third,  the  approved 
guests;  those  who  were  both  called  and  chosen. 
As  far  as  the  simple  calling  or  invitation  is 
concerned,  all  these  three  classes  stood  upon 
equal  ground — all  were  invited ;  and  it  depend- 
ed upon  their  choice  and  conduct  whether  they 
embraced  the  invitation,  and  were  admitted  as 
guests.     We  have  nothing  here  to  countenance 
the  notion  of  what  is  termed  "  effectual  calling." 
This  implies  an  irresistible  influence  exerted 
upon   all  the    approved   guests,    but  withheld 
from  the  disobedient,  who  could  not,  therefore, 
be  otherwise  than  disobedient ;  or  at  most  could 
only  come  in  without  that  wedding  garment, 
which  it  was  never  put  into  their  power  to  take 
out  of  the  king's  wardrobe  ;  and  the  want  of 
which  would  necessarily  exclude  them,  if  not 
from  the  church  on  earth,  yet  from  the  church 
in  heaven.     The  doctrine  of  Christ's  parables 
is  in  entire  contradiction  to  this  notion  of  irre- 
sistible influence ;   for  they  who  refused,  and 
they  who  complied  but  partially  with  the  call- 
ing, are  represented,  not  merely  as  being  left 
without  the  benefit  of  the  feast,  but  as  incur- 
ring  additional    guilt    and  condemnation  for 
refusing  the  invitation.     It  is  to  this  offer  of 
salvation  by  the  Gospel,  this  invitation  to  spi- 
ritual and  eternal  benefits,  that  St*  Peter  ap- 
pears to  refer,  when  he  says,  "  For  the  promise 
is  unto  you  and  to  your  children,  and  to  all  that 
14 


are  afar  off",  even  as  many  as  the  Lord  our  God1 
shall  call,"  Acts  ii,  39 ;  a  passage  which  de- 
clares "  the  promise  "  to  be  as  extensive  as  the 
"  calling  ;"  in  other  words,  as  the  offer  or  invi- 
tation. To  this  also  St.  Paul  refers,  Rom.  i, 
5,  6 :  "  By  whom  we  have  received  grace  and 
Apostleship,  for  obedience  to  the  faith  among 
all  nations,  for  his  name ;"  that  is,  to  publish 
his  Gospel,  in  order  to  bring  all  nations  to  the' 
obedience  of  faith  ;  "  among  whom  are  ye  also 
the  called  of  Jesus  Christ ;"  you  at  Rome  have 
heard  the  Gospel,  and  have  been  invited  to  sal- 
vation in  consequence  of  this  design.  This 
promulgation  of  the  Gospel,  by  the  personal 
ministry  of  the  Apostle,  under  the  name  of 
calling,  is  also  referred  to  in  Gal.  i,  6 :  "I  mar- 
vel that  ye  are  so  soon  removed  from  him  that 
called  you  into  the  grace  of  Christ,"  obviously 
meaning,  that  it  was  he  himself  who  had  called 
them,  by  his  preaching,  to  embrace  the  grace 
of  Christ.  So  also  in  chap,  v,  13:  "For,  bre- 
thren, ye  have  been  called  unto  liberty." 
Again :  1  Thess.  ii,  12  :  "  That  ye  would  walk 
worthy  of  God,  who  hath  called  you,"  invited 
you,  "  to  his  kingdom  and  glory." 

3.  In  our  Lord's  parable  it  will  also  be  ob- 
served, that  the  persons  called  are  not  invited 
as  separate  individuals  to  partake  of  solitary 
blessings  ;  but  they  are  called  to  "  a  feast,"  into 
a  company  or  society,  before  whom  the  banquet 
is  spread.  The  full  revelation  of  the  transfer 
of  the  visible  church  of  Christ  from  Jews  by 
birth,  to  believers  of  all  nations,  was  not,  how- 
ever, then  made.  When  this  branch  of  the 
evangelic  system  was  fully  revealed  to  the 
Apostles,  and  taught  by  them  to  others,  that 
part  of  the  meaning  of  our  Lord's  parable  which 
was  not  at  first  developed  was  more  particularly 
discovered  to  his  inspired  followers.  The  call- 
ing of  guests  to  the  evangelical  feast,  we  then 
more  fully  learn,  was  not  the  mere  calling  of 
men  to  partake  of  spiritual  benefits ;  but  call- 
ing them  also  to  form  a  spiritual  society  com- 
posed of  Jews  and  Gentiles,  the  believing  men 
of  all  nations  ;  to  have  a  common  fellowship 
in  these  blessings,  and  to  be  formed  into  this 
fellowship  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  theif 
number,  and  diffusing  the  benefits  of  salvation 
among  the  people  or  nation  to  which  they  re- 
snectively  belonged.  The  invitation,  "  the 
calling,"  of  the  first  preachers  was  to  all  who 
heard  them  in  Rome,  in  Ephesus,  in  Corinth, 
and  other  places ;  and  those  who  embraced  it, 
and  joined  themselves  to  the  church  by  faith, 
baptism,  and  continued  public  profession,  were 
named,  especially  and  eminently,  "  the  called," 
because  of  their  obedience  to  the  invitation. 
They  not  only  put  in  their  claim  to  the  bless- 
ings of  Christianity  individually,  but  became 
members  of  the  new  church,  that  spiritual  so- 
ciety of  believers  which  God  now  visibly  owned 
as  his  people.  As  they  were  thus  called  into 
a  common  fellowship  by  the  Gospel,  this  is 
sometimes  termed  their  "vocation;"  as  the 
object  of  this  church  state  was  to  promote 
"  holiness,"  it  is  termed  a  "holy  vocation  ;"  as 
sanctity  was  required  of  the  members,  they  are 
said  to  have  been  "  called  to  be  saints ;"  as  the 
final  result  was,  through  the  mercy  of  God,  to 


CAL 


194 


CAL 


bo  eternal  life,  we  hear  of  "the  hope  of  their 
calling,"  and  of  their  being  "  called  to  his  eter- 
nal glory  by  Christ  Jesus." 

4.  These  views  will  abundantly  explain  the 
various  passages  in  which  the  term  calling  oc- 
curs in  the  Epistles  :  "  Even  us  whom  he  hath 
called,  not  of  the  Jews  only,  but  also  of  the 
Gentiles,"  Rom.  be,  24;  that  is,  whom  lie  bath 
made  members  of  his  church  through  faith. 
"But  unto  them  which  are  called,  both  Jews 
and  Greeks,  Christ  the  power  of  God,  and  the 
wisdom  of  God ;"  the  wisdom  and  efficacy  of 
the  Gospel  being,  of  course,  acknowledged  in 
their  very  profession  of  Christ,  in  opposition  to 
those  to  whom  the  preaching  of  "Christ  cru- 
cified" was  "a  stumbling  block,"  and  "fool- 
ishness," 1  Cor.  i,  24.  "  Is  any  man  called,'1'' 
(brought  to  acknowledge  Christ,  and  to  become 
a  member  of  his  church,)  "  being  circumcised  ? 
let  hiin  not  become  uncircumcised.  Is  any 
called  in  uncircumcision  ?  let  him  not  be  cir- 
cumcised," 1  Cor.  vii,  18.  "  That  ye  walk 
worthy  of  the  vocation,  wherewith  ye  are  called. 
There  is  one  body,  and  one  Spirit,  even  as  ye 
are  called  in  one  hope  of  your  calling,"  Eph. 
iv,  1,  4.  "  That  ye  would  walk  worthy  of 
God,  who  hath  called  you  to  his  kingdom  and 
glory,"  1  Thess.  ii,  12.  "Through  sanctifi- 
cation  of  the  Spirit,  and  belief  of  the  truth, 
whereunto  he  called  you  by  our  Gospel,  Xp  the 
obtaining  of  the  glory  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ," 
2  Thess.  ii,  13,  14.  "  Who  hath  saved  us  and 
called  us  with  a  holy  calling;  not  according  to 
our  works,  but  according  to  his  own  purpose 
and  grace,  which  was  given  us  in  Christ  Je- 
sus before  the  world  began ;  but  is  now  made 
manifest  by  the  appearing  of  our  Saviour  Jesus 
Christ,"  2  Tim,  i,  9,  10.  On  this  passage  we  may 
remark,  that  the  "calling,"  and  the  "purpose" 
mentioned  in  it,  must  of  necessity  be  inter- 
preted to  refer  to  the  establishment  of  the 
church  on  the  principle  of  faith,  so  that  it 
might  include  men  of  all  nations ;  and  not,  as 
formerly,  be  restricted  to  natural  descent.  For 
personal  election,  and  a  purpose  of  effectual  per- 
sonal  calling,  could  not  have  been  hidden  till 
manifested  by  the  "  appearing  of  Christ ;"  since 
every  instance  of  true  conversion  to  God  in 
any  age  prior  to  the  appearing  of  Christ,  would 
be  as  much  a  manifestation  of  eternal  election, 
and  an  instance  of  personal  effectual  calling, 
according  to  the  Calvinistic  scheme,  as  it  was 
after  the  appearance  of  Christ.  The  Apostle 
is  speaking  of  a  purpose  of  God,  which  was 
kept  secret  till  revealed  by  the  Christian  sys- 
tem ;  and,  from  various  other  parallel  passages, 
we  learn  that  this  secret,  this  "mystery,"  as  he 
often  calls  it,  was  the  union  of  the  Jews  and 
Gentiles  in  "  one  body,"  or  church,  by  faith. 

5.  In  none  of  these  passages  is  the  doctrine 
of  the  exclusive  calling  of  a  set  number  of 
men  contained ;  and  the  synod  of  l)ort,  as 
though  they  frit  this,  only  attempt  to  infer  the 
doctrine  from  a  text  already  quoted  :  but  which 
we  will  now  more  fully  notice:  "Whom  he 
did  predestinate,  them  ho  also  called;  and 
whom  he  called,  them  he  also  justified ;  and 
whom  he  justified,  thorn  he  also  glorified," 
Rom.  viii,  30.     This  is  the  text  on  which  the 


Calvinists  chiefly  rest  their  doctrine  of  effect- 
ual calling;  and  tracing  it,  as  they  say,  through 
its  steps  and  links,  they  conclude,  that  a  set 
and  determinate  number  of  persons  having 
been  predestinated  unto  salvation,  this  set 
number  only  are  called  effectually,  then  justi- 
fied, and  finally  glorified.  But  this  passage 
was  evidently  nothing  to  the  purpose,  unless 
it  had  spoken  of  a  set  and  determinate  number 
of  men  as  predestinated  and  called,  independ- 
ent of  any  consideration  of  their  faith  and 
obedience  ;  which  number  as  being  determi- 
nate, would,  by  consequence  exclude  the  rest. 
The  context  declares  that  those  who  are  fore- 
known, and  predestinated  to  eternal  glory,  are 
true  believers,  those  who  "  love  God,"  as  stated 
in  a  subsequent  verse ;  for  of  such  only  the 
Apostle  speaks  ;  and  when  lie  adds,  "  More- 
over, whom  he  did  predestinate,  them  he  also 
called ;  and  whom  he  called,  them  he  also 
justified  ;  and  whom  he  justified,  them  he  also 
glorified  ;"  he  shows  in  particular  how  the 
divine  purpose  to  glorify  believers  is  carried 
into  effect,  through  all  its  stages.  The  great 
instrument  of  bringing  men  to  "love  God"  is 
the  Gospel ;  they  are,  therefore,  called,  invited 
by  it,  to  this  state  and  benefit ;  the  calling  be- 
ing obeyed,  they  are  justified ' ;  and  being  justi- 
fied, and  continuing  in  that  state  of  grace,  they 
are  glorified.  Nothing,  however,  is  here  said 
to  favour  the  conclusion,  that  many  others  who 
were  called  by  the  Gospel,  but  refused,  might 
not  have  been  justified  and  glorified  as  well  as 
they ;  nothing  to  distinguish  this  calling  into 
common  and  effectual :  and  the  very  guilt 
which  those  are  every  where  represented  as 
contracting  who  despised  the  Gospel  calling, 
shows  that  they  reject  a  grace  which  is  suffi- 
cient, and  sincerely  intended,  to  save  them. 

CALNEH,  a  city  in  the  land  of  Shinar,  built 
by  Nimrod,  and  one  of  the  cities  mentioned 
Genesis  x,  10,  as  belonging  to  his  kingdom. 
It  is  believed  to  be  the  same  with  Calno,  men- 
tioned in  Isa.  x,  9.  It  is  said  by  the  Chaldce 
interpreters,  as  also  by  Eusebius  and  Jcrom,  to 
be  the  same  with  Ctesiphon,  standing  upon  the 
Tigris,  about  three  miles  distant  from  Seleucia, 
and  that  for  some  time  it  was  the  capital  city 
of  the  Parthians.  Bochart,  Wells,  and  Michae- 
lis,  agree  in  this  opinion.  ♦ 

CALVARY,  or,  as  it  is  called  in  Hebrew, 
Golgotha,  "a  skull,"  or  "place  of  skulls,"  sup- 
posed to  be  thus  denominated  from  the  simili- 
tude it  bore  to  the  figure  of  a  skull  or  man's 
head,  or  from  its  being  a  place  of  burial.  It 
was  a  small  eminence  or  hill  to  the  north  of 
Mount  Sion,  and  to  the  west  of  old  Jerusalem, 
upon  which  our  Lord  was  crucified.  The  an- 
cient summit  of  Calvary  has  been  much  altered, 
by  reducing  its  level  in  some  parts,  rjid  raising 
it  in  others,  in  order  to  bring  it  within  the  area 
of  a  large  and  irregular  building,  called  "  The 
Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,"  which  now 
occupies  its  site.  But  in  doing  this,  care  has 
been  taken  that  none  of  the  parts  connected 
with  the  crucifixion  should  suffer  any  altera- 
tion. Tho  same  building  also  encloses  within 
its  6pacious  walls  several  other  places  reputed 
sacred.     The  places  which  claim  the  chief  at- 


CAL 


195 


CAL 


traction  of  the  Christian  visitant  of  this  church, 
and  those  only  perhaps  which  can  be  relied  on, 
are,  the  spot  on  which  the  crucifixion  took 
place,  and  the  sepulchre  in  which  our  Lord 
was  afterward  laid.  The  first  has  been  pre- 
served without  mutilation :  being  a  piece  of 
ground  about  ten  yards  square,  in  its  original 
position  ;  and  so  high  above  the  common  floor 
of  the  church,  that  there  are,  according  to 
Chateaubriand,  twenty-one  steps  to  ascend  up 
to  it.  Mr.  Buckingham  describes  the  present 
mount  as  a  rock,  the  summit  of  which  is  as- 
cended by  a  steep  flight  of  eighteen  or  twenty 
steps  from  the  common  level  of  the  church, 
V?hich  is  equal  with  that  of  the  street  without ; 
and  beside  this,  there  is  a  descent  of  thirty 
steps,  from  the  level  of  the  church,  into  the 
chapel  of  St.  Helena,  and  by  eleven  more  to 
the  place  where  the  cross  was  said  to  be  found. 
On  this  little  mount  is  shown  the  hole  in  which 
the  cross  was  fixed ;  and  near  it  the  position 
of  the  crosses  of  the  two  thieves :  one,  the 
penitent,  on  the  north ;  and  the  other  on  the 
south.  Here,  also,  is  shown  a  cleft  in  the  rock, 
sakl  to  have  been  caused  by  the  earthquake 
which  happened  at  the  crucifixion.  The  se- 
pulchre, distant,  according  to  Mr.  Jolliffe, 
forty-three  yards  from  the  cross,  presents 
rather  a  singular  and  unexpected  appearance 
to  a  stranger;  who,  for  such  a  place,  would 
naturally  expect  to  find  an  excavation  in  the 
ground,  instead  of  which,  he  perceives  it  alto- 
gether raised,  as  if  artificially,  above  its  level. 
The  truth  is,  that  in  the  alterations  which  were 
made  on  Calvary,  to  bring  all  the  principal 
places  within  the  projected  church,  the  earth 
around  the  sepulchre  was  dug  away  ;  so  that, 
what  was  originally  a  cave  in  the  earth  has 
now  the  appearance  of  a  closet  or  grotto  above 
ground.  The  sepulchre  itself  is  about  six  feet 
square  and  eight  high.  There  is  a  solid  block 
of  the  stone  left  in  excavating  the  rock,  about 
two  feet  and  a  half  from  the  floor,  and  running 
along  the  whole  of  the  inner  side  ;  on  which 
the  body  of  our  Lord  is  said  to  have  been  laid. 
This,  as  well  as  the  rest  of  the  sepulchre,  is 
now  faced  with  marble :  partly  from  the  false 
taste  which  prevailed  in  the  early  ages  of  Chris- 
tianity, in  disguising  with  profuse  and  ill-suited 
embellishments  the  spots  rendered  memorable 
in  the  history  of  its  Founder  ;  and  partly,  per- 
haps, to  preserve  it  from  the  depredations  of 
the  visitants.  This  description  of  the  holy 
sepulchre  will  but  ill  accord  with  the  notions 
entertained  by  some  English  readers  of  a  grave  ; 
but  a  cave  or  grotto,  thus  excavated  in  rocky 
ground,  on  the  side  of  a  hill,  was  the  common 
receptacle  for  the  dead  among  the  eastern  na- 
tions. Such  was  the  tomb  of  Christ;  such  that  of 
Lazarus;  and  such  are  the  scpulclires  still  found 
in  Judea  and  the  east.  It  may  be  useful  farther 
to  observe,  that  it  was  customary  with  Jews  of 
property  to  provide  a  sepulchre  of  this  kind  on 
their  own  ground,  as  the  place  of  their  inter- 
ment after  death ;  and  it  appears  that  Calvary 
itself,  or  the  ground  immediately  around  it, 
was  occupied  with  gardens ;  one  of  which  be- 
longed to  Joseph  of  Arimathea,  who  had  then 
recently  caused  a  new  sepulchre  to  be  made 


for  himself.  It  was  this  sepulchre,  so  close  at 
hand,  and  so  appropriate,  which  he  resigned 
for  the  use  of  our  Lord  ;  little  thinking  perhaps, 
at  the  time,  how  soon  it  would  again  be  left 
vacant  for  its  original  purpose  by  his  glorious 
resurrection. 

CALVINISM,  that  scheme  of  doctrine  on 
predestination  and  grace,  which  was  taught  by 
Calvin,  the  celebrated  reformer,  in  the  early 
part  of  the  sixteenth  century.  His  opinions 
are  largely  opened  in  the  third  book  of  his 
"  Institutes :"  "  Predestination  we  call  the 
eternal  decree  of  God ;  by  which  he  hath  de- 
termined in  himself  what  he  would  have  to 
become  of  every  individual  of  mankind.  For 
they  are  not  all  created  with  similar  destiny ; 
but  eternal  life  is  foreordained  for  some,  and 
eternal  damnation  for  others.  Every  man, 
therefore,  being  created  for  one  or  other  of  these 
ends,  we  say,  he  is  predestinated,  either  tc  life, 
or  to  death."  After  having  spoken  of  the  elec- 
tion of  the  race  of  Abraham,  and  then  of  par- 
ticular branches  of  that  race,  he  proceeds  : 
"Though  it  is  sufficiently  clear,  that  God,  in 
his  secret  counsel,  freely  chooses  whom  he 
will,  and  rejects  others,  his  gratuitous  election 
is  but  half  displayed  till  we  come  to  particular 
individuals,  to  whom  God  not  only  offers  sal- 
vation, but  assigns  it  in  such  a  manner  that 
the  certainty  of  the  effect  is  liable  to  no  sus. 
pense  or  doubt."  He  sums  up  the  chapter,  in 
which  he  thus  generally  states  the  doctrine,  in 
these  words  :  "  In  conformity,  therefore,  to  the 
clear  doctrine  of  the  Scripture,  we  assert,  that, 
by  an  eternal  and  immutable  counsel,  God  hath 
once  for  all  determined  both  whom  he  would 
admit  to  salvation,  and  whom  he  would  con- 
demn to  destruction.  We  affirm  that  this  coun- 
sel, as  far  as  concerns  the  elect,  is  founded  on 
his  gratuitous  mercy,  totally  irrespective  of  hu- 
man merit ;  but  that  to  those  whom  he  devotes 
to  condemnation,  the  gate  of  life  is  closed  by 
a  just  and  irreprehcnsiblc,  but  incomprehensihle, 
judgment.  In  the  elect,  we  consider  calling 
as  an  evidence  of  election;  and  justification  as 
another  token  of  its  manifestation,  till  they 
arrive  in  glory,  which  constitutes  its  comple- 
tion. As  God  seals  his  elect  by  vocation  and 
justification,  so  by  excluding  the  reprobate  from 
the  knowledge  of  his  name,  and  sanctification 
of  his  Spirit,  he  affords  another  indication  of  the 
judgment  that  awaits  them,"  chap.  21,  book  iii. 

2.  In  the  commencement  of  the  following 
chapter  he  thus  rejects  the  notion  that  predes- 
tination is  to  be  understood  as  resulting  from 
God's  foreknowledge  of  what  would  be  the 
conduct  of  either  the  elect  or  the  reprobate : 
"  It  is  a  notion  commonly  entertained,  that 
God,  foreseeing  what  would  be  the  respective 
merits  of  every  individual,  makes  a  corres- 
pondent distinction  between  different  persons; 
that  he  adopts  as  his  children  such  as  he  fore- 
knows will  be  deserving  of  his  grace  ;  and  de- 
votes to  the  damnation  of  death  others,  Whose 
dispositions  he  sees  will  be  inclined  to  wicked- 
ness and  impiety.  Thus  they  not  only  obscure 
election  by  covering  it  with  the  veil  of  fore- 
knowledge, but  pretend  that  it  originates  in 
another  cause,"  book  iii,  chap.  22,     Consist- 


CAL 


196 


CAL 


ently  with  this,  he  a  little  farther  on  asserts, 
that  election  does  not  flow  from  holiness,  but 
holiness  from  election  :  "  For  when  it  is  said, 
that  the  faithful  are  elected  that  they  should 
be  holy,  it  is  fully  implied,  that  the  holiness 
they  were  in  future  to  possess  had  its  origin 
in  election."  He  proceeds  to  quote  the  ex- 
ample of  Jacob  and  Esau,  as  loved  and  hated 
before  they  had  done  good  or  evil,  to  show  that 
the  only  reason  of  election  and  reprobation  is 
to  be  placed  in  God's  "secret  counsel."  He 
will  not  allow  the  future  wickedness  of  the 
reprobate  to  have  been  considered  in  the  decree 
of  their  rejection,  any  more  than  the  righteous. 
ness  of  the  elect,  as  influencing  their  better 
fate  :  " '  God  hath  mercy  on  whom  he  will 
have  mercy,  and  whom  he  will  he  hardeneth.' 
You  see  how  he  (the  Apostle)  attributes  both 
to  the  mere  will  of  God.  If,  therefore,  we  can 
assign  no  reason  why  he  grants  mercy  to  his 
people  but  because  such  is  his  pleasure,  neither 
shall  we  find  any  other  cause  but  his  will  for 
the  reprobation  of  others.  For  when  God  is 
said  to  harden,  or  show  mercy  to  whom  he 
pleases,  men  are  taught,  by  this  declaration,  to 
seek  no  cause  beside  his  will."  (Ibid.)  "  Many, 
indeed,  as  if  they  wished  to  avert  odium  from 
God,  admit  election  in  such  a  way  as  to  deny 
that  any  one  is  reprobated.  But  this  is  puerile 
and  absurd ;  because  election  itself  could  not 
exist,  without  being  opposed  to  reprobation  ; — 
whom  God  passes  by  he  therefore  reprobates ; 
and  from  no  other  cause  than  his  determina- 
tion to  exclude  them  from  the  inheritance 
which  he  predestines  for  his  children,"  book 
iii,  chap,  xxiii. 

3.  This  is  the  scheme  of  predestination  as 
exhibited  by  Calvin  ;  and  to  the  objection  taken 
from  justice,  he  replies,  "  They"  (the  objectors) 
"inquire  by  what  right  the  Lord  is  angry  with 
his  creatures  who  had  not  provoked  him  by 
any  previous  offence  ;  for  that  to  devote  to  de- 
struction whom  he  pleases,  is  more  like  the 
caprice  of  a  tyrant,  than  the  lawful  sentence  of 
a  judge.  If  such  thoughts  ever  enter  into  the 
minds  of  pious  men,  they  will  be  sufficiently 
enabled  to  break  their  violence  by  this  one  con- 
sideration, how  exceedingly  presumptuous  it 
is,  only  to  inquire  into  the  causes  of  the  divine 
■will;  which  is,  in  fact,  and  is  justly  entitled 
to  be,  the  cause  of  every  thing  that  exists. 
For  if  it  has  any  cause,  then  there  must  be 
something  antecedent  on  which  it  depends, 
which  it  is  impious  to  suppose.  For  the  will 
of  God  is  the  highest  rule  of  justice  ;  so  that 
what  he  wills  must  be  considered  just,  for  this 
very  reason,  because  he  wills  it."  Thus  he 
assumes  the  very  thing  in  dispute,  that  God 
has  willed  the  destruction  of  any  part  of  the 
human  race,  "  for  no  other  cause  than  because 
he  wills  it;"  of  which  assumption  there  is  not 
only  not  a  word  of  proof  in  .Scripture ;  but,  on 
the  contrary,  it  ascribes  the  death  of  him  that 
dieth  to  his  own  will,  and  not  to  the  will  of 
God.  2.  He  pretends  that  to  assign  any  cause 
to  the  divine  will  is  to  suppose  something  ante- 
cedent to,  something  above  God,  and  therefore 
"impious;"  as  if  we  might  not  suppose  some- 
thing in  God  to  be  the  rule  of  his  will,  not  only 


without  any  impiety,  but  with  truth  and  piety 
as,  for  instance,  his  perfect  wisdom,  holiness, 
justice,  and  goodness ;  or,  in  other  words,  to 
believe  the  exercise  of  his  will  to  flow  from  the 
perfection  of  his  whole  nature ;  a  much  more 
honourable  and  Scriptural  view  of  the  will  of 
God  than  that  which  subjects  it  to  no  rule,  even 
though  it  should  arise  from  the  nature  of  God 
himself.  3.  When  he  calls  the  will  of  God, 
"  the  highest  rule  of  justice,"  beyond  which  we 
cannot  push  our  inquiries,  he  confounds  the 
will  of  God,  as  a  rule  of  justice  to  us,  and  as  a 
rule  to  himself.  This  will  is  our  rule  ;  yet  even 
then,  because  we  know  that  it  is  the  will  of  a 
perfect  being :  but  when  Calvin  represents  mere 
will  as  constituting  God's  own  rule  of  justice, 
he  shuts  out  knowledge,  discrimination  of  the 
nature  of  things,  and  holiness  ;  which  is  saying 
something  very  different  from  that  great  truth, 
that  God  cannot  will  any  thing  but  what  is  per- 
fectly just.  It  is  to  say  that  blind  will,  will 
which  has  no  respect  to  any  thing  but  itself,  is 
God's  highest  rule  of  justice  ;  a  position  which,  if 
presented  abstractedly,  many  Calvinists  them- 
selves would  spurn.  4.  He  determines  the 
question  by  the  authority  of  his  own  meta- 
physics, and  totally  forgets  that  one  dictvm  of 
inspiration  overturns  his  whole  theory, — God 
"willeth  all  men  to  be  saved;"  a  declaration, 
which  in  no  part  of  the  sacred  volume  is  op- 
posed or  limited  by  any  contrary  declaration. 

4.  Calvin  was  not,  however,  content  thus  to 
leave  the  matter;  but  resorts  to  an  argument, 
in  which  he  has  been  generally  followed  by 
those  who  have  adopted  his  system  with  some 
mitigations:  "As  we  are  all  corrupted  by  sin, 
we  must  necessarily  be  odious  to  God,  and  that 
not  from  tyrannical  cruelty,  but  in  the  most 
equitable  estimation  of  justice.  If  all  whom  the 
Lord  predestinates  to  death  are,  in  their  natural 
condition,  liable  to  the  sentence  of  death,  what 
injustice  do  they  complain  of  receiving  from 
him  ?"  To  this  Calvin  very  fairly  states  the 
obvious  rejoinder  made  in  his  day  ;  and  which 
the  common  sense  of  mankind  will  always 
make, — "  They  object,  Were  they  not  by  the 
decree  of  God  antecedently  predestinated  to 
that  corruption  which  is  now  stated  as  the 
cause  of  their  condemnation  ?  When  they 
perish  in  their  corruption,  therefore,  they  only 
suffer  the  punishment  of  that  misery  into 
which,  in  consequence  of  his  predestination, 
Adam  fell,  and  precipitated  his  posterity  with 
him."  The  manner  in  which  Calvin  attempts 
to  meet  this  objection,  shows  how  truly  un- 
answerable it  is  upon  his  system.  "  I  confess," 
says  he,  "indeed,  that  all  the  descendants  of 
Adam  fell,  by  the  Divine  will,  into  that  misera- 
ble condition  in  which  they  are  now  involved;' 
and  this  is  what  I  asserted  from  the  beginning, 
that  we  must  always  return  at  last  to  the  sove- 
reign determination  of  God's  will;  the  cause  of 
which  is  hidden  in  himself.  But  it  follows  notr 
therefore,  that  God  is  liable  to  this  reproach  ; 
for  we  will  answer  them  in  the  language  of 
Paul,  'O  man,  who  art  thou  that  repliest 
against  God  ?  Shall  the  thing  formed  say  to 
him  that  formed  it,  Wrhy  hast  thou  made  me 
thus  ?r "     That  is,  in  order  to  escape  the  pinch 


CAL 


197 


CAL 


of  the  objection,  he  assumes  that  St.  Paul  af- 
firms that  God  has  "formed"  a  part  of  the 
human  race  for  eternal  misery ;  and  that,  by 
imposing  silence  upon  them,  he  intended  to 
declare  that  this  proceeding  in  God  was  just. 
Now  the  passage  may  be  proved  from  its  con- 
text to  have  no  respect  to  the  eternal  state  of 
men  .at  all ;  but,  if  that  were  less  obvious,  it 
gives  no  answer  to  the  objection ;  and  we  are 
brought  round  again,  as  indeed  he  confesses,  to 
his  former,  and  indeed  only,  argument,  that  the 
whole  matter  as  he  states  it,  is  to  be  referred 
back  to  the  divine  will;  which  will,  though 
perfectly  arbitrary,  is,  as  he  contends,  the  high- 
est rule  of  justice  :  "  I  say,  with  Augustine, 
that  the  Lord  created  those  whom  he  certainly 
foreknew  would  fall  into  destruction  ;  and  that 
this  was  actually  so,  because  he  willed  it ;  but 
of  his  will,  it  belongs  not  to  us  to  demand  the 
reason,  which  we  are  incapable  of  compre- 
hending; nor  is  it  reasonable,  that  the  divine 
will  should  be  made  the  subject  of  controversy 
with  us,  which  is  only  another  name  for  the 
highest  rule  of  justice."  Thus  he  shuts  us  out 
from  pursuing  the  argument.  But  the  evasion 
proves  the  objection  unanswerable.  For  if  all 
is  to  be  resolved  into  the  mere  will  of  God  as 
to  the  destruction  of  the  reprobate ;  if  they 
were  created  for  this  purpose,  as  Calvin  ex- 
pressly affirms ;  if  they  fell  into  their  corrup- 
tion in  pursuance  of  God's  determination ;  if, 
as  he  had  said  before,  "  God  passes  them  by, 
and  reprobates  them,  from  no  other  cause  than 
his  determination  to  exclude  them  from  the  in- 
heritance of  his  children,"  why  refer  to  their 
natural  corruption  at  all,  and  their  being  odi- 
ous to  God  in  that  state,  since  the  same  reason 
is  given  for  their  corruption  as  for  their  repro- 
bation ? — not  any  fault  of  theirs;  but  the  mere 
will  of  God,  "  the  reprobation  hidden  in  his  se- 
cret counsel,"  and  that  not  grounded  on  the 
visible  and  tangible  fact  of  their  demerit.  Thus 
the  election  taught  by  Calvin  is  not  the  choice 
of  some  persons  to  peculiar  grace  from  the 
whole  mass,  equally  deserving  of  punishment ; 
(though  this  is  a  sophism ;)  since,  in  that  case, 
the  decree  of  reprobation  would  rest  upon 
God's  foreknowledge  of  those  passed  by  as  cor- 
rupt and  guilty,  which  notion  he  rejects :  "  For 
since  God  foresees  future  events  only  in  conse- 
quence of  his  decree  that  they  shall  happen,  it 
is  useless  to  contend  about  foreknowledge, 
while  it  is  evident  that  all  things  come  to  pass 
rather  by  ordination  and  decree."  "  It  is  a  hor- 
rible decree,  I  confess ;  but  no  one  can  deny 
that  God  foreknew  the  future  fate  of  man  before 
he  created  him ;  and  that  he  did  foreknow  it, 
because  it  was  appointed  by  his  own  decree." 
Agreeably  to  this,  he  repudiates  the  distinction 
between  will  and  permission  :  "  For  what  rea- 
son shall  we  assign  for  his  permitting  it,  but 
because  it  is  his  will  ?  It  is  not  probable,  how- 
ever, that  man  procured  his  own  destruction  by 
the  mere  permission,  and  without  any  appoint- 
ment, of  God." 

5.  With  this  doctrine  he  again  attempts  to 
reconcile  the  demerit  of  men  :  "  Their  perdi- 
tion depends  on  the  divine  predestination  in 
such  a  manner,  that  the  cause  and  matter  of  it 


are  found  in  themselves.  For  the  first  man  fell 
because  the  Lord  had  determined  it  should  so 
happen.  The  reason  of  this  determination  is 
unknown  to  us. — Man,  therefore,  falls  accord- 
ing to  the  appointment  of  divine  providence ; 
but  he  falls  by  his  own  fault.  The  Lord  had  a 
little  before  pronounced  every  thing  that  he 
had  made  to  be  'very  good.'  Whence,  then, 
comes  the  depravity  of  man  to  revolt  from  his 
God  ?  Lest  it  should  be  thought  to  come  from 
creation,  God  approved  and  commended  what 
had  proceeded  from  himself.  By  his  own  wick- 
edness, therefore,  man  corrupted  the  nature  he 
had  received  pure  from  the  Lord,  and  by  his 
fall  he  drew  all  his  posterity  with  him  to  de- 
struction." It  is  in  this  way  that  Calvin  at- 
tempts to  avoid  the  charge  of  making  God  the 
author  of  sin.  But  how  God  should  not  merely 
permit  the  defection  of  the  first  man,  but  appoint 
it,  and  will  it,  and  that  his  will  should  be  the 
"  necessity  of  things,"  (all  which  he  had  before 
asserted,)  and  yet  that  Deity  should  not  be  the 
author  of  that  which  he  appointed,  willed,  and 
imposed  a  necessity  upon,  would  be  rather  a 
delicate  inquiry.  It  is  enough  that  Calvin  re- 
jects the  impious  doctrine  ;  and  even  though 
his  principles  directly  lead  to  it,  since  he  has 
put  in  his  disclaimer,  he  is  entitled  to  be  ex- 
empted from  the  charge  ; — but  the  logical  con- 
clusion is  inevitable. 

6.  In  much  the  same  manner  he  contends 
that  the  necessity  of  sinning  is  laid  upon  the 
reprobate  by  the  ordination  of  God,  and  yet 
denies  God  to  be  the  author  of  their  sinful  acts, 
since  the  corruption  of  men  was  derived  from 
Adam,  by  his  own  fault,  and  not  from  God. 
He  exhorts  us  "  rather  to  contemplate  the  evi- 
dent cause  of  condemnation,  which  is  nearer 
to  us,  in  the  corrupt  nature  of  mankind,  than 
search  after  a  hidden  and  altogether  incompre- 
hensible one,  in  the  predestination  of  God." 
"  For  though,  by  the  eternal  providence  of 
God,  man  was  created  to  that  misery  to  which 
he  is  subject,  yet  the  ground  of  it  he  has  der 
rived  from  himself,  not  God ;  since  he  is  thus 
ruined,  solely  in  consequence  of  his  having 
degenerated  from  the  pure  creation  of  God  to 
vicious  and  impure  depravity."  Thus,  almost 
in  the  same  breath,  he  affirms  that  men  became 
reprobate  from  no  other  cause  than  "the  will 
of  God,"  and  his  "sovereign  determination;" 
that  men  have  no  reason  "to  expostulate  with 
God,  if  they  are  predestinated  to  eternal  death, 
without  any  demerit  of  their  own,  merely  by 
his  sovereign  will ;" — and  then,  that  the  cor- 
rupt nature  of  mankind  is  the  evident  and  nearer 
cause  of  condemnation  ;  (which  cause,  how- 
ever, was  still  a  matter  of  "  appointment,"  and 
"ordination,"  not  "permission  ;")  and  that  man 
is  "ruined  solely  in  consequence  of  his  having 
degenerated  from  the  pure  state  in  which  God 
created  him."  These  propositions  manifestly 
fight  with  each  other ;  for  if  the  reason  of 
reprobation  be  laid  in  man's  corruption,  it  can- 
not be  laid  in  the  mere  will  and  sovereign  de- 
termination of  God,  unless  we  suppose  him  to 
be  the  author  of  sin.  It  is  this  offensive  doc- 
trine only,  which  can  reconcile  them.  For  if 
God  so  wills,  and  appoints,  and  necessitates 


CAL 


198 


CAL 


the  depravity  of  man,  as  to  be  the  author  of  it, 
then  there  is  no  inconsistency  in  saying  that 
the  ruin  of  the  reprobate  is  both  from  the  mere 
will  of  God,  and  from  the  corruption  of  their 
nature,  which  is  but  the  result  of  that  will. 
The  one  is  then,  as  Calvin  states,  the  "  evident 
and  nearer  cause,"  the  other  the  more  remote 
and  hidden  one  ;  yet  they  have  the  same  source, 
and  ;ire  substantially  acts  of  the  same  will. 
But  if  it  be  denied  that  God  is,  in  any  sense, 
the  author  of  evil,  and  if  sin  is  from  man  alone, 
then  is  the  "  corruption  of  nature  "  the  effect  of 
an  independent  will;  and  if  this  corruption  be 
the  "  real  source,"  as  he  says,  of  men's  con- 
demnation, then  the  decree  of  reprobation  rests 
not  upon  the  sovereign  will  of  God,  as  its  sole 
cause,  which  he  affirms  ;  but  upon  a  cause  de- 
pendent on  the  will  of  the  first  man  :  but  as 
this  is  denied,  then  the  other  must  follow.  Cal- 
vin himself,  indeed,  contends  for  the  perfect 
concurrence  of  these  proximate  and  remote 
causes,  although  in  point  of  fact,  to  have  been 
perfectly  consistent  with  himself,  lie  ought 
rather  to  have  called  the  mere  will  of  God  the 
cause  of  the  decree  of  reprobation,  and  the  cor- 
ruption of  man  the  means  by  which  it  is  carried 
into  effect : — language  which  he  sanctions,  and 
which  many  of  his  followers  have  not  scrupled 
to  adopt. 

7.  So  certainly  does  this  opinion  involve  in 
it  the  consequences,  that  in  sin  man  is  the  in- 
strument, and  God  the  actor,  that  it  cannot  be 
maintained,  as  stated  by  Calvin,  without  this 
conclusion.  For  as  two  causes  of  reprobation 
are  expressly  laid  down,  they  must  be  either 
opposed  to  each  other,  or  be  consenting.  If 
they  are  opposed,  the  scheme  is  given  up ;  if 
consenting,  then  are  both  reprobation  and  hu- 
man corruption  the  results  of  the  same  will, 
the  same  decree,  and  necessity.  It  would  be 
trifling  to  say  that  the  decree  does  not  influ- 
ence ;  for  if  so,  it  is  no  decree  in  Calvin's 
sense,  who  understands  the  decree  of  God,  as 
the  foregoing  extracts  and  the  whole  third 
book  of  his  "  Institutes"  plainly  show,  as  apt. 
pointing  what  shall  be,  and  by  that  appoint- 
ment making  it  necessary.  Otherwise,  he  could 
not  reject  the  distinction  between  will  and 
permission,  and  avow  the  sentiment  of  St. 
Augustine,  "that  the  will  of  God  is  the  neces- 
sity  of  things ;  and  that  what  he  has  willed 
will  necessarily  come  to  pass,"  book  iii,  chap. 
23,  sec.  8.  So,  in  writing  to  Castellio,  he 
makes  the  sin  of  Adam  the  result  of  an  act  of 
God :  "  You  say  Adam  fell  by  his  free  will.  I 
except  against  it.  That  he  might  not  fall,  he 
stood  in  need  of  that  strength  and  constancy 
with  which  God  arineth  all  the  elect,  as  long 
as  he  will  keep  them  blameless.  Whom  God 
has  elected,  he  props  up  with  an  invincible 
power  unto  perseverance.  Why  did  he  not 
afford  this  to  Adam,  if  he  would  "have  had  him 
stand  in  his  integrity?"  And  with  this  view 
of  necessity,  as  resulting  from  the  decree  of 
God,  the  immediate  followers  of  Calvin  coin- 
cided ;  the  end  and  the  means,  as  to  the  elect, 
and  as  to  the  reprobate,  arc  equally  fixed  by  the 
decree,  and  arc  both  to  bo  traced  to  the  appoint- 
ing and  ordaining  will    of  God.     On   such   a 


scheme  it  is  therefore  worse  than  trifling  to 
attempt  to  make  out  a  case  of  justice  in  favour 
of  this  assumed  divine  procedure,  by  alleging 
the  corruption  and  guilt  of  man  :  a  point  which, 
indeed,  Calvin  himself,  in  fact,  gives  up  when 
he  says,  "That  the  reprobate  obey  not  the 
word  of  God,  when  made  known  to  them,  is 
justly  imputed  to  the  wickedness  and  depravity 
of  their  hearts,  provided  it  be  at  the  same  lime 
stated,  that  they  are  abandoned  to  this  deprav- 
ity, because  they  have  been  raised  up  by  a  just 
but  inscrutable  judgment  of  God,  to  display  his 
glory  in  their  condemnation." 

8.  It  was  by  availing  themselves  of  the  inef- 
fectual struggles  of  Calvin  to  give  some  colour 
of  justice  to  his  reprobating  decree  by  fixing 
upon  the  corruption  of  man  as  a  cause  of  re- 
probation, that  some  of  his  followers  endea- 
voured, in  the  very  teeth  of  his  own  express 
words,  to  reduce  his  system  to  sublapsarianism. 
This  was  attempted  by  Amyraldus ;  who  was 
answered  by  Curcellseus,  in  his  tract  "  De  Jure 
Dei  in  Creaturas."  This  last  writer,  partly  by 
several  of  the  same  passages  we  have  given 
above  from  Calvin's  Institutes,  and  by  extracts 
from  his  other  writings,  proves  that  Calvin  did 
by  no  means  consider  man,  as  fallen,  to  be  the 
object  of  reprobation  ;  but  man  not  yet  created ; 
man  as  to  be  created,  and  so  reprobated,  under 
no  -consideration  in  the  divine  mind  of  his  fall 
or  actual  guilt,  except  as  consequences  of  an 
eternal  preterition  of  the  persons  of  the  repro- 
bate, resolvable  only  into  the  sovereign  plea- 
sure of  God.  The  references  he  makes  to  men 
as  corrupt,  and  to  their  corrupt  state  as  the 
proximate  cause  of  their  rejection,  are  all  mani- 
festly used  to  parry  off  rather  than  to  answer 
objections,  and  somewhat  to  moderate  and 
soften,  as  Curcellams  observes,  the  harsher 
parts  of  his  s)^stem.  And,  indeed,  for  what 
reason  are  we  so  often  brought  back  to  that 
unfailing  refuge  of  Calvin,  "the  presumption 
and  wickedness  of  replying  against  God?" 
For  if  reprobation  be  a  matter  of  human  desert, 
it  cannot  be  a  mystery  ;  if  it  be  adequate  pun- 
ishment for  an  adequate  fault,  there  is  no  need 
to  urge  it  upon  us  to  bow  with  submission  to 
an  unexplained  sovereignty.  We  may  add, 
there  is  no  need  to  speak  of  a  remote  or  first 
cause  of  reprobation,  if  the  proximate  cause 
will  explain  the  whole  case ;  and  that  Calvin's 
continual  reference  to  God's  secret  counsel,  and 
will,  and  inscrutable  judgment,  could  have  no 
aptness  to  his  argument.  Among  English 
divines,  Dr.  Twisse  has  sufliciently  defended 
Calvin  from  the  charge,  as  he  esteems  it,  of 
sublapsarianism ;  and,  whatever  merit  Twisse's 
own  supralapsarian  creed  may  have,  his  argu- 
ment on  this  point  is  unanswerable. 

9.  As  it  is  not  intended  here  to  enter  into 
this  controversy,  on  which  multitudes  of  books 
have  been  written,  and  the  leading  authors  are 
known  almost  to  every  one,  the  above  may  be 
sufficient  to  convey  a  just  notion  of  Calvin's 
own  opinions.  After  these  subjects  had  long 
agitated  the  reformed  churches,  and  given  rise 
to  several  modifications  of  Calvin's  original 
scheme,  and  to  numerous  writings  in  refuta- 
tion of  it,  the  aynod  of  Dort  digested  the  whole 


CAL 


199 


CAL 


into  five  articles  from  which  arose  the  cele- 
brated controversy  on  the  five  points.  These 
articles,  as  being  the  standard  of  what  is  gene- 
rally  called  strict  Calvinism,  are,  in  substance, 
as  follows : — 

(1.)  "  Of  Predestination.  As  all  men  have 
sinned  in  Adam,  and  have  become  exposed  to 
the  curse  and  eternal  death,  God  would  have 
done  no  injustice  to  any  one,  if  he  had  deter- 
mined to  leave  the  whole  human  race  under 
Bin  and  the  curse,  and  to  condemn  them  on 
account  of  sin ;  according  to  those  words  of 
the  Apostle,  'All  the  world  is  become  guilty 
before  God,'  Rom.  iii,  19,  23;  vi,  23.  That 
some,  in  time,  have  faith  given  them  by  God, 
and  others  have  it  not  given,  proceeds  from  his 
eternal  decree ;  for  '  known  unto  God  are  all 
his  works  from  the  beginning,'  &c,  Acts  xv, 
18;  Eph.  i,  11.  According  to  which  decree, 
he  graciously  softens  the  hearts  of  the  elect, 
however  hard,  and  he  bends  them  to  believe ; 
but  the  non-elect  he  leaves,  in  his  judgment,  to 
their  own  perversity  and  hardness.  And  here, 
especially,  a  deep  discrimination,  at  the  same 
time  both  merciful  and  just ;  a  discrimination 
of  men  equally  lost,  opens  itself  to  us ;  or  that 
decree  of  election  and  reprobation  which  is 
revealed  in  the  word  of  God ;  which,  as  per- 
verse, impure,  and  unstable  persons  do  wrest 
to  their  own  destruction,  so  it  affords  ineffable 
consolation  to  holy  and  pious  souls.  But  elec- 
tion is  the  immutable  purpose  of  God ;  by 
which,  before  the  foundations  of  the  world 
were  laid,  he  chose,  out  of  the  whole  human 
race,  fallen  by  their  own  fault  from  their  pri- 
meval integrity  into  sin  and  destruction,  ac- 
cording to  the  most  free  good  pleasure  of  his 
own  will,  and  of  mere  grace,  a  certain  number 
of  men,  neither  better  nor  worthier  than  others, 
but  lying  in  the  same  misery  with  the  rest,  to 
salvation  in  Christ ;  whom  he  had,  even  from 
eternity,  constituted  Mediator  and  head  of  all 
the  elect,  and  the  foundation  of  salvation  ;  and 
therefore  he  decreed  to  give  them  unto  him  to 
be  saved,  and  effectually  to  call  and  draw  them 
into  communion  with  him,  by  his  word  and 
Spirit ;  or  he  decreed  himself  to  give  unto  them 
true  faith,  to  justify,  to  sanctify,  and  at  length 
powerfully  to  glorify  them,  &c,  Eph.  i,  4-6; 
Rom.  viii,  30.  This  same  election  is  not  made 
from  any  foreseen  faith,  obedience  of  faith, 
holiness,  or  any  other  good  quality  and  dis- 
position, as  a  prerequisite  cause  or  condition 
in  the  man  who  should  be  elected,  &c.  '  He 
hath  chosen  us,'  not  because  we  were,  but '  that 
we  might  be,  holy,'  &c,  Eph.  i,  4  ;  Rom.  ix, 
11-13;  Acts  xiii,  48.  Moreover,  Holy  Scrip- 
ture doth  illustrate  and  commend  to  us  this 
eternal  and  free  grace  of  our  election,  in  this 
more  especially,  that  it  doth  testify  all  men  not 
to  be  elected ;  but  that  some  are  non-elect,  or 
passed  by,  in  the  eternal  election  of  God,  whom 
truly  God,  from  most  free,  just,  irreprehensible, 
and  immutable  good  pleasure,  decreed  to  leave 
in  the  common  misery  into  which  they  had,  by 
their  own  fault,  cast  themselves ;  and  not  to 
bestow  on  them  living  faith,  and  the  grace  of 
conversion ;  but  having  been  left  in  their  own 
ways,  and  under  just  judgment,  at  length,  not 


only  on  account  of  their  unbelief,  but  also  of 
all  their  other  sins,  to  condemn  and  eternally 
punish  them,  to  the  manifestation  of  his  own 
justice.  And  this  is  the  decree  of  reprobation, 
which  determines  that  God  is,  in  no  wise,  the 
author  of  sin,  (which,  to  be  thought  of,  is 
blasphemy,)  but  a  tremendous,  incomprehensi- 
ble, just  judge,  and  avenger." 

(2.)  "  Of  the  Death  of  Christ."  Passing  over, 
for  brevity's  sake,  what  is  said  of  the  necessity 
of  atonement,  in  order  to  pardon,  and  of  Christ 
having  offered  that  atonement  and  satisfaction, 
it  is  added,  "  This  death  of  the  Son  of  God  is 
a  single  and  most  perfect  sacrifice  and  satis, 
faction  for  sins ;  of  infinite  value  and  price, 
abundantly  sufficient  to  expiate  the  sins  of  the 
whole  world ;  but  because  many  who  are  call- 
ed by  the  Gospel  do  not  repent,  nor  believe  in 
Christ,  but  perish  in  unbelief;  this  doth  not 
arise  from  defect  or  insufficiency  of  the  sacri- 
fice offered  by  Christ  upon  the  cross,  but  from 
their  own  fault.  God  willed  that  Christ,  through 
the  blood  of  the  cross,  should,  out  of  every 
people,  tribe,  nation,  and  language,  efficaciously 
redeem  all  those,  and  those  only,  who  were 
from  eternity  chosen  to  salvation,  and  given  to 
him  by  the  Father ;  that  he  should  confer  on 
them  the  gift  of  faith,"  &c. 

(3.)  "  Of  Man's  Corruption,  <£c.  All  men 
are  conceived  in  sin,  and  born  the  children  of 
wrath,  indisposed  (inepti)  to  all  saving  good, 
propense  to  evil,  dead  in  sin,  and  the  slaves  of 
sin  ;  and  without  the  regenerating  grace  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  they  neither  are  willing  nor  able 
to  return  to  God,  to  correct  their  depraved 
nature,  or  to  dispose  themselves  to  the  correc- 
tion of  it." 

(4.)  "  Of  Grace  and  Free  will.  But  in  like 
manner  as,  by  the  fall,  man  does  not  cease  to 
be  man,  endowed  with  intellect  and  will ;  nei- 
ther hath  sin,  which  hath  pervaded  the  whole 
human  race,  taken  away  the  nature  of  the  hu- 
man species,  but  it  hath  depraved  and  spirit- 
ually stained  it ;  so  that  even  this  divine  grace 
of  regeneration  does  not  act  upon  men  like 
stocks  and  trees,  nor  take  away  the  properties 
of  his  will ;  or  violently  compel  it,  while  un- 
willing ;  but  it  spiritually  quickens,  heals,  cor- 
rects, and  sweetly,  and  at  the  same  time  power- 
fully, inclines  it ;  so  that  whereas  before  it  was 
wholly  governed  by  the  rebellion  and  resist- 
ance of  the  flesh,  now  prompt  and  sincere  obe- 
dience of  the  Spirit  may  begin  to  reign ;  in 
which  the  renewal  of  our  spiritual  will,  and 
our  liberty,  truly  consist ;  in  which  manner, 
(or  for  which  reason,)  unless  the  admirable  Au- 
thor of  all  good  should  work  in  us,  there  could 
be  no  hope  to  man  of  rising  from  the  fall  by 
that  free  will,  by  which,  when  standing,  he  fell 
into  ruin." 

(5.)  "  On  Perseverance.  God,  who  is  rich  in 
mercy,  from  his  immutable  purpose  of  election, 
does  not  wholly  take  away  his  Holy  Spirit  from 
his  own,  even  in  lamentable  falls ;  nor  does  he 
so  permit  them  to  glide  down,  (prolabi,)  that 
they  should  fall  from  the  grace  of  adoption, 
and  the  state  of  justification ;  or  commit  the 
'sin  unto  death,'  or  against  the  Holy  Spirit; 
that,  being  deserted  by  him,  they  should  cast 


CAL 


200 


CAL 


themselves  headlong  into  eternal  destruction. 
So  that  not  by  their  own  merits  or  strength, 
but  by  the  gratuitous  mercy  of  God,  they  bbti  in 
it,  that  they  neither  totally  fall  from  faith  and 
grace,  nor  finally  continue  in  their  falls  and 
perish." 

10.  The  controversy  on  these  difficult  sub- 
jects was  not  decided  by  the  decrees  of  the 
synod  of  Dort,  which,  it  will  be  seen  under  that 
article,  were  purposely  drawn  up  in  a  politic 
and  wary  manner,  so  as  to  quadrate  with  the 
opinions,  and  not  to  .outrage  the  feelings,  of 
any  grade  of  Calvinists.  Prior  to  the  conven- 
tion of  that  celebrated  assembly,  the  doctrines 
of  Calvin  had  been  refined  upon  and  incau- 
tiously carried  out  to  some  of  their  legitimate 
consequences,  in  a  manner  almost  without  pre- 
cedent, except  that  of  the  Mohammedan  doctors 
on  the  absolute  fate  which  holds  a  distinguish- 
ed place  in  the  Koran.  Several  of  the  brightest 
and  most  acute  wits  in  Europe  occupied  them- 
selves in  sublimating  to  the  height  of  extra- 
vagance the  two  kindred  branches  of  predes- 
tination,— the  eternal  and  absolute  election  of 
certain  men  to  everlasting  glory,  and  the  repro- 
bation of  the  rest  of  mankind  to  endless  punish- 
ment, without  regard  in  the  divine  mind  to  the 
foreseen  faith  of  one  class  or  to  the  foreseen 
unbelief  of  the  other.  This  course  was  com- 
menced by  Beza,  the  contemporary  and  succes- 
sor of  Calvin,  who  possessed  neither  his  genius 
nor  his  caution  ;  and  his  writings  contain  seve- 
ral rash  assertions  on  these  points,  which,  it  is 
probable,  would  neyer  have  obtained  the  appro- 
bation of  his  departed  friend  and  instructer.  Zan- 
chius,  with  true  Italian  astuteness,  carried  on 
this  process  of  refinement  in  high  style  ;  and  his 
predestinarian  improvements  were  only  equalled 
by  those  of  Piscator,  Pareus,  Keckerman,  Hom- 
mius,  Kimedontius,  Polanus,  Sturmius,  Da- 
nsus,  Thysius,  Donteklock,  Bogerman,  Gomar, 
Smoutius,  Triglandius,  down  to  the  minor  tribe 
of  Contra-Remonstrants,  Damman,  Maccovius, 
and  Sibrandus  Lubbertus.  Nor  were  the  clever 
divines  of  our  own  country  a  whit  behind  the 
foreigners  in  accomplishing  this  grand  object ; 
and  the  theological  reader,  on  seeing  the  names 
of  Perkins,  Whitaker,  Abbot,  and  Twisse,  will 
instantly  recognise  men  whose  doctrinal  vaga- 
ries were  familiar  to  all  the  Calvinists  in  Eu- 
rope. No  one  can  form  an  adequate  concep- 
tion of  the  injury  thus  inflicted  on  the  divine 
attributes  of  wisdom,  goodness,  and  mercy,  as 
they  have  been  revealed  in  the  Scriptures,  un- 
less he  has  read  the  immense  mass  of  quota- 
tions from  the  writings  of  these  and  other  di- 
vines, which  were  presented  to  the  notice  of 
the  synod  of  Dort  by  the  Remonstrants,  espe- 
cially in  their  Rejection  of  Eriors  under  each 
of  the  five  points  in  dispute  ;  the  proofs  of 
which  were  quoted  from  their  respective  au- 
thors, and  the  accuracy  and  faithfulness  of 
which  were  never  called  in  question.  Not  only 
would  the  minds  of  all  sober  Christians  in  these 
days  be  shocked  when  perusing  the  monstrous 
sentiments  propounded  in  those  extracts,  but 
even  the  tolerably  stiff  Calvinists  of  Oliver 
Cromwell's  time  felt  themselves  scandalized  by 
any  allusion  to  them,  and  would  not  admit  that 


their  opinions  had  the  least  affinity  to  such 
desecrating  dogmas.  Little  more  than  twenty 
years  after  the  synod  of  Dort,  that  distinguish- 
ed polemical  divine  and  accurate  scholar,  Dr. 
Thomas  Pierce,  published  his  able  and  very  in- 
teresting pamphlet,  entitled,  "A  Correct  Copy 
of  Some  Notes  concerning  God's  Decrees;"  in 
which,  without  naming  the  authors,  he  gave  ten 
extracts  from  celebrated  Calvinistic  treatises, 
to  prove,  that  "  there  are  men  of  no  small 
name  who  have  told  the  world,  that  all  the  evil 
of  sin  which  is  in  man  proceedeth  from  God 
only  as  the  author,  and  from  man  only  as  the 
instrument."  Four  of  these  extracts  will  fur- 
nish sufficient  matter  to  every  judicious  mind 
for  mournful  reflections  on  the  strange  obliqui- 
ties to  which  the  human  understanding  is  lia- 
ble : — (1.)  "  A  wicked  man,  by  the  just  impulse 
of  God,  doetli  that  which  is  not  lawful  for  him 
to  do."  (2.)  "When  God  makes  an  angel  or 
a  man  a  transgressor,  he  himself  doth  not  trans- 
gress, because  he  doth  not  break  a  law.  The 
very  same  sin,  namely,  adultery  or  murder,  in- 
asmuch as  it  is  the  work  of  God,  the  author, 
mover,  and  compeller,  is  not  a  crime  ;  but  in- 
asmuch as  it  is  of  man,  it  is  a  wickedness." 
(3.)  "  God  can  will  that  man  shall  not  fall,  by 
his  will  which  is  called  voluntas  signi ;  and  in 
the  mean  while  he  can  ordain  that  the  same 
man  shall  infallibly  and  efficaciously  fall,  by 
his  will  which  is  called  voluntas  beneplaciti. 
The  former  will  of  God  is  improperly  called  his 
will,  for  it  onV  signifieth  what  man  ought  to 
do  by  right ;  but  the  latter  will  is  properly  call- 
ed a  will,  because  by  that  he  decreed  what 
should  inevitably  come  to  pass."  (4.)  "  God's 
will  doth  pass,  not  only  into  the  permission  of 
the  sin,  but  into  the  sin  itself  which  is  permit- 
ted. The  Dominicans,"  the  high  predestina- 
rian order  in  the  church  of  Rome,  "  do  imper- 
fectly and  obscurely  relate  the  truth  whilst, 
beside  God's  concurrence  to  the  making  way 
for  sin,  thty  require  nothing  but  the  negation 
of  efficacious  grace,  when  it  is  manifest  that 
there  is  a  farther  prostitution  of  sin  required." 
Of  these  four  passages  the  first  is  from  Calvin 
himself,  the  second  from  Zuinglius,  and  the 
third  and  fourth  from  Dr.  Twisse.  This  pamph- 
let was  the  first  in  a  smart  controversj',  in  which 
Doctor  (afterward  Bishop)  Reynolds,  Baxter, 
Hickman,  and  Barlee,  took  part  against  Dr. 
Pierce,  but  in  which  those  eminent  men  vir- 
tually disclaimed  all  community  of  sentiment 
between  themselves  and  such  high  predestina- 
rians.  In  their  warmth,  however,  they  accus- 
ed the  Doctor  of  having  "  rifled  the  well-fur- 
nished cabinet  of  the  Batavian  Remonstrant 
writings,"  and  of  not  having  hesitated  "to  be 
beholden  to  very  thieves,  namely,  such  roguish 
pamphlets  as  Fur  Predestinatus  and  others  are, 
rather  than  want  materials  for  invectives  against 
Calvin,  Beza,  Twisse,"  &c.  In  his  reply,  the 
Doctor  says,  "When  I  published  my  papers  on 
God's  decrees,  I  had  never  so  much  as  seen  that 
well-furnished  cabinet,  the  'Acta  Synodalia 
Remonstrantium ;'"  and  he  proves  that  he  has 
copied  none  of  his  extracts  from  Fur  Predesti- 
natus. As  his  opponents  were  "  so  unthank- 
ful for  the  lenity"  which  he  had  displayed  in 


CAL 


201 


CAL 


giving  "  so  short  a  catalogue,"  he  added  other 
affirmations  of  a  still  more  revolting  import,  if 
that  were  possible.     The  four  extracts  which 
follow,  will  serve  as  a  correct  specimen  of  the 
gross  and  unguarded  assertions  of  some  of  those 
good  men  who  were  thus  exposed ;  the  first  two 
are  from  Zanchius,  the  other  two  from  Piscator, 
both  of  them  men  of  renown  in  that  age  : — 
(1.)  "  Reprobates  are  compelled  with  a  neces- 
sity of  sinning,  and  so  of  perishing,  by  this  or- 
dination of  God  ;  and  so  compelled  that  they 
cannot  choose  but  sin  and  perish."     (2.)  "  God 
works  all  things  in  all  men,  not  only  in  the 
godly,  but  also  in  the  ungodly."     (3.)   "Judas 
could  not  but  betray  Christ,  seeing  that  God's 
decrees  are   immutable  ;   and  whether  a  man 
bless  or  curse,  he  always  doth  it  necessarily  in 
respect  of  God's  providence,  and  in  so  doing  he 
doeth  always  according  to  the  will  of  God." 
(4.)  "  It  doth  or  at  least  may  appear  from  the 
word  of  God,  that  we  neither  can  do  more  good 
than  we  do,  nor  omit  more  evil  than  we  omit ; 
because  God  from  eternity  hath  precisely  de- 
creed that  both  [the  good  and  the  evil]  should 
so  be  done.     It  is  fatally  constituted  when,  and 
how,  and  how  much,  every  one  of  us  ought  to 
study  and  love  piety,  or  not  to  love  it."     In 
that  newly  emancipated  age,  the  ample  discus- 
sion of  these  topics  could  not  fail  to  produce 
much  good ;  and  the  result  in  the  course  of  a 
few  years  was,  that  a  vast  number  of  those  who 
had  implicitly  followed  the  guidance  of  Calvin, 
deserted  his  standard,   and  either  went  com- 
pletely over  to  the  ranks  of  Arminius,  or  halt- 
ed   midway  under   the   command    of  Baxter. 
From  that  time  to  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  those  dogmas  which  are  usually  desig- 
nated as  ultra-Calvinian   or  Antinomian,    re- 
ceived  no  support  except  from  such  shallow 
divines  as  Dr.  Crisp  and  his  immediate  admirers. 
But  when  the  Rev.  John  Wesley  and  his  bro- 
ther, as  Arminians,  propounded  the  doctrines 
of  the  Gospel  in  as  evangelical  a  manner,  and 
with  as  marked  success,  as  any  Calvinist,  a 
number  of  those  excellent  men,   both  in    the 
church  and   among  the   Dissenters,  who  had 
been  early  benefited   by  the    ministry  of  the 
two  brothers,  thought,  as  many  now  do,  that 
it  was  impossible  for  any  thing  to  be  evangeli- 
cal that  was  not  Calvinistic  ;  and,  apparently 
with  the  design  of  being  at  as  great  a  remove 
'as  possible  from  a  reputed  heresy,  they  became 
in   principle    real  Antinomians.     In   forming 
this  conclusion,  and  in  running  to  a  supposed 
opposite  extreme,  such  persons  seem  to  have 
forgotten  that  those  truly  evangelical  princi- 
ples,— which  in  Germany  and  the  neighbour- 
ing states  effected  the  reformation  from  Popery, 
which  transformed  sinners  into  Christians  and 
martyrs,  and  which,  in  the  perverted  state  of 
society  that  then  obtained,  but  too  painfully 
reminded  the  sainted  sufferers  of  the  domestic, 
municipal,  and  national  grievances  and  perse- 
cutions to  which  the  earliest  confessors  of  the 
name  of  Christ  were  subjected, — had  been  in 
beneficial  operation  long  before  Calvin's  doc- 
trinal   system  was  brought  to  maturity,   and 
when  he  was  known  only  as  the  humble  and 
diligent  pastor  of  the  church  of  Geneva.     And 


even  after  the  publication  of  his  "Institutes," 
which  contained  the  peculiarities  of  his  creed, 
he  had  to  wait  many  years,  to  labour  hard,  not 
always  in  the  most  sanctified  spirit,  both  from 
the  pulpit  and  the  press,  and  to  endure  many  per- 
sonal mortifications,  before  he  was  able  to  ob- 
trude his  novel  dogmas  on  his  own  immediate 
connections,  or  to  make  any  sensible  impres- 
sion on  the  generally  received  theology  of  his 
learned  contemporaries.  Such  persons  ought 
also  to  recollect,  that,  as  Dr.  Watts  justly  ob- 
serves, "some  of  the  most  rigid  and  narrow 
limitations  of  grace  to  men  are  found  chiefly 
in  Calvin's  Institutions,  which  were  written  in 
his  youth.  But  his  comments  on  Scripture 
were  the  labours  of  his  riper  yearg  and  maturer 
judgment." 

11.  His  first  tract  on  predestination  was 
published  in  1552;  and  the  first  complete  edi- 
tion of  his  "Institutes"  did  not  see  the  light 
till  the  year  1558 ;  but  the  change  in  Melanc- 
thon's  opinions,  from  the  fatality  of  Stoicism, 
to  the  universality  of  the  Gospel,  occurred  at 
least  six  years  prior  to  1535,  when  the  second 
edition  of  his  "  Common  Places"  was  published, 
that  contained  his  amended  creed,  and  strong 
cautions  against  the  contrary  doctrines.  One 
of  the  most  eloquent  and  best  informed  writers 
of  the  present  age  has,  in  reference  to  this  sub- 
ject, justly  observed  :  "  Both  Luther  and  Me- 
lancthon,  after  their  creed  became  permanently 
settled  at  the  diet  of  Ausburg,  (A.  D.  1530,) 
kept  one  object  constantly  in  view, — to  incul- 
cate only  what  was  plain  and  practical,  and 
never  to  attempt  philosophizing.  They  per- 
ceived, that  before  the  reformation  the  doctrine 
of  divine  foreknowledge  had  been  grossly  mis- 
conceived and  abused,  although  guarded  by  all 
the  logic  of  the  schools ;  and  they  felt,  that, 
after  it,  they  had  themselves  at  first  contributed 
to  increase  the  evil,  by  grounding  upon  th« 
same  high  argument,  although  for  a  very  dif- 
ferent purpose,  the  position  of  an  infallible 
necessity.  Thenceforward,  therefore,  they  only 
taught  a  predestination  which  the  Christian 
religion  explains,  and  the  Christian  life  exem- 
plifies. Thus,  while  their  adversaries  philoso- 
phized upon  a  predestination  of  individuals, 
preferred  one  before  another  by  divine  regard 
because  worthy  of  such  a  preference,  they 
taught  only  that  which  has  been  revealed  with 
certainty, — the  predestination  of  a  peculiar  de- 
scription of  persons,  of  a  people  zealous  of  good 
works,  of  the  Christian  church  contemplated 
as  an  aggregate,  not  on  account  of  its  own 
dignity,  but  on  account  of  Christ  its  supreme 
Head,  and  the  author  of  eternal  salvation  to  all 
who  obey  him.  While  restoring  Scriptural  sim- 
plicity to  the  doctrine  of  predestination,  per- 
plexed and  disfigured  by  the  vanity  of  the 
schools,  they  studiously  and  anxiously  pre- 
served every  trace  of  that  universal  benevo- 
lence by  which  Christianity  is  particularly 
distinguished.  '  Let  us,'  they  said,  '  with  both 
our  hands,  or  rather  with  all  our  heart,  hold 
fast  the  true  and  pious  maxim,  that  God  is  not 
the  author  of  sin,  that  he  sits  not  in  heaven 
writing  Stoical  laws  in  the  volumes  of  fate ; 
but,  endowed  with  a  perfect  freedom  himself, 


CAL 


202 


CAL 


he  communicates  a  liberty  of  action  to  his 
creatures ;  firmly  opposing  the  position  of  ne- 
cessity as  false,  and  pernicious  to  morals  and 
religion.  God,  we  may  be  assured,  is  no  cruel 
and  merciless  tyrant;  he  does  not  hate  and 
reject  men,  but  loves  them  as  a  parent  loves  his 
children.'  Universal  grace,  indeed,  was  at  all 
times  a  favourite  topic  with  the  Lutherans ;  nor 
would  they  admit  of  any  predestination  except 
that  of  a  beneficent  Deity,  who  was  in  Christ 
reconciling  the  world  to  himself;  except  a  pre- 
destination conformable  with  that  order  of 
things  which  he  has  established,  and  with  the 
use  or  abuse  of  the  means  which  he  has  or- 
dained. 'The  Almighty,'  they  said,  'has 
seriously  willed  and  decreed,  from  eternity,  all 
men  to  be  saved  and  to  enjoy  everlasting  fe- 
licity ;  let  us  not  therefore  indulge  in  evil  sug- 
gestions, and  separate  ourselves  from  his  grace, 
which  is  as  expanded  as  the  space  between 
heaven  and  earth ;  let  us  not  restrain  the  ge- 
neral promise,  in  which  he  offers  his  favour  to 
all  without  discrimination,  nor  confine  it  to 
those  who,  affecting  a  peculiar  garb,  wish  to  be 
alone  esteemed  pious  and  sanctified.  If  many 
perish,  the  fault  is  not  to  be  imputed  to  the 
divine  will,  but  to  human  obstinacy,  which 
despises  that  will,  and  disregards  a  salvation 
destined  for  all  men.'  '  And  because  many  are 
called,  but  few  are  chosen,  let  us  not,'  they  ad- 
ded, 'entertain  an  opinion  highly  impious, — 
that  God  tenders  his  grace  to  many,  but  com- 
municates it  only  to  a  few;  for  should  we  not 
in  the  greatest  degree  detest  a  Deity  by  whose 
arbitrary  will  we  believed  ourselves  to  be  ex- 
cluded from  salvation  ?'  Upon  the  important 
point  likewise  of  the  conditional  acceptance  of 
the  individual,  their  ideas  were  not  more  dis- 
tinct than  their  language  was  explicit.  '  If 
God  chose,'  they  argued,  'certain  persons  only 
in  order  to  unite  them  to  himself,  and  rejected 
the  remainder  in  all  respects  alike,  would  not 
such  an  election  without  causes  seem  tyran- 
nical ?  Let  us  therefore  be  persuaded,  that 
some  cause  exists  in  us,  as  some  difference  is  to 
be  found  between  those  who  are,  and  those  who 
are  not,  accepted.  Thus  they  conceived  that, 
predestinating  his  elect  in  Christ,  or  the  Chris- 
tian church,  to  eternal  salvation,  he  excludes 
none  from  that  number  by  a  partial  adoption 
of  favourites,  but  calls  all  equally,  and  accepts 
of  all  who  obey  his  calling,  or,  in  other  words, 
who  become  true  Christians  by  possessing  the 
qualifications  which  Christianity  requires. — 
'  He,'  they  stated,  who  '  falls  from  grace,  can- 
not but  perish,  completely  losing  remission  of 
sin,  with  the  other  benefits  which  Christ  has 
purchased  for  him,  and  acquiring  in  their  stead 
divine  wrath  and  death  eternal.'  Melancthon, 
who  in  his  private  correspondence  expressly 
termed  Calvin  the  Zeno  of  his  day,  says,  '  Let 
us  execrate  the  Stoical  disputations  which 
some  introduce,  who  imagine  that  the  elect 
always  retain  the  Holy  Spirit,  even  when  they 
commit  atrocious  crimes, — a  manifest  and 
highly  reprehensible  error  ;  and  let  us  not  con- 
firm in  fools  security  and  blindness.'  " 

These  quotations  might  be   augmented   by 
others  from  the  earliest  Lutheran  authors,  more 


Arminian  in  their  import  than  any  which  Ar 
minius  ever  wrote  :  but  the  preceding  are  suffi 
cient  to  show,  that,  during  upward  of  thirty 
years,  the  Protestant  church  in  Germany  was 
nourished  by  doctrines  most  manifestly  at  va- 
riance with  the  refinements  afterward  promul- 
gated by  Calvin.  Real  conversions  of  sinners 
were  never  more  abundant  than  in  that  golden 
age ;  yet  these  were  produced  by  the  blessing 
of  God  upon  an  evangelical  agency  that  had 
scarcely  any  thing  in  common  with  the  Ge- 
nevan dogmas.  With  these  and  similar  facts 
before  him,  therefore,  no  Calvinist  can  in  com- 
mon honesty  claim  for  the  peculiarities  of  his 
creed,  for  those  doctrines  which  distinguish  it 
from  the  Melancthonism  of  the  Protestant 
churches  of  England  and  Germany,  the  ex- 
clusive title  of  Evangelical.  Equally  falla- 
cious is  the  ground  on  which  he  can  prefer  any 
such  claim  on  account  of  the  alleged  counsel 
and  advice  given  by  Calvin  to  our  reformers 
while  they  were  engaged  in  the  formation  of 
our  Articles  and  Liturgy.  On  no  fact  in  the 
ecclesiastical  history  of  this  country  arc  our 
annalists  more  completely  at  agreement  than 
on  this, — that  Calvin's  name  and  writings  were 
scarcely  known  in  England  till  the  time  when 
the  persecution  under  Queen  Mary  forced 
many  of  our  best  divines  into  banishment ;  and 
that,  to  the  great  future  disquietude  of  the 
church,  several  of  these  exiles  on  their  return 
imported  a  personal  bias  either  in  favour  of  his 
discipline  or  of  his  dogmas.  Anterior  to  that 
period  he  had  received  no  such  pressing  invi- 
tations from  our  reformers,  and  from  the  king 
himself,  as  Melancthon  had  done,  for  his 
friendly  theological  aid  in  drawing  up  the  doc- 
trinal and  disciplinary  formulas  of  our  national 
church.  The  man  who  asserts  the  contrary  to 
this,  and  who  has  the  hardihood  to  deny  the 
Melancthonian  origin  of  the  Articles  and  Lit- 
urgy, discovers  at  once  his  want  of  correct 
information  on  these  subjects,  and  has  never 
read  the  convincing  documents  appended  to 
the  Archbishop  of  Cashel's  (Dr.  Laurence's) 
"  Eight  Sermons,"  being  the  Bampton  Lec- 
tures for  1804,  and  entitled,  "An  Attempt  to 
Illustrate  those  Articles  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land which  the  Calvinists  improperly  consider 
as  Calvinistical ;"  Todd's  treatise  "  On  Original 
Sin,  Free  Will,  $c,  as  maintained  by  certain 
Declarations  of  our  Reformers ;"  Plaifere's  "Ap- 
pello  Evangeiimn ;"  nor  even  the  portable  yet 
convincing  pamphlets  of  Kipling  and  Winches- 
ter, the  former  entitled  "  The  Articles  not  Cal- 
vini8tic;n  the  latter,  "A  Dissertation  on  the 
Seventeenth  Article  of  the  Church." 

12.  There  is  one  fact  connected  with  these 
assumed  yet  unfounded  claims,  which  has  never 
yet  been  placed  in  its  proper  light,  but  which 
it  may  be  well  briefly  to  notice  in  this  place. 
Calvin  himself,  in  1535,  wrote  the  following 
truly  Melancthonian  paragraphs  as  part  of  his 
preface  to  the  New  Testament  in  French: 
"  This  Mediator,  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  was  the 
only,  true,  and  eternal  Son  of  God,  whom  the 
Father  was  about  to  send  into  the  world,  that 
he  might  collect  all  men  together  from  this 
horrid  dispersion  and  devastation.    When,  at 


CAL 


203 


CAL 


length,  that  fulness  of  time  arrived,  that  day 
preordained  by  the  Lord,  he  openly  showed 
himself  as  that  Messiah  who  had  for  so  many 
ages  been  the  desire  of  all  nations,  and  hath 
most  abundantly  performed  all  those  things 
which  were  necessary  for  the  redemption  of  all 
men.  But  this  great  blessing  was  not  confined 
solely  within  the  boundaries  of  the  land  of 
Israel,  since,  on  the  contrary,  it  was  intended 
[porrigendum]  to  be  held  out  for  the  acceptance 
of  the  whole  human  race ;  because  through 
Christ  alone  the  entire  family  of  man  was  to 
be  reconciled  to  God,  as  will  be  seen,  and  most 
amply  demonstrated,  in  these  pages  of  the  New 
Testament."  "To  this  inheritance  of  our  hea- 
venly Father's  kingdom  we  are  all  called  with- 
out respect  of  persons, — whether  we  be  men  or 
women,  high  or  low,  masters  or  servants,  teach- 
ers or  disciples,  [dociores]  divines  or  laics,  Jews 
or  Greeks,  Frenchmen  or  [Romani]  Italians. 
From  this  inheritance  no  one  is  excluded,  if 
he  only  so  receive  Christ  as  he  is  offered  by 
the  Father  for  the  salvation  of  all  men,  and 
embrace  him  when  received."  Great  research 
has  been  displayed  by  the  Calvinists  at  differ- 
ent periods,  in  endeavouring  to  discover,  in 
the  public  formularies  of  the  church,  or  in  the 
private  productions  of  our  reformers,  some 
trace  of  affinity  between  them  and  the  writings 
of  Calvin.  Only  two  cases  of  such  affinity 
have  yet  been  found ;  and,  unfortunately  for 
the  validity  of  all  pretensions  of  this  kind, 
neither  of  them  contains  a  single  peculiarity 
of  Calvinism,  but,  on  the  contrary,  both  are  of 
the  moderate  and  evangelical  class  of  the  Me- 
lancthonian  school.  One  of  the  passages  thus 
discovered  is  here  subjoined  from  Cranmer's 
"Defence  of  the  True  and  Catholic  Doctrine 
of  the  Sacrament,"  &c  ;  and  bears  all  the  marks 
of  verisimilitude  to  the  second  of  the  preceding 
paragraphs  from  Calvin,  though  written  fifteen 
years  after  it: — "Almighty  God,  without  re- 
spect of  person,  accepteth  the  oblation  and 
sacrifice  of  priest  and  lay  person,  of  king  and 
subject,  of  master  and  servant,  of  man  and  wo- 
man, of  young  and  old,  yea,  of  English,  French, 
Scot,  Greek,  Latin,  Jew,  a.nd  Gentile  ;  of  every 
man  according  to  his  faithful  and  obedient 
heart  unto  him,  and  that  through  the  sacrifice 
propitiatory  of  Jesus  Christ."  Had  either  this  or 
the  other  passage  contained  the  least  tinge  of 
what  is  now  considered  as  belonging  exclu- 
sively to  the  system  of  Calvin,  the  English  ad- 
mirers of  that  great  man  would  have  had  some 
grounds  for  the  assertions  which  have  been  too 
confidently  made,  because  so  easily  refuted. 

13.  Having  given  this  summary  of  the  sen- 
timents of  Calvin  himself,  and  of  the  ancient 
or  strict  Calvinists,  it  is  proper  to  observe,  that 
there  are,  and  always  have  been,  many  who 
generally  embrace  the  Calvinistic  system,  but 
object  to  some  particular  parts,  and  to  the 
strong  language  in  which  some  of  the  proposi- 
tions are  expressed.  These  are  called  moderate 
or  modern  Calvinists,  who  differ  from  Calvin, 
and  the  synod  of  Dort,  chiefly  on  two  points, — 
the  doctrine  of  reprobation,  and  the  extent  of 
the  death  of  Christ.  The  theory  of  Baxter  has 
already  been  noticed.    This  and  all  other  miti- 


gated schemes  rest  on  two  principles,  the  suf- 
ficiency of  the  atonement  for  all  mankind,  and 
the  sufficiency  of  grace  for  those  who  do  not 
believe.  Still  something  more  is  held  to  be 
necessary  than  this  sufficiency  of  grace  in 
order  to  actual  salvation ;  namely,  an  accept- 
ance by  man,  which  can  only  be  made  under 
that  degree  of  effectual  supernatural  aid  which 
is  dispensed  only  to  a  certain  number  of  per- 
sons, who  are  thus  distinguished  as  the  "elect 
of  God."  The  main  characteristic  of  all  these 
theories,  from  the  first  to  the  last,  from  the 
highest  to  the  lowest,  is,  that  a  part  of  man- 
kind are  shut  out  from  the  mercies  of  God,  on 
some  ground  irrespective  of  their  refusal  of  a 
sincere  offer  to  them  of  salvation  through 
Christ,  made  with  a  communicated  power  of 
embracing  it.  Some  power  they  allow  to  the 
reprobate,  as  natural  power,  and  degrees  of 
superadded  moral  power;  but  in  no  case  the 
power  to  believe  unto  salvation;  and  thus,  as 
one  well  observes,  "When  they  have  cut  some 
fair  trenches,  as  if  they  would  bring  the  water 
of  life  unto  the  dwellings  of  the  reprobate,  on 
a  sudden  they  open  a  sluice  which  carries  it 
off  again."  The  whole  labour  of  these  theories 
is  to  find  out  some  plausible  reason  for  the 
infliction  of  punishment  on  them  that  perish, 
independent  of  the  only  cause  assigned  by  the 
word  of  God — their  rejection  of  a  mercy  free 
for  all,  and  made  attainable  by  all.  See  Bax- 
terianism. 

14.  After  all,  however,  it  is  pleasant  to  find 
these  indications  of  a  growing  consciousness, 
on  the  part  of  modern  predestinarians,  that  the 
common  notions  and  common  language  of 
mankind  on  these  deep  subjects  are  not  far 
from  the  truth.  And  though  some  too  fasti, 
dious  Arminians  may  complain,  that,  in  this 
desire  to  enlist  the  views  and  words  of  common 
sense  on  the  side  of  Calvinism,  many  of  those 
by  whom  they  are  employed  attach  to  them 
a  meaning  very  different  from  that  which 
ordinary  usage  warrants ;  yet  even  this  ten- 
dency to  approximate  to  right  views  should  be 
regarded  as  favourable  to  the  progress  of  truth, 
and  the  evidently  improved  feeling  which  has 
suggested  such  approximation  ought  to  be  met 
in  a  conciliating  spirit.  But  this  is  a  fault 
which  must  always  be  an  appendage  to  such  a 
system,  however  it  may  be  modified ;  and  docs 
not  exclusively  apply  to  its  modern  supporters. 
The  following  remarks  by  Archbishop  Lau- 
rence'on  the  ambiguity  of  language  not  unfre- 
quently  discernible  in  the  writings  of  Calvin 
himself,  are  worthy  of  consideration: — "In 
whatsoever  sense  ho  wished  these  words  to  be 
understood,  it  must  be  admitted  that  he  some- 
times adapted  the  style  of  others,  who  had  a 
very  different  object  in  view,  to  his  own  pecu- 
liar opinions.  And  hence,  from  the  want  of  a 
due  discrimination,  the  sentiments  of  his  con- 
temporaries, opposite  in  their  natural  tendency, 
are  often  improperly  forced  into  the  vortex  of 
Calvinism.  Systematizing  was  his  darling  pro- 
pensity, and  the  ambition  of  being  distinguished 
as  a  leader  in  reform  his  predominant  passion  : 
in  the  arrangements  of  the  former,  he  never 
felt  a  doubt,  or  found  a  difficulty ;  and  in  the 


CAL 


204 


CAM 


pursuits  of  the  latter  he  displayed  an  equal 
degree  of  perseverance  and  ardour.  Thus,  in 
the  doctrine  of  the  eucharist,  it  is  well  known 
that  he  laboured  to  acquire  celebrity,  and  con- 
ciliate followers,  by  maintaining  a  kind  of 
middle  sacramental  presence  between  the  cor- 
poreal of  the  Lutherans,  and  the  mere  spiritual 
of  the  Zuinglians ;  expressing  himself  in  lan- 
guage which,  partly  derived  from  one,  and 
partly  from  the  other,  verged  toward  neither 
extreme;  but  which,  by  his  singular  talent  at 
perspicuous  combination,  he  applied,  and  not 
without  success,  to  his  own  particular  purpose. 
Nor  was  he  less  solicitous  to  press  into  his 
service  a  foreign  phraseology  upon  the  subject 
more  immediately  before  me ;  a  subject  on  his 
theory  of  which  he  not  a  little  prided  himself, 
and  seemed  contented  to  stake  his  reputation. 
He  perceived  that  the  Lutherans,  strongly 
reprobating  every  discussion  upon  the  decrees 
of  a  Deity  unrevealed  to  us,  founded  predesti- 
nation solely  on  a  Scriptural  basis  ;  contending 
for  a  divine  will  which  is  seriously,  not  ficti- 
tiously, disposed  to  save  all  men,  and  predeter- 
mined to  save  all  who  become  and  continue  sin- 
cere Christians.  Zuingle,  indeed,  had  reasoned 
from  a  different  principle  ;  and,  although  per- 
suaded that  God's  mercies  in  Christ  were  libe- 
rally bestowed  on  all  without  distinction,  on 
infants  who  commit  not  actual  crime,  and  on 
the  Heathen  as  well  as  the  Christian  world,  he 
nevertheless  was  a  necessitarian  in  the  strict- 
est sense  of  the  expression  ;  referring  events  of 
every  kind  to  an  uncontrollable  and  absolute 
predetermination.  Zuingle,  however,  died  in 
1531,  before  the  youth  of  Calvin  permitted  him 
to  assume  the  character  of  a  reformer;  who 
found  Bullinger  then  at  the  head  of  the  Zuin- 
glian  church,  not  only  applauding,  but  adopt- 
ing, the  moderation  of  the  Lutherans;  and,  to 
use  the  phrase  of  Turretin,  plainly  Melancthon- 
izing.  But  the  doctrine  alluded  to,  it  may  be 
imagined,  was  of  a  species  too  limited  and 
unphilosophical  for  one  of  his  enterprising  turn 
of  mind,  who  never  met  with  an  obstacle  which 
he  attempted  not  instantly  to  surmount.  Dis- 
regarding, therefore,  the  sober  restrictions  of 
the  times,  he  gave  loose  to  the  most  unbounded 
speculation  :  yet,  anxious  by  all  means  to  win 
over  all  to  his  opinion,  he  studiously  laboured 
to  preserve,  on  some  popular  points,  a  verbal 
conformity  with  the  Lutherans.  With  them, 
in  words,  he  taught  the  universality  of  Cod's 
good  will ;  but  it  was  a  universality  which  he 
extended  only  to  the  offer  of  salvation ;  con- 
ceiving the  reprobate  to  be  precluded  from  the 
reception  of  that  offer  by  the  secret  decree  of 
an  immutable  Deity.  The  striking  feature  of 
their  system  was  an  election  in  Christ,  by 
which  they  meant  an  election  as  Christians. 
This  also,  in  words,  he  inculcated :  his  idea, 
however,  of  an  election  in  Christ  was  totally 
different  from  theirs;  for  he  held  it  to  be  the 
previous  olfaction  of  certain  favourites  by  an 
irrespective  will  of  God,  whom,  and  whom 
alone,  Christ  was  subsequently  appointed  to 
save.  But  his  ingenuity  was  such,  in  adapting 
the  terms  bor-owed  from  another  source  to  his 
own  theory,  that  some  erroneously  conceive 


them  to  have  been  thus  originally  used  by  the 
Lutherans  themselves.  Hence,  therefore,  much 
confusion  has  arisen  in  the  attempt  of  properly 
discriminating  between  the  various  sentiments 
of  Protestants  upon  this  question,  at  the  period 
under  consideration :  all  have  been  regarded 
as  formed  upon  the  model  which  Calvin  exhi- 
bited ;  at  least  by  writers  who  have  contem- 
plated him  as  the  greatest  reformer  of  his  age, 
but  who  have  forgotten  that,  although  they 
chose  to  esteem  him  the  greatest,  they  could 
not  represent  him  as  the  first  in  point  of  time ; 
and  that  his  title  to  preeminence,  in  the  com- 
mon estimation  of  his  contemporaries,  was 
then  far  from  being  acknowledged." 

15.  On  one  topic,  however,  Calvin  and  the 
older  divines  of  that  school  were  very  explicit. 
They  tell  us  plainly,  that  they  found  all  the 
Christian  fathers,  both  of  the  Greek  and  the 
Latin  church  down  to  the  age  of  St.  Augustine, 
quite  unmanageable  for  their  purpose ;  and 
therefore  occasionally  bestow  upon  them  and 
their  productions  epithets  not  the  most  courte- 
ous. Yet  some  modern  writers,  not  possessing 
half  the  splendid  qualifications  of  those  veterans 
in  learning,  make  a  gorgeous  display  of  the 
little  that  they  know  concerning  antiquity  ; 
and  wish  to  lead  their  readers  to  suppose,  that 
the  whole  stream  of  early  Christianity  has 
flowed  down  only  in  their  channel.  Every  one 
must  have  remarked  how  much  like  Calvin  all 
those  fathers  speak  whose  works  are  quoted  by 
Toplady  in  his  "Historic  Defence."  Nor  can 
the  two  Milners,  in  their  "History  of  the 
Church,"  entirely  escape  censure  on  this  ac- 
count,— though  both  were  excellent  men,  and 
better  scholars  than  Toplady.  But  from  the 
manner  in  which  they  "show  up"  only  those 
ancient  Christian  authors,  some  of  whose  sen- 
timents seem  to  be  nearly  in  unison  with  their 
own,  they  induce  the  unlearned  or  half  inform- 
ed to  draw  the  erroneous  conclusion, — that  the 
peculiarities  of  Calvinism  are  not  the  inven- 
tions of  a  comparatively  recent  sera,  and  that 
they  have  always  formed  a  prominent  part  of 
the  profession  of  faith  of  every  Christian  com- 
munity since  the  days  of  the  Apostles. 

All  men  must  admire  the  candid  and  liberal 
spirit  which  breathes  in  the  subjoined  high  but 
just  eulogium  on  Calvin,  from  the  pen  of  the 
same  amiable  Archbishop :  "  Calvin  himself 
was  botli  a  wise  and  a  good  man  ;  inferior  to 
none  of  his  contemporaries  in  general  ability, 
and  superior  to  almost  all  in  the  art,  as  well  as 
elegance,  of  composition,  in  the  perspicuity 
and  arrangement  of  his  ideas,  the  structure  of 
his  periods,  and  the  Latinity  of  his  diction. 
Although  attached  to  a  theory,  which  he  found 
it  difficult  in  the  extreme  to  free  from  the  sus- 
picion of  blasphemy  against  God,  as  the  author 
of  sin,  he  certainly  was  no  blasphemer;  but, 
on  the  contrary,  adopted  that  very  theory  from 
an  anxiety  not  to  commit,  but,  as  he  conceived, 
to  avoid  blasphemy, — that  of  ascribing  to  hu- 
man, what  he  deemed  alone  imputable  to  divine, 
agency." 

CAMBYSES,  the  son  of  Cyrus,  king  of 
Persia.  He  succeeded  his  father,  A.  M.  3475, 
and  is  the  Ahasuerus  mentioned  in  Ezra  iv,  6, 


CAM 


205 


CAM 


to  whom,  as  soon  as  he  came  to  the  crown, 
the  Samaritans  applied  by  petition,  desiring 
that  the  rebuilding  of  Jerusalem  might  be  stop- 
ped. What  the  motives  were  which  they  made 
use  of  to  prevail  upon  this  prince,  we  are  igno- 
rant: but  it  is  certain,  that  though  he  was  not 
persuaded  to  revoke  his  father's  decree,  yet  he 
put  a  stop  to  the  works,  so  that  for  the  remain- 
ing seven  years  and  five  months  which  he 
reigned,  the  building  of  the  city  and  temple 
was  suspended.     See  Ahasuerus. 

CAMEL.  iti3.  This  animal  is  called  in 
ancient  Arabic,  gimel ;  and  in  modern,  diam- 
mel;  in  Greek,  Ka^o/Aos.  With  very  little  varia- 
tion, the  name  is  retained  in  modern  languages. 
The  camel  is  very  common  in  Arabia,  Judea, 
and  the  neighbouring  countries;  and  is  often 
mentioned  in  Scripture,  and  reckoned  among 
the  most  valuable  property,  1  Chron.  v,  21 ; 
Job  i,  3,  &c.  "  No  creature,"  says  Volney, 
"seems  so  peculiarly  fitted  to  the  climate  in 
which  he  exists  as  the  camel.  Designing  this 
animal  to  dwell  in  a  country  where  he  can  find 
little  nourishment,  nature  has  been  Sparing  of 
her  materials  in  the  whole  of  his  formation. 
She  has  not  bestowed  upon  him  the  fleshiness 
of  the  ox,  horse,  or  elephant;  but  limiting  her- 
self to  what  is  strictly  necessary,  has  given 
him  a  long  head,  without  ears,  at  the  end  of  a 
long  neck  without  flesh;  has  taken  from  his 
legs  and  thighs  every  muscle  not  immediately 
requisite  for  motion ;  and,  in  short,  bestowed 
upon  his  withered  body  only  the  vessels  and 
tendons  necessary  to  connect  its  frame  together. 
She  has  furnished  him  with  a  strong  jaw,  that 
he  may  grind  the  hardest  aliments ;  but,  lest 
he  should  consume  too  much,  has  straitened 
his  stomach,  and  obliged  him  to  chew  the  cud  ; 
has  lined  his  foot  with  a  lump  of  flesh,  which 
sliding  in  the  mud,  and  being  no  way  adapted 
to  climbing,  fits  him  only  for  a  dry,  level,  and 
sandy  soil,  like  that  of  Arabia.  So  great,  in 
short;  is  the  importance  of  the  camel  to  the 
desert,  that,  were  it  deprived  of  that  useful 
animal,  it  must  infallibly  lose  every  inhabitant." 
The  chief  use  of  the  camel  has  always  been  as 
a  beast  of  burden,  and  for  performing  journeys 
across  the  deserts.  They  have  sometimes  been 
used  in  war,  to  carry  the  baggage  of  an  orien- 
tal army,  and  mingle  in  the  tumult  of  the 
battle.  Many  of  the  Amalekite  warriors,  who 
burnt  Ziklag  in  the  time  of  David,  were  mount- 
ed on  camels  ;  for  the  sacred  historian  remarks, 
that  of  the  whole  army  not  a  man  escaped  the 
furious  onset  of  that  heroic  and  exasperated 
leader,  "  save  four  hundred  young  men,  which 
rode  upon  camels,  and  fled,"  1  Sam.  xxx,  17. 

The  passage  of  Scripture  in  which  our  Lord 
says,  "  It  is  easier  for  a  camel  to  go  through 
the  eye  of  a  needle,  than  for  a  rich  man  to 
enter  into  the  kingdom  of  heaven,"  Matt,  xix, 
24,  has  been  the  occasion  of  much  criticism. 
Some  assert  that  near  Jerusalem  was  a  low 
gate  called  "the  needle's  eye,"  through  which 
a  camel  could  not  pass  unless  his  load  was 
taken  ofF.  Others  conjecture  that  Kd/iiXos  should 
be  read  kh'SiAo?,  a  cable.  But  there  are  no  an- 
cient manuscripts  to  support  the  reading.  In 
the  Jewish  Talmud,  there  is,  however,  a  simi- 


lar proverb  respecting  an  elephant:  "Rabbi 
Shesheth  answered  Rabbi  Amram,  who  had 
advanced  an  absurdity,  '  Perhaps  thou  art  one 
of  the  Pambidithians,  who  can  make  an  ele. 
phant  pass  through  the  eye  of  a  needle  ;'"  that 
is,  says  the  Aruch,  "  who  speak  things  impos- 
sible." There  is  also  a  saying  of  the  same 
kind  in  the  Koran  :  "  The  impious,  who  in  his 
arrogancy  shall  accuse  our  doctrine  of  falsity, 
shall  find  the  gates  of  heaven  shut ;  nor  shall 
he  enter  there,  till  a  camel  shall  pass  through 
the  eye  of  a  needle.  It  is  thus  that  we  shall 
recompense  tlie  wicked,"  Surat.  vii,  37.  In- 
deed, Grotius,  Lightfoot,  Wetstein,  and  Mi- 
chaelis  join  in  opinion,  that  the  comparison  is 
so  much  in  the  figurative  style  of  the  oriental 
nations  and  of  the  rabbins,  that  the  text  is  suf- 
ficiently authentic. 

CAMEL'S  HAIR,  mentioned  Matt,  hi,  4; 
Mark  i,  6.  John  the  Baptist,  we  are  told,  was 
habited  in  a  raiment  of  camel's  hair ;  and  Char- 
din  assures  us,  that  the  modern  dervises  wear 
such  garments ;  as  they  do  also  great  leathern 
girdles.  Camel's  hair  is  also  made  into  those 
beautiful  stuffs,  called  shawls  ;  but  certainly 
the  coarser  manufacture  of  this  material  was 
adopted  by  John,  and  we  may  receive  a  good 
idea  of  its  texture,  from  what  Braithwaite  says 
of  the  Arabian  tents :  "  They  are  made  of 
camel's  hair,  somewhat  like  our  coarse  hair 
cloths  to  lay  over  goods."  By  this  coarse  ves- 
ture the  Baptist  was  not  merely  distinguished, 
but  contrasted  with  those  in  royal  palaces,  who 
wore  "soft  raiment,"  such  as  shawls  or  other 
superfine  manufactures,  whether  of  the  same 
material  or  not. 

CAMERONIANS,  a  sect  in  Scotland,  who 
separated  from  the  Presbyterians  in  1666,  and 
continued  to  hold  their  religious  assemblies  in 
the  fields.  The  Cameronians  took  their  de- 
nomination from  Richard  Cameron,  a  famous 
field  preacher,  who,  refusing  to  accept  the  in- 
dulgence to  tender  consciences  granted  by 
King  Charles  II,  as  such  an  acceptance  seemed 
an  acknowledgment  of  the  king's  supremacy, 
and  that  he  had  before  a  right  to  silence  them, 
separated  from  his  brethren,  and  even  headed 
a  rebellion  in  which  he  was  killed.  His  fol- 
lowers were  never  entirely  reduced  till  tl>e 
Revolution,  when  they  voluntarily  submitted 
to  King  William.  The  Cameronians  adhered 
rigidly  to  the  form  of  government  established 
in  1648.' 

CAMERONISTS,  or  CAMERONITES,  is 
the  denomination  of  a  party  of  Calvinists  in 
France,  who  asserted,  that  the  cause  of  men's 
doing  good  or  evil  proceeds  from  the  knowledge 
which  God  infuses  into  them ;  and  that  God 
does  not  move  the  will  physically,  but  only 
morally,  in  virtue  of  its  dependence  on  the 
judgment  of  the  mind.  They  had  this  name 
from  John  Cameron,  one  of  the  most  famous 
divines  among  the  Protestants  of  France,  in 
the  seventeenth  century,  who  was  born  at  Glas- 
gow, in  Scotland,  about  the  year  1580,  and 
taught  Greek  there  till  he  removed  to  Bour- 
deaux  in  1600.  Here  he  acquired  such  ce- 
lebrity by  the  fluency  with  which  he  spoke 
Greek,  that  he  was   appointed  to  teach  ther 


CAM 


206 


CAM 


learned  languages  at  Bergerac.  He  afterward 
became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Sedan;  but 
returning  to  Bourdcaux  in  1604,  he  devoted 
himself  to  the  study  of  divinity.  Upon  being 
appointed  tutor  to  the  sons  of  the  chancellor  of 
Navarre,  he  accompanied  them  to  Paris,  Ge- 
neva, and  Heidelberg.  After  having  discharged 
the  office  of  a  minister  at  Bourdeaux,  which  he 
assumed  in  1G08,  for  ten  years,  he  accepted 
the  professorship  of  divinity  at  Saumur.  Upr.n 
the  dispersion  of  that  academy  by  the  public 
commotions  in  1621,  he  removed  to  England, 
and  taught  divinity  at  his  own  house  in  Lon- 
don. King  James  inclined  to  favour  him  on 
account  of  his  supposed  attachment  to  the 
hierarchy,  made  him  master  of  the  college,  and 
professor  of  divinity,  at  Glasgow ;  but  after 
holding  this  office,  which  he  found  to  be  un- 
pleasant to  him,  for  a  year,  he  returned  to 
Saumur,  where  he  read  private  lectures.  From 
thence  he  removed,  in  1624,  to  Montauban  ; 
where  the  disturbances  excited  by  the  emissa- 
ries of  the  duke  de  Rohan  led  him  to  remon- 
strate against  the  principles  which  produced 
them,  with  more  zeal  than  prudence.  This 
occasioned  his  being  insulted  by  a  private  per- 
son in  the  streets,  and  severely  beaten  :  and 
this  treatment  so  much  affected  him,  that  he 
soon  after  died,  in  1625,  at  the  early  age  of 
forty-six  years.  Bayle  represents  him  as  "  a 
man  of  great  parts  and  judgment,  of  an  excel- 
lent memory,  very  learned,  a  good  philosopher, 
good  humoured,  liberal  not  only  of  his  know- 
ledge but  his  purse,  a  great  talker,  a  long- 
winded  preacher,  little  versed  in  the  fathers, 
inflexible  in  his  opinions,  and  inclined  to  tur- 
bulence." He  was  one  of  those  who  attempted 
to  reconcile  the  doctrine  of  predestination,  as 
it  had  been  taught  at  Geneva,  and  confirmed 
at  Dort,  with  the  sentiments  of  those  who  be- 
lieve that  God  offers  salvation  to  all  mankind. 
His  opinion  was  maintained  and  propagated  by 
Moses  Amyraut,  and  several  others  of  the  most 
learned  among  the  reformed  ministers,  who 
thought  Calvin's  doctrine  too  harsh.  They 
were  called  Hypothetical  Universe/lists.  Came- 
ron likewise  maintained  the  possibility  of  sal- 
vation in  the  church  of  Rome.  See  Amyraut 
and  Baxtekianism. 

CAMP,  or  ENCAMPMENT,  of  the  Israel- 
ites. The  whole  body  of  the  people,  consist- 
ing of  six  hundred  thousand  fighting  men, 
beside  women  and  children,  was  disposed  un- 
der four  battalions,  so  placed  as  to  enclose  the 
tabernacle,  in  the  form  of  a  square,  and  each 
under  one  general  standard.  (See  Armies.) 
There  were  forty-one  encampments,  from  their 
first  in  the  month  of  March,  at  Rameses,  in  the 
land  of  Goshen,  in  Egypt,  and  in  the  wilder- 
ness, until  they  reached  the  land  of  Canaan. 
They  arc  thus  enumerated  in  Numbers  xxxiii : — 

1.  Rameses  8.  Wilderness  of  Sin 

2.  Succotli  9.  Dophkah 

3.  Etham,  on  the  edge  10.  Alush 

of  the  wilderness    11.  Rephidim 

4.  Pihahiroth  12.  Wilderness  of  Sinai 

5.  Marah  13.  Kibroth-hattaavah 

6.  Elim  14.  Hazeroth 

7.  By  the  Red  Scu       15.  Rithmah 


16.  Rimmon-parez       30.  Jotbathah 

17.  Libnah  31.  Ebronah 

18.  Rissah  32.  Ebion-gaber 

19.  Kehelatha  33.  Kadesh 

20.  Shapher  34.  Mount  Hor 

21.  Haradah  35.  Zahnonah 

22.  Makheloth  36.  Punon 

23.  Tahath  37.  Oboth 

24.  Tarah  38.  Ije-abarim 

25.  Mithcah  39.  Dibon-gad 

26.  Hashmonah  40.  Ahnon-diblathaim 

27.  Moseroth  41.  Mountains  of  Aba- 

28.  Bene-jaakan  rim 

29.  Hor-hagidgad 

In  the  second  year  after  their  exodus  from 
Egypt  they  were  numbered  ;  and  upon  an  exact 
poll,  the  number  of  their  males  amounted  to 
six  hundred  and  three  thousand,  five  hundred 
and  fifty,  from  twenty  years  old  and  upward, 
Num.  i,  ii.  This  vast  mass  of  people,  en- 
camped in  beautiful  order,  must  have  presented 
a  most  impressive  spectacle.  That  it  failed 
not  to  produce  effect  upon  the  richly  endowed 
and  poetic  mind  of  Balaam,  appears  from  Num. 
xxiv,  2;  "And  Balaam  lifted  up  his  eyes  and 
he  saw  Israel  abiding  in  his  tents  according  to 
their  tribes ;  and  the  Spirit  of  God  came  upon 
him,  and  he  took  up  his  parable  and  said,  How 
goodly  are  thy  tents,  O  Jacob,  and  thy  taber- 
nacles, O  Israel !  As  the  valleys  are  they  spread 
forth,  as  gardens  by  the  river  side,  as  the  trees 
of  lign  aloes  which  the  Lord  hath  planted,  and 
as  cedar  trees  beside  waters."  Grandeur,  order, 
beauty,  and  freshness,  were  the  ideas  at  once 
suggested  to  the  mind  of  this  unfaithful  pro- 
phet, and  called  forth  his  unwilling  admiration. 
Perhaps  we  may  consider  this  spectacle  as  a 
type  of  the  order,  beauty,  and  glory  of  the  true 
"  church  in  the  wilderness,"  in  those  happy 
days  when  God  "shall  not  behold  iniquity  in 
Jacob,  nor  perverseness  in  Israel;"  when  it 
shall  be  said,  "  The  Lord  his  God  is  with  him, 
and  the  shout  of  a  king  is  among  them." 

CAMPHIRE.  1.03.  Greek,  Ki-?0i.  Latin 
cyprus.  Canticles  i,  14  ;  iv,  13.  Sir  T.  Browne 
supposes  that  the  plant  mentioned  in  the  Can- 
ticles, rendered  Kvrrpo;  in  the  Septuagint,  and 
cyprus  in  the  Vulgate,  is  that  described  by 
Dioscorides  and  Pliny,  which  grows  in  Egypt, 
and  near  to  Ascalon,  producing  an  odorate 
bush  of  flowers,  and  yielding  the  celebrated 
oleum  cyprimim.  [A  sweet  oil  made  of  the 
flowers  of  the  privet  tree.]  This  is  one  of  the 
plants  which  is  most  grateful  to  the  eye  and 
the  smell.  The  deep  colour  of  its  bark,  the 
light  green  of  its  foliage,  the  softened  mixture 
of  white  and  j-cllow  with  which  the  flowers, 
collected  into  long  clusters  like  the  lilac,  are 
coloured  ;  the  red  tint  of  the  ramifications 
which  support  them,  form  an  agreeable  com- 
bination. The  flowers,  whose  shades  are  so 
delicate,  diffuse  around  the  sweetest  odours, 
and  embalm  the  gardens  and  apartments  which 
they  embellish.  The  women  take  pleasure  in 
decking  themselves  with  them.  With  the 
powder  of  the  dried  leaves  they  give  an  orange 
tincture  to  their  nails,  to  the  inside  of  their 
hands,  and  to  the  soles  of  their  feet.  The  ex- 
pression, rVOTWhN  nrtiry,  rendered  "pare  their 


CAN 


207 


CAN 


nails,"  Deut.  xxi,  12,  may  perhaps  rather  mean, 
"adorn  their  nails;"  and  imply  the  antiquity 
of  this  practice.  This  is  a  universal  custom  in 
Egypt,  and  not  to  conform  to  it  would  be  con- 
sidered indecent.  It  seems  to  have  been  prac- 
tised by  the  ancient  Egyptians,  for  the  nails  of 
the  mummies  are  most  commonly  of  a  red- 
dish hue. 

In  the  Song  of  Solomon,  the  bride  is  de- 
scribed as  saying,  "  My  beloved  is  unto  riie  as 
a  cluster  of  camphire  in  the  vineyards  of  En- 
gedi,"  chap,  i,  24 ;  and  again,  "  Thy  plants  are 
an  orchard  of  pomegranates,  with  pleasant 
fruits,  camphire  with  spikenard,"  chap,  iv,  13. 
CANA,  a  town  of  Galilee,  where  Jesus  per- 
formed his  first  miracle,  John  ii,  1,  2,  &c.  It 
lay  in  the  tribe  of  Zebulun,  not  far  from  Naza- 
reth. Cana  was  visited  by  Dr.  E.  D.  Clarke, 
who  says,  "  It  is  worthy  of  note,  that,  walk- 
ing among  the  ruins  of  a  church,  we  saw  large 
massy  stone  pots,  answering  the  description 
given  of  the  ancient  vessels  of  the  country; 
these  were  not  preserved  nor  exhibited  as  re- 
liques,  but  lying  about,  disregarded  by  the  pre- 
sent inhabitants,  as  antiquities  with  whose  ori- 
ginal use  they  were  unacquainted.  From  their 
appearance,  and  the  number  of  them,  it  was 
quite  evident  that  a  practice  of  keeping  water 
in  large  stone  pots,  each  holding  from  eighteen 
to  twenty-seven  gallons,  was  once  common  in 
the  country." 

CANAAN,  the  son  of  Ham.  The  Hebrews 
believe  that  Canaan,  having  first  discovered 
Noah's  nakedness,  told  his  father  Ham ;  and 
that  Noah,  when  he  awoke,  having  understood 
what  had  passed,  cursed  Canaan,  the  first  au- 
thor of  the  offence.  Others  are  of  opinion  that 
Ham  was  punished  in  his  son  Canaan,  Gen. 
ix,  25.  For  though  Canaan  is  mentioned,  Ham 
is  not  exempted  from  the  malediction ;  on  the 
contrary,  he  suffers  more  from  it,  since  parents 
are  more  affected  with  their  children's  misfor- 
tunes than  with  their  own ;  especially  if  the 
evils  have  been  inflicted  through  some  fault  or 
folly  of  theirs.  Some  have  thought  that  Ca- 
naan may  be  put  elliptically  for  the  father  of 
Canaan,  that  is,  Ham,  as  it  is  rendered  in  the 
Arabic  and  Septuagint  translations. 

The  posterity  of  Canaan  was  numerous.  His 
eldest  son,  Sidon,  founded  the  city  of  Sidon, 
and  was  father  of  the  Sidonians  and  Pheni- 
cians.  Canaan  had  ten  other  sons,  who  were 
fathers  of  as  many  tribes,  dwelling  in  Palestine 
and  Syria;  namely,  the  Hittites,  the  Jebusites, 
the  Amorites,  the  Girgasites,  the  Hivites,  the 
Arkites,  the  Sinites,  the  Arvadites,  the  Zema- 
rites,  and  the  Hemathites.  It  is  believed  that 
Canaan  lived  and  died  in  Palestine,  which  from 
him  was  called  the  land  of  Canaan.  Notwith- 
standing the  curse  is  directed  againt  Canaan 
the  son,  and  not  against  Ham  the  father,  it  is 
often  supposed  that  all  the  posterity  of  Ham 
were  placed  under  the  malediction,  "Cursed 
be  Canaan ;  a  servant  of  servants  shall  ho  be 
unto  his  brethren."  But  the  true  reason  why 
Canaan  only  was  mentioned  probably  is,  that 
the  curse  was  in  fact  restricted  to  the  posteri- 
ty of  Canaan.  It  is  true  that  many  Africans, 
descendants  of  other  branches  of  Ham's  fami- 


ly, have  been  largely  and  cruelly  enslaved ;  but 
so  have  other  tribes  in  different  parts  of  the 
world.  There  is  certainly  no  proof  that  the 
negro  race  were  ever  placed  under  this  male- 
diction. Had  they  been  included  in  it,  this 
would  neither  have  justified  their  oppressors, 
nor  proved  that  Christianity  is  not  designed  to 
remove  the  evil  of  slavery.  But  Canaan  alone 
in  his  decendants,  is  cursed,  and  Ham  only  in 
that  branch  of  his  posterity.  It  follows  that  the 
subjugation  of  the  Canaanitish  races  to  Israel 
fulfils  the  prophecy.  To  them  it  was  limited, 
and  with  them  it  expired.  Part  of  the  seven 
nations  of  the  Canaanites  were  made  slaves  to 
the  Israelites,  when  they  took  possession  of 
their  land  ;  and  the  remainder  by  Solomon. 

Canaan,  Land  of.  In  the  map  it  presents 
the  appearance  of  a  narrow  slip  of  country,  ex- 
tending along  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Medi- 
terranean ;  from  which,  to  the  river  Jordan,  the 
utmost  widtn  does  not  exceed  fifty  miles.  This 
river  was  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  land  of 
Canaan,  or  Palestine,  properly  so  called,  which 
derived  its  name  from  the  Philistines  or  Pales- 
tines  originally  inhabiting  the  coast.  To  three 
of  the  twelve  tribes,  however,  Reuben,  Gad, 
and  Manasseh,  portions  of  territory  were  as- 
signed on  the  eastern  side  of  the  river,  which 
were  afterward  extended  by  the  subjugation  of 
the  neighbouring  nations.  The  territory  of 
Tyre  and  Sidon  was  its  ancient  border  on  the 
north-west ;  the  range  of  the  Libanus  and  Anti- 
libanus  forms  a  natural  boundary  on  the  north 
and  north-east ;  while  in  the  soutli  it  is  press- 
ed upon  by  the  Syrian  and  Arabian  deserts. 
Within  this  circumscribed  district,  such  were 
the  physical  advantages  of  the  soil  and  climate, 
there  existed,  in  the  happiest  periods  of  the 
Jewish  nation,  an  immense  population.  The 
kingdom  of  David  and  Solomon,  however,  ex- 
tended far  beyond  these  narrow  limits.  In  a 
north-eastern  direction,  it  was  bounded  only 
by  the  river  Euphrates,  and  included  a  consi- 
derable part  of  Syria.  It  is  stated  that  Solomon 
had  dominion  over  all  the  region  on  the  west- 
ern side  of  the  Euphrates,  from  Thiphsah,  or 
Thapsacus,  on  that  river,  in  latitude  25°  20',  to 
Azzah,  or  Gaza.  "  Tadmore  in  the  wilderness," 
(Palmyra,)  which  the  Jewish  monarch  is  stated 
to  have  built,  (that  is,  either  founded  or  fortifi- 
ed,) is  considerably  to  the  north-east  of  Damas- 
cus, being  only  a  day's  journey  from  the  Eu- 
phrates; and  Hamath,  the  Epiphania  of  the 
Greeks,  (still  called  Hamah,)  in  the  territory 
belonging  to  which  city  Solomon  had  several 
"  store  cities,"  is  seated  on  the  Orontes,  in  lati- 
tude 34°  45'  N.  On  the  east  and  south-east, 
the  kingdom  of  Solomon  was  extended  by  the 
conquest  of  the  country  of  Moab,  that  of  the 
Ammonites,  and  Edom  ;  and  tracts  which  were 
either  inhabited  or  pastured  by  the  Israelites, 
lay  still  farther  eastward.  Maon,  which  be- 
longed  to  the  tribe  of  Judah,  and  was  situated 
in  or  near  the  desert  of  Paran,  is  described  by 
Abulfeda  as  the  farthest  city  of  Syria  toward 
Arabia,  being  two  days'  journey  beyond  Zoar. 
In  the  time  of  David,  the  people  of  Israel,  wo- 
men  and  children  included,  amounted,  on  the 
lowest  compulation,  to   five  millions;  beside 


CAN 


208 


CAN 


the  tributary  Canaanites,  and  other  conquered 
nations. 

The  vast  resources  of  the  country,"  and  the 
power  of  the  Jewish  monarch,  may  be  estimat- 
ed not  only  by  the  consideration  in  which  he 
was  held  by  the  contemporary  sovereigns  of 
Egypt,  Tyre,  and  Assyria,  but  by  the  strength 
of  the  several  kingdoms  into  which  the  domin- 
ions of  David  were  subsequently  divided.  Da- 
mascus revolted  during  the  reign  of  Solomon, 
and  shook  off  the  Jewish  yoke.  At  his  death, 
ten  of  the  tribes  revolted  under  Jeroboam,  and 
the  country  became  divided  into  the  two  rival 
kingdoms  of  Judah  and  Israel,  having  for  their 
capitals  Jerusalem  and  Samaria.  The  kingdom 
of  Israel  fell  before  the  Assyrian  conqueror,  in 
the  year  B.  C.  721,  after  it  had  subsisted  about 
two  hundred  and  fifty  years.  That  of  Judah 
survived  about  one  hundred  and  thirty  years, 
Judea  being  finally  subdued  and  laid  waste  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  and  the  temple  burned  B.  C. 
588.  Idumea  was  conquered  a  few  years  after. 
From  this  period  till  the  sera  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  Palestine  remained  subject  to  the  Chal- 
dean, Median,  and  Persian  dynasties.  At  his 
death,  Judea  fell  under  the  dominion  of  the  kings 
of  Syria,  and,  with  some  short  and  troubled  in- 
tervals, remained  subject  either  to  the  kings  of 
Syria  or  of  Egypt,  till  John  Hyrcanus  shook  off 
the  Syrian  yoke,  and  assumed  the  diadem,  B.  C. 
130.  The  Asmonean  dynasty,  which  united,  in 
the  person  of  the  monarch,  the  functions  of  king 
and  pontiff,  though  tributary  to  Roman  conquer- 
ors, lasted  one  hundred  and  twenty-six  years, 
till  the  kingdom  was  given  by  Anthony  to  He- 
rod the  Great,  of  an  Idumean  family,  B.  C.  39. 

2.  At  the  time  of  the  Christian  uera,  Pales- 
tine was  divided  into  five  provinces;  Judea, 
Samaria,  Galilee,  Perea,  and  Idumea.  On  the 
death  of  Herod,  Archelaus,  his  eldest  son,  suc- 
ceeded to  the  government  of  Judea,  Samaria, 
and  Idumea,  with  the  title  of  tetrarch  ;  Galilee 
being  assigned  to  Herod  Antipas ;  and  Perea, 
or  the  country  beyond  Jordan,  to  the  third  bro- 
ther, Philip.  But  in  less  than  ten  years  the 
dominions  of  Archelaus  became  annexed,  on 
his  disgrace,  to  the  Roman  province  of  Syria ; 
and  Judea  was  thenceforth  governed  by  Roman 
procurators.  Jerusalem,  after  its  final  destruc- 
tion by  Titus,  A.  D.  71,  remained  desolate  and 
almost  uninhabited,  till  the  emperor  Hadrian 
colonized  it,  and  erected  temples  to  Jupiter  and 
Venus  on  its  site.  The  empress  Helena,  in  the 
fourth  century,  set  the  example  of  repairing  in 
pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Land,  to  visit  the  scenes 
consecrated  by  the  Gospel  narrative ;  and  the 
country  became  enriched  by  the  crowds  of 
devotees  who  flocked  there.  In  the  beginning 
of  the  seventh  century,  it  was  overrun  by  the 
Saracens,  who  held  it  till  Jerusalem  was  taken 
by  the  crusaders  in  the  twelfth.  The  Latin 
kingdom  of  Jerusalem  continued  for  about 
eighty  years,  during  which  the  Holy  Land 
streamed  continually  with  Christian  and  Sara- 
cen blood.  In  1187,  Judea  was  conquered  by 
the  illustrious  Saladin,  on  the  decline  of  whose 
kingdom  it  passed  through  various  revolutions, 
and  at  length,  in  1317,  was  finally  swallowed 
up  in  the  Turkish  empire. 


Palestine  is  now  distributed  into  pashalics. 
That  of  Acre  or  Akka  extends  from  Djebail 
nearly  to  Jaffa ;  that  of  Gaza  comprehends  Jaffa 
and  the  adjacent  plains ;  and  these  two  being 
now  united,  all  the  coast  is  under  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  pasha  of  Acre.  Jerusalem,  Hebron, 
Nablous,  Tiberias,  and  in  fact,  the  greater  part 
of  Palestine,  are  included  in  the  pashalic  of 
Damascus,  now  held  in  conjunction  with  that 
of  Aleppo  ;  which  renders  the  present  pasha, 
in  effect,  the  viceroy  of  Syria.  Though  both 
pashas  continue  to  be  dutiful  subjects  to  the 
Grand  Seignior  in  appearance,  and  annually 
transmit  considerable  sums  to  Constantinople 
to  insure  the  yearly  renewal  of  their  office,  they 
are  to  be  considered  as  tributaries,  rather  than 
subjects  of  the  Porte ;  and  it  is  supposed  to  be 
the  religious  supremacy  of  the  Sultan,  as  caliph 
and  vicar  of  Mohammed,  more  than  any  appre- 
hension of  his  power,  which  prevents  them 
from  declaring  themselves  independent.  The 
reverence  shown  for  the  firmauns  of  the  Porte 
throughout  Syria  attests  the  strong  hold  which 
the  Sultan  maintains,  in  this  character,  on  the 
Turkish  population.  The  pashas  of  Egypt  and 
Bagdad  are  attached  to  the  Turkish  sovereign 
by  the  same  ecclesiastical  tie,  which  alone  has 
kept  the  ill-compacted  and  feeble  empire  from 
crumbling  to  ruin. 

3.  A  few  additional  remarks  upon  the  topo- 
graphy and  climate  will  tend  to  elucidate  the 
force  of  many  of  those  parts  of  Scripture  which 
contain  allusions  to  these  topics.  Dr.  E.  D. 
Clarke,  after  stating  his  resolve  to  make  the 
Scriptures  his  only  guide  throughout  this  inte- 
resting territory,  says,  "  The  delight  afforded 
by  the  internal  evidences  of  truth,  in  every  in- 
stance where  their  fidelity  of  description  was 
proved  by  a  comparison  of  existing  documents, 
surpassed  even  all  we  had  anticipated.  Such 
extraordinary  instances  of  coincidence  even 
with  the  customs  of  the  country  as  they  are  now 
exhibited,  and  so  many  wonderful  examples  of 
illustration  afforded  by  contrasting  the  simple 
narrative  with  the  appearances  presented,  made 
us  only  regret  the  shortness  of  our  time,  and 
the  limited  sphere  of  our  abilities  for  the  com- 
parison." Judea  is  beautifully  diversified  with 
hills  and  plains — hills  now  barren  and  gloomy, 
but  once  cultivated  to  their  summits,  and  smil- 
ing in  the  variety  of  their  produce,  chiefly  the 
olive  and  the  vine  ;  and  plains,  over  which  the 
Bedouin  now  roves  to  collect  a  scanty  herbage 
for  his  cattle,  but  once  yielding  an  abundance 
of  which  the  inhabitants  of  a  northern  climate 
can  form  no  idea.  Rich  in  its  soil;  glowing 
in  the  sunshine  of  an  almost  perpetual  sum- 
mer; and  abounding  in  scenery  of  the  grand- 
est, as  well  as  of  the  most  beautiful  kind  ;  this 
happy  country  was  indeed  a  land  which  the 
Lord  had  blessed  :  but  Mohammedan  sloth  and 
despotism,  as  the  instruments  employed  to  exe- 
cute the  curse  of  Heaven,  have  converted  it  into 
a  waste  of  rock  and  desert,  with  the  exception 
of  some  few  spots,  which  remain  to  attest  the 
veracity  of  the  accounts  formerly  given  of  it. 
The  hills  of  Judea  frequently  rise  into  mount, 
ains  ;  the  most  considerable  of  which  are  those 
of  Lebanon  and  Heranon,  on  the  north ;  thoss 


CAN 


209 


CAN 


which  surround  the  sea  of  Galilee,  and  the 
Dead  Sea,  also  attain  a  respectable  elevation. 
The  other  mountains  of  note  are,  Carmel,  Ta- 
bor, Ebal,  and  Gerizim,  and  the  mountains  of 
Gilboa,  Gilead,  and  Abarim  ;  with  the  summits 
of  the  latter,  Nebo  and  Pisgah :  a  description 
of  which  will  be  found  under  their  respective 
heads.  Many  of  the  hills  and  rocks  abound  in 
caverns,  the  refuge  of  the  distressed,  or  the  re- 
sorts of  robbers. 

4.  From  the  paucity  of  rain  which  falls  in 
Judea,  and  the  heat  and  dryness  of  the  atmos- 
phere for  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  it  pos- 
sesses but  few  rivers ;  and  as  these,  have  all 
their  rise  within  its  boundaries,  their  course  is 
short,  and  their  size  inconsiderable :  the  prin- 
cipal is  the  Jordan,  which  runs  about  a  hundred 
miles.  The  other  remarkable  streams  are,  the 
Arnon,  the  Jabbok,  the  Kishon,  the  Kedron, 
the  Besor,  the  Sorek,  and  the  stream  called 
the  river  of  Egypt.  These,  also,  will  be  found 
described  under  their  respective  heads.  This 
country  was  once  adorned  with  woods  and 
forests  :  as  we  read  of  the  forest  of  cedars  in 
Lebanon,  the  forest  of  oaks  in  Bashan,  the 
forest  or  wood  of  Ephraim,  and  the  forest  of 
Hareth  in  the  tribe  of  Judah.  Of  these,  the 
woods  of  Bashan  alone  remain ;  the  rest  have 
been  swept  away  by  the  ravages  of  time  and  of 
armies,  and  by  the  gradual  consumption  of  the 
inhabitants,  whose  indolence  and  ignorance 
have  prevented  their  planting  others. 

5.  There  are  no  volcanoes  now  existing  in 
Judea  or  its  vicinity:  nor  is  mention  made  of 
any  in  history,  although  volcanic  traces  are 
found  in  many  parts  on  its  eastern  side,  as 
they  are  also  in  the  mountains  of  Edom  on  the 
south,  the  Djebel  Shera  and  Hesma,  as  noticed 
by  Burckhardt.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that 
many  of  the  sacred  writers  were  familiarly 
acquainted  with  the  phenomena  of  volcanoes  ; 
whence  it  may  be  inferred  that  they  were  pre- 
sented to  their  observation  at  no  great  distance, 
and  from  which  they  drew  some  of  their  sub- 
limest  imagery.  Mr.  Home  has  adduced  the 
following  instances :  "  The  mountains  quake 
at  him,  and  the  hills  melt,  and  the  earth  is 
burned  at  his  presence.  His  fury  is  poured  out 
like  fire,  and  the  rocks  are  thrown  down  by 
him,"  Nahum  i,  5,  6.  "Behold,  the  Lord 
cometh  forth  out  of  his  place,  and  will  come 
down  and  tread  upon  the  high  places  of  the 
earth.  And  the  mountains  shall  be  molten  under 
him,  and  the  valleys  shall  be  cleft  as  wax  before 
the  fire,  and  as  the  waters  that  are  poured 
down  a  steep  place,"  Micah  i,  3,  4.  "  O  that 
thou  wouldcst  rend  the  heavens,  that  thou 
wouldcst  come  down,  that  the  mountains  might 
flow  down  at  thy  presence.  As  when  the  melt- 
ing  fire  burneth,  the  fire  causeih  the  icaters  to 
boil,  to  make  thy  name  known  to  thine  adver- 
saries, that  the  nations  may  tremble  at  thy 
presence.  When  thou  didst  terrible  things 
which  we  looked  not  for,  thou  earnest  down, 
the  mountains  flowed  down  at  thy  presence," 
Isa.  Ixiv,  1-3. 

6.  The  climate  of  Judea,  from  the  southern 
latitude  of  the  country,  is  necessarily  warm. 
The  cold  of  winter  is,  indeed,  sometimes  greater 

15 


than  in  European  climates  situated  some  de- 
grees  farther  to  the  north ;  but  it  is  of  short 
duration,  and  the  general  character  of  the 
climate  is  that  of  heat.  Both  heat  and  cold 
are,  however,  tempered  by  the  nature  of  the 
surface ;  the  winter  being  scarcely  felt  in  the 
valleys,  while  in  the  summer  the  heat  is  almost 
insupportable  ;  and,  on  the  contrary,  in  the 
more  elevated  parts,  during  the  winter  months, 
or  rather  weeks,  frosts  frequently  occur,  and 
snow  sometimes  falls,  while  the  air  in  summer 
is  comparatively  cool  and  refreshing.  Many 
winters  pass  without  either  snow  or  frost ;  and 
in  the  coldest  weather  which  ever  occurs,  the 
sun  in  the  middle  of  the  day  is  generally  warm, 
and  often  hot ;  so  that  the  pain  of  cold  is  in 
reality  but  little  felt,  and  the  poor  who  cannot 
afFord  fires  may  enjoy,  during  several  hours  of 
the  day,  the  more  genial  and  invigorating  in- 
fluence of  the  sun.  This  is  the  ordinary  cha- 
racter of  the  winters ;  though  in  some  years, 
as  will  be  seen  presently,  the  cold  is  more 
severely  felt  during  the  short  time  that  it  pre- 
vails, which  is  never  more  than  two  months, 
and  more  frequently  not  so  much  as  one.  To- 
ward the  end  of  November,  or  beginning  of 
December,  domestic  fires  become  agreeable. 
It  was  at  this  time  that  Jehoiakim,  king  of 
Judah,  is  represented  by  Jeremiah  as  sitting  in 
his  winter  house,  with  a  fire  burning  on  the 
hearth  before  him,  Jer.  xxxvi,  22.  The  same 
luxury,  though  frequently  by  no  means  neces- 
sary, is  used  by  the  wealthy  till  the  end  of 
March. 

7.  Rain  only  falls  during  the  autumn,  winter, 
and  spring,  when  it  sometimes  descends  with 
great  violence  :  the  greatest  quantity,  and  that 
which  properly  constitutes  the  rainy  season, 
happening  between  the  autumnal  equinox,  or 
somewhat  later,  and  the  beginningof  December ; 
during  which  period,  heavy  clouds  often  ob- 
scure the  sky,  and  several  days  of  violent  rain 
sometimes  succeed  each  other  with  winds. 
This  is  what  in  Scripture  is  termed  the  early 
or  the  former  rain.  Showers  continue  to  fall 
at  uncertain  intervals,  with  some  cloudy  but 
more  fair  weather,  till  toward  the  vernal  equi- 
nox, when  they  become  again  more  frequent 
and  copious  till  the  middle  of  April.  These 
are  the  latter  rains,  Joel  ii,  23.  From  this 
time  to  the  end  of  May,  showers  come  on  at 
irregular  intervals,  gradually  decreasing  as  the 
season  advances ;  the  sky  being  for  the  most 
part  serene,  and  the  temperature  of  the  air 
agreeable,  though  sometimes  acquiring  a  high 
degree  of  heat.  From  the  end  of  May,  or 
beginningof  June,  to  the  end  of  September,  or 
middle  of  October,  scarce  a  drop  of  rain  falls, 
the  sky  being  constantly  unclouded,  and  the 
heat  generally  oppressive.  During  this  period, 
the  inhabitants  commonly  sleep  on  the  tops  of 
their  houses.  The  storms,  especially  in  the 
autumn,  are  preceded  by  short  but  violent  gusts 
of  wind,  which,  from  the  surface  of  a  parched 
soil,  raise  great  clouds  of  dust;  which  explains 
what  is  meant  by,  "Ye  shall  not  sec  wind," 
2  Kings  iii,  7.  The  continuation  of  the  same 
passage  likewise  implies,  that  such  circum- 
scribed whirlwinds  were  generally  considered 


CAN 


210 


CAN 


as  the  precursors  of  rain :  a  circumstance  like- 
wise alluded  to  by  Solomon,  who  says,  "  Whoso 
boasteth  himself  of  a  false  gift,  is  like  clouds 
and  wind  without  rain,"  Prov.  xxv,  14.  An- 
other  prognostic  of  an  approaching  storm  is  a 
small  cloud  rising  in  the  west,  and  increasing 
until  it  overspreads  the  whole  heavens.  Such 
was  the  cloud,  "like  a  man's  hand,"  which 
appeared  to  Elijah,  on  mount  Carmel ;  which 
spread  "till  the  heaven  was  black  with  clouds 
and  wind,  and  there  was  a  great  rain,"  1  Kings 
xviii,  44.  To  this  phenomenon,  and  the  cer- 
tainly of  the  prognostic,  our  Saviour  alludes: 
"  When  ye  see  a  cloud"  (or  the  cloud,  rrjr  jc^eX^v) 
"rise  out  of  the  west,  straightway  ye  say, 
There  cometh  a  shower  ;  and  so  it  is,"  Luke 
xii,  54.  The  same  appearance  is  noticed  by 
Homer : — 

'ili  <3'  br   a~b  dKoiritji  eiitv  vi6o;  aiTro\o;  airjp 
'Epxdjitvov  Kara  tzbvrov  virb  Zt<fvpoio  luirjs, 
T(jj  it  r',  avcvQtv  IdtTt,  jxtXdvripov,  i;i)rt  wiooa, 
Qaivtr'  ibv  Kara  xZovtov,  ayti  ii  Tt.  \ai\aira  TXoWriv. 
'Fiyrivcv  rt  ISwv.      k.  t.  X.      II.  lib.  iv,  275. 

"Slow  from  the  main  the  heavy  vapours  rise, 
Spread  in  dim  streams,  and  sail  along  the  skies, 
Till  biack  as  night  the  swelling  tempest  shows, 
The  cloud  condensing  as  the  west  wind  blows. 
He  dreads  the  impending  storm,"  &c.         Pope. 

Hail  frequently  falls  in  the  winter  and  spring 
in  very  heavy  storms,  and  with  hailstones  of 
an  enormous  size.  Dr.  Russel  says  that  he  has 
seen  some  at  Aleppo  which  measured  two 
inches  in  diameter ;  but  sometimes  they  are 
found  to  consist  of  irregularly  shaped  pieces, 
weighing  near  three  ounces.  The  copious 
dew  forms  another  peculiarity  of  this  climate, 
frequently  alluded  to  in  Scripture  :  so  copious, 
indeed,  is  it  sometimes,  as  to  resemble  small 
rain,  and  to  supply  the  wants  of  superficial 
vegetation.  Mr.  Maundrell,  when  travelling 
near  mount  Hermon,  says,  "  We  were  instruct- 
ed by  experience  what  the  Psalmist  means  by 
'the  dew  of  Hermon,'  Psalm  exxxiii,  3;  our 
tents  being  as  wet  with  it,  as  if  it  had  rained 
all  night." 

8.  The  seasons  are  often  adverted  to  in 
Scripture,  under  the  terms  "seed  time  and 
harvest."  The  former,  for  wheat,  is  about  the 
middle  of  October  to  the  middle  or  end  of  No- 
vember :  barley  is  put  into  the  ground  two  and 
sometimes  three  months  later.  The  wheat 
harvest  commences  about  the  twentieth  of  May, 
and  early  in  June  the  whole  is  off  the  ground. 
The  barley  harvest,  it  is  to  be  observed,  is  gene- 
rally  a  fortnight  earlier.  A  survey  of  the  as- 
tonishing produce  of  this  country,  and  of  the 
manner  in  which  its  most  rocky  and,  to  appear- 
ance, insuperably  sterile  parts,  arc  made  to 
yield  to  the  wants  of  man,  will  be  sufficient  to 
refute  the  objections  raised  by  skeptical  writers 
against  the  possibility  of  its  famishing  subsist- 
ence to  the  multitude  of  its  former  inhabitants 
recorded  in  Scripture.  Dr.  Clarke,  v  '..  n  tra- 
velling from  Napolose  to  Jerusalem,  relates, 
"  The  road  was  mountainous,  rocky,  rtnd  full 
of  loose  stones;  yet  the  cultivation  was  every 
where  marvellous  :  it  afforded  one  of  the  most 
striking  pictures  of  human  industry  which  it 
is  possible   to  behold.     The   limestone  rocks 


and  stony  valleys  of  Judea  were  entirely  cover- 
ed with  plantations  of  figs,  vines,  and  olive 
trees :  not  a  single  spot  seemed  to  be  neglected. 
The  hills,  from  their  bases  to  their  upmost 
summits,  were  entirely  covered  with  gardens: 
all  of  these  were  free  from  weeds,  and  in  the 
highest  state  of  agricultural  perfection.  Even 
the  sides  of  the  most  barren  mountains  had 
been  rendered  fertile,  by  being  divided  into 
terraces,  like  steps  rising  one  above  another, 
whereon  soil  had  been  accumulated  with  as- 
tonishing labour.  Among  the  standing  crops, 
we  noticed  millet,  cotton,  linseed,  and  tobacco  ; 
and  occasionally  small  fields  of  barley.  A 
sight  of  this  territory  can  alone  convey  any 
adequate  idea  of  its  surprising  produce :  it  is 
truly  the  Eden  of  the  east,  rejoicing  in  the 
abundance  of  its  wealth.  Under  a  wise  and 
a  beneficent  government,  the  produce  of  the 
Holy  Land  would  exceed  all  calculation.  Its 
perennial  harvest ;  the  salubrity  of  its  air ;  its 
limpid  springs  ;  its  rivers,  lakes,  and  matchless 
plains  ;  its  hills  and  dales  ; — all  these,  added  to 
the  serenity  of  its  climate,  prove  this  land  to  be 
indeed  '  a  field  which  the  Lord  hath  blessed : 
God  hath  given  it  of  the  dew  of  heaven,  and 
the  fatness  of  the  earth,  and  plenty  of  corn  and 
wine.'  "  An  oriental's  ideas  of  fertility  differ, 
however,  from  ours  ;  for  to  him,  plantations  of 
figs,  vines,  and  olives,  with  which  the  lime- 
stone rocks  of  Judea  were  once  covered,  would 
suggest  the  same  associations  of  plenty  and 
opulence  that  are  called  up  in  the  mind  of  an 
Englishman  by  rich  tracts  of  corn  land.  The 
land  of  Canaan  is  characterized  as  flowing 
with  milk  and  honey ;  and  it  still  answers  to 
this  description ;  for  it  contains  extensive  pas- 
ture lands  of  the  richest  quality,  and  the  rocky 
country  is  covered  with  aromatic  plants,  yield- 
ing to  the  wild  bees,  who  hive  in  the  hollow  of 
the  rocks,  such  abundance  of  honey  as  to  sup- 
ply the  poorer  classes  with  an  article  of  food. 
Honey  from  the  rocks  is  repeatedly  referred  to 
in  the  Scriptures,  as  a  delicious  food,  and  an 
emblem  of  plenty,  1  Sam.  xiv,  25 ;  Psa.  lxxxi, 
16.  Dates  are  another  important  article  of 
consumption  ;  and  the  neighbourhood  of  Judea 
was  famous  for  its  numerous  palm  trees,  which, 
are  found  springing  up  from  chance-sown  ker- 
nels in  the  midst  of  the  most  arid  districts. 
When  to  these  wild  productions  we  add  the  oil 
extracted  from  the  olive,  so  essential  an  article 
to  an  oriental,  we  shall  be  at  no  loss  to  account 
for  the  ancient  fertility  of  the  most  barren  dis- 
tricts of  Judea,  or  for  the  adequacy  of  the  soil 
to  the  support  of  so  numerous  a  population, 
notwithstanding  the  comparatively  small  pro- 
portion of  arable  land.  There  is  no  reason  to 
doubt,  however,  that  corn  and  rice  would  be 
imported  by  the  Tyrian  merchants ;  which  the 
Israelites  would  have  no  difficulty  in  exchang- 
ing for  the  produce  of  the  olive  ground  and 
the  vineyard,  or  for  their  flocks  and  herds. 
Delicious  wine  is  still  produced  in  some  dis- 
tricts, and  the  valleys  bear  plentiful  crops  of 
tobacco,  wheat,  barley,  and  millet.  Tacitus 
compares  both  the  climate  and  the  soil,  indeed, 
to  those  of  Italy;  and  he  particularly  specifies 
the  palm  tree  and  balsam  tree  as  productions 


CAN 


211 


CAN 


which  gave  the  country  an  advantage  over  his 
own.  Among  other  indigenous  productions 
may  be  enumerated  the  cedar  and  other  varie- 
ties of  the  pine,  the  cypress,  the  oak,  the  syca- 
more, the  mulberry  tree,  the  fig  tree,  the  willow, 
the  turpentine  tree,  the  acacia,  the  aspen,  the 
arbutus,  the  myrtle,  the  almond  tree,  the  tama- 
risk, the  oleander,  the  peach  tree,  the  chaste 
tree,  the  carob  or  locust  tree,  the  oskar,  the 
doom,  the  mustard  plant,  the  aloe,  the  citron, 
the  apple,  the  pomegranate,  and  many  flower- 
ing shrubs.  The  country  about  Jericho  was 
celebrated  for  its  balsam,  as  well  as  for  its  palm 
trees  ;  and  two  plantations  of  it  existed  during 
the  last  war  between  the  Jaws  and  the  Romans, 
for  which  both  parties  fought  desperately.  But 
Gilead  appears  to  have  been  the  country  in 
which  it  chiefly  abounded :  hence  the  name, 
"balm  of  Gilead."  Since  the  country  has 
fallen  under  the  Turkish  dominion,  it  has 
ceased  to  be  cultivated  in  Palestine,  but  is  still 
found  in  Arabia.  Other  indigenous  produc- 
tions have  either  disappeared  or  are  now  con- 
fined to  circumscribed  districts.  Iron  is  found 
in  the  mountain  range  of  Libanus,  and  silk  is 
produced  in  abundance  in  the  plains  of  Samaria. 
9.  The  grand  distinction  of  Canaan,  how- 
ever, is,  that  it  was  the  only  part  of  the  earth 
made,  by  divine  institution,  a  type  of  heaven. 
So  it  was  exhibited  to  Abraham,  and  also  to 
the  Jews.  It  pointed  to  the  eternal  rest  which 
the  spiritual  seed  of  the  father  of  the  faithful 
were  to  enjoy  after  the  pilgrimage  of  life ;  its 
holy  city  was  the  figure  of  the  "  Jerusalem 
above  ;"  and  Zion,  with  its  solemn  and  joyful 
services  represented  that  "  hill  of  the  Lord"  to 
which  the  redeemed  shall  come  with  songs,  and 
everlasting  joy  upon  their  heads ;  where  they 
shall  obtain  joy  and  gladness,  and  sorrow  and 
sighing  shall  fly  away. 

CANAANITES,  the  posterity  of  Canaan 
by  his  eleven  sons,  who  are  supposed  to  have 
settled  in  the  land  of  Canaan,  soon  after  the 
dispersion  of  Babel.  Five  of  these  are  known 
to  have  dwelt  in  the  land  of  Canaan  ;  viz.  Heth, 
Jebus,  Hemor  or  Amor,  Girgashi,  and  Hevi  or 
Hivi ;  and  these,  together  with  their  father 
Canaan,  became  the  heads  of  so  many  nations. 
Sina  or  Sini  was  another  son  of  Canaan,  whose 
settlement  is  not  so  precisely  ascertained ;  but 
some  authors  infer,  from  the  affinity  of  the 
names,  that  the  Desert  of  Sin,  and  Mount 
Sinai,  were  the  places  of  his  abode,  and  that 
they  were  so  called  from  him.  The  Hittites 
inhabited  the  country  about  Hebron,  as  far  as 
Beersheba,  and  the  brook  Besor,  reckoned  by 
Moses  the  southern  limits  of  Canaan.  The 
Jebusites  dwelt  near  them  on  the  north,  as  far 
as  the  city  of  Jebus,  since  called  Jerusalem. 
The  Amorites  possessed  the  country  on  the 
east  side  of  Jordan,  between  the  river  Arnon 
on  the  south-east,  and  Mount  Gilead  on  the 
north,  afterward  the  lot  of  Reuben  and  Gad. 
The  Girgashites  lay  next  above  the  Amorites, 
on  the  east  sido  of  the  Sea  of  Tiberias,  and 
their  land  was  afterward  possessed  by  the  half 
tribe  of  Manasseh.  The  Hivites  dwelt  north- 
ward, under  Mount  Libanus.  The  Perizzites, 
Who  make  one  of  the  seven  nations  of  the  Ca- 


naan ites,  are  supposed,  by  Heylin  and  others, 
to  be  the  descendants  of  Sina  or  Sini ;  and  it  is 
probable,  since  we  do  not  read  of  their  abode  in 
cities,  that  they  lived  dispersed,  and  in  tents, 
like  the  Scythians,  roving  on  both  sides  of  tho 
Jordan,  on  the  hills  and  plains ;  and  that  they 
were  called  by  that  name    from  the  Hebrew 
pharatz,  which  signifies  •'  to  disperse."     Tho 
Canaanites  dwelt  in  the  midst  of  all,  and  were 
surrounded  by  the  rest.     This  appears  from  tho 
sacred  writings  to  have  been  the  respective 
situation  of  those  seven  nations,  which  are  said 
to  have  been  doomed  to  destruction  for  their 
idolatry  and  wickedness,  when  the  Israelites 
first  invaded  their  country.     The  learned  have 
not  absolutely  determined  whether  the  nations 
proceeding    from    Canaan's    other    six    sons 
should  be  reckoned  among  the  inhabitants  of 
the  land  of  Canaan.     The  prevalent  opinion 
is,  that  they  were  not  included.     As  to  the 
customs,   manners,    arts,    sciences,    and   lan- 
guage of  the  seven  nations  that  inhabited  the 
land  of  Canaan,  they  must,  from  the  situation 
they  severally  occupied,  have  been  very  differ- 
ent.    Those  who  inhabited  the  sea  coast  were 
merchants,  and  by  reason  of  their  commerce 
ann  wealth  scattered  colonies  over  almost  all 
the  islands  and  maritime  provinces  of  the  Me- 
diterranean.    (See    Phenicia.)     The    colonies 
which  Cadmus  carried  to  Thebes  in  Bajotia, 
and  his  brother  Cilix  into  Cilicia,  are  said  to 
have  proceeded   from   the   stock    of  Canaan. 
Sicily,  Sardinia,  Malta,  Cyprus,  Corfu,  Ma- 
jorca, Minorca,  Gades,  and  Ebutris,  are  sup- 
posed to  have  been  peopled  by  the  Canaanites. 
The   other  Canaanites,   whose    situation  was 
inland,  were  employed  partly  in  pasturage,  and 
partly  in  tillage,  and  they  were  also  well  skilled 
in  the  exercise  of  arms.     Those  who  dwelt  in 
the  walled  cities,  and  who  had  fixed  abodes, 
cultivated  the  land  ;  and  those  who  wandered 
about,    as  the  Perizzites  seem  to  have  done, 
grazed  cattle  :  so  that  among  the  Canaanites, 
we  discover  the  various  classes  of  merchants, 
and,  consequently,  mariners ;  of  artificers,  sol- 
diers, shepherds,  and  husbandmen.     We  learn, 
also,  from  their  history,   that  they  were  all 
ready,  however  diversified  by  their  occupations 
or  local  interests,  to  join  in  a  common  cause  ; 
that  they  were  well  appointed  for  war,  both 
offensive  and  defensive  ;  that  their  towns  were 
well  fortified ;    that  they  were  sufficiently  fur- 
nished with  military  weapons  and  warlike  cha- 
riots ;    that  they  were  daring,  obstinate,  and 
almost  invincible  ;  and  that  they  were  not  des- 
titute of  craft  and  policy.     Their  language,  wc 
find,  was  well  understood  by  Abraham,  who 
was  a  Hebrew,  for  he  conversed  readily  with 
them  on  all  occasions  ;  but  as  to  their  mode  of 
writing,  whether  it  was  originally  their  own  or 
borrowed  from  the  Israelites,  it  is  not  so  easy 
to  determine.     Their  religion,  at  least  in  part, 
seems  to  have  been  preserved  pure  till  the  days 
of  Abraham,  who  acknowledged  Melchisedek 
to  be  priest  of  the  most  high  God ;  and  Mel- 
chisedek was,  without  doubt,  a  Canaanite,  or, 
at  least,  dwelt  at  that  time  in  Canaan  in  high 
esteem  and  veneration. 
2.  But  we  learn  from  the  Scripture  history, 


CAN 


212 


CAN 


that  the  Hittitcs  in  particular  were  become  de- 
generate in  the  time  of  Isaac  and  Rebekah  ; 
for  they  could  not  endure  the  thoughts  of  Ja- 
cob's marrying  one  of  the  daughters  of  Heth, 
as  Esau  had  done.     From  this  time,  then,  we 
may  date  the  prevalence  of  those  abominations 
which  subjected  them  to  the  divine  displeasure, 
and  made  them  unworthy  of  the  land  which 
they  possessed.      In  the  days  of  Moses,  they 
were  become  incorrigible  idolaters  ;  for  he  com- 
mands his  people  to  destroy  their  altars,  and 
break  down  their  images,  (statues  or  pillars,) 
and  cut  down  their    groves,    and  burn  their 
graven  images  with  fire.     And  lest  they  should 
pervert  the  Israelites,   the  latter  were  strictly 
enjoined  not  to  intermarry  with  them ;  but  "  to 
smite  them,  and  utterly  destroy  them,  nor  show 
mercy  upon  them,"  Deut.  vii,  1-5.     They  are 
accused    of  the    cruel    custom    of  sacrificing 
men,  and  are  said  to  have  made  their  seed  pass 
through  the   fire  to  Moloch,  Lev.  xviii,  21. 
Their  morals  were  as  corrupt  as  their  doctrine  : 
adultery,  bestiality  of  all   sorts,   profanation, 
incest,  and  all  manner  of  uncleanness,  are  the 
sins  laid  to  their  charge.     "  The  Canaanites," 
says  Mr.  Biyant,  "as  they  were  a  sister  tribe 
of  the  Mizraim,  resembled  them  in  their  rites 
and  religion.     They  held  a  heifer,  or  cow,  in 
high  veneration,  agreeably  to  the  customs  of 
Egypt.     Their  chief  deity  was  the  sun,  whom 
they  worshipped,  together  with  the  Baalim,  un- 
der the  titles  of  Ourchol,  Adonis,  or  Thamuz." 
3.  When  the  measure  of  the  idolatries  and 
abominations  of  the  Canaanites  was  filled  up, 
God  delivered  their  country  into  the  hands  of 
the  Israelites,  who  conquered  it  under  Joshua. 
However,  they  resisted  with  obstinate  valour, 
and  kept  Joshua  employed  six  years  from  the 
time  of  his  passing  the  river  Jordan,  and  enter- 
ing Canaan,  in  the  year  B.  C.  1451,  to  the  year 
B.  C.  1445,  the  sabbatical  year  beginning  from 
the  autumnal  equinox  ;  when  he  made  a  division 
of  the  land  among  the  tribes  of  Israel,  and  rested 
from  his  conquests.     As  God  had  commanded 
this  people,  long  before,   to  be  treated  with 
rigour,  see  Deut.  vii,  2,  Joshua  extirpated  great 
numbers,  and  obliged  the  rest  to  fly,  some  of 
them    into    Africa,    and    others    into    Greece. 
Procopius  says,  they  first  retreated  into  Egypt, 
but   advanced  into  Africa,   where   they  built 
many  cities,  and  spread  themselves  over  those 
vast  regions  which  reach  to  the  straits,  pre- 
serving their  old  language  with  little   altera- 
tion.    In  the  time  of  Athanasius,  the  Africans 
still  said  they  were  descended  from    the  Ca- 
naanites; and  when  asljed  their  origin,  they 
answered,  "  Canani."      It  is  agreed,  that  the 
Punic  tongue  was  nearly  the  same  as  the  Ca- 
naanitish  or  Hebrew. 

4.  On  the  rigorous  treatment  of  the  nations 
of  Canaan  by  the  Israelites,  to  which  infidels 
have  taken  so  many  exceptions,  the  following 
remarks  of  Palcy  are  a  sufficient  reply :  The 
first  thing  to  be  observed  is,  that  the  nations 
of  Canaan  were  destroyed  for  their  wickedness. 
This  is  plain  from  Lev.  xviii,  24,  &c.  Now 
the  fact6  disclosed  in  this  passage  sufficiently 
testify,  that  the  Canaanites  were  a  wicked  peo- 
ple ;  that  detestable   practices  were   general 


among  them,  and  even  habitual ;  that  it  was 
for  these  enormities  the  nations   of  Canaan 
were   destroyed.     It  was  not,   as  some  have 
imagined,  to  make  way  for  the  Israelites ;  nor 
was  it  simply  to  make  away  with  their  idola- 
try ;   but  it  was  because    of  the    abominable 
crimes  which  usually  accompanied  the  latter. 
And  we  may  farther  learn  from  the  passage, 
that  God's  abhorrence  of  these  crimes  and  his 
indignation  against  them  are  regulated  by  the 
rules  of  strict  impartiality,  since  Moses  solemnly 
warns  the  Israelites  against  falling  into  the  like 
wicked  courses,  "  that  the  land,"  says  he,  "  cast 
not  you  out  also,  when  you  defile  it,  as  it  cast 
out  the  nations  that  were  before  you ;  for  who- 
soever shall  commit  any  of  these  abominations, 
even  the  souls  that  commit  them  shall  be  cut 
off  from  among  their  people,"  Lev.  xviii,  28, 29. 
Now,  when  God,  for  the  wickedness  of  a  peo- 
ple, sends  an  earthquake,  or  a  fire,  or  a  plague 
among  them,  there  is  no  complaint  of  injustice, 
especially  when  the  calamity  is  known,  or  ex- 
pressly declared  beforehand,  to  be  inflicted  for 
the  wickedness  of  such  people.      It  is  rather 
regarded  as  an  act  of  exemplary  penal  justice, 
and,  as  such,  consistent  with  the  character  of 
the  moral  Governor  of  the  universe.     The  ob- 
jection, therefore,  is  not  to  the  Canaanitish  na- 
tions being  destroyed ;  (for  when  their  national 
wickedness  is  considered,  and  when  that  is  ex- 
pressly stated  as  the  cause  of  their  destruction, 
the  dispensation,  however  severe,  will  not  be 
questioned ;)  but  the  objection  is  solely  to  the 
manner  of  destroying  them.     I  mean  there  ia 
nothing  but  the  manner  left  to  be  objected  to : 
their  wickedness  accounts  for  the  thing  itself. 
To  which  objection  it  may  be  replied,  that  if 
the  thing  itself  be  just,  the  manner  is  of  little 
signification,  of  little  signification  even  to  the 
sufferers  themselves.     For  where  is  the  great 
difference,  even  to  them,  whether  they  were 
destroyed  by  an    earthquake,  a  pestilence,    a 
famine,  or  by  the  hands  of  an  enemy?  Where 
is  the  difference,  even  to  our  imperfect  appre- 
hensions of  divine  justice,  provided  it  be,  and 
is  known  to  be,  for  their  wickedness  that  they 
are  destroyed  ?    But  this  destruction,  you  say, 
confounded  the  innocent  with  the  guilty.  The 
sword  of  Joshua,  and  of  the  Jews  spared  nei- 
ther women  nor  children.     Is  it  not  the  same 
with  all  other  national  visitations?  Would  not 
an  earthquake,    or  a  fire,    or  a  plague,  or  a 
famine    among  them   have    done    the    same  ? 
Even   in   an    ordinary  and  natural  death  the 
same  thing  happens;  God  takes  away  the  life 
he  lends,  without  regard,  that  we  can  perceive, 
to  age,  or  sex,  or  character.     "But,  after  all, 
promiscuous  massacres,  the  burning  of  cities, 
the  laying  waste  of  countries,  are  things  dread- 
ful to  reflect  upon."     Who  doubts  it  ?    so  are 
all  the  judgments  of  Almighty  God.  The  effect, 
in  whatever  way  it  shows  itself,  must  necessa- 
rily be  tremendous,  when  the  Lord,  as  the 
Psalmist  expresses  it,  "moveth  out  of  his  place 
to  punish  the  wicked."     But  it  ought  to  satisfy 
us ;  at  least  this  is  the  point  upon  which  we 
ought  to  rest  and  fix  our  attention  ;  that  it  was 
for  excessive,   wilful,    and  forewarned  wick- 
edness, that  all  this  befel  them,  and  that  it  ia 


CAN 


213 


CAN 


all  along  so  declared  in  the  history  which 
recites  it. 

But,  farther,  if  punishing  them  by  the  hands 
of  the  Israelites  rather  than  by  a  pestilence,  an 
earthquake,  a  fire,  or  any  such  calamity,  be 
still  an  objection,  we  may  perceive,  I  think, 
some  reasons  for  this  method  of  punishment  in 
preference  to  any  other  whatever ;  always  bear- 
ing in  our  mind,  that  the  question  is  not  con- 
cerning the  justice  of  the  punishment,  but  the 
mode  of  it.  It  is  well  known,  that  the  people 
of  those  ages  were  affected  by  no  proof  of  the 
power  of  the  gods  which  they  worshipped,  so 
deeply  as  by  their  giving  them  victory  in  war. 
It  was  by  this  species  of  evidence  that  the  su- 
periority of  their  own  gods  above  the  gods  of 
the  nations  which  they  conquered,  was,  in  their 
opinion,  evinced.  This  being  the  actual  per- 
suasion which  then  prevailed  in  the  world,  no 
matter  whether  well  or  ill  founded,  how  were 
the  neighbouring  nations,  for  whose  admoni- 
tion this  dreadful  example  was  intended,  how 
were  they  to  be  convinced  of  the  supreme 
power  of  the  God  of  Israel  above  the  pretended 
gods  of  other  nations ;  and  of  the  righteous 
character  of  Jehovah,  that  is,  of  his  abhorrence 
of  the  vices  which  prevailed  in  the  land  of  Ca- 
naan ?  How,  I  say,  were  they  to  be  convinced 
so  well,  or  at  all  indeed,  as  by  enabling  the 
Israelites,  whose  God  he  was  known  and  ac- 
knowledged to  be,  to  conquer  under  his  banner, 
and  drive  out  before  them,  those  who  resisted 
the  execution  of  that  commission  with  which 
the  Israelites  declared  themselves  to  be  invest- 
ed, namely,  the  expulsion  and  extermination 
of  the  Canaanitish  nations  ?  This  convinced 
surrounding  'countries,  and  all  who  were  ob- 
servers or  spectators  of  what  passed,  first,  that 
the  God  of  Israel  was  a  real  God ;  secondly, 
that  the  gods  which  other  nations  worshipped, 
were  either  no  gods,  or  had  no  power  against 
the  God  of  Israel ;  and  thirdly,  that  it  was  he, 
and  he  alone,  who  possessed  both  the  power 
and  the  will,  to  punish,  to  destroy,  and  to  ex- 
terminate from  before  his  face,  both  nations 
and  individuals,  who  gave  themselves  up  to  the 
crimes  and  wickedness  for  which  the  Canaan- 
it  es  were  notorious.  Nothing  of  this  sort  would 
have  appeared,  or  with  the  same  evidence,  from 
an  earthquake,  or  a  plague,  or  any  natural  ca- 
lamity. These  might  not  have  been  attributed 
to  divine  agency  at  all,  or  not  to  the  interpo- 
sition of  the  God  of  Israel. 

Another  reason  which  made  this  destruction 
both  more  necessary,  and  more  general,  than 
it  would  have  otherwise  been,  was  the  con- 
sideration, that  if  any  of  the  old  inhabitants 
were  left,  they  would  prove  a  snare  to  those 
who  succeeded  them  in  the  country ;  would 
draw  and  seduce  them  by  degrees  into  the  vices 
and  corruptions  which  prevailed  among  them- 
selves. Vices  of  all  kinds,  but  vices  most  par- 
ticularly of  the  licentious  kind,  are  astonish- 
ingly infectious.  A  little  leaven  leaveneth  the 
whole  lump.  A  small  number  of  persons  ad- 
dicted to  them,  and  allowed  to  practise  them 
with  impunity  or  encouragement,  will  spread 
them  through  the  whole  mass.  This  reason  is 
formally  and  expressly  assigned,  not  6imply  for 


the  punishment,  but  for  the  extent  to  which  it 
was  carried;  namely,  extermination:  "Thou 
shalt  utterly  destroy  them,  that  they  teach  you 
not  to  do  after  all  their  abominations,  which 
they  have  done  unto  their  gods." 

In  reading  the  Old  Testament  account, 
therefore,  of  the  Jewish  wars  and  conquests  in 
Canaan,  and  the  terrible  destruction  brought 
upon  the  inhabitants  thereof,  we  are  always  to 
remember  that  we  are  reading  the  execution  of 
a  dreadful  but  just  sentence,  pronounced  by 
Jehovah  against  the  intolerable  and  incorrigi- 
ble crimes  of  these  nations ;  that  they  were 
intended  to  be  made  an  example  to  the  whole 
world  of  God's  avenging  wrath  against  sins, 
which,  if  they  had  been  suffered  to  continue, 
might  have  polluted  the  whole  ancient  world, 
and  which  could  only  be  checked  by  the  signal 
and  public  overthrow  of  nations  notoriously 
addicted  to  them,  and  so  addicted  as  even  to 
have  incorporated  them  into  their  religion  and 
their  public  institutions ;  and  that  the  Israel- 
ites were  mere  instruments  in  the  hands  of  a 
righteous  Providence  for  effecting  the  extir. 
pation  of  a  people,  of  whom  it  was  necessary 
to  make  a  public  example  to  the  rest  of  man- 
kind ;  that  this  extermination,  which  might 
have  been  accomplished  by  a  pestilence,  by  fire, 
by  earthquakes,  was  appointed  to  be  done  by 
the  hands  of  the  Israelites,  as  being  the  clear, 
est  and  most  intelligible  method  of  displaying 
the  power  and  the  righteousness  of  the  God  of 
Israel ;  his  power  over  the  pretended  gods  of 
other  nations;  and  his  righteous  indignation 
against  the  crimes  into  which  they  were  fallen. 

C.4.NDACE,  the  name  of  an  Ethiopian 
queen,  whose  eunuch  coming  to  Jerusalem  to 
worship  the  Lord,  was  baptized  by  Philip  the 
deacon,  near  Bethsura,  in  the  way  to  Gaza,  as 
he  was  returning  to  his  own  country,  Acts 
viii,  27.  The  Ethiopia  here  mentioned  was 
the  isle  or  peninsula  of  Meroe  to  the  south  of 
Egypt,  which,  as  Mr.  Bruce  shows,  is  now 
called  Atbara,  up  the  Nile.  Candace  was  the 
common  name  of  the  queens  of  that  country, 
Strabo  and  Pliny  mention  queens  of  that  name 
as  reigning  in  their  times.  That  the  queen 
mentioned  in  the  Acts  was  converted  by  tho 
instrumentality  of  her  servant,  and  that  tho 
country  thus  received  Christianity  at  that  early 
period,  are  statements  not  supported  by  any 
good  testimony.     See  Abyssinian  Church. 

CANDLESTICK.  The  instrument  so  ren- 
dered by  our  translators  was  more  properly  a 
stand  for  lamps.  One  of  beaten  gold  was  made 
by  Moses,  Exod.  xxv,  31,  32,  and  put  into  the 
tabernacle  in  the  holy  place,  over  against  the 
table  of  shew  bread.  The  basis  of  this  candle- 
stick was  also  of  pure  gold ;  it  had  seven 
branches,  three  on  each  side,  and  one  in  the 
middle.  When  Solomon  had  built  the  temple, 
he  was  not  satisfied  with  placing  one  golden 
candlestick  there,  but  had  ten  put  up,  of  tho 
same  form  and  metal  with  that  described  by 
Moses,  five  on  the  north,  and  five  on  the  south 
side  of  the  holy  place,  1  Kings  vii,  49.  After 
the  Jews  returned  from  their  captivity,  the 
golden  candlestick  was  again  placed  in  the  tem- 
ple, as  it  had  been  before  in  the  tabernacle  by 


CAN 


214 


CAN 


Moses.  The  lamps  were  kept  burning  per- 
petually ;  and  were  supplied  morning  and  even- 
ing  with  pure  olive  oil.  Joscphus  says,  that 
after  the  Romans  had  destroyed  the  temple, 
the  several  things  which  were  found  with'in  it, 
were  carried  in  triumph  to  Rome,  namely,  the 
golden  table,  and  the  golden  candlestick  with 
seven  branches.  Thsse  were  lodged  in  the 
temple  built  by  Vespasian,  and  consecrated  to 
Peace  ;  and  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Palatine,  there 
is  a  triumphal  arch  still  visible,  upon  which 
Vespasian's  triumph  is  represented,  and  the 
several  monuments  which  were  carried  pub- 
licly in  the  procession  are  engraved,  and  among 
the  rest  the  candlestick  with  the  seven  branch- 
es, which  are  still  discernible  upon  it.  In  Rev. 
i,  12,  20,  mention  is  made  of  seven  golden  can- 
dlesticks, which  are  said  to  be  emblems  of  the 
seven  Christian  churches. 

CANKER-WORM,  pV",  Psalm  cv,  34 ;  Jer. 
li,  27,  where  it  is  rendered  caterpillar  ;  Joel  i,  4 ; 
ii,  25;  Nahum  iii,  15,  canker-icorm.  As  it  is 
frequently  mentioned  with  the  locust,  it  is 
thought  by  some  to  be  a  species  of  that  insect. 
It  certainly  cannot  be  the  canker-worm,  as  our 
version  renders  it ;  for  in  Nahum,  it  is  expressly 
said  to  have  wings  and  fly,  to  camp  in  the 
hedges  by  day,  and  commit  its  depredations  in 
the  night.  But  it  may  be,  as  the  Septuagint 
renders  it  in  five  passages  out  of  eight  where 
it  occurs,  the  bruchus,  or  "hedge-chaffer." 
Nevertheless,  tlie  passage,  Jer.  li,  27,  where 
ihe  ialek  is  described  as  "  rough,"  that  is,  with 
hair  standing  an  end  on  it,  leads  us  very 
naturally  to  the  rendering  of  our  translators  in 
that  place,  "the  rough  caterpillar,"  which,  like 
other  caterpillars,  at  a  proper  time,  casts  its  ex. 
terior  covering  and  flics  away  in  a  winged 
state.  Scheuchzer  observes  that  we  should  not, 
perhaps,  be  far  from  the  truth,  if  with  the  an- 
cient interpreters,  we  understood  this  ialek, 
after  al],  as  a  kind  of  locust ;  as  some  species 
of  them  have  hair  principally  on  the  head,  and 
others  have  prickly  points  standing  out. 

CANON,  a  word  used  to  denote  the  author- 
ized catalogue  of  the  sacred  writings.  The 
word  is  originally  Greek,  Kurar,  and  signifies  a 
rule  or  standard,  by  which  other  things  are  to 
be  examined  and  judged.  Accordingly  the 
same  word  has  been  applied  to  the  tongue  of 
a  balance,  or  that  small  part  which,  by  its  per- 
pendicular position,  determines  the  even  poise 
or  weight,  Qr,  by  its  inclination  either  way, 
the  uneven  poise  of  the  things  which  are 
weighed.  Hence  it  appears,  that  as  the  writ- 
ings of  the  Prophets,  Apostles,  and  Evangel- 
ists contain  an  authentic  account  of  the  revealed 
will  of  God,  they  are  the  rule  of  the  belief  and 
practice  of  those  who  receive  them.  Canon  is 
also  equivalent  to  a  list  or  catalogue,  in  which 
are  inserted  those  books  which  contain  the 
rule  of  faith. 

For  an  account  of  the  settling  of  the  canon 
of  Scripture,  see  Bible.  The  following  obser- 
vations of  Dr.  Alexander,  in  his  work  on  the 
canon,  proving  that  no  canonical  book  of  the 
Old  or  New  Testament  has  been  lost,  may  here 
be  properly  introduced. — No  canonical  book 
of  the  Old  Testament  has  been  lost.     On  this 


subject,  there  has  existed  some  diversity  of 
opinion.  Chrysostom  is  cited  by  Bellarmine 
as  saying,  "that  many  of  the  writings  of  the 
prophets  had  perished,  which  may  readily  be 
proved  from  the  history  in  Chronicles.  For 
the  Jews  were  negligent,  and  not  only  negli- 
gent, but  impious ;  so  that  some  books  were 
lost  through  carelessness,  and  others  were 
burned,  or  otherwise  destroyed."  In  confirm- 
ation  of  this  opinion,  an  appeal  is  made  to 

1  Kings  iv,  32,  33,  where  it  is  said  of  Solomon, 
"  that  he  spake  three  thousand  proverbs,  and 
his  songs  were  a  thousand  and  five.  And  he 
spake  of  trees,  from  the  cedar  in  Lebanon  even 
unto  the  hyssop  that  springeth  out  of  the  wall : 
he  spake  also  of  beasts,  and  of  fowl,  and  of 
creeping  things,  and  of  fishes."  All  these  pro- 
ductions, it  is  acknowledged,  have  perished. 
Again  it  is  said  in  1  Chron.  xxix,  29,  30 : 
"Now,  the  acts  of  David  the  king,  first  and 
last,  behold  they  are  written  in  the  book  of 
Samuel  the  seer,  and  in  the  book  of  Nathan 
the  prophet,  and  in  the  book  of  Gad  the  seer ; 
with  all  his  reign,  and  Ins  might,  and  the  times 
that  went  over  him,  and  over  Israel,  and  over 
all  the  kingdoms  of  the  countries."  The  book 
of  Jasher,  also,  is  twice  mentioned  in  Scrip- 
ture. In  Joshua  x,  13:  "And  the  sun  stood 
still,  and  the  moon  stayed,  until  the  people  had 
avenged  themselves  on  their  enemies.  Is  not 
this  written  in  the  book  of  Jasher?"     And  in 

2  Sam.  i,  18:  "And  he  bade  them  teach  the 
children  of  Israel  the  use  of  the  bow :  behold, 
it  js  written  in  the  book  of  Jasher." 

The  book  of  the  wars  of  the  Lord  is  referred 
to  in  Numbers  xxi,  14.  But  we  have  in  the 
canon  no  books  under  the  name  of  Nathan 
and  Gad,  nor  any  book  of  Jasher,  nor  of  the 
wars  of  the  Lord.  Moreover,  we  frequently 
are  referred,  in  the  sacred  history,  to  other 
chronicles  or  annals,  for  a  fuller  account  of  the 
matters  spoken  of,  which  chronicles  are  not 
now  extant.  And  in  2  Chron.  ix,  29,  it  is 
said,  "  Now,  the  rest  of  the  acts  of  Solomon, 
first  and  last,  are  they  not  written  in  the  book 
of  Nathan  the  prophet,  and  in  the  prophecy  of 
Ahijah  the  Shilonite,  and  in  the  visions  of 
Iddo  the  seer,  against  Jeroboam,  the  son  of 
Nebat  ?"  Now,  it  is  well  known  that  none  of 
these  writings  of  the  prophets  are  in  the 
canon ;  at  least,  none  of  them  nnder  their 
names.  It  is  said,  ajso,  in  2  Chron.  xii,  15, 
"Now,  the  acts  of  Rehoboam,  first  and  last, 
are  they  not  written  in  the  book  of  Shemaiah 
the  prophet,  and  of  Iddo  the  seer,  concerning 
genealogies?"  Of  which  work?  nothing  re- 
mains  under  the  names  of  these  prophets. 

1.  Tlie  first  observation  which  may  be  made 
on  this  subject  is,  that  every  book  referred  to 
or  quoted  in  the  sacred  writings  is  not  neces. 
sarily  an  inspired  or  canonical  book.  Because 
St.  Paul  cites  passages  from  the  Greek  poets, 
it  does  not  follow  that  we  must  receive  their 
poems  as  inspired. 

2.  A  book  may  be  written  by  an  inspired 
man,  and  yet  be  neither  inspired  nor  canonical. 
Inspiration  was  not  constantly  afforded  to  the 
prophets ;  but  was  occasional,  and  for  particu- 
lar important  purposes.    In  common  matters, 


CAN 


215 


CAN 


and  especially  in  things  no  way  connected 
with  religion,  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that 
the  Prophets  and  Apostles  were  left  to  the 
same  guidance  of  reason  and  common  sense  as 
other  men.  A  man,  therefore,  inspired  to  de- 
liver some  prophecy,  or  even  to  write  a  canoni- 
cal book,  might  write  other  books  with  no 
greater  assistance  than  other  good  men  re- 
ceive. Because  Solomon  was  inspired  ■  to 
write  some  canonical  books,  it  does  not  fol- 
low that  what  he  wrote  on  natural  history  was 
also  inspired,  any  more  than  Solomon's  private 
letters  to  his  friends,  if  ever  he  wrote  any. 
Let  it  be  remembered  that  the  Prophets  and 
Apostles  were  only  inspired  on  special  occa- 
sions, and  on  particular  subjects,  and  all  diffi- 
culties respecting  such  works  as  these  will 
vanish.  How  many  of  the  books  referred  to 
in  the  Bible,  and  mentioned  above,  may  have 
been  of  this  description,  it  is  now  impossible 
to  tell ;  but  probably  several  of  them  belong  to 
this  class.  No  doubt  there  were  many  books 
of  annals  much  more  minute  and  particular  in 
the  narration  of  facts  than  those  which  we 
have.  It  was  often  enough  merely  to  refer  to 
these  state  papers,  or  public  documents,  as 
being  sufficiently  correct,  in  regard  to  the  facts 
on  account  of  winch  the  reference  was  made. 
The  book  of  the  wars  of  the  Lord  might,  for 
aught  that  appears,  have  been  merely  a  muster 
roll  of  the  army.  The  word  translated  book. 
has  so  extensive  a  meaning  in  Hebrew,  that  it 
is  not  even  necessary  to  suppose  that  it  was  a 
writing  at  all.  The  book  of  Jasher  (or  of 
Rectitude,  if  we  translate  the  word)  mi^ht  have 
been  some  useful  compend  taken  from  Scrip- 
ture, or  composed  by  the  wise,  for  the  regula- 
tion of  justice  and  equity  between  man  and 
man.  Augustine,  in  his  "  City  of  God,"  has 
distinguished  accurately  on  this  subject.  "  I 
think,"  says  he,  "that  those  books  which 
should  have  authority  in  religion  were  reveal- 
ed by  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  that  men  composed 
others  by  historical  diligence,  as  the  prophets 
did  these  by  inspiration.  And  these  two  classes 
of  books  are  so  distinct,  that  it  is  only  by  those 
written  by  inspiration  that  we  are  to  suppose 
that  God,  througli  them,  is  speaking  unto  us. 
The  one  class  is  useful  for  fulness  of  know- 
ledge ;  the  other,  for  authority  in  religion ;  in 
which  authority  the  canon  is  preserved." 

3.  But  again  :  it  may  be  maintained,  without 
any  prejudice  to  the  completeness  of  the  canon, 
that  there  may  have  been  inspired  writings 
which  were  not  intended  for  the  instruction  of 
the  church  in  all  ages,  but  composed  by  the 
prophets  for  some  special  occasion.  These 
writings,  though  inspired,  were  not  canonical. 
They  were  temporary  in  their  design ;  and 
when  that  was  accomplished,  they  were  no 
longer  needed.  We  know  that  the  prophets 
delivered,  by  inspiration,  many  discourses  to 
the  people,  of  which  we  have  not  a  trace  on 
record.  Many  true  prophets  are  mentioned, 
who  wrote  nothing  that  we  know  of;  and 
several  are  mentioned,  whose  names  are  not 
even  given.  The  same  is  true  of  the  Apostles. 
Very  few  of  them  had  any  concern  in  writing 
the  canonical  Scriptures,  and  yet  they  all  pos- 


sessed plenary  inspiration.  And  if  they  wrote 
letters  on  special  occasions,  to  the  churches 
planted  by  them  ;  yet  these  were  not  designed 
tor  the  perpetual  instruction  of  the  universal 
church.  Therefore,  Shemaiah,  and  Iddo,  and 
Nathan,  and  Gad,  might  have  written  some 
things  by  inspiration  which  were  never  intend- 
ed to  form  a  part  of  the  .sacred  volume.  It  is 
not  asserted  that  there  certainly  existed  such 
temporary  inspired  writings :  all  that  is  neces- 
sary to  be  maintained  is,  that,  supposing  such 
to  have  existed,  which  is  not  improbable,  it 
does  not  follow  that  the  canon  is  incomplete 
by  reason  of  their  loss. 

4.  The  last  remark  in  relation  to  the  books 
of  the  Old  Testament  supposed  to  be  lost  is, 
that  it  is  highly  probable  that  we  have  several 
of  them  now  in  the  canon,  under  another  name. 
The  books  of  Samuel,  Kings,  and  Chronicles, 
were,  probably,  not  written  by  one,  but  by  a 
succession  of  prophets.  There  is  reason  to 
believe  that,  until  the  canon  of  sacred  Scrip, 
ture  was  closed,  the  succession  of  prophets 
was  never  interrupted.  Whatever  was  neces- 
sary to  be  added,  by  way  of  explanation,  to 
any  book  already  received  into  the  canon,  they 
were  competent  to  annex  ;  or,  whatever  annals 
or  histories  it  was  the  purpose  of  God  to  have 
transmitted  to  posterity,  they  would  be  direct- 
ed and  inspired  to  prepare.  Thus,  different 
parts  of  these  books  might  have  been  penned 
by  Gad,  Nathan,  Iddo,  Shemaiah,  &c.  That 
some  parts  of  these  histories  were  prepared  by 
prophets,  we  have  clear  proof  in  one  instance ; 
for  Isaiah  has  inserted  in  his  prophecy  several 
chapters  which  are  contained  in  2  Kings,  and 
which,  I  think,  there  can  be  no  doubt  were 
originally  written  by  himself.  The  Jewish 
doctors  are  of  opinion  that  the  book  of  Jasher 
is  one  of  the  books  of  the  Pentateuch,  or  the 
whole  law.  The  book  of  the  wars  of  the 
Lord  has  by  many  been  supposed  to  be  no 
other  than  the  book  of  Numbers. 

Thus,  it  sufficiently  appears  from  an  exami- 
nation of  particulars,  that  there  exists  no  evi- 
dence that  any  canonical  book  of  the  Old 
Testament  has  been  lost.  To  which  we  may 
add,  that  there  are  many  general  considerations 
of  great  weight  which  go  to  prove  that  no  part 
of  the  Scriptures  of  the  Old  Testament  has 
been  lost.  The  translation  of  these  books  into 
Greek  is  sufficient  to  show  that  the  same  books 
existed  nearly  two  hundred  years  before  the 
advent  of  Christ.  And,  above  all,  the  unquali- 
fied testimony  to  the  Scriptures  of  the  Old 
Testament,  by  Christ  and  his  Apostles,  ought 
to  satisfy  us  that  we  have  lost  none  of  the  in- 
spired books  of  the  canon.  The  Scriptures  are 
constantly  referred  to,  and  quoted  as  infallible 
authority  by  them,  as  we  have  before  shown. 
These  oracles  were  committed  to  the  Jews  as 
a  sacred  deposit,  and  they  are  never  charged 
with  unfaithfulness  in  this  trust.  The  Scrip- 
tures are  declared  to  have  been  written  "  for 
our  learning  j"  and  no  intimation  is  given  that 
they  had  ever  been  mutilated,  or  in  any  degree 
corrupted. 

As  to  the  New  Testament,  the  same  author 
proceeds :  With  respect  to  the  New  Testament, 


CAN 


216 


CAN 


I  am  ready  to  concede,  as  was  before  done, 
that  there  may  have  been  books  written  by  in- 
spired men  that  have  been  lost ;  for  inspiration 
was  occasional,  not  constant ;  and  confined  to 
matters  of  fajth,  and  not  afforded  on  the  affairs 
of  this  life,  or  in  matters  of  mere  science. 
And  if  such  writings  have  been  lost,  the  canon 
of  Scripture  has  suffered  no  more  by  this 
means,  than  by  the  loss  of  any  other  uninspir- 
ed books.  But  again :  I  am  willing  to  go  far- 
ther, and  say  that  it  is  possible  (although  I 
know  no  evidence  of  the  fact)  that  some  things, 
written  under  the  influence  of  inspiration,  for 
a  particular  occasion,  and  to  rectify  some  dis- 
order in  a  particular  church,  may  have  been 
lost,  without  injury  to  the  canon.  For,  since 
much  that  the  Apostles  preached  by  inspiration 
is  undoubtedly  lost,  so  there  is  no  reason  why 
every  word  which  they  wrote  must  necessarily 
be  preserved,  and  form  a  part  of  the  canonical 
volume.  For  example  :  suppose  that  when  St. 
Paul  said,  "  I  wrote  to  you  in  an  epistle  not  to 
company  with  fornicators,"  1  Cor.  v,  9,  he  re- 
ferred to  an  epistle  which  he  had  written  to 
the  Corinthians,  before  the  one  now  called  the 
First ;  it  might  never  have  been  intended  that 
this  letter  should  form  a  constituent  part  of  the 
canon  ;  for  although  it  treated  of  subjects  con- 
nected with  Christian  faith  or  practice,  yet,  an 
occasion  having  arisen,  in  a  short  time,  of 
treating  these  subjects  more  at  large,  every 
thing  in  that  epistle  (supposing  it  ever  to  have 
been  written)  may  have  been  included  in  the 
two  Epistles  to  the  Corinthians  which  are  now 
in  the  canon. 

1.  The  first  argument  to  prove  that  no  ca- 
nonical book  has  been  lost,  is  derived  from  the 
Watchful  care  of  providence  over  the  sacred 
Scriptures.  Now,  to  suppose  that  a  book  writ. 
ten  by  the  inspiration  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and 
intended  to  form  a  part  of  the  canon,  which  is 
the  rule  of  faith  to  the  church,  should  be  ut- 
terly and  irrecoverably  lost,  is  surely  not  very 
honourable  to  the  wisdom  of  God,  and  in  no 
way  consonant  with  the  ordinary  method  of 
his  dispensations,  in  regard  to  his  precious 
truth.  There  is  good  reason  to  think  that,  if 
God  saw  it  needful,  and  for  the  edification  of 
the  church,  that  such  books  should  be  written 
under  the  inspiration  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  by 
his  providence  lie  would  have  taken  care  to 
preserve  them  from  destruction.  We  do  know 
that  this  treasure  of  divine  truth  has  been,  in 
all  ages,  and  in  the  worst  times,  the  special 
care  of  God,  or  not  one  of  the  sacred  books 
would  now  be  in  existence.  And  if  one  ca- 
nonical book  might  be  lost  through  the  negli- 
gence or  unfaithfulness  of  men,  why  not  all? 
And  thus  the  end  of  God,  in  making  a  revela- 
tion of  his  will,  might  have  been  defeated. 
But  whatever  other  corruptions  have  crept  into 
the  Jewish  or  Christian  churches,  it  does  not 
appear  that  either  of  them,  as  a  body,  ever  in- 
curred the  censure  of  having  been  careless  in 
preserving  the  oracles  of  God.  Our  Saviour 
never  charges  the  Jews,  who  perverted  the 
6acred  Scriptures  to  their  own  ruin,  with  hav- 
ing lost  any  portion  of  the  sacred  deposit  in- 
trusted to  them.    History  informs  us  of  the 


fierce  and  malignant  design  of  Antiochus 
Epiphanes,  to  abolish  every  vestige  of  the  sa- 
cred volume ;  but  the  same  history  assures  us 
that  the  Jewish  people  manifested  a  heroic 
fortitude  and  invincible  patience  in  resisting 
and  defeating  his  impious  purpose.  They 
chose  rather  to  sacrifice  their  lives,  and  suffer 
a  cruel  death,  than  to  deliver  up  the  copies  of 
the  sacred  volume  in  their  possession.  And 
the  same  spirit  was  manifested,  and  with  the 
same  result,  in  the  Dioclesian  persecution  of 
the  Christians.  Every  effort  was  made  to  ob- 
literate the  sacred  writings  of  Christians;  and 
multitudes  suffered  death  for  refusing  to  deliver 
up  the  New  Testament.  Some,  indeed,  over- 
come by  the  terrors  of  a  cruel  persecution,  did, 
in  the  hour  of  temptation,  consent  to  surrender 
the  holy  book ;  but  they  were  ever  afterward 
called  traitors  ;  and  it  was  with  the  utmost  dif- 
ficulty that  any  of  them  could  be  received 
again  into  the  communion  of  the  church,  after 
a  long  repentance,  and  the  most  humbling 
confessions  of  their  fault.  Now,  if  any  canoni- 
cal book  was  ever  lost,  it  must  have  been  in 
these  early  times,  when  the  wrord  of  God  was 
valued  far  above  life,  and  when  every  Christian 
stood  ready  to  seal  the  truth  with  his  blood. 

2.  Another  argument  which  appears  to  me 
to  be  convincing  is,  that  in  a  little  time,  all  the 
sacred  books  were  dispersed  over  the  whole 
world.  If  a  book  had,  by  some  accident  or 
violence,  been  destroyed  in  one  region,  the  loss 
could  soon  have  been  repaired,  by  sending  for 
copies  to  other  countries.  The  considerations 
just  mentioned  would,  I  presume,  be  satisfac- 
tory to  all  candid  minds,  were  it  not  that  it  is 
supposed  that  there  is  evidence  that  some  things 
were  written  by  the  Apostles  which  are  not 
now  in  the  canon.  We  have  already  referred 
to  an  epistle  to  the  Corinthians,  which  St.  Paul 
is  supposed  to  have  written  to  them,  previously 
to  the  writing  of  those  which  we  now  possess. 
But  it  is  by  no  means  certain,  or  even  probable, 
that  St.  Paul  ever  did  write  such  an  epistle ; 
for  not  one  ancient  writer  makes  the  least  men- 
tion of  any  such  letter,  nor  is  there  any  where 
to  be  found  any  citation  from  it,  or  any  refer- 
ence to  it.  It  is  a  matter  of  testimony,  in 
which  all  the  fathers  concur,  as  with  one  voice, 
that  St.  Paul  wrote  no  more  than  fourteen  epis- 
tles, all  of  which  we  now  have.  But  still,  St. 
Paul's  own  declaration  stands  in  the  way  of 
our  opinion :  "  I  wrote  to  you  in  an  epistle," 
1  Cor.  v,  9,  11.  The  words  in  the  original  are, 
"E-ypaspa  huiv  iv  rij  im^o'Xji ;  the  literal  version  of 
which  is,  "I  have  written  to  you  in  the  epis. 
tie,"  or  "  in  this  epistle  ;"  that  is,  in  the  former 
part  of  it ;  where,  in  fact,  we  find  the  very  thing 
which  he  says  that  he  had  written.  See  1  Cor. 
v,  2,  5,  6.  But  it  is  thought  by  learned  and 
judicious  commentators,  that  the  words  follow 
ing,  Nuii  <5f  cypa-^a  vfitv,  "  But  now  I  have  writ 
ten  unto  you,"  require  that  wo  should  understand 
the  former  clause,  as  relating  to  some  former 
time  ;  but  a  careful  attention  to  the  context 
will  convince  us  that  this  reference  is  by  no 
means  necessary.  The  Apostle  had  told  them 
in  the  beginning  of  the  chapter,  to  avoid  the 
company  of  fornicators,  &c ;  but  it  is  manifest, 


CAN 


217 


CAN 


from  the  tenth  verse,  that  he  apprehended  that 
his  meaning  might  be  misunderstood,  by  ex- 
tending the  prohibition  too  far,  so  as  to  decline 
all  intercourse  with  the  world ;  therefore,  he 
repeats  what  he  had  said,  and  informs  them 
that  it  had  relation  only  to  the  professors  of 
Christianity,  who  should  be  guilty  of  such  vices. 
The  whole  may  be  thus  paraphrased  :  "  I  wrote 
to  you  above  in  my  letter,  that  you  should  se- 
parate from  those  who  were  fornicators,  and 
that  you  should  purge  them  out  as  old  leaven  ; 
but,  fearing  lest  you  should  misapprehend  my 
meaning,  by  inferring  that  I  have  directed  you 
to  avoid  all  intercourse  with  the  Heathen  around 
you,  who  are  addicted  to  these  shameful  vices, 
which  would  make  it  necessary  that  you  should 
go  out  of  the  world,  I  now  inform  you  that  my 
meaning  is,  that  you  do  not  associate  familiar- 
ly with  any  who  make  a  profession  of  Chris- 
tianity, and  yet  continue  in  these  evil  prac- 
tices." In  confirmation  of  this  interpretation, 
we  can  adduce  the  old  Syriac  version,  which, 
having  been  made  soon  after  the  days  of  the 
Apostles,  is  good  testimony  in  relation  to  this 
matter  of  fact.  In  this  venerable  version,  the 
meaning  of  the  eleventh  verse  is  thus  given  : 
"  This  is  what  I  have  written  unto  you,"  or, 
"the  meaning  of  what  I  have  written  unto 
you." 

The  only  other  passage  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment which  has  been  thought  to  refer  to  an 
epistle  of  St.  Paul  not  now  extant,  is  that  in 
Colossians  iv,  16:  "And  when  this  epistle  is 
read  among  you,  cause  also  that  it  be  read  in 
the  church  of  the  Laodiceans,  and  that  ye  like- 
wise read  the  epistle  from  Laodicea."  But 
what  evidence  is  there  that  St.  Paul  ever  wrote 
an  epistle  to  the  Laodiceans  ?  The  text  on 
which  this  opinion  has  been  founded,  in  an- 
cient and  modern  times,  correctly  interpreted, 
has  no  sucli  import.  The  words  in  the  original 
are,  Kal  n)v  ne  Aao&iKdas  'ivu  Kal  hjieii  avayxmrF,  "  and 
that  ye  likewise  read  the  epistle  from  Laodicea," 
Col.  iv,  16.  These  words  have  been  differently 
taken ;  for,  by  them  some  understand  that  an 
epistle  had  been  written  by  St.  Paul  to  the 
Laodiceans,  which  he  desired  might  be  read  in 
the  church  at  Colosse.  Chrysostom  seems  to 
have  understood  them  thus ;  and  the  Romish 
writers  almost  universally  have  adopted  this 
opinion.  "Therefore,"  says  Bellarmine,  "it 
is  certain  that  St.  Paul's  epistle  to  the  Laodi- 
ceans is  now  lost."  And  their  opinion  is  fa- 
voured by  the  Latin  Vulgate,  where  we  read, 
eamque  Laodicensium,  "that  which  is  of  the 
Laodiceans ;"  but  even  these  words  admit  of 
another  construction.  Many  learned  Protest- 
ants, also,  have  embraced  the  same  interpret- 
ation ;  while  others  suppose  that  St.  Paul  here 
refers  to  the  epistle  to  the  Ephesians,  which 
they  think  he  sent  to  the  Laodiceans,  and  that 
the  present  inscription  is  spurious.  But  that 
neither  of  these  opinions  is  correct,  may  be 
rendered  very  probable.  That  St.  Paul  could 
not  intend,  by  the  language  used  in  the  pas- 
sage under  consideration,  an  epistle  written  by 
himself,  will  appear  by  the  following  argu- 
ments: (1.)  St.  Paul  could  not,  with  any  proprie- 
ty of  speech,  have  called  an  epistle  written  by 


himself,  and  sent  to  the  Laodiceans,  an  epistle 
from  Laodicea.  He  certainly  would  have  said, 
expos  AaoSiKciav,  [to  Laodicea,]  or  some  such  thing. 
Who  ever  heard  of  an  epistle  addressed  to  any 
individual,  or  to  any  society,  denominated  an 
epistle  from  them  ?  (2.)  If  the  epistle  referred 
to  in  this  passage  had  been  one  written  by  St. 
Paul,  it  would  have  been  most  natural  for  him 
to  call  it  his  epistle  ;  and  this  would  have  ren- 
dered his  meaning  incapable  of  misconstruc- 
tion. (3.)  All  those  best  qualified  to  judge  of 
the  fact,  and  who  were  well  acquainted  with  St. 
Paul's  history  and  writings,  never  mention  any 
such  epistle  :  neither  Clement,  Hennas,  nor  the 
Syriac  interpreter,  knew  any  thing  of  such  an 
epistle  of  St.  Paul.  But  it  may  be  asked,  To 
what  epistle,  then,  does  St.  Paul  refer?  It 
seems  safest  in  such  a  case,  where  testimony 
is  deficient,  to  follow  the  literal  sense  of  the 
words,  and  to  believe  that  it  was  an  epistle 
written  by  the  Laodiceans,  probably  to  him- 
self, which  he  had  sent  to  the  Colossians,  to. 
gether  with  his  own  epistle,  for  their  perusal." 

CANTICLES,  the  book  of,  in  Hebrew, 
□'Tfn  "VIP,  the  song  of  songs.  The  church, 
as  well  as  the  synagogue,  received  this  book 
generally  as  canonical.  The  royal  author  ap- 
pears, in  the  typical  spirit  of  his  times,  to  have 
designed  to  render  a  ceremonial  appointment 
descriptive  of  a  spiritual  relation  ;  and  this  sojig 
is  accordingly  considered,  by  judicious  writers, 
to  be  a  mystical  allegory  of  that  sort  which  in- 
duces a  more  sublime  sense  on  historical  truths, 
and  which,  by  the  description  of  human  events, 
shadows  out  divine  circumstances.  The  sacred 
writers  were,  by  God's  condescension,  author- 
ized to  illustrate  his  strict  and  intimate  rela- 
tion to  the  church  by  the  figure  of  a  marriage  ; 
and  the  emblem  must  have  been  strikingly  be- 
coming and  expressive  to  the  conceptions  of 
the  Jews,  since  they  annexed  ideas  of  peculiar  ' 
mystery  to  this  appointment,  and  imagined  the 
marriage  union  to  be  a  counterpart  representa- 
tion of  some  original  pattern  in  heaven.  Hence 
it  was  performed  among  them  with  very  pecu- 
liar ceremonies  and  solemnity,  with  every 
thing  that  could  give  dignity  and  importance 
to  its  rites.  Solomon,  therefore,  in  celebrat- 
ing the  circumstances  of  his  marriage,  was 
naturally  led,  by  a  train  of  correspondent  re- 
flections, to  consider  that  spiritual  connection 
which  it  was  often  employed  to  symbolize  ;  and 
the  idea  must  have  been  the  more  forcibly  sug- 
gested to  him,  as  he  was  at  this  period  prepar- 
ing to  build  a  temple  to  God,  and  thereby  to 
furnish  a  visible  representation  of  the  Hebrew 
church.  The  spiritual  allegory  thus  worked 
up  by  Solomon  to  its  highest  perfection,  was 
very  consistent  with  the  prophetic  style,  which 
was  accustomed  to  predict  evangelical  blessings 
by  such  parabolical  figures ;  and  Solomon  was 
more  immediately  furnished  with  a  pattern  for 
this  representation  by  the  author  of  the  forty- 
fifth  Psalm,  who  describes,  in  a  compendious 
allegory,  the  same  future  connection  between 
Christ  and  his  church. 

2.  But  though  the  work  be  certainly  an  alle- 
gorical representation,  many  learned  men,  in 
an  unrestrained  eagerness  to  explain  the  song, 


CAP 


218 


CAP 


even  in  its  minutest  and  most  obscure  particu- 
lars, have  too  far  indulged  their  imaginations  ; 
and,  by  endeavouring  too  nicely  to  reconcile 
the  literal  with  the  spiritual  sense,  have  been 
led  beyond  the  boundaries  which  a  reverence 
for  the  sacred  Scriptures  should  ever  prescribe. 
The  ideas  which  the  sacred  writers  furnish  con- 
cerning the  mystical  relation  between  Christ 
and  his  church,  though  well  accommodated  to 
our  apprehensions  by  the  allusion  of  a  mar- 
riage union,  arc  too  general  to  illustrate  every 
particular  contained  in  this  poem,  which  may 
be  supposed  to  have  been  intentionally  decorat- 
ed with  some  ornaments  appropriate  to  the  lite- 
ral construction.  When  the  general  analogy 
is  obvious,  we  are  not  always  to  expect  minute 
resemblance,  and  should  not  be  too  curious  in 
seeking  for  obscure  and  recondite  allusions. 
Solomon,  in  the  glow  of  an  inspired  fancy,  and 
unsuspicious  of  misconception  or  deliberate 
perversion,  describes  God  and  his  church,  with 
their  respective  attributes  and  graces,  under 
colourings  familiar  and  agreeable  to  mankind, 
and  exhibits  their  ardent  affection  under  the 
authorized  figures  of  earthly  love.  No  simili- 
tude, indeed,  could  be  chosen  so  elegant  and 
apposite  for  the  illustration  of  this  intimate 
and  spiritual  alliance,  as  a  marriage  union,  if 
considered  in  the  chaste  simplicity  of  its  first 
institution,  or  under  the  interesting  circum- 
stances with  which  it  was  established  among 
the  Jews. 

3.  This  poem  may  be  considered,  as  to  its 
form,  as  a  dramatic  poem  of  the  pastoral  kind. 
There  is  a  succession  of  time,  and  a  change  of 
place,  to  different  parts  of  the  palace  and  royal 
gardens.  The  persons  introduced  as  speakers, 
are  the  bridegroom  and  bride,  and  their  respect- 
ive attendants.  The  interchange  of  dialogue 
is  carried  on  in  a  wild  and  digressive  manner ; 
but  the  speeches  are  adapted  to  the  persons  with 
appropriate  elegance.  The  companions  of  the 
bride  compose  a  kind  of  chorus,  which  seems 
to  bear  some  resemblance  to  that  afterward 
adopted  in  the  Grecian  tragedy.  Solomon  and 
his  queen  assume  the  pastoral  simplicity  of  style, 
which  is  favourable  to  the  communication  of 
their  sentiments.  The  poem  abounds  through- 
out with  beauties,  and  presents  every  where  a 
delightful  and  romantic  display  of  nature,  paint- 
ed at  its  most  interesting  season,  and  described 
with  every  ornament  that  an  inventive  fancy 
could  furnish.  It  is  justly  entitled  Song  of 
Songs,  or  most  excellent  song,  as  being  supe- 
rior to  any  that  an  uninspired  writer  could  have 
produced,  and  tending,  if  properly  understood, 
to  purify  the  mind,  and  to  elevate  the  affections 
from  earthly  to  heavenly  things. 

CAPERNAUM,  a  city  celebrated  in  the 
Gospels,  being  the  place  where  Jesus  usually 
resided  during  the  time  of  his  ministry.  It 
stood  on  the  sea  coast,  that  is,  on  the  coast  of 
the  sea  of  Galilee,  in  the  borders  of  Zebulun 
and  Naphtalim,  Matt,  iv,  15,  and  consequently 
toward  the  upper  part  of  it.  As  it  was  a  con- 
venient port  from  Galilee  to  any  place  on  the 
other  side  of  the  sea,  this  might  be  our  Lord's 
inducement  to  make  it  the  place  of  his  most 
constant  residence.     Upon  this  account  Ca- 


pernaum was  highly  honoured;  and  though 
"  exalted  unto  heaven,"  as  its  inhabitants 
boasted,  because  it  made  no  proper  use  of  this 
signal  favour  it  drew  from  him  the  severe  de- 
nunciation, that  it  should  "be  brought  down 
to  hell,"  Matt,  xi,  23.  This  sentence  of  de- 
struction has  been  fully  realized;  the  ancient 
city  is  reduced  to  a  state  of  utter  desolation. 
Burckhardt  supposes  the  ruins  called  Tal 
Houm,  near  the  rivulet  called  El  Eshe,  to  be 
those  of  Capernaum.  Mr.  Buckingham,  who 
gives  this  place  the  name  of  Talhhewn,  de- 
scribes considerable  and  extensive  ruins ;  the 
only  remains  of  those  edifices  wThich  exalted 
Capernaum  above  its  fellows. 

CAPPADOCIA,  is  called  in  Hebrew  Caph. 
tor.  Cappadocia  joined  Galatia  on  the  east, 
and  is  mentioned  in  Acts  ii,  9,  and  by  St.  Peter, 
who  addresses  his  First  Epistle  to  the  dispersed 
throughout  Pontus,  Galatia,  Cappadocia,  Bi- 
thynia,  and  Asia.  The  people  of  this  country 
were  formerly  infamous  for  their  vices  ;  but 
after  the  promulgation  of  Christianity,  it  pro- 
duced many  great  and  worthy  men  :  among 
these  may  be  reckoned  Gregory  Nazianzen, 
Gregory  Nyssen,  and  St.  Basil,  commonly 
styled  the  Great. 

CAPTIVES.  The  treatment  of  persons 
taken  in  war  among  ancient  nations  throws 
great  light  upon  many  passages  of  Scripture. 
The  eastern  conqueror  often  stripped  his  un- 
happy captives  naked,  shaved  their  heads,  and 
made  them  travel  in  that  condition,  exposed  to 
the  burning  heat  of  a  vertical  sun  by  day,  and 
the  chilling  cold  of  the  night.  Such  barbarous 
treatment  was  to  modest  women  the  height  of 
cruelty  and  indignity ;  especially  to  those  who 
had  been  educated  in  softness  and  elegance, 
who  had  figured  in  all  the  superfluities  of  orna- 
mental dress,  and  whoso  faces  had  hardly  ever 
been  exposed  to  the  sight  of  man.  The  Pro- 
phet Ieaiah  mentions  this  as  the  hardest  part 
of  the  sufferings  in  which  female  captives  are 
involved  :  "  The  Lord  will  expose  their  naked- 
ness." The  daughter  of  Zion  had  indulged  in 
all  the  softness  of  oriental  luxury  ;  but  the 
offended  Jehovah  should  cause  her  unrelenting 
enemies  to  drag  her  forth  from  her  secret  cham- 
bers into  the  view  of  an  insolent  soldiery ;  strip 
her  of  her  ornaments,  in  which  she  so  greatly 
delighted ;  take  away  her  splendid  and  costly 
garments,  discover  her  nakedness,  and  compel 
her  to  travel  in  that  miserable  plight  to  a  far 
distant  country,  a  helpless  captive,  the  property 
of  a  cruel  lord.  Arrived  in  the  land  of  their 
captivity,  captives  were  often  purchased  at  a 
very  low  price.  The  Prophet  Joel  complains 
of  the  contemptuous  cheapness  in  which  the 
people  of  Israel  were  held  by  those  who  made 
them  captives:  "And  they  have  cast  lots  for 
my  people ;  and  have  given  a  boy  for  a  harlot, 
and  sold  a  girl  for  wine,  that  they  might  drink." 
The  custom  of  casting  lots  for  the  captives 
taken  in  war  appears  to  have  prevailed  both 
among  the  Jews  and  the  Greeks.  The  same 
allusion  occurs  in  the  prophecy  of  Obadiah : 
"  Strangers  carried  away  captive  his  forces, 
and  foreigners  entered  into  his  gates,  and  cast 
lots  upon  Jerusalem,"  Obadiah  11.    With  re. 


CAP 


219  CAP 


gpect  to  the  Greeks,  we  have  an  instance  in 
Tryphiodorus : — 

"  Shared  out  by  lot  the  female  captives  stand, 
The  spoils  divided  with  an  equal  hand  ; 
Each  to  his  ship  conveys  his  rightful  share, 
Price  of  their  toil,  and  trophies  of  the  war/' 

2.  By  an  inhuman  custom  which  is  still  re- 
tained in  the  east,  the  eyes  of  captives  taken 
in  war  were  not  seldom  put  out,  sometimes 
literally  scooped  or  dug  out  of  their  sockets. 
This  dreadful  calamity  Samson  had  to  endure 
from  the  unrelenting  vengeance  of  his  ene- 
mies. In  a  posterior  age,  Zedekiah,  the  last 
king  of  Judah  and  Benjamin,  after  being  com- 
pelled to  behold  the  violent  death  of  his  sons 
and  nobility,  had  his  eyes  put  out,  and  was 
carried  in  chains  to  Babylon.  The  barbarous 
custom  long  survived  the  decline  and  fall  of 
the  Babylonian  empire ;  for  by  the  testimony 
of  Mr.  Maurice,  in  his  history  of  Hindostan, 
the  captive  princes  of  that  country  were  often 
treated  in  this  manner  by  their  more  fortunate 
rivals ;  a  red  hot  iron  was  passed  over  their 
eyes,  which  effectually  deprived  them  of  sight, 
and  at  the  same  time  of  their  title  and  ability 
to  reign.  To  the  wretched  state  of  such  prison- 
ers, the  Prophet  Isaiah  alludes  in  a  noble  pre- 
diction, where  he  describes  in  very  glowing 
colours  the  character  and  work  cf  the  promised 
Messiah:  "He  hath  sent  me  to  heal  the  bro- 
ken hearted,  to  preach  deliverance  to  the  cap- 
tives, and  recovering  of  sight  to  the  blind,  to 
set  at  liberty  them  that  are  bruised,"  as  cap- 
tives too  frequently  were  by  the  weight  of  their 
fetters. 

3.  It  seems  to  have  been  the  practice  of  east- 
ern kings,  to  command  their  captives  taken  in 
war,  especially  those  that  had,  by  the  atrocious- 
ness  of  their  crimes,  or  the  stoutness  of  their 
resistance,  greatly  provoked  their  indignation, 
to  lie  down  on  the  ground,  and  then  put  to 
death  a  certain  part  of  them,  which  they  mea- 
sured with  a  line,  or  determined  by  lot.  This 
custom  was  not,  perhaps,  commonly  practised 
by  the  people  of  God,  in  their  wars  with  the 
nations  around  them  ;  but  one  instance  is  re- 
corded in  the  life  of  David,  who  inflicted  this 
punishment  on  the  Moabites  :  "  And  he  smote 
Moab,  and  measured  them  with  a  line,  casting 
them  down  to  the  ground ;  even  with  two  lines 
measured  he  to  put  to  death,  and  with  one  full 
line  to  keep  alive  :  and  so  the  Moabites  became 
David's  servants,  and  brought  gifts,"  2  Sam. 
viii,  2.  But  the  most  shocking  punishment 
which  the  ingenious  cruelty  of  a  haughty  and 
unfeeling  conqueror  ever  inflicted  on  the  mise- 
rable captive,  is  described  by  Virgil  in  the 
eighth  book  of  the  iEneid  ;  and  which  even 
a  Roman,  inured  to  blood,  could  not  mention 
without  horror : — 

"  Quid  memorem  infandas  cades'!  quid  facia  tyran- 
vi,"  &c.  Line  483. 

"  What  words  can  paint  those  execrable  times, 
The  subjects'  sufferings,  and  the  tyrant's  crimes ! 
That  blood,  those  murders,  O  ye  gods !  replace 
On  his  own  head,  and  on  his  impious  race : 
The  living  and  the  dead  at  his  command 
Were  coupled  face  to  face,  and  hand  to  hand, 


Till,  choked  with  stench,  in  loathed  embraces  tied, 
The  lingering  wretches  pined  away,  and  died." 

Drvden. 
It  is  to  this  deplorable  condition  of  a  captive 
that  the  Apostle  refers,  in  that  pathetic  excla- 
mation, "  O  wretched  man  that  I  am  !  who 
shall  deliver  me  from  the  body  of  this  death?" 
Who  shall  rescue  me,  miserable  captive  as  I 
am,  from  this  continual  burden  of  sin  which  I 
carry  about  with  me  ;  and  which  is  cumber- 
some and  odious,  as  a  dead  carcass  bound  to  a 
living  body,  to  be  dragged  along  with  it  where- 
ever  it  goes  ? 

CAPTIVITY.  God  generally  punished  the 
sins  and  infidelities  of  the  Jews  by  different 
captivities  or  servitudes.  The  first  captivity 
is  that  of  Egypt,  from  which  they  were  de- 
livered by  Moses,  and  which  should  be  con- 
sidered rather  as  a  permission  of  providence, 
than  as  a  punishment  for  sin.  Six  captivities 
are  reckoned  during  the  government  by  judges : 
the  first,  under  Chushanrishathaim,  king  of 
Mesopotamia,  which  continued  about  eight 
years  ;  the  second,  under  Eglon,  king  of  Moab, 
from  which  the  Jews  were  delivered  by  Ehud ; 
the  third,  under  the  Philistines,  from  which 
they  were  rescued  by  Shamgar ;  the  fourth, 
under  Jabin,  king  of  Hazor,  from  which  they 
were  delivered  by  Deborah  and  Barak  ;  the 
fifth,  under  the  Midianites,  from  which  Gideon 
freed  them ;  and  the  sixth,  under  the  Ammon- 
ites and  Philistines,  during  the  judicatures  of 
Jephthah,  Ibzan,  Elon,  Abdon,  Eli,  Samson, 
and  Samuel.  But  the  greatest  and  most  re- 
markable captivities  were  those  of  Israel  and 
Judah,  under  their  regal  government. 

Captivities  of  Israel.  In  the  year  of  the 
world  3264,  Tiglath-pileser  took  several  cities, 
and  carried  away  captives,  principally  from  the 
tribes  of  Reuben,  Gad,  and  the  half  tribe  of 
Manasseh,  2  Kings  xv,  29.  In  the  year  of  the 
world  3283,  Shalmaneser  took  and  destroyed 
Samaria,  after  a  siege  of  three  years,  and  trans- 
planted the  tribes  that  had  been  spared  by  Tig- 
lath-pileser, to  provinces  beyond  the  Euphrates, 
2  Kings  xviii,  10,  11.  It  is  generally  believed, 
there  was  no  return  of  the  ten  tribes  from  this 
second  captivity.  But  when  we  examine  care- 
fully the  writings  of  the  Prophets,  we  find  a 
return  of  at  least  a  great  part  of  Israel  from 
the  captivity  clearly  pointed  out.  Hosca  says, 
"  They  shall  tremble  as  a  bird  out  of  Egypt, 
and  as  a  dove  out  of  the  land  of  Assyria;  and 
I  will  place  them  in  their  houses,  saith  the 
Lord,"  Hosea  xi,  11.  Amos  says,  "  And  I  will 
bring  again  my  people  Israel  from  their  cap- 
tivity :  they  shall  build  their  ruined  cities  and 
inhabit  them,"  &c,  Amos  ix,  14.  Obadiah 
observes,  "The  captivity  of  this  host  of  the 
children  of  Israel  shall  possess  that  oftheCa- 
naanites,"  &c,  Obadiah  18,  19.  To  the  same 
purpose  speak  the  other  Prophets.  "  The  Lord 
shall  assemble  the  outcast  of  Israel,  and  gather 
together  the  dispersed  of  Judah,"  Isa.  xi,  12, 13. 
Ezekiel  received  an  order  from  God  to  take  two 
pieces  of  wood,  and  write  on  one,  "For  Judah 
and  for  the  children  of  Israel;"  and  on  the 
other,  "For  Joseph  and  for  all  the  house  of 
Israol ;"  and  to  join  these  two  pieces  of  wood, 


CAP 


220 


CAR 


that  they  might  become  one,  and  designate  the 
reunion  of  Judah  and  Israel,  Ezek.  xXxvii,  16. 
Jeremiah  is  equally  express  :  "  The  house  of 
Judah  shall  walk  with  the  house  of  Israel ;  and 
they  shall  come  together  out  of  the  north,  to 
the  land  which  I  have  given  for  an  inheritance 
to  their  fathers,"  Jer.  iii,  18.  See  also  Jer. 
xxxi,  7-9,  16,  17,  20;  xvi,  15;  xlix,  2,  &c ; 
Zech.  ix,  13;  x,  6,  10;  Micah  ii,  12.  In  the 
historical  books  of  Scripture,  we  find  that 
Israelites  of  the  ten  tribes,  as  well  as  of  Judah 
and  Benjamin,  returned  from  the  captivity. 
Among  those  that  returned  with  Zerubbabel 
are  reckoned  some  of  Ephraim  and  Manasseh, 
who  settled  at  Jerusalem  with  the  tribe  of  Ju- 
dah. When  Ezra  numbered  those  who  returned 
from  the  captivity,  he  only  inquired  whether 
they  were  of  the  race  of  Israel ;  and  at  the  first 
passovcr  which  was  then  celebrated  in  the  tem- 
ple, was  a  sacrifice  of  twelve  he-goats  for  the 
whole  house  of  Israel,  according  to  the  num- 
ber of  the  tribes,  Ezra  vi,  16,  17;  viii,  35.  Un- 
der the  Maccabees,  and  in  our  Saviour's  time, 
we  see  Palestine  peopled  by  Israelites  of  all  the 
tribes  indifferently.  The  Samaritan  Chronicle 
asserts  that  in  the  thirty-fifth  year  of  the  pontifi- 
cate of  Abdelus,  three  thousand  Israelites, by  per- 
mission of  King  Sauredius,  returned  from  cap- 
tivity, under  the  conduct  of  Adus,  son  of  Simon. 
Captivities  of  Judah.  The  captivities  of 
Judah  are  generally  reckoned  four:  the  first, 
in  the  year  of  the  world  3398,  under  King  Je- 
hoiakim,  when  Daniel  and  others  were  carried 
to  Babylon ;  the  second,  in  the  year  of  the 
world  3401,  and  in  the  seventh  year  of  the  reign 
of  Jehoiakim,  when  Nebuchadnezzar  carried 
three  thousand  and  twenty-three  Jews  to  Ba- 
bylon ;  the  third,  in  the  year  of  the  world  3406, 
and  in  the  fourth  of  Jehoiachin,  when  this 
prince,  with  part  of  his  people,  was  sent  to 
Babylon  ;  and  the  fourth  in  the  year  3416,  un- 
der Zedekiah,  from  which  period  begins  the 
captivity  of  seventy  years,  foretold  by  the  Pro- 
phet Jeremiah.  Dr.  Hales  computes  that  the 
first  of  these  captivities,  which  he  thinks  formed 
the  commencement  of  the  Babylonish  captivity, 
took  place  in  the  year  before  Christ  605.  The 
Jews  were  removed  to  Babylon  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, who,  designing  to  render  that  city  the 
capital  of  the  east,  transplanted  thither  very 
great  numbers  of  people,  subdued  by  him  in 
different  countries.  In  Babylon  the  Jews  had 
judges  and  elders,  who  governed  them,  and 
who  decided  matters  in  dispute  juridically,  ac- 
cording to  their  laws.  Of  this  we  see  a  proof 
in  the  story  of  Susanna,  who  was  condemned 
by  elders  of  her  own  nation.  Cyrus,  in  the 
year  of  the  world  3457,  and  in  the  first  year  of 
his  reign  at  Babylon,  permitted  the  Jews  to 
return  to  their  own  country,  Ezra  i,  1.  How- 
ever, they  did  not  obtain  leave  to  rebuild  the 
temple ;  and  the  completion  of  those  prophe- 
cies which  foretold  the  termination  of  their 
captivity  after  seventy  years,  was  not  till  the 
year  of  the  world  3486.  In  that  year,  Darius 
Hystaepes,  by  an  edict,  allowed  them  to  rebuild 
the  temple.  In  the  year  of  the  world  3537, 
Artaxerxes  Longhnanus  sent  Nehemiah  to  Je- 
rusalem.  The  Jews  assert  that  only  the  refuse 


of  their  nation  returned  from  the  captivity,  and 
that  the  principal  of  them  continued  in  and  near 
Babylon,  where  they  had  been  settled,  and  where 
they  became  very  numerous.  It  may,  however, 
be  doubted  whether  the  refuse  of  Judah  was 
really  carried  to  Babylon.  It  appears  from 
incidental  observations  in  Scripture  that  some 
remained;  and  Major  Rennell  has  offered  se- 
veral reasons  for  believing  that  only  certain 
classes  of  the  Jews  were  deported  to  Babylon, 
as  well  as  into  Assyria.  Nebuchadnezzar  car- 
ried away  only  the  principal  inhabitants,  the 
warriors,  and  artisans  of  every  kind ;  and  ho 
left  the  husbandmen,  the  labourers,  and  in 
general,  the  poorer  classes,  that  constitute  the 
great  body  of  the  people. 

CARAITES,  or  KARAITES,  an  ancient 
Jewish  sect.  The  name  signifies  Textualisls, 
or  Scripturists,  and  was  originally  given  to  the 
school  of  Shammai,  (about  thirty  years  or  more 
before  Christ,)  because  they  rejected  the  tradi- 
tions of  the  elders,  as  embraced  by  the  school 
of  Hillel  and  the  Pharisees,  and  all  the  fanci- 
ful interpretations  of  the  Cabbala.  They  claim, 
however,  a  much  higher  antiquity,  and  produce 
a  catalogue  of  doctors  up  to  the  time  of  Ezra. 
The  rabbinists  have  been  accustomed  to  call 
them  Sadducees ;  but  they  believed  in  the  in- 
spiration of  the  Scriptures,  the  resurrection  of 
the  dead,  and  the  final  judgment.  They  be- 
lieve that  Messiah  is  not  yet  come,  and  reject 
all  calculations  of  the  time  of  his  appearance  : 
yet  they  say,  it  is  proper  that  even  every  day 
they  should  receive  therr  salvation  by  Messiah, 
the  Son  of  David.  As  to  the  practice  of  reli- 
gion, they  differ  from  the  rabbinists  in  the 
observance  of  the  festivals,  and  keep  the  Sab- 
bath with  more  strictness.  They  extend  their 
prohibition  of  marriage  to  more  degrees  of  af- 
finity, and  admit  not  of  divorce  on  any  slight 
or  trivial  grounds.  The  sect  of  Caraites  still 
exists,  but  their  number  is  inconsiderable. 
They  are  found  chiefly  in  the  Crimea,  Lithu- 
ania, and  Persia ;  at  Damascus,  Constantinople, 
and  Cairo.  Their  honesty  in  the  Crimea  is 
said  to  be  proverbial. 

CARBUNCLE,  n,-n3,  Exod.  xxviii,  17; 
xxxix,  10;  Ezek.  xxviii,  13;  and  avBpal-,  Eccles. 
xxxii,  5;  Tobit  xiii,  17;  a  very  elegant  and 
rare  gem,  known  to  the  ancients  by  the  name 
avdpa!;,  or  coal,  because,  when  held  up  before 
the  sun,  it  appears  like  a  piece  of  bright  burn- 
ing charcoal :  the  name  carbunculus  has  the 
same  meaning.  It  was  the  third  stone  in  the 
first  row  of  the  pectoral ;  and  is  mentioned 
among  the  glorious  stones  of  which  the  new 
Jerusalem  is  figuratively  said  to  be  built. 
Bishop  Lowth  observes  that  the  precious 
stones,  mentioned  Isa.  liv,  11,  12,  and  Rev. 
xxi,  18,  seem  to  be  general  images  to  express 
beauty,  magnificence,  purity,  strength,  and  so- 
lidity, agreeably  to  the  ideas  of  the  eastern  na- 
tions; and  to  have  never  been  intended  to  be 
strictly  scrutinized,  and  minutely  and  partim- 
larly  explained,  as  if  they  had  some  precise 
moral  or  spiritual  meaning.  Tobit,  in  his  pro- 
phecy of  the  final  restoration  of  Israel,  Tobit 
xii,  16,  17,  describes  the  new  Jerusalem  in  the 
same  oriental  manner. 


CAR 


221 


CAS 


CARMEL,  in  the  southern  part  of  Palestine, 
where  Nabal  the  Carmelite,  Abigail's  husband, 
dwelt,  Joshua  xv,  55 ;  1  Sam.  xxv. 

2.  Carmel  was  also  the  name  of  a  celebrated 
mountain  in  Palestine.  Though  spoken  of  in 
general  as  a  single  mountain,  it  ought  rather 
to  be  considered  as  a  mountainous  region,  the 
whole  of  which  was  known  by  the  name  of 
Carmel,  while  to  one  of  the  hills,  more  eleva- 
ted than  the  rest,  that  name  was  usually  ap- 
plied by  way  of  eminence.  It  had  the  plain 
of  Sharon  on  the  south;  overlooked  the  port 
of  Ptolemais  on  the  north ;  and  was  bounded 
on  the  west  by  the  Mediterranean  sea ;  form- 
ing one  of  the  most  remarkable  promontories 
that  present  themselves  on  the  shores  of  that 
great  sea.  According  to  Volney,  it  is  about 
two  thousand  feet  in  height,  and  has  the  shape 
of  a  flattened  cone.  Its  sides  are  steep  and 
rugged ;  the  soil  neither  deep  nor  rich ;  and 
among  the  naked  rocks  stinted  with  plants, 
and  wild  forests  which  it  presents  to  the  eye, 
there  are  at  present  but  few  traces  of  that  fer- 
tility which  we  are  accustomed  to  associate 
with  the  idea  of  Mount  Carmel.  Yet  even 
Volney  himself  acknowledges  that  he  found 
among  the  brambles,  wild  vines  and  olive  trees, 
which  proved  that  the  hand  of  industry  had 
once  been  employed  on  a  not  ungrateful  soil. 
Of  its  ancient  productiveness  there  can  be  no 
doubt ;  the  etymology  and  ordinary  application 
of  its  name  being  sufficient  evidence  of  the 
fact.  Carmel  is  not  only  expressly  mentioned 
in  Scripture  as  excelling  other  districts  in  that 
respect ;  but,  every  place  possessed  of  the  same 
kind  of  excellence  obtained  from  it  the  same 
appellation  in  the  language  both  of  the  pro- 
phets and  the  people.  Mount  Carmel  is  cele- 
brated in  the  Old  Testament,  as  the  usual  place 
of  residence  of  the  Prophets  Elijah  and  Elisha. 
It  was  here  that  Elijah  so  successfully  opposed 
the  false  prophets  of  Baal,  1  Kings  xviii ;  and 
there  is  a  certain  part  of  the  mountain  facing 
the  west,  and  about  eight  miles  from  the  point 
of  the  promontory,  which  the  Arabs  call  Man- 
sur,  and  the  Europeans  the  place  of  sacrifice, 
in  commemoration  of  that  miraculous  event. 
Near  the  same  place  is  also  still  shown  a  cave, 
in  which  it  is  said  the  Prophet  had  his  resi- 
dence. The  brook  Kishon,  which  issues  from 
Mount  Tabor,  waters  the  bottom  of  Carmel, 
and  falls  into  the  sea  toward  the  northern  side 
of  the  mountain,  and  not  the  southern,  as  some 
writers  have  erroneously  stated.  Its  greatest 
elevation  is  about  one  thousand  five  hundred 
feet ;  hence,  when  the  sea  coast  on  one  side, 
and  the  plain  on  the  other,  are  oppressed  with 
sultry  heat,  this  hill  is  refreshed  by  cooling 
breezes,  and  enjoys  a  delightful  temperature. 
The  fastnesses  of  this  rugged  mountain  are  so 
difficult  of  access,  that  the  Prophet  Amos  classes 
them  with  the  deeps  of  hell,  the  height  of  hea- 
ven, and  the  bottom  of  the  sea :  "  Though  they 
dig  into  hell,"  (or  the  dark  and  silent  chambers 
of  the  grave,)  "thence  shall  mine  hand  take 
them  ;  though  they  climb  up  to  heaven,  thence 
will  I  bring  them  down  ;  and  though  they  hide 
themselves  in  the  top  of  Carmel,  I  will  search 
and  take  them  out  thence ;  and  though  they  be 


hid  from  my  sight  in  the  bottom  of  the  sea, 
thence  will  I  command  the  serpent,  and  he 
shall  bite  them,"  Amos  ix,  2,  3.  Lebanon 
raises  to  heaven  a  summit  of  naked  and  barren 
rocks,  covered  for  the  greater  part  of  the  year 
with  snow  ;  but  the  top  of  Carmel,  how  naked 
and  sterile  soever  its  present  condition,  was 
clothed  with  verdure  which  seldom  was  known 
to  fade.  Even  the  lofty  genius  of  Isaiah, 
stimulated  and  guided  by  the  Spirit  of  inspira- 
tion, could  not  find  a  more  appropriate  figure 
to  express  the  flourishing  state  of  the  Redeem- 
er's kingdom,  than  "the  excellency  of  Carmel 
and  Sharon." 

CART,  a  machine  used  in  Palestine  to  force 
the  corn  out  of  the  ear,  and  bruise  the  straw, 
Isaiah  xxviii,  27,  28.  The  wheels  of  these 
carts  were  low,  broad,  and  shod  with  iron,  and 
were  drawn  over  the  sheaves  spread  on  the 
floor  by  means  of  oxen. 

CASTOR  and  POLLUX.  It  is  said  that 
the  vessel  which  carried  Paul  to  Rome  had  the 
sign  of  Castor  and  Pollux,  Acts  xxviii,  11. 
Castor  and  Pollux  were  sea-gods,  and  invoked 
by  sailors ;  and  even  the  light  balls  or  meteors 
which  are  sometimes  seen  on  ships,  were  called 
Castor  and  Pollux.  An  inscription  in  Gruter 
proves  that  seamen  implored  Castor  and  Pol- 
lux in  dangers  at  sea.  It  is  to  be  observed, 
that  St.  Luke  does  not  mention  the  name,  but 
the  sign,  of  the  ship.  By  the  word  sign,  the 
sacred  writer  meant  a  protecting  image  of  the 
deity,  to  whom  the  vessel  was  in  some  sort 
consecrated ;  as  at  present  in  Catholic  coun- 
tries, most  of  their  vessels  are  named  after 
some  saint,  St.  Xavier,  St.  Andero,  St.  Domi- 
nique, &.c.  It  appears  to  be  certain,  that  the 
figure  which  gave  name  to  the  ship  was  at  the 
head,  and  the  tutelary  deity  was  placed  on  the 
poop. 

CASUIST,  one  who  studies  and  decides 
upon  cases  of  conscience.  Escobar  has  made 
a  collection  of  the  opinions  of  all  the  casuists 
before  his  time.  M.  Le  Feore,  preceptor  to 
Louis  XIII,  said  that  the  books  of  the  casuists 
taught  "  the  art  of  quibbling  with  God  ;"  which 
does  not  seem  far  from  truth,  by  reason  of  the 
multitude  of  distinctions  and  subtleties  with 
which  they  abound.  Mayer  has  published  a 
bibliotheca  of  casuists,  containing  an  account 
of  ail  the  writers  on  cases  of  conscience,  ranged 
under  three  heads ;  the  first  comprehending  the 
Lutheran ;  the  second,  the  Calvinistic ;  and 
the  third,  the  Roman  casuists. 

CASUISTRY,  the  doctrine  and  science  of 
conscience  and  its  cases,  with  the  rules  and 
principles  of  resolving  the  same  ;  drawn  partly 
from  natural  reason,  or  equity,  and  partly  from 
the  authority  of  Scripture,  the  canon  law, 
councils,  fathers,  &c.  To  casuistry  belongs 
the  decision  of  all  difficulties  arising  about 
what  a  man  may  lawfully  do  or  not  do ;  what 
is  sin  or  not  sin ;  what  things  a  man  is  obliged 
to  do  in  order  to  discharge  his  duty,  and  what 
he  may  let  alone  without  breach  of  it.  Al- 
though the  morality  of  the  Gospel  is  distin- 
guished by  its  purity  and  by  its  elevation,  it  is 
necessarily  exhibited  in  a  general  form ;  cer- 
tain leading  principles  are  laid  down  ;  but  the 


CAS 


222 


CAS 


application  of  these  to  the  innumerable  cases 
which  occur  in  the  actual  intercourse  of  life, 
is  left  to  the  understanding  and  the  conscience 
of  individuals.  Had  it  been  otherwise,  the 
Christian  code  would  have  swelled  to  an  ex- 
tent which  would  have  rendered  it  in  a  great 
degree  useless;  it  would  have  been  difficult  or 
impossible  to  recollect  all  its  provisions ;  and, 
minute  as  these  would  have  been,  they  would 
still  have  been  defective, — new  situations  or 
combinations  of  circumstances  modifying  duty 
continually  arising,  which  it  would  have  been 
impracticable  or  hurtful  to  anticipate.  When 
the  principles  of  duty  are  rightly  unfolded,  and 
when  they  are  placed  on  a  sound  foundation, 
there  is,  to  a  fair  mind,  no  difficulty  in  accom- 
modating them  to  its  own  particular  exigen- 
cies. A  few  cases,  it  is  true,  may  occur,  where 
it  is  a  matter  of  doubt  in  what  way  men  should 
act ;  but  these  are  exceedingly  rare,  and  the 
lives  of  vast  numbers  may  come  to  an  end  with- 
out any  of  them  happening  to  occasion  per- 
plexity. Every  man  may  be,  and  perhaps  is, 
sensible,  that  his  errors  are  to  be  ascribed,  not 
to  his  having  been  at  a  loss  to  know  what  he 
should  have  done,  but  to  his  deliberately  or 
hastily  violating  what  he  saw  to  be  right,  or  to 
his  having  allowed  himself  to  confound,  by  vain 
and  subtile  distinctions,  what,  in  the  case  of 
any  one  else,  would  have  left  in  his  mind  no 
room  for  hesitation.  The  manner,  however, 
in  which  the  Gospel  inculcates  the  law  of  God, 
combined  with  other  causes  in  leading  to  a 
species  of  moral  discussion,  which,  pretending 
to  ascertain  in  every  case  what  ought  to  be 
practised,  and  thus  to  afford  plain  and  safe  di- 
rections to  the  conscience,  terminated  in  what 
has  been  denominated  casuistry. 

The  schoolmen  delighted  in  this  species  of 
intellectual  labour.  They  transferred  their 
zeal  for  the  most  fanciful  and  frivolous  dis- 
tinctions in  what  respected  the  doctrines  of 
religion  to  its  precepts;  they  anatomized  the 
different  virtues ;  nicely  examined  all  the  cir- 
cumstances by  which  our  estimate  of  them 
should  be  influenced ;  and  they  thus  rendered 
the  study  of  morality  inextricable,  confounded 
the  natural  notions  of  right  and  wrong,  and  so 
accustomed  themselves  and  others  to  weigh 
their  actions,  that  they  could  easily  find  some 
excuse  for  what  was  most  culpable,  while  tney 
continued  under  the  impression  that  they  were 
not  deviating  from  what,  as  moral  beings,  was 
incumbent  upon  them.  The  corruption  of 
manners  which  was  introduced  into  the  church 
during  the  dark  ages  rendered  casuistry  very 
popular  ;  and,  accordingly,  many  who  affected 
to  be  the  most  enlightened  writers  of  their  age, 
and  perhaps  really  were  so,  tortured  their  un- 
derstanding or  their  fancy  in  solving  cases  of 
conscience,  and  often  in  polluting  their  own 
imaginations  and  those  of  others,  by  employ- 
ing them  on  possible  crimes,  upon  which,  how- 
ever unlikely  was  their  occurrence  in  life,  they 
were  eager  to  pronounce  a  decision.  The 
happy  change  which  the  Reformation  produced 
upon  the  views  of  men  respecting  the  sacred 
Scriptures,  tended  to  erect  that  pure  standard 
of  duty  which  for  ages  had  been  laid  in  the 


dust.  Yet  for  a  considerable  time  Protesta'nt 
divines  occupied  themselves  with  the  intrica- 
cies of  casuistry,  thus  in  some  degree  shutting 
out  the  light  which  they  had  fortunately  poured 
upon  the  world.  The  Lutheran  theologians 
walked  very  much  in  the  tract  which  the 
schoolmen  had  opened,  although  their  decisions 
were  much  more  consonant  with  Christianity ; 
and  it  was  not  uncommon  in  some  countries 
for  ecclesiastical  assemblies  to  devote  part  of 
their  time  to  the  resolution  of  questions  which 
might  have  been  safely  left  unnoticed,  which 
now  are  almost  universally  regarded  as  frivo- 
lous, and  about  which  almost  the  most  ignorant 
would  be  ashamed  to  ask  an  opinion.  Even 
after  much  of  the  sophistry,  and  much  of  the 
moral  perversion  connected  with  casuistry, 
were  exploded,  the  form  of  that  science  was 
preserved,  and  many  valuable  moral  principles 
in  conformity  to  it  delivered.  The  venerable 
Bishop  Hall  published  a  celebrated  work,  to 
which  he  gave  the  appellation  of  "  Cases  of 
Conscience  Practically  resolved ;"  and  he  in- 
troduces it  with  the  following  observations 
addressed  to  the  reader:  "Of  all  divinity,  that 
part  is  most  useful  which  determines  cases  of 
conscience;  and  of  all  cases  of  conscience,  the 
practical  are  most  necessary,  as  action  is  of 
more  concernment  than  speculation  ;  and  of 
all  practical  cases,  those  which  are  of  most 
common  use  are  of  so  much  greater  necessity 
and  benefit  to  be  resolved,  as  the  errors  thereof 
are  more  universal,  and  therefore  more  prejudi- 
cial to  the  society  of  mankind.  These  I  have 
selected  out  of  many;  and  having  turned  over 
divers  casuists,  have  pitched  upon  those  de- 
cisions which  I  hold  most  conformable  to  en- 
lightened reason  and  religion ;  sometimes  I 
follow  them,  and  sometimes  I  leave  them  for  a 
better  guide."  He  divides  his  work  into  four 
parts, — Cases  of  profit  and  traffic,  Cases  of  life 
and  liberty,  Cases  of  piety  and  religion,  and 
Cases  matrimonial;  under  each  of  these  solv- 
ing a  number  of  questions,  or  rather  giving  a 
number  of  moral  dissertations. 

Casuistry,  as  a  systematic  perversion  of 
Christian  morality,  is  now,  in  the  Protestant 
world,  very  much  unknown  ;  though  there  still 
is,  and  perhaps  always  will  be,  that  softening 
down  of  the  strict  rules  of  duty,  to  which  man- 
kind are  led  either  by  self-deceit,  or  by  the 
natural  desire  of  reconciling,  with  the  hope  of 
the  divine  favour,  considerable  obliquity  from 
that  path  of  rectitude  and  virtue  which  alone 
is  acceptable  to  God.  But  the  most  striking 
specimen  of  the  length  to  which  casuistry  was 
carried,  and  of  the  dangerous  consequences 
which  resulted  from  it,  is  furnished  by  the 
history  of  the  maxims  and  sentiments  of  the 
Jesuits,  that  celebrated  order,  which  combined 
with  profound  literature,  and  the  most  zealous 
support  of  Popery,  an  ambition  that  perverted 
their  understandings,  or  rather  induced  them 
to  employ  their  rational  powers  in  the  melan- 
choly work  of  poisoning  the  sources  of  morality, 
and  of  casting  the  name  and  the  appearance 
of  virtue  over  a  dissoluteness  of  principle  and 
a  profligacy  of  licentiousness,  which,  had  they 
I  not  been  checked  by  sounder  views,  and  by 


CAV 


223 


CED 


feelings  and  habits  favourable  to  morality, 
would  have  spread  through  the  world  the  most 
degrading  misery.     See  Jesuits. 

CATERPILLAR.  ^Dn.  The  word  occurs 
Deut.  xxviii,  38 ;  Psa.  lxviii,  4b ;  Isa.  xxxiii, 
4 ;  1  Kings  viii,  37 ;  2  Chron.  vi,  28 ;  Joel  i, 
4;  ii,  25.  In  the  four  last  cited  texts,  it  is 
distinguished  from  the  locust,  properly  so  call- 
ed ;  and  in  Joel  i,  4,  is  mentioned  as  "  eating 
np"  what  the  other  species  had  left,  and  there- 
fore might  be  called  the  consumer,  by  way  of 
eminence.  But  the  ancient  interpreters  are 
far  from  being  agreed  what  particular  species 
it  signifies.  The  Septuagintin  Chronicles,  and 
Aquila  in  Psalms,  render  it  j3pou^os:  so  the 
Vulgate  in  Chronicles  and  Isaiah,  and  Jerom 
in  Psalms,  bruchus,  the  chafer,  which  is  a  great 
devourer  of  leaves.  From  the  Syriac  version, 
however,  Michaelis  is  disposed  to  understand 
it  the  taupe  grillon,  "  mole  cricket,"  which,  in 
its  grub  state,  is  very  destructive  to  corn  and 
other  vegetables,  by  feeding  on  their  roots. 
See  Locust. 

CATHOLIC  denotes  what  is  general  or 
"  universal.  The  rise  of  heresies  induced  the 
primitive  Christian  church  to  assume  to  itself 
the  appellation  of  catholic,  as  being  a  charac- 
teristic to  distinguish  itself  from  them.  The 
Romish  church  now  proudly  assumes  the  title 
catholic,  in  opposition  to  all  who  have  separated 
from  her  communion,  and  whom  she  considers 
as  heretics  and  schismatics,  while  she  herself 
remains  the  only  true  and  Christian  church. 
The  church  of  Christ  is  called  catholic,  because 
it  extends  throughout  the  world,  and  endures 
through  all  time. 

2.  Catholic,  general,  Epistles.  They  are 
seven  in  number ;  namely,  one  of  James,  two 
of  Peter,  three  of  John,  and  one  of  Jude.  They 
are  called  catholic,  because  directed  to  Chris- 
tian converts  generally,  and  not  to  any  par- 
ticular church.  Hug,  in  his  "Introduction 
to  the  New  Testament,"  takes  another  view 
of  the  import  of  this  term,  which  was  certainly 
used  at  an  early  period,  as  by  Origen  and 
others: — "When  the  Gospels  and  Acts  of  the 
Apostles  constituted  one  peculiar  division,  the 
works  of  Paul  also  another,  there  still  remained 
writings  of  different  authors,  which  might 
likewise  form  a  collection  of  themselves,  to 
which  a  name  must  be  given.  It  might  most 
aptly  be  called  the  common  collection,  kuQoXikov 
civTaypa,  of  the  Apostles,  and  the  treatises  con. 
tained  in  it,  Koival  and  KadohKcu,  which  are  com- 
monly used  by  the  Greeks  as  synonyms.  For 
this  we  find  a  proof  even  in  the  most  ancient 
ecclesiastical  language.  Clemens  Alexandri- 
nus  calls  the  epistle  which  was  despatched  by 
the  assembly  of  the  Apostles,  Acts  xv,  23,  the 
'  catholic  epistle,'  as  that  in  which  all  the 
Apostles  had  a  share,  rrjv  ims-o\ni>  KaOoKixriv  tZv 
'A7ros<Awv  airavriav.  Hence  our  seven  epistles 
are  catholic,  or  epistles  of  all  the  Apostles  who 
are  authors." 

CAVES,  or  CAVERNS.  The  country  of 
Judea,  being  mountainous  and  rocky,  is  in 
many  parts  full  of  caverns,  to  which  allusions 
frequently  occur  in  the  Old  Testament.  At 
Engedi,  in   particular,  there  was  a  cave  eo 


large,  that  David,. with  six  hundred  men,  hid 
themselves  in  the  sides  of  it,  and  Saul  entered 
the  mouth  of  the  cave  without  perceiving 
that  any  one  was  there,  1  Sam.  xxiv.  Jose- 
phus  tells  us  of  a  numerous  gang  of  banditti, 
who,  having  infested  the  country,  and  being 
pursued  by  Herod  with  his  army,  retired  into 
certain  caverns,  almost  inaccessible,  near  Ar- 
bela  in  Galilee,  where  they  were  with  great 
difficulty  subdued.  "  Beyond  Damascus,"  says 
Strabo,  "are  two  mountains,  called Trachones, 
from  which  the  country  has  the  name  of  Tra- 
chonitis ;  and  from  hence,  toward  Arabia  and 
Iturea,  are  certain  rugged  mountains,  in  which 
there  are  deep  caverns  ;  one  of  which  will  hold 
four  thousand  men."  Tavernier,  in  his  "Travels 
in  Persia,"  speaks  of  a  grotto  between  Aleppo 
and  Bir,  that  wculd  hold  near  three  thousand 
horse.  And  Maundrel  assures  us,  that  "  three 
hours  "distant  from  Sidon,  about  a  mile  from 
the  sea,  4here  runs  along  a  high  rocky  mount- 
ain, in  the  sides  of  which  are  hewn  a  multitude 
of  grottoes,  all  very  little  differing  from  each 
other.  They  have  entrances  about  two  foot 
square.  There  are  of  these  subterraneous 
caverns  two  hundred  in  number.  It  may,  with 
probability,  at  least,  be  concluded  that  these 
places  were  contrived  for  the  use  of  the  living, 
and  not  of  the  dead."  These  extracts  may  be 
useful  in  explaining  such  passages  of  Scripture 
as  the  following:  "Because  of  the  Midianites, 
the  children  of  Israel  made  them  dens  which 
are  in  the  mountains,  and  caves,  and  strong 
holds,"  Judges  vi,  2.  To  these  they  betook 
themselves  for  refuge  in  times  of  distress  and 
hostile  invasion: — "When  the  men  of  Israel 
saw  that  they  were  in  a  strait,  for  the  people 
were  distressed,  then  the  people  did  hide  them- 
selves in  caves,  and  in  thickets,  and  in  rocks, 
and  in  high  places,  and  in  pits,"  1  Sam.  xiii,  6. 
See  also  Jer.  xli,  9  :  "  To  enter  into  the  holes 
of  the  rocks  and  into  the  caves  of  the  earth," 
became  with  the  prophets  a  very  proper  and 
familiar  image  to  express  a  state  of  terror  and 
consternation.  Thus  Isa.  ii,  19:  "They  shall 
go  into  the  holes  of  the  rocks,  and  into  the 
caves  of  the  earth,  for  fear  of  the  Lord,  and 
for  the  glory  of  his  majesty,  when  he  ariseth 
to  shake  terribly  the  earth." 

CEDAR,  r\H.  The  cedar  is  a  large  and  noble 
evergreen  tree.  Its  lofty  height,  and  its  far 
extended  branches,  afford  spacious  shelter  and 
shade,  Ezek.  xxxi,  3,  6,  8.  The  wood  is  very 
valuable  ;  is  of  a  reddish  colour,  of  an  aromatic 
smell,  -and  reputed  incorruptible.  This  is  owing 
to  its  bitter  taste,  which  the  worms  cannot 
endure,  and  to  its  resin,  which  preserves  it 
from  the  injuries  of  the  weather.  The  ark  of 
the  covenant,  and  much  of  the  temple  of  Soro- 
mon,  and  that  of  Diana  at  Ephesus,  were  built 
of  cedar.  The  tree  is  much  celebrated  in 
Scripture.  It  is  called,  "  the  glory  of  Lebanon," 
Isa.  lx,  13.  On  that  mountain  it  must  in  for- 
mer times  have  flourished  in  great  abundance. 
There  are  some  cedars  still  growing  there 
which  are  prodigiously  large.  But  the  travel- 
lers who  have  visited  the  place  within  these 
two  or  three  centuries,  and  who  describe  trees 
of  vast  size,  inform   us  that  their  number  i» 


CER 


224 


CER 


diminished  greatly ;  so  that,  as  Isaiah  says,  "  a 
child  may  number  them,"  Isa.  x,  19.  Maun- 
drell  measured  one  of  the  largest  size,  and 
found  it  to  be  twelve  yards  and  six  inches  in 
girt,  and  yet  sound ;  and  thirty-seven  yards  in 
the  spread  of  its  boughs.  Gabriel  Sionita,  a 
very  learned  Syrian  Maronite,  who  assisted  in 
editing  the  Paris  Polyglott,  a  man  worthy  of 
all  credit,  thus  describes  the  cedars  of  mount 
Lebanon,  which  he  had  examined  on  the  spot : 
"The  cedar  grows  on  the  most  elevated  part 
of  the  mountain,  is  taller  than  the  pine,  and  so 
thick,  that  five  men  together  could  scarcely 
encompass  one.  It  shoots  out  its  branches  at 
ten  or  twelve  feet  from  the  ground :  they  are 
large  and  distant  from  each  other,  and  are 
perpetually  green.  The  wood  is  of  a  brown 
colour,  very  solid  and  incorruptible,  if  pre- 
served from  wet.  The  tree  bears  a  small  cone 
like  that  of  the  pine. 

CELSUS.  A  Pagan  philosopher  of  the  second 
century,  who  composed  a  work  against  Chris- 
tianity, in  which  ho  so  expressly  refers  to  the 
facts  of  the  Gospels,  and  to  the  books  of  the 
New  Testament,  as  to  have  furnished  import- 
ant undesigned  testimony  to  their  antiquity 
and  truth. 

CEMETERY.  See  Sepulchre. 
CENSER,  a  sacred  instrument  made  use  of 
in  the  religious  rites  of  the  Hebrews.  It  was 
a  vase  which  contained  incense  to  be  used  in 
sacrifice.  When  Aaron  made'an  atonement  for 
himself  and  his  house,  he  was  to  take  a  censer 
full  of  burning  coals  of  fire  from  off  the  altar 
of  the  Lord,  Lev.  xvi,  12.  And  Solomon,  when 
he  provided  furniture  for  the  temple  of  the 
Lord,  made,  among  other  things,  censers  of 
pure  gold,  1  Kings  vii,  50. 

CENTURION,  an  officer  in  the  Roman 
army,  who,  as  the  term  indicates,  had  the  com- 
mand of  a  hundred  men,  Matt,  viii,  5,  &c. 

CEPHAS,  K>?0a?,  from  ndo,  a  rock.  The 
Greek  ll/rpoj,  and  the  Latin  Pctrus,  have  the 
same  signification.     See  Peter. 

CEREMONY,  an  assemblage  of  several  ac- 
tions, forms,  and  circumstances,  serving  to  ren- 
der a  thing  magnificent  and  solemn.  Applied 
to  religious  services,  it  signifies  the  external 
rites  and  manner  in  which  the  ministers  of  re- 
ligion perform  their  sacred  functions,  and  di- 
rect or  lead  the  worship  of  the  people.  In  1 64b", 
M.  Ponce,  published  a  history  of  ancient  cere- 
monies, showing  the  rise,  growth,  and  intro- 
duction of  each  rite  into  the  church,  and  its 
gradual  advancement  to  superstition.  Many 
of  them  were  borrowed  from  Judaism,  but 
more  from  Paganism.  In  all  religions  adapted 
to  the  nature  of  man  there  must  be  some  posi- 
tive institutions  for  fixing  the  mind  upon  spi- 
ritual objects,  and  counteracting  that  influence 
of  material  things  upon  habits  and  pursuits 
which  is,  and  must  be,  constantly  exerted. 
Without  such  institutions,  religion  might  be 
preserved,  indeed,  by  a  few  of  superior  under- 
standing and  of  strong  powers  of  reflection; 
but  among  mankind  in  general  all  trace  of  it 
would  soon  be  lost.  When  the  end  for  which 
they  are  appointed  is  kept  in  view,  and  the  simple 
examples  of  the  New  Testament  are  observed, 


they  are  of  vast  importance  to  the  production 
both  of  pious  feelings  and  of  virtuous  conduct* 
but  there  has  constantly  been  a  propensity  in 
the  human  race  to  mistake  the  means  for  the 
end,  and  to  consider  themselves  as  moral  and 
religious,  when  they  scrupulously  observe  what 
was  intended  to  produce  morality  and  religion. 
The  reason  is  obvious  :  ceremonial  observances 
can  be  performed  without  any  great  sacrifice 
of  propensities  and  vices ;  they  are  palpable ; 
when  they  are  observed  by  men  who,  in  the 
tenor  of  public  life,  do  not  act  immorally,  they 
are  regarded  by  others  as  indicating  high  at 
tainments  in  virtue  ;  and  through  that  self-de- 
ceit which  so  wonderfully  misleads  the  reason, 
and  inclines  it  to  minister  to  the  passions  which 
it  should  restrain,  men  have  themselves  become 
persuaded  that  their  acknowledgment  of  divine 
authority,  implied  in  their  respect  to  the  ritual 
which  that  authority  is  conceived  to  have  sanc- 
tioned, may  be  taken  as  a  proof  that  the3r  have 
nothing  to  apprehend  from  the  violation  of  the 
law  under  which  they  are  placed.  But,  what- 
ever be  the  causes  of  this,  the  fact  itself  is 
established  by  the  most  extensive  and  the  most 
incontrovertible  evidence.  We  find  it,  indeed, 
wherever  mankind  have  had  notions  of  supe- 
rior power,  and  of  their  obligation  to  yield  obe- 
dience to  the  will  of  the  supreme  Being. 

Under  the  system  of  polytheism  which  pre- 
vailed in  the  most  enlightened  nations  previous 
to  the  publication  of  Christianity,  this  was  car- 
ried so  far,  that  the  connection  between  religion 
and  morality  was  in  a  great  degree  dissolved, 
rites  and  ceremonies,  sacrifices  and  oblations, 
were  all  that  it  was  thought  requisite  to  observe ; 
when  these  were  carefully  performed,  there 
was  no  hesitation  in  ascribing  piety  to  the  per- 
sons who  did  perform  them,  however  deficient 
they  might  be  in  virtuous  and  pious  disposi- 
tions. Even  under  the  Mosaical  dispensation, 
proceeding  as  it  did,  immediately  from  heaven, 
and  adapted,  as  in  infinite  wisdom  it  was,  to 
the  situation  of  those  to  whom  it  was  given, 
the  same  evil  early  began  to  be  experienced  ; 
and  although  it  was  lamented  and  exposed  by 
the  prophets,  and  the  most  enlightened  men 
among  the  Jews,  it  was  so  far  from  being  era- 
dicated, that  it  continued  to  acquire  strength, 
till  it  was  exhibited  in  all  its  magnitude  in  the 
character  prevalent  among  the  Pharisees  at  the 
period  of  Christ's  manifestation.  With  this 
highly  popular  and  revered  class  of  men,  reli- 
gion was  either  merely  a  matter  of  ceremony, 
or  was  employed,  for  base  and  interested  pur- 
poses, to  cast  a  veil  of  sanctity  over  their  ac- 
tions. They  said  long  prayers,  but  it  was  for 
a  show  ;  they  gave  alms,  but  it  was  after  they 
had  sounded  a  trumpet,  that  the  eye  of  man 
might  be  fixed  upon  their  beneficence  ;  and,  as 
to  the  point  now  under  review,  they  were  most 
strikingly  described  by  our  Saviour,  when  he 
said  of  them,  "  They  pay  tithe  of  mint,  and 
anise,  and  cummin,  but  they  neglect  tho 
weightier  matters  of  the  law,  justice,  and  mer- 
cy, and  truth."  The  Christian  religion  not  only 
expressly  guards  against  an  evil  which  had  be- 
come so  prevalent,  but  its  whole  spirit  is  at  va- 
riance with  it,  its  own  coremonial  observances 


CER 


225 


CER 


being  few,  and  obviously  emblematical  of  what- 
ever is  excellent  and  holy.  But  still  the  Gos- 
pel finds  human  nature  as  other  religions  found 
it ;  and  ecclesiastical  history,  even  from  the 
earliest  periods,  shows  with  what  astonishing 
perverseness,  and  with  what  wonderful  inge- 
nuity, men  departed  from  the  simplicity  of 
Christianity,  and  substituted  in  its  room  the 
most  childish,  and  often  the  most  pernicious, 
practices  and  observances.  The  power  of  god- 
liness was  lost  informs;  and  the  innovations 
of  a  profane  will-worship  became  almost  innu- 
merable. The  effect  was,  that  men  regarded 
God  as  less  concerned  with  the  moral  conduct 
of  his  creatures,  than  with  the  quantum  of  serv. 
ice  they  performed  in  his  temples  ;  and  religion 
and  morals  were  so  disjoined,  that  one  became 
the  substitute  for  the  other,  to  the  universal 
corruption  of  the  Christian  world. 

CERINTHIANS.  OfCerinthus,  the  founder 
of  this  sect,  Dr.  Burton  gives  the  following  ac- 
count :  Cerinthus  is  said  to  have  been  one  of 
those  Jews  who,  when  St.  Peter  returned  to 
Jerusalem,  expostulated  with  him  for  having 
baptized  Cornelius,  Acts  xi,  2.  He  is  also  stat- 
ed to  have  been  one  of  those  who  went  down 
from  Judea  to  Antioch,  and  said,  "  Except  ye 
be  circumcised  after  the  manner  of  Moses,  ye 
cannot  be  saved,"  Acts  xv,  1.  According  to 
the  same  account,  he  was  one  of  the  false 
teachers  who  seduced  the  Galatians  to  Judaism  ; 
and  he  is  also  charged  with  joining  in  the  at- 
tack which  was  made  upon  St.  Paul,  for  pollut- 
ing the  temple  by  the  introduction  of  Greeks, 
Acts  xxi,  27,  28.  I  cannot  find  any  older  au- 
thority for  these  statements  than  that  of  Epi- 
phanius,  who  wrote  late  in  the  fourth  century, 
and  is  by  no  means  worthy  of  implicit  credit. 
He  asserts,  also,  that  Cerinthus  was  one  of  the 
persons  alluded  to  by  St.  Luke,  as  having  already 
undertaken  to  write  the  life  of  Jesus.  But  all 
these  stories  I  take  to  be  entirely  inventions  ; 
and  there  is  no  evidence  that  Cerinthus  made 
himself  conspicuous  at  so  early  a  period.  Ire- 
njEus  speaks  of  the  heresy  of  the  Nicolaitans, 
as  being  considerably  prior  to  that  of  the  Ce- 
rinthians.  According  to  the  same  writer,  Car- 
pocrates  also  preceded  Cerinthus  ;  and  if  it  be 
true,  as  so  many  of  the  fathers  assert,  that  St. 
John  wrote  his  Gospel  expressly  to  confute  this 
heresy,  we  can  hardly  come  to  any  other  con- 
clusion, than  that  it  was  late  in  the  first  cen- 
tury when  Cerinthus  rose  into  notice.  He 
appears  undoubtedly  to  have  been  a  Jew ;  and 
there  is  evidence  that,  after  having  studied  phi- 
losophy in  Egypt,  he  spread  his  doctrines  in 
Asia  Minor.  This  will  account  for  his  embrac- 
ing the  Gnostic  opinions,  and  for  his  exciting 
the  notice  of  St.  John,  who  resided  at  Ephesus. 
Ho  was  certainly  a  Gnostic  in  his  notion  of  the 
creation  of  the  world,  which  he  conceived  to 
have  been  formed  by  angels  ;  and  his  attach- 
ment to  that  philosophy  may  explain  what 
otherwise  seems  inconsistent,  that  he  retain- 
ed some  of  the  Mosaic  ceremonies,  such  as 
the  observance  of  Sabbaths  and  circumcision  ; 
though,  like  other  Gnostics,  he  ascribed  the  law 
and  the  prophets  to  the  angel  who  created  the 
world.  This  adoption  or  rejection  of  different 
16 


parts  of  the  same  system  was  a  peculiar  feature 
of  the  Gnostic  philosophy  ;  and  the  name  of 
Cerinthus  probably  became  eminent,  because 
he  introduced  a  fresh  change  in  the  notion  con- 
cerning  Christ.  The  Gnostics,  like  their  leader, 
Simon  Magus,  had  all  of  them  been  Doeetse, 
and  denied  the  real  humanity ;  but  Cerinthus 
is  said  to  have  maintained  that  Jesus  had  a  real 
body,  and  was  the  son  of  human  parents,  Jo- 
seph and  Mary.  In  the  other  points  he  agreed 
with  the  Gnostics,  and  believed  that  Christ  was 
one  of  the  seons  who  descended  on  Jesus  at  his 
baptism.  It  is  difficult  to  ascertain  who  was 
the  first  Gnostic  that  introduced  this  opinion. 
Some  writers  give  the  merit  of  it  to  Ebion ; 
and  yet  it  is  generally  said  that  Cerinthus  and 
Ebion  agreed  in  their  opinions  concerning 
Christ,  and  that  Cerinthus  preceded  Ebion. 
Again  Carpocrates  is  said  to  have  held  the 
same  sentiments  ;  and  he  is  placed  by  Irenaeus 
before  Cerinthus :  so  that  it  is  difficult,  if  not 
impossible,  to  decide  the  chronological  pre- 
cedence of  these  heretics.  Perhaps  the  safest 
inference  to  draw  from  so  many  conflicting  tes- 
timonies is  this  :  that  Carpocrates  was  the  first 
Gnostic  of  eminence  who  was  not  a  Docetist ; 
but  that  the  notion  of  Jesus  being  born  of  hu- 
man parents  was  taught  more  explicitly  and 
with  more  success  by  Cerinthus.  Carpocrates 
is  reported  to  have  been  distinguished  by  the 
gross  immorality  of  his  life  ;  and  whatever  we 
may  think  of  the  imputations  cast  upon  the 
Gnostics  in  general,  it  seems  impossible  to  deny 
that  this  person,  at  least,  professed  and  practis- 
ed a  perfect  liberty  of  action.  There  is  also 
strong  evidence  that  in  this  instance  Cerinthus 
followed  his  example. 

There  is  a  peculiar  doctrine  ascribed  to  this 
heretic,  which,  if  it  originated  with  him,  may 
well  account  for  the  celebrity  of  his  name. 
Cerinthus  has  been  handed  down  as  the  first 
person  who  held  the  notion  of  a  millennium ; 
and  though  the  fathers  undoubtedly  believed 
that,  previous  to  the  general  resurrection,  the 
earth  would  undergo  a  renovation,  and  the  just 
would  rise  to  enjoy  a  long  period  of  terrestrial 
happiness,  yet  there  was  a  marked  and  palpa- 
ble difference  between  the  millennium  of  the 
fathers  and  that  of  Cerinthus.  The  fathers 
conceived  this  terrestrial  happiness  to  be  per- 
fectly pure  and  freed  from  the  imperfections  of 
our  nature ;  but  Cerinthus  is  said  to  have  pro- 
mised his  followers  a  millennium  of  the  grossest 
pleasures  and  the  most  sensual  gratifications. 
It  is  sinfular  that  all  the  three  sources,  to 
which  we  may  trace  the  Gnostic  doctrines, 
micrlit  furnish  some  foundation  for  this  notion 
of  a  millennium.  Thus  Plato  has  left  some 
speculations  concerning  the  "great  year," 
when,  after  the  expiration  of  thirty-six  thousand 
years,  the  world  was  to  be  renewed,  and  the 
o-oldcn  age  to  return.  It  was  the  belief  of  tho 
Persian  magi,  according  to  Plutarch,  that 
the  time  would  come,  when  Ahreman,  or  the 
evil  principle,  would  be  destroyed;  when 
the  earth  would  lose  its  impediments  and 
inequalities,  and  all  mankind  would  be  of  one 
language,  and  enjoy  uninterrupted  happiness. 
It  was  taught,  in  the  Cabbala,  that  the  world 


CHA 


226 


CHA 


was  to  last  six  thousand  years,  which  would 
be  followed  by  a  period  of  rest  for  a  thousand 
years  more.  There  appears  in  this  an  evident 
allusion,  though  on  a  much  grander  scale,  to 
the  sabbatical  years  of  rest.  The  institution 
of  the  jubilee,  and  the  glowing  descriptions 
given  by  the  prophets  of  the  restoration  of  the 
Jews,  and  the  reign  of  the  Messiah,  may  have 
led  the  later  Jews  to  some  of  their  mystical 
fancies;  and  when  all  these  systems  were 
blended  together  by  the  Gnostics,  it  is  not 
strange,  if  a  millennium  formed  part  of  their 
creed  long  before  the  time  of  Cerinthus.  It 
seems  probable,  however,  that  he  went  much 
farther  than  his  predecessors  in  teaching  that 
the  millennium  would  consist  in  a  course  of 
sensual  indulgence ;  and  it  may  have  been  his 
notions  upon  this  subject,  added  to  those  con- 
cerning the  human  nature  of  Christ,  which  led 
him  to  maintain,  contrary  to  the  generality  of 
Gnostics,  that  Christ  had  not  yet  risen,  but 
that  he  would  rise  hereafter.  The  Gnostics, 
as  we  have  seen,  denied  the  resurrection  al- 
together. Believing  Jesus  to  be  a  phantom, 
they  did  not  believe  that  he  was  crucified ;  and 
they  could  not  therefore  believe  that  he  had 
risen.  But  Cerinthus,  who  held  that  Jesus  was 
born,  like  other  human  beings,  found  no  dif- 
ficulty in  believing  literally  that  he  was  cru- 
cified ;  and  he  is  said  also  to  have  taught  that 
he  would  rise  from  the  dead  at  some  future  pe- 
riod. It  is  most  probable  that  this  period  was 
that  of  the  millennium  ;  and  the  words  of  St. 
John  in  the  Revelation  would  easily  be  pervert- 
ed, where  it  is  said  of  the  souls  of  the  martyrs, 
that  "  they  lived  and  reigned  with  Christ  a  thou- 
sand years,"  Rev.  xx,  4. 

CHALCEDONY,  gaXintfiS*,  Rev.  xxi,  19;  a 
precious  stone.  Arethas,  who  has  written  an 
account  of  Bithynia,  says  that  it  was  so  called 
from  Chalcedon,  a  city  of  that  country,  oppo- 
site to  Byzantium ;  and  it  was  in  colour  like  a 
carbuncle.  Some  have  supposed  this  also  to 
be  the  stone  called  "|fij,  translated  "emerald," 
Exodus  xxviii,  18. 

CHALDEA,  or  Babylonia,  the  country  lying 
on  both  sides  of  the  Euphrates,  of  which  Ba- 
bylon was  the  capital;  and  extending  south- 
ward to  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  northward  into 
Mesopotamia,  at  least  as  far  as  Ur,  which  is 
called  Ur  of  the  Chaldees.  This  country  had 
also  the  name  of  Shinar.     See  Babylon. 

CHALDEAN  PHILOSOPHY  claims  atten- 
tion on  account  of  its  very  high  antiquity. 
The  most  ancient  people,  next  to  the  Hebrews, 
among  the  eastern  nations,  who  appear  to  have 
been  acquainted  with  philosophy,  in  its  more 
general  sense,  were  the  Chaldeans ;  for  though 
the  Egyptians  have  pretended  that  the  Chal- 
deans were  an  Egyptian  colony,  and  that  they 
derived  their  learning  from  Egypt,  there  is 
reason  to  believe  that  the  kingdom  of  Baby- 
lon, of  which  Chaldea  was  a  part,  flourished 
before  the  Egyptian  monarchy;  and  that  the 
Egyptians  were  rather  indebted  to  the  Chal- 
deans, than  the  Chaldeans  to  the  Egyptians. 
Nevertheless,  the  accounts  that  have  been 
transmitted  to  us  by  the  Chaldeans  themselves, 
of  the  antiquity  of  their  learning,  are  blended 


with  fable,  and  involved  in  considerable  uncer- 
tainty. There  are  other  circumstances,  inde- 
pendently of  the  antiquity  of  the  Chaldean 
philosophy,  which  render  our  knowledge  of  it 
imperfect  and  uncertain.  We  derive  our  ac- 
quaintance with  it  from  other  nations,  and 
principally  from  the  Greeks,  whose  vanity  led  : 
them  to  despise  and  misrepresent  the  pretended 
learning  of  barbarous  nations.  The  Chaldeans 
also  adopted  a  symbolical  mode  of  instruction, 
and  transmitted  their  doctrines  to  posterity 
under  a  veil  of  obscurity,  which  it  is  not  easy 
to  remove.  To  all  which,  we  may  add  that, 
about  the  commencement  of  the  Christian  aera, 
a  race  of  philosophers  sprung  up.  who,  with  a 
view  of  gaining  credit  to  their  own  wild  and 
extravagant  doctrines,  passed  them  upon  the 
world  as  the  ancient  wisdom  of  the  Chaldeans 
and  Persians,  in  spurious  books,  which  they 
ascribed  to  Zoroaster,  or  some  other  eastern 
philosopher.  Thus,  the  fictions  of  these  im- 
postors were  confounded  with  the  genuine 
dogmas  of  the  ancient  eastern  nations.  Not- 
withstanding these  causes  of  uncertainty, 
which  perplex  the  researches  of  modern  inquir- 
ers into  the  distinguishing  doctrines  and  cha- 
racter of  the  Chaldean  philosophy,  it  appears 
probable  that  the  philosophers  of  Chaldea  were 
the  priests  of  the  Babylonian  nation,  who  in- 
structed the  people  in  the  principles  of  religion, 
interpreted  its  laws,  and  conducted  its  ceremo- 
nies. Their  character  was  similar  to  that  of 
the  Persian  magi,  and  they  are  often  confound- 
ed with  them  by  the  Greek  historians.  Like 
the  priests  in  most  other  nations,  they  employed 
religion  in  subserviency  to  the  ruling  powers, 
and  made  use  of  imposture  to  serve  the  pur- 
poses of  civil  policy.  Accordingly,  Diodorus 
Siculus  relates,  that  they  pretended  to  predict 
future  events  by  divination,  to  explain  prodi- 
gies, and  interpret  dreams,  and  to  avert  evils, 
or  confer  benefits,  by  means  of  augury  and  in- 
cantations. For  many  agesr  they  retained  a 
principal  place  among  diviners.  In  the  reign 
of  Marcus  Antonius,  when  the  emperor  and 
his  army,  who  were  perishing  with  thirst,  were 
suddenly  relieved  by  a  shower,  the  prodigy  was 
ascribed  to  the  power  and  skill  of  the  Chaldean 
soothsayers.  Thus  accredited  for  their  miracu- 
lous powers,  they  maintained  their  conse- 
quence in  the  courts  of  princes.  The  principal 
instrument  which  they  employed  in  support  of 
their  superstition,  was  astrology.  The  Chal- 
deans were  probably  the  first  people  who  made 
regular  observations  upon  the  heavenly  bodies, 
and  hence  the  appellation  of  Chaldean  became 
afterward  synonymous  with  that  of  astrono- 
mer. Nevertheless  all  their  observations  were 
applied  to  the  sole  purpose  of  establishing  the 
credit  of  judicial  astrology;  and  they  employed 
their  pretended  skill  in  this  art,  in  calculating 
nativities,  foretelling  the  weather,  predicting 
good  and  bad  fortune,  and  other  practices 
usual  with  impostors  of  this  class.  While  they 
taught  the  vulgar  that  all  human  affairs  are  in- 
fluenced by  the  stars,  and  professed  to  be  ac- 
quainted with  the  nature  and  laws  of  their 
influence,  and  consequently  to  possess  a  power 
of  prying  into  futurity,  they  encouraged  much 


CHA 


227 


CHA 


idle  superstition,  and  many  fraudulent  prac- 
tices. Hence  other  professors  of  these  mis. 
chievous  arts  were  afterward  called  Chaldeans, 
and  the  arts  themselves  were  called  Babylonian 
arts.  Among  the  Romans  these  impostors 
were  so  troublesome,  that,  during  the  time  of 
the  republic,  it  became  necessary  to  issue  an 
edict  requiring  the  Chaldeans,  or  mathemati- 
cians, (by  which  latter  appellation  they  were 
commonly  known,)  to  depart  from  Rome  and 
Italy  within  ten  days ;  and,  afterward,  under 
the  emperors,  these  soothsayers  were  put  under 
the  most  severe  interdiction. 

The  Chaldean  philosophy,  notwithstanding 
the  obscurity  that  has  rendered  it  difficult  of 
research,  has  been  highly  extolled,  not  only  by 
the  orientals  and  Greeks,  but  by  Jewish  and 
Christian  writers :  but  upon  recurring  to  au- 
thorities that  are  unquestionable,  there  seems 
to  be  little  or  nothing  in  this  branch  of  the  bar- 
baric philosophy  which  deserves  notice.  The 
following  brief  detail  will  include  the  most  in- 
teresting particulars.  From  the  testimony  of 
Diodorus,  and  also  from  other  ancient  authori- 
ties, collected  by  Eusebius,  it  appears,  that  the 
Chaldeans  believed  in  God,  the  Lord  and  Pa- 
rent of  all,  by  whose  providence  the  world  is 
governed.  From  this  principle  sprung  their 
religious  rites,  the  immediate  object  of  which 
was  a  supposed  race  of  spiritual  beings  or  de- 
mons, whose  existence  could  not  have  been 
imagined,  without  first  conceiving  the  idea  of 
a  supreme  Being,  the  source  of  all  intelligence. 
The  belief  of  a  supreme  Deity,  the  fountain  of 
all  the  divinities  which  were  supposed  to  pre- 
side over  the  several  parts  of  the  material 
world,  was  the  true  origin  of  all  religious  wor- 
ship, however  idolatrous,  not  excepting  even 
that  which  consisted  in  paying  divine  honours 
to  the  memory  of  dead  men.  Beside  the  su- 
preme Being,  the  Chaldeans  supposed  spiritual 
beings  to  exist,  of  several  orders ;  gods,  de- 
mons, heroes :  these  they  probably  distributed 
into  subordinate  classes,  agreeably  to  their 
practice  of  theurgy  or  magic.  The  Chaldeans, 
in  common  with  the  eastern  nations  in  gene- 
ral, admitted  the  existence  of  certain  evil  spi- 
rits, clothed  in  a  vehicle  of  grosser  matter ;  and 
in  subduing  or  counteracting  these,  they  placed 
a  great  part  of  the  efficacy  of  their  religious 
incantations.  These  doctrines  were  the  mys- 
teries of  the  Chaldean  religion,  imparted  only 
to  the  initiated.  Their  popular  religion  con- 
sisted in  the  worship  of  the  sun,  moon,  planets, 
and  stars,  as  divinities,  after  the  general  prac- 
tice of  the  east,  Job  xxxi,  27.  From  the  reli- 
gious system  of  the  Chaldeans  were  derived 
two  arts,  for  which  they  were  long  celebrated  ; 
namely,  magic  and  astrology.  Their  magic, 
which  should  not  be  confounded  with  witch- 
craft, or  a  supposed  intercourse  with  evil  spi- 
rits, consisted  in  the  performance  of  certain 
religious  ceremonies  or  incantations,  which 
were  supposed,  by  the  interposition  of  good 
demons,  to  produce  supernatural  effects.  Their 
astrology  was  founded  upon  the  chimerical 
principle,  that  the  stars  have  ah  influence, 
either  beneficial  or  malignant,  upon  the  affairs 
of  men,  which  may  be  discovered,  and  made 


the  certain  ground  of  prediction,  in  particular 
cases;  and  the  whole  art  consisted  in  applying 
astronomical  observations  to  this  fanciful  pur- 
pose, and  thus  imposing  upon  the  credulity  of 
the  vulgar. 

CHAMBER.     See  Urrna  Room. 

CHAPTERS.  The  New  Testament  was  early 
portioned  out  into  certain  divisions,  which  ap. 
pear  under  various  names.  The  custom  of 
reading  it  publicly  in  the  Christian  assemblies 
after  the  law  and  the  prophets,  would  soon 
cause  such  divisions  to  be  applied  to  it.  The 
law  and  the  prophets  were  for  this  end  already 
divided  into  parashim  and  haptaroth,  and  the 
New  Testament  could  not  long  remain  with- 
out being  treated  in  the  same  way.  The  dis- 
tribution into  church  lessons  was  indeed  the 
oldest  that  took  place  in  it.  The  Christian 
teachers  gave  the  name  of  periedpes,  to  the 
sections  read  as  lessons  by  the  Jews.  Justin 
Martyr  avails  himself  of  this  expression,  when 
he  quotes  prophetical  passages.  Such  is  the 
case  also  in  Clemens  of  Alexandria ;  but  this 
writer  also  gives  the  name  of  rzepiKoxai  to  larger 
sections  of  the  Gospels  and  St.  Paul's  Epistles. 
Pcricopes  therefore  were  nothing  else  but 
avayvuidjiara,  church  lessons,  or  sections  of  the 
New  Testament,  which  were  read  in  the  as- 
semblies after  Moses  and  the  Prophets.  In 
the  third  century  another  division  also  into 
Kt<pa\aia  occurs.  Dionysius  of  Alexandria 
speaks  of  them  in  reference  to  the  Apocalypse, 
and  the  controversies  respecting  it.  Some, 
says  he,  went  through  the  whole  book,  from 
chapter  to  chapter,  to  show  that  it  bore  no 
sense.  In  the  fifth  century  Euthalius  produced 
again  a  division  into  chapters,  which  was  ac- 
counted his  invention.  He  himself  however 
lays  claim  to  nothing  more  than  having  com- 
posed ttjv  twv  KE^aWwi'  hdcrsiv,  the  summaries  of 
the  contents  of  the  chapters  in  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles  and  the  Catholic  Epistles.  In  the 
Epistles  of  St.  Paul,  not  even  these  are  his 
property;  but  they  are  derived  "from  one  of 
the  wisest  of  the  fathers,  and  worshippers  of 
Christ,"  as  he  himself  says,  and  he  only  incor- 
porated them  into  his  stichometrical  edition  of 
the  New  Testament.  The  chapters  must, 
therefore,  have  been  in  existence  before  Eu- 
thalius, if  the  father  whom  he  mentions  com- 
posed notices  of  their  contents.  But  how  old 
they  are  cannot  easily  be  known.  The  Eutha- 
lian  Kt<pa\a!a  are  distinguished  from  the  pcricopes, 
or  reading  portions,  by  their  extent.  The 
Jews  had  divided  the  law  into  fifty -three  para, 
shim,  according  to  the  number  of  the  Sabbaths, 
taking  into  account  the  leap  year.  Nearly  so 
distributed  were  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  St. 
Paul's  and  the  Catholic  Epistles,  according  to 
the  Alexandrine  ritual,  which  Euthalius  fol- 
lows in  his  stichometrical  edition,  namely,  into 
fifty-six  pericopes;  three  more  than  the  number 
of  Kvaiaxai  hftipai,  Sundays,  probably  for  three 
festivals,  which  might  be  observed  at  Christ- 
mas, Easter,  and  Whitsuntide.  The  Gospels 
too  had  naturally  in  the  same  way  many  perl, 
copes.  Such  in  older  times  was  the  practice 
in  Asia  also ;  for  Justin  says,  that  the  believers 
there  assemble  themselves  for  prayer  and  read- 


CHA 


228 


CHA 


ing  on  Sunday  only,  tv  rjj  rov  f,X(av  i/up?.  Since 
then  the  whole  New  Testament  was  distribut- 
ed into  so  few  sections,  these  must  necessarily 
have  been  great,  and  a  pericope  in  Euthalius 
sometimes  includes  in  it  four,  five,  and  even 
six  chapters.  We  have  spoken  hitherto  only 
of  the  chapters  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  and 
the  Epistles.  In  the  Gospels  there  occur  to  us 
Kt<pa\aia  of  two  sorts,  tho  greater  and  the  lesser. 
The  lesser  are  the  Ammonian  which  Eusebius 
rejected,  after  which  he  composed  his  ten  ca- 
nons in  order  to  point  out  in  the  Monotessaron 
of  Ammonius  the  respective  contents  of  every 
Evangelist.  He  has  explained"  himself  in  the 
Epistle  to  Carpianus  on  their  use,  and  on  the 
formation  of  his  ten  canons,  where  he  names 
his  sections  sometimes  ttupaXala,  sometimes 
vstpiKdirai.  Matthew  lias  three  hundred  and 
fifty-five  of  these,  Mark  two  hundred  and 
thirty-six,  Luke  three  hundred  and  forty -two, 
and  John  two  hundred  and  thirty-two.  The 
other  chapters  are  independent  of  these,  which 
from  their  extent  are  also  named  the  greater. 
Of  these,  Matthew  contains  sixty-cis;ht,  Mark 
forty-nine,  Luke  eighty-three,  and  John  only 
eighteen.  There  are  but  very  few  manuscripts 
which  have  not  both  of  them  together.  As  to 
the  church  lessons,  to  come  back  to  them  once 
more,  various  alterations  took  place  in  them. 
As  the  festival  days  multiplied,  the  old  division 
could  no  longer  subsist,  and  in  many  churches 
the  pericopes  were  shortened.  At  last  as  the 
ritual  of  ceremonies  was  enlarged,  only  certain 
portions  were  extracted  from  the  Gospels,  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles,  and  the  Epistles,  which 
sometimes  were  very  short.  A  codex  of  this 
sort  was  termed  ik\oyditov ;  in  reference  to  the 
Gospels  alone,  tvayyc\i$dpiov ;  and  in  respect  to 
the  other  books,  apa^cnr6s-o\os.  This  seems  to 
have  taken  place  among  the  Latins  much  ear- 
lier than  among  the  Greeks.  There  are  per- 
fectly credible  testimonies,  which  establish 
such  an  arrangement  among  the  former  at  the 
middle  of  the  fifth  century,  at  which  date 
nothing  of  the  kind  is  perceptible  among  the 
latter.  The  expression,  apa^ar6s-o\o;,  appears 
indeed  frequently  in  the  Typicum  of  St.  Sabas, 
who  died  in  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century. 
But  the  Greeks  do  not  disavow,  that  this  Typi- 
cum or  monastic  ritual  was  not  by  himself, 
that  it  perished  in  the  invasions  of  the  bar- 
barians, and  was  composed  anew  by  John  of 
Damascus,  with  references  mernoriter,  [from 
memory,]  to  that  of  Sabas.  He  lived  toward  the 
middle  of  the  eighth  century,  and  with  an  ear- 
lier notice  of  lectionaries  among  the  Greeks 
we  are  not  acquainted.  Finally,  our  present 
chapters  come,  as  it  is  well  known,  from  Car- 
dinal Hugo  de  St.  Cher,  who  in  the  twelfth 
century  composed  a  concordance,  and  to  this 
end  distributed  the  Bible  according  to  his  own 
discretion  into  smaller  portions.  They  are  now 
moreover  generally  admitted  in  the  editions  of 
the  Hebrew  and  Greek  texts.  The  verses, 
however,  are  from  Robert  Stephens,  who  first 
introduced  them  in  his  edition  of  tho  New  Tes- 
tament, A.  D.  1551.  His  son,  Henry  Stephens, 
was  the  first  to  record  this  for  the  information 
of  posterity,  in  the  preface  to  his  Greek  Con- , 


cordance  to  the  New  Testament ;  in  which  ha 
says,  that  two  facts  connected  with  it  equally 
demand  our  admiration  :  "  The  first  is,  that  my 
father,  while  travelling  from  Paris  to  Lyons, 
finished  this  division  of  each  chapter  into 
verses,  and  indeed  the  greater  part  of  it  [infer 
cquitandum]  when  riding  on  his  horse.  The 
second  fact  is,  that,  a  short  time  prior  to  this 
journey,  while  he  had  the  matter  still  in  con- 
templation, almost  all  those  to  whom  he  men- 
tioned  it  told  him  plainly  that  he  was  an  indis- 
creet man,  as  though  he  had  a  wish  to  spend 
his  time  and  labour  on  an  affair  which  would 
prove  utterly  useless,  and  which  would  not  ob- 
tain for  him  any  commendation,  but,  on  the 
contrary,  would  expose  him  to  much  ridicule. 
But  behold  the  result:  in  opposition  to  the 
opinion  which  condemned  and  discounte- 
nanced my  father's  undertaking,  as  soon  as  his 
invention  was  published,  every  edition  of  the 
New  Testament,  whether  in  the  Greek,  Latin, 
French,  German,  or  in  any  other  language, 
which  did  not  adopt  it,  was  immediately  dis- 
carded." It  perhaps  will  not  be  unedifying  to 
add,  that  this  passage  has  yielded  mankind 
another  proof  that  learning  is  not  always  sy- 
nonymous with  wisdom  :  for  the  phrase  respect- 
ing riding,  which  occurs  in  it,  has  furnished 
matter  of  warm  dispute  to  literary  men  ;  some 
of  them  contending  that  inter  equitundum 
means,  that  Robert  Stephens  performed  the 
greater  part  of  his  task  while  actually  on  horse- 
back ;  but  others,  giving  a  more  extended  con- 
struction to  the  expression,  assert  that  he  was 
engaged  in  this  occupation  only  when  stopping 
for  refreshment  at  inns  on  the  road.  Though 
the  first  interpretation  would  probably  obtain 
the  greatest  number  of  suffrages  from  really 
learned  and  impartial  men  ;  yet  it  is  quite  suf. 
ficient  for  mankind  to  know,  in  either  way, 
that  this  division  into  verses  was  completed  in 
the  course  of  that  journey. 

CHARIOTS  OF  WAR.  The  Scripture 
speaks  of  two  sorts  of  these  chariots,  one  for 
princes  and  generals  to  ride  in,  the  other  used 
to  break  the  enemies  battalions,  by  letting  them 
loose  armed  with  iron,  which  made  dreadful 
havoc  among  the  troops.  The  most  ancient 
chariots  of  which  we  have  any  notice  are  Pha- 
raoh's, which  were  overwhelmed  in  the  Red 
Sea,  Exodus  xiv,  7.  The  Canaanites,  whom 
Joshua  engaged  at  the  waters  of  Merom,  had 
cavalry  and  a  multitude  of  chariots,  Joshua 
xi,  4.  Sisern,  the  general  of  Jabin,  king  of 
Hazor,  had  nine  hundred  chariots  of  iron  in  his 
army,  Judges  iv,  3.  The  tribe  of  Judah  could 
not  get  possession  of  all  the  lands  of  their  lot, 
because  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  country 
were  strong  in  chariots  of  iron.  The  Philis- 
tines, in  the  war  carried  on  by  them  against 
Saul,  had  thirty  thousand  chariots  and  six 
thousand  horsemen,  1  Sam.  xiii,  5.  David, 
having  taken  One  thousand  chariots  of  war 
from  Hadadezer,  king  of  Syria,  hamstrung  the 
horses,  and  burned  nine  hundred  chariots,  re- 
serving only  one  hundred  to  himself,  2  Sam. 
viii,  4.  Solomon  had  a  considerable  number 
of  chariots,  but  we  know  of  no  military  expe- 
dition in  which  they  were  employed,  1  Kings 


CHE 


229 


CHE 


x,  26.  As  Judea  was  a  very  mountainous 
country,  chariots  could  be  of  no  great  use  there, 
except  in  the  plains;  and  the  Hebrews  often 
evaded  them  by  fighting  on  the  mountains. 
The  kings  of  the  Hebrews,  when  they  went  to 
war,  were  themselves  generally  mounted  in 
chariots  from  which  they  fought,  and  issued 
their  orders  ;  and  there  was  always  a  second 
chariot  empty,  which  followed  each  of  them, 
that  if  the  first  was  broken  he  might  ascend 
the  other,  2  Chron.  xxxv,  24.  Chariots  were 
sometimes  consecrated  to  the  sun ;  and  the 
Scripture  observes,  that  Josiah  burned  those 
which  had  been  dedicated  to  the  sun  by  his 
predecessors,  2  Kings  xxiii,  11.  This  super- 
stitious custom  was  borrowed  from  the  Hea- 
thens, and  principally  from  the  Persians. 

CHARITY,  considered  as  a  Christian  grace, 
ought  in  our  translation,  in  order  to  avoid  mis- 
take, to  have  been  translated  love.  It  is  the 
love  of  God,  and  the  love  of  our  neighbour 
flowing  from  the  love  of  God ;  and  is  described 
with  wonderful  copiousness,  felicity,  and  even 
grandeur,  by  St.  Paul,  1  Cor.  xiii ;  a  portion  of 
Scripture  which,  as  it  shows  the  habitual  tem- 
per of  a  true  Christian,  cannot  be  too  frequently 
referred  to  for  self-examination,  and  ought  to 
be  constantly  present  to  us  as  our  rule.  2.  In 
the  popular  sense,  charity  is  almsgiving  ;  a 
duty  of  practical  Christianity  which  is  solemnly 
enjoined,  and  to  which  special  promises  are 
annexed. 

CHARM.  See  Divination. 
'  CHEBAR,  a  river  of  Chaldea,  Ezek.  i,  1. 
It  is  thought  to  have  risen  near  the  head  of  the 
Tigris,  and  to  have  run  through  Mesopotamia, 
to  the  south-west,  and  emptied  itself  into  the 
Euphrates. 

CHEDORLAOMER,  a  king  of  the  Elam- 
ites,  who  were  either  Persians,  or  people  bor- 
dering upon  the  Persians.  This  was  one  of 
the  four  confederated  kings,  who  made  war 
upon  the  five  kings  of  the  pentapolis  of  Sodom; 
and  who,  after  having  defeated  them,  and  made 
themselves  masters  of  a  great  booty,  were  pur- 
sued and  dispersed  by  Abraham,  Gen.  xiv. 

CHEMARIM.  This  word  occurs  only  once 
in  our  version  of  the  Bible  :  "  I  will  cut  off  the 
remnant  of  Baal,  and  the  name  of  the  Chema- 
rims  (Chemariin)  with  the  priests,"  Zeph.  i,  4 ; 
but  it  frequently  occurs  in  the  Hebrew,  and  is 
generally  translated  "  priests  of  the  idols,"  or 
"  priests  clothed  in  black,"  because  chamar  sig- 
nifies blackness.  By  this  word  the  best  com- 
mentators understand  the  priests  of  false  grids, 
and  in  particular  the  worshippers  of  fire,  be- 
cause they  were,  it  is  said,  dressed  in  black. 
Le  Clerc,  however,  declares  against  this  last 
opinion.  Our  translators  of  the  Bible  would 
seem  sometimes  to  understand  by  this  word  the 
idols  or  objects  of  worship,  rather  than  their 
priests.  This  is  also  the  opinion  of  Le  Clerc. 
Calmet  observes  that  camar  in  Arabic  signifies 
the  moon,  and  that  Isis  is  the  same  deity. 
*'  Among  the  priests  of  Isis,"  says  Calmet, 
11  were  those  called  melanephori,  that  is,  wear- 
ers of  black  ;  but  it  is  uncertain  whether  this 
name  was  given  them  by  reason  of  their  dress- 
ing wholly  in  black,  or  because  they  wore  a 


black  shining  veil  in  the  processions  of  this 
goddess." 

CHEMOSH,  e>iD3,  an  idol  of  the  Moabites, 
Numbers  xxi,  29.  The  name  is  derived  from 
a  root  which  in  Arabic  signifies  to  hasten.  For 
this  reason,  many  believe  Chemosh  to  be  the 
sun,  whose  precipitate  course  might  well  pro- 
cure it  the  name  of  swift.  Some  identify 
Chemosh  with  Amnion  ;  and  Macrobius  shows 
that  Amnion  was  the  sun,  whose  rays  were  de- 
noted by  his  horns.  Calmet  is  of  opinion  that 
the  god  Hamanus  and  Apollo  Chomeus,  men- 
tioned by  Strabo  and  Ammianus  Marcellinus, 
was  Cliamos,  or  the  sun.  These  deities  were 
worshipped  in  many  parts  of  the  east.  Some, 
from  the  resemblance  of  the  Hebrew  Chamos 
with  the  Greek  Comos,  have  thought  Chamos 
to  signify  Bacchus.  Jerom  and  most  interpre- 
ters consider  Chamosh  and  Peor  as  the  same 
deity ;  but  some  think  that  Baal-Peor  was 
Tarnmuz,  or  Adonis.  To  Chemosh  Solomon 
erected  an  altar  upon  the  Mount  of  Olives, 
1  Kings  xi,  7.  As  to  the  form  of  the  idol  Che- 
mosh, the  Scripture  is  silent ;  but  if,  according 
to  Jerom,  it  were  like  Baal-Peor,  it  must  have 
been  of  the  beeve  kind ;  as  were,  probably,  all 
the  Baals,  though  accompanied  with  various 
insignia.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  part 
of  the  religious  services  performed  to  Chemosh, 
as  to  Baal-Peor,  consisted  in  revelling  and 
drunkenness,  obscenities  and  impurities  of  the 
grossest  kinds.  From  Chemosh  the  Greeks 
seem  to  have  derived  their  K<Z^oj,  called  by  the 
Romans  Comus,  the  god  of  feasting  and  revel- 
ling. 

CHERETHIM.  OTTO.  Cherethim,  or  Che. 
rethites,  are  denominations  for  the  Philistines  : 
"  I  will  stretch  out  mine  hand  upon  the  Philis- 
tines, and  will  cut  off  the  Cherethim,  and  de. 
stroy  the  remnant  of  the  sea  coast,"  Ezek. 
xxv,  16.  Zephaniah,  exclaiming  against  the 
Philistines,  says,  "Wo  unto  the  inhabitants 
of  the  sea  coasts,  the  nation  of  the  Chere- 
tlntes,"  Zeph.  ii,  5.  It  is  said,  1  Sam.  xxx,  14, 
that  the  Amalekites  invaded  the  south  of  the 
Cherethites ;  that  is,  of  the  Philistines.  David, 
and  some  of  the  kings,  his  successors,  had 
guards  called  Cherethites  and  Pelethites,  3 
Sam.  xv,  18 ;  xx,  7.  Calmet  thinks  that  they 
were  of  the  country  of  the  Philistines ;  but 
several  expositors  of  our  own  country  are  of  a 
different  opinion.  "  We  can  hardly  suppose," 
say  the  latter,  "that  David  would  employ  any 
of  these  uneircumcised  people  as  his  body- 
guard, or  that  the  Israelitish  soldiers  would 
have  patiently  seen  foreigners  of  that  nation 
advanced  to  such  places  of  honour  and  trust." 
It  may,  therefore,  be  inferred  that  guards  were 
called  Cherethites,  because  they  went  with 
David  into  Philistia,  where  they  continued 
with  him  all  the  time  he  was  under  the  protec- 
tion of  Achish.  These  were  the  persons  who 
accompanied  David  from  the  first,  and  who 
remained  with  him  in  his  greatest  distresses; 
and  it  is  no  wonder,  if  men  of  such  approved 
fidelity  should  be  chosen  for  his  body-guard. 
Beside,  it  is  not  uncommon  for  soldiers  to  de- 
rive their  names,  not  from  the  place  of  their 
nativity,  but  of  their  residence. 


CHE 


230 


CHE 


CHERUB.  3-0,  plural  o>a-D.  It  appears, 
from  Gen.  iii,  29,  that  this  is  a  name  given  to 
angels ;  but  whether  it  is  the  name  of  a  dis. 
tinct  class  of  celestials,  or  designates  the  same 
order  as  the  seraphim,  we  have  no  means  of 
determining.  But  the  term  cherubim  generally 
signifies  those  figures  which  Moses  was  com- 
manded to  make  and  place  at  each  end  of  the 
mercy  seat,  or  propitiatory,  and  which  covered 
the  ark  with  expanded  wings  in  the  most. holy 
place  of  the  Jewish  tabernacle  and  temple. 
See  Exodus  xxv,  18,  19.  The  original  mean- 
ing of  the  term,  and  the  shape  or  form  of  these, 
any  farther  than  that  they  were  alata  animata, 
"winged  creatures,"  is  not  certainly  known. 
The  word  in  Hebrew  is  sometimes  taken  for  a 
calf  or  ox ;  and  Ezekiel,  x,  14,  sets  down  the 
face  of  a  cherub  as  synonymous  to  the  face  of 
an  ox.  The  word  cherub,  in  Syriac  and  Chal- 
dee,  signifies  to  till  or  plough,  which  is  the 
proper  work  of  oxen.  Cherub  also  signifies 
strong  and  powerful.  Grotius  says  they  were 
figures  much  like  that  of  a  calf;  and  Bochart, 
likewise,  thinks  that  they  were  more  like  the 
figure  of  an  ox  than  any  thing  beside ;  and 
Spencer  is  of  the  same  mind.  But  Josephus 
says  they  were  extraordinary  creatures  of  a 
figure  unknown  to  mankind.  The  opinion  of 
most  critics,  taken,  it  seems,  from  Ezek.  i,  9, 
10,  is,  that  they  were  figures  composed  of  parts 
of  various  creatures;  as  a  man,  a  lion,  an  ox, 
an  eagle.  But  certainly  we  have  no  decided 
proof  that  the  figures  placed  in  the  holy  of 
holies,  in  the  tabernacle,  were  of  the  same  form 
writh  those  described  by  Ezekiel.  The  contrary, 
indeed,  seems  rather  indicated,  because  they 
looked  down  upon  the  mercy  seat,  which  is  an 
attribute  not  well  adapted  to  a  four-faced  crea- 
ture, like  the  emblematical  cherubim  seen  by 
Ezekiel. 

The  cherubim  of  the  sanctuary  were  two  in 
number ;  one  at  each  end  of  the  mercy  seat ; 
which,  with  the  ark,  was  placed  exactly  in  the 
middle,  between  the  north  and  south  sides  of 
the  tabernacle.  It  was  here  that  atonement 
was  made,  and  that  God  was  rendered  propi- 
tious -by  the  high  priest  sprinkling  the  blood 
upon  and  before  the  mercy  seat,  Lev.  xvi,  14, 
15.  Here  the  glory  of  God  appeared,  and  here 
he  met  his  high  priest,  and  by  him  his  people, 
and  from  hence  he  gave  forth  his  oracles ; 
whence  the  whole  holy  place  was  called  -pai, 
the  oracle.  These  cherubim,  it  must  be  observ- 
ed, had  feet  whereon  they  stood,  2  Chron.  iii, 
13;  and  their  feet  were  joined,  in  one  con- 
tinued beaten  work,  to  the  ends  of  the  mercy 
6eat  which  covered  the  ark  :  so  that  they  were 
wholly  over  or  above  it.  Those  in  the  taber- 
nacle were  of  beaten  gold,  being  but  of  small 
dimensions,  Exod.  xxv,  18 ;  but  those  in  the 
temple  of  Solomon  were  made  of  the  wood  of 
the  olive  tree  overlaid  with  gold ;  for  they  were 
very  large,  extending  their  wings  to  the  whole 
breadth  of  the  oracle,  which  was  twenty  cubits, 
1  Kings  vi,  23-28 ;  2  Chron.  iii,  10-13.  They 
are  called  "cherubim  of  glory,"  not  merely  or 
chiefly  on  account  of  the  matter  or  formation 
of  them,  but  because  they  had  the  glory  of 
God,  or  the  glorious  symbol  of  his  presence, 


"the  Shckinah,"  resting  between  them.  As 
this  glory  abode  in  the  inward  tabernacle,  and 
as  the  figures  of  the  cherubim  represented  the 
angels  who  surround  the  manifestation  of  the 
divine  presence  in  the  vvorld  above,  that  taber- 
nacle was  rendered  a  fit  image  of  the  court  of 
heaven,  in  which  light  it  is  considered  every 
where  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews.  See 
chapters  iv,  14 ;  viii,  1 ;  ix,  8,  9,  23,  24 ;  xii, 
22,  23. 

The  cherubim,  it  is  true,  have  been  con- 
sidered by  the  disciples  of  Mr.  Hutchinson 
as  designed  emblems  of  Jehovah  himself,  or 
rather  of  the  Trinity  of  Persons  in  the  God- 
head, with  man  taken  into  the  divine  essence. 
But  that  God,  who  is  a  pure  Spirit,  without  parts 
or  passions,  perfectly  separate  and  remote  from 
all  matter,  should  command  Moses  to  make 
material'  and  visible  images  or  emblematical 
representations  of  himself,  is  utterly  improba- 
ble :  especially,  considering  that  he  had  repeat- 
edly, expressly,  and  solemnly  forbidden  every 
thing  of  this  kind  in  the  second  commandment 
of  the  moral  law,  delivered  from  Mount  Sinai, 
amidst  thunder  and  lightning,  "blackness, 
darkness,  and  tempest,"  pronouncing  with  an 
audible  and  awful  voice,  while  "the  whole 
mount  quaked  greatly,  and  the  sound  of  the 
trumpet  waxed  louder  and  louder,  Thou  shalt 
not  make  unto  thee  any  graven  image,  nor  the 
likeness  of  any  thing  that  is  in  heaven  above, 
or  in  the  earth  beneath,  or  in  the  water  under 
the  earth."  Hence  the  solemn  caution  of 
Moses,  Deut.  iv,  15,  &c :  "  Take  ye  good  heed 
unto  yourselves,  (for  ye  saw  no  manner  of 
similitude  on  the  day  the  Lord  spake  unto  you 
in  Horeb  out  of  the  midst  of  the  fire,)  lest  ye 
corrupt  yourselves,  and  make  you  a  graven 
image,  the  similitude  of  any  figure,  the  likeness 
of  male  or  female,  of  any  beast  that  is  on  the 
earth,  of  any  winged  fowl  thatflieth  in  the  air, 
of  any  thing  that  creepeth  on  the  ground,  of 
any  fish  that  is  in  the  waters."  Hence  God's 
demand  by  his  prophet:  "To  what  will  ye 
liken  me,  or  shall  I  be  equal,  saith  the  Holy 
One?"  And  hence  the  censure  of  the  inspired 
penman,  Psalm  cvi,  20 :  "They  changed  their 
glory  into  the  similitude  of  an  ox  that  eateth 
grass."  Add  to  this,  that  in  most  or  all  of  the 
places  where  the  cherubim  are  mentioned  in 
the  Scriptures,  God  is  expressly  distinguished 
from  them.  Thus,  "He,"  the  Lord,  "placed 
at  the  east  of  the  gnrden  cherubim,  and  a  flam- 
ing sword,"  Gen.  iii,  24.  "He  rode  on  a 
cherub  and  did  fly,"  Psalm  xviii,  10.  "He 
sitteth  between  the  cherubim,"  Psalm  xcix,  1. 
"  He  dwellcth  between  the  cherubim,"  Psalm 
Ixxx,  1.  We  also  read  of"  the  glory  of  the  God 
of  Israel  going  up,  from  the  cherub  whereupon 
he  was,  to  the  threshold  of  the  house,"  Ezek. 
ix,  3.  And  again,  "The  glory  of  the  Lord 
went  up  from  the  cherub,  and  the  court  was 
full  of  the  brightness  of  the  Lord's  glory," 
Ezek.  x,  4.  And  again,  "The  glory  of  the 
Lord  departed  from  off  the  threshold,  and 
stood  over  the  cherubim,"  Ezek.  x,  18.  In  all 
these  passages  the  glory  of  the  Lord,  that  is, 
the  Shckinah,  the  glorious  symbol  of  his  pres. 
ence,  is  distinguished  from  the  cherubim ;  and 


CHE 


231 


CHI 


not  the  least  intimation  is  given  in  these  pas- 
sages, or  any  others,  of  the  Scripture,  that  the 
cherubim  were  images  or  emblematical  repre- 
sentations of  him.  Mr.  Parkhurst's  laborious 
effort  to  establish  Mr.  Hutchinson's  opinion  on 
the  subject  of  the  cherubim,  in  his  Hebrew 
Lexicon,  sub  voce,  is  so  obviously  fanciful  and 
contradictory,  that  few  will  be  converted  to 
this  strange  opinion.  It  seems  much  more 
probable  that,  as  most  eminent  divines  have 
supposed,  the  cherubim  represented  the  angels 
who  surround  the  divine  presence  in  heaven. 
Accordingly,  they  had  their  faces  turned  to- 
ward the  mercy  seat,  where  God  was  supposed 
to  dwell,  whose  glory  the  angels  in  heaven 
always  behold,  and  upon  which  their  eyes  are 
continually  fixed  ;  as  they  are  also  upon  Christ, 
the  true  propitiatory,  which  mystery  of  re- 
demption they  "desire,"  St.  Peter  tells  us,  "to 
look  into,"  1  Peter  i,  12 :  a  circumstance  evi- 
dently signified  by  the  "faces  of  the  cherubim 
being  turned  inward,  and  their  eyes  fixed  on 
the  mercy  seat.  We  may  here  also  observe 
that,  allowing  St.  Peter  in.  this  passage  to 
allude  to  the  cherubic  figures,  which,  from  his 
mode  of  expression,  can  scarcely  be  doubted, 
this  amounts  to  a  strong  presumption  that  the 
cherubim  represented,  not  so  much  ono  order, 
as  "  the  angels"  in  general,  all  of  whom  are 
said  to  "desire  to  look  into"  the  subjects  of 
human  redemption,  and  to  all  whose  orders, 
"the  principalities  and  powers  in  heavenly 
places,  the  manifold  wisdom  of  God  is  made 
known  by  the  church."  In  Ezekiel,  the  che- 
rubic figures  are  evidently  connected  with  the 
dispensations  of  providence ;  and  they  have 
therefore  appropriate  forms,  emblematical  of 
the  strength,  wisdom,  swiftness,  and  constancy, 
with  which  the  holy  angels  minister  in  carry- 
ing on  God's  designs :  but  in  the  sanctuary 
they  are  connected  with  the  administration  of 
grace ;  and  they  are  rather  adoring  beholders, 
than  actors,  and  probably  appeared  under  forms 
more  simple.  As  to  the  living  creatures,  im- 
properly rendered  "  beasts"  in  our  translation. 
Rev.  iv,  7,  some  think  them  a  hieroglyphi- 
eal  representation,  not  of  the  qualities  of  an- 
gels, but  of  those  of  real  Christians;  especially 
of  those  in  the  suffering  and  active  periods  of 
the  church.  The  first  a  lion,  signifying  their 
undaunted  courage,  manifested  in  meeting  with 
confidence  the  greatest  sufferings;  the  second 
a  calf  or  ox,  emblematical  of  unwearied  pa- 
tience ;  the  third  with  the  face  of  a  man  repre- 
senting prudence  and  compassion;  the  fourth 
a  flying  eagle,  signifying  activity  and  vigour. 
The  four  qualities  thus  emblematically  set 
forth  in  these  four  living  creatures,  namely, 
undaunted  courage,  unwearied  patience  under 
sufferings,  prudence  united  with  kindness,  and 
vigorous  activity,  are  found,  more  or  less,  in 
the  true  members  of  Christ's  church  in  every 
age  and  nation.  But  others  have  imagined 
that  this  representation  might  be  intended  to 
intimate  also  that  these  qualities  would  espe- 
cially prevail  tn  succeeding  ages  of  the  church, 
in  the  order  in  which  they  are  here  placed : 
that  is,  that  in  the  first  age  true  Christians 
would  be  eminent  for  the  courage,  fortitude, 


and  success,  wherewith  they  should  spread  the 
Gospel ;  that  in  the  next  age  they  would  mani- 
fest remarkable  patience  in  bearing  persecu- 
tion, when  they  should  be  "  killed  all  the  day," 
like  calves  or  oxen  appointed  for  the  slaughter ; 
that  in  the  subsequent  age  or  ages,  when  the 
storms  of  persecution  were  blown  over,  and 
Christianity  was  generally  spread  through  the 
whole  Roman  empire,  knowledge  and  wisdom, 
piety   and  virtue,    should   increase,   and  tha 
church    should  wear  the  face  of  a  man,  and 
excel  in  prudence,  humanity,  love,  and  good 
works;  and  that  in  ages  still  later,  being  re- 
formed from  various  corruptions  in  doctrine 
and  practice,  and  full  of  vigour  and  activity,  it 
should  carry  the  Gospel,  as  upon  the  wings  of 
a  flying  eagle,  to  the  remotest  nations  under 
heaven,  "to  every  kindred,  and  tongue,  and 
people."      This  is  a  thought  which  deserves 
some  consideration.  The  four  great  monarchies 
of  the  earth  had  their  prophetic  emblems,  taken 
both  from  metals  and  from  beasts  and  birds ; 
and  it  is  not  unreasonable  to  look  for  prophetic 
emblems  of  the  one  kingdom  of  Christ,  in  its 
varied  and  successive  states.     Perhaps,  how- 
ever, the  most  reasonable  conclusion  is,  that, 
like  the   "living  creatures"  in  the  vision  of 
Ezekiel,  they  are  emblematical  of  the  minis, 
trations   of  angels  in  what  pertains  to  those 
providential  events  which  more  particularly 
concern  the  church. 

CHESNUT  TREE,  jimp.  This  tree,  which 
is  mentioned  only  in  Gen.  xxx,  37,  and  Eaek, 
xxxi,  8,  is  by  the  Septuagint  and  .Terom  ren- 
dered plane  tree;  and  Drusius,  Hiller,  and 
most  of  the  modern  interpreters  render  it  the 
same.  The  name  is  derived  from  a  root  which 
signifies  nakedness;  and  it  is  often  observed  of 
the  plane  tree  that  the  bark  peels  off  from  the 
trunk,  leaving  it  naked,  which  peculiarity  may 
have  been  the  occasion  of  its  Hebrew  name, 
The  son  of  Sirach  says,  "  I  grew  up  as  a  plane 
tree  by  the  water,"  Ecclesiasticus  xxiv,  14. 

CHILD.  Mothers,  in  the  earliest  times, 
suckled  their  offspring  themselves,  and  that 
from  thirty  to  thirty-six  months.  The  day 
when  the  child  was  weaned  was  made  a  festi- 
val Gen.  xxi,  8 ;  Exod.  ii,  7,  9 ;  1  Sam.  i,  22- 
24;  2  Chron.  xxxi,  16;  2  Mac.  vii,  27,  28; 
Matt,  xxi,  16.  Nurses  were  employed,  is 
case  the  mother  died  before  the  child  was  old 
enough  to  be  weaned,  and  when  from  any 
circumstances  she  was  unable  to  afford  a  suffi- 
cient supply  of  milk  for  its  nourishment.  In 
later  ages,  when  matrons  had  become  more 
delicate,  and  thought  themselves  too  infirm  to 
fulfil  the  duties  which  naturally  devolved  upon 
them,  nurses  were  employed  to  take  their 
place  and  were  reckoned  among  the  principal 
members  of  the  family.  They  are,  accordingly, 
in  consequence  of  the  respectable  station  which 
they  sustained,  frequently  mentioned  in  sacred 
history,  Gen.  xxxv,  8;  2  Kings  xi,  2  ;  2  Chron. 
xxii,  11.  The  sons  remained  till  the  fifth  year 
in  the  care  of  the  women;  they  then  came 
into  the  father's  hands,  and  were  taught  not 
only  the  arts  and  duties  of  life,  but  were  in- 
structed in  the  Mosaic  law,  and  in  all  parts  of 
their  country's  religion,  Deut,  vi,  20-45 ;  vu, 


CHI 


232 


CIIR 


19 ;  xi,  19.  Those  who  wished  to  have  them 
farther  instructed,  provided  they  did  not  deem 
it  preferable  to  employ  private  teachers,  sent 
them  away  to  some  priest  or  Levite,  who  some- 
times had  a  number  of  other  children  to  instruct. 
It  appears  from  1  Sam.  i,  24-28,  that  there 
was  a  school  near  the  holy  tabernacle,  dedi- 
cated to  the  instruction  of  youth.  There  had 
been  many  other  schools  of  this  kind,  which 
had  fallen  into  decay,  but  were  restored  again 
by  the  Prophet  Samuel ;  after  whose  time,  the 
members  of  the  seminaries  in  question,  who 
were  denominated  by  way  of  distinction  "  the 
sons  of  the  prophets,"  acquired  no  little  noto- 
riety. Daughters  rarely  departed  from  the 
apartments  appropriated  to  the  females,  except 
when  they  went  out  with  an  urn  to  draw  water. 
They  spent  their  time  in  learning  those  domes- 
tic and  other  arts,  which  are  befitting  a  wo- 
man's  situation  and  character,  till  they  arrived 
at  that  period  in  life  when  they  were  to  be 
sold,  of,  by  a  better  fortune,  given  away  in 
marriage,  Prov.  xxxi,  13;  2  Sam.  xiii,  7. 

2.  In  Scripture,  disciples  are  often  called 
children  or  sons,  Solomon,  in  his  Proverbs, 
says  to  his  disciple,  "  Hear,  my  sou."  The 
descendants  of  a  man,  how  remote  soever,  are 
denominated  his  sons  or  children  ;  as  "  the  chil- 
dren of  Edom,"  "  the  children  of  Moab,"  "  the 
children  of  Israel."  Such  expressions  as  "the 
children  of  light,"  "the  children  of  darkness," 
"the  children  of  the  kingdom,"  signify  those 
who  follow  truth,  those  who  remain  in  error, 
and  those  who  belong  to  the  church.  Persons 
arrived  at  almost  the  age  of  maturity  are  some- 
times called  "children."  Thus,  Joseph  is 
lermed  "  the  child,"  though  he  was  at  least  six- 
teen years  old,  Gen.  xxxvii,  30  ;  and  Benjamin, 
even  when  above  thirty,  was  so  denominated, 
xliv,  20.  By  the  Jewish  law,  children  were 
reckoned  the  property  of  their  parents,  who 
could  sell  them  for  seven  years  to  pay  their 
debts.  Their  creditors  had  also  the  power  of 
compelling  them  to  resort  to  this  measure. 
The  poor  woman,  whose  oil  Elisha  increased 
so  much  as  enabled  her  to  pay  her  husband's 
debts,  complained  to  the  prophet,  that,  her 
husband  being  dead,  the  creditor  was  come 
to  take  away  her  two  sons  to  be  bondmen, 
2  Kings  iv,  1.  "Children,  or  sons  of  God,"  is 
a  name  by  which  the  angels  are  sometimes 
described:  "There  was  a  day  when  the  sons 
of  God  came  to  present  themselves  before  the 
Lord,"  Job  i,  6;  ii,  1.  Good  men,  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  wicked,  are  also  thus  denominated  ; 
the  children  of  Seth's  family,  in  opposition  to 
those  of  Cain :  "  The  sons  of  God  saw  the 
daughters  of  men,"  Gen.  vi,  2.  Judges,  ma- 
gistrates, priests,  are  also  termed  children  of 
God :  "  I  have  said,  Ye  are  gods,  and  all  of 

Jrou  are  the  children  of  the  Most  High,"  Psa. 
xxxii,  6.  The  Israelites  are  called  "  6ons  of 
God,"  in  opposition  to  the  Gentiles,  Hosea  i, 
10;  John  xi,  52.  In  the  New  Testament,  be- 
lievers are  commonly  called  "  children  of  God" 
by  virtue  of  their  adoption.  St.  Paul,  in  several 
places,  extols  the  advantages  of  being  adopted 
sons  of  God,  Rom.  viii,  14 ;  Gal.  iii,  26.  "  Chil- 
dren,   or  sons  of  men,"  is  a  name  given  to 


Cain's  family  before  the  deluge,  and,  in  par 
ticular,  to  the  giants  who  were  violent  men, 
and  had  corrupted  their  ways.  Afterward,  the 
impious  Israelites  were  thus  called :  "O  ye 
sons  of  men,  how  long  will  ye  love  vanity  ?" 
Psa.  iv,  2.  "The  sons  of  men,  whose  teeth 
are  spears  and  arrows,"  lvii,  4. 

CHILD  BIRTH.  In  oriental  countries 
child  birth  is  not  an  event  of  much  difficulty ; 
and  mothers  at  such  a  season  were  originally 
the  only  assistants  of  their  daughters,  as  any 
farther  aid  was  deemed  unnecessary,  Exod.  i, 
19.  In  cases  of  more  than  ordinary  difficulty, 
those  matrons  who  had  acquired  some  celebrity 
for  skill  and  expertness  on  occasions  of  this 
kind,  were  invited  in;  and  in  this  way  there 
eventually  rose  into  notice  that  class  of  women 
denominated  midwives.  The  child  was  no 
sooner  born,  than  it  was  washed  in  a  bath, 
rubbed  with  salt,  and,  wrapped  in  swaddling 
clothes,  *?nnn,  Ezek.  xvi,  4.  It  was  the  custom 
at  a  very  ancient  period,  for  the  father,  while 
music  in  the  mean  while  was  heard  to  sound, 
to  clasp  the  new  born  child  to  his  bosom,  and 
by  this  ceremony  was  understood  to  declare  it 
to  be  his  own,  Gen.  1,  23 ;  Job  iii,  12 ;  Psa. 
xxii,  11.  This  practice  was  imitated  by  those 
wives  who  adopted  the  children  of  their  maids, 
Gen.  xvi,  2 ;  xxx,  3-5.  The  birth  day  of  a 
son,  especially,  was  made  a  festival,  and  on 
each  successive  year  was  celebrated  with 
renewed  demonstrations  of  festivity  and  joy, 
Gen.  xl,  20 ;  Job  i,  4 ;  Matt,  xiv,  6".  The  mes- 
senger, who  brought  the  news  of  the  birth  of 
a  son,  was  received  with  joy,  and  rewarded 
with  presents,  Job  iii,  3 ;  Jer.  xx,  15.  This  is 
the  case  at  the  present  day  in  Persia. 

CHISLEU,  the  third  month  of  the  Jewish 
civil  year,  and  the  ninth  of  their  sacred,  an- 
swering to  our  November  and  December,  Ne- 
hem.  i,  1.     It  contains  thirty  days. 

CHITTIM,  the  country,  or  countries,  im- 
plied by  this  name  in  Scripture,  are  variously 
interpreted  by  historians  and  commentators. 
Chittirn  has  been  taken,  by  Hales  and  Lowth, 
for  all  the  coasts  and  islands  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean ;  which  appears  most  consonant  with  the 
general  use  of  the  word  by  the  different  inspired 
writers. 

CHRIST,  an  appellation  synonymous  with 
Messiah.  The  word  Xpis-d;,  signifies  anointed, 
from  xpi'w,  /  anoint.  Sometimes  the  word 
Christ  is  used  singly,  by  way  of  antonomasis, 
to  denote  a  person  sent  from  God,  as  an 
anointed  prophet,  king,  or  priest.  "Christ," 
says  Lactantius,  "  is  no  proper  name,  but  one 
denoting  power ;  for  the  Jews  used  to  give  this 
appellation  to  their  kings,  calling  them  Christ, 
or  anointed,  by  reason  of  their  sacred  unction." 
But  he  adds,  "The  Heathens,  by  mistake,  call 
Jesus  Christ,  Chrestus."  Accordingly,  Sueto- 
nius, speaking  of  Claudius,  and  of  his  expelling 
the  Jews  from  Rome,  says  that  "  he  banished 
1 1n  in  because  they  were  continually  promoting 
tumults,  under  the  influence  of  one  Chrestus :" 
"  Judaos,  impulsorc  Chresto,  assidue  tumvltu. 
antes,  Iioimi  expulit,"  taking  Christ  to  be  a 
proper  name.  The  names  of  Messiah  and 
Christ  were  originally  derived  from  the  cere- 


CHR 


233 


CHR 


mony  of  anointing,  by  which  the  kings  and  the 
high  priests  of  God's  people,  and  sometimes 
the  prophets,  1  Kings  xix,  16,  were  consecrated 
and  admitted  to  the  exercise  of  their  functions  ; 
for  all  these  functions  were  accounted  holy 
among  the  Israelites.  But  the  most  eminent  ap- 
plication of  the  word  is  to  that  illustrious  person- 
age, typified  and  predicted  from  the  beginning, 
who  is  described  by  the  prophets,  under  the 
character  of  God's  Anointed,  the  Messiah,  or 
the  Christ.  As  to  the  use  of  the  term  in  the 
New  Testament,  were  we  to  judge  by  the  com- 
mon version,  or  even  by  most  versions  into 
modern  tongues,  we  should  receive  it  rather  as 
a  proper  name,  than  an  appellative,  or  name  of 
office,  and  should  think  of  it  only  as  our  Lord's 
surname.  To  this  mistake  our  translators 
have  contributed,  by  too  seldom  prefixing  the 
article  before  Christ.  The  word  Christ  was  at 
first  as  much  an  appellative  as  the  word  Bap- 
tist, and  the  one  was  as  regularly  accompanied 
with  the  article  as  the  other.  Yet  our  trans- 
lators, who  would  always  say  "the  Baptist," 
have,  it  should  seem,  studiously  avoided  say- 
ing "  the  Christ."  The  article,  in  such  expres- 
sions as  occur  in  Acts  xvii,  3 ;  xviii,  5,  28, 
adds  considerable  light  to  them,  and  yet  no 
more  than  what  the  words  of  the  historian 
manifestly  convey  to  every  reader  who  under- 
stands his  language.  It  should  therefore  be, 
*'  Paul  testified  to  the  Jews  that  Jesus  was  the 
Christ,"  or  the  Messiah,  &c.  Many  other 
similar  instances  occur.  Should  it  be  asked, 
Is  the  word  Christ  never  to  be  understood  in 
the  New  Testament  as  a  proper  name,  but 
always  as  having  a  direct  reference  to  the 
office  or  dignity  'I  it  may  be  replied,  that  this 
word  came  at  length,  from  the  frequency  of 
application  to  one  individual,  and  only  to  one, 
to  supply  the  place  of  a  proper  name.  It  would 
also  very  much  accelerate  this  effect,  that  the 
name  Jesus  was  common  among  the  Jews  at 
that  time,  and  this  rendered  an  addition  ne- 
cessary for  distinguishing  the  person.  To 
this  purpose,  Grotius  remarks,  that  in  process 
of  time  the  name  Jesus  was  very  much  drop- 
ped, and  Christ,  which  had  never  been  used 
before  as  the  proper  name  of  any  person,  and 
was,  for  that  reason,  a  better  distinction,  was 
substituted  for  it;  insomuch  that,  among  the 
Heathens,  our  Lord  came  to  be  more  known 
by  the  latter  than  by  the  former.  This  use 
seems  to  have  begun  soon  after  his  ascension. 
During  his  life,  it  does  not  appear  that  the 
word  was  ever  used  in  this  manner ;  nay,  the 
contrary  is  evident  from  several  passages  of 
the  Gospels.  The  evangelists  wrote  some 
years  after  the  period  above  mentioned ;  and 
therefore  they  adopted  the  practice  common 
among  Christians  at  that  time,  which  was  to 
employ  the  word  as  a  surname  for  the  sake  of 
distinction.     See  Matt,  i,  1,  18;  Mark  i,  1. 

CHRISTIAN,  a  follower  of  the  religion  of 
Christ.  It  is  probable  that  the  name  Christian, 
like  that  of  Nazarenes  and  Galileans,  was  given 
to  the  disciples  of  our  Lord  in  reproach  or  con- 
tempt. What  confirms  this  opinion  is,  that 
the  people  of  Antioch  in  Syria,  Acts  xi,  26, 
where  they  were  first  called  Christians,    are 


observed  by  Zosimus,  Procopius,  and  Zonaras, 
to  have  been  remarkable  for  their  scurrilous 
jesting.     Some  have  indeed  thought  that  this 
name  was  given  by  the  disciples  to  themselves ; 
others,  that  it  was  imposed  on  them  by  divine 
authority  ;  in  either  of  which  cases  surely  we 
should  have  met  with  it  in  the  subsequent  his- 
tory of  the  Acts,  and  in  the  Apostolic  Epistles, 
all  of  which  were  written  some  years  after  ; 
whereas  it  is  found  but  in  two  more  places  in 
the  New  Testament,  Acts  xxvi,  28,  where  a 
Jew  is  the  speaker,  and  in  1  Pet.  iv,  16,  where 
reference  appears  to  be  made  to  the  name  as 
imposed  upon  them  by  their  enemies.     The 
word  used,  Acts  xi,  26,  signifies  simply  to  be 
called  or  named,  and  when  Doddridge  and  a 
few  others  take  it  to  imply  a  divine  appoint- 
ment, they  disregard  the  usus  loquendi  [esta- 
blished acceptation  of  the  term]  which  gives 
no  support  to  that  opinion.      The  words  of 
Tacitus,  when  speaking  of  the  Christians  per- 
secuted  by   Nero,    are   remarkable,    "  vulgus 
Christianos    appellabat,"    "  the    vulgar    called 
them  Christians."     Epiphanius  says,  that  they 
were  called  Jesseans,  either  from  Jesse,    the 
father  of  David,  or,  which  is  much  more  pro- 
bable, from  the  name  of  Jesus,  whose  disciples 
they  were.      They  were  denominated  Chris- 
tians, A.  D.  42  or  43 ;   and  though  the  name 
was  first  given  reproachfully,  they  gloried  in  it, 
as  expressing  their  adherence  to  Christ,  and 
they  soon  generally  assumed  it. 

CHRISTIANITY,  the  religion  of  Chris- 
tians. By  Christianity  is  here  meant,  not  that 
religious  system  as  it  may  be  understood  and 
set  forth  in  any  particular  society  calling  itself 
Christian  ;  but  as  it  is  contained  in  the  sacred 
books  acknowledged  by  all  these  societies,  or 
churches,  and  which  contained  the  only  au- 
thorized rule  of  faith  and  practice. 

2.  The  lofty  profession  which  Christianity 
makes  as  a  religion,  and  the  promises  it  holds 
forth  to  mankind,  entitle  it  to  the  most  serious 
consideration  of  all.  For  it  may  in  truth  be 
said,  that  no  other  religion  presents  itself  un- 
der aspects  so  sublime,  or  such  as  are  calcu- 
lated to  awaken  desires  and  hopes  so  enlarged 
and  magnificent.  It  not  only  professes  to  be 
from  God,  but  to  have  been  taught  to  men  by 
the  Son  of  God  incarnate  in  our  nature,  the 
Second  Person  in  the  adorable  trinity  of  divine 
Persons,  "  the  same  in  substance,  equal  in 
power  and  glory."  It  declares  that  this  divine 
personage  is  the  appointed  Redeemer  of  man- 
kind from  sin,  death,  and  misery ;  that  he  was 
announced  as  such  to  our  first  parents  upon 
their  lapse  from  the  innocence  and  blessedness 
of  their  primeval  state;  that  he  was  exhibited 
to  the  faith  and  hope  of  the  patriarchs  in  ex. 
press  promises ;  and,  by  the  institution  of  sacri- 
fices, as  a  propitiatory  sacrifice  for  the  sins  of 
the  whole  world,  so  that  man  might  be  recon- 
ciled to  God  through  Him,  and  restored  to  his 
forfeited  inheritance  of  eternal  life.  It  repre- 
sents all  former  dispensations  of  true  religion, 
all  revelations  of  God's  will,  and  all  promises 
of  grace  from  God  to  man,  as  emanating  from 
the  anticipated  sacrifice  and  sacerdotal  inter- 
cession of  its  Author,  and  as  all  preparatory  to 


cim 


234 


CHR 


the  introduction  of  his  perfect  religion ;  and 
that  as  to  the  great  political  movements  among 
the  nations  of  antiquity,  the  rise  and  fall  of 
empires  were  all  either  remotely  or  proximately 
connected  with  the  designs  of  his  advent  among 
men.  It  professes  to  have  completed  the  former 
revelations  of  God's  will  and  purposes;  to  have 
accomplished  ancient  prophecies ;  fulfilled  an- 
cient types  ;  and  taken  up  the  glory  of  the 
Mosaic  religion  into  its  own  "  glory  that  ex- 
celleth ;"  and  to  contain  within  itself  a  perfect 
system  of  faith,  morals,  and  acceptable  wor- 
ship. It  not  only  exhibits  so  effectual  a  sacri- 
fice for  sin,  that  remission  of  all  offences  against 
God  flows  from  its  merits  to  all  who  heartily 
confide  in  it ;  but  it  proclaims  itself  to  be  a 
remedy  for  all  the  moral  disorders  of  our  fallen 
nature  ;  it  casts  out  every  vice,  implants  every 
virtue,  and  restores  man  to  "  the  image  of  God 
in  which  he  was  created,"  even  to  "  righteous- 
ness and  true  holiness." 

3.  Its  promises  both  to  individuals  and  to  so- 
ciety are  of  the  largest  kind.  It  represents  its 
Founder  as  now  exercising  the  office  of  the 
High  Priest  of  the  human  race  before  God, 
and  as  having  sat  down  at  his  right  hand,  a 
mediatorial  and  reconciling  government  being 
committed  to  him,  until  he  shall  come  to  judge 
all  nations,  and  distribute  the  rewards  of  eter- 
nity to  his  followers,  and  inflict  its  never-ter- 
minating punishments  upon  those  who  reject 
him.  By  virtue  of  this  constitution  of  things, 
it  promises  pardon  to  the  guilty,  of  every  age 
and  country,  who  seek  it  in  penitence  and 
prayer,  comfort  to  the  afflicted  and  troubled, 
victory  over  the  fear  of  death,  a  happy  inter, 
mediate  state  to  the  disembodied  spirit,  and 
finally  the  resurrection  of  the  body  from  the 
dead,  and  honour  and  immortality  to  be  con- 
ferred upon  the  whole  man  glorified  in  the 
immediate  presence  of  God.  It  holds  out  the 
loftiest  hopes  also  as  to  the  world  at  large.  It 
promises  to  introduce  harmony  among  families 
and  nations,  to  terminate  all  wars  and  all  op- 
pressions, and  ultimately  to  fill  the  world  with 
truth,  order,  and  purity.  It  represents  the 
present  and  past  state  of  society,  as  in  contest 
with  its  own  principles  of  justice,  mercy,  and 
truth  ;  but  teaches  the  final  triumph  of  the  lat- 
ter over  every  thing  contrary  to  itself.  It 
exhibits  the  ambition,  the  policy,  and  the  rest- 
lessness of  statesmen  and  warriors,  as  but  the 
overruled  instruments  by  which  it  is  working 
out  its  own  purposes  of  wisdom  and  benevo- 
lence ;  and  it  not  only  defies  the  proudest  array 
of  human  power,  but  professes  to  subordinate 
it  by  a  secret  and  irresistible  working  to  its 
own  designs.  Finally,  it  exhibits  itself  as  en- 
larging its  plans,  and  completing  its  designs, 
by  moral  suasion,  the  evidence  of  its  truth,  and 
the  secret  divine  influence  which  accompanies 
it.  Such  are  the  professions  and  promises  of 
Christianity,  a  religion  which  enters  into  no 
compromise  with  other  systems;  which  repre- 
sents itself  as  the  only  religion  now  in  the 
world  having  God  for  its  author ;  and  in  his 
name;  and  by  the  hope  of  his  mercy,  and  the 
terrors  of  his  frown,  it  commands  the  obedi- 
ence of  faith  to  all  people  to  whom  it  is  pub- 


lished upon  the  solemn  sanction,  "He  that 
believeth  shall  be  saved,  and  he  that  believeth 
not  shall  be  damned." 

4.  Corresponding  with  these  professions, 
which  throw  every  other  religion  that  pretends 
to  offer  hope  to  man  into  utter  insignificance, 
it  is  allowed  that  the  evidences  of  its  truth 
ought  to  be  adequate  to  sustain  the  weight  of 
so  vast  a  fabric,  and  that  men  have  a  right  to 
know  that  they  are  not  deluded  with  a  grand 
and  impressive  theory,  but  are  receiving  from 
this  professed  system  of  truth  and  salvation 
"the  true  sayings  of  God."  Such  evidence  it 
has  afforded  in  its  splendid  train  of  miracles  ; 
in  its  numerous  appeals  to  the  fulfilment  of 
ancient  prophecies  ;  in  its  own  powerful  in- 
ternal evidence;  in  the  influence  which  it 
has  always  exercised,  and  continues  to  exert, 
upon  the  happiness  of  mankind ;  and  in  vari- 
ous collateral  circumstances.  Under  the  heads 
of  Miracles  and  Prophecy,  those  important 
branches  of  evidence  will  be  discussed,  and  to 
them  the  reader  is  referred.  It  is  only  neces- 
sary here  to  say,  that  the  miracles  to  which 
Christianity  appeals  as  proofs  of  its  divine  au- 
thority, are  not  only  those  which  were  wrought 
by  Christ  and  his  Apostles,  but  also  those 
which  took  place  among  the  patriarchs,  under 
the  law  of  Moses,  and  by  the  ministry  of  the 
Prophets  ;  for  the  religion  of  those  ancient 
times  was  but  Christianity  in  its  antecedent 
revelations.  All  these  miracles,  therefore, 
must  be  taken  collectively,  and  present  attesta- 
tions of  the  loftiest  kind,  as  being  manifestly 
the  work  of  the  "finger  of  God,"  wrought  un- 
der circumstances  which  precluded  mistake, 
and  exhibiting  an  immense  variety,  from  the 
staying  of  the  very  wheels  of  the  planetary 
system, — as  when  the  sun  and  moon  paused  in 
their  course,  and  the  shadow  on  the  dial  of 
Ahaz  went  backward, — to  the  supernatural 
changes  wrought  upon  the  elements  of  matter, 
the  healing  of  incurable  diseases,  the  expulsion 
of  tormenting  demons,  and  the  raising  of  the 
dead.  Magnificent  as  this  array  of  miracles 
is,  it  is  equalled  by  the  prophetic  evidence, 
founded  upon  the  acknowledged  principle, 
that  future  and  distant  contingencies  can  only 
be  known  to  that  Being,  one  of  whose  attributes 
is  an  absolute  prescience.  And  here,  too,  the 
variety  and  the  grandeur  presented  by  the  pro- 
phetic scheme  exhibit  attestations  to  the  truth 
of  Christianity  suited  to  its  great  claims  and 
its  elevated  character.  Within  the  range  of 
prophetic  vision  all  time  is  included,  to  the 
final  consummation  of  all  things ;  and  the 
greatest  as  well  as  the  smallest  events  are 
seen  with  equal  distinctness,  from  the  subver- 
sion of  mighty  empires  and  gigantic  cities,  to 
the  parting  of  the  raiment  of  our  Lord,  and  the 
casting  of  the  lot  for  his  robe  by  the  Roman 
guard  stationed  at  his  cross. 

5.  These  subjects  are  discussed  under  the 
articles  assigned  to  them  ;  as  also  the  intertill, 
evidence  of  the  truth  of  Christianity,  which 
arises  from  the  excellence  and  beneficial  ten- 
dency of  its  doctrines.  Of  its  just  and  sublime 
conceptions  and  exhibitions  of  the  divine  cha- 
racter; of  the  truth  of  that  view  of  the  mora] 


CHR 


235 


CHR 


state  of  man  upon  which  its  disciplinary  treat- 
ment is  founded  ;  of  the  correspondence  that 
there  is  between  its  views  of  man's  mixed  re- 
lation to  God  as  a  sinful  creature,  and  yet 
pitied  and  cared  for,  and  that  actual  mixture 
of  good  and  evil,  penalty  and  forbearance, 
which  the  condition  of  the  world  presents  ;  of 
the  connection  of  its  doctrine  of  atonement 
with  hope;  of  the  adaptation  of  its  doctrine  of 
divine  influence  to  the  moral  condition  of  man- 
kind when  rightly  understood,  and  the  affect- 
ing benevolence  and  condescension  which  it 
implies ;  and  of  its  noble  and  sanctifying  reve- 
lations of  the  blessedness  of  a  future  life,  much 
might  be  said  : — they  are  subjects  indeed  on 
which  volumes  have  been  written,  and  they 
can  never  be  exhausted.  But  we  confine  our- 
selves to  the  moral  tendency,  and  the  conse- 
quent beneficial  influence,  of  Christianity. 
No  where  except  in  the  Scriptures  have  we  a 
perfect  system  of  morals;  and  the  deficiencies 
of  Pagan  morality  only  exalt  the  purity,  the 
comprehensiveness,  the  practicability  of  ours. 
The  character  of  the  Being  acknowledged  as 
supreme  must  always  impress  itself  upon  moral 
feeling  and  practice;  the  obligation  of  which 
rests  upon  his  will.  The  God  of  the  Bible  is 
"  holy,"  without  spot ;  "just,"  without  partiali- 
ty ;  "  good,"  boundlessly  benevolent  and  benefi- 
cent ;  and  his  law  is  the  image  of  himself, 
"holy,  just,  and  good."  These  great  moral 
qualities  are  not  made  known  to  us  merely  in 
the  abstract,  so  as  to  be  comparatively  feeble 
in  their  influence  :  but  in  the  person  of  Christ, 
our  God,  incarnate,  they  are  seen  exemplified 
in  action,  displaying  themselves  amidst  human 
relations,  and  the  actual  circumstances  of  hu- 
man life.  With  Pagans  the  authority  of  moral 
rules  was  either  the  opinion  of  the  wise,  or  the 
tradition  of  the  ancient,  confirmed,  it  is  true, 
in  some  degree,  by  observation  and  experience  ; 
but  to  us,  they  are  given  as  commands  imme- 
diately issuing  from  the  supreme  Governor, 
and  ratified  as  his  by  the  most  solemn  and  ex- 
plicit attestations.  With  them  many  great 
moral  principles,  being  indistinctly  apprehend- 
ed, were  matters  of  doubt  and  debate  ;  to  us, 
the  explicit  manner  in  which  they  are  given 
excludes  both  :  for  it  cannot  be  questioned, 
whether  we  are  commanded  to  love  our  neigh- 
bour as  ourselves  ;  to  do  to  others  as  we  would 
that  they  should  do  to  us,  a  precept  which 
comprehends  almost  all  relative  morality  in 
one  plain  principle ;  to  forgive  our  enemies  ; 
to  love  all  mankind  ;  to  live  righteously  and 
soberly,  as  well  as  godly  ;  that  magistrates 
must  be  a  terror  only  to  evil  doers,  and  a  praise 
to  them  that  do  well ;  that  subjects  are  to  ren- 
der honour  to  whom  honour,  and  tribute  to 
whom  tribute,  is  due ;  that  masters  are  to  be 
just  and  merciful,  and  servants  faithful  and 
obedient.  These,  and  many  other  familiar  pre- 
cepts, are  too  explicit  to  be  mistaken,  and  too 
authoritative  to  be  disputed ;  two  of  the  most 
powerful  means  of  rendering  law  effectual. 
Those  who  never  enjoyed  the  benefit  of  reve- 
lation, never  conceived  justly  and  comprehen- 
sively of  that  moral  state  of  the  heart  from 
which  right  and  beneficent  conduct  alone  can 


flow ;  and  therefore  when  they  speak  of  the 
same  virtues  as  those  enjoined  by  Christianity, 
they  are  to  be  understood  as  attaching  to  them 
a  lower  idea.  In  this  the  infinite  superiority 
of  Christianity  displays  itself.  The  principla 
of  obedience  is  not  only  a  sense  of  duty  to 
God,  and  the  fear  of  his  displeasure ;  but  a  ten- 
der love,  excited  by  his  infinite  compassions  to 
us  in  the  gift  of  his  Son,  which  shrinks  from 
offending.  To  this  influential  motive  as  a  rea- 
son of  obedience,  is  added  another,  drawn  from 
its  end :  one  not  less  influential,  but  which 
Heathen  moralists  never  knew, — the  testimony 
that  we  please  God,  manifested  in  the  accept- 
ance of  our  prayers,  and  in  spiritual  and  feli- 
citous communion  with  him.  By  Christianity, 
impurity  of  thought  and  desire  is  restrained 
in  an  equal  degree  as  are  their  overt  acts  in 
the  lips  and  conduct.  Humanity,  meekness, 
gentleness,  placability,  disinterestedness,  and 
charity  are  all  as  clearly  and  solemnly  enjoined 
as  the  grosser  vices  are  prohibited ;  and  on  the 
unruly  tongue  itself  is  impressed  "the  law  of 
kindness."  Nor  are  the  injunctions  feeble ; 
they  are  strictly  law,  and  not  mere  advice  and 
recommendations  :  "  Without  holiness  no  man 
shall  see  the  Lord  ;"  and  thus  our  entrance  into 
heaven,  and  our  escape  from  perdition,  are 
made  to  depend  upon  this  preparation  of  mind. 
To  all  this  is  added  possibility,  nay  certainty, 
of  attainment,  if  we  use  the  appointed  means. 
A  Pagan  could  draw,  though  not  with  lines  so 
perfect,  a  beau  ideal  of  virtue,  which  he  never 
thought  attainable;  but  the  "full  assurance  of 
hope  "  is  given  by  the  religion  of  Christ  to  all 
who  are  seeking  the  moral  renovation  of  their 
nature  ;  because  "  it  is  God  that  worketh  in  us 
to  will  and  to  do  of  his  good  pleasure." 

6.  When  such  is  the  moral  nature  of  Chris- 
tianity, how  obvious  is  it  that  its  tendency  both 
as  to  individuals  and  to  society  must  be  in  the 
highest  sense  beneficial !  From  every  passion 
which  wastes,  and  burns,  and  frets,  and  en- 
feebles the  spirit,  the  individual  is  set  free,  and 
his  inward  peace  renders  his  obedience  cheer- 
ful and  voluntary  :  and  we  might  appeal  to  in- 
fidels themselves,  whether,  if  the  moral  princi- 
ples of  the  Gospel  were  wrought  into  the  hearts, 
and  embodied  in  the  conduct,  of  all  men,  the 
world  would  not  be  happy;  whether  if  govern- 
ments ruled,  and  subjects  obeyed,  by  the  lavva 
of  Christ;  whether  if  the  rules  of  strict  justice 
which  are  unjoined  upon  us  regulated  all  the 
transactions  of  men,  and  all  that  mercy  to  the 
distressed  which  we  are  taught  to  feel  and  to 
practise  came  into  operation ;  and  whether,  if 
the  precepts  which  delineate  and  enforce  the 
duties  of  husbands,  wives,  masters,  servants, 
parents,  children,  did,  in  fact,  fully  and  gene- 
rally govern  all  these  relations, — whether  a  bet- 
ter age  than  that  called  golden  by  the  poets, 
would  not  then  be  realized,  and  Virgil's 
Jam  redit  el  Virgo,  redeunt  Saturnia  regno, 
[Now  Astraea  returns,  and  the  Saturnian  reign,] 

be  far  too  weak  to  express  the  mighty  change  ? 
[It  was  in  the  reign  of  Saturn  that  the  Heathen 
poets  fixed  the  golden  age.  At  that  period,  ac- 
cording to  them,  Astraea,  (the  goddess  of  jus- 


CHR 


236 


CHR 


tice,)  and  many  other  deities  lived  on  earth; 
but  being  offended  with  the  wickedness  of  men, 
they  successively  fled  to  heaven.  Astraea  staid 
longest,  but  at  last  retired  to  her  native  seat, 
and  was  translated  into  the  sign  Virgo,  next 
to  Libra,  who  holds  her  balance,]  Such  is 
the  tendency  of  Christianity.  On  immense 
numbers  of  individuals  it  has  superinduced 
these  moral  changes  ;  all  nations,  where  it  has 
been  fully  and  faithfully  exhibited,  bear,  amidst 
their  remaining  vices,  the  impress  of  its  hallow- 
ing and  benevolent  influence  :  it  is  now  in  ac- 
tive exertion  in  many  of  the  darkest  and  worst 
parts  of  the  earth,  to  convey  the  same  bless- 
ings ;  and  he  who  would  arrest  its  progress, 
were  he  able,  would  quench  the  only  hope  which 
remains  to  our  world,  and  prove  himself  an 
enemy,  not  only  to  himself,  but  to  all  man- 
kind. What  then,  we  ask,  does  all  this  prove, 
but  that  the  Scriptures  are  worthy  of  God,  and 
propose  the  very  ends  which  rendered  a  revela- 
tion necessary?  Of  the  whole  system  of  prac- 
tical religion  which  it  contains  we  may  say, 
as  of  that  which  is  embodied  in  our  Lord's  ser- 
mon on  the  mount,  in  the  words  of  one,  who, 
in  a  course  of  sermons  on  that  divine  compo- 
sition, has  entered  most  deeply  into  its  spirit, 
and  presented  a  most  instructive  delineation 
of  the  character  which  it  was  intended  to  form  : 
"  Behold  Christianity  in  its  native  form,  as 
delivered  by  its  great  Author.  See  a  picture 
of  God,  as  far  as  he  is  imitable  by  man,  drawn 
by  God's  own  hand.  What  beauty  appears 
in  the  whole !  How  just  a  symmetry !  What 
exact  proportion  in  every  part !  How  desir- 
able is  the  happiness  ho  re  described !  How 
venerable,  how  lovely  is  the  holiness !"  "If," 
says  Bishop  Taylor,  "wisdom,  and  mercy, 
and  justice,  and  simplicity,  and  holiness,  and 
purity,  and  meekness,  and  contentedness,  and 
charity,  be  images  of  God,  and  rays  of  divinity, 
then  that  doctrine,  in  which  all  these  shine  so 
gloriously,  and  in  which  nothing  else  is  ingre- 
dient, must  needs  be  from  God.  If  the  holy 
Jesus  had  come  into  the  world  with  less  splen- 
dour of  power  and  mighty  demonstrations,  yet 
the  excellency  of  what  he  taught  makes  him 
alone  fit  to  be  the  Master  of  the  world  ;"  and 
agreeable  to  all  this,  has  been  its  actual  influ- 
ence upon  mankind.  Although,  says  Bishop 
Porteus,  Christianity  has  not  always  been  so 
well  understood,  or  so  honestly  practised,  as  it 
ought  to  have  been  ;  although  its  spirit  has 
been  often  mistaken,  and  its  precepts  misappli. 
ed,  yet,  under  all  these  disadvantages,  it  has 
gradually  produced  a  visible  change  in  those 
points  which  most  materially  concern  the  peace 
and  quiet  of  the  world.  Its  beneficent  spirit 
has  spread  itself  through  all  the  different  rela- 
tions and  modifications  of  life,  and  communi- 
cated its  kindly  influence  to  almost  every  pub- 
lic and  private  concern  of  mankind.  It  has 
insensibly  worked  itself  into  the  inmost  frame 
and  constitution  of  civil  states.  It  has  given  a 
tinge  to  the  complexion  of  their  governments, 
to  the  temper  and  administration  of  their  laws. 
It  has  restrained  the  spirit  of  the  prince,  and 
the  mndness  of  the  people.  It  has  softened  the 
rigours  of  despotism,  and  tamed  the  insolence  of 


conquest.  It  has,  in  some  degree,  taken  awav 
the  edge  of  the  sword,  and  thrown  even  over 
the  horrors  of  war  a  veil  of  mercy.  It  has 
descended  into  families ;  has  diminished  the 
pressure  of  private  tyranny;  improved  every 
domestic  endearment ;  given  tenderness  to  the 
parent,  humanity  to  the  master,  respect  to  su- 
periors, to  inferiors  ease;  so  that  mankind  are, 
upon  the  whole,  even  in  a  temporal  view,  under 
infinite  obligations  to  the  mild  and  pacific  tem- 
per of  the  Gospel,  and  have  reaped  from  it 
more  substantial  worldy  benefits  than  from  any 
other  institution  upon  earth.  As  one  proof  of 
this,  among  many  others,  consider  only  the 
shocking  carnage  made  in  the  human  species 
by  the  exposure  of  infants,  the  gladiatorial 
shows,  which  sometimes  cost  Rome  twenty  or 
thirty  lives  in  a  month ;  and  the  exceedingly 
cruel  usage  of  slaves  allowed  and  practised  by 
the  ancient  Pagans.  These  were  not  the  acci- 
dental and  temporary  excesses  of  a  sudden  fury, 
but  were  legal  and  established,  and  constant 
methods  of  murdering  and  tormenting  man- 
kind. Had  Christianity  done  nothing  more 
than  brought  into  disuse,  as  it  confessedly  has 
done,  the  two  former  of  these  inhuman  cus- 
toms entirely,  and  the  latter  to  a  very  great 
degree,  it  has  justly  merited  the  title  of  the  be- 
nevolent religion.  But  this  is  far  from  being 
all.  Throughout  the  more  enlightened  parts 
of  Christendom  there  prevails  a  gentleness  of 
manners  widely  different  from  the  ferocity  of 
the  most  civilized  nations  of  antiquity  ;  and 
that  liberality  with  which  every  species  of  dis- 
tress is  relieved,  is  a  virtue  peculiar  to  the 
Christian  name.  But  we  may  ask  farther, 
What  success  has  it  had  on  the  mind  of  man, 
as  it  respects  his  eternal  welfare  ?  How  many 
thousands  have  felt  its  power,  rejoiced  in  its 
benign  influence,  and  under  its  dictates  been 
constrained  to  devote  themselves  to  the  glory 
and  praise  of  God!  Burdened  with  guilt,  inca- 
pable of  finding  relief  from  human  resources, 
the  mind  has  here  found  pea^e  unspeakable  in 
beholding  that  sacrifice  which  alone  could  atone 
for  transgression.  Here  the  hard  and  impeni- 
tent heart  has  been  softened,  the  impetuous  pas- 
sions restrained,  the  ferocious  temper  subdued, 
powerful  prejudices  conquered,  ignorance  dis- 
pelled, and  the  obstacles  to  real  happiness  remov- 
ed. Here  the  Christain,  looking  round  on  the 
glories  and  blandishments  of  this  world,  has  been 
enabled,  with  a  noble  contempt,  to  despise  all. 
Here  death  itself,  the  king  of  terrors,,  has  lost 
his  sting  ;  and  the  soul,  with  a  holy  magnani- 
mity, has  borne  up  in  the  agonies  of  a  dying 
hour,  and  sweetly  sung  itself  away  to  everlast- 
ing bliss.  In  respect  to  its  future  spread,  we 
have  reason  to  believe  that  all  nations  shall 
feel  its  happy  effects.  The  prophecies  are 
pregnant  with  matter  as  to  this  belief.  It  seems 
that  not  only  a  nation,  or  a  country,  but  the 
whole  habitable  globe,  shall  become  the  king- 
dom of  our  God,  and  of  his  Christ.  And  w  ho 
is  there  that  has  ever  known  the  excellency  of 
this  system  ;  who  is  there  that  has  ever  expe- 
rienced its  happy  efficacy  ;  who  is  there  that 
has  ever  been  convinced  of  its  divine  origin,  its 
delightful  nature  and  peaceful  tendency,  but 


CHR 


237 


CHR 


must  join  the  benevolent  and  royal  poet  in  say- 
ing, "  Let  the  whole  earth  be  filled  with  its 
glory  ?  Amen  and  amen  !" 

7.  Among  the  collateral  proofs  of  the  truth 
and  divine  origin  of  Christianity,  its  rapid  and 
wonderful  success  justly  holds  an  important 
place.  Of  its  early  triumphs,  the  history  of 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  is  a  splendid  record  ; 
and  in  process  of  time  it  made  a  wonderful  pro- 
gress through  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa.  In 
the  third  century  there  were  Christians  in  the 
camp,  in  the  senate,  and  in  the  palace ;  in 
short,  every  where,  as  we  are  informed,  except 
in  the  temples  and  the  theatres  :  they  filled  the 
towns,  the  country,  and  the  islands.  Men  and 
women  of  all  ages  and  ranks,  and  even  those 
of  the  first  dignity,  embraced  the  Christian 
faith ;  insomuch  that  the  Pagans  complained 
that  the  revenues  of  their  temples  were  ruin- 
ed. They  were  in  such  great  numbers  in  the 
empire,  that,  as  Tertullian  expresses  it,  if  they 
had  retired  into  another  country,  they  would 
have  left  the  Romans  only  a  frightful  solitude. 
(See  the  next  article.)  For  the  illustration  of 
this  argument,  we  may  observe,  that  the  Chris- 
tian religion  was  introduced  every  where  in 
opposition  to  the  sword  of  the  magistrate,  the 
craft  and  interest  of  the  priests,  the  pride  of 
the  philosophers,  the  passions  and  prejudices 
of  the  people,  all  closely  combined  in  support 
of  the  national  worship,  and  to  crush  the  Chris- 
tian faith,  which  aimed  at  the  subversion  of 
Heathenism  and  idolatry.  Moreover,  this  re- 
ligion was  not  propagated  in  the  dark,  by  per- 
sons who  tacitly  endeavoured  to  deceive  the 
credulous ;  nor  delivered  out  by  little  and  little, 
so  that  one  doctrine  might  prepare  the  way  for 
the  reception  of  another;  but  it  was  fully  and 
without  disguise  laid  before  men  all  at  once, 
that  they  might  judge  of  the  whole  under  one 
view.  Consequently  mankind  were  not  delud- 
ed into  the  belief  of  it,  but  received  it  upon 
proper  examination  and  conviction.  Beside, 
the  Gospel  was  first  preached  and  first  believed 
by  multitudes  in  Judea,  where  Jesus  exercised 
his  ministry,  and  where  every  individual  had 
the  means  of  knowing  whether  the  things  that 
were  told  him  were  matters  of  fact ;  and  in 
this  country,  the  scene  of  the  principal  transac- 
tions on  which  its  credibility  depended,  the 
history  of  Christ  could  never  have  been  receiv- 
ed, unless  it  had  been  true,  and  known  to  all 
as  truth.  Again :  the  doctrine  and  history  of 
Jesus  were  preached  and  believed  in  the  most 
noted  countries  and  cities  of  the  world,  in  the 
very  age  when  he  is  said  to  have  lived.  On 
the  fiftieth  day  after  our  Lord's  crucifixion, 
three  thousand  persons  were  converted  in  Je- 
rusalem by  a  single  sermon  of  the  Apostles  ; 
and  a  few  weeks  after  this,  five  thousand  who 
believed  were  present  at  another  sermon  preach- 
ed also  in  Jerusalem,  Acts  ii,  41  ;  iv,  4;  vi,  7; 
viii,  1 ;  ix,  1,  20.  About  eight  or  ten  years 
after  our  Lord's  death,  the  disciples  were  be- 
come so  numerous  at  Jerusalem  and  in  the 
adjacent  country,  that  they  were  objects  of  jea- 
lousy and  alarm  to  Herod  himself,  Acts  xii,  1. 
In  the  twenty-second  year  after  the  crucifixion, 
the  disciples  in  Judea  are  said  to  have  been 


many  mynads,  Acts  xxi,  20.  The  age  in  wlncn 
Christianity  was  introduced  and  received,  wa8 
famous  for  men  whose  faculties  were  improved 
by  the  most  perfect  state  of  social  life,  but  who 
were  good  judges  of  the  evidence  offered  in 
support  of  the  facts  recorded  in  the  Gospel  his- 
tory. For  it  should  be  recollected,  that  the 
success  of  the  Gospel  was  not  restricted  to  Ju- 
dea ;  but  it  was  preached  in  all  the  different  pro- 
vinces of  the  Roman  empire.  The  first  triumphs 
of  Christianity  were  in  the  heart  of  Greece  it- 
self, the  nursery  of  learning  and  the  polite  arts ; 
for  churches  were  planted  at  a  very  early  pe- 
riod at  Corinth,  Ephesus,  Bercea,  Thessalonica, 
and  Philippi.  Even  Rome  herself,  the  seat  of* 
wealth  and  empire,  was  not  able  to  resist  the 
force  of  truth  at  a  time  when  the  facts  related 
were  recent,  and  when  they  might,  if  they  had 
been  false,  have  easily  been  disproved.  From 
Greece  and  Rome,  at  a  period  of  cultivation 
and  refinement,  of  general  peace,  and  exten- 
sive intercourse,  when  one  great  empire  united 
different  nations  and  distant  people,  the  confu- 
tation  of  these  facts  would  very  soon  have 
passed  from  one  country  to  another,  to  the  ut- 
ter confusion  of  the  persons  who  endeavoured 
to  propagate  the  belief  of  them.  Nor  ought  it 
to  be  forgotten  that  the  religion  to  which  such 
numbers  were  proselyted,  was  an  exclusive  one. 
It  denied,  without  reserve,  the  truth  of  every 
article  of  Heathen  mythology,  and  the  exist- 
ence of  every  object  of  their  worship.  It  ac- 
cepted no  compromise  ;  it  admitted  of  no  com- 
prehension. If  it  prevailed  at  all,  it  must  pre- 
vail by  the  overthrow  of  every  statue,  altar, 
and  temple  in  the  world.  It  pronounced  all 
other  gods  to  be  false,  and  all  other  worship 
vain.  These  are  considerations  which  must 
have  strengthened  the  opposition  to  it;  aug- 
mented the  hostility  which  it  must  encounter ; 
and  enhanced  the  difficulty  of  gaining  prose- 
lytes :  and  more  especially  when  we  recollect, 
that  among  the  converts  to  Christianity  in  the 
earliest  age,  a  number  of  persons  remarkable 
for  their  station,  office,  genius,  education,  and 
fortune,  and  who  were  personally  interested  by 
their  emoluments  and  honours  in  either  Juda- 
ism or  Heathenism,  appeared  among  the  Chris- 
tian proselytes.  Its  evidences  approved  them, 
selves,  not  only  to  the  multitude,  but  to  men 
of  the  most  refined  sense  and  most  distinguish- 
ed abilities  ;  and  it  dissolved  the  attachments 
which  all  powerful  interest  and  authority  creat- 
ed and  upheld.  Among  the  proselytes  to  Chris- 
tianity we  find  Nicodemus,  and  Joseph  of  Ari 
mathea,  members  of  the  senate  of  Israel ;  Jai- 
rus,  a  ruler  of  the  synagogue ;  Zaccheus,  the 
chief  of  the  publicans  at  Jericho;  Apollos,  dis- 
tinguished for  eloquence  ;  Paul,  learned  in  the 
Jewish  law  ;  Sergius  Paulus,  governor  of  the 
island  of  Cyprus ;  Cornelius,  a  Roman  captain  ; 
Dionysius,  a  judge  and  senator  of  the  Athenian 
areopagus  ;  Erastus,  treasurer  of  Corinth;  Ty- 
rannus,  a  teacher  of  grammar  and  rhetoric  at 
Corinth ;  Publius,  governor  of  Malta;  Philemon, 
a  person  of  considerable  rank  at  Colosse ;  Simon, 
a  noted  sophist  in  Samaria;  Zenas,  a  lawyer; 
and  even  the  domestics  of  the  emperor  himself. 
These  are  noticed  in  the  sacred  writings ;  and 


CHR 


238 


CHR 


the  Heathen  historians  also  mention  some  per- 
sons of  great  note  who  were  converted  at  an 
early  period.  To  all  the  preceding  circum- 
stances we  may  add  a  consideration  of  peculiar 
moment,  which  is,  that  the  profession  of  Chris- 
tianity led  all,  without  exception,  to  renounce 
the  pleasures  and  honours  of  the  world,  and  to 
expose  themselves  to  the  most  ignominious  suf- 
ferings. And  now,  without  adding  any  more 
to  this  argument,  we  may  ask,  How  could  the 
Christian  religion  have  thus  prevailed  had  it  not 
heen  introduced  by  the  power  of  God  and  of 
truth  ?  And  it  lias  been  supported  in  the  world  by 
the  same  power  through  a  course  of  many  ages, 
amidst  the  treachery  of  its  friends,  the  opposition 
of  its  enemies,  the  dangers  of  prosperous  periods, 
and  the  persecutions  and  violence  of  adverse  cir- 
cumstances ;  all  which  must  have  destroyed  it, 
if  it  had  not  been  founded  in  truth,  and  guaided 
by  the  protection  of  an  almighty  Providence. 

CHRISTIANITY :    Sketch   of  its  History. 
The   Christian    religion  was  published  by  its 
great  Author  in  Judea,  a  short  time  before  the 
death  of  Herod  the  Great,  and  toward  the  con- 
clusion of  the  long  reign  of  Augustus.     While 
other  religions  had  been  accommodated  to  the 
peculiar  countries    in  which  they  had  taken 
their  origin,  and  had  indeed  generally  grown 
out  of  incidents  connected  with  the  history  of 
those  to  whom   they  were    addressed,   Chris- 
tianity was  so  framed  as  to  be  adapted  to  the 
whole    human   race  ;    and    although,    for   the 
wisest  reasons,  it  was  first  announced  to  the 
Jews,  who  had  peculiar  advantages  for  form- 
ing an  accurate  judgment  with  regard  to  it,  it 
was  early  declared  that,  in  conformity  to  pre- 
dictions which  had  long  been  known,  and  long 
interpreted,  as  referring  to  a  new  communica- 
tion of  the  divine  will,  it  was  to  be  a  light  to 
lighten  the  Gentiles,  and  was  to  carry  salva- 
tion to  the  ends  of  the  earth.    Although  Chris- 
tianity originated  in  Judea,  it  was    not  long 
confined  within  the  narrow  limits  of  the  Holy 
Land.     The  open  manner  in  which  it  was  an- 
nounced, the  length  of  time  during  which  its 
Author  publicly  addressed  his  countrymen,  the 
innumerable  miracles  which  he  performed,  and, 
above  all,  the  report  of  the  resurrection  under 
circumstances  which  must  have  been  commu- 
nicated to  the  imperial  government  at  Rome, 
excited  the   deep  attention  of  the    numerous 
Jews  and  proselytes  who,   from   surrounding 
nations,  regularly  went  up  to  Jerusalem,  and 
of  whom  vast  numbers  were  actually  in  that 
city  when  the  resurrection  must  have  been  the 
subject  of  universal   discussion.      They  very 
naturally  carried  to  the  different  countries  in 
which  they  usually  resided,   the   astonishing 
intelligence  with  which  they  had  been  furnish- 
ed ;  and  provision  was  soon  made  for  fulfilling 
the  prediction  which  Jesus  had  uttered,  that 
his  Gospel  would,  before  the  destruction  of  Je- 
rusalem, be  circulated  and  embraced  by  many 
through  the  wide  extent  of  the  Roman  empire. 
The  Apostle  Peter,  in  consequence  of  what  he 
knew  to  be  a  solemn  injunction  from  Heaven, 
communicated  to  a  Gentile  the  truths  of  Chris- 
tianity.    St.  Paul,  who  had  distinguished  him- 
belf  by  his  enmity  to  the  Christians,  and  by  the 


cruelly  with  which  he  had  persecuted  them( 
having  been  converted,  devoted  himself  to  lay 
the  foundations  of  the  Gospel  through  a  large 
portion  of  the  most  enlightened  part  of  the 
world;  and  the  miraculous  gift  of  tongues,  by 
which  humble  and  illiterate  men  found  them- 
selves at  once  able  to  speak  tlo  languages  of 
different  nations,  left  no  doubt  that  they  were 
bound  to  preach  their  faith  as  extensively  as 
had  been  marked  out  to  them  by  the  last  in- 
structions which  they  had  received  from  their 
Master.  They  had  to  struggle  with  the  most 
formidable  difficulties  in  prosecuting  this  un- 
dertaking ;  for  which,  had  they  trusted  merely 
to  their  own  strength,  and  their  own  natural 
endowments,  they  were  wholly  unqualified. 

2.  The  Roman  empire  at  the  period  of  their 
commencing  the  attempt,  comprehended  almost 
the  whole  of  the  civilized  world,  and  thus  in* 
eluded  within  it  nations  whose  habits,  customs, 
and  sentiments  essentially  differed,  and  whom 
it  required  the  most  dexterous  policy  to  unite 
in  one  community,  or  to  subject  to  one  govern- 
ment. The  most  effectual  method  by  which, 
during  the  commonwealth,  and  at  the  rise  of 
the  empire,  this  had  been  accomplished,  was  a 
politic  respect  to  the  religious  opinions  which 
all  these  nations  entertained.  Not  only  were 
their  modes  of  worship  treated  with  scrupulous 
reverence,  but  their  gods,  in  conformity  with 
the  genius  of  Paganism,  were  incorporated  or 
associated  with  the  deities  of  Rome,  and  they 
were  thus  joined  to  their  conquerors  by  the 
strongest  ties  by  which  the  affections  can  be 
secured.  At  all  times  religion  had  been  an  ob- 
ject of  prominent  interest  with  the  Romans  : 
at  the  foundation  of  the  city,  Romulus  had 
professed  to  be  directed  by  Heaven  :  during  the 
whole  period  of  the  republic,  the  most  sacred 
attention  had  been  paid  to  the  rites  and  cere- 
monies sanctioned  by  the  prevailing  supersti. 
tion,  the  prosperity  of  the  state  was  invariably 
ascribed  to  the  protection  of  the  gods,  and  the 
most  impressive  solemnities,  combined  with 
the  richest  splendour  and  magnificence,  cast 
around  polytheism  a  mysterious  sanctity,  which 
even  the  philosophers  affected  to  revere.  Pre- 
cautions accordingly  had  been  early  taken  to 
prevent  innovations  upon  the  established  ritual ; 
foreign  rites  were  prohibited  till  they  had  ob- 
tained the  sanction  of  the  senate ;  and  when 
the  solicitation  of  this  sanction  was  neglected, 
the  persons  guilty  of  the  neglect  were  fre- 
quently punished.  From  the  nature  of  Pagan- 
ism, it  was  perfectly  consistent  with  its  spirit 
to  conjoin,  with  any  particular  mode  of  it,  the 
forms  which  elsewhere  prevailed.  These  ad- 
ditions left  all  which  had  been  previously  ho- 
noured in  unimpaired  vigour  and  influence, 
and,  in  fact,  only  increased  the  appearance  of 
profound  regard  for  religion,  which  the  Romans 
so  long  assumed.  But  this  part  of  the  political 
constitution,  lightly  as  it  affected  other  reli- 
gions, at  once  struck  at  the  root  of  Christianity, 
which,  unlike  the  prevailing  modifications  of 
idolatry,  prohibited  the  worship  of  all  the  dei- 
ties before  whose  altars  mankind  had  for  ages 
bent,  and  required,  as  essential  for  obtaining 
the  divine  favour,  that  they  who  believed  in  it 


CHR 


239 


CHR 


should  pay  undivided  homage  to  the  one  God, 
whose  existence  it  revealed.  The  extension 
of  the  Gospel  thus  necessarily  carried  with  it 
opposition  to  the  most  ancient  and  most  revered 
law  of  the  empire,  and  it  was  impossible  for 
those  who  judged  of  it  merely  from  this  cir- 
cumstance, without  investigating  its  nature 
and  tendency,  to  hesitate  in  directing  against 
it  the  statutes  which  the  zeal  of  their  fathers 
had  provided,  to  prevent  such  a  revolution  as 
would  be  produced  by  so  thorough  and  so 
alarming  a  change  in  their  religious  principles. 
No  sooner,  however,  had  the  message  of  sal. 
vation  been  addressed  indiscriminately  to  all 
men,  and,  from  the  evidence  by  which  it  was 
accompanied,  had  brought  numbers  to  acknow- 
ledge the  heavenly  source  from  which  it  is 
derived,  than  the  detestation  of  it  previously 
entertained  burst  forth  in  all  its  violence ;  and 
it  is  apparent  that  this  had  been  widely  and 
openly  expressed  before  any  imperial  edicts 
were  directed  against  the  Christians.  Tacitus, 
in  the  celebrated  passage  in  which  he  mentions 
the  disciples  of  Jesus,  and  which  refers  to  a 
period  not  more  than  thirty  years  distant  from 
the  ascension,  represents  it  as  notorious  in 
Rome,  that  Christ,  during  the  reign  of  Tibe- 
rius, had  been  put  to  death  as  a  criminal ;  he 


selves  to  it,  they  would  be  exposed,  they  did 
not  hesitate  to  relinquish  the  religion  in  which 
they  had  been  educated,  and  to  exchange  for 
misery  and  death  all  the  comforts  which  the 
strongest  feelings  and  propensities  of  our  na- 
ture lead  men  to  value  and  to  pursue.  Finally, 
imperial  Rome  bowed  to  the  religion  it  had 
persecuted,  and  the  emperor  Constantine  be- 
came a  Christian. 

3.  The  propagation  of  Christianity  assumes  a 
new  aspect  after  it  became  the  religion  of  the 
empire,  and  was  guarded  by  the  protection  and 
surrounded  by  the  munificence  of  imperial 
power.  The  causes  which,  in  the  first  stage 
of  its  existence,  had  most  powerfully  acted 
against  it,  were  now  turned  to  its  support;  and 
all  the  motives  by  which  men  are  usually 
guided  led  them  to  enter  with,  at  least,  appa- 
rent conviction  into  its  sanctuaries.  Not  only 
was  persecution,  after  the  reign  of  Constan- 
tine, at  an  end,  but  with  the  exception  of  the 
short  reign  of  Julian,  who,  having  apostatized 
from  Christianity,  and  become  intoxicated  with 
the  fascinating  speculations  of  the  Platonic 
philosophy,  was  eager  to  raise  the  temples 
which  his  predecessor  had  laid  in  ruins,  pro- 
motion and  wealth  and  honour  could  be  most 
effectually  secured  by  transferring  to  the  Gos- 


asserts  that  his  adherents  had  long  been  odious    pel  the  zeal  which  had  been  in  vain  exhausted 
on   account   of  their  enormities;  he  laments  |  to  preserve  the  sinking  fabric  of  Paganism  and 

idolatry.  The  emperors,  who  had  displayed 
their  zeal  and  their  attachment  to  the  religion 
of  Jesus,  by  forcing  their  own  subjects  to  profess 
it,  conceived  it  to  be  their  duty  to  communicate 
so  great  a  blessing  to  all  the  nations  which  they 
could  influence ;  and  when  they  found  it  ne- 
cessary to  declare  vjar  against  the  savage  tribes 
which  pressed  upon  the  frontiers,  or  forced 
themselves  within  the  precincts  of  the  empire, 
they  carried  on  hostilities  with  the  view  of 
rendering  these  instrumental  no  less  to  the 
diffusion  of  their  religious  tenets,  than  to  the 
vindication  of  their  authority,  and  the  security 
of  their  dominions.  The  vanquished  invaders 
felt  little  reluctance  to  purchase  the  forbearance 
or  the  clemency  of  their  conquerors,  by  sub- 
mitting to  receive  their  religion  ;  and  this  spe- 
cies of  conversion,  so  little  connected  with  the 
great  objects  which  revelation  was  designed  to 
accomplish,  leaving,  in  fact,  all  the  gross  su- 
perstitious practices  and  all  the  immoral  abo- 
minations which  had  previously  existed,  was 
boastfully  held  forth  as  a  decisive  proof  of  the 
triumph  of  the  Gospel.  _ 

4.  The  foundation  of  the  empire,  not  long 
after  the  days  of  Constantine,  began  to  be 
shaken :  and  it  experienced  numberless  assaults 
and  convulsions,  till  it  was  finally  divided  into 
the  eastern  and  western  empires.  The  luxury 
and  wealth  which  had  enervated  their  possess- 
ors, and  destroyed  the  heroism  and  intrepidity 
by  which  their  ancestors  had  been  distinguished, 
presented  the  most  powerful  temptations  to  tho 
lawless  bands  which,  driven  from  the  sterile 
regions  of  the  north  of  Europe,  had  pressed 
forward  to  seek  for  new  and  more  favoured 
habitations.  The  feeble  attempts  to  turn  aside, 
by  bribery,  these  ferocious  barbarians  increased 
the  danger  which  they  were  intended  to  re- 


that  their  destructive  superstition  had  found  its 
way  to  the  capital  of  the  empire  ;  and  he  attri- 
butes the  melancholy  fate  to  which  they  were 
condemned  to  the  general  persuasion,  that  they 
were  actuated  by  hatred  to  the  whole  human 
race.     It  is  necessary  to  keep  this  fact  steadily 
in  view,  to  form  an  accurate  idea  of  that  op- 
position which  Christianity  had  to  encounter. 
This  opposition  is  not  to  be  estimated  merely 
by  reference  to  particular  statutes,  or  even  to 
be  considered  as  fully  exhibited  when  we  have 
gathered  together  the  public  proceedings  which 
have  been  recorded  in  history,  or  deplored  in 
the  writings  of  those  who  sought  to  avert  them. 
It  is  to  be  remembered  that  even  when  the  laws 
which  the  frantic  zeal  of  some  o^the  emperors 
had  enacted  were  repealed,  the  general  law  of 
the  empire  was  still  in  force ;  that  it  was  com- 
petent for  every  one  who  had  the  cruelty  to  do 
so,  to  turn  it  against  the  Christians ;  and  that 
the  firm,  though  mistaken,  conviction  that  the 
Christian  profession  involved  in  it  the  most 
revolting  impiety,  the  most  tremendous  guilt, 
and  the  most  dangerous  hostility  to  the  best 
interests  of  the  state,  would  lead  numbers  to 
indulge  their  antipathy,  when  little  notice  was 
taken  of  the  sufferers,  and  would  keep  the  dis- 
ciples of  the  hated  faith  in  a  state  of  unceasing 
alarm.  (See  Persecution.)  What  was  the  effect 
of  this  depressing  situation  ?    Did  it  check  the 
dissemination  of  the  Gospel,  or  confine  it  to 
the  men  by  whom  it  was  preached  ?    So  far 
was  this  from  being  the  case,  that  from  the 
period  of  the  death,  and,  as  it  must  here  be 
termed,  the    alleged  resurrection   of  Jesus,  it 
was  embraced  by  immense  numbers  in  all  the 
countries  to  which  it  was  conveyed ;  and  even 
while  they  were  contemplating  the   sacrifices 
and  the  trials   to  which,  by  attaching  them- 


CHR 


240 


CHR 


move ;  and  the  history  of  Europe  presents,  for 
several  ages,  the  disgusting  spectacle  of  war, 
conducted  with  an  atrocity  eclipsing  the  stern 
virtues  which  sometimes  were  strikingly  dis- 
played.    But  although  the  insubordination  of 
this  turbulent  and  sanguinary  period  was  little 
favourable  to  the  mild  influence   of  genuine 
Christianity,  it  did  not  prove  so  fatal  to  it  as 
might  have  been  apprehended  ;  and  it  was  even 
instrumental  in  extending  its  nominal  domi- 
nion.    Mankind,  when  scarcely  emerged  from 
barbarism,  and  attached  to  no  particular  conn- 
try,  but  seeking  wherever  it  can  be  found  the 
food  necessary  for  themselves  and  the  flocks 
upon  which  they  in  a  great  measure  depend, 
although  they  entertain  those  sentiments  with 
regard  to  religion  which  seem  almost  interwo- 
ven with  our  nature,  feel  little  attachment  to 
any  one  system  of  superstition,  and  are  open 
to  the  reception  of  new  doctrines,  which  an 
association  with  what  they  value  may  have  led 
them    to   venerate.     When,   accordingly,   the 
tribes  which  finally  overran  the  Roman  empire 
had  ceased  from  the  destructive  contests    by 
which  they  got  possession  of  the  regions  that 
had   long  been  blessed  with   civilization  and 
enlightened   by  science,  they  surveyed   with 
amazement  and  with  admiration    the  people 
whom  they  had  conquered  ;  they  wore  delight- 
ed with  the  luxuries  which  abounded  among 
them  ;  they  were*harmed  with  their  manners 
and  customs ;  and  they  eagerly  conformed  to 
institutions  from  which  they  hoped  that  they 
should  reap  what  the  original  inhabit  ants  of 
their  settlement  had  enjoyed.    The  religion  of 
the  vanquished  they  contemplated  with  rever- 
ence ;  they  connected  it  v*ith  the  wealth,  the 
refinement,  and  the   power  which   they  saw 
spread  around  them ;  and  they  easily  exchanged 
the  rude  and  careless  worship  of  "their  native 
deities,  for  the  polished  and  splendid  devotional 
rites,  which,  with  the  most  imposing  solem- 
nity, were  celebrated  by  the  Christians.  Hence, 
they  soon  embraced  the  religion  by  which  it 
was  believed  that  these  rites  were  prescribed ; 
and  they  communicated  it  to  the  nations  with 
whom  they  still  maintained  an  alliance.  There 
is  no  doubt  that  motives  very  little  connected 
with  the  conviction  of  the  understanding  led 
to  the  progress  of  Christianity  now  described  ; 
and,  in  fact,  that  progress  was  occasioned  by 
causes  so  different  from  those  which  should 
have  produced  it,  that,  had  circumstances  been 
changed,  and  had  the  religion  of  Jesus  been 
continued  to  be  persecuted  by  the  most  power- 
ful states,  multitudes  who  affected  to  revere  it. 
would,  upon  the  same  ground  on  whicli  their 
veneration  rested,  have  exerted  themselves  to 
deride  its  tenets,  and  to  exterminate  its  pro- 
fessors. 

5.  But  it  was  not  the  secular  arm  alone  that 
was  stretched  forth  to  lead  men  to  the  recep- 
tion of  Christianity.  The  church,  after  it  had 
been  firmly  established,  and  had,  amidst  the 
riches  and  honours  with  which  it  was  endowed, 
forgotten  that  it  should  not  have  been  of  this 
world,  conceived  it  incumbent,  as  an  evidence 
of  its  zeal,  or,  as  was  too  often  the  case,  for 
extending  its  power  and  its  influence,  to  make 


attempts  to  substitute  the  cross  of  Christ  for 
the  emblems  of  Paganism.  In  accomplishing- 
this  object,  it  employed  different  means.  But 
although  the  conversions  which  took  place, 
from  the  establishment  of  Christianity  till  the 
restoration  of  learning,  or  the  reformation, 
which  forms  a  new  aera  in  the  dissemination  of 
the  Gospel,  were  often  unfortunately  very  far 
from  planting  the  word  of  life  in  the  hearts  of 
those  to  whom  it  was  conveyed,  they  were 
very  extensive.  They  reached  to  almost  every 
country  in  Europe ;  to  Arabia,  China,  Judea, 
and  many  other  parts  of  Asia  ;  and  the  obscure 
tribes,  to  whom  no  missionaries  were  des- 
patched, gradually  conformed  to  the  religion 
of  those  more  powerful  states  upon  which  they 
depended,  or  to  which  they  looked  with  respect 
or  veneration. 

6.  Mohammedanism,  however,  arrested  the 
progress  of  Christianity  in  some  of  these  coun- 
tries, and  humbled  it  and  oppressed  it  in  others ; 
but  since  the  reformation,  and  especially  within 
the  last  century,  it  has  been  extended,  not  so 
much  by  conquest,  as  by  the  legitimate  means 
of  colonization,  and  by  missions  and  education, 
to  the  most  distant  and  important  parts  of  the 
world,  to  China,  India,  Africa,  the  American 
Islands,  and  those  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The 
zeal,  self-denial,  and  successes,  of  those  mission- 
aries, who  have  been  sent  forth  within  a  few 
years  by  various  Protestant  societies,  and  their 
great  successes  form,  indeed,  a  splendid  section 
in  the  modern  history  of  the  church.  They 
have  sown  the  seed  in  almost  every  land,  and 
the  fruit  has  spread  itself  throughout  the  world. 

CHRONICLES,  Books  of.  This  name  ia 
given  to  two  historical  books  of  Scripture, 
which  the  Hebrews  call  Dibri-Jarnim,  "Words 
of  Days,"  that  is,  "Diaries,"  or  "Journals." 
They  are  called  in  the  LXX,  Paralipomena, 
which  signifies,  "things  omitted;"  as  if  these 
books  were  a  supplement  of  what  had  been 
omitted,  or  too  much  abridged,  in  the  books  of 
Kings,  and  other  historical  books  of  Scripture. 
And,  indeed,  we  find  in  them  many  particulars 
which  are  nit  extant  elsewhere :    but  it  must 


iSht 


not  be  thought  that  these  are  the  records,  or 
books  of  the  acts,  of  the  kings  of  Judah  and 
Israel,  so  often  referred  to.  Those  ancient 
registers  were  much  more  extensive  than  these 
are;  and  the  books  of  Chronicles  themselves 
refer  to  those  original  memoirs,  and  make  long 
extracts  from  them.  They  were  compiled,  and 
probably  by  Ezra,  from  the  ancient  chronicles 
of  the  kings  of  Judah  and  Israel  just  now  men- 
tioned, and  they  may  be  considered  as  a  kind 
of  supplement  to  the  preceding  books  of  Scrip- 
ture. The  former  part  of  the  first  book  of 
Chronicles  contains  a  great  variety  of  genea- 
logical tables,  beginning  with  Adam  ;  and  in 
particular  gives  a  circumstantial  account  of  the 
twelve  tribes,  which  must  have  been  very  valu- 
able to  the  Jews  after  their  return  from  cap- 
tivity. The  descendants  of  Abraham,  Isaac, 
Jacob,  and  David,  from  all  of  whom  it  was 
predicted  that  the  Saviour  of  the  world  should 
be  born,  are  here  marked  with  precision.  These 
genealogies  occupy  the  first  nine  chapters,  and 
in  the  tenth   is   recorded   the  death  of  Saul. 


CHU 


241 


CHU 


From  the  eleventh  chapter  to  the  end  of  the 
book,  we  have  a  history  of  the  reign  of  David, 
with  a  detailed  statement  of  his  preparation 
for  the  building  of  the  temple,  of  his  regula- 
tions respecting  the  priests  and  Levites,  and 
his  appointment  of  musicians  for  the  public 
service  of  religion.  The  second  book  of  Chro- 
nicles contains  a  brief  sketch  of  the  Jewish  his- 
tory, from  the  accession  of  Solomon  to  the 
return  from  the  Babylonian  captivity,  being  a 
period  of  four  hundred  and  eighty  years ;  and 
in  both  these  books  we  find  many  particulars 
not  noticed  in  the  other  historical  books  of 
Scripture. 

CHRYSOLITE,  Rev.  xxi,  20,  a  precious 
stone  of  a  golden  colour.  Schroder  says  it  is 
the  gem  now  called  the  Indian  topaz,  which 
is  of  a  j'ellowish  green  colour,  and  very  beau- 
tiful. 

CHRYSOPRASUS,  Rev.  xxi,  20,  a  pre- 
cious stone,  which  Pliny  classes  among  the 
bcryl3 ;  the  best  of  which,  he  says,  are  of  a 
6ea-green  colour;  after  these  he  mentions  the 
chrysoberyls,  which  are  a  little  paler,  inclining 
m  to  golden  colour ;  and  next,  a  sort  still  paler, 
and  by  some  reckoned  a  distinct  species,  and 
called  chrysoprasus. 

CHURCH.  The  Greek  word  iKK\r\cia,  so 
rendered,  denotes  an  assembly  met  about  busi- 
ness, whether  spiritual  or  temporal,  Acts  xix, 
32,  39.  It  is  understood  also  of  the  collective 
body  of  Christians,  or  all  those  over  the  face 
of  the  earth  who  profess  to  believe  in  Christ, 
and  acknowledge  him  to  be  the  Saviour  of 
mankind ;  this  is  called  the  visible  church. 
But  by  the  word  church,  we  are  more  strictly 
to  understand  the  whole  body  of  God's  true 
people,  in  every  period  of  time :  this  is  the  in- 
visible or  spiritual  church.  The  people  of  God 
on  earth  are  called  the  church  militant,  and 
those  in  heaven  the  church  triumphant.  It 
has  been  remarked  by  Dr.  John  Owen,  that 
sin  having  entered  into  the  world,  God  was 
pleased  to  found  his  church  (the  catholic  or  uni- 
versal church)  in  the  promise  of  the  Messiah 
given  to  Adam  ;  that  this  promise  contained  in 
it  something  of  the  nature  of  a  covenant,  in- 
cluding the  grace  which  God  designed  to  show 
to  sinners  in  the  Messiah,  and  the  obedience 
which  he  required  from  them  ;  and  that  conse- 
quently, from  its  first  promulgation,  that  pro- 
mise became  the  sole  foundation  of  the  church 
and  of  the  whole  worship  of  God  therein. 
Prior  to  the  days  .of  Abraham,  this  church, 
though  scattered  up  and  down  the  world,  and 
subject  to  many  changes  in  its  worship  through 
the  addition  of  new  revelations,  was  still  but 
one  and  the  same,  because  founded  in  the 
6ame  covenant,  and  interested  thereby  in  all 
the  benefits  or  privileges  that  God  had  granted, 
or  would  at  any  time  grant.  In  process  of 
time,  God  was  pleased  to  restrict  his  church, 
as  far  as  visible  acknowledgment  went,  in  a 
great  measure,  to  the  seed  of  Abraham,  With 
the  latter  he  renewed  his  covenant,  requiring 
that  he  should  walk  before  him  and  be  upright. 
He  also  constituted  him  the  father  of  the  faith- 
ful, or  of  all  them  that  believe,  and  the  "  heir 
of  the  world."  So  that  since  the  days  of  Abra- 
17 


ham,  the  church  has,  in  every  age,  been  found- 
ed upon  the  covenant  made  with  that  patriarch, 
and  on  the  work  of  redemption  which  was  to 
be  peformed  according  to  that  covenant.  Now 
wheresoever  this  covenant  made  with  Abra- 
ham is,  and  with  whomsoever  it  is  established, 
with  them  is  the  church  of  God,  and  to  them 
all  the  promises  and  privileges  of  the  church 
really  belong.  Hence  we  may  learn  that  at 
the  coming  of  the  Messiah,  there  was  not  one 
church  taken  away  and  another  set  up  in  its 
room ;  but  the  church  continued  the  same,  in 
those  that  were  the  children  of  Abraham,  ac- 
cording to  the  faith.  It  is  common  with 
divines  to  speak  of  the  Jewish  and  the  Chris- 
tian churches,  as  though  they  were  two  distinct 
and  totally  different  things ;  but  that  is  not  a 
correct  view  of  the  matter.  The  Christian 
church  is  not  another  church,  but  the  very 
same  that  was  before  the  coming  of  Christ, 
having  the  same  faith  with  it,  and  interested 
in  the  same  covenant.  Great  alterations  in- 
deed were  made  in  the  outward  state  and  con- 
dition of  the  church,  by  the  coming  of  the 
Messiah.  The  carnal  privilege  of  the  Jews,  in 
their  separation  from  other  nations  to  give 
birth  to  the  Messiah,  then  failed,  and  with  that 
also  their  claim  on  that  account  to  be  the 
children  of  Abraham.  The  ordinances  of 
worship  suited  to  that  state  of  things  then  ex- 
pired, and  came  to  an  end.  New  ordinances 
of  worship  were  appointed,  suitable  to  the  new 
light  and  grace  which  were  then  bestowed 
upon  the  church.  The  Gentiles  came  into  the 
faith  of  Abraham  along  with  the  Jews,  being 
made  joint  partakers  with  them  in  his  blessing. 
But  none  of  these  things,  nor  the  whole  col- 
lectively, did  make  such  an  alteration  in  the 
church,  but  that  it  was  still  one  and  the  same. 
The  olive  tree  was  still  the  same,  only  some 
branches  were  broken  oft',  and  others  grafted 
into  it.  The  Jews  fell,  and  the  Gentiles  came 
in  their  room.  And  this  may  enable  us  to  de- 
termine the  difference  between  the  Jews  and 
Christians  relative  to  the  Old  Testament  pro- 
mises. They  are  all  made  to  the  church.  No 
individual  has  any  interest  in  them  except  by 
virtue  of  his  membership  with  the  church. 
The  church  is,  and  always  was,  one  and  the 
same.  The  Jewish  plea,  is,  that  the  church  is 
with  them,  because  they  are  the  children  of 
Abraham  according  to  the  flesh.  Christians 
reply,  that  their  privilege  on  that  ground  was 
of  another  nature,  and  ended  with  the  coming 
of  the  Messiah:  that  the  church  of  God,  unto 
whom  all  the  promises  belong,  arc  only  those 
who  are  heirs  of  the  faith  of  Abraham,  believ- 
ing as  he  did,  and  are  consequently  interested 
in^his  covenant.  These  are  Zion,  Jerusalem, 
Israel,  Jacob,  the  temple,  or  church  cf  God. 

2.  By  a  particular  church  we  understand  an 
assembly  of  Christians  united  together,  and 
meeting  in  one  place,  for  the  solemn  worship 
of  God.  To  this  agrees  the  definition  given 
by  the  compilers  of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  of 
the  Church  of  England  :  "  A  congregation  of 
faithful  men,  in  which  the  true  word  of  God  is 
preached,  and  the  sacraments  duly  administer- 
ed  according  to  Christ's   ordinances,   in   all 


CHU 


242 


CHU 


those  tilings  that  of  necessity  are  requisite  to 
the  same,"  Acts  ix,  31 ;  xx,  17  ;  Gal.  i,  2,  22; 
1  Cor.  xiv,  34;  Col.  iv,  15.  The  word  is  now 
also  used  to  denote  any  particular  denomina- 
tion of  Christians,  distinguished  by  particu- 
lar doctrines,  ceremonies,  &c,  as  the  Rom- 
ish church,  the  Greek  church,  the  English 
church,  &c. 

3.  On  the  subject  of  the  church,  opinions  as 
opposite  or  varying  as  possible  have  been  held, 
from  that  of  the  Papists,  who  contend  for  its 
visible  unity  throughout  the  world  under  a 
visible  head,  down  to  that  of  the  Independents, 
who  consider  the  universal  church  as  compos- 
ed of  congregational  churches,  each  perfect  in 
itself,  and  entirely  independent  of  every  other. 
The  first  opinion  is  manifestly  contradicted  by 
the  language  of  the  Apostles,  who,  while  they 
teach  that  there  is  but  one  church,  composed 
of  believers  throughout  the  world,  think  it  not 
at  all  inconsistent  with  this  to  speak  of  "  the 
churches  of  Judea,"  "of  Achaia,"  "the  seven 
churches  of  Asia,"  "the  church  at.  Ephesus," 
&c.  Among  themselves  the  Apostles  had  no 
common  head  ;  but  planted  churches  and  gave 
directions  for  their  government,  in  most  cases 
without  any  apparent  correspondence  with 
each  other.  The  Popish  doctrine  is  certainly 
not  found  in  their  writings ;  and  so  far  were 
they  from  making  provision  for  the  govern- 
ment of  this  one  supposed  church,  by  the  ap- 
pointment of  one  visible  and  exclusive  head, 
that  they  provide  for  the  future  government  of 
the  respective  churches  raised  up  by  them  in  a 
totally  different  manner,  that  is,  by  the  ordina- 
tion of  ministers  for  each  church,  who  are  in- 
differently called  bishops,  and  presbyters,  and 
pastoTS.  The  only  unity  of  which  they  speak 
is  the  unity  of  the  whole  church  in  Christ,  the 
invisible  head,  by  faith ;  and  the  unity  pro- 
duced by  "fervent  love  toward  each  other." 
Nor  has  the  Popish  doctrine  of  the  visible 
unity  of  the  church  any  countenance  from 
early  antiquity.  The  best  ecclesiastical  histo- 
rians have  showed,  that,  through  the  greater 
part  of  the  second  century,  the  Christian 
churches  were  independent  of  each  other. 
"  Each  Christian  assembly,"  says  Mosheim, 
"was  a  little  state  governed  by  its  own  laws, 
which  were  either  enacted,  or  at  least  approv- 
ed, by  the  society.  But  in  process  of  time,  all 
the  churches  of  a  province  were  formed  into 
one  large  ecclesiastical  body,  which,  like  con- 
federate states,  assembled  at  certain  times  in 
order  to  deliberate  about  the  common  interests 
of  the  whole."  So  far  indeed  this  union  of 
churches  appears  to  have  been  a  wise  and  use- 
ful arrangement,  although  afterward  it  was 
carried  to  an  injurious  extreme,  until  finally  it 
gave  birth  to  the  assumptions  of  the  bishop  of 
Rome,  as  universal  bishop ;  a  claim,  however, 
which,  when  most  successful,  was  but  partially 
submitted  to,  the  eastern  churches  having,  for 
the  most  part,  always  maintained  their  in- 
dependence. No  very  large  association  of 
churches  of  any  kind  existed  till  toward  the 
close  of  the  second  century,  which  sufficiently 
refutes  the  papal  argument  from  antiquity. 
The    independence    of   the    early   Christian 


churches  does  not,  however,  appear  fo  have 
resembled  that  of  the  churches  which,  in 
modern  times,  are  called  Independent.  Dur- 
ing the  lives  of  the  Apostles  and  Evangelists 
they  were  certainly  subject  to  their  counsel  and 
control,  which  proves  that  the  independency 
of  separate  societies  was  not  the  first  form  of 
the  church.  It  may,  indeed,  be  allowed,  that 
some  of  the  smaller  and  more  insulated 
churches  might,  after  the  death  of  the  Apos- 
tles and  Evangelists,  retain  this  form  for  some 
considerable  time  ;  but  the  larger  churches,  in 
the  chief  cities,  and  those  planted  in  populous 
neighbourhoods,  had  many  presbyters,  and,  as 
the  members  multiplied,  they  had  several  sepa- 
rate assemblies  or  congregations,  yet  all  under 
the  same  common  government.  And  when 
churches  were  raised  up  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  cities,  the  appointment  of  chorepiscopi ,  or 
country  bishops,  and  of  visiting  presbyters, 
both  acting  under  the  presbytery  of  the  city, 
with  the  bishop  at  its  head,  is  sufficiently  in 
proof,  that  the  ancient  churches,  especially  the 
larger  and  more  prosperous  of  them,  existed  in 
that  form  which,  in  modern  times,  we  should 
call  a  religious  connection,  subject  to  a  common 
government.  This  appears  to  have  arisen  out 
of  the  very  circumstance  of  the  increase  of  the 
church,  through  the  zeal  of  the  first  Christians; 
and  it  was  doubtless  much  more  in  the  spirit 
of  the  very  first  discipline  exercised  by  the 
Apostles  and  Evangelists,  (when  none  of  the 
churches  were  independent,  but  remained  un. 
der  the  government  of  those  who  had  been 
chiefly  instrumental  in  raising  them  up,)  to 
place  themselves  under  a  common  inspection, 
and  to  unite  the  weak  with  the  strong,  and  the 
newly  converted  with  those  who  were  "  irr 
Christ  before  them."  There  was  also  in  this, 
greater  security  afforded  both  for  the  con- 
tinuance of  wholesome  doctrine,  and  of  godly 
discipline. 

4.  Church  members  are  those  who  compose 
or  belong  to  the  visible  church.  As  to  the  real 
church,  the  true  members  of  it  are  such  as  come 
out  from  the  world,  2  Cor.  vi,  17  ;  who  are  born 
again,  1  Peter  i,  23 ;  or  made  new  creatures, 
2  Cor.  v,  17  ;  whose  faith  works  by  love  to  God 
and  all  mankind,  Gal.  v,  6 ;  James  ii,  14,  26 ; 
who  walk  in  all  the  ordinances  of  the  Lord 
blameless.  None  but  such  are  members  of  the 
true  church ;  nor  should  any  be  admitted  into 
any  particular  church  without  some  evidence 
of  their  earnestly  seeking  this  state  of  salvation. 

5.  Church  fellowship  is  the  communion  that 
the  members  enjoy  one  with  another.  The 
ends  of  church  fellowship  are,  the  maintenance 
and  exhibition  of  a  system  of  sound  doctrine  ; 
the  support  of  the  ordinances  of  evangelical 
worship  in  their  purity  and  simplicity ;  the  im- 
partial exercise  of  church  government  and 
discipline ;  the  promotion  of  holiness  in  all 
manner  of  conversation.  The  more  particular 
duties  are,  earnest  study  to  keep  peace  and 
unity;  bearing  of  one  another's  burdens,  Gal. 
vi,  1,  2 ;  earnest  endeavours  to  prevent  each 
other's  stumbling,  1  Cor*  x,  23-33  ;  Heb.  x, 
24-27;  Rom.  xiv,  13;  steadfast  continuance  in 
the  faith  and  worship  of  the  Gospel,  Aets  ii,  42 ; 


CHU 


243 


CHU 


praying  for  and  sympathizing  with  each  other, 
1  Sam.  xii,  23;  Eph.  vi,  18.  The  advantages 
are,  peculiar  incitement  to  holiness;  the  right 
to  some  promises  applicable  to  none  but  those 
who  attend  the  ordinances  of  God,  and  hold 
communion  with  the  saints,  Psalm  xcii,  13; 
cxxxii,  13,  16;  xxxvi,  8;  Jer.  xxxi,  12;  the 
being  placed  under  the  watchful  eye  of  pastors, 
Heb.  xiii,  7 ;  that  they  may  restore  each  other 
if  they  fall,  Gal.  vi,  1 ;  and  the  more  effectually 
promote  the  cause  of  true  religion. 

6.  As  to  church  order  and  discipline,  with- 
out entering  into  the  discussion  of  the  many 
questions  which  have  been  raised  on  this  sub- 
ject, and  argued  in  so  many  distinct  treatises, 
it  may  be  sufficient  generally  to  observe,  that 
the  church  of  Christ  being  a  visible  and  perma- 
nent society,  bound  to  observe  certain  rites, 
and  to  obey  certain  rules,  the  existence  of 
government  in  it  is  necessarily  supposed.  All 
religious  rites  suppose  order,  all  order  direction 
and  control,  and  these  a  directive  and  control- 
ling power.  Again:  all  laws  are  nugatory  with- 
out enforcement,  in  the  present  mixed  and  im- 
perfect state  of  society ;  and  all  enforcement 
supposes  an  executive.  If  baptism  be  the  door 
of  admission  into  the  church,  some  must  judge 
of  the  fitness  of  candidates,  and  administrators 
of  the  rite  must  be  appointed  ;  if  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per must  be  partaken  of,  the  times  and  the  mode 
are  to  be  determined,  the  qualifications  of  com- 
municants judged  of,  and  the  administration 
placed  in  suitable  hands ;  if  worship  must  be 
social  and  public,  here  again  there  must  be  an 
appointment  of  times,  an  order,  and  an  admi- 
nistration ;  if  the  word  of  God  is  to  be  read 
and  preached,  then  readers  and  preachers  are 
necessary  ;  if  the  continuance  of  any  one  in  the 
fellowship  of  Christians  be  conditional  upon 
good  conduct,  so  that  the  purity  and  credit  of 
the  church  may  be  guarded,  then  the  power  of 
enforcing  discipline  must  be  lodged  some  where. 
Thus  government  flows  necessarily  from  the 
very  nature  of  the  institution  of  the  Christian 
church ;  and  since  this  institution  has  the 
authority  of  Christ  and  his  Apostles,  it  is  not 
to  be  supposed,  that  its  government  was  left 
unprovided  for  ;  and  if  they  have  in  fact  made 
such  a  provision,  it  is  no  more  a  matter  of  mere 
option  with  Christians  whether  they  will  be 
subject  to  government  in  the  church,  than  it 
is  optional  with  them  to  confess  Christ  by 
becoming  its  members.  The  nature  of  this 
government,  and  the  persons  to  whom  it  is  com- 
mitted, are  both  points  which  we  must  briefly 
examine  by  the  light  of  the  Holy  Scriptures. 
As  to  the  first,  it  is  wholly  spiritual : — "  My 
kingdom,"  says  our  Lord,  "is  not  of  this 
world."  The  church  is  a  society  founded  upon 
faith,  and  united  by  mutual  love,  for  the  per- 
sonal edification  of  its  members  in  holiness, 
and  for  the  religious  benefit  of  the  world.  The 
nature  of  its  government  is  thus  determined; 
it  is  concerned  only  with  spiritual  objects.  It 
cannot  employ  force  to  compel  men  into  its 
pale ;  for  the  only  door  of  the  church  is  faith, 
to  which  there  can  be  no'  compulsion  ; — "  he 
that  believeth  and  is  baptized"  becomes  a  mem- 
ber.   It  cannot  inflict  pains  and  penalties  upon 


the  disobedient  and  refractory,  like  civil  go 
vernments;  for  the  only  punitive  discipline 
authorized  in  the  New  Testament,  is  comprised 
in  "  admonition,"  "  reproof,"  "  sharp  rebukes," 
and,  finally,  "excision  from  the  society."  The 
last  will  be  better  understood,  if  we  consider 
the  special  relations  in  which  true  Christians 
stand  to  each  other,  and  the  duties  resulting 
from  them.  They  are  members  of  one  body, 
and  are  therefore  bound  to  tenderness  and  sym- 
pathy ;  they  are  the  conjoint  instructors  of 
others,  and  are  therefore  to  strive  to  be  of  "  one 
judgment;"  they  are  brethren,  and  they  are 
to  love  one  another  as  such,  that  is,  with  an 
affection  more  special  than  that  general  good 
will  which  they  are  commanded  to  bear  to  all 
mankind;  they  are  therefore  to  seek  the  Inti- 
macy of  friendly  society  among  themselves, 
and,  except  in  the  ordinary  and  courteous 
intercourse  of  life,  they  are  bound  to  keep 
themselves  separate  from  the  world ;  they  are 
enjoined  to  do  good  unto  all  men,  but  "es- 
pecially to  them  that  are  of  the  household  of 
faith;"  and  they  are  forbidden  "to  eat"  at  the 
Lord's  table  with  immoral  persons,  that  is, 
with  those  who,  although  they  continue  their 
Christian  profession,  dishonour  it  by  their  prac- 
tice. With  these  relations  of  Christians  to 
each  other  and  to  the  world,  and  their  corres- 
pondent duties,  before  our  minds,  we  may  easily 
interpret  the  nature  of  that  extreme  discipline 
which  is  vested  in  the  church.  ""Persons  who 
will  not  hear  the  church"  are  to  be  held  "as 
Heathen  men  and  publicans,"  as  those  who  are 
not  members  of  it ;  that  is,  they  are  to  be  sepa- 
rated from  it,  and  regarded  as  of  "  the  world," 
quite  out  of  the  range  of  the  above  mentioned 
relations  of  Christians  to  each  other,  and  their 
correspondent  duties;  but  still,  like  "Heathen 
men  and  publicans"  they  are  to  be  the  objects 
of  pity,  and  general  benevolence.  Nor  is  this 
extreme  discipline  to  be  hastily  inflicted  before 
"a  first  and  second  admonition,"  nor  before 
those  who  are  "spiritual"  have  attempted  "to 
restore  a  brother  overtaken  by  a  fault ;"  and 
when  the  "  wicked  person"  is  "  put  away,"  still 
the  door  is  to  be  kept  open  for  his  reception 
again  upon  repentance.  The  true  excommu- 
nication of  the  Christian  church  is  therefore  a 
merciful  and  considerate  separation  of  an  in- 
corrigible offender  from  the  body  of  Christians, 
without  any  infliction  of  civil  pains  or  penal- 
tics.  "  Now  we  command  you,  brethren,  in 
the  name  of  our  Lord'  Jesus  Christ,  that  ye 
withdraw  yourselves  from  every  brother  that 
walketh  disorderly,  and  not  after  the  tradition 
which  ye  have  received  from  us,"  2  Thess.  iii,  6. 
"  Purge  out  therefore  the  old  leaven,  that  ye 
may  be  a  new  lump,"  1  Cor.  v,  7.  "  But  now 
I  have  written  to  you  not  to  keep  company,  if 
any  man  that  is  called  a  brother  be  a  fornica- 
tor, or  covetous,  or  an  idolater,  or  a  railer,  or 
a  drunkard,  or  an  extortioner,  with  such  a  one, 
no  not  to  eat,"  1  Cor.  v,  11.  This  then  is  the 
moral  discipline  which  is  imperative  upon  the 
church  of  Christ,  and  its  government  is  crimi- 
nally defective  whenever  it  is  not  enforced. 
On  the  other  haDd,  the  disabilities  and  penal- 
ties which  established  churches   in  different 


CHU 


244 


CHU 


places  have  connected  with  these  sentences  of 
excommunication,  have  no  countenance  at  all 
in  Scripture,  and  are  wholly  inconsistent  with 
the  spiritual  character  and  ends  of  the  Chris- 
tian association.' 

7.  As  to  the  persons  to  whom  the  govern- 
ment of  the  church  is  committed,  it  is  necessary 
to  consider  the  composition,  so  to  speak,  of  the 
primitive  church,  as  stated  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment. A  full  enunciation  of  these  offices  we 
find  in  Ephesians  iv,  11 :  "  And  he  gave  some, 
Apostles;  and  some,  Prophets;  and  some,  Evan- 
gelists ;  and  some,  pastors  and  teachers ;  for 
the  perfecting  of  the  saints,  for  the  work  of  the 
ministry,  for  the  edifying  of  the  body  of  Christ." 
Of  these,  the  office  of  Apostle  is  allowed  by  all 
to  have  been  confined  to  those  immediately 
commissioned  by  Christ  to  witness  the  fact  of 
his  miracles,  and  of  his  resurrection  from  the 
dead,  and  to  reveal  the  complete  system  of 
Christian  doctrine  and  duty  ;  confirming  their 
extraordinary  mission  by  miracles  wrought  by 
themselves.  If  by  "  prophets"  we  are  to  un- 
derstand persons  who  foretold  future  events, 
then  the  office  was  from  its  very  nature  extra- 
ordinary, and  the  gift  of  prophecy  has  passed 
away  with  the  other  miraculous  endowments 
of  the  first  age  of  Christianity.  If,  with  others, 
we  understand  that  these  prophets  were  extra- 
ordinary teachers  raised  up  until  the  churches 
were  settled  under  permanent  qualified  in- 
structed ;  still  the  office  was  temporary.  The 
"  Evangelists"  are  generally  understood  to  be 
assistants  of  the  Apostles,  who  acted  under  their 
especial  authority  and  direction.  Of  this  num- 
ber were  Timothy  and  Titus ;  and  as  the  Apos- 
tle Paul  directed  them  to  ordain  bishops  or 
presbyters  in  the  several  churches,  but  gave 
them  no  authority  to  ordain  successors  to  them- 
selves in  their  particular  office  as  Evangelists, 
it  is  clear  that  the  Evangelists  must  also  be 
reckoned  among  the  number  of  extraordinary 
and  temporary  ministers  suited  to  the  first  ago 
of  Christianity.  Whether  by  "pastors  and 
teachers"  two  offices  be  meant,  or  one,  has 
been  disputed.  The  change  in  the  mode  of 
expression  seems  to  favour  the  latter  view,  and 
bo  the  text  is  interpreted  by  St.  Jcrom,  and  St. 
Augustine ;  but  the  point  is  of  little  conse- 
quence. A  pastor  was  a  teacher,  although 
every  teacher  might  not  he  a  pastor ;  but  in 
many  cases  his  office  might  be  one  of  subor- 
dinate instruction,  whether  as  an  expounder  of 
doctrine,  a  catechist,  or  even  a  more  private 
instructer  of  those  who  as  yet  were  unacquaint- 
ed with  the  first  principles  of  the  Gospel  of 
Christ.  The  term  pastor  implies  the  duties 
both  of  instruction  and  of  government,  of 
feeding  and  of  ruling  the  flock  of  Christ;  and, 
as  the  presbyters  or  bishops  were  ordained  in 
the  several  churches,  both  by  the  Apostles  and 
Evangelists,  and  rules  are  left  by  St.  Paul  as  to 
their  appointment,  there  can  be  no  doubt  but 
that  these  are  the  "  pastors"  spoken  of  in  the 
Epistle  to  the  Ephesians,  and  that  they  were 
designed  to  be  the  permanent  ministers  of  the 
church ;  and  that  with  them  both  the  govern- 
ment of  the  church  and  the  performance  of  its 
leading  religious  services  were  deposited.  Dea- 


cons had  the  charge  of  the  gifts  and  offerings 
for  charitable  purposes,  although,  it  appears 
from  Justin  Martyr,  not  in  every  instance;  for 
he  speaks  of  the  weekly  obliitions  as  being  de- 
posited with  the  chief  minister,  and  distributed 
by  him.  These  pastors  appear  to  have  been 
indifferently  called  BisHors  and  Presbyters, 
and  with  them  the  regulation  of  the  churches 
was,  doubtless,  deposited  ;  not  without  checks 
and  guards,  the  principal  of  which,  however, 
was,  in  the  primitive  church,  and  continues 
to  be  in  all  modern  churches  which  have  no 
spuport  from  the  magistracy,  or  are  made 
independent  of  the  people  by  endowments,  the 
voluntariness  of  the  association.  A  perfect 
religious  liberty  is  always  supposed  by  the 
Apostles  to  exist  among  Christians;  no  com- 
pulsion of  the  civil  power  is  any  where  assumed 
by  them  as  the  basis  of  their  advices  or  direc- 
tions; no  binding  of  the  members  to  one 
church,  without  liberty  to  join  another,  by  any 
ties  but  those  involved  in  moral  considerations, 
of  sufficient  weight,  however,  to  prevent  the 
evils  of  faction  and  schism.  It  was  this  which 
created  a  natural  and  competent  check  upon 
the  ministers  of  the  church ;  for  being  only 
sustained  by  the  opinion  of  the  churches,  they 
could  not  but  have  respect  to  it ;  and  it  was 
this  which  gave  to  the  sound  part  of  a  fallen 
church  the  advantage  of  renouncing,  upon  suf- 
ficient and  well-weighed  grounds,  their  com- 
munion with  it,  and  of  kindling  up  the  light  of 
a  pure  ministry  and  a  holy  discipline,  by  form- 
ing a  separate  association,  bearing  its  testi- 
mony against  errors  in  doctrine,  and  failures 
in  practice.  Nor  is  it  to  be  conceived,  that, 
had  this  simple  principle  of  perfect  religious 
liberty  been  left  unviolated  through  subsequent 
ages,  the  church  could  ever  have  become  so 
corrupt,  or  with  such  difficulty  and  slowness 
have  been  recovered  from  its  fall.  This  an- 
cient  Christian  liberty  has  happily  been  re- 
stored in  a  few  parts  of  Christendom.  See 
Ehscopacy  and  Presbyterianism. 

CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND  and  IRELAND 
is  that  established  by  law  in  England  and  Ire- 
land, where  it  forms  a  part  of  the  common  law 
of  the  land,  or  constitution  of  the  country. 

1.  When  and  by  •whom  Christianity  was  first 
introduced  into  Britain,  cannot  at  this  distance 
of  time  be  exactly  ascertained.  Eusebius,  in- 
deed, positively  declares  that  it  was  by  the 
Apostles  and  their  disciples;  Bishops  Jewel  and 
Stillingfleet,  Dr.  Cave,  and  others,  insist  that 
it  was  by  St.  Paul ;  and  Baronius  affirms,  on 
the  authority  of  an  ancient  manuscript  in  the 
Vatican  Library,  that  the  Gospel  was  planted 
in  Britain  by  Simon  Zelotes,  the  Apostle,  and 
Joseph  of  Arimathea  ;  and  that  the  latter  came 
over  A.  D.  35,  or  about  the  twenty-first  year 
of  Tiberius,  and  died  in  this  country.  Accord- 
ing to  Archbishop  Usher,  the  British  churches 
had  a  school  of  learning  in  the  year  182,  to  pro- 
vide them  with  proper  teachers;  and  it  would 
appear  that  they  flourished,  without  depend- 
ence on  any  foreign  church,  till  the  arrival  of 
Austin  the  monk,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixth 
century. 

2.  Episcopacy  was  early  established  in  this 


CHU 


245 


CHU 


country;  and  it  ought  to  be  remembered,  to 
the  honour  of  the  British  bishops  and  clergy, 
that  during  several  centuries  they  withstood 
the  encroachments  of  the  see  of  Rome.  Popery, 
however,  was  at  length  introduced  into  Eng- 
land, and,  as  some  say,  by  Austin,  the  monk ; 
and  we  find  its  errors  every  where  prevalent 
during  several  ages  preceding  the  reformation, 
till  they  were  refuted  by  Wickliffe.  The  seed 
which  Wickliffe  had  sown  ripened  after  his 
death,  and  produced  a  glo/ious  harvest.  How- 
ever, it  was  not  till  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII, 
that  the  reformation  in  England  in  reality 
commenced.  When  Luther  declared  war 
against  the  pope,  Henry  wrote  his  treatise  on 
the  seven  sacraments  against  Luther's  book, 
"  Of  the  Captivity  of  Babylon,"  and  was  repaid 
by  the  pontiff  with  the  title  of  "  Defender  of 
the  Faith."  This  title,  in  a  sense  diametrically 
opposite,  and  by  a  claim  of  higher  desert,  was 
transmitted  by  Henry  with  his  crown,  and 
now  belongs  to  his  successors.  Henry's  affec- 
tions being  estranged  from  his  queen  Catha- 
rine, and  fixed  on  Anne  Boleyn,  he  requested 
a  divorce  from  his  wife  ;  but  the  pope  hesitat- 
ing, the  archbishop  of  Canterbury  annulled  his 
former  marriage.  The  sentence  of  the  arch- 
bishop was  condemned  by  the  pope,  whose  au- 
thority Henry  therefore  shook  off*,  and  was  de- 
clared by  parliament  "supreme  head  of  the 
church."  In  the  year  1800,  when  the  king- 
doms of  Britain  and  Ireland  were  united,  the 
churches  of  England  and  Ireland,  which  had 
always  been  the  same  in  government,  faith,  and 
worship,  became  one  united  church. 

3.  The  acknowledged  standards  of  the  faith 
and  doctrines  of  the  united  church  are,  after  the 
Scriptures,  the  Book  of  Homilies  and  the  Thir- 
ty-nine Articles.  Her  liturgy  is  also  doctrinal, 
as  well  as  devotional.  The  homilies  were  com- 
posed by  Cranmer,  Latimer,  and  Ridley,  men 
of  unexceptionable  learning  and  orthodoxy ; 
or,  according  to  others,  the  first  book  was  writ- 
ten principally  by  Cranmer,  and  the  second  by 
Jewel.  They  were  appointed  to  be  read  in 
churches  at  the  beginning  of  the  reformation, 
when,  by  reason  of  the  scarcity  of  learned  di- 
vines, few  ministers  were  found  who  could 
safely  be  trusted  to  preach  their  own  composi- 
tions. The  first  draught  of  the  Articles  was 
composed  by  Archbishop  Cranmer,  assisted  by 
Bishop  Ridley,  in  the  year  1551  ;  and  after  be- 
ing corrected  by  the  other  bishops,  and  approv- 
ed by  the  convocation,  they  were  published  in 
Latin  and  English  in  1553,  and  amounted  to 
forty-two  in  number.  In  1562  they  were  re- 
vised and  corrected.  Being  then  reduced  to 
thirty-nine,  they  were  drawn  up  in  Latin  only ; 
but  in  1571  they  were  subscribed  by  the  mem- 
bers of  the  two  houses  of  convocation,  both  in 
Latin  and  English;  and  therefore  the  Latin 
and  English  copies  are  to  be  considered  as 
equally  authentic.  The  original  manuscripts, 
subscribed  by  the  houses  of  convocation,  were 
burned  in  the  fire  of  London  ;  but  Dr.  Bennet 
has  collated  the  oldest  copies  now  extant,  in 
which  it  appears  that  there  are  no  variations  of 
any  importance.  During  the  last  century,  dis- 
putes arose  among  the  clergy  respecting  the 


propriety  of  subscribing  to  any  human  formu- 
lary of  religious  sentiments.     Parliament,  in 
1772,  was  applied  to  for  the  abolition  of  the 
subscription,  by  certain  clergymen  and  others, 
whose  petition  received  the  most  ample  discus- 
sion, but  was  rejected  by  a  large  majority.     It 
has  been   generally  held  by  most,   if  not  all, 
Calvinists,  both  in  and  out  of  the  church,  that 
the  doctrinal  parts  of  our  Articles  are  Calvin- 
istic.     This  opinion,  however,  has  been  warm- 
ly controverted.      It  is   no  doubt  nearer  the 
truth  to  conclude  that  the  Articles  are  framed 
with  comprehensive  latitude  ;  and  that  neither 
Calvinism  nor  Arminianism  was  intended  to 
be  exclusively  established.     In  this  view  such 
liberal  sentiments  as  the  following,  from  the 
Apology  of  the  Church  of  England,  in  1732,  are 
not  of  uncommon  occurrence  :  "  This,  I  know, 
I  am  myself  an  Anti-Calvinian  ;  and  yet,  were 
I  to  compile  articles  for  the  church,  I  would 
abhor  the  thoughts  of  forming  them  so  fully 
according  to  my  own  scheme  of  thinking,  or  of 
descending  so  minutely  into  all  the  particular 
branches  of  it,  that  none  but  Arminians  should 
be  able  to  subscribe,  or  that  the  church  should 
lose  the  credit  and  service  of  such  valuable 
men    as  the   Abbots,    Davenant,   Usher,    and 
other  Calvinists  undoubtedly  were.     And  since 
our  reformers  were  men  of  temper  and  mode- 
ration, it  seems  but  justice,  I  am  sure  it  is  but 
reasonable,  to  think  they  intended  such  a  lati- 
tude as  I  contend  for,  so  that  both  parties,  the 
followers   of  Arminius  as  well  as  of  Calvin, 
might  subscribe."     In  a  subsequent  page,  how- 
ever, the  same  author  says,  "  But  what,  if  there 
was  not  so  entire  a  harmony  among  the  com- 
pilers or  imposers,  as  was   before    supposed  ? 
What  if  several  of  them  were  Anti-Calvinian  ? 
This  will  incline  the  balance  still  more  in  our 
favour,  and  enlarge  the  probability  of  the  arti- 
cles being  drawn  vp  in  a  moderate,  indefinite 
way.  The  divines  who  fled  for  refuge,  in  Queen 
Mary's  reign,  to  Geneva,   Zurich,  and  other 
places  beyond  sea,  (where,  by  conceiving  a 
great  veneration  for  Calvin,  they  were  mighti- 
ly changed  in  their  sentiments  and  ways  of 
thinking,)  began  to  propagate  his  notions  soon 
after  their  return  in  the  next  reign  :  and  this 
seems  to  have  been  the  prime  occasion  of  Cal- 
vinism taking  any  considerable  root  in   this 
kingdom.     In  King  Edward's  time  it  doth  not 
appear  to  have  prevailed,  except  among  a  few 
'  gospelers,'  and  how  they  were  reflected  on  by 
Bishop  Latimer  and  Hooper  has  been  already 
observed.     When  the  articles  were  formed  in 
1552,  I  do  not  find  that  any  deference  was  paid 
to  Calvin's  judgment  or  authority :  instead  of 
that,  the  assistance  be  offered  was,  to  his  no  little 
grief  and  dissatisfaction,  refused.     Next  to  the 
Scriptures  and  the  doctrine  of  the  primitive 
church,  the  compilers  had  an  eye  to  the  Au- 
gustan Confession,  as  appears  from  the  identi- 
ty of  many  of  the  articles;  to  the  writings  of 
Melancthon,   whose    assistance   they  desired, 
and  whom  King  Edward  invited  over  hither; 
the   works   of  Erasmus;    and   the    Necessary 
Doctrine  and  Erudition  for  any  Christian  Man. 
This  last  book  was  published  by  King  Henry'a 
authority  in  1543  ;  and  because  it  then  had  the 


CIN 


246 


CIR 


approbation  of  most  of  those  who  compiled  the 
Articles  nine  years  afterward,  it  will  be  of  con- 
sequence  to  see  how  it  stands  affected  toward 
Calvinism.  It  teaches  the  cardinal  point  of 
universal  redemption  in  several  places;  which 
strikes  directly  at  the  root  of  the  Calvinian  sys- 
tem, and,  as  Dr.  Whitby  expresses  it,  '  draws 
all  the  rest  after  it,  on  which  side  soever  the 
truth  lies.'"  This  judicious  amplitude  has  re- 
ceived much  elucidation  in  Dr.  Puller's  Mode- 
ration of  the  Church  of  England  considered,  1679  ; 
and  in  other  works  of  more  recent  date. 

4.  In  this  church,  divine  service  is  conduct- 
ed by  a  liturgy,  which  was  composed  in  1547, 
and  has  undergone  several  alterations,  the  last 
of  which  took  place  in  1661,  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  II.  Many  applications  have  been  since 
made  for  a  review  ;  and  particular  alterations 
wtre  proposed  in  1689,  by  several  learned  and 
excellent  divines,  in  the  number  of  whom  were 
ArchbishopsTillotsonandTenison,  and  Bishops 
Patrick,  Burnet,  Stillingflcet,  Kidder,  &c.  This 
subject  has  been  recently  revived  ;  and  it  is  be- 
lieved that  some  changes  are  under  considera- 
tion. To  this  liturgy  every  clergyman  pro- 
mises at  his  ordination  to  conform  in  his  public 
ministrations. 

5.  Ever  since  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII,  the 
sovereigns  of  England  have  been  styled  "  su- 
preme heads  of  the  church,"  as  well  as  "defend- 
ers of  the  faith ;"  but  this  title  is  said  to  convey 
no  spiritual  meaning ;  or,  in  other  words,  it 
only  substitutes  the  king  in  place  of  the  pope, 
with  respect  to  temporalities,  and  the  external 
economy  of  the  church.  The  church  of  Eng- 
land is  governed  by  two  archbishops  and  twen- 
ty-four bishops,  beside  the  bishop  of  Sodor  and 
Man.  The  benefices  of  the  bishops  were  con- 
verted by  William  the  Conqueror  into  temporal 
baronies ;  and,  therefore,  all  of  them,  except 
the  bishop  of  Man,  are  barons  or  lords  of  par- 
liament, and  sit  and  vote  in  the  house  of  lords, 
where  they  represent  the  clergy.  The  bishops' 
representatives  and  assistants  are  the  archdea- 
cons, of  whom  there  are  sixty  in  England.  The 
other  dignitaries  of  the  church  are  the  deans, 
prebendaries,  canons,  &c;  and  the  inferior 
clergy  are  the  rectors,  vicars,  and  curates.  The 
united  church  knows  only  three  orders  of  minis- 
ters ;  .bishops,  priests,  and  deacons :  but  in 
these  orders  are  comprehended  archbishops, 
bishops,  deans,  archdeacons,  rectors,  vicars, 
and  curates.  The  church  of  Ireland  is  govern- 
ed by  four  archbishops  and  eighteen  bishops. 
Since  the  union  of  Britain  and  Ireland,  one 
archbishop  and  three  bishops  sit  alternately  in 
the  house  of  peers,  by  rotation  of  sessions. 

CILICIA,  a  country  in  the  south-east  of 
Asia  Minor,  and  lying  on  the  northern  coast, 
at  the  east  end  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea  :  the 
capital  city  thereof  was  Tarsus,  the  native  city 
of  St.  Paul,  Acts  xxi,  39. 

CINNAMON,  imip,  an  agreeable  aromatic  ; 
the  inward  bark  of  the  canella,  a  small  tree  of 
the  height  of  the  willow.  It  is  mentioned, 
Exodus  xxx,  23,  among  the  materials  in  the 
composition  of  the  holy  anointing  oil ;  and  in 
Proverbs  vii,  17  ;  Canticles  iv,  14  ;  Ecclesiasti- 
cus  xxiv,  15;  and  Revelation  xviii,  13,  among 


the  richest  perfumes.  This  spice  is  now  brought 
from  the  east  Indies  ;  but  as  there  was  no  traffic 
with  India  in  the  days  of  Moses,  it  was  then 
brought,  probably,  from  Arabia,  or  some  neigh- 
bouring country.  We  learn,  however,  from 
Pliny,  that  a  species  of  it  grew  in  Syria. 

CINNEROTH,  or  CINNERETH,  a  city  on 
the  north-western  side  of  the  sea  of  Galilee  ; 
which,  from  it,  is  frequently  called  in  the  Old 
Testament  the  sea  of  Cinneroth  :  from  which 
word,  that  of  GenesRret,  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, is  conjectured  by  Dr.  Wells  to  have  been 
framed. 

CIRCUMCISION  is  from  the  Latin,  circum- 
cidere,  "  to  cut  all  round,"  because  the  Jews, 
in  circumcising  their  children,  cut  off  after  this 
manner  the  skin  which  covers  the  prepuce. 
God  enjoined  Abraham  to  use  circumcision,  as 
a  sign  of  his  covenant.  In  obedience  to  this 
order,  Abraham,  at  ninety-nine  years  of  age, 
was  circumcised  :  also  his  son  Ishmael,  and 
all  the  males  of  his  property,  Gen.  xvii,  10. 
God  repeated  the  precept  of  circumcision  to 
Moses :  he  ordered  that  all  who  were  to  par- 
take of  the  paschal  sacrifice  should  receive  cir- 
cumcision ;  and  that  this  rite  should  be  per- 
formed on  children,  on  the  eighth  day  after 
their  birth.  The  Jews  have  always  been  very 
exact  in  observing  this  ceremony,  and  it  ap- 
pears that  they  did  not  neglect  it  when  in 
Egypt.  But  Moses,  while  in  Midian  with  Je- 
thro  his  father-in-law,  did  not  circumcise  his 
two  sons  born  in  that  country  ;  and  during  the 
journey  of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness,  their 
children  were  not  circumcised.  Circumcision 
was  practised  among  the  Arabians,  Saracens, 
and  Ishmaelites.  These  people,  as  well  as  the 
Israelites,  sprung  from  Abraham.  Circumci- 
sion was  introduced  with  the  law  of  Moses 
among  the  Samaritans  and  Cutheans.  The 
Idumeans,  though  descended  from  Abraham 
and  Isaac,  were  not  circumcised  till  subdued 
by  John  Hircanus.  Those  who  assert  that  the 
Phenicians  were  circumcised,  mean,  probably, 
the  Samaritans  ;  for  we  know,  from  other  au- 
thority, that  the  Phenicians  did  not  observe 
this  ceremony.  As  to  the  Egyptians,  circum- 
cision never  was  of  general  and  indispensable 
obligation  on  the  whole  nation  ;  certain  priests 
only,  and  particular  professions,  were  obliged 
to  it.  Circumcision  is  likewise  the  ceremony 
of  initiation  into  the  Mohammedan  religion. 
There  is,  indeed,  no  law  in  the  Koran  which 
enjoins  it,  and  they  have  the  precept  only  in 
tradition.  They  say  that  Mohammed  com- 
manded it  out  of  respect  to  Abraham,  the  head 
of  his  race.  They  have  no  fixed  day  for  the 
performance  of  this  rite,  and  generally  wait  till 
the  child  is  five  or  six  years  of  age. 

Circumcision,  Covenant  of.  That  the  cove- 
nant with  Abraham,  of  which  circumcision  was 
made  the  sign  and  seal,  Genesis  xvii,  7-14,  was 
the  general  covenant  of  grace,  and  not  wholly, 
or  even  chiefly,  a  political  and  national  cove- 
nant, may  be  satisfactorily  established.  The 
first  engagement  in  it  was,  that  God  would 
"  greatly  bless"  Abraham ;  which  promise,  al- 
though it  comprehended  temporal  blessings, 
referred,  as  we  learn  from  St.  Paul,  more  fully 


CIR 


247 


CIR 


to  the  blessing  of  his  justification  by  the  impu- 
tation of  his  faith  for  righteousness,  with  all 
the  spiritual  advantages  consequent  upon  the 
relation  which  was  thus  established  between 
him  and  God,  in  time  and  eternity.  The  second 
promise  in  the  covenant  was,  that  he  should 
be  "  the  father  of  many  nations  ;"  which  we 
are  also  taught  by  St.  Paul  to  interpret  more 
with  reference  to  his  spiritual  seed,  the  follow- 
ers of  that  faith  whereof  cometh  justification, 
than  to  his  natural  descendants.     "That  the 
promise  might  be  sure  to  all  the  seed,  not  only 
to  that  which  is  by  the  law,  but  to  that  also 
which  is  by  the  faith  of  Abraham,  who  is  the 
father  of  us  all" — of  all  believing  Gentiles  as 
well  as  Jews.     The  third  stipulation  in  God's 
covenant  with  the  patriarch,  was  the  gift  to 
Abraham  and  to  his  seed  of  "the  land  of  Ca- 
naan,"   in   which  the   temporal  promise   was 
manifestly  but  the  type  of  the  higher  promise  of 
a  heavenly  inheritance.     Hence  St.  Paul  says, 
*'  By  faith  he  sojourned  in  the  land  of  promise, 
dwelling  in  tabernacles  with  Isaac  and  Jacob, 
the  heirs  with  him  of  the  same  promise ;"  but 
this  "  faith"  did  not  respect  the  fulfilment  of 
the  temporal  promise  ;  foi  St.  Paul  adds,  "  they 
looked  for  a  city  which  had  foundations,  whose 
builder  and  maker  is  God,"  Heb.  xi,  19.     The 
next  promise  was,  that  God  would  always  be 
"  a  God  to  Abraham  and  to  his  seed  after  him," 
a  promise  which  is  connected  with  the  highest 
spiritual  blessings,  such  as  the  remission  of  sins, 
and  the  sanctification  of  our  nature,  as  well 
as  with  a  visible  church  state.     It  is  even  used 
to  express  the  felicitous  state  of  the  church  in 
heaven,  Rev.  xxi,  3.      The  final  engagement 
in  the  Abrahamic  covenant  was,  that  in  Abra- 
ham's "  seed,  all  nations  of  the  earth  should  be 
blessed;"  and  this  blessing,  we  are  expressly 
taught  by  St.  Paul,  was  nothing  less  than  the 
justification  of  all  nations,  that  is,  of  all  believ- 
ers in  all  nations,  by  faith  in  Christ :  "  And 
the  Scripture,  foreseeing  that  God  would  jus- 
tify the  Heathen  by  faith,  preached  before  the 
Gospel  to  Abraham,  saying,  In  thee  shall  all 
nations  be  blessed.     So  then  they  who  are  of 
faith   are  blessed  with  believing  Abraham  ;" 
they  receive  the  same  blessing,  justification,  by 
the  same  means,  faith,  Gal.  hi,  8,  9.    This  cove- 
nant with  Abraham,  therefore,  although  it  re- 
spected a  natural  seed,  Isaac,  from  whom  a 
numerous  progeny  was  to  spring ;  and  an  earth- 
ly inheritance  provided  for  this  issue,  the  land 
of  Canaan ;   and  a  special  covenant  relation 
with  the  descendants  of  Isaac,  through  the  line 
of  Jacob,  to  whom  Jehovah  was  to  be  "  a  God," 
visibly  and  specially,  and  they  a  visible  and 
"  peculiar  people  ;"  yet  was,   under  all  these 
temporal,  earthly,  and  external  advantages,  but 
a  higher  and  spiritual  grace  embodying  itself 
under  these  circumstances,  as  types  of  a  dis- 
pensation of  salvation  and  eternal  life,  to  all 
who  should  follow  the  faith  of  Abraham,  whose 
justification  before  God  was  the  pattern  of  the 
justification  of  every  man,  whether  Jew  or  Gen- 
tile, in  all  ages.     Now,  of  this  covenant,  in  its 
spiritual  as  well  as  in  its  temporal  provisions, 
circumcision  was  most  certainly  the  sacrament, 
that  is  the  "  sign"  and  the  "  seal  j"  for  St.  Paul 


thus  explains  the  case  :  "  And  he  received  the 
sign  of  circumcision,  a  seal  of  the  righteous- 
ness of  the  faith  which  he.  had  yet  being  un- 
circumcised."  And  as  this  rite  was  enjoined 
upon  Abraham's  posterity,  so  that  every  "  un- 
circumcised  man-child  whose  flesh  of  his  fore- 
skin was  not  circumcised  on  the  eighth  day," 
was  to  be  "  cut  oft'  from  his  people,"  by  the 
special  judgment  of  God,  and  that  because  "  he 
had  broken  God's  covenant,"  Gen.  xvii,  14 ;  it 
therefore  follows  that  this  rite  was  a  constant 
publication  of  God's  covenant  of  grace  among 
the  descendants  of  Abraham,  and  its  repetition 
a  continual  confirmation  of  that  covenant,  on 
the  part  of  God,  to  all  practising  it  in  that  faith 
of  which  it  was  the  ostensible  expression. 

2.  As  the  covenant  of  grace  made  with  Abra. 
ham  was  bound  up  with  temporal  promises  and 
privileges,  so  circumcision  was  a  sign  and  seal 
of  the  covenant  in  both  its  parts, — its  spiritual 
and  its  temporal,  its  superior  and  inferior  pro- 
visions. The  spiritual  promises  of  the  cove- 
nant continued  unrestricted  to  all  the  descend- 
ants of  Abraham,  whether  by  Isaac  or  by  Ish- 
mael ;  and  still  lower  down,  to  the  descendants 
of  Esau  as  well  as  to  those  of  Jacob.  Circum- 
cision was  practised  among  them  all  by  virtue 
of  its  divine  institution  at  first ;  and  was  ex- 
tended  to  their  foreign  servants,  and  to  prose- 
lytes, as  well  as  to  their  children ;  and  where- 
ever  the  sign  of  the  covenant  of  grace  was  by 
divine  appointment,  there  it  was  as  a  seal  of 
that  covenant,  to  all  who  bclievingly  used  it ; 
for  we  read  of  no  restriction  of  its  spiritual 
blessings,  that  is,  its  saving  engagements,  to 
one  line  of  descent  from  Abraham  only.  But 
over  the  temporal  branch  of  the  covenant,  and 
the  external  religious  privileges  arising  out  of 
it,  God  exercised  a  rightful  sovereignty,  and 
expressly  restricted  them  first  to  the  line  of 
Isaac,  and  then  to  that  of  Jacob,  with  whose 
descendants  he  entered  into  special  covenant 
by  the  ministry  of  Moses.  The  temporal  bless- 
ings and  external  privileges  comprised  under 
general  expressions  in  the  covenant  with  Abra- 
ham, were  explained  and  enlarged  under  that 
of  Moses,  while  the  spiritual  blessings  remain- 
ed unrestricted  as  before.  This  was  probably 
the  reason  why  circumcision  was  reenacted 
under  the  law  of  Moses.  It  was  a  confirmation 
of  the  temporal  blessings  of  the  Abrahamic  cove- 
nant, now,  by  a  covenant  of  peculiarity,  made 
over  to  them,  while  it  was  still  recognized  as 
a  consuetudinary  rite  which  had  descended  to 
them  from  their  fathers,  and  as  the  sign  and 
seal  of  the  covenant  of  grace,  made  with 
Abraham  and  with  all  his  descendants  without 
exception.  This  double  reference  of  circumci- 
sion, both  to  the  authority  of  Moses  and  to 
that  of  the  patriarchs,  is  found  in  the  words 
of  our  Lord,  John  vii,  22  :  "  Moses  therefore 
gave  unto  you  circumcision,  not  because  it  is 
of  Moses,  but  of  the  fathers ;"  or,  as  it  is  bet- 
ter translated  by  Campbell,  "  Moses  institut- 
ed circumcision  among  you,  (not  that  it  is 
from  Moses,  but  from  the  patriarchs,)  and  ye 
circumcise  on  the  Sabbath.  If  on  the  Sabbath 
a  child  receive  circumcision,  that  the  law  of 
Moses  may  not  be  violated,"  &c. 


CIR 


248 


CIR 


3.  From  these  observations,  tne  controversy 
in  the  Apostolic  churches  respecting  circum- 
cision will  derive  much  elucidation.  The  cove- 
nant with  Abraham  prescribed  circumcision  as 
an  act  of  faith  in  its  promises,  and  as  a  pledge 
to  perform  its  conditions  on  the  part  of  his  de- 
scendants. But  the  object  on  which  this  faith 
rested,  was  "  the  Seed  of  Abraham,"  in  whom 
the  nations  of  the  earth  were  to  be  blessed  : 
which  Seed,  says  St.  Paul,  "is  Christ," — Christ 
as  promised,  not  yet  come.  When  the  Christ 
had  come,  so  as  fully  to  enter  upon  his  redeem- 
ing offices,  he  could  no  longer  be  the  object  of 
faith,  as  still  to  come ;  and  this  leading  pro- 
mise of  the  covenant  being  accomplished,  the 
sign  and  seal  of  it  vanished  away.  Nor  could 
circumcision  be  continued  in  this  view  by  any, 
without  an  implied  denial  that  Jesus  was  the 
Christ,  the  expected  Seed  of  Abraham.  Cir- 
cumcision also  as  an  institution  of  Moses,  who 
continued  it  as  the  sign  and  seal  of  the  Abra- 
hamic  covenant  both  in  its  spiritual  and  tem- 
poral provisions,  but  with  respect  to  the  latter 
made  it  also  a  sign  and  seal  of  the  restriction 
of  its  temporal  blessings  and  peculiar  religious 
privileges  to  the  descendants  of  Israel,  was  ter- 
minated by  the  entrance  of  our  Lord  upon  his 
office  of  Mediator,  in  which  office  all  nations 
were  to  be  blessed  in  him.  The  Mosaic  edi- 
tion of  the  covenant  not  only  guaranteed  the 
land  of  Canaan,  but  the  peculiarity  of  the 
Israelites,  as  the  people  and  visible  church  of 
God  to  the  exclusion  of  others,  except  by  pro- 
selytism.  But  when  our  Lord  commanded  the 
Gospel  to  be  preached  to  "  all  nations,"  and 
opened  the  gates  of  the  "common  salvation" 
to  all,  whether  Gentiles  or  Jews,  circumci- 
sion, as  the  sign  of  a  covenant  of  peculiarity 
and  religious  distinction,  was  also  done  away. 
It  had  not  only  no  reason  remaining,  hat 
the  continuance  of  the  rite  involved  the  re- 
cognition of  exclusive  privileges  which  had 
been  terminated  by  Christ.  This  will  explain 
the  views  of  the  Apostle  Paul  on  this  great 
question.  He  declares  that  in  Christ  there  is 
neither  circumcision  nor  uncircumcision  ;  that 
neither  circumcision  availeth  any  thing,  nor 
uncircumcision,  but  "  faith  that  worketh  by 
love ;"  faith  in  the  Seed  of  Abraham  already 
come  and  already  engaged  in  his  mediatorial 
and  redeeming  work ;  faith,  by  virtue  of  which 
the  Gentiles  came  into  the  church  of  Christ  on 
the  same  terms  as  the  Jews  themselves,  and 
were  justified  and  saved.  The  doctrine  of  the 
non-necessity  of  circumcision,  he  applies  to  the 
Jews  as  well  as  to  the  Gentiles,  although  he 
specially  resists  the  attempts  of  the  Judaizers 
to  impose  this  rite  upon  the  Gentile  converts  ; 
in  which  he  was  supported  by  the  decision  of 
the  Holy  Spirit  when  the  appeal  upon  this 
question  was  made  to  "  the  Apostles  and  elders 
at  Jerusalem,"  from  the  church  at  Antioch. 
At  the  same  time  it  is  clear  that  he  takes  two 
different  views  of  the  practice  of  circumcision, 
as  it  was  continued  among  many  of  the  first 
Christians.  The  first  is  that  strong  one  which 
is  expressed  in  Gal.  v,  2-4,  "  Behold,  I  Paul 
say  unto  you,  that  if  ye  be  circumcised,  Christ 
shall  profit  you  nothing;  for  I  testify  again  to 


every  man  that  is  circumcised,  that  he  is  a 
debtor  to  do  the  whole  law.  Christ  is  made  of 
no  effect  unto  )'ou,  whosoever  of  you  are  justi- 
fied by  the  law,  ye  are  fallen  from  grace."  The 
second  is  that  milder  view  which  he  himself 
must  have  had  when  he  circumcised  Timothy 
to  render  him  more  acceptable  to  the  Jews  ; 
and  which  also  appears  to  have  led  him  to  ab- 
stain from  all  allusion  to  this  practice  when 
writing  his  epistle  to  the  believing  Hebrews, 
although  many,  perhaps  most  of  them,  con- 
tinue to  circumcise  their  children,  as  did  the 
Jewish  Christians  for  a  long  time  afterward. 
These  different  views  of  circumcision,  held  by 
the  same  person,  may  be  explained  by  consider- 
ing the  different  principles  on  which  circum- 
cision might  be  practised  after  it  had  become 
an  obsolete  ordinance. 

(1.)  It  might  be  taken  in  the  simple  view  of 
its  first  institution,  as  the  sign  and  seal  of  the 
Abrahainic  covenant ;  and  then  it  was  to  be 
condemned  as  involving  a  denial  that  Abra- 
ham's Seed,  the  Christ,  had  already  come,  since, 
upon  his  coming,  every  old  covenant  gave  place 
to  the  new  covenant  introduced  by  him. 

(2.)  It  might  be  practised  and  enjoined  as 
the  sign  and  seal  of  the  Mosaic  covenant, 
which  was  still  the  Abrahamic  covenant  with 
its  spiritual  blessings,  but  with  restriction  of 
its  temporal  promises  and  special  ecclesiastical 
privileges  to  the  line  of  Jacob,  with  a  law  of 
observances  which  was  obligatory  upon  all 
entering  that  covenant  by  circumcision.  In 
that  case  it  involved,  in  like  manner,  the  no- 
tion of  the  continuance  of  an  old  covenant, 
after  the  establishment  of  the  new ;  for  thus 
St.  Paul  states  the  case  in  Galatians  iii,  19 : 
"  Wherefore  then  serveth  the  law  ?  It  was 
added  because  of  transgressions  until  the  Seed 
should  come."  After  that  therefore  it  had  no 
effect: — it  had  waxed  old,  and  had  vanished 
away. 

(3.)  Again:  circumcision  might  imply  an 
obligation  to  observe  all  the  ceremonial  usages 
and  the  moral  precepts  of  the  Mosaic  law, 
along  with  a  general  belief  in  the  mission  of 
Christ,  as  necessary  to  justification  before  God. 
This  appears  to  have  been  the  view  of  those 
among  the  Galatian  Christians  who  submitted 
to  circumcision,  and  of  the  Jewish  teachers 
who  enjoined  it  upon  them;  for  St.  Paul  in 
that  epistle  constantly  joins  circumcision  with 
legal  observances,  and  as  involving  an  obliga- 
tion to  do  "  the  whole  law,"  in  order  to  justifi- 
cation.— "  I  testify  again  to  every  man  that  is 
circumcised,  that  he  is  a  debtor  to  do  the  whole 
law  ;  whosoever  of  you  are  justified  by  the  law, 
yc  are  fallen  from  grace."  "Knowing  that  a 
man  is  not  justified  by  the  works  of  the  law, 
but  by  the  faith  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,"  Gal. 
ii,  1G.  To  all  persons  therefore  practising  cir- 
cumcision in  this  view  it  was  obvious,  that 
"  Christ  was  become  of  none  effect,"  the  very 
principle  of  justification  by  faith  alone  in  him 
was  renounced  even  while  his  divine  mission 
was  still  admitted. 

(4.)  But  there  arc  two  grounds  on  which  cir- 
cumcision maybe  conceived  to  have  been  inno- 
|  cently,  though  not  wisely,  practised,  among 


CIR 


249 


CIT 


the  Christian  Jews.  The  first  was  that  of 
preserving  an  ancient  national  distinction  on 
which  they  valued  themselves ;  and  were  a 
converted  Jew  in  the  present  day  disposed  to 
perform  that  rite  upon  his  children  for  this  pur- 
pose only,  renouncing  in  the  act  all  considera- 
tion of  it  as  a  sign  and  seal  of  the  old  cove- 
nants, or  as  obliging  to  ceremonial  acts  in 
order  to  justification,  no  one  would  censure 
him  with  severity.  It  appears  clear  that  it 
was  under  some  such  view  that  St.  Paul  cir- 
cumcised Timothy,  whose  mother  was  a  Jewess ; 
he  did  it  because  of  "  the  Jews  which  were  in 
those  quarters,"  that  is,  because  of  their  na- 
tional prejudices,  "  for  they  knew  that  his 
father  was  a  Greek."  The  second  was  a  lin- 
gering notion,  that,  even  in  the  Christian 
church,  the  Jews  who  believed  would  still  re- 
tain some  degree  of  eminence,  some  superior 
relation  to  God ;  a  notion  which,  however  un- 
founded, was  not  one  which  demanded  direct 
rebuke,  when  it  did  not  proudly  refuse  spiritual 
communion  with  the  converted  Gentiles,  but 
was  held  by  men  who  "  rejoiced  that  God  had 
granted  to  the  Gentiles  repentance  unto  life." 
These  considerations  may  account  for  the 
silence  of  St.  Paul  on  the  subject  of  circum- 
cision in  his  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews.  Some 
of  them  continued  to  practise  that  rite,  but  they 
were  probably  believers  of  the  class  just  men- 
tioned ;  for  had  he  thought  that  the  rite  was 
continued  among  them  on  any  principle  which 
affected  the  fundamental  doctrines  of  Chris- 
tianity, he  would  no  doubt  have  been  equally 
prompt  and  fearless  in  pointing  out  that  apos- 
tasy from  Christ  which  was  implied  in  it,  as 
when  he  wrote  to  the  Galatians. 

Not  only  might  circumcision  be  practised 
writh  views  so  opposite  that  one  might  be  wholly 
innocent,  although  an  infirmity  of  prejudice  ; 
the  other  such  as  would  involve  a  rejection  of 
the  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith  in  Christ ; 
but  some  other  Jewish  observances  also  stood 
in  the   same  circumstances.      St.  Paul  in  his 
Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  a  part  of  his  writings 
from  which  we  obtain  the  most  information  on 
these  questions,  grounds  his  "doubts"  whether 
the  members  of  that  church  were  not  seeking 
to  be  "justified  by  the  law"  upon  their  observ- 
ing "days,  and  months,  and  times,  and  years." 
Had  he  done  more  than  "  doubt,"  he  would 
have  expressed  himself  more  positively.     He 
saw  their  danger  on  this  point;   he   saw  that 
they  were  taking  steps  to  this  fatal  result,  by 
such  an  observance   of  these  "days,"  &c,  as 
had  a  strong  leaning  and  dangerous  approach 
to  that  dependence  upon  them  for  justification, 
which  would   destroy  their   faith  in  Christ's 
solely  sufficient  sacrifice ;  but  his  very  doubt- 
ing, not  of  the  fact  of  their  being  addicted  to 
these  observances,  but  of  the  animus  with  which 
they  regarded  them,  supposes  it  possible,  how- 
ever dangerous  this  Jewish  conformity  might 
be,  that  they  might  bo   observed  for  reasons 
which  would    still    consist    with   their  entire 
reliance  upon  the  merits  of  Christ  for  salva- 
tion.    Even  he  himself,  strongly  as  he  resisted 
the  imposition   of  this    conformity  to  Jewish 
customs  upon  the  converts  to  Christianity  as  a 


matter  of  necessity,  yet  in  practice  must  have 
conformed  to  many  of  them,  when  no  sacrifice 
of  principle  was  understood ;  for,  in  order  to 
gain  the  Jews,  he  became  "  as  a  Jew."  See 
Abraham,  and  Baptism. 

CISLEU,  the  ninth  month  of  the  ecclesias- 
tical, and  the  third  of  the  civil,  year  among 
the  Hebrews.  It  answers  nearly  to  our  No- 
vember. 

CISTERN,  a  reservoir  chiefly  for  rain  wa- 
ter. Numbers  of  these  are  still  to  be  seen  in 
Palestine,  some  of  which  are  a  hundred  and 
fifty  paces  long,  and  sixty  broad.  The  reason  of 
their  being  so  large  was,  that  their  cities  were 
many  of  them  built  in  elevated  situations ;  and 
the  rain  falling  only  twice  in  the  year,  namely, 
spring  and  autumn,  it  became  necessary  for 
them  to  collect  a  quantity  of  water,  as  well 
for  the  cattle  as  for  the  people.  A  broken  cis- 
tern  would  of  course  be  a  great  calamity  to  a 
family,  or  in  some  cases  even  to  a  town ;  and 
with  reference  to  this  we  may  see  the  force  of 
the  reproof,  Jer.  ii,  13. 

CITIES.     By  referring  to  some  peculiari- 
ties in  the  building,  fortifying,  &c,  of  eastern 
cities  we   shall  the  better  understand  several 
allusions  and  expressions  of  the.Old  Testament. 
It  is  evident  that  the  walls  of  fortified  cities 
were    sometimes   partly  constructed   of  com- 
bustible materials ;  for  the  Prophet,  denouncing 
the  judgments  of  God  upon  Syria  and  other 
countries,  declares,  "  I  will  send  a  fire  on  the 
wall  of  Gaza,  which  shall  devour  the  palaces 
thereof,"  Amos  i,  7.     The  walls  of  Tyre  and 
Rabbah  seem  to  have  been  of  the  same  perish- 
able materials  ;  for  the  Prophet  adds,  "  I  will 
send  a  fire  upon  the  wall  of  Tyrus,  which  shall 
devour  the   palaces  thereof;"    and   again,  "I 
will  kindle  a  fire  in  the  walls  of  Rabbah,  and 
it  shall  devour  the  palaces  thereof  with  shout- 
ing in  the  day  of  battle,"  verses  10,  14.     One 
method  of  securing  the  gates  of  fortified  places, 
among  the  ancients,  was  to  cover  them  with 
thick  plates  of  iron ;    a  custom  which  is  still 
used  in  the  east,  and  seems  to  be  of  great  an- 
tiquity.    We  learn  from  Pitts,  that  Algiers  has 
five  gates,  and  some  of  these  have  two,  some 
three,  other  gates  within  them  ;  and  some  of 
them  are  plated  all  over  with  thick  iron.    The 
place  where  the  Apostle  was  imprisoned  seems 
to  have  been  secured  in  the  same  manner ;  for, 
says  the  inspired  historian,  "  When  they  were 
past  the  first  and  second  ward,  they  came  unto 
the  iron  gate  that  leadeth  unto  the  city ;  which 
opened  to  them  of  its  own  accord,"  Acts  jrii,  10. 
Pococke,  speaking  of  a  bridge  not  far  from 
Antioch,  called  the  iron  bridge,  says,  there  are 
two  towers  belonging  to  it,  the  gates  of  which 
are  covered  with  iron  plates;  which  he  sup- 
poses is  the  reason  of  the  name  it  bears.  Some 
of  their  gates  are  plated  over  with  brass;  such 
are  the  enormous  gates  of  the  principal  mosque 
at  Damascus,  formerly  the  church  of  John  the 
Baptist.      To  gates  like  these,    the  Psalmist 
probably  refers   in   these  words :    "  He  hath 
broken  the   gates  of  brass,"  Psalm  cvii,  16  ; 
and  the  Prophet,  in  that  remarkable  passage, 
where  God  promises    to  go  before  Cyrus  his 
anointed,  and  "  break  in  pieces  the  gates  of 


CIT 


250 


CLA 


brass,  and  cut  in  sunder  the  bars  of  iron,"  Isa. 
xlv,  2.  But,  conscious  that  all  these  precau- 
tions were  insufficient  for  their  security,  the 
orientals  employed  watchmen  to  patrol  the  city 
during  the  night,  to  suppress  any  disorders  in 
the  streets,  or  to  guard  the  walls  against  the 
attempts  of  a  foreign  enemy.  To  this  custom 
Solomon  refers  in  these  words:  "The  watch- 
men that  went  about  the  city  found  me,  they 
emote  me,  they  wounded  me  ;  the  keepers  of 
the  wall  took  away  my  veil  from  me,"  Song 
V,  7.  This  custom  may  be  traced  to  a  very 
remote  antiquity ;  so  early  as  the  departure  of 
Israel  from  the  land  of  Egypt,  the  morning 
watch  is  mentioned,  certainly  indicating  the 
time  when  the  watchmen  were  commonly  re- 
lieved. In  Persia,  the  watchmen  were  obliged 
to  indemnify  those  who  were  robbed  in  the 
streets;  which  accounts  for  the  vigilance  and 
severity  which  they  display  in  the  discharge 
of  their  office,  and  illustrates  the  character  of 
watchman  given  to  Ezekiel,  and  the  duties  he 
was  required  to  perform.  If  the  wicked  perished 
in  his  iniquities  without  warning,  the  Prophet 
was  to  be  accountable  for  his  blood  ;  but  if  he 
duly  pointed  out  his  danger,  he  delivered  his 
own  soul,  Ezek.  xxxiii,  2.  They  were  also 
charged,  as  with  us,  to  announce  the  progress 
of  the  night  to  the  slumbering  city  :  "The  bur- 
den of  Dumah  ;  he  calls  to  me  out  of  Seir, 
"Watchman,  what  of  the  night  ?  watchman, 
what  of  the  night  ?  The  watchman  said,  The 
morning  cometh,  and  also  the  night,"  Isa.  xxi, 
11.  This  is  confirmed  by  an  observation  of 
Chardin  upon  these  words  of  Moses :  "  For  a 
thousand  years  in  thy  sight  are  but  as  yester- 
day when  it  is  past,  and  as  a  watch  in  the 
night:"  that  as  the  people  of  the  east  have  no 
clocks,  the  several  parts  of  the  day  and  of  the 
night,  which  are  eight  in  all,  are  announced. 
In  the  Indies,  the  parts  of  the  night  are  made 
known,  as  well  by  instruments  of  music,  in 
great  cities,  as  by  the  rounds  of  the  watchmen, 
who,  with  cries  and  small  drums,  give  them 
notice  that  a  fourth  part  of  the  night  is  past. 
Now,  as  these  cries  awaked  those  who  had 
slept  all  that  quarter  part  of  the  night,  it  ap- 
peared to  them  but  as  a  moment."  It  is  evi- 
dent the  ancient  Jews  knew,  by  some  public 
notice,  how  the  night  watches  passed  away; 
but,  whether  they  simply  announced  the  ter- 
mination of  the  watch,  or  made  use  of  trum- 
pets, or  other  sonorous  instruments,  in  making 
the  proclamation,  it  may  not  be  easy  to  deter- 
mine; and  still  less  what  kind  of  chronometers 
the  watchmen  used.  The  probability  is,  that 
the  watches  were  announced  with  the  sound 
of  a  trumpet ;  for  the  Prophet  Ezekiel  makes 
X  it  a  part  of  the  watchman's  duty,  at  least  in 
,  time  of  war,  to  blow  the  trumpet,  and  warn  the 
people.  The  watchman,  in  a  time  of  danger, 
seems  to  have  taken  his  station  in  a  tower, 
which  was  built  over  the  gate  of  the  city. 

The  fortified  cities  in  Canaan,  as  in  some 
other  countries,  were  commonly  strengthened 
with  a  citadel,  to  which  the  inhabitants  fled 
when  they  found  it  impossible  to  defend  the 
place.  The  whole  inhabitants  of  Thebez,  un- 
able to  resist  the  repeated  and  furious  assaults 


of  Abimelech,  retired  into  one  of  these  towers, 
and  bid  defiance  to  his  rage:  "But  there  was 
a  strong  tower  within  the  city,  and  thither  fled 
all  the  men  and  women,  and  all  they  of  the 
city,  and  shut  it  to  them,  and  gat  them  up  to 
the  top  of  the  tower."  The  extraordinary 
strength  of  this  tower,  and  the  various  means 
of  defence  which  were  accumulated  within  its 
narrow  walls,  may  be  inferred  from  the  vio- 
lence of  Abimelech's  attack,  and  its  fatal  issue  : 
"  And  Abimelech  came  unto  the  tower,  and 
fought  against  it,  and  went  hard  unto  the 
door  of  the  tower,  to  burn  it  with  fire.  And  a 
certain  woman  cast  a  piece  of  a  millstone  upon 
Abimelech's  head,  and  all  to  break  his  skull," 
Judges  ix,  52.  The  city  of  Shechem  had  a 
tower  of  the  same  kind,  into  which  the  people 
retired,  when  the  same  usurper  took  it  and 
sowed  it  with  salt,  Judges  ix,  46.  These  strong 
towers  which  were  built  within  a  fortified  city, 
were  commonly  placed  on  an  eminence,  to 
which  they  ascended  by  a  flight  of  steps.  Such 
was  the  situation  of  the  city  of  David,  a  strong 
tower  upon  a  high  eminence  at  Jerusalem ; 
and  the  manner  of  entrance,  as  described  by 
the  sacred  writer:  "But  the  gate  of  the  fount- 
ain repaired  Shallum,  unto  the  stairs  that  go 
down  from  the  city  of  David,"  Nehemiah 
iii,  15. 

Cities  of  Refuge.     See  Refuge. 

CLAUDIUS,  a  Roman  emperor;  he  suc- 
ceeded Caius  Caligula,  A.  D.  41,  and  reigned 
thirteen  years,  eight  months,  and  nineteen 
days,  dying  A.  D.  54.  King  Agrippa  was  the 
principal  means  of  persuading  Claudius  to  ac- 
cept the  empire,  which  was  tendered  him  by 
the  soldiers.  As  an  acknowledgment  for  this 
service,  he  gave  Agrippa  all  Judea,  and  the 
kingdom  of  Chalcis  to  his  brother  Herod.  He 
put  an  end  to  the  dispute  which  had  for  some 
time  existed  between  the  Jews  of  Alexandria 
and  the  other  freemen  of  that  city,  and  con- 
firmed the  Jews  in  the  possession  of  their  right 
of  freedom,  which  they  had  enjoyed  from  the 
beginning,  and  every  where  maintained  them 
in  the  free  exercise  of  their  religion.  But  he 
would  not  permit  them  to  hold  any  assemblies 
at  Rome.  King  Agrippa  dying  A.  D.  44,  the 
emperor  again  reduced  Judea  Into  a  province, 
and  sent  Cuspius  Fadus  to  be  governor.  About 
the  same  time  the  famine  happened  which  is- 
mentioned  Acts  xi,  28-30,  and  was  foretold  by 
the  Prophet  Agabus.  Claudius,  in  the  ninth 
year  of  his  reign,  published  an  edict  for  ex- 
pelling all  Jews  out  of  Rome,  Acts  xviii,  2. 
It  is  very  probable  that  the  Christians,  who 
were  at  that  time  confounded  with  the  Jews, 
were  banished  likewise. 

2.  Claudius  Felix,  successor  of  Cumanus 
in  the  government  of  Judea.  Felix  found 
means  to  solicit  and  engage  Drusilla,  sister  of 
Agrippa  the  Younger,  to  leave  her  husband 
Azizus,  king  of  the  Emessenians,  and  to  marry 
him,  A.  D.  53.  Felix  sent  to  Rome  Eleazar, 
son  of  Dinaeus,  captain  of  a  band  of  robbers, 
who  had  committed  great  ravagee  in  Palestine ; 
he  procured  the  death  of  Jonathan,  the  high 
priest,  who  sometimes  freely  represented  to 
him   his   duty ;  he  defeated  a  body  of  three 


CLE 


251 


GLO 


thousand  men,  whom  an  Egyptian,  a  false 
prophet,  had  assembled  upon  the  Mount  of 
Olives.  St.  Paul  being  brought  to  Cesarea, 
where  Felix  usually  resided,  was  well  treated 
by  this  governor,  who  permitted  his  friends  to 
see  him,  and  render  him  services,  hoping  the 
Apostle  would  procure  his  redemption  by  a 
sum  of  money.  He  however  neither  con- 
demned Paul,  nor  set  him  at  liberty,  when  the 
Jews  accused  him ;  but  adjourned  the  deter- 
mination of  this  affair  till  the  arrival  of  Lysias, 
who  commanded  the  troops  at  Jerusalem, 
where  he  had  taken  Paul  into  custody,  and 
who  was  expected  at  Cesarea,  Acts  xxiii,  26, 
27,  &c ;  xxiv,  1-3,  &c. 

While  the  Apostle  was  thus  detained,  Felix, 
with  his  wife  Drusilla,  who  was  a  Jewess,  sent 
for  him,  and  desired  him  to  explain  the  religion 
of  Jesus  Christ.  The  Apostle  spoke  with  his 
usual  boldness,  and  discoursed  to  them  on  jus- 
tice, temperance,  and  the  last  judgment.  Felix 
trembled  before  this  powerful  exhibition  of 
truths  so  arousing  to  his  conscience ;  but  he 
rremanded  St.  Paul  to  his  confinement.  He 
farther  detained  him  two  years  at  Cesarea,  in 
compliance  with  the  wishes  of  the  Jews,  and 
in  order  to  do  something  to  propitiate  them, 
because  they  were  extremely  dissatisfied  with 
his  government.  Being  recalled  to  Rome, 
A.  D.  60 ;  and  many  Jews  going  thither  to 
complain  of  the  extortions  and  violence  com- 
mitted by  him  in  Judea,  he  would  have  been 
put  to  death,  if  his  brother  Pallas,  who  had 
been  Claudius's  slave,  and  was  now  his  freed- 
man,  had  not  preserved  him.  Felix  was  suc- 
ceeded in  the  government  of  Judea  by  Porcius 
Festus. 

CLAY,  -ran,  is  often  mentioned  in  Scripture, 
nor  is  it  necessary  to  explain  the  various  refer- 
ences to  what  is  so  well  known.  It  may  be 
remarked,  however,  that  clay  was  used  for 
eealing  doors.  Norden  and  Pococke  observe, 
that  the  inspectors  of  the  granaries  in  Egypt, 
after  closing  the  door,  put  their  seal  upon  a 
handful  of  clay,  with  which  they  cover  the 
lock.  This  may  help  to  explain  Job  xxxviii, 
14,  in  which  the  earth  is  represented  as  assum- 
ing form  and  imagery  from  the  brightness  of 
the  rising  sun,  as  rude  clay  receives  a  figure 
from  the  impression  of  a  seal  or  signet. 
;  CLEOPAS,  according  to  Eusebius  and 
Epiphanius,  was  brother  of  Joseph,  both  being 
eons  of  Jacob.  He  was  the  father  of  Simeon, 
of  James  the  Less,  of  Jude,  and  Joseph  or 
Joses.  Cleopas  married  Mary,  sister  to  the 
blessed  virgin.  He  was  therefore  uncle  to 
Jesus  Christ,  and  his  sons  were  first  cousins  to 
him.  Cleopas,  his  wife,  and  sons,  were  dis- 
ciples of  Christ.  Having  beheld  our  Saviour 
expire  upon  the  cross,  he,  like  the  other  dis- 
ciples, appears  to  have  lost  all  hopes  of  seeing 
the  kingdom  of  God  established  by  him  on 
earth.  The  third  day  after  our  Saviour's 
death,  on  the  day  of  his  resurrection,  Cleopas, 
with  another  disciple,  departed  from  Jerusa- 
lem to  Emmaus ;  and  in  the  way  discoursed  on 
what  had  lately  happened.  Our  Saviour  join- 
ed them,  appearing  as  a  traveller;  and,  taking 
up  their  discourse,  he  reasoned  with  them, 


convincing  them  out  of  the  Scriptures,  that  A 
was  necessary  the  Messiah  should  suffer  death, 
previously  to  his  being  glorified.  At  Emmaus,  • 
Jesus  seemed  as  if  inclined  to  go  farther ;  but 
Cleopas  and  his  companion  detained  him,  and 
made  him  sup  with  them.  While  they  were 
at  table,  Jesus  took  bread,  blessed  it,  brake, 
and  gave  it  to  them,  and  by  this  action  their 
eyes  were  opened,  and  they  knew  him.  Upon 
his  disappearing  they  instantly  returned  to 
Jerusalem,  to  announce  the  fact  to  the  Apos- 
tles, who  in  their  turn  declared  that  "  the  Lord 
was  risen  indeed  and  had  appeared  to  Peter." 
In  our  translation  of  Luke  xxiv,  31,  it  is  said 
that  Jesus  "vanished  out  of  their  sight;"  but 
the  original  is  more  properly  rendered,  "He 
suddenly  went  away  from  them,"  the  word 
being  often  applied  by  the  Greek  writers  to 
those  who  in  any  way,  but  especially  suddenly 
and  abruptly,  withdraw  from  any  one's  com- 
pany. No  other  actions  of  Cleopas  are  known. 
It  is  the  opinion  of  Jerom,  that  his  residence 
was  at  Emmaus,  and  that  he  invited  our  Sa- 
viour into  his  own  house.  Supposing  Cleopas 
to  ha-ve  been  the  brother  of  Joseph,  and  father 
of  James,  &.c,  Calmet  thinks  it  more  probable 
that  as  he  was  a  Galilean,  he  dwelt  in  some 
city  of  Galilee. 

CLOUD,  a  collection  of  vapours  suspended 
in  the  atmosphere.  When  the  Israelites  had 
left  Egypt,  God  gave  them  a  pillar  of  cloud  to- 
direct  their  inarch,  Exod.  xiii,  21,  22.  Accord- 
ing to  Jerom,  in  his  Epistle  to  Fabiola,  this  cloud 
attended  them  from  Succoth;  or,  according  to 
others,  from  Rameses  ;  or,  as  the  Hebrews  say, 
only  from  Ethan,  till  the  death  of  Aaron ;  or, 
as  the  generality  of  commentators  are  of 
opinion,  to  the  passage  of  Jordan.  This  pillar 
was  commonly  in  front  of  the  Israelites ;  but 
at  Pihahiroth,  when  the  Egyptian  army  ap- 
proached behind  them,  it  placed  itself  between 
Israel  and  the  Egyptians,  so  that  the  Egyptians 
could  not  come  near  the  Israelites  all  night, 
Exod.  xiv,  19,  20.  In  the  morning,  the  cloud 
moving  on  over  the  sea,  and  following  the 
Israelites  who  had  passed  through  it,  the 
Egyptians  pressing  after  were  drowned.  From 
that  time,  this  cloud  attended  the  Israelites ;  it 
was  clear  and  bright  during  night,  in  order  to 
afford  them  light ;  but  in  the  day  it  was  thick 
and  gloomy,  to  defend  them  from  the  exces 
sive  heats  of  the  deserts.  "The  angel  of  God 
which  went -before  the  camp  of  Israel,  remov- 
ed and  went  behind  them ;  and  the  pillar  of 
the  cloud  went  from  before  their  face,  and 
stood  behind  them,"  Exod.  xiv,  19.  Here  we 
may  observe,  that  the  angel  and  the  cloud 
made  the  same  motion,  as  it  would  seem,  in 
company.  The  cloud  by  its  motions  gave  the 
signal  to  the  Israelites  to  encamp  or  to  decamp. 
Where,  therefore,  it  stayed,  the  people  stayed 
till  it  rose  again  ;  then  they  broke  up  their 
camp,  and  followed  it  till  it  stopped.  It  was 
called  a  pillar,  by  reason  of  its  form,  which 
was  high  and  elevated.  Some  interpreters 
suppose  that  there  were  two  clouds,  one  to 
enlighten,  the  other  to  shade,  the  camp. 

The  Lord  appeared  at  Sinai  in  the  midst  of 
a  cloud,  Exod.  xix,  9;  xxiv,  5;  and  after  Mo. 


coc 


252 


COC 


Bes  had  built  and  consecrated  the  tabernacle, 
the  cloud  filled  the  court  around  it,  so  that 
.neither  Moses  nor  the  priests  could  enter, 
Exodus  xl,  34,  35.  The  same  happened  at  the 
dedication  of  the  temple  of  Jerusalem  by  So- 
lomon, 2  Chronicles  v,  13;  1  Kings  viii,  10. 
When  the  cloud  appeared  upon  the  tent,  in 
front  of  which  were  held  the  assemblies  of  the 
people  in  the  desert,  it  was  then  indicated  that 
God  was  present ;  for  the  tent  was  a  sign  of 
God's  presence.  The  angel  descended  in  the 
cloud,  and  thence  spoke  to  Moses,  without  be- 
ing seen  by  the  people,  Exod.  xvi,  10 ;  Num. 
xi,  25 ;  xvi,  5.  It  is  common  in  Scripture, 
when  mentioning  God's  appearing,  to  represent 
him  as  encompassed  with  clouds,  which  serve 
as  a  chariot,  and  contribute  to  veil  his  dread- 
ful majesty,  Job  xxii,  14 ;  Isaiah  xix,  1 ;  Matt. 
xvii,  5;  xxiv,  30,  &c;  Psalm  xviii,  11,  12; 
xcvii,  2 ;  civ,  3.  Cloud  is  also  used  for  morn- 
ing mists :  "  Your  goodness  is  as  a  morning 
cloud ;  and  as  the  early  dew  it  goeth  away," 
Hosea  vi,  4;  xiii,  3.  Job,  speaking  of  the 
chaos,  says,  that  God  had  confined  the  sea  or 
the  water,  as  it  were  with  a  cloud,  and  covered 
it  with  darkness,  as  a  child  is  wrapped  in  its 
blankets.  The  author  of  Ecclesiasticus,  xxiv,  6, 
used  the  same  expression.  The  Son  of  God, 
at  his  second  advent,  is  described  as  descend- 
ing upon  clouds,  Matt,  xxiv,  30 ;  Luke  xi,  27 ; 
Rev.  xiv,  14-16. 

COCCEIANS,  the  disciples  of  John  Coc- 
ceius,  a  celebrated  Dutch  divine,  born  at  Bre- 
men, in  1608,  where  he  was  appointed  profes- 
sor of  Hebrew,  at  the  age  of  twenty-seven,  and 
afterward  filled  the  theological  chair  at  Leyden, 
where  he  died  in  1669.  His  works  make  ten 
volumes  in  folio.  He  was  a  man  of  good  learn- 
ing, and  a  vivid  imagination.  He  considered 
the  Old  Testament  as  a  mirror,  which  held 
forth  figuratively  the  transactions  and  events 
that  were  to  happen  in  the  church  under  the 
dispensation  of  the  New  Testament,  and  unto 
the  end  of  the  world.  He  maintained,  that  by 
far  the  greater  part  of  the  ancient  prophecies 
related  to  Christ's  ministry  and  mediation,  and 
the  rise,  progress,  and  revolutions  of  the  church; 
not  only  under  the  figure  of  typical  persons 
and  transactions,  but  in  a  more  direct  manner  ; 
and  that  Christ  was,  indeed,  as  much  the  sub- 
stance of  the  Old  Testament  as  of  the  New. 
Cocceius  also  taught,  that  the  covenant  made 
between  God  and  the  Jews  was  of  the  same 
nature  as  the  new  covenant  by  Jesus  Christ ; 
that  the  law  was  promulgated  by  Moses,  not 
merely  as  a  rule  of  obedience,  but  also  as  a  re- 
presentation of  the  covenant  of  grace  ;  that 
when  the  Jews  had  provoked  the  Deity  by 
their  various  transgressions,  particularly  by  the 
worship  of  the  golden  calf,  the  severe  yoke  of 
the  ceremonial  law  was  added  as  a  punishment ; 
that  this  yoke,  which  was  painful  in  itself,  be- 
came doubly  so  on  account  of  its  typical  sig- 
nification ;  since  it  admonished  the  Israelites 
from  day  to  day  of  the  imperfection  of  their 
state,  filled  them  with  anxiety,  and  was  a  per- 
petual proof  that  they  had  merited  the  righteous 
judgment  of  God,  and  could  not  expect,  before 
the  coming  of  tho  Messiah,  the  entire  remis- 


sion  of  their  iniquities ;  that  indeed  good  men, 
under  the  Mosaic  dispensation,  were,  after 
death,  made  partakers  of  glory ;  but  that,  ne- 
vertheless, during  the  whole  course  of  their 
lives  they  were  far  removed  from  that  assur- 
ance of  salvation,  which  rejoices  the  believer 
under  the  dispensation  of  the  Gospel ;  and  that 
their  anxiety  flowed  from  this  consideration, 
that  their  sins,  though  they  remained  unpun- 
ished, were  not  yet  pardoned ;  because  Christ 
had  not  as  yet  offered  himself  up  to  make  an 
atonement  for  them.  Cocceius  was  also  a 
millennarian,  and  expected  a  personal  reign  of 
Christ  on  earth  in  the  last  days.  Many  of  his 
opinions  were  afterward  adopted  by  the  Hutch- 


msonians. 


COCK,  dAf/crup,  a  well  known  domestic  fowl. 
Some  derive  the  Greek  name  from  a,  and  \tKTpov, 
a  bed,  because  the  crowing  of  cocks  rouses  men 
from  their  beds ;  but  Mr.  Parkhurst  asks,  "  May 
not  this  name  be  as  properly  deduced  from  the 
Hebrew  roVn  tin,  the  comivg  of  the  light,  of 
which  this  '  bird  of  dawning,'  as  Shakspearo 
calls  him,  gives  such  remarkable  notice,  and 
for  doing  which  he  was,  among  the  Heathen, 
sacred  to  the  sun,  who  in  Homer  is  himself 
called  d>fVruso?"  In  Matt,  xxvi,  34,  our  Lord 
is  represented  as  saying,  that  before  cock-crow 
Peter  should  deny  him  thrice  ;  so  Luke  xxii,  34, 
and  John  xiii,  39.  But  according  to  Mark 
xiv,  30,  he  says,  "  Before  the  cock  crow  twice 
thou  shalt  deny  me  thrice."  These  texts  may 
be  very  satisfactorily  reconciled,  by  observing, 
that  ancient  authors,  both  Greek  and  Latin, 
mention  two  cock-crowings,  the  one  of  which 
was  soon  after  midnight,  the  other  about  three 
o'clock  in  the  morning ;  and  this  latter  being 
most  noticed  by  men  as  the  signal  of  their  ap- 
proaching labours,  was  called  by  way  of  emi- 
nence, the  cock-crowing;  and  to  this  alone, 
Matthew,  giving  the  general  sense  of  our  Sa- 
viour's warning  to  Peter,  refers;  but  Mark, 
recording  his  very  words,  mentions  the  two 
cock-crowings. 

The  rabbies  tell  us  that  cocks  were  not  per- 
mitted to  be  kept  in  Jerusalem  on  account  of 
the  holiness  of  the  place  ;  and  that  for  this  rea- 
son some  modern  Jews  cavil  against  this  de- 
claration of  the  Evangelists ;  but  the  cock  is 
not  among  the  birds  prohibited  in  the  law  of 
Moses.  If  there  was  any  restraint  in  the  use 
and  domestication  of  the  animal,  it  must  have 
been  an  arbitrary  practice  of  the  Jews,  and 
could  not  have  been  binding  on  foreigners,  of 
whom  many  resided  at  Jerusalem  as  officers  or 
traders.  Strangers  would  not  be  willing  to 
forego  an  innocent  kind  of  food  in  compliance 
with  a  conquered  people ;  and  the  trafficking 
spirit  of  the  Jews  would  induce  them  to  supply 
aliens,  if  it  did  not  expressly  contradict  the 
letter  of  their  law.  This  is  sufficient  to  ac- 
count for  fowl  of  this  kind  being  there,  even 
admitting  a  customary  restraint.  The  cele- 
brated Roland  admits  that  it  was  not  allowed 
to  breed  cocks  in  the  city,  but  that  the  Jews 
were  not  prohibited  from  buying  them  to  eat, 
and  that  therefore  the  cock  mentioned  in  the 
Gospel  might  be  in  the  house  of  a  Jew  who 
designed  to  kill  it  for  his  own  table ;   or  may 


coc 


253 


COL 


have  been  kept  in  the  precincts  of  Pilate,  or 
of  a  Roman  officer  or  soldier. 

During  the  'time  of  our  Saviour,  the  night 
was  divided  into  four  watches,  a  fourth  watch 
having  been  introduced  among  the  Jews  from 
the  Romans,  who  derived  it  from  the  Greeks. 
The  second  and  third  watches  are  mentioned 
in  Luke  xii,  38  ;  the  fourth,  in  Matthew  xiv,  25  ; 
and  the  four  are  all  distinctly  mentioned  in 
Mark  xiii,  35  :  "  Watch,  therefore  ;  for  ye  know 
not  when  the  master  of  the  house  cometh ;  at 
even,"  6<j.i,  or  the  late  watch,  "  or  at  midnight," 
f.tc(TovvKTwv,  "or  at  the  cock-crowing,"  aktKTopo- 
ipuivias,  "or  in  the  morning,"  cpui,  the  early 
watch.  Here,  the  first  watch  was  at  even,  and 
continued  from  six  till  nine ;  the  second  com. 
menced  at  nine,  and  ended  at  twelve,  or  mid- 
night ;  the  third  watch,  called  by  the  Romans 
gallicinium,  lasted  from  twelve  to  three ;  and 
the  morning  watch  closed  at  six. 

COCKATRICE,  ]jjm,  or  ^'A*.  Proverbs 
xxiii,  32  ;  Isaiah  xi,  8 ;  xiv,  29 ;  lix,  5 ;  Jer. 
viii,  17.  A  venomous  serpent.  The  original 
Hebrew  word  has  been  variously  rendered,  the 
,  aspic,  the  regulus,  the  hydra,  the  hemorhoos,  the 
viper,  and  the  cerastes.  In  Isaiah  xi,  8,  this 
serpent  is  evidently  intended  for  a  proportion- 
ate advance  in  malignity  beyond  the  petcn 
which  precedes  it ;  and  in  xiv,  29,  it  must 
mean  a  worse  kind  of  serpent  than  the  nahash. 
In  lix,  5,  it  is  referred  to  as  oviparous.  In  Jer. 
viii,  17,  Dr.  Blayney,  after  Aquila,  retains  the 
rendering  of  basilisk.  Bochart,  who  thinks  it 
to  be  the  regulus  or  basilisk,  says  that  it  may 
be  so  denominated  by  an  onomatopoeia  from 
its  hissing ;  and  accordingly  it  is  hence  called 
in  Latin  sibilus,  "  the  hisser."  So  the  Arabic 
saphaa  signifies  "  flatu  adurere,"  [to  scorch 
with  a  blast.]  The  Chaldee  paraphrast,  the 
Syriac,  and  the  Arabic,  render  it  the  hurm.an 
or  horman;  which  rabbi  Selomo  on  Gen.  xlix, 
17,  declares  to  be  the  tziphoni  of  the  Hebrews  : 
"  Hurman  vacatur  species,  cujus  morsits  est  in- 
sanabilis.  Is  est  Hebrcsis  tziphoni,  et  Chaldaice 
dicitur  hurman,  quia  omnia,  facit  Din  vastati- 
onem;  id  est,  quia  omnia  vastat,  et  ad  inter- 
necionem  destruit."  [The  species  is  called 
hurman,  whose  bite  is  incurable.  It  is  the 
tziphoni  of  the  Hebrews,  and  is  called  in 
Chaldee  hurman,  because  it  makes  all  things 
□in — a  waste ;  that  is,  because  it  lays  waste 
and  utterly  destroys  every  tiling.] 

COCKLE,  ntf  N2.  This  word  occurs  only  in 
Job  xxxi,  40.  By  the  Chaldee  it  is  rendered 
noxious  herbs;  by  Symmachus,  areXcu^pr/ra, 
plants  of  imperfect  fruit ;  by  the  Septuagint, 
Gdros,  the  blackberry  bush;  by  Castelio,  ebulus, 
" dwarf  elder ;"  by  Celsius,  aconite;  and  by 
Bishop  Stock  and  Dr.  Good,  the  nightshade. 
M.  Michaelis  maintains,  after  Ceisius,  that 
both  this  word  and  D'M,  Isaiah  v,  2,  4,  de- 
note the  aconite,  a  poisonous  plant,  growing 
spontaneously  and  luxuriantly  on  sunny  hills, 
euch  as  are  used  for  vineyards.  He  says  that 
this  interpretation  is  certain,  because,  as  Cel- 
sius had  observed,  e»a,  in  Arabic,  denotes  the 
aconite ;  and  he  intimates  that  it  best  suits  Job 
xxxi,  40,  where  it  is  mentioned  as  growing 
instead  of  barley.     The  word  appears  to  im- 


port a  weed  not  only  noxious,  but  of  a  fetid 
smell. 

CffiLO-SYRIA,  hollow  or  depressed  Syria, 
Syria  in  the  vale,  1  Mace,  xiii,  10.  This  name 
imports  the  hollow  land,  or  region,  situated 
between  two  long  ridges  of  mountains ;  and 
those  mountains  have  been  always  understood 
to  be  Libanus  and  Anti-libanus.  As  these 
ridges  run  parallel  for  many  leagues,  they  con- 
tain between  them  a  long,  extensive,  and  ex- 
tremely fruitful  valley. 

COLOSSE,  a  city  of  Phrygia  Minor,  which 
stood  on  the  river  Lyceus,  at  an  equal  distance 
between  Laodicea  and  Hierapolis.  These  three 
cities,  says  Eusebius,  were  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake,  in  the  tenth  of  Nero,  or  about  two 
years  after  the  date  of  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the 
Colossians.  Laodicea,  Hierapolis,  and  Colosse 
were  at  no  great  distance  from  each  other ; 
which  accounts  for  the  Apostle  Paul,  when 
writing  to  his  Christian  brethren  in  the  latter 
of  these  places,  mentioning  them  all  in  con- 
nection with  each  other,  Col.  iv,  13.  Of  these 
cities,  however,  Laodicea  was  the  greatest,  for 
it  was  the  metropolis  of  Phrygia,  though  Co- 
losse is  said  to  have  been  a  great  and  wealthy 
place.  The  inhabitants  of  Phrygia,  says  Dr. 
Macknight,  were  famous  for  the  worship  of 
Bacchus,  and  of  Cybele  the  mother  of  the  gods ; 
whence  the  latter  was  called  Phrygia  mater,  by 
way  of  eminence.  In  her  worship,  as  well  as 
in  that  of  Bacchus,  both  sexes  practised  every 
species  of  debauchery  in  speech  and  action, 
with  a  frantic  rage  which  they  pretended  was 
occasioned  by  the  inspiration  of  the  deities 
whom  they  worshipped.  These  were  the  or- 
gies, from  ipyfi,  rage,  of  Bacchus  and  Cybele, 
so  famed  in  antiquity,  the  lascrVious  rites  of 
which  being  perfectly  adapted  to  .the  corrup- 
tions of  the  human  heart,  were  performed  by 
both  sexes  without  shame  or  remorse.  Hence 
as  the  Son  of  God  came  into  the  world  to  de- 
stroy the  works  of  the  devil,  it  appeared,  in 
the  eye  of  his  Apostle,  a  matter  of  great  im- 
portance to  carry  the  light  of  the  Gospel  into 
countries  where  these  abominable  impurities 
were  not  only  practised,  but  even  dignified 
with  the  honourable  appellation  of  religious 
worship ;  especially  as  nothing  but  the  heaven- 
descended  light  of  the  Gospel  could  dispel  such 
a  pernicious  infatuation.  That  this  salutary 
purpose  might  be  effectually  accomplished, 
Paul,  accompanied  by  Silas  and  Timothy,  went 
at  different  times  into  Phrygia,  and  preached 
the  Gospel  in  many  cities  of  that  country  with 
great  success ;  but  it  is  thouglit  by  many  per- 
sons, that  the  Epistle  to  the  Colossians  con- 
tains internal  marks  of  his  never  having  been 
at  Colosse  when  he  wrote  it.  This  opinion 
rests  principally  upon  the  following  passage : 
"  For  I  would  that  ye  knew  what  great  con-  ' 
flict  I  have  for  you,  and  for  them  at  Laodicea, 
and  for  as  many  as  have  not  seen  my  face  in  the 
flesh,"  Col.  ii,  1 :  but  these  words,  if  they  prove 
any  thing  upon  this  question,  prove  that  St. 
Paul  had  never  been  either  at  Laodicea  or  Co- 
losse ;  but  surely  it  is  very  improbable  that  he 
should  have  travelled  twice  into  Phrygia  for 
the  purpose  of  preaching  the  Gospel,  and  not 


COM 


254 


COM 


have  gone  either  (o  Laodicea  or  Colosse,  which 
were  the  two  principal  cities  of  that  country  ; 
especially  as  in  the  second  journey  into  those 
parts  it  is  said,  that  he  "  went  over  all  the 
country  of  Galatia  and  Phrygia,  strengthening 
all  the  disciples ;"  and  moreover,  we  know  that 
it  was  the  Apostle's  practice  to  preach  at  tho 
most  considerable  places  of  every  district  into 
which  he  went.  Dr.  Lardner,  after  arguing 
this  point,  says,  "From  all  these  considera- 
tions, it  appears  to  me  very  probable  that  the 
church  at  Colosse  had  been  planted  by  the 
Apostle  Paul,  and  that  the  Christians  there 
were  his  friends,  disciples,  and  converts." 

The  Epistle  greatly  resembles  that  to  the 
Ephesians,  both  in  sentiment  and  expression. 
After  saluting  the  Colossian  Christians  in  his 
own  name,  and  that  of  Timothy,  St.  Paul  as- 
sures them,  that  since  he  had  heard  of  their 
faith  in  Christ  Jesus,  and  of  their  love  to  all 
Christians,  he  had  not  ceased  to  return  thanks 
to  God  for  them,  and  to  pray  that  they  might 
increase  in  spiritual  knowledge,  and  abound  in 
every  good  work ;  he  describes  the  dignity  of 
Christ,  and  declares  the  universality  of  the 
Gospel  dispensation,  which  was  a  mystery 
formerly  hidden,  but  now  made  manifest ;  and 
he  mentions  his  own  appointment,  through  the 
grace  of  God,  to  be  the  Apostle  of  the  Gen- 
tiles ;  he  expresses  a  tender  concern  for  the 
Colossians  and  other  Christians  of  Phrygia, 
and  cautions  them  against  being  seduced  from 
the  simplicity  of  the  Gospel,  by  the  subtlety  of 
Pagan  philosophers,  or  the  superstition  of  Ju- 
daizing  Christians  ;  he  directs  them  to  set  their 
affections  on  things  above,  and  forbids  every 
species  of  licentiousness ;  he  exhorts  to  a  va- 
riety of  Christian  virtues,  to  meekness,  veracity, 
humility,  charity,  and  devotion  ;  he  enforces 
the  duties  of  wives,  husbands,  children,  fathers, 
servants,  and  masters ;  he  inculcates  the  duty 
of  prayer,  and  of  prudent  behaviour  toward 
unbelievers;  and  after  adding  the  salutations 
of  several  persons  then  at  Rome,  and  desiring 
that  this  epistle  might  be  read  in  the  church 
of  their  neighbours  the  Laodiceans,  he  con- 
cludes with  a  salutation  from  himself,  written, 
as  usual,  with  his  own  hand. 

COMFORTER,  one  of  the  titles  by  which 
the  Holy  Spirit  is  designated  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament, John  xiv,  16,  26;  xv,  26.  The  name 
has  no  doubt  a  reference  to  his  peculiar  office 
in  the  economy  of  redemption  ;  namely,  that  of 
imparting  consolation  to  the  hearts  of  Christ's 
disciples,  which  he  effects  by  "  taking  of  the 
things  that  are  Christ's,"  and  explaining  them  ; 
or,  in  other  words,  by  illuminating  their  minds 
as  to  the  meaning  of  the  Scriptures,  assuring 
them  of  the  Saviour's  love,  bringing  to  their 
recollection  his  consolatory  sayings,  and  filling 
their  souls  with  peace  and  joy  in  believing 
them. — The  word  has  also  been  rendered  Ad- 
vocate, Helper,  Monitor,  Teacher,  &c.  The  first 
does  not  apply  to  the  office  of  the  Spirit;  and 
the  others  are  not  so  well  supported  by  the 
connection  of  our  Lord's  discourse,  which  fa- 
vours the  translation,  Comforter;  because  what- 
ever gracious  offices  the  Holy  Spirit  was  to 
perform  for  the  disciples,  the  great  end  of  all 


was  to  remove  that  sorrow  which  the  approach 
of  the  departure  of  Christ  had*produced,  and 
to  render  their  joy  full  and  complete. 

COMMERCE.  Merchandise,  in  its  various 
branches,  was  carried  on  in  the  east  at  the 
earliest  period  of  which  we  have  any  account; 
and  it  was  not  long  before  the  traffic  between 
nations,  both  by  sea  and  land,  was  very  con- 
siderable. Accordingly,  frequent  mention  ia 
made  of  public  roads,  fords,  bridges,  and  beasts 
of  burden  ;  also  of  ships  for  the  transportation 
of  property,  of  weights,  measures,  and  coin, 
both  in  the  oldest  books  of  the  Bible,  and  in 
the  most  ancient  profane  histories.  The  Phe- 
nicians  anciently  held  the  first  rank  as  a  com- 
mercial nation.  They  were  in  the  habit  of 
purchasing  goods  of  various  kinds  throughout 
all  the  east.  They  then  carried  them  in  ships 
down  the  Mediterranean,  as  far  as  the  shores 
of  Africa  and  Europe,  brought  back  in  return 
merchandise  and  silver,  and  disposed  of  these 
again  in  the  more  eastern  countries.  The  first 
metropolis  of  the  Phenicians  was  Sidon  :  after- 
ward Tyre  became  the  principal  city.  Tyre 
was  built  two  hundred  and  forty  years  before 
the  temple  of  Solomon,  or  twelve  hundred  and 
fifty-one  before  Christ.  The  Phenicians  had 
ports  of  their  own  in  almost  every  country; 
the  most  distinguished  of  which  were  Carthage 
and  Tarshish,  or  Tartessus,  in  Spain.  The 
ships  from  the  latter  place  undertook  very  dis- 
tant voyages :  hence,  any  vessels  that  per- 
formed distant  voyages  were  called  "  ships  of 
Tarshish,"  BWW  niJN.  Something  is  said  of 
the  commerce  of  the  Phenicians  in  the  twenty- 
seventh  and  twenty-eighth  chapters  of  Ezekiel, 
and  the  twenty-third  chapter  of  Isaiah.  The 
inhabitants  of  Arabia  Felix  carried  on  a  com- 
merce with  India.  They  carried  some  of  the 
articles  which  they  brought  from  India  through 
the  straits  of  Babelmandel  into  Abyssinia  and 
Egypt ;  some  they  transported  to  Babylon 
through  the  Persian  Gulf  and  the  Euphrates  ; 
and  some  by  the  way  of  the  Red  Sea  to  the 
port  of  Eziongeber.  They  thus  became  rich; 
though  it  is  possible  their  wealth  may  have 
been  too  much  magnified  by  the  ancients.  The 
eminence  of  the  Egyptians,  as  a  commercial 
nation,  commences  With  the  reign  of  Necho. 
Their  commerce,  nevertheless,  was  not  great, 
till  Alexander  had  destroyed  Tyre  and  built 
Alexandria. 

2.  The  Phenicians  sometimes  received  the 
goods  of  India  by  way  of  the  Persian  Gulf, 
where  they  had  colonies  in  the  islands  of  De- 
dan,  Arad,  and  Tyre.  Sometimes  they  re- 
ceived them  from  the  Arabians,  who  either 
brought  them  by  land  through  Arnbia,  or  up 
the  Red  Sea  to  Eziongeber.  In  the  latter  case, 
having  landed  them  at  the  port  mentioned, 
the)'  transported  them  through  the  country  by 
tho  way  of  Gaza  to  Phrnicia.  The  Phenicians 
increased  the  amount  of  their  foreign  goods  by 
the  addition  of  those  which  they  themselves 
fabricated ;  and  were  thus  enabled  to  supply  all 
parts  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  Egyptians 
at  first  received  their  goods  from  the  Pheni- 
cians, Arabians,  Africans,  and  Abyssinians  ; 
in  all  of  which  countries  there  are  still  the  re- 


COM 


255 


COM 


mains  of  large  trading  towns ;  but  in  a  subse- 
quent age,  they  imported  goods  from  India  in 
their  own  vessels ;  and  eventually  carried  on 
an  export  trade  with  various  ports  on  the 
Mediterranean.  Oriental  commerce,  however, 
was  chiefly  carried  on  by  land:  accordingly, 
vessels  are  hardly  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  ex- 
cept in  Psalm  cvii,  23-30,  and  in  passages 
where  the  discourse  turns  upon  the  Pheni- 
cians,  or  upon  the  naval  affairs  of  Solomon 
and  Jehoshaphat.  The  two  principal  routes 
from  Palestine  into  Egypt  were,  the  one  along 
the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  from  Gaza  to 
Pelusium.  and  the  other  from  Gaza  by  the  way 
of  Mount  Sinai  and  the  Elanitic  branch  of  the 
Red  Sea. 

3.  The  merchants  transported  their  goods 
upon  camels;  animals  which  are  patient  of 
thirst,  and  are  easily  supported  in  the  deserts. 
For  the  common  purpose  of  security  against 
depredations,  the  oriental  merchants  travelled 
in  company,  as  is  common  in  the  east  at  the 
present  day.  A  large  travelling  company  of 
this  kind  is  called  a  caravan  or  carvan,  a  smaller 
one  was  called  kafile  or  kafle,  Job  vi,  18-20; 
Gen.  xxxvii,  25 ;  Isa.  xxi,  13 ;  Jer.  ix,  2 ; 
Judges  v,  G;  Luke  ii,  44.  The  furniture  car- 
ried by  the  individuals  of  a  caravan  consisted 
of  a  mattress,  a  coverlet,  a  carpet  for  sitting 
upon,  a  round  piece  of  leather,  which  answered 
the  purpose  of  a  table,  a  few  pots  and  kettles 
of  copper  covered  with  tin ;  also  a  tin-plated 
cup,  which  was  suspended  before  the  breast 
under  the  outer  garment,  and  was  used  for" 
drinking,  1  Sam.  xxvi,  11,  12,  1G:  leathern 
bags  for  holding  water,  tents,  lights,  and  pro- 
visions in  quality  and  abundance  as  each  one 
could  afford.  Every  caravan  had  a  leader  to 
conduct  it  through  the  desert,  who  was  ac- 
quainted with  the  direction  of  its  route,  and 
with  the  cisterns  and  fountains.  These  he 
was  able  to  ascertain,  sometimes  from  heaps 
of  stones,  sometimes  by  the  character  of  the 
soil,  and,  when  other  helps  failed  him,  by  the 
stars,  Num.  x,  29-32 ;  Jer.  xxxi,  21  ;  Isa.  xxi, 
14.  When  all  things  are  in  readiness,  the 
individuals  who  compose  the  caravan  assemble 
at  a  distance  from  the  city.  The  commander 
of  the  caravan,  who  is  a  different  person  from 
the  conductor  or  leader,  and  is  chosen  from 
the  wealthiest  of  its  members,  appoints  the  day 
of  their  departure.  A  similar  arrangement  was 
adopted  among  the  Jews,  whenever  they  tra- 
velled in  large  numbers  to  the  city  of  Jerusa- 
lem. The  caravans  start  very  early,  sometimes 
before  day.  They  endeavour  to  find  a  stop- 
ping place  or  station  to  remain  at  during  the 
night,  which  shall  afford  them  a  supply  of  wa- 
ter, Job  vi,  15-20.  They  arrive  at  their  stop- 
ping place  before  the  close  of  the  day ;  and, 
while  it  is  yet  light,  prepare  every  thing  that 
is  necessary  for  the  recommencement  of  their 
journey.  In  order  to  prevent  any  one  from 
wandering  away  from  the  caravan,  and  getting 
lost  during  the  night,  lamps  or  torches  are 
elevated  upon  poles  and  carried  before  it.  The 
pillar  of  fire  answered  this  purpose  for  the 
Israelites,  when  wandering  in  the  wilderness. 
Sometimes  the  caravans  lodge  in  cities ;  but 


when  they  do  not,  they  pitch  their  tents  so  as 
to  form  an  encampment;  and  during  the  night 
keep  watch  alternately  for  the  sake  of  security. 
In  the  cities  there  are  public  inns,  called  Chan 
and  Carvanserai,  in  which  the  caravans  are 
lodged  without  expense.  They  are  large  square 
buildings,  in  the  centre  of  which  is  an  area  or 
open  court.  Carvanserais  are  denominated  in 
the  Greek  of  the  New  Testament,  xavSoytiov 
KaraXvcris",  and  KaTu\v)xa,  Luke  ii,  7 ;  x,  34.  The 
first  mention  of  one  in  the  Old  Testament  is 
in  Jer.  xli,  17,  onna  rim  It  was  situated  near 
the  city  of  Bethlehem. 

4.  Moses  enacted  no  laws  in  favour  of  com- 
merce, although  there  is  no  question  that  he 
saw  the  situation  of  Palestine  to  be  very  favour- 
able for  it.  The  reason  of  this  was,  that  the 
Hebrews,  who  were  designedly  set  apart  to  pre- 
serve the  true  religion,  could  not  mingle  with 
foreign  idolatrous  nations  without  injury.  He 
therefore  merely  inculcated  good  faith  and 
honesty  in  buying  and  selling,  Lev.  xix,  36.  37  ; 
Deut.  xxv,  13-16 ;  and  left  all  the  other  interests 
of  commerce  to  a  future  age.  By  tbe  establish- 
ment, however,  of  the  three  great  festivals,  he 
gave  occasion  for  some  mercantile  intercourse. 
At  these  festivals  all  the  adult  males  of  the 
nation  were  yearly  assembled  at  one  place. 
The  consequence  was,  that  those  who  had  any 
thing  to  sell  brought  it ;  while  those  who  wished 
to  buy  articles  came  with  the  expectation  of 
having  an  opportunity.  As  Moses,  though  he 
did  not  encourage,  did  not  interdict  foreign 
commerce,  Solomon,  at  a  later  period,  not  only  j 
carried  on  a  traffic  in  horses,  as  already  stated,  J 
but  sent  ships  from  the  port  of  Eziongeber  * 
through  the  Red  Sea  to  Ophir,  probably  the 
coast  of  Africa,  1  Kings  ix,  26;  2  Chron.ix,  21. 
This  traffic,  although  a  source  of  emolument, 
appears  to  have  been  neglected  after  the  death 
of  Solomon.  The  attempt  made  by  Jehosha- 
phat to  restore  it  was  frustrated,  by  his  shipa 
being  dashed  upon  the  rocks  and  destroyed, 
1  Kings  xxii,  48,  49;  2  Chron.  xx,  36.  Joppa, 
though  not  a  very  convenient  one,  was  pro- 
perly the  port  of  Jerusalem  ;  and  some  of  the 
large  vessels  which  went  to  Spain  sailed  from 
it,  Jonah  i,  3.  In  the  age  of  Ezekiel,  the  com- 
merce of  Jerusalem  was  so  great,  that  it  gave 
an  occasion  of  envy  even  to  the  Tyrians  them- 
selves, Ezek.  xxvi,  2.  After  the  captivity,  a 
great  number  of  Jews  became  merchants,  and 
travelled  for  the  purpose  of  traffic  into  all  coun- 
tries. About  the  year  150  B.  C.  prince  Simon 
rendered  the  port  at  Joppa  more  convenient 
than  it  had  hitherto  been.  In  tho  time  of 
Pompey  the  Great,  there  were  so  many  Jews 
abroad  on  the  ocean,  even  in  tho  character  of 
pirates,  that  King  Antigonus  was  accused  be- 
fore him  of  having  sent  them  out  on  purpose. 
A  new  port  was  built  by  Herod  at  Cesarea. 

COMMUNION,  in  a  religious  sense,  refers 
chiefly  to  tbe  admission  of  persons  to  the  Lord's 
Supper.  This  is  said  to  be  open,  when  all  are 
admitted  who  apply,  as  in  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land ;  to  be  strict,  when  confined  to  the  mem- 
bers of  a  single  society,  or,  at  least,  to  mem- 
bers of  the  same  denomination  ;  and  it  is  mixed, 
when  persons  are  admitted  from  societies  of 


CON 


256 


CON 


different  denominations,  on  the  profession  of 
their  faith,  and  evidence  of  their  piety.  The 
principal  difficulty  on  this  point  arises  between 
the  strict  Baptists  and  Pa^do-Baptists. 

CONCUBINE,  BU**.  This  term,  in  west- 
ern authors,  commonly  signifies,  a  woman, 
who,  without  being  married  to  a  man,  yet  lives 
with  him  as  his  wife  ;  but,  in  the  sacred  writers, 
the  word  concubine  is  understood  in  another 
sense ;  meaning  a  lawful  wife,  but  one  not 
wedded  with  all  the  ceremonies  and  solemnities 
of  matrimony;  a  wife  of  the  second  rank,  in- 
ferior to  the  first  wife,  or  mistress  of  the  house. 
Children  of  concubines  did  not  inherit  their 
father's  fortune  ;  but  he  might  provide  for,  and 
make  presents  to  them.  Tims  Abraham,  by 
Sarah  his  wife,  had  Isaac,  his  heir ;  but,  by  his 
two  concubines,  Ilagar  and  Keturah,  he  had 
other  children,  whom  he  did  not  make  equal 
to  Isaac.  As  polygamy  was  tolerated  in  the 
east,  it  was  common  to  see  in  every  family,  be- 
side lawful  wives,  several  concubines.  Since 
the  abrogation  of  polygamy  by  Jesus  Christ, 
and  the  restoration  of  marriage  to  its  primitive 
institution,  concubinage  is  ranked  with  adultery 
or  fornication. 

CONEY,  jos>,  Levit.  xi,  5;  Deut.  xiv,  7; 
Psalm  civ,  8  ;  and  Prov.  xxx,  26.  Bochart  and 
others  have  supposed  the  shaphan  of  the  Scrip- 
tures to  be  the  jerboa ;  but  Mr.  Bruce  proves 
that  the  ashkoko  is  intended.  This  curious 
animal  is  found  in  Ethiopia,  and  in  great  num- 
bers on  Mount  Lebanon,  &-c.  Instead  of  holes, 
they  seem  to  delight  in  more  airy  places,  in 
the  mouths  of  caves,  or  clefts  in  the  rock. 
They  are  gregarious,  and  frequently  several 
dozens  of  them  sit  upon  the  great  stones  at  the 
mouths  of  caves,  and  warm  themselves  in  the 
sun,  or  come  out  and  enjoy  the  freshness  of 
the  summer  evening.  They  do  not  stand  up- 
right upon  their  feet,  but  seem  to  steal  along 
as  in  fear,  their  belly  being  nearly  close  to  the 
ground ;  advancing  a  few  steps  at  a  time,  and 
then  pausing.  They  have  something  very 
mild,  feeble-like,  and  timid,  in  their  deport- 
ment;  are  gentle  and  easily  tamed,  though, 
when  roughly  handled  at  the  first,  they  bite 
very  severely.  Many  are  the  reasons  to  be- 
lieve this  to  be  the  animal  called  saphan  in 
Hebrew,  and  erroneously  by  our  translators, 
"  the  coney,"  or  rabbit.  The  latter  are  gre- 
garious indeed,  and  so  far  resemble  the  other, 
as  also  in  size  ;  but  they  seek  not  the  same 
place  of  retreat ;  for  the  rabbit  burrows  most 
generally  in  the  sand.  Nor  is  there  any  thing 
in  tho  character  of  rabbits  that  denotes  excel- 
lent wisdom,  or  that  they  supply  the  want  of 
strength  by  any  remarkable  sagacity.  The 
saphan,  then,  is  not  the  rabbit;  which  last,  un- 
less it  was  brought  to  him  by  his  ships  from 
Europe,  Solomon  never  saw. 

Let  us  now  apply  the  characters  of  the  ash- 
koko to  the  saphan.  "  He  is  above  all  other 
animals  so  much  attached  to  the  rocks,  that  I 
never  once,"  says  Mr.  Bruce,  "  saw  him  on  the 
ground,  or  from  among  large  stones  in  the 
mouth  of  caves,  where  is  his  constant  resi- 
dence. He  lives  in  families  or  flocks.  He  is 
in  Judea,  Palestine,  and  Arabia,  and  conse- 


quently must  have  been  familiar  to  Solomon. 
David  describes  him  very  pertinently,  and  joins 
him  to  other  animals  perfectly  known:  'The 
hills  are  a  refuge  for  the  wild  goats,  and  the  rocks 
for  the  saphan :'  and  Solomon  says  that  'they 
are  exceeding  wise,'  that  they  are  '  but  a  feeble 
folk,  yet  make  their  houses  in  the  rocks.'  Now 
this,  I  think,  very  obviously  fixes  the  ashkoko 
to  be  the  saphan;  for  his  weakness  seems  to 
allude  to  his  feet,  and  how  inadequate  these  are 
to  dig  holes  in  the  rock,  where  yet,  however, 
he  lodges.  From  their  tenderness  these  are 
very  liable  to  be  excoriated  or  hurt ;  notwith- 
standing which,  they  build  houses  in  'l:c  rocks 
more  inaccessible  than  those  of  the  rabbit,  and 
in  which  they  abide  in  greater  safety,  not  by 
exertion  of  strength,  for  they  have  it  not,  but 
are  truly,  as  Solomon  says,  '  a  feeble  folk,'  but 
by  their  own  sagacity  and  judgment;  and  are 
therefore  justly  described  as  wise.  Lastly,  what 
leaves  tho  thing  without  doubt  is,  that  some  of 
the  Arabs,  particularly  Damir,  say  that  the 
saphan  has  no  tail,  that  it  is  less  than  a  cat, 
that  it  lives  in  houses  or  nests,  which  it  builds 
of  straw,  in  contradistinction  to  the  rabbit  and 
the  rat,  and  those  animals  that  burrow  in  the 
ground." 

CONFESSION  signifies  a  public  acknow- 
ledgment of  any  thing  as  our  own  :  thus  Christ 
will  confess  the  faithful  in  the  day  of  judgment, 
Luke  xii,  8.  2.  To  own  and  profess  the  truths 
of  Christ,  and  to  obey  his  commandments,  in 
spite  of  opposition  and  danger  from  enemies, 
Matt,  x,  32.  3.  To  utter  or  speak  the  praises 
of  God,  or  to  give  him  thanks.  4.  To  ac- 
knowledge our  sins  and  offences  to  God,  either 
by  private  or  public  confession ;  or  to  our 
neighbour  whom  we  have  wronged ;  or  to  some 
pious  persons  from  whom  we  expect  to  receive 
comfort  and  spiritual  instruction  ;  or  to  the 
whole  congregation  when  our  fault  is  pub- 
lished, Psalm  xxxii,  5;  Matt,  iii,  6;  James  v, 
16;  1  John  i,  9.  5.  To  acknowledge  a  crime 
before  a  judge,  Josh,  vii,  19. 

2.  In  the  Jewish  ceremony  of  annual  expia- 
tion, the  high  priest  confessed  in  general  his 
own  sins,  the  sins  of  other  ministers  of  the 
temple,  and  those  of  all  the  people.  When  an 
Israelite  offered  a  sacrifice  for  sin,  he  put  his 
hand  on  the  head  of  the  victim,  and  confessed 
his  faults,  Lev.  iv.  On  the  day  of  atonement, 
the  Jews  still  make  a  private  confession  of  thei? 
sins,  which  is  called  by  them  cippur,  and  which 
is  said  to  be  done  in  the  following  manner : 
Two  Jews  retire  into  a  corner  of  the  syna- 
gogue. One  of  them  bows  very  low  before  the 
other,  with  his  face  turned  toward  the  north. 
He  who  performs  the  office  of  confessor  gives 
the  penitent  nine-and-thirty  blows  on  the  back 
with  a  leathern  strap,  repeating  these  words, 
"  God,  being  full  of  compassion,  forgave  their 
iniquity,  and  destroyed  them  not;  yea,  many 
a  tune  turned  he  his  anger  away,  and  did  not 
stir  up  all  his  wrath."  As  there  are  only 
thirteen  words  in  this  verse  recited  in  the  He- 
brew, he  repeats  it  three  times,  and  at  every 
word  strikes  one  blow  ;  which  makes  nine-and- 
thirty  words,  and  as  many  lashes.  In  the  mean- 
time, the  penitent  declares  his  sins,  and  at  the 


CON 


257 


CON 


confession  of  every  one  beats  himself  on  his 
breast.  This  being  finished,  he  who  has  per- 
formed  the  office  of  confessor  prostrates  him- 
self on  the  ground,  and  receives  in  turn  from 
his  penitent  nine-and-thirty  lashes. 

3.  The  Romish  church  not  only  requires 
confession  as  a  duty,  but  has  advanced  it  to 
the  dignity  of  a  sacrament.  These  confessions 
are  made  in  private  to  the  priest,  who  is  not  to 
reveal  them  under  pain  of  the  highest  punish- 
ment. The  council  of  Trent  requires  "secret 
confession  to  the  priest  alone,  of  all  and  every 
mortal  sin,  which,  upon  the  most  diligent 
search  and  examination  of  our  consciences,  we 
can  remember  ourselves  to  be  guilty  of  since 
our  baplism ;  together  with  all  the  circum- 
stances of  those  sins,  which  may  change  the 
nature  of  them ;  because,  without  the  perfect 
knowledge  of  these,  the  priest  cannot  make  a 
judgment  of  the  nature  and  quality  of  men's 
eins,  nor  impose  fitting  penance  for  them." 
This  is  the  confession  of  sins  which  the  same 
council  confidently  affirms  "  to  have  been  insti- 
tuted by  our  Lord,  and  by  the  law  of  God,  to 
be  necessary  to  salvation,  and  to  have  been 
always  practised  in  the  catholic  church."  It 
is,  however,  evident,  that  such  confession  is 
unscriptural.  St.  James,  indeed,  says,  "  Con- 
fess your  faults  one  to  another,"  James  v,  16; 
but  priests  are  not  here  mentioned,  and  the 
word  faults  seems  to  confine  the  precept  to  a 
mutual  confession  among  Christians,  of  those 
offences  by  which  they  may  have  injured  each 
other.  Certain  it  is,  that  from  this  passage  the 
necessity  of  auricular  confession,  and  the 
power  of  p:-iestly  absolution,  cannot  be  infer- 
red. Though  many  of  the  early  ecclesiastical 
writers  earnestly  recommend  confession  to  the 
clergy,  yet  they  never  recommend  it  as  essen- 
tial to  the  pardon  of  sin,  or  as  having  connec- 
tion with  a  sacrament.  They  only  urge  it  as 
entitling  a  person  to  the  prayers  of  the  congre- 
gation ;  and  as  useful  for  supporting  the  au- 
thority of  wholesome  discipline,  and  for  main- 
taining the  purity  of  the  Christian  church. 
Chrysostom  condemns  all  secret  confession 
to  men,  as  being  obviously  liable  to  great 
abuses ;  and  Basil,  Hilary,  and  Augustine,  all 
advise  confession  of  sins  to  God  only.  It  has 
been  proved  by  M.  Daille,  that  private,  auri- 
cular, sacramental  confession  of  eins  was  un- 
known in  the  primitive  church.  But,  though 
private  auricular  confession  is  not  of  divine 
authority,  yet,  as  Archbishop  Tillotson  pro- 
perly observes,  there  are  many  cases  in  which 
men,  under  the  guilt  and  trouble  of  their  sins, 
can  neither  appease  their  own  minds,  nor  suf- 
ficiently direct  themselves,  without  recourse  to 
some  pious  and  prudent  guide.  In  these  cases, 
men  certainly  do  very  well,  and  many  times 
prevent  a  great  deal  of  trouble  and  perplexity 
to  themselves,  by  a  timely  discovery  of  their 
condition  to  some  faithful  minister,  in  order  to 
their  direction  and  satisfaction.  To  this  pur- 
pose a  general  confession  is  for  the  most  part 
sufficient ;  and  where  there  is  occasion  for 
a  more  particular  discovery,  there  is  no  need 
of  raking  into  the  minute  and  foul  circum- 
stances of  men's  sins  to  give  that  advice  which 
18 


is  necessary  for  the  cure  and  ease  of  the  peni- 
tent. Auricular  confession  is  unquestionably 
one  of  the  greatest  corruptions  of  the  Romish 
church.  It  goes  upon  the  ground  that  the 
priest  has  power  to  forgive  sins;  it  establishes 
the  tyrannical  influence  of  the  priesthood  ;  it 
turns  the  penitent  from  God  who  only  can  for- 
give sins,  to  man  who  is  himself  a  sinner ;  and 
it  tends  to  corrupt  both  the  confessors  and  tho 
confessed  by  a  foul  and  particular  disclosure  of 
sinful  thoughts  and  actions  of  every  kind  with- 
out exception. 

Confessions  of  Faith,  simply  considered,  is 
the  same  with  creed,  and  signifies  a  summary 
of  the  principal  articles  of  belief  adopted  by 
any  individual  or  society.  In  its  more  com- 
mon acceptation,  it  is  restricted  to  the  summa- 
ries of  doctrine  published  by  particular  Chris- 
tian churches,  with  the  view  of  preventing 
their  religious  sentiments  from  being  misun- 
derstood or  misrepresented,  or,  by  requiring 
subscription  to  them,  of  securing  uniformity 
of  opinion  among  those  who  join  their  com- 
munion. Except  a  single  sentence  in  one  of 
the  Ignatian  Epistles,  (A.  D.  180,)  which  re- 
lates  exclusively  to  the  reality  of  Christ's  per- 
sonality and  sufferings  in  opposition  to  the 
Voceta,  the  earliest  document  of  this  kind  is 
to  be  found  in  the  writings  of  Irenams,  who 
flourished  toward  the  end  of  the  second  cen- 
tury of  the  Christian  a;ra.  In  his  treatise 
against  heresies,  this  father  affirms  that  "tho 
faith  of  the  church  planted  throughout  tho 
whole  world,"  consisted  in  the  belief  of  "one 
God,  the  Father  Almighty,-  Maker  of  heaven 
and  earth  and  sea,  and  all  that  are  in  them  ; 
and  one  Christ  Jesus,  the  Son  of  God,  who 
became  incarnate  for  our  salvation  ;  and  one 
Holy  Spirit,  who  foretold,  through  the  Pro- 
phets, the  dispensations  and  advents,  and  the 
generation  by  the  virgin,  and  the  passion,  and 
the  resurrection  from  the  dead,  and  the  ascen- 
sion in  the  flesh  into  heaven,  of  Jesus  Christ 
our  beloved  Lord,  and  his  appearing  from  hea- 
ven in  the  glory  of  the  Father,  to  unite  toge- 
ther all  things  under  one  head,  and  to  raise 
every  individual  of  the  human  race;  that  unto 
Christ  Jesus,  our  Lord  and  God,  and  Saviour 
and  King,  every  knee  may  bow,  and  every 
tongue  confess  ;  that  he  may  pronounce  just 
sentence  upon  all."  In  various  parts  of  Ter- 
tullian's  writings  similar  statements  occur, 
(A.  D.  200,)  which  it  is  ur.necessary  particu- 
larly to  quote.  We  shall  only  remark,  that  in 
one  of  them,  the  miraculous  conception  of 
Christ  by  the  power  of  the  Holy  Ghost  is  dis- 
tinctly mentioned  ;  that  in  another,  he  declares 
it  to  have  been  the  uniform  doctrine  from  the 
beginning  of  the  Gospel,  that  Christ  was  born 
of  the  virgin,  both  man  and  God,  ex  eu  natum 
hominem  ct  Deum;  and  that  in  each  of  these, 
faith  in  the  Father,  Son,  and  Spirit,  is  recog- 
nised as  essential  to  Christianity.  The  follow- 
ing passage  we  cite,  for  the  purpose  of  marking 
its  coincidence  with  the  Apostles'  Creed,  to 
which  we  shall  have  occasion  soon  to  advert : 
"  This,"  says  he,  "  is  the  sole,  immovable,  irre- 
formable  rule  of  faith ;  namely,  to  believe  in 
the  only  God  Almighty,  maker  of  the  world; 


CON 


258 


CON 


and  his  Son  Jesus  Christ,  born  of  the  virgin 
Mary,  crucified  under  Pontius  Pilate,  the 
third  day  raised  from  the  dead,  received  into 
heaven,  now  sitting  at  the  right  hand  of  the 
Father,  about  to  come  and  judge  the  quick  and 
the  dead,  by  the  resurrection  also  of  the  flesh." 
The  summaries  contained  in  the  works  of  Ori- 
gen  (A.  D.  520)  nearly  resemble  the  preceding; 
any  difference  between  them  being  easily  ac- 
counted for,  from  the  tenets  of  the  particular 
heresies  against  which  they  were  directed.  In 
his  "  Commentary  on  St.  John's  Gospel,"  he 
thus  writes  :  "  We  believe  that  there  is  one 
God,  who  created  all  things,  and  framed  and 
made  all  things  to  exist  out  of  nothing.  We 
must  also  believe  in  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and 
in  all  the  truth  concerning  his  Deity  and  hu- 
manity ;  and  we  must  likewise  believe  in  the 
Holy  Spirit ;  and  that,  being  free  agents,  we 
shall  be  punished  for  the  things  in  which  we 
sin,  and  rewarded  for  those  in  which  we  do 
well."  According  to  Cyprian,  the  formula,  to 
which  assent  was  required  from  adults  at  their 
baptism,  was  in  these  terms :  "  Dost  thou  be- 
lieve in  God  the  Father,  Christ  the  Son,  the 
Holy  Spirit,  the  remission  of  sins,  and  eternal 
life,  through  the  holy  church?"  This  was 
called  by  him  symboli  lex,  "  the  law  of  the 
creed ;"  and  by  Novatian,  regula  veritatis, 
"the  rule  of  truth." 

2.  From  these  and  similar  sources,  the  dif- 
ferent clauses  of  what  is  commonly  called  the 
Apostles'  Creed  appear  to  have  sprung.  For, 
though  it  was  long  believed  to  be  the  compo- 
sition of  the  Apostles,  its  claims  to  such  an 
inspired  origin  are  now  universally  rejected. 
Of  its  great  antiquity,  however,  there,  can  be 
no  doubt ;  the  whole"  of  it,  as  it  stands  in  the 
English  liturgy,  having  been  generally  received 
as  an  authoritative  confession  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury. Toward  the  end  of  that  century,  Rufinus 
wrote  a  commentary  on  it,  which  is  still  extant, 
in  which  he  acknowledges  that  the  clause  re- 
specting Christ's  descent  into  hell  was  not  ad- 
mitted into  the  creeds  either  of  the  western  or 
the  eastern  churches.  We  learn  also  that  the 
epithet  catholic  was  not  at  that  time  applied  in 
it  to  the  church.  Its  great  simplicity  and  con- 
ciseness, beside,  prove  it  to  have  been  con- 
siderably earlier  than  the  council  of  Nice, 
when  the  heretical  speculations  of  various  sects 
led  the  defenders  of  the  orthodox  faith  to  fence 
the  interests  of  religion  with  more  complicated 
and  cumbrous  barriers. 

This  confession  of  faith  was  then  preemi- 
nently named  symbolum;  which  might  be  un- 
derstood in  the  general  acceptation  of  sign,  as 
the  characteristic,  representative  sign  of  the 
Christian  faith ;  or,  in  a  more  restricted  sense, 
in  reference  to  the  cijxHo\ov  ^anwriKhv,  or  tes- 
sera militaris,  the  watch  word  of  the  Christian 
soldier,  communicated  to  each  man  at  his  first 
entrance  into  the  service  of  Christ.  Perhaps 
this  word,  at  first,  only  denoted  the  formula 
of  baptism,  and  was  afterward  transferred  to 
the  confession  of  faith. 

3.  In  the  celebrated  council  of  Nice,  (A.  D. 
325,)  in  which  Arianism  was  not  only  con- 
demned, but  proscribed,  the  confession  esta- 


blished as  the  universal  standard  of  truth  and 
orthodoxy  runs  thus :  "  I  believe  in  one  God, 
the  Father  Ahnighty,  maker  of  heaven  and 
earth,  and  of  all  tilings  visible  and  invisible ; 
and  in  one  Lord  Jesus,  the  only  begotten  Son 
of  God,  begotten  of  the  Father,  before  all 
worlds,  God  of  God,  Light  of  Light,  very  God 
of  very  God,  begotten  not  made,  being  of  one 
substance  with  the  Father ;  by  whom  all  things 
were  made  ;  who  for  us  men,  and  for  our  sal- 
vation, descended  from  heaven,  and  became 
incarnate  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  of  the  virgin 
Mary ;  and  was  made  man,  was  crucified  for 
us  under  Pontius  Pilate.  He  suffered  and  was 
buried ;  and  the  third  day  he  rose  again  ac- 
cording to  the  Scriptures,  and  ascended  into 
heaven,  and  sittcth  on  the  right  hand  of  the 
Father ;  and  he  shall  come  again  with  glory  to 
judge  both  the  quick  and  the  dead,  of  whoso 
kingdom  there  will  be  no  end.  And  I  believe 
in  the  Holy  Ghost  who  spake  by  the  Prophets ; 
and  one  catholic,  and  Apostolical  church.  I 
acknowledge  one  baptism  for  the  remission  of 
sins,  and  I  look  for  the  resurrection  of  the 
dead,  and  the  life  of  the  world  to  come." 

H  were  endless  to  specify  the  particular 
shades  of  difference  by  which  the  Arian  con- 
fessions (the  number  of  which  amounted  nearly 
to  twenty  in  the  space  of  a  very  few  years) 
were  distinguished  from  each  other  :  suffice  it 
to  say,  that  while  they  agreed  generally  in  sub- 
stance, especially  in  rejecting  the  Nicene  term, 
bjwovaos,  as  applied  to  the  Son,  their  variations 
of  expression  concerning  the  nature  of  his  sub- 
ordination to  the  Father  were  so  astonishingly 
minute,  as  almost  to  bid  defiance  to  any  at- 
tempt which  might  be  made,  at  this  distance 
of  time,  to  determine  in  what  their  real  and 
essential  differences  consisted. 

4.  "  The  Book  of  Armagh,"  a  very  ancient 
collection  of  interesting  national  documents, 
which  have  recently  been  published  by  Sir 
William  Betham  in  the  second  part  of  his  cu- 
rious "  Irish  Antiquarian  Researches,"  contains 
the  Confession  of  St.  Patrick ;  who  has  been 
supposed, from  several  collateral  circumstances, 
to  have  flourished  some  years  prior  to  the  time 
of  St.  Jerom,  or  about  the  commencement  of 
the  fourth  century.  The  subjoined  are  the  first 
two  paragraphs  in  it,  and  will  be  admired  for  the 
orthodoxy,  artlessness,  and  Christian  experi- 
ence which  they  exhibit : — "  I,  Patrick,  a  sin- 
ner, the  rudest,  the  least,  and  the  most  insig- 
nificant of  the  faithful,  had  Calphumius,  a  dea- 
con, for  my  father,  who  was  the  son  of  Politus, 
heretofore  a  priest,  the  son  of  Odissus,  who 
lived  in  the  village  of  Banavein  Tabcrnia?. 
For  he  had  a  little  farm  adjacent,  where  I  was 
captured.  I  was  then  almost  sixteen  years  of 
age ;  but  I  knew  not  God,  and  was  led  into 
captivity  by  the  Irish,  with  many  thousand 
men,  as  we  deserved,  because  we  estranged 
ourselves  from  God,  and  did  not  keep  his  laws, 
and  were  disobedient  to  our  pastors,  who  ad- 
monished us  with  respect  to  our  salvation  :  and 
the  Lord  brought  down  upon  us  the  anger  of 
his  Spirit,  and  dispersed  us  among  many  na- 
tions, even  to  the  extremity  of  the  earth,  where 
my    meanness    was    conspicuous    among  fo- 


CON 


259 


CON 


reigners,  and  where  the  Lord  discovered  to  me 
a  sense  of  my  unbelief;  that  late  I  should  re- 
member  my  transgressions,  and  that  I  should 
be  converted  with  my  whole  heart  to  the  Lord 
my  God,  who  had  respect  to  my  humiliation, 
and  pitied  my  youth  and  ignorance,  even  be- 
fore I  knew  him,  and  before  I  was  wise,  or 
could  distinguish  between  right  and  wrong, 
and  strengthened  me,  and  cherished  me,  as  a 
father  would  a  son.  From  which  time  I  could 
not  remain  silent ;  nor,  indeed,  did  he  cease  to 
bless  me  with  many  acts  of  kindness ;  and  so 
great  was  the  favour  of  which  he  thought  me 
worthy  in  the  land  of  my  captivity.  For  this 
is  my  retribution,  that,  after  my  rebuking, 
punishment,  and  acknowledgment  of  God,  I 
should  exalt  him,  and  confess  his  wonderful 
acts  before  every  nation  which  is  under  the 
whole  heaven;  because  there  is  no  other  God, 
nor  ever  was  before,  nor  will  be  after  him, 
except  God,  the  unbegotten  Father,  without  be- 
ginning, possessing  all  things,  as  we  have  said, 
and  his  Son  Jesus  Christ,  who,  wc  bear  wit- 
ness, was  always  with  the  Father,  before  the 
formation  of  the  world,  in  spirit  (or  spiritually) 
with  the  Father,  inexpressibly  begotten  before 
all  beginning,  through  whom  visible  things 
were  made  :  he  became  man,  having  overcome 
death,  and  was  received  into  heaven.  And 
God  has  given  to  him  all  power  '  above  every 
name,  as  well  of  the  inhabitants  of  heaven  as 
of  the  earth  and  of  the  powers  below,  that  every 
tongue  should  confess  that  Jesus  Christ  is  Lord 
and  God ;'  whom  we  believe,  and  whose  coming 
we  expect,  as  presently  about  to  be  Judge  of 
the  living  and  dead,  who  will  render  unto 
every  man  according  to  his  actions,  and  has 
poured  upon  us  abundantly  the  gift  of  his  Holy 
Spirit,  and  the  pledge  of  immortality ;  who 
makes  us  that  believe  and  are  obedient  to  be 
the  sons  of  God  and  joint  heirs  of  Christ ; 
whom  we  believe  and  adore,  one  God  in  the 
Trinity  of  the  sacred  name.  For  he  spoke  by 
the  Prophet,  '  Call  upon  me  in  the  day  of  tribu- 
lation, and  I  will  deliver  thee,  and  thou  shalt 
glorify  me.'  And  again  he  says,  '  It  is  an  ho- 
nourable thing  to  reveal  and  confess  the  works 
of  God.' " 

5.  Macedonius  having  denied  not  only  the 
divinity  but  the  personality  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
maintaining  that  he  is  only  a  divine  energy 
diffused  throughout  the  universe,  a  general 
council  was  called  at  Constantinople,  A.  £).  381, 
in  order  to  crush  this  rising  heresy.  The  con- 
fession promulgated  on  this  occasion,  and  which 
"  gave  the  finishing  touch  to  what  the  council 
of  Nice  had  left  imperfect,  and  fixed,  in  a  full 
and  determinate  manner,  the  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity,  as  it  is  still  received  among  the  gene- 
rality of  Christians,"  exactly  coincides  with 
the  Nicene  confession,  except  in  the  article 
respecting  the  Spirit,  which  it  thus  extends: 
"  And  I  believe  in  the  Holy  Ghost,  the  Lord, 
and  Giver  of  life,  who  proceedeth  from  the 
Father  and  the  Son,  who,  together  with  the 
Father  and  the  Son,  is  worshipped  and  glo- 
rified." 

6.  Subsequent  to  this,  and  probably  toward 
the  middle  of  the  fifth  century,  the  creed  which 


bears  the  name  of  Athanasius  appears  to  have 
been  composed.  That  it  was  not  the  work  of 
this  distinguished  opposcr  of  Arianism  is  esta- 
blished by  the  most  satisfactory  evidence.  No 
traces  of  it  are  to  be  found  in  any  of  his  writ. 
ings,  though  they  relate  chiefly  to  the  very 
subject  of  which  it  is  an  exposition ;  and  so  far 
from  its  being  ascribed  to  him,  not  the  least 
notice  is  taken  of  it  by  any  of  his  contempo- 
raries. Its  language,  beside,  concerning  the 
Spirit  is  so  similar  to  that  of  the  council  of 
Constantinople,  but  still  more  precise  and  ex- 
plicit, that  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  its  having 
been  written  posterior  to  the  time  of  that  as- 
sembly. Yet  Athanasius  died  in  the  year  373. 
Accordingly,  it  has  been,  with  great  proba- 
bility of  truth,  attributed,  particularly  by  Dr. 
Waterland,  to  Hilary,  bishop  of  Aries,  who  is 
said  by  one  of  his  biographers  to  have  com- 
posed an  Exposition  of  the  Creed  :  a  title  which 
certainly  is  more  appropriate  and  character- 
istic of  it  than  that  of  Creed  simply,  by  which 
it  is  now  so  universally  known.  The  damna- 
tory clauses  in  this  creed  have  frequently 
been  made  subjects  of  reprehension  ;  and  some 
clergymen  of  the  church  of  England  have 
scrupled  to  read  them  as  directed  by  the  Ru- 
bric. The  following  is  an  apology  for  those 
clauses,  by  the  late  venerable  Archdeacon 
Dodwell,  who  seems  to  have  felt  none  of  those 
misgivings  which  troubled  his  doubting  bre- 
thren : — "  The  form,  as  well  as  the  substance,  of 
this  creed,  and  the  very  introduction  to  the 
main  article,  has  been  objected  to :  '  Whoso- 
ever will' be  saved,  before  all  things  it  is  ne- 
cessary that  he  hold  tiro  catholic  faith;'  to 
which  is  added,  'Which  faith,  except  every 
one  do  keep  whole  and  undefiled,  without 
doubt  he  shall  perish  everlastingly.'  This, 
with  a  like  condemnatory  sentence  in  the  con- 
clusion of  the  creed,  wherein  a  possibility  of 
salvation  is  denied  to  him  who  does  not  cor- 
dially embrace  this  doctrine,  is  pronounced 
unreasonable,  uncharitable,  unchristian,  with 
every  other  aggravating  appellation  that  can 
be  used.  But  the  ground  of  this  charge,  and 
the  whole  of  the  difficulty  suggested  in  it,  front 
the  variety  of  the  circumstances  of  different 
persons,  depends  upon  the  interpretation  of  the 
phrase  of  'being  saved.'  The  meaning  of  this 
term  in  its  primary  signification,  and  as  it  is 
applied  to  common  subjects  in  common  dis- 
course, means  a  preservation  from  threatening 
perils,  or  from  threatened  punishment.  _  But, 
in  an  evangelical  sense,  and  as  it  occurs  in  the 
Tew  Testament,  it  includes  much  ihot  :  it 
means  the  whole  Christian  scheme  o£  redemp- 
tion and  justification  by  the  Son  of  God,  with 
all  the  glorious  privileges  and  promises  con- 
tained in  that  scheme.  It  means  not  mevely  a 
hope  of  deliverance  from  danger  or  from  ven- 
geance, but  a  federal  title  to  positive  happi- 
ness, purchased  by  the  merits,  and  declared  to 
mankind  by  the  Gospel  of  Christ  Jesus  our 
Lord.  St.  Paul  calls  it  '  the  obtaining  the  sal- 
vation which  is  in  Christ  Jesus  with  eternal 
glory,''  2  Tim.  ii,  10.  '  Whosoever,'  then,  says 
the  creed,  'will'  thus  'be  saved,'  will  be  desir- 
ous to  secure   the   glorious   promises  of  the 


CON 


260 


CON 


Gospel,  must  pursue  it  upon  the  terms  which 
that  Gospel  proposes,  and  particularly  must 
embrace  the  doctrines  which  it  reveals.  The 
creed  speaks  of  those  only  to  whom  the  evi- 
dence of  the  Gospel  has  been  fully  set  forth, 
and  the  importance  of  it  fully  explained.  We 
are  to  justify  it  only  to  professed  believers,  and 
of  them  only.  The  state  and  lot  of  the  Hea- 
then world  are  quite  out  of  the  question.  Nei- 
ther common  sense  nor  Scripture  will  permit 
us  to  interpret  it  of  those  who  still  '  sit  in  dark- 
ness  and  the  shadow  of  death,'  and  never  had 
the  means  of  grace  and  the  hope  of  glory  pro- 
posed to  them.  Even  with  respect  to  those  to 
whom  the  Gospel  is  preached,  there  is  no  ne- 
cessity of  interpreting  the  words  here  used  in 
the  harshest  and  strictest  sense.  There  are 
many  distinctions  and  limitations,  which  are 
always  understood  and  supposed  in  such  cases, 
though  they  are  not  expressly  mentioned. 
General  rules  are  laid  down  as  such,  are  true 
as  such ;  while  excepted  cases  are  referred  to 
the  judgment  of  those  who  are  qualified  to 
judge  of  them,  and  are  not  particularly  pointed 
out ;  as  for  other  reasons,  so  lest  they  should 
be  extended  too  far,  and  defeat  the  general 
rule.  Sufficient  capacity  in  the  persons  to 
whom  it  is  applied,  and  sufficient  means  of  in- 
formation and  conviction,  are  always  presup- 
posed, where  faith  is  spoken  of  as  necessary. 
Where  either  of  these  is  wanting,  the  case  is 
(where  it  should  be)  in  the  hands  of  God.  The 
creed  is  laid  down  as  a  rule  of  judgment  to 
men,  not  to  their  Maker.  We  may  learn  from 
thence  on  what  terms  alone  we  can  claim  a 
title  to  the  promises  of  the  Gospel ;  but  we  do 
not  learn  from  thence  how  far  uncovenanted 
favour  may  be  extended  to  particular  persons. 
It  is  not  intended  to  exclude  the  mercy  of  God 
to  Heathens  or  heretics ;  it  being  his  preroga- 
tive, and  his  alone,  to  judge  how  far  the  error 
or  ignorance  of  any  one  is  his  wilful  fault,  or 
his  unavoidable  infirmity.  But  it  is  intended 
to  establish  the  terms  on  which  we  may  now 
claim  acceptance,  and,  in  consequence  of  his 
gracious  promise,  may  say,  that  '  God  is  faith, 
ful  and  just  to  forgive  vs  our  sins.,  The  creed 
relates  only  to  the  covenant  of  salvation  ;  and 
any  expression  which,  used  separately  without 
this  view  and  connection,  might  be  thought  to 
bear  a  stronger  and  more  absolute  sense,  yet  is 
limited  by  this  relative  coherence,  and  is  to  be 
interpreted  by  it.  '  Perishing  everlastingly,' 
in  other  discourses,  may  sometimes  be  under- 
stood of  everlasting  damnation ;  but  here  it 
means  the  being  for  ever  excluded  from  the 
only  stated  claim  of  promised  mercy.  And 
'  without  doubt,'  he  who  does  not  embrace  the 
truths  proposed  by  revelation,  has  no  title  to 
those  hopes  which  that  revelation,  and  that 
only,  offers  to  mankind.  And  even  when 
such  expressions  of  terror  are  used  in  the 
strongest  sense,  and  threatened  to  unbelief  or 
disobedience,  they  universally  imply  such  ex- 
ceptions as  these, — '  Unless  personal  disabili- 
ties lessen  the  guilt,  or  repentance  intervene  to 
prevent  the  punishment.'  In  short,  no  objec- 
tion can  be  made  against  this  assertion  in  the 
tteed,  but  what  would  hold  as  strongly  against 


that  declaration  of  our  blessed  Lord,  '  He  that 
helicveth,  and  is  baptized,  shall  be  saved;  but 
he  that  believeth  not  shall  be  damned,'  Mark 
xvi,  15.  Indeed,  this  condemnatory  sentence 
in  this  form  by  human  authority  is  plainly 
founded  on  and  borrowed  from  that  divine  au- 
thority in  the  Gospel ;  and  whatever  distinc- 
tions and  limitations  are  allowed  in  that  case 
are  equally  applicable  to  this,  and  will  fully 
justify  both.  The  necessity  of  a  true  belief  in 
all  whom  Providence  has  blessed  with  the 
means  and  opportunities  of  learning  it,  in  order 
to  entitle  them  federally  to  eternal  salvation, 
being  thus  established  upon  Scripture  proof, 
the  creed  goes  on  very  regularly  to  declare 
what  is  that  true  belief  so  indispensably  neces- 
sary." This  is,  perhaps,  all  that  can  be  said 
in  favour  of  these  comminations  ;  but  few  will 
think  it  quite  satisfactory.  The  effect  of  them 
has  doubtless  been,  to  induce  many  to  fly  to 
the  opposite  extreme  of  laxity  on  the  subject 
of  fundamental  doctrines. 

Before  leaving  the  ancient  formulas  of 
Christian  doctrine,  it  may  be  stated,  that  both 
in  the  council  of  Ephesus  against  the  Nesto- 
rians,  held  A.  D.  431 ;  and  in  that  of  Chalce- 
don,  against  the  Eutychians,  in  451 ;  it  was 
solemnly  declared  and  decreed,  that  "  Christ 
was  one  divine  person,  in  whom  two  natures, 
the  human  and  the  divine,  were  most  closely 
united,  but  without  being  mixed  or  confounded 
together." 

7.  Amid  the  variance  and  opposition  of  coun- 
cil to  council,  and  pope  to  pope,  (A.  D.  1553,) 
which  prevailed  for  centuries  in  the  Romish 
church,  it  would  be  no  easy  task  to  ascertain 
the  real  articles  of  its  confession.  The  decrees 
of  the  council  of  Trent,  however,  together 
with  the  creed  of  Pope  Pius  IV,  are  now  com- 
monly understood  to  be  the  authoritative  stand- 
ards of  its  faith  and  worship.  These,  beside 
recognising  the  authority  of  the  Apostles'  and 
the  Nicene  Creeds,  embrace  a  multitude  of 
dogmas  which  it  is  unnecessary  particularly  to 
specify,  relating  to  traditions,  the  sacraments 
of  baptism,  confirmation,  eucharist,  penance, 
extreme  unction,  order,  and  matrimony,  tran- 
substantiation,  the  sacrifice  of  the  mass, 
worshipping  of  images,  purgatory,  indul- 
gences,  &,c,   &c. 

8.  The  Greek  church  has  no  public  or  esta- 
blished confession;  but  its  creed,  so  far  as  can 
be  gathered  from  its  authorized  catechisms, 
admits  the  doctrines  of  the  Nicene  and  Athan- 
asian  Creeds,  with  the  exception  of  the  article 
in  each  concerning  the  procession  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  which  it  affirms  to  be  "from  the 
Father  only,  and  not  from  the  Father  and  the 
Son."  It  disowns  the  supremacy  and  infalli- 
bility of  the  pope,  purgatory  by  fire,  graven 
images,  and  the  restriction  of  the  sacrament 
to  one  kind;  but  acknowledges  the  seven  sa- 
craments of  the  catholics,  the  religious  use  of 
pictures,  invocation  of  saints,  transubstantia- 
tion,  and  masses  and  prayers  for  the  dead. 

9.  Though  the  Romish  church  early  appro- 
priated to  itself  the  exclusive  title  of  catholic, 
or  universal ;  and  though,  for  many  centuries, 
its  unscriptural  tenets  pervaded  the  far  greater 


CON 


261 


CON 


part  of  Europe ;  not  only  were  there  always 
some  individuals  who  adhered  to  the  doctrines 
of  genuine  Christianity,  but,  long  before  the 
Protestant  reformation,  there  appear  to  have 
been  whole  congregations  who  maintained, 
in  considerable  purity,  the  substance  of  the 
faith  contained  in  Scripture.  Such  were  the 
churches  of  the  Waldenses  in  the  valleys  of 
Piedmont,  whose  confession,  of  so  early  a  date 
as  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century,  is  still 
preserved.  It  consists  of  fourteen  articles,  of 
which  the  following  is  a  copy,  taken  from  the 
Cambridge  MSS,  and  bearing  date  A.  D. 
1120:— "(1.)  We  believe  and  firmly  hold  all 
that  which  is  contained  in  the  twelve  articles 
of  the  symbol,  which  is  called  the  Apostles' 
Creed,  accounting  for  heresy  whatsoever  is 
disagreeing,  and  not  consonant  to  the  said 
twelve  articles.  (2.)  We  do  believe  that  there 
is  one  God,  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Spirit. 
(3.)  We  acknowledge  for  the  holy  canonical 
Scriptures  the  books  of  the  Holy  Bible.  [Here 
follows  a  list  of  the  books  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testament,  exactly  the  same  as  those  we  have 
in  our  English  authorized  version.  Then  fol- 
lows a  list  of  "  the  books  apocryphal,  which," 
with  admirable  simplicity  they  say,  "are  not 
received  of  the  Hebrews.  But  we  read  them, 
as  saith  St.  Jerom  in  his  Prologue  to  the  Pro- 
verbs, '  for  the  instruction  of  the  people,  not  to 
confirm  the  authority  of  the  doctrine  of  the 
church.'"]  (4.)  The  books  above-said  teach 
this,  that  there  is  one  God,  almighty,  all-wise, 
and  all-good,  who  has  made  all  things  by  his 
goodness;  for  he  formed  Adam  in  his  own 
image  and  likeness,  but  that  by  the  envy  of 
the  devil,  and  the  disobedience  of  the  said 
Adam,  sin  has  entered  into  the  world,  and  that 
we  are  sinners  in  Adam  and  by  Adam.  (5.) 
That  Christ  was  promised  to  our  fathers  who 
received  the  law,  that  so  knowing  by  the  law 
their  sin,  unrighteousness,  and  insufficiency, 
they  might  desire  the  coming  of  Christ,  to 
satisfy  for  their  sins,  and  accomplish  the  law 
by  himself.  (6.)  That  Christ  was  born  in  the 
time  appointed  by  God  the  Father;  that  is  to 
say,  in  the  time  when  all  iniquity  abounded, 
and  not  for  the  cause  of  good  works,  for  all 
were  sinners ;  but  that  he  might  show  us  grace 
and  mercy,  as  being  faithful.  (7.)  That  Christ 
is  our  life,  truth,  peace,  and  righteousness; 
also  our  pastor,  advocate,  sacrifice,  and  priest ; 
who  died  for  the  salvation  of  all  those  that 
believe,  and  is  risen  for  our  justification.  (8.)  In 
like  manner,  we  firmly  hold  that  there  is  no 
other  Mediator  and  Advocate  with  God  the 
Father,  save  only  Jesus  Christ.  And  as  for 
the  virgin  Mary,  that  she  was  holy,  humble, 
and  full  of  grace.  And  in  like  manner  do  we 
believe  concerning  all  the  other  saints  ;  namely, 
that,  being  in  heaven,  they  wait  for  the  resur- 
rection of  their  bodies  at  the  day  of  judgment. 
(9.)  Item,  We  believe  that,  after  this  life,  there 
are  only  two  places,  the  one  for  the  saved,  and 
the  other  for  the  damned ;  the  which  two 
places  we  call  paradise  and  hell,  absolutely 
denying  that  purgatory  invented  by  antichrist, 
and  forged  contrary  to  the  truth.  (10.)  Item, 
We  have  always  accounted  as  an  unspeakable 


abomination  before  God  all  those  inventions 
of  men;  namely,  the  feasts  and  the  vigils  of 
saints,  the  water  which  they  call  holy  :  as  like, 
wise  to  abstain  from  rlesh  upon  certain  days, 
and  the  like ;  but  especially  their  masses'. 
(11.)  We  esteem  for  an  abomination,  and  as 
antichristian,  all  those  human  inventions 
which  are  a  trouble  or  prejudice  to  the  liberty 
of  the  spirit.  (12.)  We  do  believe  that  the  sa- 
craments are  signs  of  the  holy  thing,  or  visible 
forms  of  the  invisible  grace ;  accounting  it 
good  that  the  faithful  sometimes  use  the  said 
signs  or  visible  forms,  if  it  may  be  done.  How- 
ever, we  believe  and  hold,  that  the  above. said 
faithful  may  be  saved  without  receiving  the 
signs  aforesaid,  in  case  they  have  no  place  nor 
any  means  to  use  them.  (13.)  We  acknow- 
ledge no  other  sacrament  than  baptism  and 
the  Lord's  Supper.  (14.)  We  ought  to  honour 
the  secular  powers  by  submission,  ready  obe. 
dience,  and  paying  of  tributes."  These 
churches  had,  in  modern  times,  another  con- 
fession imposed  upon  them,  after  they  began 
to  receive  pastors  from  Geneva,  which  is 
strongly  tinged  with  Calvinism.  It  bears 
date  A.  D.  1655. 

10.  The  first  Protestant  confession  was  that 
presented  in  1530,  to  the  diet  of  Augsburg,  by 
the  suggestion  and  under  the  direction  of  John, 
elector  of  Sa::ony.  This  wise  and  prudent 
prince,  with  the  view  of  having  the  principal 
grounds  on  which  the  Protestants  had  separat- 
ed from  the  Romish  communion,  distinctly 
submitted  to  that  assembly,  entrusted  the  duty 
of  preparing  a  summary  of  them  to  the  divines 
of  Wittemberg.  Nor  was  that  task  a  difficult 
one ;  for  the  reformed  doctrines  had  already 
been  digested  into  seventeen  articles,  which 
had  been  proposed  at  the  conferences  both  at 
Sultzbach  and  Smalcald,  as  the  confession  of 
faith  to  be  adopted  by  the  Protestant  confede- 
rates. These,  accordingly,  were  delivered  to 
the  elector  by  Luther,  and  served  as  the  basis 
of  the  celebrated  Augsburg  confession,  writ- 
ten "by  the  elegant  and  accurate  pen  of  Me- 
lancthon  :"  a  work  which  has  been  admired  by 
many  even  of  its  enemies,  for  its  perspicuity, 
piety,  and  erudition.  It  contains  twenty-eight 
chapters,  the  leading  topics  of  which  are,  the 
true  and  essential  divinity  of  Christ ;  his  sub. 
stitution  and  vicarious  sacrifice  ;  original  sin  ; 
human  inability  ;  the  necessity,  freedom,  and 
efficacy  of  divine  grace  ;  consubstantiation  ; 
and  particularly  justification  by  faith,  to  esta- 
blish the  truth  and  importance  of  which  was 
one  of  its  chief  objects.  The  last  seven  articles 
condemn  and  confute  the  Popish  tenets  of  com- 
munion  in  one  kind,  clerical  celibacy,  private 
masses,  auricular  confession,  legendary  tradi- 
tions, monastic  vows,  and  the  exorbitant  power 
of  the  church.  This  confession  is  silent  on  the 
doctrine  of  predestination.  This  is  the  univer- 
sal standard  of  orthodox  doctrine  among  those 
who  profess  to  be  Lutherans,  in  which  no  au- 
thoritative alteration  has  ever  been  made. 

11.  The  confession  of  Basle,  originally  pre- 
sented, like  the  preceding,  to  the  diet  of  Augs- 
burg, but  not  published  till  1534,  consists  of 
only  twelve  articles,  which,  in  every  essential 


CON 


262 


CON 


point,  agree  with  those  of  the  Augsburg  con- 
fession, except  that  it  rejects  the  doctrine  of 
consubstantiation  ;  affirming  that  Christ  is  only 
spiritually  present  in  the  Lord's  Supper,  sacra- 
jneiUaliicr  iiimiriiiii,  et  per  memordtumem  fidei'; 
[that  is  to  say  BacramentaUy,  and  by  faith ;] 
and  that  it  asserts  the  doctrine  of  predestina- 
tion and  infant  baptism.  But  the  more  detailed 
creed  of  the  whole  Swiss  Protestant  churches 
is  contained  in  the  former  and  latter  Helvetic 
confessions.  The  first  was  drawn  up  in  153G, 
by  Bullinger,  Myconius,  and  Grynoeus,  in  be- 
lialT  of  the  churches  of  Helvetia,  and  presented 
to  an  assembly  of  divines  at  Wittemberg,  by 
whom  it  was  cordially  approved.  But  being 
deemed  too  concise,  a  second  was  prepared  in 
1556,  by  the  pastors  of  Zurich  ;  which  was  sub- 
scribed  not  only  by  all  the  Swiss  Protestants, 
but  by  the  churches  of  Geneva  and  Savoy,  and 
l>y  many  of  those  in  Hungary  and  Poland. 
They  fully  harmonize  with  each  other,  with 
only  this  difference,  that  the  doctrine  of  pre- 
destination, and  an  approbation  of  the  observ- 
ance of  such  religious  festivals,  as  the  nativity, 
&c,  are  to  be  found  in  the  latter  confession  only. 

12.  The  Bohemic  confession  was  compiled 
from  various  ancient  confessions  of  the  Wal- 
denses  who  had  settled  in  Bohemia,  and  ap- 
proved of  by  Luther  and  Melancthon  in  1532  ; 
but  it  was  not  published  till  1535;  when  it  was 
presented  by  the  barons  and  other  nobles  to 
King  Ferdinand.  It  extends  to  twenty  articles, 
similar  to  those  of  the  Waldensian  confession, 
with  the  addition  of  others  on  the  divinity  of 
Christ,  justification  by  faith  in  him,  "without 
any  human  help  or  merit,"  predestination,  and 
the  absolute  necessity  of  sanctification  and 
good  works. 

13.  The  confession  of  the  Saxon  churches 
was  composed  in  1551  by  Melancthon,  at  the 
desire  of  the  pastors  of  Saxony  and  Misnia  met 
in  assembly  at  Wittemberg,  in  order  to  be  pre- 
sented to  the  council  of  Trent.  It  is  contain- 
ed in  twenty -two  articles;  and  while,  like  that 
of  Augsburg,  it  is  silent  on  the  subject  of  pre- 
destination, it  lays  equal  stress  on  the  doctrine 
of  justification  by  faith ;  and  has  a  separate 
article  entitled  "  Rewards,"  in  which  the  doc- 
trine of  human  merit,  particularly  as  connected 
with  future  blessedness,  is  condemned  and 
refuted. 

14.  Some  account  of  the  framing  of  the  Eng- 
lish Confession  of  Faith  has  been  already  given 
under  the  article  Church  of  England  and  Ire- 
land. The  "  Articles  of  Religion"  are  there 
said  to  have  been  amended  and  completed  in 
the  year  1571 ;  and  the  Rev.  Henry  J.  Todd, 
in  his  very  able  work  on  this  subject,  has  shown 
their  Melanethonian  origin  and  character  by 
extracts  from  the  "Articles  of  Religion,"  "set 
out  by  the  Convocation,  and  published  by  the 
king's  authority,"  in  1536; — from  those  of 
1540  ; — from  Cranmcr's  "Necessary  Erudition 
of  urn/  Christian  Man,"  published  in  1543; — 
from  the  Homilies  on  Salvation,  Faith,  and 
Good  Works,  in  1547,  which  three  were,  accord- 
ing to  Bishop  Woolton's  unimpeached  testi- 
mony (in  1576)  composed  by  Archbishop  Cran- 
mer; — from  the  "Reformatio  Legum  Ecclesi- 


asticarnm"  "composed  under  the  superintend- 
ence of  the  same  watchful  primate,  in  1551  ;" 
— from  the  "  Articles  of  Religion,"  "  formed 
in  J  552,  almost  wholly  by  Cranmer  ;" — from 
"  Cutechismus  Brcvis.  Christiana  Disciplines 
Siunmam  contineus,"  in  1553,  which  was  pub- 
lished in  English,  as  well  as  Latin,  and  com- 
monly called  "  Edward  the  Sixth's  Catechism  ;" 
and  from  Bishop  Jewel's  celebrated  "Apologia 
Ecclesim  Anglicana,"  "published  in  1562  by 
the  queen's  authority,  thus  recognised  as  a  na- 
tional Confession  of  Faith,  and  as  such  has 
been  printed  in  the  Corpus  Confessionum  Fidei." 
"  Such,"  says  Mr.  Todd,  "  are  the  several  pub- 
lic documents  or  declarations,  produced  or 
made  before  the  establishment  of  the  Thirty- 
nine  Articles  of  Religion,  from  which  I  have 
given  extracts,  to  which  the  framers  of  these 
Articles  directed  their  attention,  with  the  spirit 
of  which  they  concur,  and  the  words  of  which 
they  almost  literally  adopt.  There  will  also 
be  found,  as  chronologically  preceding  these, 
considerable  extracts  from  the  Confession  of 
A  ugsburg,  the  whole  article  from  the  Saxon 
Confession,  De  Remissione  Peccatorum,  et  Jus- 
tificationc,  [respecting  the  forgiveness  of  sins, 
and  justification,]  and  such  passages  in  our 
Liturgy  as  concern  the  points  which  the  Arti- 
cles and  Homilies  exhibit."  No  one  who  has 
perused  these  documents  will  require  any  addi- 
tional argument  to  convince  him,  that,  in  its 
very  foundations,  the  English  Confession  of 
Faith  was  most  explicitly  in  favour  of  general 
redemption.  We  cannot  therefore  be  surprised 
at  all  the  old  orthodox  divines  of  the  church  of 
England,  from  1610  to  1660,  refusing  to  be 
called  Armimans  ;  for  they  repeatedly  declared 
that  their  own  church  openly  professed  similar 
doctrines  to  those  promulgated  by  the  Dutch 
professor,  long  before  his  name  was  known  in 
the  world.  In  this  assertion  they  were  perfectly 
correct ;  and  by  every  important  fact  in  our 
ecclesiastical  history,  as  connected  with  doc- 
trinal matters,  their  views  are  confirmed.  If 
the  Articles  were  actually  of  a  Calvinistic  com- 
plexion, as  they  are  now  often  represented  to 
be,  what  could  have  induced  Whitaker  and 
other  learned  Calvinists  to  waste  so  much  valu- 
able time  and  labour  in  fabricating  the  Lambeth 
Articles  in  1595  ?  Those  worthies  avowed,  that 
the  original  Thirty-nine  Articles  were  not  doc- 
trinal enough  for  their  purpose. — When  four 
choice  divines,  two  of  them  professors  of  di- 
vinity at  Cambridge,  were  sent  to  the  synod  of 
Dort  as  deputies  from  the  English  church,  and 
one  from  the  church  of  Scotland,  though  their 
political  instructions  went  the  full  length  of 
assisting  in  the  condemnation  and  oppression 
of  the  Arminians,  personally  considered  as  a 
troublesome  party  in  the  republic,  yet  they  had 
different  instructions  respecting  tiicir  doctrines. 
On  the  second  article,  discussed  in  that  synod, 
"  the  extent  of  Christ's  redemption,"  Balcan- 
qual,  the  deputy  from  the  church  of  Scotland, 
informs  the  English  ambassador  at  the  Hague, 
that  a  difference  had  arisen  among  the  British 
deputies  :  "The  question  among  us  is,  whether 
the  words  of  Scripture,  which  are  likewise  the 
words  of  our  confession,  be  to  be  understood 


CON 


263 


CON 


of  all  particular  men,  or  only  of  the  elect  who 
consist  of  all  sorts  of  men  ?  ■  Dr.  Da  venant  and 
Dr.  Ward  are  of  Martinius  of  Breme  his  mind, 
that  it  is  to  be  understood  of  all  particular  men : 
the  other  three  [Bishop  Carleton,  Dr.  Goad, 
and  Dr.  Balcanqual]  take  the  other  exposition, 
which  is  that  of  the  writers  of  the  reformed 
churches."  The  ambassador  wrote  home  for 
instructions,  and  received  orders  for  the  British 
deputies  "to  have  those  conclusions  concern- 
ing Christ's  death,  and  the  application  of  it  to 
us,  couched  in  manner  and  terms  as  near  as 
possibly  may  be  to  those  which  were  used  in 
the  primitive  church,  by  the  fathers  of  that 
time,  against  the  Pelagians  and  Semi-Pela- 
gians, and  not  in  any  new  phrase  of  the  mo- 
dern age ;  and  that  the  same  may  be  as  agree- 
able to  the  confessions  of  the  church  of  England 
and  other  reformed  churches,  and  with  as  little 
distaste  and  umbrage  to  the  Lutheran  churches, 
as  may  be."  Archbishop  Abbott  expressed  his 
approbation  of  their  "eautelous  moderation" 
in  withholding  their  "hand  from  pressing  in 
public  any  rigorous  exclusive  propositions  in 
the  doctrine  of  the  extent  of  our  Saviour  Christ's 
oblation."  The  history  of  this  affair,  which 
cannot  be  here  detailed,  shows,  that,  however 
willing  the  three  deputies  were  to  condemn  the 
remonstrants,  the  resistance  of  the  two  more 
moderate  divines  was  approved  by  the  authori- 
ties at  home,  and  their  opinions  on  this  subject 
were  recorded  in  such  theses  as  no  true  Cal- 
vinist  could  consistently  subscribe.  During  our 
civil  troubles  in  1C43,  the  Assembly  of  Divines 
at  Westminster  revised  the  first  fifteen  of  the 
Thirty. nine  Articles  "  with  a  design,"  as  Neal 
in  his  "History  of  the  Puritans"  candidly  de- 
clares, "  to  render  their  sense  more  express 
and  determinate  in  favour  of  Calvinism."  This 
they  found  to  be  a  hopeless  task,  as  the  ancient 
creed  was  too  incorrigible  to  be  bent  to  their 
views ;  and  they  found  it  much  easier  to  frame 
one  after  their  own  hearts,  some  account  of 
which  the  reader  will  find  in  a  subsequent 
paragraph. — All  these  facts  go  to  prove,  that 
the  best  informed  Calvinists  have  always  view- 
ed the  English  articles  as  not  sufficiently  high 
in  doctrine,  unless,  as  in  the  case  of  the  seven- 
teenth, they  be  allowed  to  interpret  them  by 
interpolations  or  qualifying  epithets. 

15.  The  confession  of  the  reformed  Gallican 
churches  was  prepared  by  order  of  a  synod  at 
Paris  in  1559  ;  and  presented  to  Charles  IX.  in 
1561,  by  the  celebrated  Beza,  in  a  conference 
with  that  monarch  at  Poissy.  It  was  published 
for  the  first  time  in  1566,  with  a  preface  by  the 
French  clergy  to  the  pastors  of  all  Protestant 
churches;  and  afterward,  in  1571,  it  was  so- 
lemnly ratified  and  subscribed  in  the  national 
synod  of  Rochelle.  It  is  extended  to  forty  ar- 
ticles ;  but  they  are  in  general  concise,  and 
embrace  the  usual  topics  of  the  other  Protestant 
confessions,  includingthe  doctrines  of  election, 
and  justification  by  faith  only. 

16.  The  Protestants  in  Scotland  having  pre- 
sented a  petition  to  parliament  in  1560,  request- 
ing the  public  condemnation  of  Popery,  and  the 
legal  acknowledgment  of  the  reformed  doctrine 
and  worship,  they  were  required  to  draw  up  a 


summary  of  the  doctrines  which  they  could 
prove   to  he   consonant   with   Scripture,   and 
which  they  were  anxious  to  have  established. 
The  ministers  on  whom  this  duty  was  devolved, 
being  well  acquainted  with  the  subject,  pre- 
pared  the  required  summary  in  the  course  of 
four  days,  and  laid  it  before  parliament,  when, 
after  having  been  read  first  before  the  Lords  of 
the  Articles,  and  afterward  twice  (the  second 
time  article  by  article)  before  the  whole  parlia- 
ment, it  received  their  sanction  as  the  establish- 
ed system  of  belief  and  worship.     It  consists  of 
twenty-five  articles,  and  coincides  with  all  the 
other  Protestant  confessions  which  affirm  the 
doctrine  of  election,  and  reject  that  of  consub- 
stantiation ;  for  although  it  is  not  so  explicit  as 
some  of  them  respecting  the  unconditional  na- 
ture of  election,  yet  a  distinct  recognition  of 
this  doctrine   pervades  the  whole  of  it;  and 
though  it  has  no  separate  article  on  justifica- 
tion, it  no  less  plainly  recognises  this  funda. 
mental  principle  of  the  Protestant  faith. 

17.  The  tenets  of  Arminius  having  obtained 
considerable  prevalence  in  Holland  toward  the 
beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century,  the  Cal- 
vinists, or  Gomarists,  as  they  were  then  called, 
appealed  to  a  national  synod,  which  was  con- 
vened at  Dort  in  1618,  by  order  of  the  states- 
general  ;  and  attended  by  ecclesiastical  deputies 
from  England,  Switzerland,  Bremen,  Hesse, 
and  the  Palatinate,  beside  the  clerical  and  lay 
representatives  of  the  reformed  churches  in  the 
United  Provinces.  The  canons  of  this  synod, 
contained  in  five  chapters,  relate  to  what  arc 
commonly  called  the  Jive  points;  namely,  par- 
ticular and  unconditional  election  ;  particular 
redemption,  or  the  limitation  of  the  saving 
effects  of  Christ's  death  to  the  elect  only ;  the 
total  corruption  of  human  nature,  and  the  total 
moral  inability  of  man  in  his  fallen  state ;  the 
irresistibility  of  divine  grace ;  and  the  final 
perseverance  of  the  saints ;  all  of  which  are 
declared  to  be  the  true  and  the  only  doctrine*; 
of  Scripture. 

18.  The  Remonstrants,  as  the  Dutch  Anni- 
nians  are  generally  called,  did  not  present  a 
confession  of  faith  to  the  synod  of  Dort,  but 
only  their  sentiments  on  the  five  points  enume- 
rated in  the  preceding  paragraph,  with  corres- 
ponding rejections  of  errors  under  each  of  thoso 
points.  However,  in  the  first  year  of  their  exile, 
they  applied  themselves  diligently  to  this  task, 
and  soon  produced  an  ample  confession,  prin- 
cipally composed  by  the  celebrated  Episcopius. 
In  the  preface  they  give  copious  reasons  for 
such  a  record  of  their  opinions;  which  Cour- 
celles  has  thus  expressed  in  a  more  summary 
manner: — "They  did  not  publish  it  for  the 
purpose  of  making  it  a  standard  of  schism,  by 
which  they  might  separate  themselves  from 
men  who  held  other  opinions  ;  nor  for  the  pur- 
pose of  having  it  esteemed  by  those  under  their 
pastoral  care  as  a  secondary  rule  of  faith ; — 
which  is  in  these  days  with  many  persons  a 
most  pernicious  abuse  of  this  kind  of  confes- 
sions. But  it  was  published  solely  with  the 
intention  to  stop  the  mouths  of  those  who 
calumniously  assert,  that  the  Remonstrants 
cherish  within  their  bosoms  portentous  dogmas 


CON 


264 


CON 


which  they  dare  not  divulge.  For  there  is  no 
cause  for  doubting,  whether  under  such  circum- 
stances and  for  this  purpose,  it  is  not  lawful 
for  men  to  publish  a  confession  of  their  faith, 
especially  as  St.  Peter  admonishes  us  '  always 
to  be  ready  to  give  an  answer  to  every  man 
that  asketh  us  a  reason  of  the  hope  that  is  in 
us  with  meekness  and  fear.'"  This  confession 
is  of  a  more  practical  character  than  any  of  the 
preceding  :  it  inculcates,  at  great  length,  all  the 
most  important  duties  of  Christianity,  and,  in 
the  words  of  the  preface,  "directs  all  things  to 
the  practice  of  Christian  piety.  For  we  believe 
that  true  divinity  is  merely  practical,  and  not 
either  simply  or  for  its  greatest  or  chief  part 
speculative  ;  and  therefore  whatever  things  arc 
delivered  therein  ought  to  be  referred  thither 
only, — that  a  man  may  be  the  more  strongly 
and  fitly  inflamed  and  encouraged  to  a  diligent 
performance  of  his  duty,  and  keeping  of  the 
commandments  of  Jesus  Christ."  In  the  Eng- 
lish translator's  address  to  the  reader  in  1676, 
it  is  said,  "Touching  the  worth  of  this  book, 
as  a  summary  of  Christian  religion,  if  Doctor 
Jeremy  Taylor's  judgment  be  of  credit  with 
thee,  I  am  credibly  informed  he  should  prefer 
it  to  be  one  of  those  two  or  three  which,  next 
the  Holy  Bible,  he  would  have  preserved  from 
the  supposed  total  destruction  of  books.  A 
high  encomium  from  the  mouth  of  so  learned 
and  pious  a  divine  !"  But  though  its  contents 
were  chiefly  practical,  one  expression  in  it, 
respecting  the  propriety  of  tolerating  in  a  Chris- 
tian community  a  man  who  denied  the  eternal 
generation  of  Jesus  Christ,  produced  a  contro- 
versy in  Holland,  as  well  as  in  this  country, 
in  which  the  famous  Bishop  Bull  eminently 
distinguished  himself.  See  Dort  and  Re- 
monstrants. 

19.  The  only  other  confession  of  which  we 
shall  take  notice  is  that  of  the  Westminster 
assembly,  which  met  in  1643,  and  at  which  five 
ministers  and  three  elders  as  commissioners 
from  the  general  assembly  of  the  church  of 
Scotland  attended,  agreeably  to  engagements 
between  the  convention  of  estates  tnere,  and 
both  houses  of  parliament  in  England.  This 
confession  is  contained  in  thirty-three  chapters, 
and  in  every  point  of  doctrine,  fully  accords 
with  the  sentiments  of  the  synod  of  Dort ;  and 
on  some  points  going  rather  beyond  it,  as  with 
respect  to  a  supposed  election  of  angels.  It  was 
approved  and  adopted  by  the  general  assembly 
in  1647  ;  and  two  years  after,  ratified  by  act  of 
parliament,  as  "the  public  and  avowed  confes- 
sion of  the  church  of  Scotland."  By  act  of 
parliament  in  1690,  it  was  again  declared  to  be 
the  national  standard  of  faith  in  Scotland;  and 
subscription  to  it  as  "the  confession  of  his 
faith,"  specially  required  of  every  person  who 
shall  be  admitted  "  a  minister  or  preacher  with- 
in this  church."  Subscription  to  it  was  also 
enjoined  by  the  act  of  union  in  1707,  on  all 
"professors,  principals,  regents,  masters,  and 
others  bearing  office,"  in  any  of  the  Scottish 
universities. 

j  CONFLAGRATION,  a  general  burning  of 
a  city,  or  other  considerable  place.  But  the 
word  is  more  ordinarily  restrained  to  that  grand 


period,  or  catastrophe  of  our  world,  wherein 
the  face  of  nature  is  expected  to  be  changed  by 
a  deluge  of  fire,  as  it  was  anciently  by  that  of 
water.  The  ancient  Chaldeans,  Pythagoreans, 
Platonists,  Epicureans,  Stoics,  Celts,  and  Etru- 
rians, appear  to  have  had  a  notion  of  the  con- 
flagration ;  though  whence  they  should  derive 
it,  unless  from  the  sacred  books,  it  is  difficult 
to  conceive  ;  except,  perhaps,  from  the  Pheni- 
cians,  who  themselves  had  it  from  the  Jews. 
The  Celts,  whose  opinions  resembled  those  of 
the  eastern  nations,  held,  that  after  the  burning 
of  the  world,  a  new  period  of  existence  would 
commence.  The  ancient  Etrurians,  or  Tus- 
cans, also  concurred  with  other  western  and 
northern  nations  of  Celtic  origin,  as  well  aa 
with  the  Stoics,  in  asserting  the  entire  renova- 
tion of  nature  after  a  long  period,  or  great 
year,  when  a  similar  succession  of  events  would 
again  take  place.  The  cosmogony  of  an  an- 
cient Etrurian,  preserved  by  Suidas,  limits  the 
duration  of  the  universe  to  a  period  of  twelve 
thousand  years;  six  thousand  of  which  passed 
in  the  production  of  the  visible  world,  before 
the  formation  of  man.  The  Stoics  also  main- 
tained that  the  world  is  liable  to  destruction 
from  the  prevalence  of  moisture  or  of  drought ; 
the  former  producing  a  universal  inundation, 
and  the  latter,  a  universal  conflagration. 
"These,"  they  say,  "succeed  each  other  in 
nature,  as  regularly  as  winter  and  summer." 
The  doctrine  of  conflagration  is  a  natural  con- 
sequence of  the  general  system  of  Stoicism ; 
for,  since,  according  to  this  system,  the  whole 
process  of  nature  is  carried  on  in  a  necessary 
scries  of  causes  and  effects,  wben  that  opera- 
tive fire,  which  at  first,  bursting  from  chaos, 
gave  form  to  all  things,  and  which  has  since 
pervaded  and  animated  all  nature,  shall  have 
consumed  its  nutriment ;  that  is,  when  the  va- 
pours, which  are  the  food  of  the  celestial  fires, 
shall  be  exhausted,  a  deficiency  of  moisture 
must  produce  a  universal  conflagration.  This 
grand  revolution  in  nature  is,  after  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Stoics,  thus  elegantly  described 
by  Ovid : — 

"  Esse  quoque  in  falis  reminiseitur,  nffore  tempus 
Quo  mare,  quo  tellus,  correptaque  regia  cceli 
Ardeal  ;  et  mitndi  moles  opernsa  laboret." 

Metamor.  lib.  i,  25G. 

or,  as  Dryden  has  translated  the  passage, — 

"Rcmcmb'ring  in  the  fates  a  time  when  fire 
Should  to  the  battlements  of  heaven  aspire ; 
NYi:en  all  his  blazing  worlds  above  should  burn, 
And  all  the  inferior  globe  to  cinders  turn." 

Seneca,  speaking  of  the  same  event,  says 
expressly,  "  Tempus  advmrit  quo  sidera  side- 
ribus  inntrrent,  et  omni  flagrante  materia  vno 
igne,  quicquid  mine  ex  deposito  lucet,  ar debit;" 
that  is,  "  the  time  will  come  when  the  world 
will  be  consumed,  that  it  may  be  again  renew- 
ed ;  when  the  powers  of  nature  will  be  turned 
against  herself,  when  stars  will  rush  upon  stars, 
and  the  whole  material  world,  which  now  ap- 
pears resplendent  with  beauty  and  harmony, 
will  be  destroyed  in  one  general  conflagration." 
In  this  grand  catastrophe  of  nature,  all  ani- 
mated beings,  (excepting  the  Universal  Intel. 


CON 


265 


CON 


ligence,)  men,  heroes,  demons,  and  gods,  shall 
perish  together.  Seneca,  the  tragedian,  who 
was  of  the  same  school  with  the  philosopher, 
writes  to  the  same  purpose  : — 

"  Ca.li  re.gia  concidens 
Certos  atque  obilus  trails'.  : 
Atque  omnes  pariter  decs 
Perdet  mors  aliqua,  et  chaos." 
"  The  mighty  palace  of  the  sky- 
In  ruin  f'all'n  is  doomed  to  lie ; 
And  all  the  gods,  its  wreck  beneath, 
Shall  sink  in  chaos  and  in  death." 

The  Pythagoreans  also  maintained  the  dogma 
of  conflagration.  To  this  purpose  Hippasus, 
of  Metapontum,  taught  that  the  universe  is 
finite,  is  always  changing,  and  undergoes  a 
periodical  conflagration.  Philolaus,  who  flou- 
rished in  the  time  of  Plato,  maintained  that 
the  world  is  liable  to  destruction  both  by  fire 
and  water.  Mention  of  the  conflagration  is 
also  several  times  made  in  the  books  of  the 
Sibyls,  Sophocles,  Lucan,  &c.  Dr.  Burnet, 
after  F.  Tachard  and  others,  relates  that  the 
Siamese  believe  that  the  earth  will  at  last  be 
parched  up  with  heat,  the  mountains  melted 
down,  and  the  earth's  whole  surface  reduced 
to  a  level,  and  then  consumed  with  fire.  And 
the  Bramins  of  Siam  do  not  only  hold  that  the 
world  shall  be  destroyed  by  fire,  but  also  that 
a  new  earth  shall  be  made  out  of  the  cinders 
of  the  old.  The  sacred  Scriptures  announce 
this  general  destruction  of  the  world  by  fire  in 
a  variety  of  passages. 

2.  Various  are  the  sentiments  of  authors  on 
the  subject  of  the  conflagration  ;  the  cause 
whence  it  is  to  arise,  and  the  effects  it  is  to  pro- 
duce. Divines  ordinarily  account  for  it  meta- 
physically ;  and  will  have  it  take  its  rise  from 
a  miracle,  as  a  fire  from  heaven.  Philosophers 
contend  for,its  being  produced  from  natural 
causes  ;  and  will  have  it  effected  according  to 
the  laws  of  mechanics :  some  think  an  erup- 
tion of  a  central  fire  sufficient  for  the  purpose  ; 
and  add,  that  this  may  be  occasioned  several 
ways ;  namely,  either  by  having  its  intensity 
increased,  (which,  again,  maybe  effected  either 
by  bsing  driven  into  less  space  by  the  encroach- 
ments of  the  superficial  cold,  or  by  an  increase 
of  the  inflammability  of  the  fuel  whereon  it  is 
fed,)  or  by  having  the  resistance  of  imprison- 
ing earth  weakened  ;  which  may  happen  cither 
from  the  diminution  of  its  matter,  by  the  con- 
sumption of  its  central  parts,  or  by  weakening 
the  cohesion  of  the  constituent  parts  of  the 
mass,  by  the  excess  or  the  defect  of  moisture. 
Others  look  for  the  cause  of  the  conflagration  in 
the  atmosphere  ;  and  suppose  that  some  of  the 
meteors  there  engendered  in  unusual  quanti- 
ties, and  exploded  with  unusual  vehemence, 
from  the  concurrency  of  various  circumstances, 
may  be  made  to  effect  it,  without  seeking  any 
farther.  The  astrologers  account  for  it  from  a 
conjunction  of  all  the  planets  in  the  sign  Can- 
cer ;  "as  the  deluge,"  say  they,  "was  occa- 
sioned by  their  conjunction  in  Capricorn." 
This  was  an  opinion  adopted  by  the  ancient 
Chaldeans.  Lastly :  others  have  recourse  to  a 
still  more  effectual  and  flaming  machine  ;  and 
conclude  the  world  is  to  undergo  its  conflagra- 


tion from  the  near  approach  of  a  comet,  in  its 
return  from  the  sun.  It  is  most  natural  to  con- 
clude, that,  as  the  Scriptures  represent  the  catas- 
trophe as  the  work  of  a  moment,  no  gradually 
operating  natural  cause  will  be  employed  to 
effect  it,  but  that  He  who  spake  and  the  world 
was  created,  will  again  destroy  it  by  the  same 
word  of  his  power  ;  setting  loose  at  once  the 
all-devouring  element  of  fire  to  absorb  all 
others.     Beyond  this,  all  is  conjecture. 

CONFUSION  OF  TONGUES  is  a  memo- 
rable  event,  which  happened  in  the  one  hun- 
dred and  first  year,  according  to  the  Hebrew 
chronology,  after  the  flood,  B.  C.  2247,  at  the 
overthrow  of  Babel ;  and  which  was  providen- 
tially brought  about,  in  order  to  facilitate  the 
dispersion  of  mankind,  and  the  population  of 
the  earth.  Until  this  period,  there  had  been 
one  common  language,  which  formed  a  bond 
of  union,  that  prevented  the  separation  of  man- 
kind into  distinct  nations. 

2.  There  has  been  a  considerable  difference 
of  opinion  as  to  the  nature  of  this  confusion, 
and  the  manner  in  which  it  was  effected. 
Some  learned  men,  prepossessed  with  the  no- 
tion that  all  the  different  idioms  now  in  the 
world  did  at  first  arise  from  one  original  lan- 
guage, to  which  they  may  be  reduced,  and  that 
the  variety  among  them  is  no  more  than  must 
naturally  have  happened  in  a  long  course  of 
time  by  the  mere  separation  of  the  builders  of 
Babel,  have  maintained,  that  there  were  no 
new  languages  formed  at  the  confusion ;  but 
that  this  event  was  accomplished  by  creating 
a  misunderstanding  and  variance  among  the 
builders,  without  any  immediate  influence  on 
their  language.  But  this  opinion,  advanced  by 
Le  Clerc,  &c,  seems  to  be  directly  contrary  to 
the  obvious  meaning  of  the  word  nflty,  lip,  used 
by  the  sacred  historian  ;  which,  in  other  parts 
of  Scripture  signifies  speech,  Psalm  lxxxi,  5 ; 
Isaiah  xxviii,  11 ;  xxxiii,  19  ;  Ezekiel  iii,  5.  It 
has  been  justly  remarked,  that  unanimity  of 
sentiment,  and  identity  of  language,  are  par- 
ticularly distinguished  from  each  other,  in  the 
history :  "  The  people  is  one,  and  they  have 
all  one  language,"  Gen.  xi,  6.  It  has  been  also 
suggested,  that  if  disagreement  in  opinion  and 
counsel  were  the  whole  that  was  intended,  it 
would  have  had  a  contrary  effect ;  they  would 
not  have  desisted  from  their  project,  but 
strenuously  have  maintained  their  respective 
opinions,  till  the  greater  number  of  them 
had  compelled  the  minority  either  to  fly  or 
to  submit.  Others  have  imagined,  that  this 
was  brought  about  by  a  temporary  confusion 
of  their  speech,  or  rather  of  their  apprehen. 
sions,  causing  them,  while  they  continued  to- 
gether and  spoke  the  same  language,  to  under- 
stand the  words  differently:  Scaliger  is  of  this 
opinion.  Others  again  account  for  this  event, 
by  the  privation  of  all  language,  and  by  sup- 
posing that  mankind  were  under  a  necessity 
of  associating  together,  and  of  imposing  new 
names  on  things  by  common  consent.  An- 
other opinion  ascribes  the  confusion  to  such 
an  indistinct  remembrance  of  the  original  lan- 
guage which  they  spoke  before,  as  made  them 
speak  it  very  differently  ;  so  that  by  the  vari- 


CON 


266 


CON 


ous  inflections,  terminations,  and  pronuncia- 
tions of  divert  dialects,  they  could  no  more 
understand  one  another,  than  they  who  under- 
stand Latin  can  understand  those  who  speak 
French,  Italian,  or  Spanish,  though  all  these 
languages  arise  out  of  it.  This  opinion  is 
adopted  by  Casaubon,  and  by  Bishop  Patrick  in 
his  Commentary,  and  is  certainly  much  more 
probable  than  either  of  the  former :  and  Mr. 
Shuckford  maintains,  that  the  confusion  arose 
from  small  beginnings,  by  the  invention  of  new 
words  in  either  of  the  three  families  of  Shem, 
Ham,  and  Japhet,  which  might  contribute  to 
separate  them  from  one  another  ;  and  that  in 
each  family  new  differences  of  speech  might 
gradually  arise,  so  that  each  of  these  families 
went  on  to  divide  and  subdivide  among  them- 
selves. Others,  again,  as  Mr.  Joseph  Mede 
and  Dr.  Wotton,  &c,  not  satisfied  with  either 
of  the  foregoing  methods  of  accounting  for  the 
diversity  of  languages  among  mankind,  have 
recourse  to  an  extraordinary  interposition  of 
divine  power,  by  which  new  languages  were 
framed  and  communicated  to  different  families 
hy  a  supernatural  infusion  or  inspiration  ;  which 
languages  have  been  the  roots  and  originals 
from  which  the  several  dialects  that  are,  or 
have  been,  or  will  be,  spoken,  as  long  as  this 
earth  shall  last,  have  arisen,  and  to  which  they 
may  with  ease  be  reduced. 

3.  It  is,  however,  unnecessary  to  suppose, 
that  the  primitive  language  was  completely 
obliterated,  and  entire  new  modes  of  speech  at 
once  introduced.  It  was  quite  sufficient,  if 
such  changes  only  were  effected,  as  to  render 
the  speech  of  different  companies  or  different 
tribes  unintelligible  to  one  another,  that  their 
mutual  cooperation  in  the  mad  attempt  in 
which  they  had  all  engaged  might  be  no  longer 
practicable.  The  radical  stem  of  the  first  lan- 
guage might  therefore  remain  in  all,  though 
new  dialects  were  formed,  bearing  among 
themselves  a  similar  relation  with  what  we  find 
in  the  languages  of  modern  Europe,  derived 
from  the  same  parent  stem,  whether  Gothic, 
Latin,  or  Sclavonian.  In  the  midst  of  these 
changes,  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the 
primitive  language  itself,  unaltered,  would  still 
be  preserved  in  some  one  at  least  of  the  tribes 
or  families  of  the  human  race.  Now  in  none 
of  these  was  the  transmission  so  likely  to  have 
taken  place,  as  among  that  branch  of  the 
descendants  of  Shem,  from  which  the  patriarch 
Abraham  proceeded.  Upon  these  grounds, 
therefore,  we  may  probably  conclude,  that  the 
language  spoken  by  Abraham,  and  by  him 
transmitted  to  his  posterity,  was  in  fact  the 
primitive  language,  modified  indeed  and  ex- 
tended in  the  course  of  time,  but  still  retaining 
its  essential  parts  far  more  completely  than 
any  other  of  the  languages  of  men.  If  these 
conclusions  are  well  founded,  they  warrant  the 
inference,  that,  in  the  ancient  Hebrew,  there 
are  still  to  be  found  the  traces  of  the  original 
speech.  Whether  this  ancient  Hebrew  more 
nearly  resembled  the  Chaldean,  the  Syrian,  or 
what  is  now  termed  the  Hebrew,  it  is  unne- 
cessary here  to  inquire;  these  languages,  it 
has  never  been  denied,    were    originally  and 


radically  the  same,  though,  from  subsequent 
modifications,  they  appear  to  have  assumed 
somewhat  different  aspects. 

CONGREGATIONALISTS,  a  denomina- 
tion of  Protestants  who  reject  all  church  go- 
vernment, except  that  of  a  single  congrega- 
tion under  the  direction  of  one  pastor,  with 
their  elders,  assistants,  or  managers.  In  one 
particular,  the  Congregationalists  differ  from 
the  Independents  :  the  former  invite  councils, 
which,  however,  only  tender  their  advice  ;  but 
the  latter  are  accustomed  to  decide  all  difficulties 
within  themselves.     See  Independents. 

CONSCIENCE  is  that  principle,  power,  or 
faculty  within  us,  which  decides  on  the  merit 
or  demerit  of  our  own  actions,  feelings,  or 
affections,  with  reference  to  the  rule  of  God's 
law.  It  has  been  called  the  moral  sense  by 
Lord  Shaftesbury  and  Dr.  Hutcheson.  This 
appellation  has  been  objected  to  by  some,  but 
has  been  adopted  and  defended  by  Dr.  Reid, 
who  says,  "  The  testimony  of  our  moral  faculty, 
like  that  of  the  external  senses,  is  the  testimony 
of  nature,  and  we  have  the  same  reason  to  rely 
upon  it."  He  therefore  considers  conscience 
as  an  original  faculty  of  our  nature,  which 
decides  clearly,  authoritatively,  and  instanta- 
neously, on  every  object  that  falls  within  its 
province.  "  As  we  rely,"  says  he,  "  upon  the 
clear  and  distinct  testimony  of  our  eyes,  con- 
cerning the  colours  and  figures  of  the  bodies 
about  us,  we  have  the  same  reason  to  rely, 
with  security,  upon  the  clear  and  unbiassed 
testimony  of  our  conscience,  with  regard  to 
what  we  ought  and  ought  not  to  do."  But  Dr. 
Reid  is  surely  unfortunate  in  illustrating  the 
power  of  conscience  by  the  analogy  of  the 
external  senses.  With  regard  to  the  intimations 
received  through  the  organs  of  sense,  there 
can  be  no  difference  of  opinion,  and  there  can 
be  no  room  for  argument.  They  give  us  at 
once  correct  information,  which  reasoning  can 
neither  invalidate  nor  confirm.  But  it  is  surely 
impossible  to  say  as  much  for  the  power  of 
conscience,  which  sometimes  gives  the  most 
opposite  intimations  with  regard  to  the  simplest 
moral  facts,  and  which  requires  to  be  corrected 
by  an  accurate  attention  to  the  established  order 
of  nature,  or  to  the  known  will  of  God,  before 
we  can  rely  with  confidence  on  its  decisions. 
It  does  not  appear,  that  conscience  can  with 
propriety  be  considered  as  a  principle  distinct 
from  that  which  enables  us  to  pronounce  on 
the  general  merit  or  demerit  of  moral  actions. 
This  principle,  or  faculty,  is  attended  with 
peculiar  feelings,  when  we  ourselves  are  the 
agents;  we  are  then  too  deeply  interested  to 
view  the  matter  as  a  mere  subject  of  reasoning ; 
and  pleasure  or  pain  are  excited,  with  a  degree 
of  intensity  proportioned  to  the  importance 
which  we  always  assign  to  our  own  interests 
and  feelings.  In  the  case  of  others,  our  appro- 
bation or  disapprobation  is  generally  qualified, 
sometimes  suspended,  by  our  ignorance  of  "he 
motives  by  which  they  have  been  influenced; 
but,  in  our  own  case,  the  motives  and  the 
actions  are  both  before  us,  and  when  they  do 
not  correspond,  we  feel  the  same  disgust  with 
ourselves  that  we  should  feel  toward  another, 


COiN 


267 


CON 


whose  motives  we  knew  to  be  vicious,  while 
his  actions  are  specious  and  plausible.  But  in 
our  own  case,  the  uneasy  feeling'  is  heightened 
in  a  tenfold  degree,  because  self-contempt  and 
disgust  are  brought  into  competition  with  the 
warmest  self-love,  and  the  strongest  desire  of 
self-approbation.  We  have  then  something  of 
the  feelings  of  a  parent,  who  knows  the  worth- 
lessness  of  the  child  he  loves,  and  contemplates 
with  horror  the  shame  and  infamy  which  might 
arise  from  exposure  to  the  world. 

2.  Conscience,  then,  cannot  be  considered 
as  any  thing  else  than  the  general  principle  of 
moral  approbation  or  disapprobation  applied  to 
our  own  feelings  or  conduct,  acting  with  in- 
creased energy  from  the  knowledge  which  we 
have  of  our  motives  and  actions,  and  from  the 
deep  interest  which  we  take  in  whatever  con- 
cerns ourselves ;  nor  can  we  think  that  they 
have  deserved  well  of  morals  or  philosophy, 
who  have  attempted  to  deduce  our  notions  of 
right  and  wrong  from  any  one  principle.  Va- 
rious powers  both  of  the  understanding  and  of 
the  will  are  concerned  in  every  moral  conclu- 
sion ;  and  conscience  derives  its  chief  and 
most  salutary  influence  from  the  consideration 
of  our  being  continually  in  the  presence  of 
God,  and  accountable  to  him  for  all  our 
thoughts,  words,  and  actions.  A  conscience 
well  informed,  and  possessed  of  sensibility,  is 
the  best  security  for  virtue,  and  the  most  aw- 
ful avenger  of  wicked  deeds  ;  an  ill-informed 
conscience  is  the  most  powerful  instrument  of 
mischief ;  a  squeamish  and  ticklish  conscience 
generally  renders  those  who  are  under  its  in- 
fluence ridiculous. 

Hie  murus  aheneus  esto, 
Nil  conscire  sibi,  nulla  pallescere  culpa. 

[Let  a  consciousness  of  innocence,  and  a  fearlessness 
of  any  accusation,  be  thy  brazen  bulwark.] 

3.  The  rule  of  conscience  is  the  will  of  God, 
so  far  as  it  is  made  known  to  us,  either  by  the 
light  of  nature,  or  by  that  of  revelation.  With 
respect  to  the  knowledge  of  this  rule,  con- 
science is  said  to  be  rightly  informed,  or  mis- 
taken ;  firm,  or  wavering,  or  scrupulous,  &c. 
With  respect  to  the  conformity  of  our  actions 
to  this  rule  when  known,  conscience  is  said  to 
be  good  or  evil.  In  a  moral  view,  it  is  of  the 
greatest  importance  that  the  understanding  be 
well  informed,  in  order  to  render  the  judgment 
or  verdict  of  conscience  a  safe  directory  of 
conduct,  and  a  proper  source  of  satisfaction. 
Otherwise,  the  judgment  of  conscience  may 
be  pleaded,  and  it  has  actually  been  pleaded, 
as  an  apology  for  very  unwarrantable  conduct. 
Many  atrocious  acts  of  persecution  have  been 
perpetrated,  and  afterward  justified,  under  the 
sanction  of  an  erroneous  conscience.  It  is 
also  of  no  small  importance,  that  the  sensi- 
bility of  conscience  be  duly  maintained  and 
cherished;  for  want  of  which  men  have  often 
been  betrayed  into  criminal  conduct  without 
self-reproach,  and  have  deluded  themselves 
with  false  notions  of  their  character  and  state. 
See  Moral  Obligation. 

CONSECRATION,  a  devoting  or  setting 
apart  any  thing  to  the  worship  or  service  of 


God.  The  Mosaical  law  ordained  that  all  the 
first-born,  both  of  man  and  beast,  should  be 
sanctified  or  consecrated  to  God.  The  whole 
race  of  Abraham  was  in  a  peculiar  manner 
consecrated  to  his  worship;  and  the  tribe  of 
Levi  and  family  of  Aaron  were  more  imme- 
diately consecrated  to  the  service  of  God 
Exod.  xiii,  2,  12,  15;  Num.  iii,  12;  1  Peter 
ii,  0.  Beside  the  consecrations  ordained  by 
the  sovereign  authority  of  God,  there  were 
others  which  depended  on  the  will  of  men, 
and  were  either  to  continue  for  ever  or  for  a 
time  only.  David  and  Solomon  devoted  the 
Nethinims  to  the  service  of  the  temple  for 
ever,  Ezra  viii,  20 ;  ii,  58.  Hannah,  the 
mother  of  Samuel,  offered  her  son  to  the 
Lord,  to  serve  all  his  life-time  in  the  taber- 
nacle, 1  Sam.  i,  11 ;  Luke  i,  15.  The  He- 
brews sometimes  devoted  their  fields  and  cattle 
to  the  Lord,  and  the  spoils  taken  in  war, 
Leviticus  xxvii,  28,  29;  1  Chron.  xviii,  11. 
The  New  Testament  furnishes  us  with  in- 
stances of  consecration.  Christians  in  general 
are  consecrated  to  the  Lord,  and  are  a  holy 
race,  a  chosen  people,  1  Peter  ii,  9.  Ministers 
of  the  Gospel  are  in  a  peculiar  manner  set 
apart  for  his  service ;  and  so  are  places  of 
worship ;  the  forms  of  dedication  varying  ac- 
cording to  the  views  of  different  bodies  of 
Christians;  and  by  some  a  series  of  ceremo- 
nies has  been  introduced,  savouring  of  super- 
stition, or  at  best  of  Judaism. 

CONSUBSTANTIALLSTS.  This  term 
was  applied  to  the  orthodox,  or  Athanasians, 
who  believed  the  Son  to  be  of  the  same  sub- 
stance with  the  Father;  whereas  the  Arians 
would  only  admit  the  Son  to  be  of  like  sub- 
stance with  the  Father. 

CONSUBSTANTIATION,  a  tenet  of  the 
Lutheran  church  respecting  the  presence  of 
Christ  in  the  Lord's  Supper.  Luther  denied 
that  the  elements  were  changed  after  conse- 
cration, and  therefore  taught  that  the  bread 
and  wine  indeed  remain ;  but  that  together 
with  them,  there  is  present  the  substance  of 
the  body  of  Christ,  which  is  literally  received 
by  communicants.  As  in  red-hot  iron  it  may 
be  said  two  distinct  substances,  iron  and  fire, 
are  united,  so  is  the  body  of  Christ  joined  with 
the  bread.  Some  of  his  followers,  who  ac- 
knowledged that  similes  prove  nothing,  con- 
tented themselves  with  saying  that  the  body 
and  blood  of  Christ  are  really  present  in  the 
sacrament  in  an  inexplicable  manner.  See 
Lord's  Sur-rER. 

CONVERSATIONS.  These  were  held  by 
the  orientals  in  the  gate  of  the  city.  Accord- 
ingly, there  was  an  open  space  near  the  gate, 
which  was  fitted  up  with  seats  for  the  accom- 
modation of  the  people,  Gen.  xix,  1 ;  Psalm 
lxix,  12.  Those  who  were  at  leisure  occupied 
a  position  on  these  seats,  and  either  amused 
themselves  with  witnessing  those  who  came  in 
and  went  out,  and  with  any  trifling  occur- 
rences that  might  offer  themselves  to  their 
notice,  or  attended  to  the  judicial  trials,  which 
were  commonly  investigated  at  public  places 
of  this  kind,  namely,  the  gate  of  the  city,  Gen. 
xix,  1;  xxxiv,  20;  Psalm  xxvi,  4,  5;  lxix,  12  r 


COP 


268 


COP 


cxxvii,  5 ;  Ruth  iv,  11 ;  Isaiah  xiv,  31 ;  or  held 
intercourse  by  conversation.  Promenading, 
eo  fashionable  and  so  agreeable  in  colder  lati- 
tudes, was  wearisome  and  unpleasant  in  the 
warm  climates  of  the  east,  and  this  is  probably 
one  reason  why  the  inhabitants  of  those 
climates  preferred  holding  intercourse  with 
one  another,  while  sitting  near  the  gate  of  the 
city,  or  beneath  the  shade  of  the  fig  tree  and 
the  vine,  1  Samuel  xxii,  6 ;  Micah  iv,  4.  The 
formula  of  assent  in  conversation  was  20  clzas, 
pmai,  Thou  hast  said,  or  Thou  hast  rightly 
said.  We  are  informed  by  the  traveller  Aryda, 
that  this  is  the  prevailing  mode  of  a  person's 
expressing  his  assent  or  affirmation  to  this  day, 
in  the  vicinity  of  Mount  Lebanon,  especially 
where  he  does  not  wish  to  assert  any  thing  in 
express  terms.  This  explains  the  answer  of 
the  Saviour  to  the  high  priest  Caiaphas  in 
Matt,  xxvi,  64,  when  he  was  asked  whether 
he  was  the  Christ,  the  Son  of  God,  and  replied, 
tu  eirras,  Thou  hast  said. 

The  English  word  conversation  has  now  a 
more  restricted  sense  than  formerly ;  and  it  is 
to  be  noted  that  in  several  passages  of  our 
translation  of  the  Bible  it  is  used  to  compre- 
hend our  whole  conduct. 

CONVERSION,  a  change  from  one  state 
or  character  to  another.  Conversion,  con- 
sidered theologically,  consists  in  a  renovation 
of  the  heart  and  life,  or  a  being  turned  from 
sin  and  the  power  of  Satan  unto  God,  Acts 
xxvi,  18 ;  and  is  produced  by  the  influence  of 
divine  grace  upon  the  soul.  This  is  conver- 
sion considered  as  a  state  of  mind ;  and  is  op- 
posed both  to  a  careless  and  unawakened  state, 
and  to  that  state  of  conscious  guilt  and  slavish 
dread,  accompanied  with  struggles  after  a 
moral  deliverance  not  yet  attained,  which 
precedes  our  justification  and  regeneration ; 
both  of  which  are  usually  understood  to  be 
comprised  in  conversion.  But  this  is  not  the 
only  Scriptural  import  of  the  term ;  for  the 
first  turning  of  the  whole  heart  to  God  in  peni- 
tence and  prayer  is  generally  termed  conver- 
sion. In  its  stricter  sense,  as  given  above,  it 
is,  however,  now  generally  used  by  divines. 

CONVICTION,  in  general,  is  the  assurance 
of  the  truth  of  any  proposition.  In  a  religious 
sense,  it  is  the  first  degree  of  repentance,  and 
implies  an  affecting  sense  of  our  guilt  before 
God ;  and  that  we  deserve  and  are  exposed  to 
his  wrath. 

COPPER,  namj.  Anciently,  copper  was 
employed  for  all  the  purposes  for  which  we 
now  use  iron.  Anns,  and  tools  for  husbandry 
and  the  mechanic  arts,  were  all  of  this  metal 
for  many  ages.  Job  speaks  of  bows  of  copper, 
Job  xx,  24;  and  when  the  Philistines  had 
Samson  in  their  power,  they  bound  him  with 
fetters  of  copper.  Our  translators  indeed  say 
"brass;"  but  under  that  article  their  mistake 
is  pointed  out.  In  Ezra  viii,  27,  are  mentioned 
"  two  vessels  of  copper,  precious  as  gold." 
The  Septuagint  renders  it  okcv>)  ^aA/co?  s'Movtos  ; 
the  Vulgate  and  Castellio,  following  the  Ara- 
bic, "vasa  aris  fulgentis;"  and  the  Syriac, 
"vases  of  Corinthian  brass."  It  is  more  pro- 
bable, however,  that  this  brass  was  not  from 


Corinth,  but  a  metal  from  Persia  or  India, 
which  Aristotle  describes  in  these  terms :  "  It 
is  said  that  there  is  in  India  a  brass  so  shining, 
so  pure,  so  free  from  tarnish,  that  its  colour 
differs  nothing  from  that  of  gold.  It  is  even 
said  that  among  the  vessels  of  Darius  there 
were  some  respecting  which  the  sense  of 
smelling  might  determine  whether  they  were 
gold  or  brass.  Bochart  is  of  opinion  that  this 
is  the  chasmal  of  Ezekiel  i,  27,  the  ^aX/coXi'Sarov 
of  Rev.  i,  15,  and  the  electrum  of  the  anciente. 

Mr.  Harmer  quotes  from  the  manuscript 
notes  of  Sir  John  Chardin  a  reference  to  a 
mixed  metal  in  the  east,  and  highly  esteemed 
there ;  and  suggests  that  this  composition 
might  have  been  as  old  as  the  time  of  Ezra, 
and  be  brought  from  those  more  remote  coun- 
tries into  Persia,  where  these  two  basins  were 
given  to  be  conveyed  to  Jerusalem.  Ezekiel, 
xxvii,  13,  speaks  of  the  merchants  of  Javan, 
Jubal,  and  Meshech,  as  bringing  vessels  of 
nehesh  (copper)  to  the  markets  of  Tyre.  Ac- 
cording to  Bochart  and  Michaelis,  these  were 
people  situated  toward  Mount  Caucasus,  where 
copper  mines  are  worked  at  this  day.  See 
Brass. 

COPTS,  a  name  given  to  the  Christians  of 
Egypt  who  do  not  belong  to  the  Greek  church, 
but  are  Monophysites,  and  in  most  respects 
Jacobites.  Scaliger  and  Father  Simon  derive 
the  name  from  Coptos,  once  a  celebrated 
town  of  Egypt,  and  the  metropolis  of  the 
Thebaid  ;  but  Volney  and  others  are  of  opinion, 
that  the  name  Copts  is  only  an  abbreviation  of 
the  Greek  word  Aigouptios,  "  an  Egyptian." 
The  Copts  have  a  patriarch,  whose  jurisdiction 
extends  over  both  Egypts,  Nubia,  and  Abyssi- 
nia ;  who  resides  at  Cairo,  but  who  takes  his 
title  from  Alexandria.  He  has  under  him 
eleven  or  twelve  bishops,  beside  the  abuna,  or 
bishop  of  the  Abyssinians,  whom  he  appoints 
and  consecrates.  The  rest  of  the  clergy, 
whether  secular  or  regular,  are  composed  of 
the  orders  of  St.  Anthony,  St.  Paul,  and  St. 
Macarius,  who  have  each  their  monasteries. 
Their  arch-priests,  who  are  next  in  degree  to 
bishops,  and  their  deacons,  are  said  to  be 
numerous ;  and  they  often  confer  the  order  of 
deacon  even  on  children.  Next  to  the  patri- 
arch is  the  bishop,  or  titular  patriarch,  of 
Jerusalem,  who  also  resides  at  Cairo,  because 
there  are  only  few  Copts  at  Jerusalem.  He 
is,  in  reality,  little  more  than  bishop  of 
Cairo  ;  except  that  he  goes  to  Jerusalem  every 
Easter,  and  visits  some  other  places  in  Pales- 
tine, which  own  his  jurisdiction.  To  him  be- 
longs the  government  of  the  Coptic  church, 
during  the  vacancy  of  the  patriarchal  see. 
The  ecclesiastics  are  said  to  be,  in  general,  of 
the  lowest  ranks  of  the  people  ;  and  hence 
that  great  degree  of  ignorance  which  prevails 
among  them.  They  have  seven  sacraments; 
baptism,  the  eucharist,  confirmation,  ordina- 
tion, faith,  fasting,  and  prayer.  They  admit 
only  three  a'c'umenical  councils;  those  of 
Nice,  Constantinople,  and  Ephesus.  There 
are  three  Coptic  liturgies ;  one  attributed  to 
St.  Basil,  another  to  St.  Gregory,  and  the 
third  to  St.  Cyril.     At  present,  however,  little 


COR 


269 


COR 


more  than  the  mere  shadow  of  Christianity 
can  be  seen  in  Egypt ;  and,  in  point  of  num- 
bers, not  more  than  fifty  thousand  Christians 
in  all  can  be  found  in  this  country.  There  are 
not  more  than  three  Christian  churches  at  Cairo. 
CORAL,  niDtn,  Job  xxviii,  18  ;  Ezek.  xxvii, 
16 ;  a  hard,  cretaceous,  marine  production, 
resembling  in  figure  the  stem  of  a  plant,  di- 
vided into  branches.  It  is  of  different  colours, 
— black,  white,  and  red.  The  latter  is  the  sort 
emphatically  called  coral,  as  being  the  most 
valuable,  and  usually  made  into  ornaments. 
This,  though  no  gem,  is  ranked  by  the  author 
of  the  book  of  Job,  xxviii,  18,  with  the  onyx 
and  sapphire.  Dr.  Good  observes,  "  It  is  by 
no  means  certain  what  the  words  here  ren- 
dered '  corals  and  pearls,'  and  those  immedi- 
ately afterward  rendered  '  rubies  and  topaz,' 
really  signified.  Reiske  has  given  up  the  in- 
quiry as  either  hopeless  or  useless  ;  and  Schul- 
tens  has  generally  introduced  the  Hebrew 
words  themselves,  and  left  the  reader  of  the 
translation  to  determine  as  he  may.  Our  com- 
mon version  is,  in  the  main,  concurrent  with 
most  of  the  oriental  renderings :  and  I  see  no 
reason  to  deviate  from  it." 

CORBAN,  pip,  Mark  vii,  11 ;  from  the  He- 
brew 3"\p,  to  offer,  to  present.  It  denotes  a  gift, 
a  present  made  to  God,  or  to  his  temple.  The 
Jews  sometimes  swore  by  corban,  or  by  gifts 
offered  to  God,  Matt,  xxiii,  18.  Tiieophrastus 
says  that  the  Tyrians  forbad  the  use  of  such 
oaths  as  were  peculiar  to  foreigners,  and  par- 
ticularly of  corban,  which,  Josephus  informs 
us,  was  used  only  by  the  Jews.  Jesus  Christ 
reproaches  the  Jews  with  cruelty  toward  their 
parents,  in  making  a  corban  of  what  should 
have  been  appropriated  to  their  use.  For  when 
a  child  was  asked  to  relieve  the  wants  of  his 
father  or  mother,  he  would  often  say,  "  It  is  a 
gift,"  corban,  "  by  whatsoever  thou  mightest 
be  profited  by  me ;"  that  is,  I  have  devoted 
that  to  God  which  you  ask  of  me  ;  and  it  is  no 
longer  mine  to  give,  Mark  vii,  11.  Thus  they 
violated  a  precept  of  the  moral  law,  through  a 
superstitious  devotion  to  Pharisaic  observances, 
and  the  wretched  casuistry  by  which  they  were 
made  binding  upon  the  conscience. 

CORIANDER,  tj,  Exod.  xvi,  31 ;  Num. 
xi,  7 ;  a  strongly  aromatic  plant.  It  bears  a 
small  round  seed,  of  a  very  agreeable  smell  and 
taste.  The  manna  might  be  compared  to  the 
coriander  seed  in  respect  to  its  form  or  shape, 
as  it  was  to  bdellium  in  its  colour.  See  Manna. 
CORINTH,  a  celebrated  city,  the  capital  of 
Achaia,  situated  on  the  isthmus  which  sepa- 
rates the  Peloponnesus  from  Attica.  This  city 
was  one  of  the  best  peopled  and  most  wealthy 
of  Greece.  Its  situation  between  two  seas 
drew  thither  the  trade  of  both  the  east  and 
west.  Its  riches  produced  pride,  ostentation, 
effeminacy,  and  all  vices,  the  consequences  of 
abundance.  For  its  insolence  to  the  Roman 
legates,  it  was  destroyed  by  L.  Mummius.  In 
the  burning  of  it,  so  many  statues  of  different 
metals  were  melted  together,  that  they  pro- 
duced the  famous  Corinthian  brass.  It  was 
afterward  restored  to  its  former  splendour  by 
Julius  Cesar. 


Christianity  was  first  planted  at  Corinth  by 
St.  Paul,  who  resided  here  eighteen  months, 
between  the  years  51  and  53;  during  which 
time  he  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  Aquila  and  his 
wife  Priscilla,  two  Jewish  Christians,  who  had 
been  expelled  from  Italy,  with  other  Jews,  by 
an  edict  of  Claudius.  The  church  consisted  both 
of  Jews  and  of  Gentiles ;  but  St.  Paul  began, 
as  usual,  by  preaching  in  the  synagogue,  until 
the  Jews  violently  opposed  him,  and  blas- 
phemed the  name  of  Christ ;  when  the  Apostle, 
shaking  his  garment,  and  declaring  their  blood 
to  be  upon  their  own  heads,  left  them,  and 
made  use  afterward  of  a  house  adjoining  the 
synagogue,  belonging  to  a  man  named  Justus. 
The  rage  of  the  Jews,  however,  did  not  stop 
here ;  but,  raising  a  tumult,  they  arrested  Paul, 
and  hurrying  him  before  the  tribunal  of  the 
pro-consul  Gallio,  the  brother  of  the  famous 
Seneca,  accused  him  of  persuading  men  to 
worship  God  contrary  to  th'e  law.  But  Gallio, 
who  was  equally  indifferent  both  to  Judaism 
and  Christianity,  and  finding  that  Paul  had 
committed  no  breach  of  morality,  or  of  the 
public  peace,  refused  to  hear  their  complaint, 
and  drove  them  all  from  the  judgment  seat. 
The  Jews  being  thus  disappointed  in  their 
malicious  designs,  St.  Paul  was  at  liberty  to 
remain  some  time  longer  at  Corinth  ;  and  after 
his  departure,  Apollos,  a  zealous  and  eloquent 
Jewish  convert  of  Alexandria,  was  made  a 
powerful  instrument  in  confirming  the  church, 
and  in  silencing  the  opposition  of  the  Jews, 
Acts  xviii.  How  much  it  stood  in  need  of  such 
support,  is  evident  from  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul ; 
who  cautions  the  Corinthians  against  divisions 
and  party  spirit ;  fornication,  incest,  partaking 
of  meats  offered  to  idols,  thereby  giving  an 
occasion  of  scandal,  and  encouragement  to 
idolatry;  abusing  the  gifts  of  the  Spirit,  litigi- 
ousness,  &c.  The  Corinthians,  indeed,  were 
in  great  danger:  they  lived  at  ease,  free  from 
every  kind  of  persecution,  and  were  exposed 
to  much  temptation.  The  manners  of  the 
citizens  were  particularly  corrupt :  they  were, 
indeed,  infamous  to  a  proverb.  In  the  centre 
of  the  city  was  a  celebrated  temple  of  Venus, 
a  part  of  whose  worship  consisted  in  prostitu- 
tion ;  for  there  a  thousand  priestesses  of  the 
goddess  ministered  to  dissoluteness  under  the 
patronage  of  religion  :  an  example  which  gave 
the  Corinthians  very  lax  ideas  on  the  illicit 
intercourse  of  the  sexes.  Corinth  also  pos- 
sessed numerous  schools  of  philosophy  and 
rhetoric  ;  in  which,  as  at  Alexandria,  the  purity 
of  the  faith  by  an  easy  and  natural  process, 
became  early  corrupted. 

There  occurs  a  chronological  difficulty  in  the 
visits  of  St.  Paul  to  Corinth.  In  2  Cor.'xii,  14, 
and  xiii,  1,  2,  the  Apostle  expresses  his  design 
of  visiting  that  city  a  third  time  ;  whereas  only 
one  visit  before  the  date  of  the  Second  Epistle 
is  noticed  in  the  Acts,  xviii,  1,  about  A.  D.  51 ; 
and  the  next  time  that  he  visited  Greece,  Acts 
xx,  2,  about  A.  D.  57,  no  mention  is  made  of 
his  going  to  Corinth.  Mr.  Home  observes  on 
this  subject,  "  It  has  been  conjectured  by  Gro- 
tius,  and  Drs.  Hammond  and  Paley,  that  his 
First  Epistle  virtually  supplied  the  place  of  his 


COR 


270 


COR 


presence;  and  that  it  is  so  represented  by  the 
Apostle  in  a  corresponding  passage,  1  Cor.v,  3. 
Admitting  this  solution  to  be  probable,  it  is, 
however,  far-fetched,  and  is  not  satisfactory  as 
a  matter  of  fact.  Michaelis  lias  produced  an- 
other, more  simple  and  natural ;  namely,  that 
Paul,  on  his  return  from  Crete,  visited  Corinth 
a  second  time  before  he  went  to  winter  at  Nico- 
polis.  This  second  visit  is  unnoticed  in  the 
Acts,  because  the  voyage  itself  is  unnoticed. 
The  third  visit,  promised  in  2  Cor.  xii,  14,  and 
xiii,  1,  2,  was  actually  paid  on  the  Apostle's 
second  return  to  Rome,  when  he  took  Corinth 
in  his  way,  2  Tim.  iv,  20.  '  Thus  critically,' 
says  Dr.  Hales,  '  does  the  book  of  the  Acts  har- 
monize, even  in  its  omissions,  with  the  epistles ; 
and  these  with  each  other,  in  the  minute  inci- 
dental circumstances  of  the  third  visit.'" 

About  A.  D.  268,  the  Heruli  burned  Corinth 
to  ashes.  In  525,  it  was  again  almost  ruined 
by  an  earthquake.  About  1180,  Roger,  king 
of  Sicily,  took  and  plundered  it.  Since  1458, 
it  was  till  lately  under  the  power  of  the  Turks  ; 
and  is  so  decayed,  that  its  inhabitants  amount 
to  no  more  than  about  fifteen  hundred,  or  two 
thousand  ;  half  Mohammedans,  and  half  Chris- 
tians. '  A  late  French  writer,  who  visited  this 
country,  observes,  "  When  the  Ca?sars  rebuilt 
the  walls  of  Corinth,  and  the  temples  of  the 
gods  rose  from  their  ruins  more  magnificent 
than  ever,  an  obscure  architect  was  rearing  in 
silence  an  edifice  which  still  remains  standing 
amidst  the  ruins  of  Greece.  This  man,  un- 
known to  the  great,  despised  by  the  multitude, 
rejected  as  the  offscouring  of  the  world,  at  first 
associated  himself  with  only  two  companions, 
Crispus  and  Gaius,  and  with  the  family  of  Ste- 
phanas. These  were  the  humble  architects  of 
an  indestructible  temple,  and  the  first  believers 
at  Corinth.  The  traveller  surveys  the  site  of 
this  celebrated  city ;  he  discovers  not  a  vestige 
of  the  altars  of  Paganism,  but  perceives  some 
Christian  chapels  rising  from  among  the  cot- 
tages of  the  Greeks.  The  Apostle  might  still, 
from  his  celestial  abode,  give  the  salutation  of 
peace  to  his  children,  and  address  them  in  the 
words,  '  Paul  to  the  church  of  God,  which  is  at 
Corinth.'" 

CORINTHIANS,  Epistles  to.  St.  Paul  left 
Corinth  A.  D.  53  or  54,  and  went  to  Jerusalem. 
From  Ephesus  he  wrote  his  First  Epistle  to  the 
Corinthians,  in  the  beginning  of  A.  D.  56.  In 
this  epistle  he  reproves  some  who  disturbed  the 
peace  of  the  church,  complains  of  some  dis- 
orders in  their  assemblies,  of  law  suits  among 
them,  and  of  a  Christian  who  had  committed 
incest  with  his  mother-in-law,  the  wife  of  his 
father,  and  had  not  been  separated  from  the 
church.  This  letter  produced  in  the  Corinth- 
ians great  grief,  vigilance  against  the  vices 
reproved,  and  a  very  beneficial  dread  tif  God's 
anger.  They  repaired  the  scandal,  and  ex- 
pressed abundant  zeal  against  the  crime  com- 
mitted, 2  Cor.  vii,  9-11. 

To  form  an  idea  of  the  condition  of  the  Co- 
rinthian church,  we  must  examine  the  epistles 
of  the  Apostle.  The  different  factions  into 
which  they  were  divided,  exalted  above  all 
others  the  chiefs,  tovs  hnip  Xiav  d^os-Aotj,  [the 


very  chiefest  Apostles,]  2  Cor.  xi,  5;  xii,  11, 
whose  notions  they  adopted,  and  whose  doc- 
trines they  professed  to  follow,  and  attempted 
to  depreciate  those  of  the  opposite  party.  While, 
then,  some  called  themselves  disciples  of  Paul, 
Cephas,  or  Apollos,  others  assumed  the  splendid 
appellation  of  Christ's  party.  Probably  they 
affected  to  be  the  followers  of  James,  the  brother 
of  our  Lord,  and  thought  thus  to  enter  into  & 
nearer  discipleship  with  Jesus  than  the  other 
parties.  The  controversy,  as  we  shall  see  from 
the  whole,  related  to  the  obligation  of  Judaism. 
The  advocates  of  it  had  appealed,  even  in  Ga- 
latia,  to  Cephas  and  James,  for  the  sake  of 
opposing  to  Paul,  who  had  banished  Jewish 
ceremonies  from  Christianity,  authorities  which 
were  not  less  admitted  than  his  own.  The 
question  itself  divided  all  these  various  parties 
into  two  principal  factions :  the  partisans  of 
Cephas  and  James  were  for  the  law  ;  the  friends 
of  Paul  adopted  his  opinion,  as  well  as  Apollos, 
who,  with  his  adherents,  was  always  in  heart 
in  favour  of  Paul,  and  never  wished  to  take  a 
part  in  a  separation  from  him,  1  Cor.  xvi,  12. 
The  leaders  of  the  party  against  Paul,  these 
\j.tvoaTTo^o\oi,  [false  apostles,]  as  Paul  calls  them, 
and  utTaaxiifjaTi^iJicvoi  els  a.TTo$-b\ovs  Xpig-oB,  [trans- 
formers of  themselves  into  the  apostles  of 
Christ,]  who  declared  themselves  the  promul- 
gators and  defenders  of  the  doctrines  of  Cephas, 
and  James,  were,  as  may  be  easily  conceived, 
converted  Jews,  2  Cor.  xi,  22,  who  had  come 
from  different  places, — to  all  appearance  from 
Palestine,  fp^o^voi,  [the  comers,]  2  Cor.  xi,  4, 
— and  could  therefore  boast  of  having  had 
intercourse  with  the  Apostle3  at  Jerusalem, 
and  of  an  acquaintance  with  their  principles. 
They  were  not  even  of  the  orthodox  Jews,  but 
those  who  adhered  to  the  doctrines  of  the 
Sadducecs  ;  and  though  they  were  even  now 
converted  to  Christianity,  while  they  spoke 
zealously  in  favour  of  the  law,  they  were  un- 
dermining the  hopes  of  the  pious,  and  exciting 
doubts  against  the  resurrection,  1  Cor.  xv,  35 ; 
so  that  Paul,  from  regard  to  the  teachers,  whoso 
disciples  they  professed  to  be,  was  obliged  to 
refute  them  from  the  testimony  of  James  and 
Cephas,  1  Cor.  xv,  5,  7.  These,  proud  of  their 
own  opinions,  1  Cor.  i,  17,  not  without  private 
views,  depreciated  Paul's  authority,  and  extolled 
their  own  knowledge,  1  Cor.  ii,  12;  2  Cor.  xi, 

16,  17.  Violently  as  the  contest  was  carried 
on,  they  still  did  not  withdraw  from  the  same 
place  of  assembly  for  instruction  and  mutual 
edification  ;  this,  however,  was  even  the  cause 
of  too  many  scandalous  scenes  and  disorders. 
At  the  dyii-ai,  love  feasts,  love  and  benevolence 
were  no  where  to  be  seen.  Instead  of  eating 
together,  and  refreshing  their  poor  brethren 
out  of  that  which  they  had  brought  with  them, 
each  one,  as  he  came,  ate  his  own,  without 
waiting  for  any  one  else,  and  feasted  often  to 
excess,  while  the  needy  was  fasting,  1  Cor.  xi, 

17.  When  also  some  were  preparing  for  prayers 
or  singing,  others  ra  ised  their  voiees  to  instruct, 
and  commenced  exercises  in  spiritual  gifts, 
tongues,  prophesyings,  and  interpretations, 
1  Cor.  xii,  xiii,  xiv;  moreover,  the  women,  to 
bring  confusion  to  jts  highest  pitch,  took  their 


COR 


271 


cou 


part  in  interlocutions   and  proposals  of  ques- 
tions, 1  Cor.  xiv,  34. 

Such  was  the  state  of  things  as  to  the  interior 
discipline  of  the  assemblies  and  edification  ;  but 
the  exterior  deportment,  which  the  members  of 
this  society  had  maintained  in  civil  life,  soon 
disappeared  also.     Formerly,  when  differences 
arose  among  the  believers,  they  were  adjusted 
by  the  intervention  of  arbitrators  from  their 
own    communion,    and    terminated    quietly. 
Now,  as  their  mutual  confidence  in  each  other 
more  and  more  decreased,  they  brought,  to  the 
disgrace  of  Christianity,  their  complaints  be- 
fore the  Pagan  tribunals,  1  Cor.  vi,  1.     But  as 
to  what  concerned  the  main  object,  namely, 
the  obligation  of  Judaism,  it  was  so  little  con- 
fined simply  to  words  and  reasons,  that  each 
party  rather  strove  to  display  its  opposite  prin- 
ciples in  its  conduct.     One  party  gave  to  the 
other,  as  much  as  possible,  motives  for  ill  will 
and  reproach.  The  Jews  required  circumcision 
as  an  indispensable  act  of  religion  ;  while  Paul's 
disciples  attempted  to  lay  the  foundation  of  a 
new  doctrine  respecting  it,  and  to  extinguish 
all  traces  of  circumcision,  1  Cor.  vii,  18.     As 
the  Jewish  party  observed  and  maintained  a 
distinction  of  meats,  that  of  Paul  ate  without 
distinction  any  thing  sold  in  the  markets,  and 
even  meats  from  the  Heathen  sacrifices,  1  Cor. 
x,  25,  28 ;  viii,  1.     Nor  was  this  enough ;  they 
often  made  no  scruple  to  be   present  at  the 
sacrificial  feasts.     Among  other  things,  they 
also  took  part  in  many  scandalous  practices 
which  were  common  there,  and  fell,  by  means 
of  their  imprudence,  into  still  greater  crimes, 
1  Cor.  x,  20,  21 ;   viii,  10.     According  to  the 
Jewish   custom,  the   women  were   obliged  to 
appear  veiled  in  the   synagogues  and  public 
assemblies.      The  anti-judaists  abolished  this 
custom  of  the  synagogue,  1  Cor.  xi,  5,  6,  10 ; 
and    herein    imitated  the   Heathen    practices. 
From  despite    to  Judaism,  which   considered 
matrimonial  offspring  as  a  particular  blessing 
of  God,  some  embraced  celibacy,  which  they 
justified  by  St.  Paul's  example,  1  Cor.  vii,  7,  8 ; 
and    this   they  also  recommended   to  others, 
1  Cor.  vii,  1-25.     Some  went  even  so  far,  that, 
although  married,  they  resolved  to  practise  a 
continual  contincncy,  1  Corinthians,  vii,  3-5. 
These  were  the  evils,  botli  in  his  own  party 
and  in  that  of  his  opponents,  which  St.  Paul 
had  to  remedy. 

Paul,  having  understood  the  good  effects  of 
his  first  letter  among  the  Corinthians,  wrote  a 
second  to  them,  A.  D.  57,  from  Macedonia, 
and  probably  from  Philippi.  He  expresses  his 
satisfaction  at  their  conduct,  justifies  himself, 
and  comforts  them.  He  glories  in  his  suffering, 
and  exhorts  them  to  liberality.  Near  the  end 
of  the  year  57,  he  came  again  to  Corinth, 
where  he  staid  about  three  months,  and  whence 
he  went  to  Jerusalem.  Just  before  his  second 
departure  from  Corinth,  he  wrote  his  Epistle 
to  the  Romans,  probably  in  the  beginning  of 
A.  D.  58. 

CORMORANT,  -(iv,  Levit.  xi,  17 ;  Deut. 
xiv,  17  ;  a  large  sea  bird.  It  is  about  three  feet 
four  inches  in  length,  and  four  feet  two  inches 
in  breadth  from  the  tips  of  the  extended  wings. 


The  bill  is  about  five  inches  long,  and  of  a 
dusky  colour ;  the  base  of  the  lower  mandible 
is  covered  witli  a  naked  yellowish  skin,  which 
extends  under  the  throat  and  forms  a  kind  of 
pouch.  It  has  a  most  voracious  appetite,  and 
lives  chiefly  upon  fish,  which  it  devours  with 
unceasing  gluttony.  It  darts  down  very  rapidly 
upon  its  prey  ;  and  the  Hebrew,  and  the  Greek 
name,  KaTapdKrrtf,  [a  cataract,]  are  expressive  of 
its  impetuosity.  The  word  r\Np,  which  in  our 
version  of  Isaiah  xxxiv,  11,  is  rendered  cor. 
morant,  is  the  pelican. 

CORNER.  Amos  iii,  12.  Sitting  in  the 
corner  is  a  stately  attitude.  The  place  of 
honour  is  the  corner  of  the  room,  and  there 
the  master  of  the  house  sits  and  receives  his 
visitants. 

COUNCIL  sometimes  denotes  any  kind  of 
assembly;  sometimes  that  of  the  sanhedrim; 
and,  at  other  times,  a  convention  of  pastors 
met  to  regulate  ecclesiastical  affairs.     It  may 
be    reasonably  supposed   that  as  Christianity 
spreads,    circumstances    would    arise    which 
would    make    consultation    necessary   among 
those  who  had  embraced  the  Gospel,  or  at  least 
among  those  who  were  employed  in  its  propa- 
gation.    A  memorable  instance   of  this  kind 
occurred  not  long  after  the  ascension  of  our 
Saviour.     In  consequence  of  a  dispute  which 
had  arisen  at  Antioch  concerning  the  necessity 
of  circumcising  Gentile  converts,  it  was  deter- 
mined that  "  Paul  and  Barnabas,  and  certain 
others  of  them,  should    go    up   to  Jerusalem 
unto  the  Apostles  and  elders  about  this  ques- 
tion."— "And    the  Apostles  and  elders  came 
together  for  to  consider  of  this  matter,"  Acts 
xv,  6.     After  a  consultation,  they  decided  the 
point  in  question ;  and  they  sent  their  decree, 
which  they  declared  to  be   made   under  the 
direction  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  to  all  the  churches, 
and  commanded  that  it  should  be  the  rule  of 
their  conduct.     This    is  generally  considered 
as  the  first  council;    but  it  differed  from  all 
others  in  this  circumstance,  that  its  members- 
were  under  the  especial  guidance  of  the  Spirit 
of  God.     The  Gospel  was  soon  after  conveyed 
into  many  parts  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa ; 
but  it  does  not  appear  that  there  was  any  public 
meeting  of  Christians  for  the  purpose  of  dis- 
cussing any  contested  point,  till  the  middle  of 
the  second  century.     From  that  time  councils 
became  frequent ;  but  as  they  consisted  only  of 
those  who  belonged  to  particular  districts  or 
countries,    they    were    called    provincial    or 
national  councils.     The  first  general  council 
was  that  of  Nice,  convened  by  the  emperor 
Constantine,  A.  D.  325;   the  second  general 
council  was  held  at  Constantinople,  in  the  year 
381,  by  order  of  Theodosius  the  Great;    the 
third,   at    Ephesus,   by  order    of  Theodosius, 
Junior,  A.  D.  431;   and  the  fourth  at   Chal- 
cedon,'by  order  of  the  emperor  Marcian,  A.  D. 
451.    These,  as  they  were  the  first  four  general 
councils,  so  they  were  by  far  the  mo*t  eminent. 
They  were  caused  respectively  by  the  Arian, 
Apollinarian,  Nestorian,  and  Eutychian  con- 
troversies, and  their  decrees  are  in  high  esteem 
both  among  Papists  and  orthodox  Protestants ; 
but  the  deliberations  of  most  councils  were 


cou 


272 


COU 


disgraced  by  violence,  disorder,  and  intrigue, 
and  their  decisions  were  usually  made  under 
the  influence  of  some  ruling  party.  Authors 
are  not  agreed  about  the  number  of  general 
councils;  Papists  usually  reckon  eighteen,  but 
Protestant  writers  will  not  allow  that  nearly  so 
many  had  a  right  to  that  name.  The  last 
general  council  was  that  held  at  Trent,  for  the 
purpose  of  checking  the  progress  of  the  refor- 
mation. It  first  met  by  the  command  of  Pope 
Paul  III,  A.  D.  1545 ;  it  was  suspended  during 
the  latter  part  of  the  pontificate  of  his  succes- 
sor, Julius  III,  and  the  whole  of  the  pontificates 
of  Marcellus  II,  and  Paul  IV,  that  is,  from 
1552  to  1562,  in  which  year  it  met  again  by 
the  authority  of  Pope  Pius  IV,  and  it  ended, 
while  he  was  pope,  in  the  year  1563.  Provincial 
councils  were  very  numerous  :  Baxter  enume- 
rates four  hundred  and  eighty-one,  and  Du- 
fresnoy  many  more. 

2.  Of  the  eighteen  councils  denominated 
"general"  by  the  Papists,  four  have  already 
been  enumerated ;  and  they  with  the  next  four 
constitute  the  eight  eastern  councils,  which 
alone,  according  to  the  "  Body  of  Civil  Law," 
each  of  the  popes  of  Rome,  on  his  elevation  to 
the  pontificate,  solemnly  professes  to  maintain. 
The  fifth  was  convened  at  Constantinople, 
A.  D.  556,  by  the  emperor  Justinian ;  the  sixth, 
also  at  Constantinople,  in  681,  in  which  the 
emperor  Constantine  IV,  himself  presided  :  the 
seventh  at  Nice,  in  787,  by  the  empress  Irene  ; 
and  the  eighth,  at  Constantinople,  in  870,  by 
the  emperor  Basilius.  It  is  matter  of  histori- 
cal record,  and  therefore  cannot  be  denied, 
that  the  convening  of  all  these  councils  apper- 
tained solely  to  the  respective  emperors ;  that 
they  alone  exercised  authority  on  such  occa- 
sions ;  that  the  bishop  of  Rome  was  never 
thought  to  possess  any,  although  his  power 
may  be  said  to  have  been  set  up  between  the 
fifth  and  sixth  general  councils ;  nor  did  the 
bishop  himself,  pro  tempore,  think  himself 
entitled  to  an  authority  of  the  kind.  The 
other  councils  which  the  Romish  church  dig- 
nifies with  the  title  of  "  general,"  are  the  ten 
western  ones,  which  are  here  subjoined: — (9.) 
The  first  council  of  Lateran,  held  under  Pope 
Calixtus,  A.  D.  1123;  (10.)  the  second  of  La- 
teran, under  Innocent  II,  in  1139;  (11.)  the 
third  of  Lateran,  under  Alexander  III,  in  1179, 
the  decrees  of  which  were  intended  to  extirpate 
the  Albigenses,  as  well  as  the  Waldenses,  who 
were  variously  called  Leonists,  or  poor  men  of 
Lyons ;  (12.)  the  fourth  of  Lateran,  under 
Innocent  III,  in  1215,  which  incited  Christian 
Europe  to  engage  in  a  crusade  for  the  recovery 
of  the  Holy  I /and,  and  whose  canons  obtruded 
on  the  churcii  the  monstrous  doctrines  of  tran- 
subslantiation  and  auricular  confession,  the 
latter  being  ranked  among  the  duties  prescribed 
by  the  law  of  Christ ;  (1 3.)  the  first  of  Lyons, 
under  Innocent  IV,  in  1245;  (14.)  the  second 
of  Lyons,  under  Gregory  X,  in  1274 ;  (15.)  that 
of  Vienne,  under  Clement  V,  in  1311 ;  (16.) 
that  of  Florence,  under  Eugenius  IV,  in  1439  ; 
(17.)  the  fifth  of  Lateran,  under  the  infamous 
Julius  II ;  and  (18.)  the  council  of  Trent,  of 
which  an  account  is  given  in  the  preceding 


paragraph,  and  which  grounds  its  fame  on  its 
opposition  to  the  progress  of  the  reformation 
under  Luther.  Though,  according  to  Bellar- 
mine,  these  eighteen  alone  are  recognised  by 
the  Romish  church  as  oecumenical  or  universal 
councils,  yet  some  of  them  did  not  deserve  even 
the  more  restricted  appellation  of  "  general." 
For  the  council  of  Trent  itself,  in  some  of  its 
sessions,  could  scarcely  number  more  than 
forty  or  fifty  ecclesiastics,  and,  of  those,  not 
one  eminent  for  profound  theological  or  clas- 
sical knowledge.  The  lawyers  who  attended, 
says  Father  Paul,  "  knew  little  of  religion, 
while  the  few  divines  were  of  less  than  ordinary 
sufficiency."  Some  of  the  other  councils  which 
are  not  acknowledged  by  the  Papists  to  be 
"general"  with  respect  to  all  their  sessions, 
(as  those  of  Basle  and  Constance,)  are  in  part 
received  by  them,  and  in  part  rejected.  Bel- 
larmine  and  other  celebrated  writers  of  his 
church,  are  dubious  about  determining  whether 
or  not  "the  fifth  of  Lateran"  was  really  a 
general  council,  and  leave  it  as  a  thing  dis- 
cretionary with  the  faithful  either  to  retain  or 
reject  it ;  if  it  be  rejected,  the  only  refuge  which 
they  have,  is  to  receive  in  its  place  the  council 
of  Constance,  held  under  John  XXIII,  in  1414, 
which  is  disclaimed  by  the  Italian  clergy  but 
admitted  by  those  of  France,  and  which  is 
rendered  infamous  in  the  anuals  of  religion  and 
humanity  by  its  cruel  and  treacherous  conduct 
toward  those  two  early  Protestant  martyrs,  John 
Huss  and  Jerome  of  Prague  ;  "who  went  to  the 
stake,"  says,  iEneas  Sylvius,  "  as  if  it  had  been 
to  a  banquet,  without  uttering  a  complaint  that 
could  betray  the  least  weakness  of  mind.  "When 
they  began  to  burn,  they  sung  a  hymn,  which 
even  the  crackling  of  the  flames  could  not 
interrupt.  Never  did  any  philosopher  suffer 
death  with  so  much  courage,  as  they  endured 
the  fire."  But  this  acknowledgment  of  Con- 
stance as  one  of  the  eighteen  is  resisted  vi  et 
armis,  by  the  crafty  Cisalpine  ecclesiastics, 
because  one  of  the  earliest  acts  of  that  council 
declared  the  representatives  of  the  church  in 
general  council  assembled  to  be  superior  to  the 
sovereign  pontiff,  not  only  when  schism  pre- 
vailed, but  at  all  other  times  whatsoever. 

3.  A  general  council  being  composed  of  men 
every  one  of  whom  is  fallible,  they  must  also 
be  liable  to  error  when  collected  together ;  and 
that  they  actually  have  erred  is  sufficiently 
evident  from  this  fact,  that  different  general 
councils  have  made  decrees  directly  opposite 
to  each  other,  particularly  in  the  Arian  and 
Eutychian  controversies,  which  were  upon 
subjects  immediately  "  pertaining  unto  God." 
Indeed,  neither  the  first  general  councils 
themselves,  nor  thoso  who  defended  their 
decisions,  ever  pretended  to  infallibility;  this 
was  a  claim  of  a  much  more  recent  date,  suited 
to  the  dark  ages  in  which  it  was  asserted  and 
mainta  ined,  but  now  considered  equally  ground- 
less and  absurd  in  the  case  of  general  councils 
as  in  that  of  popes.  If  God  had  been  pleased 
to  exempt  them  from  a  possibility  of  error,  he 
would  have  announced  that  important  privilege 
in  his  written  word;  but  no  such  promise  or 
assurance  is  mentioned,  jn  the  New  Testament, 


cov 


273 


cov 


If  infallibility  belonged  to  the  whole  church 
collectively,  or  to  any  individual  part  of  it,  it 
must  be  so  prominent  and  conspicuous  that  no 
mistake  or  doubt  could  exist  upon  the  subject; 
and  above  all,  it  must  have  prevented  those 
dissensions,  contests,  heresies,  and  schisms, 
which  have  abounded  among  Christians  from 
the  days  of  the  Apostles  to  the  present  time ; 
and  of  which  that  very  church,  which  is  the 
asserter  and  patron  of  this  doctrine,  has  had  its 
full  share. 

The  Scriptures  being  the  only  source  from 
which  we  can  learn  the  terms  of  salvation,  it 
follows  that  things  ordained  by  general  councils 
as  necessary  to  salvation,  have  neither  strength 
nor  authority,  as  the  church  of  England  has 
well  said,  unless  it  may  be  declared  that  they 
be  taken  out  of  Holy  Scripture.  It  is  upon 
this  ground  we  receive  the  decisions  of  the  first 
four  general  councils,  in  which  we  find  the 
truths  revealed  in  the  Scriptures,  and  therefore 
we  believe  them.  We  reverence  the  councils 
for  the  sake  of  the  doctrines  which  they 
declared  and  maintained,  but  we  do  not 
believe  the  doctrines  upon  the  authority  of 
the  councils. 

COVENANT.  The  Greek  word  iiaGf,Kr, 
occurs  often  in  the  Septuagint,  as  the  trans- 
lation of  a  Hebrew  word,  which  signifies 
covenant :  it  occurs  also  in  the  Gospels  and 
the  Epistles ;  and  it  is  rendered  in  our  English 
Bibles  sometimes  covenant,  sometimes  testa- 
ment. The  Greek  word,  according  to  its 
etymology,  and  according  to  classical  use,  may 
denote  a  testament,  a  disposition,  as  well  as 
a  covenant ;  and  the  Gospel  may  be  called  a 
testament,  because  it  is  a  signification  of  the 
will  of  our  Saviour  ratified  by  his  death,  and 
because  it  conveys  blessings  to  be  enjoyed  after 
his  death.  These  reasons  for  giving  the  di.  pen> 
sation  of  the  Gospel  the  name  of  a  testament 
appeared  to  our  translators  so  striking,  that 
they  have  rendered  &iaOnKti  more  frequently  by 
the  word  testament,  than  by  the  word  covenant. 
Yet  the  train  of  argument,  where  SiaOi'jKri  occurs, 
generally  appears  to  proceed  upon  its  meaning 
a  covenant ;  and  therefore,  although,  when  we 
delineate  the  nature  of  the  Gospel,  the  beautiful 
idea  of  its  being  a  testament,  is  not  to  be  lost 
sight  of,  yet  we  are  to  remember  that  the  word 
testament,  which  we  read  in  the  Gospels  and 
Epistles,  is  the  translation  of  a  word  which 
the  sense  requires  to  be  rendered  covenant. 
A  covenant  implies  two  parties,  and  mutual 
stipulations.  The  new  covenant  must  derive 
its  name  from  something  in  the  nature  of  the 
stipulations  between  the  parties  different  from 
that  which  existed  before ;  so  that  we  cannot 
understand  the  propriety  of  the  name,  new, 
without  looking  back  to  what  is  called  the  old, 
or  first.  On  examining  the  passages  in  Gal.  iii, 
in  2  Cor.  iii,  and  in  Heb.  viii-x,  where  the  old 
and  the  new  covenant  are  contrasted,  it  will 
be  found  that  the  old  covenant  means  the 
dispensation  given  by  Moses  to  the  children  of 
Israel ;  and  the  new  covenant  the  dispensation 
of  the  Gospel  published  by  Jesus  Christ ;  and 
that  the  object  of  the  Apostle  is  to  illustrate  the 
superior  excellence  of  the  latter  dispensation, 
19 


But,  m  order  to  preserve  the  consistency  of  the 
Apostle's  writings,  it  is  necessary  to  remember 
that  there  are  two  different  lights  in  which  the 
former  dispensation  may  be  viewed.  Christians 
appeal  to  draw  the  line  between  the  old  and 
the  new  covenant,  according  to  the  light  in 
which  they  view  that  dispensation.  It  may  be 
considered  merely  as  a  method  of  publishing 
the  moral  law  to  a  particular  nation  ;  and  then 
with  whatever  solemnity  it  was  delivered,  and 
with  whatever  cordiality  it  was  accepted,  it  is 
not  a  covenant  that  could  give  life.  For,  being 
nothing  more  than  what  divines  call  a. covenant 
of  works,  a  directory  of  conduct  requiring  by 
its  nature  entire  personal  obedience,  promising 
life  to  those  who  yielded  that  obedience,  but 
making  no  provision  for  transgressors,  it  left 
under  a  curse  "every  one  that  continued  not 
in  all  things  that  were  written  in  the  book  of 
the  law  to  do  them."  This  is  the  essentia] 
imperfection  of  what  is  called  the  covenant  of 
works,  the  name  given  in  theology  to  that 
transaction,  in  which  it  is  conceived  that  the 
supreme  Lord  of  the  universe  promised  to  his 
creature,  man,  that  ho  would  reward  that 
obedience  to  his  law,  which,  without  any  such 
promise,  was  clue  to  him  as  the  Creator. 

No  sooner  had  Adam  broken  the  covenant 
of  works,  than  a  promise  of  a  final  deliverance 
from  the  evils  incurred  by  the  breach  of  it  was 
given.  This  promise  was  the  foundation  of  that 
transaction  which  Almighty  God,  in  treating 
with  Abraham,  condescends  to  call  "  my 
covenant  with  thee,"  and  which,  upon  this 
authority,  has  received  in  theology  the'  name 
of  the  Abrahamic  covenant.  Upon  the  one 
part,  Abraham,  whose  faith  Was  counted  to 
him  for  righteousness,  received  this  charge 
from  God,  "Walk  before  me  and  be  thou 
perfect;"  upon  the  other  part,  the  God  whom 
he  believed,  and  whose  voice  he  obeyed,  beside 
promising  other  blessings  to  him  and  his  seed, 
uttered  these  significant  words,  "In  thy  seed 
shall  all  tiie  families  of  the  earth  be  blessed." 
In  this  transaction,  then,  there  was  the  essence 
of  a  covenant ;  for  there  were  mutual  stipula- 
tions between  two  parties ;  and  there  was 
superadded,  as  a  seal  of  the  covenant,  the  rite 
of  circumcision,  which,  being  prescribed  by 
God,  was  a  confirmation  of  his  promise  to  all 
who  complied  with  it,  and  being  submitted  to 
by  Abraham,  was,  on  his  part,  an  acceptance 
of  the  covenant. 

The  Abrahamic  covonant  appears,  from  the 
nature  of  the  stipulations,  to  be  more  than  a 
covenant  of  works  ;  and,  as  it  was  not  Confined 
to  Abraham,  but  extended  to  his  seed,  it  could 
not  be  disannulled  by  any  subsequent  transac- 
tions, which  fell  short  of  a  fulfilment  of  the 
blessing  promised.  The  law  of  Moses,  which 
was  given  to  the  eeed  of  Abraham  four  hundred 
and  thirty  years  after,  did  not  ro-.ixe  up  to  the 
terms  of  that  covenant  even  with  regard  to 
them,  for,  in  its  form  it  was  a  covenant  of 
works,  and  to  other  nations  it.  did  not  directly 
convey  any  blessing.  But  although  the  Mosaic 
dispensation  did  not  fulfil  the  Abrahamic  cove- 
nant,  it  was  so  far  from  setting  that  covenant 
aside,  that  it  cherished  the  expectation  of  its 


cc-v 


274 


CRA 


being  fulfilled :  for  it  continued  the  rite  of  cir- 
cumcision, which  was  the  seal  of  the  covenant ; 
and  in  those  ceremonies  which  it  enjoined, 
there  was  a  shadow,  a  type,  an  obscure  re- 
presentation, of  the  promised  blessing,  Luke  i, 
72,  73. 

Here,  then,  is  another  view  of  the  Mosaic 
dispensation.  "  It  was  added,  because  of  trans- 
gressions, till  the  seed  should  come  to  whom  the 
promise  was  made,"  Gal.  iii,  19.  By  delivering 
a  moral  law,  which  men  felt  themselves  unable 
to  obey ;  by  denouncing  judgments  which  it 
did  not  of  itself  provide  any  effectual  method 
of  escaping;  and  by  holding  forth,  in  various 
oblations,  the  promised  and  expected  Saviour ; 
"it  was  a  schoolmaster  to  bring  men  unto 
Christ."  The  covenant  made  with  Abraham 
retained  its  force  during  the  dispensation  of 
the  law,  and  was  the  end  of  that  dispensation. 

The  views  which  have  been  given  furnish  the 
ground  upon  which  we  defend  that  established 
language  which  is  familiar  to  our  ears,  that 
there  are  only  two  covenants  essentially  dif- 
ferent, and  opposite  to  one  another,  the  cove- 
nant of  works,  made  with  the  first  man,  inti- 
mated by  the  constitution  of  human  nature  to 
every  one  of  his  posterity,  and  having  for  its 
terms,  "  Do  this  and  live;" — and  the  covenant 
of  grace,  which  was  the  substance  of  the 
Abrahamic  covenant,  and  which  entered  into 
the  constitution  of  the  Sinaitic  covenant,  but 
which  is  more  clearly  revealed,  and  more  ex- 
tensively published  in  the  Gospel.  This  last 
covenant,  which  the  Scriptures  call  new  in 
respect  to  the  mode  of  its  dispensation  under 
the  Gospel,  although  it  is  not  new  in  respect 
of  its  essence,  has  received,  in  the  language  of 
theology,  the  name  of  the  covenant  of  grace, 
for  the  two  following  obvious  reasons  :  because, 
after  man  had  broken  the  covenant  of  works, 
it  was  pure  grace  or  favour  in  the  Almighty 
to  enter  into  a  new  covenant  with  him  ;  and, 
because  by  the  covenant  there  is  conveyed  that 
grace  which  enables  man  to  comply  with  the 
terms  of  it.  It  could  not  be  a  covenant  unless 
there  were  terms, — something  required,  as  well 
as  something  promised  or  given, — duties  to  be 
performed,  as  well  as  blessings  to  be  received. 
Accordingly,  the  tenor  of  the  new  covenant, 
founded  upon  the  promise  originally  made  to 
Abraham,  is  expressed  by  Jeremiah  in  words 
which  the  Apostle  to  the  Hebrews  has  quoted 
as  a  description  of  it :  "I  will  be  to  them  a 
God,  and  they  shall  be  to  me  a  people,"  Heb. 
viii,  10  : — words  which  intimate  on  one  part 
not  only  entire  reconciliation  with  God,  but 
the  continued  exercise  of  all  the  perfections  of 
the  Godhead  in  promoting  the  happiness  of  his 
people,  and  the  full  communication  of  all  the 
blessings  which  flow  from  his  uiv1!  ingeable 
love ;  on  the  other  part,  the  surrender  of  the 
heart  and  affections  of  his  people,  the  dedica- 
tion of  all  the  powers  of  their  nature  to  his 
service,  and  the  willing  uniform  obedience  of 
their  lives.  But,  although  there  are  mutual 
stipulations,  the  covenant  retains  its  character 
of  a  covenant  of  grace,  and  must  be  regarded 
as  having  its  source  purely  in  the  grace  of  God. 
For  the  very  circumstances  which   rendered 


the  new  covenant  necessary,  take  away  the 
possibility  of  there  being  any  merit  upon  our 
part:  the  faith  by  which  the  covenant  is  ac- 
cepted is  the  gift  of  God ;  and  all  the  good 
works  by  which  Christians  continue  to  keep 
the  covenant,  originate  in  that  change  of  cha- 
racter which  is  the  fruit  of  the  operation  of 
his  Spirit. 

Covenants  were  anciently  confirmed  by 
eating  and  drinking  together;  and  chiefly  by 
feasting  on  a  sacrifice.  In  this  manner,  Abi- 
melech,  the  Philistine,  confirmed  the  covenant 
with  Isaac,  and  Jacob  with  his  father  Laban, 
Gen.  xxvi,  26-31 ;  xxxi,  44-46,  54.  Some- 
times they  divided  the  parts  of  the  victim,  and 
passed  between  them,  by  which  act  the  parties 
signified  their  resolution  of  fulfilling  all  the 
terms  of  the  engagement,  on  pain  of  being 
divided  or  cut  asunder  as  the  sacrifice  had  been, 
if  the}'  should  violate  the  covenant,  Gen.  xv,  9, 
10,  17,  18;  Jer.  xxxiv,  18.  Hence  the  Hebrew 
word  charat,  which  properly  signifies  to  divide, 
is  applied  allusively  in  Scripture  to  the  making 
of  a  covenant.  When  the  law  of  Moses  was 
established,  the  people  feasted  in  their  peace- 
offerings  on  a  part  of  the  sacrifice,  in  token  of 
their  reconciliation  with  God,  Deut.  xii,  6,  7. 
See  Circumcision1. 

COURT,  an  entrance  into  a  palace  or  house. 
(See  House.)  The  great  courts  belonging  to  the 
temple  of  Jerusalem  were  three  ;  the  first  called 
the  court  of  the  Gentiles,  because  the  Gentiles 
were  allowed  to  enter  so  far,  and  no  farther; 
the  second  was  the  court  of  Israel,  because  all 
the  Israelites,  provided  they  were  purified,  had 
a  right  of  admission  into  it ;  the  third  was  that 
of  the  priests,  where  the  altar  of  burnt-offer- 
ings stood,  where  the  priests  and  Levites  exer- 
cised their  ministry.  Common  Israelites,  who 
were  desirous  of  offering  sacrifices,  were  at 
liberty  to  bring  their  victims  as  far  as  the 
inner  part  of  the  court ;  but  they  could  not 
pass  a  certain  line  of  separation,  which  divided 
it  into  two ;  and  they  withdrew  as  soon  as  they 
had  delivered  their  sacrifices  and  offerings  to 
the  priests,  or  had  made  their  confession  with 
the  ceremony  of  laying  their  hands  upon  the 
head  of  the  victim,  if  it  were  a  sin-offering. 
Before  the  temple  was  built,  there  was  a  court 
belonging  to  the  tabernacle,  but  not  near  so 
large  as  that  of  the  temple,  and  encompassed 
only  with  pillars,  and  veils  hung  with  cords. 

CRANE.  In  Isaiah  xxxviii,  14,  and  Jer. 
viii,  7,  two  birds  are  mentioned,  the  v^v  and 
the  "iuj?.  The  first  in  our  version  is  translated 
crime,  and  the  second  swallow  ;  but  Bochart 
exactly  reverses  them,  and  the  reasons  he  ad- 
duces are  incontrovertible.  Aristophanes  curi- 
ously observes,  that  "  it  is  time  to  sow  when 
the  crane  migrates  clamouring  into  Africa  ; 
she  also  bids  the  mariner  suspend  his  rudder 
and  take  his  rest,  and  the  mountaineer  to  pro- 
vide himself  with  raiment ;"  and  Hesiod, 
"When  thou  hcarest  the  voice  of  the  crane, 
clamouring  annually  from  the  clouds  on  high, 
recollect  that  this  is  the  signal  for  ploughing, 
and  indicates  the  approach  of  showery  winter." 

Where  do  t lie  cranes  or  winding  swallows  ?", 
Fearful  of  gathering  winds  and  fulling  snow? 


cue 

Conscious  of  all  the  corning  ills,  they  fly- 
To  milder  regions  and  a  southern  sky.         Prior. 


275 


CRE 


The  Prophet  Jeremiah  mentions  this  bird, 
thus  intelligent  of  the  seasons- by  an  instinctive 
and  invariable  observation  of  their  appointed 
times,  as  a  circumstance  of  reproach  to  the 
chosen  people  of  God,  who,  although  taught 
by  reason  and  religion,  "  knew  not  the  judg- 
ment of  the  Lord." 

CREATION,  in  its  primary  import,  signifies 
the  bringing  into  being  something  which  did 
not  exist  before.  The  term  is  therefore  most 
generally  applied  to  the  original  production  of 
the  materials  whereof  the  visible  world  is 
composed.  It  is  also  used  in  a  secondary  or 
subordinate  sense,  to  denote  those  subsequent 
operations  of  the  Deity  upon  the  matter  so 
produced,  by  which  the  whole  system  of  nature, 
and  all  the  primitive  genera  of  things,  received 
their  forms,  qualities,  and  laws.  The  accounts 
of  the  creation  of  the  world  which  have  existed 
among  different  nations,  are  called  Cosmogonies. 
Moses's  is  unquestionably  the  most  ancient ; 
and  had  it  no  other  circumstance  to  recommend 
it,  its  superior  antiquity  alone' would  give  it  a 
just  claim  to  our  attention.  It  is  evidently 
Moses's  intention  to  give  a  history  of  man,  and 
of  religion,  and  an  account  of  creation.  In 
the  way  in  which  he  has  detailed  it,  it  would 
have  been  foreign  to  his  plan,  had  it  not  been 
necessary  to  obviate  that  most  ancient  and  most 
natural  species  of  idolatry,  the  worship  of  the 
heavenly  bodies.  His  first  care,  therefore,  is  to 
affirm  decidedly,  that  God  created  the  heavens 
and  the  earth ;  and  then  he  proceeds  to  mention 
the  order  in  which  the  various  objects  of  creation 
were  called  into  existence.  First  of  all,  the 
materials,  of  which  the  future  universe  was  to 
be  composed,  were  created.  These  were  jumbled 
together  in  one  indigested  mass,  which  the 
ancients  called  chaos,  and  which  they  conceived 
to  be  eternal ;  but  which  Moses  affirms  to  have 
been  created  by  the  power  of  God.  The  mate- 
rials of  the  chaos  were  either  held  in  solution 
by  the  waters,  or  floated  in  them,  or  were  sunk 
under  them  ;  and  they  were  reduced  into  form 
by  the  Spirit  of  God  moving  upon  the  face  of 
the  waters.  Light  was  the  first  distinct  object 
of  creation  ;  fishes  were  the  first  living  things  ; 
man  was  last  in  the  order  of  creation. 

2.  The  account  given  by  Moses  is  distin- 
guished by  its  simplicity.  That  it  involves 
difficulties  which  our  faculties  cannot  compre- 
hend, is  only  what  might  be  expected  from  a 
detail  of  the  operations  of  the  omnipotent  mind, 
which  can  never  be  fully  understood  but  by  the 
Being  who  planned  them.  Most  of  the  writers 
who  come  nearest  to  Moses  in  point  of  anti- 
quity have  favoured  the  world  with  cosmogo- 
nies ;  and  there  is  a  wonderful  coincidence  in 
some  leading  particulars  between  their  accounts 
and  his.  They  all  have  his  chaos;  and  they 
all  state  water  to  have  been  the  prevailing 
principle  before  the  arrangement  of  the  uni- 
verse began.  The  systems  became  gradually 
more  complicated,  as  the  writers  receded  farther 
from  the  age  of  primitive  tradition  ;  and  they 
increased  in  absurdity  in  proportion  to  the 
degree  of  philosophy  which  was  applied  to  the 


subject.  The  problem  of  creation  has  been  said 
to  be,  "  Matter  and  motion  being  given,  to  form 
a  world  ;"  and  the  presumption  of  man  has 
often  led  him  to  attempt  the  solution  of  this 
intricate  question.  But  the  true  problem  was, 
"Neither  matter  nor  motion  being  given,  to 
form  a  world."  At  first,  the  cosmogon'ists 
contented  themselves  with  reasoning  on  the 
traditional  or  historical  accounts  they  had  re- 
ceived ;  but  it  is  irksome  to  be  shackled  by  au- 
thority ;  and  after  they  had  acquired  a  smatter- 
ing of  knowledge,  they  began  to  think  that  they 
'could  point  out  a  much  better  way  of  forming 
the  world  than  that  which  had  been  transmitted 
to  them  by  the  consenting  voice  of  antiquity. 
Epicurus  was  most  distinguished  in  this  hopeful 
work  of  invention  ;  and  produced  a  cosmogony 
on  the  principle  of  a  fortuitous  concourse  of 
atoms,whose  extravagant  absurdity  has  hitherto 
preserved  it  from  oblivion.  From  his  clay  to 
ours,  the  wirld  has  been  annoyed  with  sys- 
tems ;  but  these  are  now  modified  by  the  theories 
of  chemists  and  geologists',  whose  speculations, 
in  so  far  as  they  proceed  on  the  principle  of 
induction,  have  sometimes  been  attended  with 
useful  results  ;  but,  when  applied  to  solve  the 
problem  of  creation,  will  serve,  like  the  sys- 
tems of  their  forerunners,  to  demonstrate  the 
ignorance  and  the  presumption  of  man. 

3.  The  early  cosmogonies  are  chiefly  inter- 
esting from  their  resemblance  to  that  of  Moses ; 
which  proves  that  they  have  either  been  de- 
rived from  him,  or  from  some  ancient  prevail- 
ing tradition  respecting  the  true  history  of 
creation.  The  most  ancient  author  next  to 
Moses,  of  whose  writings  any  fragments  re- 
main, is  Sanchoniatho,  the  Phenician.  His 
writings  were  translated  by  Philo  Byblius  ;  and 
portions  of  this  version  are  preserved  by  Euse- 
bius.  These  writings  come  to  us  rather  in  an 
apocryphal  form ;  they  contain,  however,  no 
internal  evidence  which  can  affect  their  au- 
thenticity ;  they  pretty  nearly  resemble  the 
traditions  of  the  Greeks,  and  are,  perhaps,  the 
parent  stock  from  which  these  traditions  are 
derived.  The  notions  detailed  by  Sanchoniatho 
are  almost  translated  by  Ilesiod,  who  mentions 
the  primeval  chaos,  and  states  2po?,  or  love,  to 
be  its  first  offspring.  Anaxagoras  was  the  first 
among  the  Greeks  who  entertained  tolerably 
accurate  notions  on  the  subject  of  creation : 
he  assumed  the  agency  of  an  intelligent  mind 
in  the  arrangement  of  the  chaotic  materials. 
These  sentiments  gradually  prevailed  among 
the  Greeks  ;  from  whom  they  passed  to  the 
Romans,  and  were  generally  adopted,  notwith- 
standing the  efforts  which  were  made  to  esta- 
blish the  doctrines  of  Epicurus  by  the  nervous 
poetry  of  Lucretius.  Ovid  has  collected  the 
orthodox  doctrines  which  prevailed  on  the  sub- 
ject, both  among  Greeks  and  Romans;  and 
has  expressed  them  with  uncommon  elegance 
and  perspicuity  in  the  first  chapter  of  his 
"  Metamorphoses."  There  is  so  striking  a 
coincidence  between  his  account  and  that  of 
Moses  that  one  would  almost  think  that  he  was 
translating  from  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis  ; 
and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  Mosaic 
writings  were  well  known  at  that  time,  both 


CRE 


27G 


CRE 


among  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  Megasthenes, 
who  lived  in  the  time  of  Seleucns  Nicanor, 
affirms,  that  all  the  doctrines  of  the  Greeks 
respecting  the  creation,  and  the  constitution 
of  nature,  were  current  among  the  Bramins  in 
India,  and  the  Jews  in  Syria.  He  must,  of 
course,  have  been  acquainted  with  the  writings 
of  the  latter,  before  he  could  make  the  com- 
parison. Juvenal  talks  of  the  writings  of  Moses 
as  well  known  : — 

Tradidit  arcano  quodcunque  rolumine  Moses. 
[Whatever  Moses  lias  transmitted  in  his  mystic  volume] 

We  are  therefore  inclined  to  think  that  Ovid 
actually  copied  from  the  Bible  ;  for  he  adopts 
the  very  order  detailed  by  Moses.  Moses  men- 
tions the  works  of  creation  in  the  following 
order :  the  separation  of  the  sea  from  the  dry 
land  ;  the  creation  of  the  heavenly  bodies  ;  of 
marine  animals;  of  fowls  and  land  animals; 
of  man.  Observe  now  the  order  of  the  Roman 
poet : — 

Ante  mare  et  terras,  et,  quod  tegil  omnia,  ccclum, 

Unus  crat  toto  naturae  vultns  in  orbe, 

Quern  dixere  chaos,  rudis,  indigestaque  moles. 

Hanc  Dcus,  et  melior  litem  natura  diremit. 

Nam  cmlo  terras,  et  terras  abscidit  undis; 

Et  liquidum  spisso  secrcrit  ab  aire  caelum. 

Ken  regioforet  iilla  suis  animalibus  orba  ; 

Astra  tenent  cmlesle  solum,  formceque  deorum  ; 

Cesserunt  nitidis  habitandai  piscibus  ttnda  : 

Terra/eras  cepit,  volucres  agita.bilis  air. 

Sanctius  his  animal,  mentisque  capacius  alia 

Deeral  adhiie,  et  quod  dominari  in  calera  posset  : 

Natus  homo  est. 

"  Before  the  seas,  and  this  terrestrial  ball, 
And  heav'n's  high  canopy,  that  covers  all, 
One  was  the  face  of  nature ;  if  a  face : 
Rather,  a  rude  and  indigested  mass  : 
A  lifeless  lump,  unfashion'd,  and  unframed, 
Of  jarring  seeds;  and  justly  chaos  named. 
But  God,  or  nature,  while  they  thus  contend, 
To  these  intestine  discords  put  an  end ; 
Then  earth  from  air,  and  seas  from  earth  were  driv'n 
And  grosser  air  sunk  from  ethereal  heav'n. 
Tims  when  the  God,  whatever  god  was  he, 
Had  form'd  the  whole,  and  made  the  parts  agree, 
That  no  unequal  portions  might  be  found, 
He  moulded  earth  into  a  spacious  round. 
Then,  every  void  of  nature  to  supply, 
With  forms  of  gods  he  fills  the  vacant  sky: 
New  herds  ofbeasts  he  sends,  the  plains  to  share 
New  colonies  of  birds,  to  people  air; 
And  to  their  oozy  beds  the  finny  fish  repair. 
A  creature  of  a  more  exalted  kind 
Was  wanting  yet,  and  then  was  man  design'd  : 
Conscious  of  thought,  of  more  capacious  breast, 
For  empire  form'd,  and  fit  to  rn]p  the  rest: 
Whether  with  particles  of  heav'idy  fire 
The  God  of  nature  did  his  soul  inspire,"  4c. 

Dryden. 

Here  we  see  all  the  principal  objects  of  creation 
mentioned  exactly  in  the  same  order  which 
Moses  had  assigned  to  them  in  his  writings  ; 
and  when  we  consider  what  follows; — the  war 
of  the  giants ;  the  general  corruption  of  the 
world;  the  universal  deluge;  the  preservation 
of  Deucalion  andPyrrha;  their  sacrifices  to  the 
gods  on  leaving  the  vessel  in  which  they  had 
been  preserved; — there  can  scarcely  remain  a 
doubt  that  Ovid  borrowed,  either  directly  or  at 
second  hand,  from  Moses.  What  he  says,  too, 
is  perfectly  consistent  with  the  received  notions 
on  the  subject,  though  it  is  probable  that  they 


had  never  before  been  so  regularly  methodised. 
This  train  of  reasoning  would  lead  us  to  con- 
clude that  Ovid,  and  indeed  the  whole  Heathen 
world,  derived  their  notions  respecting  the 
creation,  and  the  early  history  of  mankind, 
from  the  sacred  Scriptures :  and  it  shows  how 
deficient  their  own  resources  were,  when  the 
pride  of  philosophy  was  forced  to  borrow  from 
those  whom  it  affected  to  despise.  With  regard 
to  the  western  mythologists,  then,  there  can 
be  little  doubt  that  their  cosmogonies,  at  least 
such  of  them  as  profess  to  be  historical,  and 
not  theoretical,  are  derived  from  Moses ;  and 
the  same  may  be  affirmed  with  regard  to  the 
traditions  of  the  east :  as  they  were  the  same 
with  those  of  Greece  in  the  time  of  Megas- 
thenes, whose  testimony  to  this  effect  is 
quoted  both  by  Clemens  Alexandrinus  and 
Strabo,  we  may  naturally  conclude  that  they 
had  the  same  origin. 

4.  The  Hindoo  mythology  has  grown,  in  the 
natural  uninterrupted  progress  of  corruption,  to 
such  monstrous  and  complicated  absurdity,  that 
in  many  cases  it  stands  unique  in  extravagance 
In  the  more  ancient  Hindoo  writings,  however 
many  sublime  sentiments  occur ;  and  in  the 
"  Institutes  of  Menu,"  many  passages  are  found 
relating  to  the  creation,  which  bear  a  strong 
resemblance  to  the  account  given  by  Moses. 
They  are  thus  given  in  an  advertisement, 
prefixed  to  the  fifth  volume  of  the  "Asiatic 
Researches,"  and  are  intended  as  a  supplement 
to  a  former  treatise  on  the  Hindoo  religion  : — 

"  This  universe  existed  only  in  the  first  divine 
idea,  yet  unexpanded,  as  ifinvolved  in  darkness, 
imperceptible,  undefinable,  undiscoverable  by 
reason,  and  undiscovered  by  revelation,  as  if  it 
were  wholly  immersed  in  sleep.  When  the 
sole  self-existing  Power,  himself  undiscerned, 
but  making  this  world  discernible,  with  five 
elements  and  other  principles  of  nature,  ap- 
peared with  undiminished  glory,  expanding  his 
idea,  or  dispelling  the  gloom.  He,  whom  the 
mind  alone  can  perceive,  whose  essence  eludes 
the  external  organs,  who  has  no  visible  parts, 
who  exists  from  eternity,  even  he,  the  soul  of 
all  beings,  whom  no  being  can  comprehend, 
shone  forth  in  person.  He,  having  willed  to 
produce  various  beings  from  his  own  divine 
substance,  first  with  a  thought  created  the 
waters.  The  waters  are  called  vara,  because 
they  are  the  production  of  Nara,  or  the  Spirit 
of  God  ;  and  since  they  were  his  first  ayana,  or 
place  of  motion,  he  thence  is  called  Narayana, 
or  moving  on  the  waters.  From  that  which  is, 
the  first  cause,  not  the  object  of  sense,  existing 
every  where  in  substance,  not  existing  to  our 
perception,  without  beginning  or  end,  was 
produced  the  divine  male.  He  framed  the 
heaven  above,  and  the  earth  beneath;  in  the 
midst  he  placed  the  subtile  ether,  the  eight 
regions,  and  the  permanent  receptacle  of 
waters.  He  framed  all  creatures.  He,  too, 
first  assigned  to  all  creatures  distinct  names, 
distinct  acts,  and  dii-tinct  occupations.  He 
gave  being  to  time,  and  the  divisions  of  time ; 
to  the  stars  also,  and  the  planets ;  to  rivers, 
oceans,  and  mountains  ;  to  level  plains,  and 
uneven  valleys.    For  the  sake  of  distinguishing 


CRE 


277 


CRO 


actions,  he  made  a  total  difference  between 
right  and  wrong.  Having  divided  his  own 
substance,  the  mighty  Power  became  half  male, 
half  female.  He  whose  powers  are  incompre- 
hensible, having  created  this  universe,  was 
again  absorbed  in  the  spirit,  changing  the  time 
of  energy  for  the  time  of  repose." 

In  these  passages  we  have  evidently  a  philo- 
sophical comment  on  the  account  of  creation 
given  by  Moses,  or  as  transmitted  from  the 
same  source  of  primitive  tradition.  We  also 
see  in  these  passages  the  rudiments  of  the  Pla- 
tonic, philosophy,  the  eternal  ideas  in  the  divine 
mind:,  Sec ;  and  were  any  question  to  arise  re- 
specting the  original  author  of  these  notions, 
we  should  have  little  hesitation  in  giving  it 
against  the  Greeks.  They  were  the  greatest 
plagiaries  both  in  literature  and  philosophy, 
and  they  have  scarcely  an  article  of  literary 
property  which  they  can  call  their  own,  except 
their  poetry.  Their  sages  penetrated  into 
Egypt  and  India,  and  on  their  return  stigma- 
tized the  natives  of  these  countries  as  barba- 
rians, lest  they  should  be  suspected  of  stealing 
their  inventions. 

5.  The  Chaldean  cosmogony,  according  to 
Berosus,  when  divested  of  allegory,  seems  to 
resolve  itself  into  this,  that  darkness  and  water 
existed  from  eternity ;  that  Belus  divided  the 
humid  mass,  and  gave  birth  to  creation ;  that 
the  human  mind  is  an  emanation  from  the 
divine  nature.  The  cosmogony  of  the  ancient 
Persians  is  very  clumsy.  They  introduce  two 
eternal  principles,  the  one  good,  called  Oro- 
masdes,  the  other  evil,  called  Arimanius ;  and 
they  make  these  two  principles  contend  with 
each  other  in  the  creation  and  government  of 
the  world.  Each  has  his  province,  which  he 
strives  to  enlarge  ;  and  Mithras  is  the  mediator 
to  moderate  their  contentions.  This  is  the  most 
inartificial  plan  that  has  been  devised  to  ac- 
count for  the  existence  of  evil,  and  has  the  least 
pretensions  to  a  philosophical  basis.  The 
Egyptian  cosmogony,  according  to  the  account 
given  of  it  by  Plutarch,  seems  to  bear  a  strong 
resemblance  to  the  Phenician,  as  detailed  by 
Sanchoniatho.  According  to  the  Egyptian 
account,  there  was  an  eternal  chaos,  and  an 
eternal  spirit  united  with  it,  whose  agency  at 
last  arranged  the  discordant  materials,  and 
produced  the  visible  system  of  the  universe. 
The  cosmogony  of  the  northern  nations,  as 
may  be  collected  from  the  Edda,  supposes  an' 
eternal  principle  prior  to  the  formation  of  the 
world.  The  Orphic  Fragments  state  every 
thing  to  have  existed  in  God,  and  to  proceed 
from  him.  The  notion  implied  in  this  maxim 
is  suspected  to  be  pantheistic,  that  is,  to  imply 
the  universe  to  be  God ;  which,  however,  might 
be  a  more  modern  perversion.  Plato  supposed 
the  world  to  be  produced  by  the  Deity,  uniting 
eternal,  immutable  ideas,  or  forms,  to  variable 
matter.  Aristotle  had  no  cosmogony,  because 
he  supposed  the  world  to  be  without  beginning 
and  without  end.  According  to  the  Stoical 
doctrine,  the  divine  nature,  acting  on  matter, 
first  produced  moisture,  and  then  the  other 
elements,  which  are  reciprocally  convertible. 

CRETE,  an  island   in  the  Mediterranean, 


now  called  Candia,  Titus  i,  5.  Nature  had 
endowed  this  island  with  all  that  renders  man 
happy ;  the  inhabitants,  likewise,  had  formerly 
a  constitution  which  was  renowned  and  fre- 
quently compared  with  that  of  the  Spartans ; 
but  at  this  time,  and  even  long  before,  all,  even 
laws  and  morals,  had  sunk  very  low.  The 
character  of  this  nation  was  mutable,  prone  to 
quarrelling,  to  civil  disturbances  and  frays,  to 
robberies  and  violences.  Avaricious  and  base 
to  a  degree  of  sordid  greediness,  they  con- 
sidered nothing  as  ignoble  which  gratified  this 
inclination.  Thence  arose  their  treachery, 
their  false  and  deceitful  disposition,  which  had 
passed  into  a  common  proverb.  Even  in  the 
times  of  purer  morals  they  were  decidedly 
addicted  to  wine  ;  and  their  propensity  to  incon- 
tinence was  frequently  censured  and  noticed  by 
the  ancients.  Religion  itself  was  one  cause  of 
the  many  excesses  of  this  nation.  Many  deities 
were  born  among  them  ;  they  also  showed  their 
tombs  and  catacombs,  and  celebrated  the  feasts 
and  mysteries  of  all.  They  therefore  had  con- 
tinually holydays,  diversions,  and  idle  times, 
and  one  of  their  native  poets  (Diodorus  calls 
him  BsoXrfyos)  gave  them  the  testimony  which 
Paul  found  to  be  so  true,  Titus  i,  12.  Jews 
also  had  established  themselves  among  them, 
who  according  to  all  appearance  could  have 
improved  here  but  very  little  in  morality.  The 
Apostle  seems  to  have  considered  them  a  more 
dangerous  people  than  the  inhabitants  them- 
selves. 

CRIMSON,  Sd-D,  2  Chron.  ii,  7,  iii,  14,  the 
name  of  a  colour.  Bochart  supposes  it  to  be 
the  cochlea  pur  pur  aria,  or  purple  from  a  kind 
of  shell-fish  taken  near  Mount  Carmel.  But 
as  the  name  of  the  mount  is  said  to  mean  a 
vineyard,  one  may  rather  suppose  the  colour  to 
signify  that  of  grapes ;  like  the  redness  of  the 
vesture  of  him  who  trod  the  wine-press,  Isa, 
lxiii,  1,  2.  What  our  version  renders  crimson, 
Isa.  i,  18;  Jer.  iv,  30,  should  be  scarlet, 

CROSS,  an  ancient  instrument  of  capital 
punishment.  The  cross  was  the  punishment 
inflicted  by  the  Romans,  on  servants  who  had 
perpetrated  crimes,  on  robbers,  assassins,  and 
rebels  ;  among  which  last  Jesus  was  reckoned, 
on  the  ground  of  his  making  himself  King  or 
Messiah,  Luke  xxiii,  1-5,  13-15,  The  words 
in  which  the  sentence  was  given  were,  "Thou 
shalt  go  to  the  cross."  The  person  who  was 
subjected  to  this  punishment  was  then  deprived 
of  all  bis  clothes  excepting  something  around 
the  loins.  In  this  state  of  nudity  he  was 
beaten,  sometimes  with  rods,  but  more  gene- 
rally with  whips.  Such  was  the  severity  of 
this  flagellation,  that  numbers  died  under  it. 
Jesus  was  crowned  with  thorns,  and  made  the 
subject  of  mockery ;  but  insults  of  this  kind 
were  not  among  the  ordinary  attendants  of 
crucifixion.  They  were  owing,  in  this  case, 
merely  to  the  petulant  spirit  of  the  Roman 
soldiers,  Matt,  xxvii,  29;  Mark  xv,  17;  John 
xix,  2,  5.  The  criminal,  having  been  beaten, 
was  subjected  to  the  farther  suffering  of  being 
obliged  to  carry  the  cross  himself  to  the  place 
of  punishment,  which  was  commonly  a  hill, 
near  the  public  way,  and  out  of  the  city.    Tho 


CRO 


278 


CRO 


place  of  crucifixion  at  Jerusalem  was  a  hill  to 
the  north-west  of  tlio  city.  The  cross,  $avp&s, 
a  post,  otherwise  called  the  unpropitious  or 
infamous  tree,  consisted  of  a  piece  of  wood 
erected  perpendicularly,  and  intersected  1  >y 
another  at  right  angles  near  the  top,  so  as  to 
resenihle  the  letter  T.  The  crime  for  which 
the  person  suffered  was  inscribed  on  the 
transverse  piece  near  the  top  of  the  perpen- 
dicular one. 

There  is  no  mention  made  in  ancient  writers 
of  any  thing  on  which  the  feet  of  the  person 
crucified  rested.  Near  the  middle,  however,  of 
the  perpendicular  beam,  there  projected  a  piece 
of  wood,  on  which  he  sat,  and  which  answered 
as  a  support  to  the  body,  since  the  weight  of 
the  body  might  otherwise  have  torn  away  the 
hands  from  the  nails  driven  through  them. 
The  cross,  which  was  erected  at  the  place  of 
punishment,  being  there  firmly  fixed  in  the 
ground,  rarely  exceeded  ten  feet  in  height. 
The  victim,  perfectly  naked,  was  elevated  to 
the  small  projection  in  the  middle :  the  hands 
were  then  bound  by  a  rope  round  the  trans- 
verse beam,  and  nailed  through  the  palm. 

The  assertion  that  the  persons  who  suffered 
crucifixion  were  not  in  some  instances  fastened 
to  the  cross  by  nails  through  the  hands  and 
feet,  but  were  merely  bound  to  it  by  ropes, 
cannot  be  proved  by  the  testimony  of  any 
ancient  writer  whatever.  That  the  feet,  as 
well  as  the  hands,  were  fastened  to  the  cross 
by  means  of  nails,  is  expressly  asserted  in  the 
play  of  Plautus,  entitled  "  Mostellaria,"  com- 
pared with  Tertullian  against  the  Jews,  and 
against  Marcion.  In  regard  to  the  nailing  of 
the  feet,  it  may  be  farthermore  observed,  that 
Gregory  Nazianzen  has  asserted,  that  one  nail 
only  was  driven  through  both  of  them ;  but 
Cyprian,  (de  passione,)  who  had  been  a  personal 
witness  to  crucifixions,  and  is,  consequently, 
in  this  case,  the  better  authority,  states,  on 
the  contrary,  that  two  nails  or  spikes  were 
driven,  one  through  each  foot.  The  crucified 
person  remained  suspended  in  this  way  till  he 
med;  and  the  corpse  had  become  putrid.  While 
he  exhibited  any  signs  of  life,  he  was  watched 
by  a  guard  ;  but  they  left  him  when  it  appeared 
that  he  was  dead.  The  corpse  was  not  buried, 
except  by  express  permission,  which  was  some- 
times granted  by  the  emperor  on  his  birth  day, 
but  only  to  a  very  few.  An  exception,  how- 
ever, to  this  general  practice  was  made  by  the 
Fomans  in  favour  of  the  Jews,  on  account  of 
Deut.  xxi,  22,  23 ;  and  in  Judea,  accordingly, 
crucified  persons  were  buried  on  the  same  day. 
When,  therefore,  there  was  no-,  a  prospect  that 
they  would  die  on  the  day  of  the  crucifixion, 
the  executioners  hastened  the  extinction  of 
life,  by  kindling  a  fire  under  the  cross,  so  as  to 
faiffocalo  them  with  the  smoke,  or  by  letting 
loose  wild  beasts  upon  them,  or  by  breaking 
their  bones  upon  the  cross  with  a  mallet,  as 
upon  an  anvil.  The  Jews,  in  the  times  of 
which  we  are  speaking,  namely,  while  they 
were  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Romans, 
were  in  the  habit  of  giving  the  criminal,  before 
the  commencement  of  bis  sufferings,  a  medicat- 
ed drink  of  wine  and  myrrh,  Prov.  xxxi,  G. 


The  object  of  this  was  to  produce  intoxication, 
and  thereby  render  the  pains  of  the  crucifixion 
less  sensible  to  the  sufferer.  This  beverage 
was  refused  by  the  .Saviour  for  the  obvious 
reason,  that  he  chose  to  die  with  the  faculties 
of  his  mind  undisturbed  and  unclouded,  Matt, 
xxvii,  31 ;  Mark  xv.  23.  It  should  be  remarked, 
that  this  sort  of  drink,  which  was  probably 
offered  out  of  kindness,  was  different  from  the 
vinegar  which  was  subsequently  offered  to  the 
Saviour  by  the  Roman  soldiers.  The  latter 
was  a  mixture  of  vinegar  and  water,  denomi- 
nated posca,  and  was  a  common  drink  for  the 
soldiers  in  the  Roman  army,  Luke  xxiii,  36; 
John  xix,  29. 

2.  Crucifixion  was  not  only  the  most  igno- 
minious, it  was  likewise  the  most  cruel,  mode 
of  punishment :  so  very  much  so,  that  Cicero 
is  justified  in  saying,  in  respect  to  crucifixion, 
"  Ab  oculis,  auribusque  et  omni  cogitations 
homiman  remove ndum  esse."  [That  it  ought 
neither  to  be  seen,  heard  of,  nor  even  thought  of 
by  men.]  The  sufferings  endured  by  a  person 
on  whom  this  punishment  is  inflicted  are  nar- 
rated by  George  Gottlieb  Richter,  a  German 
physician,  in  a  "  Dissertation  on  the  Saviour's 
Crucifixion."  The  position  of  the  body  is 
unnatural,  the  arms  being  extended  back,  and 
almost  immovable.  In  case  of  the  least  mo- 
tion, an  extremely  painful  sensation  is  experi- 
enced in  the  hands  and  feet,  which  are  pierced 
with  nails,  and  in  the  back,  which  is  lacerated 
with  stripes.  The  nails,  being  driven  through 
the  parts  of  the  hands  and  feet  which  abound 
in  nerves  and  tendons,  create  the  most  exquisite 
anguish.  The  exposure  of  so  many  wounds  to 
the  open  air  brings  on  an  inflammation,  which 
every  moment  increases  the  piognancy  of  the 
suffering.  In  those  parts  of  the  body  which 
are  distended  or  pressed,  more  blood  flows 
through  the  arteries  than  can  be  carried  back 
in  the  veins.  The  consequence  is,  that  a  greater 
quantity  of  blood  finds  its  way  from  the  aorta 
into  the  head  and  stomach,  than  would  be  car- 
ried there  by  a  natural  and  undisturbed  circu- 
lation. The  bloodvessels  of  the  head  become 
pressed  and  swollen,  which  of  course  causes 
pain,  and  a  redness  of  the  face.  The  circum- 
stance of  the  blood  being  impelled  in  more  than 
ordinary  quantities  into  the  stomach  is  an 
unfavourable  one  also,  because  it  is  that  part 
of  the  system  which  not  only  admits  of  the 
'blood  being  stationary,  but  is  peculiarly  expos- 
ed to  mortification.  The  aorta,  not  being  at 
liberty  to  empty,  in  the  free  and  undisturbed 
way  as  formerly,  the  blood  which  it  receives 
from  the  left  ventricle  of  the  heart,  is  unable 
to  receive  its  usual  quantity.  The  blood  of  the 
lungs,  therefore,  is  unable  to  find  a  free  circu- 
lation.  This  general  obstruction  extends  its 
cttects  likewise  to  the  right,  ventricle,  and  the 
consequence  is,  an  internal  excitement,  and  ex- 
ertion, and  anxiety,  which  are  more  intolerable 
than  the  anguish  of  death  itself.  All  the  large 
vessels  about  the  heart,  and  all  the  veins  and 
arteries  in  that  part  of  the  system,  on  account 
of  the  accumulation  and  pressure  of  blood,  are 
the  source  of  inexpressible  misery.  The  degree 
of  anguish  is  gradual  in  its  increase ;  and  the 


CRO 


279 


cue 


person  crucified  is  able  to  live  under  it  com- 
monly till  the  third,  and  sometimes  till  the 
seventh,  day.  Pilate,  therefore,  being  surpris- 
ed at  the  speedy  termination  of  the  Saviour's 
life,  inquired  in  respect  to  the  truth  of  it  of  the 
centurion  himself,  who  commanded  the  soldiers, 
Mark  xv,  44.  In  order  to  bring  their  life  to  a 
more  speedy  termination,  so  that  they  might 
be  buried  on  the  same  day,  the  bones  of  the 
two  thieves  were  broken  with  mallets,  John 
xix,  31-37  ;  and  in  order  to  ascertain  this  point 
in  respect  to  Jesus,  namely,  whether  he  was 
really  dead,  or  whether  he  had  merely  fallen 
into  a  swoon,  a  soldier  thrust  his  lance  into 
his  side ;  but  no  signs  of  life  appeared,  John 
xix,  31-37. 

3.  Our  Saviour  says,  that  whosoever  will  be 
his  disciple  must  take  up  nis  cross  and  follow 
him,  Matt,  xvi,  24 :  by  which  is  meant,  that 
his  disciples  must  be  willing  to  suffer  for  him, 
in  any  way  in  which  God,  in  the  course  of  his 
providence,  may  call  them  to  suffer ;  even  to 
endure  martyrdom,  if  called  to  it.  The  cross 
is  also  often  put  for  the  whole  of  Christ's  suf- 
ferings, Eph.  ii,  16;  Heb.  xii,  2  ;  and  the  doc- 
trine of  his  perfect  atonement,  Gal.  vi,  14. 

CROWN  is  a  term  properly  taken  for  a  cap 
of  state  worn  on  the  heads  of  sovereign  princes, 
as  a  mark  of  regal  dignity.  In  Scripture  there 
is  frequent  mention  made  of  crowns  ;  and  the 
use  of  them  seems  to  have  been  very  common 
among  the  Hebrews.  The  high  priest  wore  a 
crown,  which  was  girt  about  his  mitre,  or  the 
lower  part  of  his  bonnet,  and  was  tied  about 
his  head.  On  the  forepart  was  a  plate  of  gold, 
with  these  words  engraven  on  it :  "  Holiness 
to  the  Lord,  "Exod.  xxviii,  36;  xxix,  6.  New- 
married  persons  of  both  sexes  wore  crowns  upon 
their  wedding  day,  Cant,  iii,  11 ;  and,  alluding 
to  this  custom,  it  is  said  that  when  God  entered 
into  covenant  with  the  Jewish  nation,  he  put 
a  beautiful  crown  upon  their  head,  Ezekioi 
xvi,  12.  The  first  crowns  were  no  more  than 
a  bandelet  drawn  round  the  head,  and  tied  be- 
hind, as  we  see  it  still  represented  on  medals, 
&.c.  Afterward,  they  consisted  of  two  bande- 
lets ;  by  degrees  they  took  branches  of  trees  of 
divers  kinds,  &c  ;  at  length  they  added  flowers  ; 
and  Claudius  Saturninus  says  there  was  not  any 
plant  of  which  crowns  had  not  been  made. 

There  was  always  a  difference,  either  in 
matter  or  form,  between  the  crowns  of  kings 
and  great  men,  and  those  of  private  persons. 
The  crown  of  a  king  was  generally  a  white 
fillet  bound  about  his  forehead,  the  extremities 
whereof  being  tied  behind  the  head,  fell  back 
on  the  neck.  Sometimes  they  were  made  of 
gold  tissue,  adorned  with  jewels.  That  of  the 
Jewish  high  priest,  which  is  the  most  ancient 
of  which  we  have  any  description,  was  a  fillet 
of  gold  placed  upon  his  forehead,  and  tied  with 
a  ribbon  of  a  hyacinth  colour,  or  azure  blue. 
The  crown,  mitre,  and  diadem,  royal  fillet  and 
tiara,  are  frequently  confounded.  Crowns  were 
bestowed  on  kings  and  princes,  as  the  principal 
marks  of  their  dignity.  David  took  the  crown 
of  the  king  of  the  Ammonites  from  off  his 
head :  the  crown  weighed  a  talent  of  gold,  and 
was  moreover  enriched  with  jewels,  2  Sam. 


xn,  30 ;  1  Chron.  xx,  2.  The  Amalekite  who 
valued  himself  on  killing  Saul,  brought  this 
prince's  crown  unto  David,  2  Sam.  i,  10.  The 
crown  was  placed  upon  the  head  of  young 
King  Josiah,  when  he  was  presented  to  the 
people,  in  order  to  be  acknowledged  by  them, 
2  Chron.  xxiii,  11.  Baruch  says  that  the  idols 
of  the  Babylonians  wore  golden  crowns,  Baruch 
vi,  9.  Queens,  too,  wore  diadems  among  the 
Persians.  King  Ahasuerus  honoured  Vashti 
with  this  mark  of  power ;  and,  after  her  divorce, 
the  same  favour  was  granted  to  Esther,  chap. 
ii,  17.  The  elders,  in  Rev.  iv,  10,  are  said  to 
"  cast  their  crowns  before  the  throne."  The 
allusion  is  here  to  the  tributary  kings  depend- 
ent upon  the  Roman  emperors.  Herod  took 
off  his  diadem  in  the  presence  of  Augustus,  till 
ordered  to  replace  it.  Tiridates  did  homage  to 
Nero  by  laying  the  ensigns  of  royalty  at  the 
foot  of  his  statue. 

Pilate's  guard  platted  a  crown  of  thorns,  and 
placed  it  on  the  head  of  Jesus  Christ,  Matt,  xxvii, 
29,  with  an  intention  to  insult  him,  under  the 
character  of  the  king  of  the  Jews.  See  Thorn. 
In  a  figurative  sense,  a  crown  signifies  honour, 
splendour,  or  dignity,  Lam.  v,  16 ;  Phil,  iv,  1 ; 
and  is  also  used  for  reward,  because  conquerors, 
in  the  Grecian  games,  were  crowned,  1  Corin- 
thians ix,  25. 

CRYSTAL,  mp.  This  word  is  translated 
"crystal"  in  Ezek.  i,  22;  and  "frost,"  Gen. 
xxxi,  40;  Job  xxxvii,  10;  Jeremiah  xxxvi,  30; 
and  "ice,"  Job  vi,  16;  xxxviii,  29;  Psalm 
cxlvii,  17;  *.-pus-aXAoj,  Rev.  iv,  6;  xxii,  1.  Crys- 
tal is  supposed  to  have  its  name  from  its  resem- 
blance to  ice.  The  Greek  word,  Kpus-aXXof,  is 
formed  from  Kpvo?,  ice,  and  s-aXdaaojiat,  to  concrete. 
The  word,  rvoisr,  is  translated  crystal,  in  Job 
xxviii,  17.  Dr.  Good  observes,  "  We  are  not 
certain  of  the  exact  signification,  farther  than 
that  it  denotes  some  perfectly  transparent  and 
hyaline  gem." 

CUBIT,  a  measure  used  among  the  ancients. 
The  Hebrews  call  it  nDN,  the  mother  of  other 
measures :  in  Greek  t^ij^uf .  A  cubit  originally 
was  the  distance  from  the  elbow  to  the  extre- 
mity of  the  middle  finger  :  this  is  the  fourth  part 
of  a  well  proportioned  man's  stature.  The 
common  cubit  is  eighteen  inches.  The  He- 
brew cubit,  according  to  Bishop  Cumberland 
and  M.  Pelletier,  is  twenty-one  inches ;  but 
others  fix  it  at  eighteen  inches.  The  Talmu- 
disls  observe,  that  the  Hebrew  cubit  was  larger 
by  one  quarter  than  the  Roman.  Lewis  Ca- 
pellus  and  others  have  asserted  that  there  were 
two  sorts  of  cubits  among  the  Hebrews  ;  one 
sacred,  the  other  common  ;  the  sacred  contain- 
ing  three  feet,  the  common  containing  a  foot 
and  a  half.  Moses  assigns  to  the  Levites  a 
thousand  sacred  cubits  of  land  round  about 
their  cities,  Num.  xxxv,  4 ;  and  in  the  next 
verse  he  gives  them  two  thousand  common 
ones.  The  opinion,  however,  is  very  probable, 
that  the  cubit  varied  in  different  districts  and 
cities,  and  at  different  times,  &c. 

CUCUMBER,  cyNi^i,  cUvos,  cucumis,  Num. 
xi,  5,  the  fruit  of  a  plant  very  common  in  our 
gardens.  Tournefort  mentions  six  kinds,  of 
which  the  white  and  green  are  most  esteemed. 


CUL 


2S0 


CUL 


Tiny  are  very  plentiful  in  the  east,  especially 
in  Egypt,  and  much  superior  to  ours.  Maillot, 
in  describing  the  vegetables  which  the  modern 
Egyptians  have  for  food,  tells  vis,  tli.it  melons, 
cucumbers,  and  onions  are  the  most  com- 
mon; and  Celsius  and  Alpinus  describe  the 
Egyptian  cucumbers  as  more  agreeable  to  the 
taste  and  of  more  easy  digestion  than  the 
European, 

CULDEES,  a  body  of  religious,  who  chiefly 
resided  in  Scotland,  Ireland,  and  some  of  the 
adjacent  isles.     The  name  has  been  also  writ- 
ten Keldces  and   Kyldees.      Various  etymons 
have  been  given  of  it.     Two  of  these  seem  to 
have  superior  claims  to  attention.     It  may  be 
deduced  either  from  Irish  cede,  or,  gille,  a  serv- 
ant, and  De,  Dia,  Cod  ;  or  from  cuil,  ceal,  in 
Welsh  eel,  a  sequestered  corner,  a  retreat.    The 
latter  seems  to  derive  support  from  the  esta- 
blished sense  of  kil,  retained  in  the  names  of 
so  many  places,  which,  in  an  early  age,  have 
been  consecrated  to  religion.     It  is  more  than 
probable  that  Christianity  had  found  its  way 
into  Scotland  before  the  close  of  the  second 
century ;  and  that  it  continued  to  be  professed 
by  a  lew  scattered  individuals  even  before  the 
arrival  of  Ninian,  in  the  beginning  of  the  fifth. 
But  we  have  no  proof  of  the  existence  of  any 
religious  societies  observing  a  particular  insti- 
tute, till  the  year  563,  when  Columba  landed 
in  Hii,  or  Jona  ;  which,  in  honour  of  him,  was 
afterward  called  Lcolum-lcill;  that  is,  the  isle  of 
Colum,  or  Columba,  of  the  cells.     He  was  born 
in  Ireland,  A,  D.  521 ;  and,  after  founding  many 
seminaries  of  religion  there,  prompted  by  zeal 
for  the  propagation  of  Christianity,  set  sail  for 
Scotland  with  twelve  companions.    According 
to  Bcde,  having  converted  the  northern  Picts, 
he  received  from  Brudi,  their  king,  the  island 
of  Hii  in  possession,  for  the  purpose  of  erect- 
ing a  monastery.     Here  he  almost  constantly 
resided  till  the  year  597,  when  he  died.     He 
made  occasional  visits  to  the  mainland,  pro- 
ceeding even  as  far  as  to  Inverness :   also  to 
Ireland,  where  he  was  held  in  high  estimation. 
As  he  was  himself  much  devoted  to  the  study 
of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  he  taught  his  disciples 
to    confirm    their    doctrines    by    testimonies 
brought   from   this  unpolluted   fountain,    and 
declared  that  only  to   be   the  divine   counsel 
which  he  found  there.     His  followers,  faithful 
to  his  instructions,  "would  receive  those  things 
only  which  are  contained  in  the  writings  of 
the  Prophets,  Evangelists,  and  Apostles,  dili- 
gently observing  the  works  of  piety  and  puri- 
ty."   They  lived,  indeed,  according  to  a  certain 
institute,  which,  it  is  said,  was  composed  by 
their  venerable  instructor.     But  there  was  this 
remarkable  distinction  between  them  and  those 
societies    properly  called  monastic,  that  they 
were  not  associated  expressly  for  the  purpose 
of  observing  this  rule.     White   they  seem  to 
have  reckoned  something  of  this  kind  neces- 
sary for  the  preservation  of  order,  and  for  the 
attainment  of  habits  of  diligence,  their  great 
design  was,  by  the  instruction  of  those  com- 
mitted to  their  charge,  to  train  them  up  for  the 
work  of  the  ministry.    Hence  it  lias  been  justly 
observed,  that  the  Culdcan    fraternities   may 


more  properly  be  viewed  as  colleges  than  as 
monasteries  ;  as  being  in  fact,  the  seminaries 
of  the  church  both  in  North  Britain  and  in 
Ireland.  There  were  also  Culdees  in  Wales  ; 
and,  for  many  ages,  the  Christians  of  that 
country  held  the  same  doctrines,  and  observed 
the  same  rites,  with  their  Scottish  and  Irish 
brethren.  The  presbyters  not  only  acted  as 
the  ministers  of  religion  to  those  in  their  vici- 
nity, but  were  still  instructing  others,  and  send- 
ing forth  missionaries  whenever  they  had  a 
call,  or  any  prospect  of  success. 

2.  In  each  regular  establishment  of  the  Cul- 
dees, it  would  appear  that  there  were  twelve 
brethren,  with  one  who  presided  over  them. 
Their  ecclesiastical  government  has  been  view- 
ed as  materially  the  same  with  the  Presbyterian. 
Their  president,  or  abbot,  was  not  a  bishop, 
but  a  presbyter ;  to  whose  authority,  as  we  learn 
from  Bcde,  even  the  bishops  of  the  district  were 
subject.     In  their  meetings,  all  matters  were 
settled  by  plurality  of  voices.     The  members 
of  this  council  had  the  general  designation  of 
seniores,  or  elders.     To  them,  collectively,  be- 
longed the  trial  of  the  gifts  of  those  who  had 
been  educated  in  their  seminaries,  when  they 
were  to  be   employed  in  the  public  ministry ; 
from  them  they  received  ordination  and  mis- 
sion, and  to  them  they  were  amenable  in  the 
discharge  of  their  office.     Those  whom  they 
thus  employed  are,  by  ancient  writers,  often 
denominated  bishops.     But  that  they  attached 
to  this  designation  no  dignity  superior  to  that 
of  presbyter,    appears    incontrovertible    from 
their  being  afterward  called  to  account,   and 
sometimes  censured  by  the  fraternity.     It  has 
been  asserted  by  the  friends  of  diocesan  episco 
pacy,  that  a  bishop  must  always  have  resided 
at  Ionafor  the  purpose  of  conferring  ordination. 
But  there  is  not  the  slightest  evidence  of  this. 
The  contrary  appears  from  all  the  records  of 
these  early  ages.     We  learn  from  the  Saxon 
Chronicle,  that  "there  was  always  an  abbot  at 
Hii,  but  no  bishop."     It  is  a  singular  fact,  that 
those  who  were  first  acknowledged  as  bishops 
in  the  northern  parts  of  England,  and  were 
indeed    instrumental    in    the    introduction  of 
Christianity  there,  were  not  only  trained  up  at 
lona,  but  received  all  their  authority  from  the 
council  of  seniors  in  that  island.    This  was  the 
case  with  respect  to  Corman,  the  bishop  of  the 
Northumbrians,  as  well  as  Aidan,  Finan,  and 
Colman,    who    succeeded  each    other  in  this 
mission.     From  the  testimony  of  Bede,  it  is 
evident  that  by  means  of  Scottish  missionaries, 
or  of  those  whom   they  had    instructed  and 
ordained,  not  only  the  Northumbrians,  but  the 
Middle-Angles,  the  Mercians  and  East-Saxons, 
all  the  way  to  the  river  Thames,  that  is,  the 
inhabitants  of  by  far  the  greatest  part  of  the 
country  now  called  England,  were  converted  to 
Christianity  ;  and  for  some  time  acknowledged 
subjection  to  the  ecclesiastical  government  of 
the   Scots.     The  latter   lost  their   influence 
merely  because  their  missionaries  chose  rather 
to  give  up  their  charges  than  to  submit  to  the 
prevailing  influence  of  the  church  of  Rome,  to 
which  the  Saxons  of  the  west  and  of  Kent  had 
subjected  themselves. 


CUL 


281 


CUR 


3.  Their  doctrines  were  not  less  unpalatable 
than  their  mode  of  government  to  the  friends 
of  the  church  of  Rome.  In  England,  in  a  very 
early  period,  the  adherents  of  the  Popish  mis- 
sionary Augustine  were  viewed  by  the  delegates 
from  Iona  in  the  light  of  heretics.  They 
accordingly  refused  to  hold  communion  with 
them.  Matters  were  carried  so  high  in  sup- 
port of  the  Roman  authority  in  the  synod  of 
Stronesehalch,  now  Whitby,  in  England,  A. 
D.  662,  that  Colman,  the  Scottish  bishop  of 
Lindisfarne,  left  his  bishopric,  and  with  his 
adberents  returned  to  Scotland.  Thus,  as  Bede 
informs  us,  "  the  Catholic  institution  daily 
increasing,  all  the  Scots  who  resided  among 
the  Angles,  cither  conformed  to  them  or  re- 
turned to  their  own  country."  It  was  decreed 
in  the  council  of  Cealhythe,  A.  D.  816,  that  no 
Scottish  priest  should  be  allowed  to  perform 
any  duty  of  his  function  in  England.  But  in 
Scotland  the  Culdean  doctrine  had  taken  deeper 
root ;  and,  although  equally  offensive  to  the 
votaries  of  Rome,  kept  its  ground  for  several 
centuries.  The  Popish  writers  themselves  cele- 
brate the  piety,  the  purity,  the  humility,  and 
even  the  learning,  of  the  Culdees ;  but  while 
they  were  displeased  with  the  simplicity,  or 
what  they  deemed  the  barbarism,  of  their  wor- 
ship, tbey  charged  them  with  various  deviations 
from  the  faith  of  the  Catholic  church.  It  was 
not  the  least  of  these,  that  they  did  not  observe 
Easter  at  the  proper  time.  They  did  not  ac- 
knowledge auricular  confession  ;  they  rejected 
penance  and  authoritative  absolution ;  they 
made  no  use  of  chrism  in  baptism  ;  confirma- 
tion was  unknown  ;  they  opposed  the  doctrine 
of  the  real  presence  ;  they  withstood  the  idol- 
atrous worship  of  saints  and  angels,  dedicating 
all  their  churches  to  the  Holy  Trinity ;  they 
denied  the  doctrine  of  works  of  supererogation  ; 
they  were  enemies  to  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy, 
themselves  living  in  the  married  state.  One 
sweeping  charge  brought  against  them  is,  that 
they  preferred  their  own  opinions  to  "  the  sta- 
tutes of  the  holy  fathers." 

4.  The  Scots,  having  received  the  Christian 
faith  by  the  labours  of  the  Culdees,  long  with- 
stood the  errors  and  usurpations  of  Rome. 
It  was  not  till  the  twelfth  century  that  their 
influence  began  to  decline.  The  difference 
between  the  lower  classes  of  society  in  England 
and  those  of  the  same  description  in  Scotland, 
both  with  respect  to  religious  knowledge  and 
moral  conduct,  is  generally  considered  to  be 
very  striking.  Some  writers,  whose  attention 
has  been  arrested  by  this  singular  circumstance, 
and  who  could  not  be  influenced  by  local  at- 
tachments, have  ascribed  the  disparity  to  the 
relative  influence,  however  remote  it  may  seem, 
of  the  doctrine  and  example  of  the  Culdees. 
Notwithstanding  their  great  disinterestedness 
and  diligence  in  propagating  the  Gospel  in 
England,  these  good  men,  it  has  been  remark- 
ed, within  thirty  years  after  the  commencement 
of  their  mission,  were  obliged  to  give  way  to 
the  adherents  of  Rome ;  whereas  the  Scots,  it 
is  certainly  known,  enjoyed  the  benefit  of  their 
labours  for  more  than  seven  centuries,  and 
seem  to  have  still  retained  their  predilection 


for  the  doctrines  and    modes  which    they  so 
early  received. 

CUMMIN,  ?V3D,  Isaiah  xxviii,  25,  27; 
Kijxivov,  Matt,  xxiii,  23.  This  is  an  umbellifer- 
ous plant,  in  appearance  resembling  fennel,  but 
smaller.  Its  seeds  have  a  bitterish  warm  taste, 
accompanied  with  an  aromatic  flavour,  not  of 
the  most  agreeable  kind.  An  essential  oil  is 
obtained  from  them  by  distillation.  The  Jews 
sowed  it  in  their  fields,  and  when  ripe  threshed 
out  the  seeds  with  a  rod,  Isaiah  xxviii,  25,  27. 
The  Maltese  sow  it,  and  collect  the  seeds  in 
the  same  manner. 

CUP.  This  word  is  taken  in  a  twofold  sense  ; 
proper,  and  figurative.  In  a  proper  sense,  it 
signifies  a  vessel,  such  as  people  drink  out  of 
at  meals,  Gen.  xl,  13.  It  was  anciently  the  cus- 
tom, at  great  entertainments,  for  the  governor 
of  the  feast  to  appoint  to  each  of  his  guests  the 
kind  and  proportion  of  wine  which  they  were 
to  drink,  and  what  he  had  thus  appointed  them 
it  was  deemed  a  breach  of  good  manners  either 
to  refuse  or  not  to  drink  up ;  hence  a  man's 
cup,  both  in  sacred  and  profane  authors,  came 
to  signify  the  portion,  whether  of  good  or  evil, 
which  happens  to  him  in  this  world.  Thus,  to 
drink  "the  cup  of  trembling,"  or  of  "  the  fury 
of  the  Lord,"  is  to  be  afflicted  with  sore  and 
terrible  judgments,  Isaiah  li,  17  ;  Jeremiahxxv, 
15-29;  Psalm  lxxv,  8.  What  Christ  means 
by  the  expression,  we  cannot  be  at  a  loss  to 
understand,  since  in  two  remarkable  passages, 
Luke  xxii,  42,  and  John  xviii,  11,  he  has  been 
his  own  interpreter.  Lethale  poculum  lihere, 
"to  drink  the  deadly  cup,"  or  cup  of  death, 
was  a  common  phrase  among  the  Jews ;  and 
from  them,  we  have  reason  to  believe,  our 
Lord  borrowed  it. 

Cup  of  Blessing,  1  Corinth,  x,  16,  is  that 
which  was  blessed  in  entertainments  of  ceremo- 
ny, or  solemn  services  ;  or,  rather,  a  cup  over 
which  God  was  blessed  for  having  furnished  its 
contents  ;  that  is,  for  giving  to  men  the  fruit  of 
the  vine.  Our  Saviour,  in  the  Last  Supper, 
blessed  the  cup,  and  gave  it  to  each  of  his  Apos- 
tles to  drink,  Luke  xxii,  20. 

Cup  of  Salvation,  Psalm  cxvi,  13,  a  phrase 
of  nearly  the  same  import  as  the  former,  a  cup 
of  thanksgiving,  of  blessing  the  Lord  for  his 
saving  mercies.  We  see,  in  2  Mace,  vi,  27, 
that  the  Jews  of  Eg37pt,  in  their  festivals  for 
deliverance,  offered  cups  of  salvation.  The 
Jews  have  at  this  dny  cups  of  thanksgiving, 
which  are  blessed,  in  their  marriage  ceremonies, 
and  in  entertainments  made  at  the  circumcision 
of  their  children.  Some  commentators  think 
that  "the  cup  of  salvation"  was  a  libation  of 
wine  poured  on  the  victim  sacrificed  on  thanks- 
giving occasions,  according  to  the  law  of  Mo- 
ses, Exod.  xxix,  40. 

CURSE.  To  curse,  signifies  to  imprecate, 
to  call  for  mischief  upon,  or  wish  evil  to,  any 
one.  Noah  cursed  his  grandson  Canaan,  Gen. 
ix,  25 :  Jacob  cursed  the  fury  of  his  two  sons, 
Gen.  xlix,  7  :  Moses  enjoins  the  people  of  Israel 
to  denounce  curses  against  the  violatcrs  of  tho 
law,  Deut.  xxvii,  15,  16,  &c.  Joshua  pro. 
nounced  a  curse  upon  him  who  should  under- 
take  to  rebuild  Jericho.     These  curses  were 


cus 


282 


CUS 


such  as  were  either  ordained  by  God  himself, 
and  pronounced  by  men  under  the  influence  of 
his  Spirit;  or  they  were  predictions  of  certain 
evils  which  would  happen  to  individuals,  or  to 
a  people,  uttered  in  the  form  of  imprecations. 
They  were  not  the  effects  of  passion,  impa- 
tience, or  revenge ;  and,  therefore,  were  not 
things  condemned  by  God  in  his  law,  like  the 
cursing  mentioned,  Exodus  xxi,  17,  xxii,  28, 
Leviticus  xix,  14. 

CUSH,  the  eldest  son  of  Ham,  and  father  of 
Nimrod,  Seba,  Havilah,  Sabtah,  Raamah,  and 
Sabtecha ;  and  the  grandfather  of  Sheba  and 
JDcdan.  The  posterity  of  Cush,  spread  over 
great  part  of  Asia  and  Africa,  were  called 
Cushim,  or  Cushites ;  and  by  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  and  in  our  Bible,  Ethiopians. 

Cush,  Cutha,  Cuthea,  Cushan,  Ethiopia, 
Land  of  Cush,  the  country  or  countries  peopled 
by  the  descendants  of  Cush  ;  whose  first  plant- 
ations were  on  the  gulf  of  Persia,  in  that  part 
which  still  bears  the  name  of  Chuzestan, 
and  from  whence  they  spread  over  India  and 
great  part  of  Arabia ;  particularly  its  western 
part,  on  the  coast  of  the  Red  Sea  ;  invaded 
Egypt,  under  the  name  of  Hyc-Sos,  or  shep- 
herd-kings ;  and  thence  passed,  as  well  proba- 
bly as  by  the  straits  of  Babelmandel,  into 
Central  Africa,  and  first  peopled  the  countries 
to  the  south  of  Egj'pt,  Nubia,  Abyssinia,  and 
parts  farther  to  the  south  and  west.  The 
indiscriminate  use  of  the  term  Ethiopia  in  our 
Bible,  for  all  the  countries  peopled  by  the  pos- 
terity of  Cush,  and  the  almost  exclusive  appli- 
cation of  the  same  term  by  the  Greek  and 
Roman  writers  to  the  before  mentioned  coun- 
tries of  Africa,  have  involved  some  portions  of 
both  sacred  and  profane  history  in  almost  inex- 
tricable confusion.  The  first  country  which 
bore  this  name,  and  which  was  doubtless  the 
original  settlement,  was  that  which  is  described 
by  Moses  as  encompassed  by  the  river  Gihon, 
or  Gyndcs  ;  which  encircles  a  great  part  of  the 
province  of  Chuzestan  in  Persia.  In  process 
of  time,  the  increasing  family  spread  over  the 
vast  territory  of  India  and  Arabia:  the  whole 
of  which  tract,  from  the  Ganges  to  the  borders 
of  Egypt,  then  became  the  land  of  Cush,  or 
Asiatic  Ethiopia,  the  Cusha  Dwecpa  within,  of 
Hindoo  geography.  Until  dispossessed  of  this 
country,  or  a  great  part  of  it,  by  the  posterity 
of  Abraham,  the  Ishmaelitcs  and  Midianites, 
they,  by  a  farther  dispersion,  passed  over  into 
Africa;  which,  in  its  turn,  became  the  land  of 
Cush,  or  Ethiopia,  the  Cusha  Dweepa  without, 
of  the  Hindoos :  the  only  country  so  understood 
after  the  commencement  of  the  Christian  a;ra. 
Even  from  this  last  refuge,  they  were  compelled, 
by  the  influx  of  fresh  settlers  from  Arabia, 
Egypt,  and  Canaan,  to  extend  their  migra- 
tions still  farther  westward,  into  the  heart  of 
the  African  continent ;  where  only  in  the 
woolly-headed  negro,  the  genuine  Cushite  is 
to  be  found. 

Herodotus  relates  that  Xerxes  had,  in  the 
army  prepared  for  his  Grecian  expedition,  both 
Oriental  and  African  Ethiopians  :  and  adds, 
that  they  resembled  each  other  in  every  out- 
ward circumstance  except  their  hair ;  that  of 


the  Asiatic  Ethiopians  being  long  and  straight, 
while  the  hair  of  those  of  Africa  was  curled 
This  is  a  very  remarkable  fact ;  and  leads  to 
the  question,  How  came  this  singular  distinc- 
tion between  people  of  the  same  stock?  Did 
it  arise  from  change  of  climate  and  of  habits? 
or  from  some  original  difference  in  a  particular 
branch  of  the  great  family  of  Cush?  The  for- 
mer appears  by  far  the  more  probable.  It  is 
not  likely  that  a  people  descended  from  a  com- 
mon parent  should  naturally  be  distinguished 
by  such  a  peculiar  difference  ;  but  that  it  might 
be  acquired  by  change  of  soil  and  condition, 
we  have  every  reason  to  believe.  We  have 
something  exactly  analogous  to  it,  in  the 
change  which  the  hair  of  animals  undergoes 
when  removed  from  their  native  state.  But 
a  modern  writer  has  furnished  us  with  a  fact 
which  will  go  farther  than  either  theory  or 
analogy.  Dr.  Prichard,  in  his  researches  into 
the  Physical  History  of  Man,  relates,  on  the  au- 
thority of  Dr.  S.  S.  Smith,  of  the  negroes  settled 
in  the  southern  districts  of  the  United  States 
of  America,  that  the  field-slaves,  who  live  on 
the  plantations,  and  retain  pretty  nearly  tho 
rude  manners  of  their  African  progenitors, 
preserve  in  the  third  generation  much  of  their 
original  structure,  though  their  features  are 
not  so  strongly  marked  as  those  of  imported 
slaves.  But  the  domestic  servants  of  the  same 
race,  who  are  treated  with  lenity,  and  whose 
condition  is  little  different  from  that  of  the 
lower  class  of  white  people,  in  the  third  gene- 
ration have  the  nose  raised,  the  mouth  and  lips 
of  moderate  size,  the  eyes  lively  and  sparkling, 
and  often  the  whole  composition  of  the  features 
extremely  agreeable.  "  The  hair  grows  sen- 
sibly longer  in  each  succeeding  race,  and  ex- 
tends to  three,  four,  and  sometimes  to  six  or 
eight  inches." 

About  four  hundred  years  before  Christ,  Hero- 
dotus, in  his  second  book  which  treats  of  Egypt, 
makes  frequent  mention  of  Ethiopia ;  mean- 
ing exclusively  the  Ethiopia  above  Egypt.  In 
the  time  of  our  Saviour,  (and  indeed  from  that 
time  forward,)  by  Ethiopia,  was  meant,  in  a 
general  sense,  the  countries  south  of  Egypt, 
then  but  imperfectly  known  :  of  one  of  which, 
that  Candace  was  queen  whose  eunuch  was 
baptized  by  Philip. 

From  a  review  of  the  history  of  this  remark- 
able people,  we  may  see  that  those  writers  must 
necessarily  be  wrong  who  would  confine  the 
Ethiopians  to  either  Arabia  or  Africa.  Many 
parts  of  Scripture  history  cannot  possibly  be 
understood,  without  supposing  them  to  have 
settlements  in  both ;  which  Herodotus  ex- 
pressly asserts  was  the  case.  In  fine,  we  may 
conclude,  that  in  the  times  of  the  prophets, 
and  during  the  transactions  recorded  in  the 
second  books  of  Kings  and  Chronicles,  the 
Cushites,  still  retaining  a  part  of  their  ancient 
territories  in  Arabia,  had  crossed  the  Red  Sea 
in  great  numbers,  and  obtained  extensive  pos, 
sessions  in  Africa;  where,  being,  in  a  farther 
course  of  time,  altogether  expelled  from  the 
east  by  the  Ishmaelites,  &,c,  their  remains  are 
now  concentrated.  It  is  to  be  observed,  how- 
ever, that  the  Cushites  probably  at  the  time  qf 


CYR 


283 


CYR 


their  expulsion  from  Egypt,  migrated,  or  sent 
colonies  into  several  other  parts,  particularly 
to  Phenicia,  Colchis,  and  Greece;  where,  in 
process  of  time,  they  became  blended  with  the 
other  inhabitants  of  those  countries,  the  fami- 
lies of  Javan,  Meshck,  and  Tubal,  and  their 
distinctive  character  totally  lost. 

CYPRESS,  nnn,  Isa.  xliv,  14;  and  Kv-rrdpia- 
cos,  Ecclus.  xxiv,  13;  1,  10 ;  a  large  evergreen 
tree.  The  wood  is  fragrant,  very  compact, 
and  heavy.  It  scarcely  ever  rots,  decays,  or 
is  worm-eaten  ;  for  which  reason  the  ancients 
used  to  make  the  statues  of  their  gods  with  it. 
The  imperishable  chests  which  contain  the 
Egyptian  mummies  were  of  cypress.  The 
gates  of  St.  Peter's  church  at  Rome,  which  had 
lasted  from  the  time  of  Constantine  to  that  of 
Pope  Eugene  IV,  that  is  to  say  eleven  hundred 
years,  were  of  cypress,  and  had  in  that  time 
suffered  no  decay.  But  Celsius  thinks  that 
Isaiah  speaks  of  the  ilex,  a  kind  of  oak  ;  and 
Bishop  Lowth,  that  the  pine  is  intended.  The 
cypress,  however,  was  more  frequently  used, 
and  more  fit  for  the  purpose  which  the  prophet 
mentions,  than  either  of  these  trees. 

CYPRUS,  a  large  island  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean, situated  between  Cilicia  and  Syria.  Its 
inhabitants  were  plunged  in  all  manner  of 
luxury  and  debauchery.  Their  principal  deity 
was  Venus.  The  Apostles  Paul  and  Barnabas 
landed  in  the  isle  of  Cyprus,  A.  D.  44,  Acts 
xiii,  4.  While  they  continued  at  Salamis,  they 
preached  Jesus  Christ  in  the  Jewish  synagogues ; 
from  thence  they  visited  all  the  cities  of  the 
island,  preaching  the  Gospel.  At  Paphos,  they 
found  Bar-Jesus,  a  false  prophet,  with  Sergius 
Paulus,  the  governor:  Paul  struck  Bar-Jesus 
with  blindness  ;  and  the  proconsul  embraced 
Christianity.  Some  time  after,  Barnabas  went 
again  into  this  island  with  John,  surnamed 
Mark,  Acts  xv,  39.  Barnabas  js  considered  as 
the  principal  Apostle,  and  first  bishop,  of  Cy- 
prus ;  where  it  is  said  he  was  martyred,  being 
stoned  to  death  by  the  Jews  of  Salamis. 

CYRENE  was  a  city  of  Lybia  in  Africa, 
which,  as  it  was  the  principal  city  of  that  pro- 
vince, gave  to  it  the  name  of  Cyrenaica.  This 
city  was  once  so  powerful  as  to  contend  with 
Carthage  for  preeminence.  In  profane  writers, 
it  is  mentioned  as  the  birthplace  ot  Eratosthe- 
nes the  mathematician,  and  Callimachus  the 
poet ;  and  in  holy  writ,  of  Simon,  whom  the 
Jews  compelled  to  bear  our  Saviour's  cross, 
Matt,  xxvii,  32 ;  Luke  xxiii,  26.  At  Cyrene 
resided  many  Jews,  a  great  part  of  whom 
embraced  the  Christian  religion  ;  but  others 
opposed  it  with  much  obstinacy.  Among  the 
most  inveterate  enemies  of  Christianity,  Luke 
reckons  those  of  this  province,  who  had  a  syna- 
gogue at  Jerusalem,  and  excited  the  people 
against  St.  Stephen,  Acts  xi,  20. 

CYRENIUS,  governor  of  Syria,  Luke  ii, 
1,  2.  Great  difficulties  have  been  raised  on 
the  history  of  the  taxing  under  C}'renius,  for 
the  different  solutions  of  which  we  must  refer 
to  the  commentators. 

It  may  be  observed  on  the  passage  in  Luke 
ii,  1,  2,  That  the  word  oUuptvti,  rendered  all  the 
world,  sometimes  signifies  the  whole  of  a  coun- 


try, region,  or  district,  as  perhaps  Acts  xi,  28, 
and  certainly  Luke  xxi,  26.  The  expression, 
"  all  the  country,"  is  peculiarly  proper  in  this 
place,  because  Galilee,  as  well  as  Judea,  was 
included,  and  perhaps  all  other  parts  in  which 
were  Jews.  The  word  axoypacpfi,  which  is  ren- 
dered taxing,  should  have  been  translated  en- 
raiment;  as  a  taxation  did  not  always  really 
follow  such  enrolment,  though  such  enrolment 
generally  preceded  a  taxation.  The  difficulty 
of  the  passage  is  in  the  word  cjpuiT^,  first,  be- 
cause, ten  or  eleven  years  after,  there  was 
actually  a  taxation,  which,  as  a  decisive  mark 
of  subjection  to  the  Roman  power,  was  verv 
mortifying  to  the  Jewish  nation.  To  this 
taxation  Gamaliel  alludes,  "  Judas  of  Galilee 
rose  up  in  the  days  of  the  taxing,"  Acts  v,  37, 
when  mobs  and  riots  were  frequent,  under  pre- 
tence of  liberty. 

The  narrative  of  St.  Luke  may  be  combined 
in  the  following  order,  which  is  probably  not 
far  from  its  true  import :  "  In  those  day6  Coesar 
Augustus,"  who  was  displeased  with  the  con- 
duct of  Herod,  and  wished  him  to  feel  his 
dependence  on  the  Roman  empire,  "  issued  a 
decree  that  the  whole  land"  of  Judea  "should 
be  enrolled,"  as  well  persons  as  possessions, 
that  the  true  state  of  the  inhabitants,  their 
families,  and  their  property,  might  be  known 
and  recorded.  Accordingly,  "  all  were  en- 
rolled," but  the  taxation  did  not  immediately 
follow  this  enrolment,  because  Augustus  was 
reconciled  to  Herod  ;  and  this  accounts  for  the 
silence  of  Josephus  on  an  assessment  not  car- 
ried into  effect.  "  And  this  was  the  first  assess- 
ment (or  enrolment)  of  Cyrenius,  governor  of 
Syria.  And  all  went  to  be  enrolled,  each  to 
his  own  city ;"  and,  as  the  emperor's  order  was 
urgent,  and  Cyrenius  was  known  to  be  active 
in  the  despatch  of  business,  even  Mary,  though 
far  advanced  "in  her  pregnancy,  went  with 
Joseph,  and  while  they  waited"  for  their  turn 
to  be  enrolled,  "  Mary  was  delivered  of  Jesus." 
It  is  not,  however,  improbable,  that  Mary  had 
some  small  landed  estate,  for  which  her  ap- 
pearance was  necessary.  Jesus,  therefore,  was 
enrolled  with  Mary  and  Joseph,  as  Julian  the 
Apostate  expressly  says. 

An  officer  being  sent  from  Rome  to  enrol 
and  assess  the  subjects  of  a  king,  implied  that 
such  king  was  dependent  on  the  Roman  em- 
peror, and  demonstrates  that  the  sceptre  was 
departed  from  Judah.  This  occurrence,  added 
to  the  alarm  of  Herod  on  the  inquiry  of  the 
Magi  respecting  the  birthplace  of  the  Messiah, 
might  sufficiently  exasperate  Herod,  not  merely 
to  slay  the  infants  of  Bethlehem,  but  to  every 
act  of  cruelty.  Hence,  after  such  an  occur- 
rence, all  Jerusalem  might  well  be  alarmed 
with  Herod,  Matt,  ii,  3 ;  and  the  priests,  &c, 
study  caution  in  their  answers  to  him.  This 
occurrence  would  quicken  the  attention  of  all 
who  expected  temporal  redemption  in  Israel, 
as  it  would  extremely  mortify  every  Jewish 
national  feeling. 

The  overruling  providence  of  God  appoint- 
ed, that,  at  the  time  of  Christ's  birth,  there 
should  be  a  public,  authentic,  and  general  pro- 
duction of  titles,  pedigrees,  &c,  which  should 


CYR 


284 


CYR 


prove  that  Jesus  was  descended  from  the  house 
and  direct  family  line  of  David;  and  that  this 
should  be  proved  judicially  on  such  a  scruti- 
nizing occasion.  This  occurrence  brought 
about  the  birth  of  the  Messiah,  at  the  very 
place  appointed  by  prophecy  long  before, 
though  the  usual  residence  of  Joseph  and  Mary 
was  at.  Nazareth. 

CYRUS,  son  of  Cambyses  the  Persian,  and 
of  Mandane,  daughter  of  Astyages,.  king  of 
the  Medes.  At  the  age  of  thirty,  Cyrus  was 
made  general  of  the  Persian  troops,  and  sent, 
at  the  head  of  thirty  thousand  men,  to  assist 
his  uncle,  Cyaxares,  whom  the  Babylonians 
were  preparing  to  attack.  Cyaxares  and 
Cyrus  gave  them  battle,  and  dispersed  them. 
After  this,  Cyrus  carried  the  war  into  the 
countries  beyond  the  river  Halys;  subdued 
Cappadocia ;  marched  against  Croesus,  king 
of  Lydia,  defeated  him,  and  took  Sardis,  his 
capital.  Having  reduced  almost  all  Asia,  Cy- 
rus repassed  the  Euphrates,  and  turned  his 
arms  against  the  Assyrians :  having  defeated 
them,  he  laid  siege  to  Babylon,  which  he  took 
on  a  festival  day,  after  having  diverted  the 
course  of  the  river  which  ran  through  it.  On 
his  return  to  Persia,  he  married  his  cousin,  the 
daughter  and  heiress  of  Cyaxares  ;  after  which 
he  engaged  in  several  wars,  and  subdued  all 
the  nations  between  Syria  and  the  Red  Sea. 
He  died  at  the  age  of  seventy,  after  a  reign  of 
thirty  years.  Authors  differ  much  concerning 
the  manner  of  his  death. 

2.  We  learn  few  particulars  respecting  Cy- 
rus from  Scripture  ;  but  they  are  more  certain 
than  those  derived  from  other  sources.  Daniel, 
in  the  remarkable  vision  in  which  God  showed 
him  the  ruin  of  several  great  empires  which 
preceded  the  birth  of  the  Messiah,  represents 
Cyrus  as  "a  rain  which  had  two  horns,  both 
high,  but  one  rose  higher  than  the  other,  and 
the  higher  came  up  last.  This  ram  pushed 
westward,  and  northward,  and  southward,  so 
that  no  beasts  might  stand  before  him,  neither 
was  there  any  that  could  deliver  out  of  his 
hand ;  but  he  did  according  to  his  will,  and 
became  great,"  Daniel  viii,  3,  4,  20.  The  two 
horns  signify  the  two  empires  which  Cyrus 
united  in  his  person,  that  of  the  Medes  and 
that  of  the  Persians.  In  another  place,  Daniel 
compares  Cyrus  to  a  bear,  with  three  ribs  in 
its  mouth,  to  which  it  was  said,  "Arise,  de- 
vour much  flesh."  Cyrus  succeeded  Cambyses 
in  the  kingdom  of  Persia,  and  Darius  the 
Mode  (by  Xenophon  called  Cyaxares,  and 
Astyages  in  the  Creek  of  Dan.  xiii,  G5,)  also 
in  the  kingdom  of  the  Medes,  and  the  empire 
of  Babylon.  He  was  monarch,  as  he  speaks 
"of  all  the  earth,"  Ezra  i,  1,  2;  2  Chron. 
xxxvi,  22,  23,  when  he  permitted  the  Jews  to 
return  into  their  own  country,  A.  M.  3466, 
B.  C  538.  lie  had  always  a  particular  regard 
for  Daniel,  and  continued  him  in  his  great 
employments. 

3.  The  prophets  foretold  the  exploits  of 
Cyrus.  Isaiah,  xliv,  28,  particularly  declares 
his  name,  above  a  century  before  he  was  born. 
Josephus  says,  that  the  Jews  of  Babylon  show- 
ed  this   passage  to   Cyrus;  and  that,  in  the 


edict  which   he    granted  for  their  return,  he 
acknowledged   that    he    received   the   empire 
of  the  world  from  the  God  of  Israel.     The 
peculiar   designation    by  name,   which  Cyrus 
received,  must  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  most 
remarkable    circumstances    in    the    prophetic 
writings.     He  was  the  heir  of  a  monarch  who 
ruled  over  one  of  the  poorest  and  most  incon- 
siderable kingdoms  of  Asia,  but  whose  hardy 
inhabitants  were   at  that  time  the  bravest  of 
the  brave ;  and  the  providential  circumstances 
in  which  he  was  placed  precluded  him  from  all 
knowledge  of  this  oracular  declaration  in  his 
favour.     He  did  not  become  acquainted  with 
the  sacred  books  in  which  it  was  contained, 
nor  with  the  singular  people  in  whose  posses- 
sion it  was  found,  till  he  had  accomplished  all 
the  purposes  for  which  he  had  been  raised  up, 
except   that   of  saying    to  Jerusalem,    as  the 
"anointed"    vicegerent    of    Heaven,    "Thou 
shalt  be  inhabited ;"  and  to  the  cities  of  Judah, 
"Ye   shall  be  built,   and  I  will  raise  up  their 
ruins."    The  national  pride  of  the  Jews  during 
the  days  of  their  unhallowed  prosperity,  would 
hinder  them  from  divulging  among  other  na- 
tions such  prophecies  as  this,  which  contained 
the  most  severe  yet  deserved  reflections  upon 
their  wicked  practices  and  ungrateful  conduct ; 
and  it  was  only  when  they  were  captives  in 
Babylon  that  they  submitted  to  the  humiliat- 
ing  expedient    of  exhibiting,    to   the   mighty 
monarch   whose   bondmen  they  had  become, 
the  prophetic  record  of  their  own  apostasy  and 
punishment,  and  of  his  still  higher  destination, 
as  the  rebuilder  of  Jerusalem.      No  temptation 
therefore  could  be  laid  before  the  conqueror  in 
early  life  to  excite  his  latent  ambition  to  ac- 
complish this  very  full  and  explicit  prophecy  ; 
and  the  facts  of  his  life,  as  recorded  by  histo- 
rians of  very  opposite  sentiments  and  feelings, 
all   concur  in  ^developing  a  series  of  consecu- 
tive events,  in  which  he  acted  no  insignificant 
part ;    which,    though    astonishing    in    their 
results,  differ  greatly  from  those  rapid  strides 
perceptible    in    the    hurried    career    of  other 
mighty  men   of  war  in  the   east;  and  which, 
from  the  unbroken  connection  in  which  they 
are  presented  to  us,  appear  like  the  common 
occurrences    of  life  naturally  following  each 
other,  and  mutually  dependent.     Yet  this  con- 
sideration does  not  preclude  the  presence  of  a 
mighty    Spirit   working    within   him ;  which, 
according  to  Isaiah,  said  to  him,  "I  will  gird 
thee,  though  thou  hast  not  known  me."    Con- 
cerning  the    genius,    or    guardian    angel,    of 
Socrates    many    learned    controversies    have 
arisen ;  but,   though  a  few  of  the   disputants 
have    endeavoured    to    explain    it    away,    the 
majority  of  them  have  left  the  Greek  philoso- 
pher in  possession  of  a  greater  portion  of  in- 
spiration than,  with  marvellous  inconsistency, 
some  of  them  are  willing  to  accord  to  the  Jew- 
ish prophets.     In  this  view  it  is  highly  inter- 
esling  to  recollect  that  the  elegant  historian 
who  first  informed  his  refined  countrymen  ot 
this  moral  prodigy,   is   he   who  subsequently 
introduced    them    to    an    acquaintance    with 
the    noble   and    heroic   Cyrus.     The    didactic 
discourses    and    the    comparatively   elevated 


CYR 


285 


CYR 


morality  which  Xenophon  embodied  in  his 
"  Memoirs  of  Socrates,"  are  generally  admit- 
ted to  have  been  purposely  illustrated  in  his 
subsequent  admirable  production,  the  Cyropa;- 
dia,  or  "  Education  of  Cyrus ;"  the  basis  of 
which  is  true  history  adorned  and  refined  by 
philosophy,  and  exhibiting  for  universal  imita- 
tion the  life  and  actions  of  a  prince  who  was 
cradled  in  the  ancient  Persian  school  of  the 
Pischdadians,  the  parent  of  the  Socratic. 
Isaiah  describes,  in  fine  poetic  imagery,  the 
Almighty  gtung  before  Cyrus  to  remove  every 
obstruction  out  of  his  way : — 
"  I  will  go  before  thee,  and  level  mountains, 

I  will  burst  asunder  the  folding-doors  of  brass, 

And  split  in  twain  the  bars  of  iron. 

Even  I  will  give  thee  the  dark  treasures, 

And  the  hidden  wealth  of  secret  places : 
That  thou  mayest  know,  that  1  the  Lord, 
Who  call  thee  by  thy  name,  am  the  Gor>  of  Israel. 
According  to  Herodotus,  Babylon  was  famous 
for  its  brazen  gates  and  doors ;  a  hundred 
were  in  the  city  walls,  beside  those  which  led 
to  the  river,  and  others  which  belonged  to  the 
temple  of  Belus.  When  Sardis  and  Babylon 
were  taken  by  Cyrus,  they  were  the  wealthiest 
cities  in  the  world.  Crccsus  gave  an  exact 
inventory  of  his  immense  treasures  to  Cyrus, 
and  they  were  removed  from  Sardis  in  wag- 
gons. Pliny  gives  the  following  account  of 
the  wealth  which  Cyrus  obtained  by  his  con- 
quests in  Asia :  "  He  found  thirty-four  thou- 
sand pounds'  weight  of  gold,  beside  vessels  of 
gold,  and  gold  wrought  into  the  leaves  of  a 
platanus  and  of  a  vine  ;  five  hundred  thousand 
talents  of  silver,  and  the  cup  of  Semiramis, 
which  weighed  fifteen  talents.  The  Egyptian 
talent,  according  to  Varro,  was  equal  to  eighty 
pounds."  Mr.  Brerewood  estimates  the  value 
of  the  gold  and  silver  in  this  enumeration  at 
126,224,000/.  sterling.  Other  particulars  relat- 
ing to  him,  and  the  accomplishment  of  pro- 
phecy in  his  conquest  of  that  large  city,  will 
be  found  under  the  article  Babylon.  It  is  the 
God  of  Israel  who,  in  these  sublime  prophecies, 
confounds  the  omens  and  prognostics  of  the 
Babylonian  soothsayers  or  diviners,  after  they 
had  predicted  the  stability  of  that  empire;  and 
who  announces  the  restoration  of  Israel,  and 
the  rebuilding  of  the  city  and  temple  of  Jerusa- 
lem, through  Cj'rus  his  "shepherd"  and  his 
"  anointed"  messenger.  Chosen  thus  by  God 
to  execute  his  high  behests,  he  subdued  and 
reigned  over  many  nations, — the  Cilicians, 
Syrians,  Paphlagonians,  Cappadocians,  Phry- 
gians, Lydians,  Carians,  Phenicians,  Ara- 
bians, Egyptians,  Babylonians,  Assyrians, 
Bactrians,  &c. 
"  I  am  He  who  frustrated!  the  tokens  of  the  impostors, 

And  inaketb  the  diviners  mad  ;  tic. 

Who  sailh  to  the  abyss,  [Babylon,] 

'  Be  desolate,  and  I  will  dry  up  thy  rivers  :' 

Who  saith  to  Cyrus,  '  He  is  my  shepherd, 

And  shall  perform  all  my  pleasure.' 

Thus  saitri  the  Lord  to  his  anointed, 

To  Cyrus  whom  I  hold  by  the  right  hand, 

To  subdue  before  him  nations, 

And  ungird  the  loins  of  kings, 

To  open  before  him  [palace]  folding-doors} 

Even  [river]  gates  shall  not  be  shut : 

For  Jacob  my  servant's  sake,  and  Israel  my  chosen, 

I  have  surnamed  thee ;"  &c. 


4.  Herodotus  has  painted  the  portrait  of  Cy- 
rus in  dark  colours,  and  has  been  followed  in 
many  particulars  by  Ctesias,  Diodorus  Siculus, 
Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus,  Plato,  Strabo, 
Justin,  and  others ;  in  opposition  to  the  con- 
trary accounts  of  iEschylus,  Xenophon,  Jose- 
phus,  the  Persian  historians,  and,  apparently, 
the  Holy  Scriptures.  The  motive  for  this  con- 
duct of  Herodotus  is  probably  to  be  found  in 
his  aversion  to  Cyrus,  for  having  been  the  en- 
slaver of  his  country.  The  Greek  historian 
was  a  man  of  free  and  independent  spirit,  and 
could  never  brook  the  mention  of  the  surren- 
der of  his  native  city,  Halicarnassus,  to  the 
troops  of  Cyrus.  But,  allowing  that  heartless- 
ness  and  cruelty  are  too  often  the  accompa- 
niments of  mighty  conquerors,  and  that  very 
few  escape  their  direful  contagion ;  yet,  when 
the  worst  is  told  about  Cyrus,  abundance  of 
authentic  facts  remain  to  attest  his  worth,  and 
to  elevate  his  character  above  the  standard  of 
ordinary  mortals.  Xenophon  informs  us,  that 
the  seven  last  years  of  his  full  sovereignty  this 
prince  spent  in  peace  and  tranquillity  at  home, 
revered  and  beloved  by  all  classes  of  his  sub- 
jects. In  his  dying  moments  he  was  surround- 
ed by  his  family,  friends,  and  children  ;  and 
delivered  to  them  the  noblest  exhortations  to 
the  practice  of  piety,  virtue,  and  concord 
This  testimony  is  in  substance  confirmed  by 
the  Persian  historians,  who  relate,  that,  after 
a  long  and  bloody  war,  Khosru,  or  Cyrus,  sub- 
dued the  empire  of  Turan,  and  made  the  city 
of  Balk,  in  Chorasan,  a  royal  residence,  to 
keep  in  order  his  new  subjects;  that  he  repaid 
every  family  in  Persia  proper  the  amount  of 
their  war-taxes,  out  of  the  immense  spoils 
which  he  had  acquired  by  his  conquests ;  that 
he  endeavoured  to  promote  peace  and  harmony 
between  the  Turanians  and  Iranians ;  that  he 
regulated  the  pay  of  his  soldiery,  reformed 
civil  and  religious  abuses  throughout  the  pro- 
vinces, and,  at  length,  after  a  long  and  glori- 
ous reign,  resigned  the  crown  to  his  son  Lo- 
horasp,  and  retired  to  solitude,  confessing  that 
he  had  lived  long  enough  for  his  own  glory, 
and  that  it  was  then  time  for  him  to  devote 
the  remainder  of  his  days  to  God.  Saadi,  in 
his  Gulistan,  copies  the  wise  inscription  which 
Cyrus  ordered  to  be  inscribed  on  his  crown  : 
"  What  avails  a  long  life  spent  in  the  enjoy- 
ment of  worldly  grandeur,  since  others,  mortal 
like  ourselves,  will  one  day  trample  under  foot 
our  pride!  This  crown,  handed  down  to  me 
from  my  predecessors,  must  soon  pass  in  suc- 
cession upon  the  head  of  many  others."  In 
the  last  book  of  the  "  Cyroprcdia"  we  find  the 
following  devout  thanksgivings  to  the  gods: 
"I  am  abundantly  thankful  for  being  truly 
sensible  of  your  care,  and  for  never  being 
elated  by  prosperity  abovo  my  condition.  I 
beseech  you  to  prosper  my  children,  wife, 
friends,  and  country.  And  for  myself,  I  ask, 
that  such  as  is  the  "life  ye  have  vouchsafed  to 
me,  such  may  be  my  end."  The  reflections  of 
Dr.  Hales  on  this  passage  are  very  judicious : 
"Here,  Xenophon,  a  polytheist  himself,  re- 
presents Cyrus  praying  to  the  gods  in  the  plu- 
ral number;  but  that  he  really  prayed  to  one 


CYR 


286 


DAM 


only,  the  patriarchal  God,  worshipped  by  his 
venerable  ancestors,  the  Pischdadians,  may  ap- 
pear from  the  watchword,  or  signal,  which  lie 
gave  to  his  soldiers  before  the  great  battle,  in 
vvliich  Evil  Merodach  was  slain : 

ZETS  ZflTHP  KAI  'HTEMftN. 
"JOVE,  OUR  SAVIOUR  AND  LEADER." 
Who  this  god  was,  we  learn  from  the  preamble 
of  his  famous  proclamation,  permitting  the 
Jews  to  return  from  the  Babylonian  captivity  : 
■  The  Lord,  the  God  of  heaven,  hath  given  me 
all  the  kingdoms  of  the  earth,  and  he  hath 
charged  me  to  build  him  a  house  at  Jerusalem,' 
&c,  Ezra  i,  1,  2.  But  where  did  the  Lord, 
(Iahoh,  or  Jove)  so  charge  him? — In  that  sig- 
nal prophecy  of  Isaiah,  predicting  his  name  and 
his  actions,  about  B.  C.  712,  above  a  century 
before  his  birth ;  a  prophecy  which  was  un- 
doubtedly communicated  to  him  by  the  vene 
rable  Prophet  Daniel,  the  Archimagus,  who 
saw  the  beginning  of  the  Babylonish  captivity, 
and  also  its  end,  here  foretold  to  be  effected  by 
the  instrumentality  of  Cyrus." 

5.  Pliny  notices  the  tomb  of  Cyrus  at  Pas- 
sagardae  in  Persia.  Arrian  and  Strabo  describe 
it ;  and  they  agree  with  Curtius,  that  Alex- 
ander the  Great  offered  funeral  honours  to  his 
shade  there  ;  that  he  opened  the  tomb,  and 
found,  not  the  treasures  he  expected,  but  a 
rotten  shield,  two  Scythian  bows,  and  a  Per- 
sian scymetar.  And  Plutarch  records  the 
following  inscription  upon  it,  in  his  life  of 
Alexander: — "O  man,  whoever  thou  art,  and 
whenever  thou  comest,  (for  come,  I  know,  thou 
wilt,)  I  am  Cyrus,  the  founder  of  the  Persian 
empire.  Envy  me  not  the  little  earth  that 
covers  my  body."  Alexander  was  much  af- 
fected at  this  inscription,  which  set  before  him, 
in  so  striking  a  light,  the  uncertainty  and  vi- 
cissitude of  worldly  things.  And  he  placed  the 
crown  of  gold  which  he  wore,  upon  the  tomb 
in  which  the  body  lay,  wondering  that  a  prince 
so  renowned,  and  possessed  of  such  immense 
treasures,  had  not  been  buried  more  sump- 
tuously than  if  he  had  been  a  private  person. 
Cyrus,  indeed,  in  his  last  instructions  to  his 
children,  desired  that  "  his  body,  when  he  died, 
might  not  be  deposited  in  gold  or  silver,  nor  in 
any  other  sumptuous  monument,  but  commit- 
ted, as  soon  as  possible,  to  the  ground." 

The  observation  which  Dr.  Hales  here  makes, 
is  worthy  of  record: — "This  is  a  most  signal 
and  extraordinary  epitaph.  It  seems  to  have 
been  designed  as  a  useful  memento  mori,  [me- 
mento of  death,]  for  Alexander  the  Great,  in 
the  full  pride  of  conquest,  "  whose  coming"  it 
predicts  with  a  prophetic  spirit,  "  For  come  I 
know  thou  wilt."  But  how  could  Cyrus  know 
of  his  coming  ? — Very  easily.  Daniel  the  Ar- 
chimagus, his  venerable  friend,  who  warned 
the  haughty  Nebuchadnezzar,  that  "head  of 
gold,"  or  founder  of  the  Babylonian  empire, 
that  it  should  be  subverted  l>y  "the  breast  and 
arms  of  silver,"  Dan.  ii,  37,  39,  or  "the  Mede 
and  the  Persian,"  Darius  and  Cyrus,  as  he  more 
plainly  told  the  impious  Belshazzar,  Dan.  v,  28, 
we  may  rest  assured,  communicated  to  Cyrus 
also,  the  founder  of  the  Persian  empire,  the 
symbolical  vision  of  the  goat,  with  the  notable 


horn  in  his  forehead,  Alexander  of  Macedon 
coming  swiftly  from  the  west,  to  overturn  the 
Persian  empire,  Daniel  viii,  5,  8,  under  the  last 
king  Codomannus,  the  fourth  from  Darius 
Nothus,  as  afterward  more  distinctly  explained, 
Dan.  xi,  1,  4.  Cyrus,  therefore,  decidedly  ad- 
dresses the  short-lived  conqueror,  O  man,  who- 
ever thou  art,  <J-c. 

"Juvenal,  in  that  noble  satire,  the  tenth, 
verse  168,  has  a  fine  reflection  on  the  vanity 
of  Alexander's  wild  ambition  to  conquer  worlds, 
soon  destined  himself  to  be  confined  in  a  nar- 
row coffin  ;  by  a  pointed  allusion  to  the  epitaph 
on  the  tomb  of  Cyrus  : — 

Unas  Pellceo  Jureni  nan  suflicit  orbis ; 
JEstuat,  infelix  angusto  limile  mundi : 
Cum  iamen  a  figulis  munilam  intraverit  urbenr, 
Sarcophago  contentus  eril. — Mors  sola  fatetur 
Quantula  sint  kominum  corpuscula  !" 
'  A  single  globe  suffices  not  the  Pellsean  youth  ; 
Discontented,  he  scorns  the  scanty  limits  of  the  world; 
As  if  within  a  prison's  narrow  bounds  confined  : 
But  when  he  shall  enter  the  brick-walled  city,  [Babylon,] 
A  coffin  will  content  him. —  The  epitaph  atone  owns, 
How  small  are  the  diminutive  liodics  of  men  ." 

"  The  emotion  of  Alexander,  on  visiting  the 
tomb,  and  reading  the  inscription,  is  not  less 
remarkable.  He  evidently  applied  to  himself, 
as  the  destroyer,  the  awful  rebuke  of  the  foun- 
der of  the  Persian  empire,  for  violating  the 
sanctity  of  his  tomb,  from  motives  of  profane 
curiosity,  and  perhaps  of  avarice.  And  we 
may  justly  consider  the  significant  act  of  lay- 
ing down  his  golden  crown  upon  the  tomb 
itself,  as  an  amende  honorable,  a  homage  due  to 
the  offended  shade  of  the  pious  and  lowly- 
minded  Cyrus  the  Great."  These  reflections 
must  close  our  account  of  one  of  the  most  re- 
markable characters  that  ever  appeared  among 
the  eastern  conquerors. 

DAGON,  p:n,  corn,  from  pi,  or  Ji,  a  fish, 
god  of  the  Philistines.  It  is  the  opinion  of 
some  that  Dagon  was  represented  like  a  woman, 
with  the  lower  parts  of  a  fish,  like  a  triton  or 
syren.  Scripture  shows  clearly  that  the  statue 
of  Dagon  was  human,  at  least,  the  upper  part 
of  it,  1  Sam.  v,  4,  5.  A  temple  of  Dagon  at 
Gaza  was  pulled  down  by  Samson,  Judges  xvi, 
23,  &c.  In  another,  at  Ashdod,  tho  Philis- 
tines deposited  the  ark  of  God,  1  Sam.  v,  1-3. 
A  city  in  Judah  was  called  Beth-Dagon ;  that 
is,  the  house,  or  temple,  of  Dagon,  Joshua 
xv,  41 ;  and  another  on  the  frontiers  of  Asher, 
Joshua  xix,  27. 

DALMANUTHA.  St.  Mark  says  that 
Jesus  Christ  embarked  with  his  disciples  on 
the  lake  of  Tiberias,  and  came  to  Dalmanutha, 
Mark  viii,  10,  but  St.  Matthew  calls  it  Mag- 
dala,  Matt  xv,  3D.  It  seems  that  Dalmanutha 
was  near  to  Magdala,  on  the  western  side  of 
the  lake. 

DALMATIA,  a  part  of  old  Illyria,  lying 
along  the  gulf  of  Venice.  Titus  preached 
here,  2  Tim.  iv,  10. 

DAMASCUS,  a  celebrated  city  of  Asia,  and 
anciently  the  capital  of  Syria,  may  be  accounted 
one  of  the  most  venerable  places  in  the  world 
for  its  antiquity.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been 
founded  by  Ux,  the  son  of  Aram ;   and  is,  at 


DAM 


287 


DAM 


least,  known  to  have  subsisted  in  the  time  of 
Abraham,  Gen.  xv,  2.  It  was  the  residence 
of  the  Syrian  kings,  during  the  space  of  three 
centuries  ;  and  experienced  a  number  of  vicis- 
situdes in  every  period  of  its  history.  Its' 
sovereign,  Hadad,  whom  Josephus  calls  the 
first  of  its  kings,  was  conquered  by  David,  king 
of  Israel.  In  the  reign  of  Ahaz,  it  was  taken 
by  Tiglath  Pileser,  who  slew  its  last  king, 
Rezin,  and  added  its  provinces  to  the  Assyrian 
empire.  It  was  taken  and  plundered,  also,  by 
Sennacherib,  Nebuchadnezzar,  the  generals  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  Judas  Maccabeus,  and  at 
length  by  the  Romans  in  the  war  conducted  by 
Pompey  against  Tigranes,  in  the  year  before 
Christ,  65.*  During  the  time  of  the  emperors, 
it  was  one  of  their  principal  arsenals  in  Asia, 
and  is  celebrated  by  the  emperor  Julian  as, 
even  in  his  day,  "the  eye  of  the  whole  east." 
About  the  year  634,  it  was  taken  by  the  Sara- 
cen princes,  who  made  it  the  place  of  their 
residence,  till  Bagdad  was  prepared  for  their 
reception ;  and,  after  suffering  a  variety  of 
revolutions,  it  was  taken  and  destroyed  by 
Tamerlane,  A.  D.  1400.  It  was  repaired  by  the 
Mamelukes,  when  they  gained  possession  of 
Syria;  bat  was  wrested  from  them  by  the 
Turks,  in  1 506 ;  and  since  that  period  has 
formed  the  capital  of  one  of  their  pachalics. 
The  modern  city  is  delightfully  situated  about 
fifty  miles  from  the  sea,  in  a  fertile  and  exten- 
sive plain,  watered  by  the  river  which  the 
Greeks  called  Chrysorrhoras,  or  "Golden 
River,"  but  which  is  known  by  the  name  of 
Barrady,  and  of  which  the  ancient  Abana  and 
Pharpar  are  supposed  to  have  been  branches. 
The  city  is  nearly  two  miles  in  length  from  its 
north-east  to  its  north-west  extremity ;  but  of 
very  inconsiderable  breadth,  especially  near  the 
middle  of  its  extent,  where  its  width  is  much 
contracted.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  circular 
wall,  which  is  strong,  though  not  lofty;  but 
its  suburbs  are  extensive  and  irregular.  Its 
streets  are  narrow ;  and  one  of  them,  called 
Straight,  mentioned  in  Acts  ix,  11,  still  runs 
through  the  city  about  half  a  mile  in  length. 
The  houses,  and  especially  those  which  front 
the  streets,  are  very  indifferently  built,  chiefly 
of  mud  formed  into  the  shape  of  bricks,  and 
dried  in  the  sun ;  but  those  toward  the  gardens, 
and  in  the  squares,  present  a  more  handsome 
appearance.  In  these  mud  walls,  however,  the 
gates  and  doors  are  often  adorned  with  marble 
portals,  carved  and  inlaid  with  great  beauty  and 
variety  ;  and  the  inside  of  the  habitation,  which 
is  generally  a  large  square  court,  is  ornamented 
with  fragrant  trees  and  marble  fountains,  and 
surrounded  with  splendid  apartments,  furnished 
and  painted  in  the  highest  style  of  luxury.  The 
market  places  are  well  constructed,  and  adorned 
with  a  rich  colonnade  of  variegated  marble. 
The  principal  public  buildings  are,  the  castle, 
which  is  about  three  hundred  and  forty  paces 
in  length;  the  hospital,  a  charitable  establish- 
ment for  the  reception  of  strangers,  composing 
a' large  quadrangle  lined  with  a  colonnade,  and 
roofed  in  small  domes  covered  witli  lead;  and 
the  mosque,  the  entrance  of  which  is  supported 
by  four  large  columns  of  red  granite ;  the  apart- 


ments in  it  are  numerous  and  magnificent,  and 
the  top  is  covered  with  a  cupola  ornamented 
with  two  minarets. 

Damascus  is  surrounded  by  a  fruitful  and 
delightful  country,  forming  a  plain  nearly 
eighty  miles  in  circumference  ;  and  the  lands 
most  adjacent  to  the  city,  are  formed  into  gar- 
dens of  great  extent,  which  are  stored  with 
fruit  trees  of  every  description.  "No  place  in 
the  world,"  says  Mr. Maundrell,  "can  promise 
to  the  beholder  at  a  distance  a  greater  volup- 
tuousness;" and  he  mentions  a  tradition  of  the 
Turks,  that  their  prophet,  when  approaching 
Damascus,  took  his  station  upon  a  certain 
precipice,  in  order  to  view  the  city ;  and,  after 
considering  its  ravishing  beauty  and  delightful 
aspect,  was  unwilling  to  tempt  his  frailty  by 
going  farther ;  but  instantly  took  his  departure 
with  this  remark,  that  there  was  but  one  para- 
dise designed  for  man,  and  that,  for  his  part, 
he  was  resolved  not  to  take  his  in  this  world. 
The  air  or  water  of  Damascus,  or  both,  are 
supposed  to  have  a  powerful  effect  in  curing 
the  leprosy,  or,  at  least,  in  arresting  its  pro- 
gress, while  the  patient  remains  in  the  place. 

The  Rev.  James  Conner  visited  Damascus 
in  1820,  as  an  agent  of  the  Church  Missionary 
Society.  He  had  a  letter  from  the  archbishop 
of  Cyprus  to  Seraphim,  patriarch  of  Antioch, 
the  head  of  the  Christian  church  in  the  east, 
who  resides  at  Damascus.  This  good  man 
received  Mr.  Conner  in  the  most  friendly  man- 
ner; and  expressed  himself  delighted  with  the 
system  and  operations  of  the  Bible  Society. 
He  undertook  to  encourage  and  promote,  to 
the  utmost  of  his  power,  the  sale  and  distribu- 
tion of  the  Scriptures  throughout  the  patri- 
archate ;  and,  as  a  proof  of  his  earnestness  in 
the  cause,  he  ordered,  the  next  day,  a  number 
of  letters  to  be  prepared,  and  sent  to  his  arch- 
bishops and  bishops,  urging  them  to  promote 
the  objects  of  the  Bible  Society  in  their  re- 
spective stations. 

DAMN,  and  damnation,  are  words  synony- 
mous with  condemn  and  condemnation.  Gene- 
rally speaking,  the  words  are  taken  to  denote 
the  final  and  eternal  punishment  of  the  ungodly. 
These  terms,  however,  sometimes  occur  in  the 
New  Testament  in  what  may  be  termed  a  less 
strict,  or  secondary  sense.  Thus,  when  the 
Apostle  says  to  the  Romans,  "  He  that  doubt- 
eth,"  namely,  the  lawfulness  of  what  he  is  doing, 
"  is  damned  if  he  eat,"  Rom.  xiv,  23  ;  the  mean- 
ing is,  he  stands  condemned  in  his  own  mind. 
Again :  when  St.  Paul  tells  the  Corinthians, 
that  "  he  that  eateth  and  drinkcth"  of  the 
Lord's  Supper  "  unworthily,  eateth  and  drink. 
eth  damnation  to  himself,"  1  Cor.  xi,  29  ;  the 
original  word,  Kptpa,  there  is  thought  by  many 
to  import  no  more  than  temporal  judgments, 
and  that  the  Apostle  explains  himself  in  the 
same  sense  when  he  says,  "  For  this  cause 
many  amongyou  are  weak  and  sickly,  and 
many  sleep,"  or  die.  This  is  at  least  one  mode 
of  interpreting  the  "damnation"  of  which 
St.  Paul  here  speaks;  but  probably  the  true 
sense  is  the  bringing  guilt  upon  the  conscience, 
and  thereby  a  liability,  without  remission,  to 
future  judgment. 


DAN 


288 


DAN 


DAN,  the  fifth  son  of  Jacob,  Gen.  xxx,  1-6. 
Dan  had  but  one  son,  whose  name  was  Hu- 
shim,  Gen.  xlvi,  23;  yet  he  had  a  numerous 
posterity ;  for,  on  leaving  Egypt,  this  tribe 
consisted  of  sixty -two  thousand  seven  hundred 
men  able  to  bear  arms,  Num.  i,  38.  Of  Jacob's 
blessing  Dan,  see  Gen.  xYtx,  16,  17.  They 
took  Laish,  Judges  xviii,  1 ;  Joshua  xix,  47. 
They  called  the  city  Dan,  after  their  progenitor. 
The  city  of  Dan  was  situated  at  the  northern 
extremity  of  the  land  of  Israel :  hence  the 
phrase,  "  from  Dan  to  Bcersheba,"  denoting 
the  whole  length  of  the  land  of  promise.  Here 
Jeroboam,  the  son  of  Ncbat,  set  up  one  of  his 
golden  calves,  1  Kings  xii,  29;  and  the  other  at 
Bethel. 

DANCING.  It  is  still  the  custom  in  the 
east  to  testify  their  respect  for  persons  of  dis- 
tinction by  music  and  dancing.  When  Baron 
Du  Tott,  who  was  sent  by  the  French  govern- 
ment to  inspect  their  factories  in  the  Levant, 
approached  an  encampment  of  Turcomans, 
between  Aleppo  and  Alexandretta,  the  musi- 
cians of  the  different  hordes  turned  out,  play- 
ing and  dancing  before  him  all  the  time  he 
and  his  escort  were  passing  by  their  camp. 
Thus,  it  will  be  recollected,  "the  women  came 
out  of  all  the  cities  of  Israel,  singing  and  danc- 
ing, to  meet  King  Saul,  with  tabrets,  with  joy, 
and  with  instruments  of  music,"  when  he  re- 
turned in  triumph  from  the  slaughter  of  the 
Philistines.  In  the  oriental  dances,  in  which 
the  women  engage  by  themselves,  the  lady  of 
highest  rank  in  the  company  takes  the  lead, 
and  is  followed  by  her  companions,  who  imi- 
tate her  steps,  and  if  she  sings,  make  up  the 
chorus.  The  tunes  are  extremely  gay  and 
lively,  yet  with  something  in  them  wonderfully 
soft.  The  steps  are  varied  according  to  the 
pleasure  of  her  who  leads  the  dance,  but  al- 
ways in  exact  time.  This  statement  may 
enable  us  to  form  a  correct  idea  of  the  dance, 
which  the  women  of  Israel  performed  under 
the  direction  of  Miriam,  on  the  banks  of  the 
Red  Sea.  The  prophetess,  we  are  told,  "  took 
a  timbrel  in  her  hand,  and  all  the  women  went 
out  after  her,  with  timbrels  and  dances."  She 
led  the  dance,  while  they  imitated  her  steps, 
which  were  not  conducted  according  to  a  set, 
well-known  form,  as  in  this  country,  but  ex- 
temporaneous. The  conjecture  of  Mr.  Har- 
mcr  is  extremely  probable,  that  David  did  not 
dance  alone  before  the  Lord,  when  he  brought 
up  the  ark,  but,  as  being  the  highest  in  rank, 
and  more  skilful  than  any  of  the  people,  he 
led  the  religious  dance  of  the  males. 

DANIEL  was  a  descendant  of  the  kings  of 
Judah;  and  is  said  to  have  been  born  at  Upper 
Bethoron,  in  the  territory  of  Ephraim.  He 
was  carried  away  captive  to  Babylon  when  he 
was  about  eighteen  or  twenty  years  of  age,  in 
the  year  606  before  the  Christen  trra.  He 
was  placed  in  the  court  of  Nebuchadnezzar, 
and  was  afterward  raised  to  situations  of  great 
rank  and  power,  both  in  theempire  of  Babylon 
and  of  Persia.  He  lived  to  the  end  of  the 
captivity,  but  being  then  nearly  ninety  years 
old,  it  is  most  probable  that  he  did  not  return 
to  Judca.     It  is  generally  believed  that  he  died  I 


at  Susa,  soon  after  his  last  vision,  which  is 
dated  in  the  third  year  of  the  reign  of  Cyrus. 
Daniel  seems  to  have  been  the  only  prophet 
who  enjoyed  a  great  share  of  worldly  prosper- 
ity; but  amidst  the  corruptions  of  a  licentious 
court  he  preserved  his  virtue  and  integrity 
inviolate,  and  no  danger  or  temptation  could 
divert  him  from  the  worship  of  the  true  God. 
The  book  of  Daniel  is  a  mixture  of  history  and 
prophecy:  in  the  first  six  chapters  is  recorded 
a  variety  of  events  which  occurred  in  the  reigns 
of  Nebuchadnezzar,  Belshazzar,  and  Darius ; 
and,  in  particular,  the  second  chapter  contains 
Nebuchadnezzar's  prophetic  dream  concerning 
the  four  great  successive  monarchies,  and  the 
everlasting  kingdom  of  the  Messiah,  which 
dream  God  enabled  Daniel  to  interpret.  In 
the  last  six  chapters  we  have  a  series  of  pro- 
phecies, revealed  at  different  times,  extending 
from  the  days  of  Daniel  to  the  general  resur- 
rection. The  Assyrian,  the  Persian,  the  Gre- 
cian, and  the  Roman  empires,  are  all  particu- 
larly described  under  appropriate  characters ; 
and  it  is  expressly  declared  that  the  last  of 
them  was  to  be  divided  into  ten  lesser  king- 
doms; the  time  at  which  Christ  was  to  appear 
is  precisely  fixed  ;  the  rise  and  fall  of  antichrist, 
and  the  duration  of  his  power,  are  exactly  de- 
termined ;  and  the  future  restoration  of  the 
Jews,  the  victory  of  Christ  over  all  his  ene- 
mies, and  the  universal  prevalence  of  true 
religion,  are  distinctly  foretold,  as  being  to 
precede  the  consummation  of  that  stupendous 
plan  of  God,  which  "was  laid  before  the  foun- 
dation of  the  world,"  and  reaches  to  its  disso- 
lution. Part  of  this  book  is  written  in  the 
Chaldaic  language,  namely,  from  the  fourth 
verse  of  the  second  chapter  to  the  end  of  the 
seventh  chapter;  these  chapters  relate  chiefly 
to  the  affairs  of  Babylon,  and  it  is  probable 
that  some  passages  were  taken  from  the  public 
registers.  This  book  abounds  with  the  most 
exalted  sentiments  of  piety  and  devout  grati- 
tude ;  its  style  is  clear,  simple,  and  concise  ; 
and  many  of  its  prophecies  are  delivered  in 
terms  so  plain  and  circumstantial,  that  some 
unbelievers  have  asserted,  in  opposition  to  the 
strongest  evidence,  that  they  were  written 
after  the  events  which  they  describe  had  taken 
place.  With  respect  to  the  genuineness  and 
authenticity  of  the  book  of  Daniel,  there  is 
abundance  both  of  external  and  internal  evi- 
dence ;  indeed  all  that  can  well  be  had  or  de- 
sired in  a  case  of  this  nature :  not  only  the 
testimony  of  the  whole  Jewish  church  and 
nation,  who  have  constantly  received  this  book 
as  canonical,  but  of  Josephus  particularly,  who 
recommends  him  as  the  greatest  of  the  pro- 
phets ;  of  the  Jewish  Targums  and  Talmuds, 
which  frequently  cite  and  appeal  to  his  autho- 
i  it  v ;  of  St.  Paul  and  St.  John,  who  have 
copied  many  of  his  prophecies ;  and  of  our 
Saviour  himself,  who  cites  his  words,  and 
styles  him,  "Daniel  the  prophet."  Nor  is  the 
internal  less  powerful  and  convincing  tlian  the 
external  evidence;  for  the  language,  the  style, 
the  manner  of  writing,  and  all  other  internal 
marks  and  characters,  are  perfectly  agreeable 
to  that  age  ;  and  finally  he  appears  plainly  and 


DAR 


289 


DAR 


undeniably  to  have  been  a  prophet  by  the  ex- 
act accomplishment  of  his  prophecies. 

DARIUS  was  the  name  of  several  princes 
in  history,  some  of  whom  are  mentioned  in 
Scripture. 

1.  Darius  the  Mede,  spoken  of  in  Daniel  v, 
31 ;  ix,  1 ;  xi,  1,  &c,  was  the  son  of  Astyages, 
king  of  the  Medes,  and  brother  to  Mandane, 
the  mother  of  Cyrus,  and  to  Amyit,  the  mo- 
ther of  Evil-merodach,  and  grandmother  of 
Belshazzar.  Darius  the  Mede,  therefore,  was 
tmcle  by  the  mother's  side  to  Evil-merodach 
and  Cyrus.  The  Septuagint,  in  Daniel  vii, 
give  him  the  name  of  Artaxerxes  ;  the  thir- 
teenth, or  apocryphal  chapter  of  Daniel,  calls 
him  Astyages ;  and  Xenophon  designates  him 
by  the  name  of  Cyaxares.  He  succeeded  Bel- 
shazzar, king  of  Babylon,  his  nephew's  son, 
or  his  sister's  grandson,  in  the  year  of  the 
world,  3448,  according  to  Calmct,  or  in  3468, 
according  to  Usher.  Daniel  does  not  inform 
us  of  any  previous  war  between  them  ;  but  the 
prophets  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah  supply  this  defi- 
ciency.    Isa.  xiii,  xiv,  xlv,  xlvi,  xlvii ;  Jer.  1,  li. 

2.  Darius,  the  son  of  Hystaspes,  has  been 
supposed  by  some,  on  the  authority  of  Arch- 
bishop Usher  and  Calmet,  to  be  the  Ahasuerus 
of  Scripture,  and  the  husband  of  Esther.  But 
Dr.  Prideaux  thinks,  that  Ahasuerus  was  Ar- 
taxerxes Longimanus.  This  prince  recovered 
Babylon  after  a  siege  of  twenty  months.  This 
city,  which  had  been  formerly  the  capital  of 
the  east,  revolted  from  Persia,  taking  advan- 
tage of  the  revolutions  that  happened,  first 
at  the  death  of  Cambyses,  and  afterward  on 
the  massacre  of  the  Magi.  The  Babylonians 
employed  four  years  in  preparations,  and  when 
they  thought  that  their  city  was  furnished  with 
provisions  for  a  long  time,  they  raised  the 
standard  of  rebellion.  Darius  levied  an  army 
in  great  haste,  and  besieged  Babylon.  The 
Babylonians  shut  themselves  up  within  their 
walls,  whose  height  and  thickness  secured 
them  from  assault ;  and  as  they  had  nothing  to 
fear  but  fairfine,  they  assembled  all  their  wo- 
men and  children,  and  strangled  them,  each 
reserving  only  his  most  beloved  wife,  and  one 
servant.  Thus  was  fulfilled  the  prophecy  of 
Isaiah,  xlvii,  7-9.  Some  believe  that  the  Jews 
were  either  expelled  by  the  Babylonians,  as 
being  too  much  in  the  interest  of  Darius ;  or 
that,  in  obedience  to  the  frequent  admonitions 
of  the  prophets,  they  quitted  that  city  when 
they  saw  the  people  determined  to  rebel,  Isa. 
xlviii,  20 ;  Jer.  1,  8 ;  li,  6-9 ;  Zech.  xi,  6,  7. 
Darius  lay  twenty  months  before  Babylon, 
without  making  any  considerable  progress ; 
but,  at  length,  Zopyrus,  one  of  his  generals, 
obtained  possession  of  the  city  by  stratagem. 
Darius  ordered  the  hundred  gates  of  jrass  to  be 
taken  away,  according  to  the  prediction  of 
Jerernieh,  li,  58,  "Thus  saith  the  Lord,  The 
broad  walls  of  Babylon  shall  be  utterly  broken, 
and  her  high  gates  shall  be  burnt  with  fire, 
and  the  people  shall  labour  in  vain."  This  is 
related  in  Herodotus. 

3.  Darius  CodoiManus  was  of  the  royal  family 
of  Persia,  but  very  remote  from   the  crown. 
He  was  in  a  low  condition,  when  Bagoas,  the 
20 


eunuch,  who  had  procured  the  destruction  of 
two  kings,  Ochus  and  Arses,  placed  him  on 
the  throne.  His  true  name  was  Codoman,  and 
he  did  not  take  that  of  Darius  till  he  was  king. 
He  was  descended  from  Darius  Nothus,  whose 
son,  Ostanea,  was  father  to  Arsames,  that  begat 
Codomanus.  He  was  at  first  only  a  courier 
to  the  emperor  Ochus.  But  one  day  when  he 
was  at  this  prince's  army,  one  of  their  enemies 
challenged  the  bravest  of  the  Persians.  Codo- 
manus offered  himself  for  the  combat,  and 
overcame  the  challenger,  and  was  made  go- 
vernor of  Armenia.  Prom  this  situation, 
Bagoas  placed  him  on  the  throne  of  Persia. 
Alexander  the  Great  invaded  the  Persian  em- 
pire, and  defeated  Darius  in  three  successive 
battles.  After  the  third  battle,  Darius  fled 
toward  Media,  in  hopes  of  raising  another 
army.  At  Ecbatana,  the  capital  of  Media,  he 
gathered  the  remains  of  his  forces,  and  some 
new  levies.  Alexander  having  wintered  at 
Babylon  and  Persepolis,  took  the  field  in  search 
of  Darius,  who  quitted  Ecbatana,  with  an  in- 
tention of  retreating  into  Bactria ;  but,  chang- 
ing his  resolution,  Darius  stopped  short,  and 
determined  to  hazard  a  battle,  though  his  army 
at  this  time  consisted  only  of  forty  thousand 
men.  While  he  was  preparing  for  this  con- 
flict, Bessus,  governor  of  Bactria,  and  Narba- 
zanes,  a  grandee  of  Persia,  seized  him,  loaded 
him  with  chains,  forced  him  into  a  covered 
chariot,  and  fled,  carrying  him  with  them  to- 
ward Bactria.  If  Alexander  pursued  them, 
they  intended  to  purchase  their  peace  by  deli- 
vering Darius  into  his  hands ;  but  if  not,  to 
kill  him,  seize  the  crown,  and  renew  the  war. 
Eight  days  after  their  departure,  Alexander 
arrived  at  Ecbatana,  and  set  out  in  pursuit  of 
them,  which  he  continued  for  eleven  days :  at 
length  he  stopped  at  Rages,  in  Media,  despair- 
ing to  overtake  Darius.  Thence  he  went  into 
Parthia,  where  he  learned  what  had  happened 
to  that  unfortunate  prince.  After  a  precipitate 
march  of  many  days,  he  overtook  the  traitors, 
who,  seeing  themselves  pressed,  endeavoured 
to  compel  Darius  to  get  upon  horseback,  and 
save  himself  with  them;  but  he  refusing,  they 
stabbed  him  in  several  places,  and  left  him 
expiring  in  his  chariot.  He  was  dead  when 
Alexander  arrived,  who  could  not  forbear 
weeping  at  so  sad  a  spectacle.  Alexander 
covered  Darius  with  his  own  cloak,  and  sent 
him  to  Sisygambis  his  wife,  that  she  might 
bury  him  in  the  tombs  of  the  kings  of  Persia. 
Thus  were  verified  tho  prophecies  of  Daniel, 
viii,  who  had  foretold  the  destruction  of  the 
Persian  monarchy,  under  the  symbol  of  a  ram, 
which  butted  with  its  horns  westward,  north- 
ward, and  southward,  and  which  nothing  could 
resist ;  but  a  goat  which  had  a  very  large  horn 
between  his  eyes,  and  which  denoted  Alexan- 
der the  Great,  came  from  the  west,  and  overran 
the  world  without  touching  the  earth ;  spring- 
ing forward  with  impetuosity,  the  goat  ran 
ao-ainst  the  ram  with  all  his  force,  attacked 
him  with  fury,  struck  him,  broke  his  two  horns, 
trampled  him  under  foot,  and  no  one  could 
rescue  the  ram.  Nothing  can  be  clearer  than 
these  prophecies 


day 


290 


DAV 


DARKNESS,  the  absence  of  light.  "Dark- 
ness was  upon  the  face  of  the  deep,"  Gen.  i,  2  ; 
that  is,  the  chaos  was  immersed  in  thick  dark- 
ness, because  light  was  withheld  from  it.  The 
most  terrible  darkness  was  that  brought  on 
Egypt  as  a  plague ;  it  was  so  thick  as  to  be, 
as  it  were,  palpable  ;  so  horrible,  that  no  one 
durst  stir  out  of  his  place  ;  and  so  lasting,  that 
it  endured  three  days  and  three  nights,  Exod. 
x,  21,  22 ;  Wisdom  xvii,  2,  3.  The  darkness 
at  our  Saviour's  death  began  at  the  sixtli  hour, 
or  noon,  and  ended  at  the  third  hour,  or  three 
o'clock  in  the  afternoon.  Thus  it  lasted  almost 
the  whole  time  he  was  on  the  cross;  compare 
Matt,  xxvii,  45,  with  John  xix,  14,  and  Mark 
xv,  25.  Origen,  Maldonatus,  Erasmus,  Vatab- 
lus,  and  others,  were  of  opinion  that  this  dark- 
ness covered  Judea  only  ;  which  is  sometimes 
Called  toe  whole  earth ;  that  is,  the  whole  coun- 
try. Chrysostom,  Euthymius,  Theophylact,  and 
Others,  thought  it  extended  over  a  hemisphere. 
Origen  says  it  was  caused  by  a  thick  mist, 
which  precluded  the  sight  of  the  sun.  That  it 
was  preternatural  is  certain,  for,  the  moon  be- 
ing at  full,  a  natural  eclipse  of  the  sun  was 
impossible.  Darkness  is  sometimes  used  meta- 
phorically for  death.  "The  land  of  darkness" 
is  the  grave.  Job  x,  22 ;  Psalm  cvii,  10.  It  is 
also  used  to  denote  misfortunes  and  calamities  : 
"A  day  of  darkness"  is  a  day  of  affliction, 
Esther  xi,  8.  "Let  that  day  be  darkness;  let 
darkness  stain  it," — let  it  be  reckoned  among 
the  unfortunate  days,  Job  iii,  4,  5.  The  ex- 
pressions, "  I  will  cover  the  heavens  with  dark- 
ness ;"  "  The  sun  shall  be  turned  into  darkness, 
and  the  moon  into  blood,"  &c,  signify  very 
great  political  calamities,  involving  the  over- 
throw of  kings,  princes,  and  nobles,  represent- 
ed by  the  luminaries  of  heaven.  In  a  moral 
sertse,  darkness  denotes  ignorance  and  vice ; 
hence  "the  children  of  light,"  in  opposition  to 
"  the  children  of  darkness,"  are  the  righteous 
distinguished  from  the  wicked. 

DAVID,  the  celebrated  king  of  Israel,  was 
the  youngest  son  of  Jesse,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah, 
and  was  born  1085  years  before  Christ.  The 
following  is  an  abstract  of  his  history  :  He  was 
chosen  of  God  to  be  king  of  Israel,  and  at  his 
command  was  anointed  to  this  dignity  by  the 
hands  of  Samuel,  a  venerable  prophet,  in  the 
room  of  Saul ;  who  had  been  rejected  for  his 
disobedience  to  the  divine  orders,  in  feloniously 
seizing,  to  his  own  use  the  prey  of  an  enemy, 
which  God,  the  supreme  King  of  Israel,  had 
devoted  to  destruction.  He  was  introduced  to 
court  as  a  man  expert  in  music,  a  singularly 
valiant  man,  a  man  of  war,  prudent  in  matters, 
of  a  comely  person,  and  one  favoured  of  the 
Lord.  By  his  skill  in  music,  he  relieved  Saul 
under  a  melancholy  indisposition  that  had  seiz- 
ed him,  was  highly  beloved  by  his  royal  mas- 
ter, and  made  one  of  his  guards.  In  a  war 
with  the  Philistines  he  accepted  the  challenge 
of  a  gigantic  champion,  who  defied  the  armies 
of  Israel,  and  being  skilful  at  the  sling,  he  slew 
him  with  a  stone,  returned  safely  with  his  head, 
and  thus  secured  to  his  prince  an  easy  victory 
over  his  country's  enemies.  The  reputation 
he  gained,  by  this  glorious  action,  raised  an 


incurable  jealousy  and  resentment  against  him, 
in  the  mind  of  the  king  his  master ;  who  made 
two  unsuccessful  attempts  to  murder  him.  In 
his  exalted  station,  and  amidst  the  dangers  that 
encompassed  him,  he  behaved  with  singular 
prudence,  so  that  he  was  in  high  esteem  both 
in  the  court  and  camp.  The  modesty  and 
prudence  of  his  behaviour,  and  his  approved 
courage  and  resolution,  gained  him  the  confi- 
dence and  friendship  of  Jonathan,  the  king's 
eldest  son,  "  who  loved  him  as  his  own  soul," 
became  his  advocate  with  his  father,  and  ob- 
tained from  him  a  promise,  confirmed  by  an 
oath,  that  he  would  no  more  attempt  to  destroy 
him.  But  Saul's  jealousy  returned  by  a  fresh 
victory  David  gained  over  the  Philistines  ; 
who,  finding  the  king  was  determined  to 
seek  his  life,  retired  from  court,  and  was  dis- 
missed in  peace  by  Jonathan,  after  a  solemn 
renewal  of  their  friendship,  to  provide  for  his 
own  safety.  In  this  state  of  banishment,  there 
resorted  to  him  companies  of  men,  who  were 
uneasy  in  their  circumstances,  oppressed  by 
their  creditors,  or  discontented  with  Saul's 
tyrannical  government,  to  the  number  of  six 
hundred  men.  These  he  kept  in  the  most  ex- 
cellent order,  and  by  their  valour  he  gained 
signal  advantages  for  his  country;  but  never 
employed  them  in  rebellion  agaihst  the  king, 
or  in  a  single  instance  to  distress  or  subvert 
his  government.  On  the  contrary  such  was 
the  veneration  he  paid  him,  and  such  the  gene- 
rosity of  his  temper,  that  though  it  was  thrice 
in  his  power  to  have  him  cut  ofF,  he  spared 
him,  and  was  determined  never  to  destroy  him, 
whom  God  had  constituted  the  king  of  Israel. 
His  friendship  with  Jonathan,  the  king's  son, 
was  a  friendship  of  strict  honour,  for  he  never 
seduced  him  from  his  allegiance  and  filial  duty. 
Being  provoked  by  a  churlish  farmer,  who  evil 
treated  and  abused  his  messengers,  he,  in  the 
warmth  of  his  temper,  swore  he  would  destroy 
him  and  his  family  ;  but  was  immediately  paci- 
fied by  the  address  and  prudence  of  a  wife, 
of  whom  the  wretch  was  unworthy  :  her  he 
sent  in  peace  and  honour  to  her  family,  and 
blessed  for  her  advice,  and  keeping  him  from 
avenging  himself  with  his  own  hand.  Be- 
ing forced  to  banish  himself  into  an  enemy's 
country,  he  was  faithful  to  the  prince  who  pro- 
tected him :  and,  at  the  same  time,  mindful  of 
the  interest  of  his  own  nation,  he  cut  off  many 
of  those  who  had  harassed  and  plundered  his 
fellow  subjects.  When  pressed  by  the  king, 
into  whose  dominions  he  retired,  to  join  in  a 
war  against  his  own  country  and  father-in-law, 
he  prudently  gave  him  such  an  answer  as  his 
situation  required;  neither  promising  the  aid 
demanded  of  him,  nOr  tying  up  his  hands  from 
serving  his  own  prince,  and  the  army  that 
fought  under  him ;  only  assuring  him  in  gene- 
ral, that  he  had  never  done  any  thing  that 
could  give  him  just  reason  to  think  he  would 
refuse  to  assist  him  against  his  enemies.  Upon 
the  death  Of  Saul,  he  cut  off  the  Amalckite 
who  came  to  make  a  merit  of  having  slain  him  ; 
and  by  the  immediate  direction  of  God,  who 
had  promised  him  the  succession,  went  up  to 
Hebron,   where,   on  a  free  election,  he  was 


DAV 


291 


DAV 


anointed  king  over  the  house  of  Judah  ;  and 
after  about  a  seven  years'  contest,  he  was  unani- 
mously chosen  king  by  all  the  tribes  of  Israel, 
"  according  to  the  word  of  the  Lord  by 
Samuel."  As  king  of  Israel,  he  administered 
justice  and  judgment  to  all  his  people,  was  a 
prince  of  courage,  and  great  military  prudence 
and  conduct  ;  had  frequent  wars  with  the 
neighbouring  nations,  to  which  he  was  gene- 
rally forced  by  their  invading  his  dominions, 
and  plundering  his  subjects.  Against  them  he 
never  lost  a  battle ;  he  never  besieged  a  city 
without  taking  it ;  nor,  as  for  any  thing  that 
can  be  proved,  used  any  severities  against  those 
he  conquered,  beyond  what  the  law  of  arms 
allowed,  his  own  safety  required,  or  the  cruel- 
ties of  his  enemies  rendered  just,  by  way  of 
retaliation  ;  enriching  his  people  by  the  spoils 
he  took,  and  providing  large  stores  of  every 
thing  necessary  for  the  magnificent  temple  he 
intended  to  erect,  in  honour  of  the  God  of  Israel 
Having  rescued  Jerusalem  out  of  the  hands  of 
the  Jebusites,  he  made  it  the  capital  of  his  king- 
dom, and  the  place  of  his  residence  ;  and  being 
willing  to  honour  it  with  the  presence  of  the  ark 
of  God,  he  brought  it  to  Jerusalem  in  triumph, 
and  divesting  himself  of  his  royal  robes,  out  of 
reverence  to  God,  he  clothed  himself  in  the 
habit  of  his  ministers,  and  with  them  express- 
ed his  joy  by  dancing  and  music ;  contemned 
only  by  one  haughty  woman  ;  whom,  as  a  just 
punishment  of  her  insolence,  he  seems  ever 
after  to  have  separated  from  his  bed.  Though 
his  crimes  were  henious,  and  highly  aggravat- 
ed, in  the  affair  of  Uriah  and  Bajhsheba,  he 
patiently  endured  reproof,  humbly  submitted  to 
the  punishment  appointed  him,  deeply  repent- 
ed, and  obtained  mercy  and  forgiveness  from 
God,  though  not  without  some  severe  marks  of 
his  displeasure,  for  the  grievous  offences  of 
which  he  had  been  guilty.  A  rebellion  was 
raised  against  him  by  his  son  Absalom.  When 
forced  by  it  to  depart  from  Jerusalem,  a  cir- 
cumstance most  pathetically  described  by  the 
sacred  historian,  he  prevented  the  just  punish- 
ment of  Shimei,  a  wretch  who  cursed  and 
stoned  him.  When  restored  to  his  throne,  he 
spared  him  upon  his  submission,  and  would 
not  permit  a  single  man  to  be  put  to  death  in 
Israel  upon  account  of  this  treason.  He,  with 
a  noble  confidence,  made  the  commander  of 
the  rebel  forces  general  of  his  own  army,  in 
the  room  of  Joab,  whom  he  intended  to  call  to 
an  account  for  murder  and  other  crimes.  'Af- 
ter this,  when  obliged,  by  the  command  of 
God,  to  give  up  some  of  Saul's  family  to  justice, 
for  the  murder  of  the  Gibeonites,  he  spared 
Mephibosheth,  Micah,  and  his  family,  the  male 
descendants  of  Saul  and  Jonathan,  who  alone 
could  have  any  pretence  to  dispute  the  crown 
with  him,  and  surrendered  only  Saul's  bastard 
children,  and  those  of  his  daughter  by  Adriel, 
who  had  no  right  or  possible  claim  to  the 
throne,  and  could  never  give  him  any  uneasi- 
ness in  the  possession  of  it ;  and  thus  showed 
his  inviolable  regard  for  his  oaths,  his  tender- 
ness to  Saul,  and  the  warmth  of  his  gratitude 
and  friendship  to  Jonathan.  In  the  close  of 
his  life,  and  in  the  near  prospect  of  death,  to 


demonstrate  his  love  of  justice,  he  charged 
Solomon  to  punish  with  death  Joab,  for  the 
base  murder  of  two  great  men,  whom  he  as- 
sassinated under  the  pretence  of  peace  and 
friendship.  To  this  catalogue  of  his  noble 
actions  must  be  added,  that  he  gave  the  most 
shining  and  indisputable  proofs  of  an  undis- 
sembled  reverence  for,  and  sincere  piety  to, 
God  ;  ever  obeying  the  direction  of  his  pro- 
phets, worshipping  him  alone,  to  the  exclusion 
of  all  idols,  throughout  the  whole  of  his  life, 
and  making  the  wisest  settlement  to  perpetu- 
ate the  worship  of  the  same  God,  through  all 
succeeding  generations. 

To  this  abstract  a  few  miscellaneous  remarks 
may  be  added. 

1.  When  David  is  called  "the  man  after 
God's  own  heart,"  a  phrase  which  profane  per- 
sons have  often  perverted,  his  general  charac- 
ter, and  not  every  particular  of  it,  is  to  be 
understood  as  approved  by  God ;  and  especially 
his  faithful  and  undeviating  adherence  to  the 
true  religion,  from  which  he  never  deviated 
into  any  act  of  idolatry. 

2.  He  was  chosen  to  accomplish  to  their  full 
extent  the  promises  made  to  Abraham  to  give 
to  his  seed,  the  whole  country  from  the  river 
of  Egypt  to  the  great  river  Euphrates.  He  had 
succeeded  to  a  kingdom  distracted  witli  civil 
dissension,  environed  on  every  side  by  power- 
ful and  victorious  enemies,  without  a  capital, 
almost  without  an  army,  without  any  bond  of 
union  between  the  tribes.  He  left  a  compact 
and  united  state,  stretching  from  the  frontier 
of  Egypt  to  the  foot  of  Lebanon,  from  the 
Euphrates  to  the  sea.  He  had  crushed  the 
power  of  the  Philistines,  subdued  or  curbed  all 
the  adjacent  kingdoms:  he  had  formed  a  last- 
ing and  important  alliance  with  the  great  city 
of  Tyre.  He  had  organized  an  immense  dis- 
posable force  ;  for  every  month  24,000  men, 
furnished  in  rotation  by  the  tribes,  appeared  in 
arms,  and  were  trained  as  the  standing  militia 
of  the  country.  At  the  head  of  his  army  were 
officers  of  consummate  experience,  and,  what 
was  more  highly  esteemed  in  the  warfare  of 
the  time,  extraordinary  personal  activity, 
strength,  and  valour.  The  Hebrew  nation 
owed  the  long  peace  of  Solomon  the  son's 
reign  to  the  bravery  and  wisdom  of  the  father. 

3.  As  a  conqueror  ho  was  a  type  of  Christ, 
and  the  country  "  from  the  river  to  the  ends  of 
the  earth,"  was  also  the  prophetic  type  of 
Christ's  dominion  over  the  whole  earth. 

4.  His  inspired  psalms  not  only  place  him 
among  the  most  eminent  prophets ;  but  have 
rendered  him  the  leader  of  the  devotions  of 
good  men,  in  all  ages.  The  hymns  of  David 
excel  no  less  in  sublimity  and  tenderness  of 
expression  than  in  loftiness  and  purity  of  re- 
ligious sentiment.  In  comparison  with  them 
the  sacred  poetry  of  all  other  nations  sinks  into 
mediocrity.  They  have  embodied  so  exquisitely 
the  universal  language  of  religious  emotion, 
that  they  have  entered  with  unquestioned  pro- 
priety into  the  ritual  of  the  higher  and  more 
perfect  religion  of  Christ.  The  songs  which 
cheered  the  solitude  of  the  desert  caves  of  En- 
gedi,   or   resounded  from  the  voice   of   the 


DAY 


292 


DEA 


Hebrew  people  as  they  wound  along  the  glens 
or  the  hill  sides  of  Judea,  have  been  repeated 
for  ages  in  almost  every  part  of  the  habitable 
world,  in  the  remotest  islands  of  the  ocean, 
among  the  forests  of  America  or  the  sands  of 
Africa.  How  many  human  hearts  have  these 
inspired  songs  softened,  purified,  exalted !  Of 
how  many  wretched  beings  have  they  been  the 
secret  consolation !  On  how  many  communi- 
ties have  they  drawn  down  the  blessings  of 
Divine  providence,  by  bringing  the  allections 
into  unison  with  their  deep  devotional  fervour, 
and  leading  to  a  constant  and  explicit  recog- 
nition of  the  government,  rights,  and  mercies 
of  God ! 

DAY.  The  Hebrews,  in  conformity  with  the 
Mosaic  law,  reckoned  the  day  from  evening 
to  evening.  The  natural  day,  that  is,  the  por- 
tion of  time  from  sunrise  to  sunset,  was  divided 
by  the  Hebrews,  as  it  is  now  by  the  Arabians, 
into  six  unequal  parts.  These  divisions  were 
as  follows: — 1.  The  break  of  day.  This  por- 
tion of  time  was,  at  a  recent  period,  divided 
into  two  parts,  in  imitation  of  the  Persians  ; 
the  first  of  which  began  when  the  eastern,  the 
second,  when  the  western,  division  of  the  ho- 
rizon was  illuminated.  The  autbors  of  the 
Jerusalem  Talmud  divided  it  into  four  parts ; 
the  first  of  which  was  called  in  Hebrew  n1?'** 
-intt>n,  which  occurs  in  Psalm  xxii,  1,  and  cor- 
responds to  the  phrase,  Xiav  zs pufi,  in  the  New 
Testament,  Mark  xvi,  2;  John  xx,  1.  2.  The 
morning  or  sunrise.  3.  The  heat  of  the  day. 
This  began  about  nine  o'clock,  Gen.  xviii,  1 ; 
1  Sam.  xi,  11.  4.  Midday.  5.  The  cool  of  the 
day  ;  literally,  the  wind  of  the  day.  This  ex- 
pression is  grounded  on  the  fact,  that  a  wind 
commences  blowing  regularly  a  few  hours 
before  sunset,  and  continues  till  evening,  Gen. 
iii,  8.  6.  The  evening.  This  was  divided  into 
two  parts,  DOij? ;  the  first  of  which  began, 
according  to  the  Caraites  and  Samaritans,  at 
sunset,  the  second,  when  it  began  to  grow  dark. 
But,  according  to  the  rabbins,  the  first  com- 
menced just  before  sunset,  the  second,  pre- 
cisely at  sunset.  The  Arabians  agree  with  the 
Caraites  and  Samaritans ;  and  in  this  way  the 
Hebrews  appear  to  have  computed,  previous  to 
the  captivity. 

The  mention  of  nyv,  hours,  occurs  first  in 
Daniel  iii,  6,  15;  v,  5.  They  were  first  mea- 
sured  by  gnomons,  which  merely  indicated  the 
meridian ;  afterward,  by  the  hour-watch,  ckio- 
BipiKov ;  and  subsequently  still,  by  the  clepsydra, 
or  instrument  for  measuring  time  by  means  of 
water.  The  hour-watch  or  dial,  otherwise 
called  the  sun-dial,  is  mentioned  in  the  reign 
of  King  Hezekiah,  2  Kings  xx,  9,  10;  Isaiah 
xxxviii,  8.  Its  being  called  "  the  sundial  of 
Ahaz"  renders  it  probable  that  Ahaz  first 
introduced  it  from  Babylon ;  whence,  also, 
Anaximenes,  the  Milesian,  brought  the  first 
tkiathericon  into  Greece.  This  instrument  was 
of  no  use  during  the  night,  nor  indeed  during 
a  cloudy  day.  In  consequence  of  this  defect, 
the  clepsydra  was  invented,  which  was  used  in 
Persia  as  late  as  the  seventeenth  century  in  its 
simplest  form.  The  clepsydra  was  a  small 
circular  vessel,    constructed  of  thinly-beaten 


copper  or  brass,  and  having  a  small  perforation 
through  the  bottom.  It  was  placed  in  another 
vessel,  filled  with  water.  The  diameter  of  the 
hole  in  the  bottom  of  the  clepsydra  was  such, 
that  it  filled  with  water  in  three  hours,  and 
sunk.  It  was  necessary  that  there  should  be 
a  servant  to  tend  it,  who  should  take  it  up 
when  it  had  sunk,  pour  out  the  water,  and 
place  it  again  empty  on  the  surface  of  the 
water  in  the  vase. 

The  hours  of  principal  note  in  the  course  of 
the  day  were  the  third,  the  sixth,  and  the  ninth. 
These  hours,  it  would  seem,  were  consecrated 
by  Daniel  to  prayer,  Dan.  vi,  10 ;  Acts  ii,  15 ; 
iii,  1 ;  x,  9.  The  day  was  divided  into  twelve 
hours,  which,  of  course,  varied  in  length,  be- 
ing shorter  in  the  winter  and  longer  in  the 
summer,  John  xi,  9.  In  the  winter,  therefore, 
the  clepsydras  were  so  constructed  that  the 
water  might  sink  them  more  rapidly.  The 
hours  were  numbered  from  the  rising  of  the 
sun,  so  that,  at  the  season  of  the  equinox,  the 
third  corresponded  to  the  ninth  of  our  reckon- 
ing ;  the  sixth,  to  our  twelfth ;  and  the  ninth, 
to  three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon.  At  other 
seasons  of  the  year,  it  is  necessary  to  observe 
the  time  when  the  sun  rises,  and  reduce  the 
hours  to  our  time  accordingly.  We  observe, 
therefore,  that  the  sun  in  Palestine,  at  the 
summer  solstice,  rises  at  five  of  our  time,  and 
sets  about  seven.  At  the  winter  solstice,  it 
rises  about  seven,  and  sets  about  five. 

Before  the  captivity,  the  night  was  divided 
into  three  watches.  The  first,  which  continued 
till  midnight,  was  denominated  the  commenc- 
ing or  first  watch,  Lam.  ii,  19.  The  second 
was  denominated  the  middle  watch,  and  con- 
tinued from  midnight  till  the  crowing  of  the 
cock.  The  third,  called  the  morning  watch, 
extended  from  the  second  to  the  rising  of  the 
sun.  These  divisions  and  names  appear  to  have 
owed  their  origin  to  the  watches  of  the  Levites 
in  the  tabernacle  and  temple,  Exod.  xiv,  24; 
1  Sam.  xi,  11.  In  the  time  of  Christ,  however, 
the  night,  in  imitation  of  the  Romans,  was 
divided  into  four  watches.  According  to  the 
English  mode  of  reckoning  they  were  as  fol- 
lows: 1.  The  evening,  from  twilight  to  nine 
o'clock.    2.  The  midnight,  from  nine  to  twelve. 

3.  The   cock  crowi:-ig,  from  twelve  to  three. 

4.  From  three  o'clock  till  daybreak.  A  day 
is  used  in  the  prophetic  Scripture  for  a  year : 
"  I  have  appointed  thee  each  day  for  a  year," 
Ezek.  iv,  6.     See  Cock. 

DEACON,  from  the  Greek  word  Sifimros,  in 
its  proper  and  primitive  sense,  denotes  a  servant 
who  attends  his  master,  waits  on  him  at  table, 
and  is  always  near  his  person  to  obey  his  orders, 
which  was  accounted  a  more  creditable  kind 
of  service  than  that  which  is  imported  by  the 
word  AoiXos  a  slave ;  but  this  distinction  is  not 
usually  observed  in  the  New  Testament.  Our 
Lord  makes  use  of  both  terms  in  Matt,  xx,  26, 
27,  though  they  are  not  distinctly  marked  in 
our  translation  :  "  Whosoever  will  be  great 
among  you,  let  him  be  your  deacon;  and  who- 
soever will  be  chief  among  you,  let  him  be 
your  servant."  The  appointment  of  deacons 
in  tho  first  Christian  church  is  distinctly  re- 


DEA 


293 


DEA 


corded,  Acts  vi,  1-16.  The  number  of  disciples 
having  greatly  increased  in  Jerusalem,  the 
Greeks,  or  Hellenistic  Jews,  began  to  murmur 
against  the  Hebrews,  complaining  that  their 
widows  were  neglected  in  the  daily  distribution 
of  the  church's  bounty.  The  twelve  Apostles, 
who  hitherto  had  discharged  the  different  offi- 
ces of  Apostle,  presbyter,  and  deacon,  upon 
the  principle  that  the  greater  office  always 
includes  the  less,  now  convened  the  church, 
and  said  unto  them,  "  It  is  not  reasonable  that 
we  should  leave  the  ministration  of  the  word 
of  God,  and  serve  tables :  look  ye  out,  there- 
fore, among  yourselves,  seven  men  of  good 
report,  full  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  wisdom, 
whom  we  may  appoint  over  this  business;  but 
we  will  give  ourselves  continually  to  prayer, 
and  to  the  ministry  of  the  word."  And  the 
saying  pleased  the  whole  multitude  ;  and  they 
(the  multitude)  chose  Stephen,  and  six  others, 
whom  they  set  before  the  Apostles,  &c. 

The  qualifications  of  deacons  are  stated  by 
the  Apostle  Paul,  1  Tim.  iii,  8-12.  There  were 
also,  in  the  primitive  churches  females  invested 
with  this  office,  who  were  termed  deaconesses. 
Of  this  number  was  Phcebe,  a  member  of  the 
church  of  Cenchrca,  mentioned  by  St.  Paul, 
Rom.  xvi,  1.  "They  served  the  church,"  says 
Calmet,  "  in  those  offices  which  the  deacons 
could  not  themselves  exercise,  visiting  those  of 
their  own  sex  in  sickness,  or  when  imprisoned 
for  the  faith.  They  were  persons  of  advanced 
age,  when  chosen  ;  and  appointed  to  the  office 
by  imposition  of  hands."  It  is  probably  of  these 
deaconesses  that  the  Apostle  speaks,  where 
he  describes  the  ministering  widows,  1  Tim. 
v,  5-10. 

DEAD.     See  Burial. 

Dead,  Mournings  for  the.  The  ancient 
Israelites,  in  imitation  of  the  Heathen,  from 
whom  they  borrowed  the  practice,  frequently 
cut  themselves  with  knives  and  lancets, 
scratched  their  faces,  or  pricked  certain  parts 
of  their  bodies  with  needles.  These  supersti- 
tious practices  were  expressly  forbidden  in 
their  law  :  "  Ye  are  the  children  of  the  Lord 
your  God :  ye  shall  not  cut  yourselves,  nor 
make  any  baldness  between  your  eyes  for  the 
dead."  The  bereaved  Greeks  tore,  cut  off,  and 
sometimes  shaved,  their  hair ;  they  reckoned 
it  a  duty  which  they  owed  to  the  dead,  to 
deprive  their  heads  of  the  greatest  part  of  their 
honours,  or,  in  the  language  of  Scripture,  made 
a  baldness  between  their  eyes.  The  same  cus- 
tom prevailed  among  the  ancient  Persians,  and 
the  neighbouring  states.  When  the  patriarch 
Job  was  informed  of  the  deatli  of  his  children, 
and  the  destruction  of  his  property,  he  arose 
and  rent  his  mantle,  and  shaved  his  head,  and 
fell  down  upon  the  ground  and  worshipped ; 
and  in  the  prophecies  of  Jeremiah,  we  read  of 
eighty  men  who  were  going  to  lament  the 
desolations  of  Jerusalem,  having  their  beards 
shaven,  and  their  clothes  rent,  and  having  cut 
themselves,  in  direct  violation  of  the  divine 
law,  with  offerings  and  incense  in  their  hand, 
to  bring  them  to  the  house  of  the  Lord,  Jer. 
xii,  5.  Shaving,  however,  was,  on  some  occa- 
sions,  a  sign  of  joy  :  and  to  let  the  hair  grow 


long,  the  practice  of  mourners,  or  persons  in 
affliction.  Joseph  shaved  himself  before  ho 
went  into  the  palace,  Gen.  xli,  14;  and  Me- 
phibosheth  let  his  hair  grow  during  the  time 
David  was  banished  from  Jerusalem,  but  shaved 
himself  on  his  return.  In  ordinary  sorrows 
they  only  neglected  their  hair,  or  suffered  it  to 
hang  down  loose  upon  their  shoulders ;  in  more 
poignant  grief  they  cut  it  off;  but  in  a  sudden 
and  violent  paroxysm,  they  plucked  it  off  with 
their  hands.  Such  a  violent  expression  of  sor- 
row is  exemplified  in  the  conduct  of  Ezra, 
which  he  thus  describes :  "  And  when  I  heard 
this  thing  I  rent  my  garment  and  my  mantle, 
and  plucked  off  the  hair  of  my  head,  and  of 
my  beard,  and  sat  down  astonied,"  Ezra  ix,  3. 
The  Greeks,  and  other  nations  around  them, 
expressed  the  violence  of  their  sorrow  in  the 
same  way ;  for  in  Homer,  Ulysses  and  his  com- 
panions,  bewailing  the  death  of  Elpenor, 
howled  and  plucked  off  their  hair.  Mourners 
withdrew  as  much  as  possible  from  the  world ; 
they  abstained  from  banquets  and  entertain, 
ments;  they  banished  from  their  houses  as 
unsuitable  to  their  circumstances,  and  even 
painful  to  their  feelings,  musical  instruments 
of  every  kind,  and  whatever  was  calculated  to 
excite  pleasure,  or  that  wore  an  air  of  mirth 
and  gaiety.  Thus  did  the  king  of  Persia  tes- 
tify his  sorrow  for  the  decree,  into  which  his 
wily  courtiers  had  betrayed  him,  and  which, 
without  the  miraculous  interposition  of  Heaven, 
had  proved  fatal  to  his  favourite  minister : 
"Then  the  king  went  to  his  palace,  and  spent 
the  night  fasting ;  neither  were  instruments  of 
music  brought  before  him,"  Dan.  vi,  18. 

2.  Oriental  mourners  divested  themselves  of 
all  ornaments,  and  laid  aside  their  jewels,  gold, 
and  every  thing  rich  and  splendid  in  their 
dress.  This  proof  of  humiliation  and  submis- 
sion Jehovah  required  of  his  offending  people 
in  the  wilderness :  "  Therefore,  now  put  off 
thy  ornaments  from  thee,  that  I  may  know 
what  to  do  unto  thee.  And  the  children  of 
Israel  stripped  themselves  of  their  ornaments 
by  the  Mount  Horeb,"  Exodus  xxxiii,  5,  6. 
L<9ng  after  the  time  of  Moses,  that  rebellious 
nation  again  received  a  command  of  similar 
import:  "  Strip  you,  and  make  you  bare,  and 
gird  sackcloth  upon  your  loins,"  Isaiah  xxxii, 
11.  The  garments  of  the  mourner  were  always 
black.  Progne,  having  notice  of  Philomela's 
death,  lays  aside  her  robes,  beaming  with  a 
prolusion  of  gold,  and  appears  in  sable  vest- 
ments ;  and  Althaea,  when  her  brethren  were 
slain  by  Meleager,  exchanged  her  glittering 
robes  for  black  : — 

"  Et  auratas  mutavit  vestibus  atris."     Ovid. 
These   sable   vestments    differed    from    their 
ordinary  dress,  not  only  in  colour,  but  also  in 
value,  being  made  of  cheap  and  coarse  stuff, 
as  appears  from  these  lines  of  Terence  : — 

"  Texentem  telam  sludiose  ipsam  offendimus 
Mcdiocriter  vestitam  veste  lugubri 
Ejus  anus  causa,  opinor,  qua  erat  mortua." 
"  We  found  her  busy  at  the  loom,  in  a  cheap 
mourning  habit,  which  she  wore  I  suppose  for 
the  old  woman's  death."  In  Judea,  the  mourner 
was  clothed  in  sackcloth  of  hair,  and  by  con-. 


DEA 


294 


DEA 


sequence,  in  sable  robes;  and  penitents,  by 
assuming  it,  seemed  to  confess  that  their  guilt 
exposed 'them  to  death.  Some  of  the  eastern 
nations,  in  modern  times,  bury  in  linen  ;  but 
Chardin  informs  us,  that  others  still  retain  the 
use  of  sackcloth  for  that  purpose.  To  sit  in 
sackcloth  and  ashes,  was  a  frequent  expression 
of  mourning  in  the  oriental  regions;  and  per- 
sons overwhelmed  with  grief,  and  unable  to 
sustain  the  weight  of  their  calamities,  often 
threw  themselves  upon  the  earth,  and  rolled  in 
the  dust ;  and  the  more  dirty  the  ground  was, 
the  better  it  served  to  defile  them,  and  to  ex- 
press their  sorrow  and  dejection.  In  this  way 
Tamar  signified  her  distress,  after  being  dis- 
honoured by  Amnon,  "  She  put  ashes  on  her 
head;"  and  when  Mordecai  understood  that 
the  doom  of  his  nation  was  sealed,  he  "rent 
his  clothes,  and  put  on  sackcloth  with  ashes." 
Our  Lord  alludes  to  the  same  custom,  in  that 
denunciation :  "  Wo  unto  thee,  Chorazin ! 
wo  unto  thee,  Bethsaida !  for  if  the  mighty 
works  which  were  done  in  you,  had  been  done 
in  Tyre  and  Sidon,  they  would  have  repented 
long  ago,  in  sackcloth  and  ashes,"  Matt,  xi,  21. 
Intimately  connected  with  this,  is  the  custom 
of  putting  dust  upon  the  head.  When  the 
armies  of  Israel  were  defeated  before  Ai, 
"  Joshua  rent  his  clothes,  and  fell  to  the  earth 
upon  his  face,  he  and  the  elders  of  Israel,  and 
put  dust  upon  their  heads."  The  mourner 
sometimes  laid  his  hands  upon  his  head;  for 
the  prophet,  expostulating  with  his  people,  pre- 
dicts their  humiliation  in  these  words:  "Yea, 
thou  shalt  go  forth  from  him,  and  thine  hands 
.upon  thine  head  ;  for  the  Lord  hath  rejected 
thy  confidences,  and  thou  shalt  not  prosper  in 
them,"  Jer.  ii,  31.  In  both  these  cases,  the 
head  of  the  mourner  was  uncovered;  but  they 
sometimes  adopted  the  opposite  custom,  and 
covered  their  heads  in  great  distress,  or  when 
they  were  loaded  with  disgrace  and  infamy. 

3.  To  cover  the  lips  was  a  very  ancient  sign 
of  mourning;  and  it  continues  to  be  practised 
among  the  Jews  of  Barbary  to  this  day.  When 
they  return  from  the  grave  to  the  house  of  the 
deceased,  the  chief  mourner  receives  them  with 
his  jaws  tied  up  with  a  linen  cloth,  in  imitation 
of  the  manner  in  which  the  face  of  the  dead  is 
covered ;  and  by  this  the  mourner  is  said  to 
testify  that  he  was  ready  to  die  for  his  friend. 
Muffled  in  this  way,  the  mourner  goes  for 
seven  days,  during  which  the  rest  of  his  friends 
come  twice  every  twenty- four  hours  to  pray 
with  him.  This  allusion  is  perhaps  involved 
in  the  charge  which  Ezekiel  receive.d  when  his 
wife  died,  to  abstain  from  the  customary  forms 
of  mourning:  "  Forbear  to  cry ;  make  no  mourn- 
ing for  the  dead  ;  bind  the  tire  of  thy  head  upon 
thee,  and  put  on  thy  shoes  upon  thy  feet,  and 
cover  not  thy  lips,  and  eat  not  the  bread  of 
men,"  Ezekiel  xx-iv,  17. 

4.  Sitting  on  the  ground  was  a  posture  which 
denoted  severe  distress.  Thus  the  prophet  re- 
presents the  elders  of  Israel,  after  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem,  and  the  eaptivily  of  those  whom 
the  sword  had  spared :  "  The  elders  of  the 
daughter  of  Zion  sit  upon  the  ground,  and  keep 
silence;   they  have  cast  up  dust  upon   their 


heads ;  they  have  girded  themselves  with  sack- 
cloth ;  the  virgins  of  Jerusalem  hang  down 
their  heads  to  the  ground,"  Lam.  ii,  10.  Judea 
is  represented  on  several  coins  of  Vespasian 
and  Titus,  as  a  solitary  female  in  this  very 
posture  of  sorrow  and  captivity  sitting  upon 
the  ground.  It  is  remarkable,  that  we  find 
Judea  represented  as  a  sorrowful  woman  sitting 
on  the  ground,  in  a  passage  of  the  prophet, 
where  the  same  calamity  which  was  recorded 
on  the  medals  of  these  Roman  emperors  is 
foretold :  "  And  she  being  desolate  shall  sit 
upon  the  ground,"  Isaiah  iii,  26. 

5.  Chardin  informs  us  that  when  the  king 
of  Persia  dies,  his  physicians  and  astrologers 
lose  their  places,  and  are  excluded  from  the 
court ;  the  first,  because  they  could  not  cure 
their  sovereign,  and  the  last,  because  they  did 
not  give  previous  notice  of  his  death.  This 
whimsical  custom  he  supposes  has  descended 
to  modern  times  from  a  very  remote  antiquity ; 
and  to  have  been  the  true  reason  that  Daniel 
was  absent  when  Belshazzar  saw  the  hand 
writing  his  doom  on  the  wall.  If  the  conjec- 
ture of  that  intelligent  traveller  be  well  found- 
ed, the  venerable  prophet  had  been  forced  by 
the  established  etiquette  of  the  court  to  retire 
from  the  management  of  public  affairs  at  the 
death  of  Nebuchadnezzar;  and  had  remained 
in  a  private  station  for  twenty-three  years, 
neglected  or  forgotten,  till  the  awful  occurrence 
of  that  memorable  night  rendered  his  assistance 
necessary,  and  brought  him  again  into  public 
notice.  This  accounts  in  a  very  satisfactory 
manner,  as  well  for  Belshazzar's  ignorance  of 
Daniel,  as  for  the  recollection  of  Nitocris,  the 
queen-mother,  who  had  long  known  his  charac- 
ter and  abilities  during  the  reign  of  her  hus- 
band. This  solution  of  the  difficulty  is  at  least 
ingenious. 

6.  It  was  a  custom  among  the  Jews  to  visit 
the  sepulchres  of  their  deceased  friends  three 
days;  for  so  long  they  supposed  their  spirits 
hovered  about  them ;  but  when  once  they 
perceived  their  visage  begin  to  change,  as  it 
would  in  that  time  in  those  warm  countries,  all 
hopes  of  a  return  to  life  were  then  at  an  end. 
But  it  appears  from  an  incident  in  the  narra- 
tive of  the  raising  of  Lazarus,  that  in  Judea 
they  were  accustomed  to  visit  the  graves  of 
their  deceased  relations  after  the  third  day, 
merely  to  lament  their  loss,  and  give  vent  to 
their  grief.  If  this  had  not  been  a  common 
practice,  the  people  that  came  to  comfort  the 
sisters  of  Lazarus  would  not  so  readily  have 
concluded,  when  Mary,  on  the  fourth  day, 
went  hastily  out  to  meet  her  Saviour,  "  She 
goeth  to  the  grave  to  weep  there."  The  Turk- 
ish women  continue  to  follow  this  custom : 
they  go  before  sunrising  on  Friday,  the  stated 
day  of  their  worship,  to  the  grave  of  the  de- 
ceased, where,  with  many  tears  and  lamenta- 
tions, they  sprinkle  their  monuments  with 
water  And  flowers. 

DEAD  SEA.  This  was  anciently  called 
the  Sea  of  the  Plain,  Deut.  iii,  17  ;  iv,  49,  from 
its  situation  in  the  great  hollow  or  plain  of  the 
Jordan;  the  Salt  Sea,  Deut.  iii,  17;  Joshua 
xv,  5,  from  the  extjeme  saltness  of  its  waters; 


DEA 


295 


DEA 


and  the  East  Sea,  Ezek.  xlvii,  18 ;  Joel  ii,  20, 
from  its  situation  relative  to  Judea,  and  in  con- 
tradistinction to  the  West  Sea,  or  Mediter- 
ranean. It  is  likewise  called  by  Josephus,  and 
by  the  Greek  and  Latin  writers  generally,  La- 
cus  Asphalt ites,  from  the  bitumen  found  in  it ; 
and  the  Dead  Sea,  its  more  frequent  modern 
appellation,  from  atradition,  commonly  though 
erroneously  received,  that  no  living  creature 
could  exist  in  its  saline  and  sulphureous  waters. 
It  is  at  present  known  in  Syria  by  the  names 
of  Almotanah  and  Bahar  Loth :  and  occupies 
what  may  be  considered  as  the  southern  ex- 
tremity of  the  vale  of  Jordan;  forming,  in  that 
direction,  the  western  boundary  to  the  Holy 
Land.  The  Dead  Sea  is  about  seventy  miles 
in  length,  and  twenty  in  breadth  at  its  broadest 
part;  having,  like  the  Caspian,  no  visible 
communication  with  the  ocean.  Its  depth 
eeems  to  be  altogether  unknown ;  nor  does  it 
appear  that  a  boat  has  ever  navigated  its  sur- 
face. Toward  its  southern  extremity,  however, 
in  a  contracted  part  of  the  lake,  is  a  ford,  about 
six  miles  over,  made  use  of  by  the  Arabs :  in 
the  middle  of  which  they  report  the  water  to 
be  warm ;  indicating  the  presence  of  warm 
springs  beneath.  In  general,  toward  the  shore, 
it  is  shallow ;  and  rises  and  falls  with  the  sea- 
sons, and  the  quantity  of  water  carried  into  it 
by  seven  streams,  which  fall  into  this  their 
common  receptacle,  the  chief  of  which  is  the 
Jordan. 

The  water  now  covering  these  ruins  occu- 
pies what  was  formerly  the  vale  of  Siddim  ;  a 
rich  and  fruitful  valley,  in  which  stood  the  five 
cities,  called  the  cities  of  the  plain,  namely, 
Sodom,  Gomorrah,  Admah,  Zeboim,  and  Bela 
or  Zoar  :  the  four  first  of  which  were  destroy- 
ed, while  the  latter,  being  "a  little  city,"  was 
preserved  at  the  intercession  of  Lot ;  to  which 
he  fled  for  refuge  from  the  impending  catas- 
trophe, and  where  he  remained  in  safety  dur- 
ing its  accomplishment. 

The  specific  gravity  of  the  waters  of  the 
Dead  Sea  is  supposed  to  have  been  much  ex- 
aggerated by  the  ancient  writers,  but  their 
statements  are  now  proved  to  be  by  no  means 
very  wide  of  the  truth.  Pliny  says,  that  no 
living  bodies  would  sink  in  it ;  and  Strabo,  that 
persons  who  went  into  it  were  borne  up  to 
their  middle.  Van  Egmont  and  Heyman  state, 
that,  on  swimming  to  some  distance  from  the 
shore,  they  found  themselves,  to  their  great 
surprise,  lifted  up  by  the  water.  "  When  I  had 
swam  to  some  distance,"  says  the  latter,  "  I 
endeavoured  to  sink  to  the  bottom,  but  could 
not;  for  the  water  kept  me  continually  up, 
and  would  certainly  have  thrown  me  upon  my 
face,  had  I  not  put  forth  all  the  strength  I  was 
master  of,  to  keep  myself  in  a  perpendicular 
posture  ;  so  that  I  walked  in  the  sea  as  if  I  had 
trod  on  firm  ground,  without  having  occasion 
to  make  any  of  the  motions  necessary  in  tread- 
ing fresh  water ;  and  when  I  was  swimming, 
I  was  obliged  to  keep  my  legs  the  greatest  part 
of  the  time  out  of  the  water.  My  fellow  travel- 
ler was  agreeably  surprised  to  find  that  he 
could  swim  here,  having  never  learned.  But 
this  proceeded  from  the  gravity  of  the  water. 


I  as  this  certainly  does  from  the  extraordinary 
quantity  of  salt  in  it."  Mr.  JolifFe  says,  he 
found  it  very  little  more  buoyant  than  other 
seas,  but  he  did  not  go  out  of  his  depth.  "  The 
descent  of  the  beach,"  he  says,  "  is  so  gently 
gradual,  that  I  must  have  waded  above  a  hun- 
dred yards  to  get  completely  out  of  my  depth, 
and  the  impatience  of  tae  Arabians  would  not 
allow  of  time  sufficient  for  this."  Captain 
Mangles  says :  "  The  water  is  as  bitter  and  as 
buoyant  as  the  people  have  reported.  Those 
of  our  party  who  could  not  swim,  floated  on  its 
surface  like  corks.  On  dipping  the  head  in, 
the  eyes  smarted  dreadfully."  With  regard  to 
the  agents  employed  in  this  catastrophe,  there 
might  seem  reason  to  suppose  that  volcanic 
phenomena  had  some  share  in  producing  it ; 
but  Chateaubriand's  remark  is  deserving  of 
attention.  "  I  cannot,"  he  says,  "  coincide  in 
opinion  with  those  who  suppose  the  Dead  Sea 
to  be  the  crater  of  a  volcano.  I  have  seen 
Vesuvius,  Solfatara,  Monte  Nuovo  in  the  lake 
of  Fusino,  the  peak  of  the  Azores,  the  Mamalif 
opposite  to  Carthage,  the  extinguished  volca- 
noes of  Auvergne ;  and  remarked  in  all  of 
them  the  same  characters ;  that  is  to  say, 
mountains  excavated  in  the  form  of  a  tunnel, 
lava,  and  ashes,  which  exhibited  incontestable 
proofs  of  the  agency  of  fire."  After  noticing 
the  very  different  shape  and  position  of  the 
Dead  Sea,  he  adds:  "Bitumen,  warm  springs, 
and  phosphoric  stones  are  found,  it  is  true,  in 
the  mountains  of  Arabia ;  but  then,  the  presence 
of  hot  springs,  sulphur,  and  asphaltos  is  not 
sufficient  to  attest  the  anterior  existence  of  a 
volcano."  The  learned  Frenchman  inclines  to 
adopt  the  idea  of  Professors  Michaelis  and  Bus- 
ching,  that  Sodom  and  Gomorrah  were  built 
upon  a  mine  of  bitumen ;  that  lightning  kin- 
dled the  combustible  mass,  and  that  the  cities 
sunk  in  the  subterraneous  conflagration.  M. 
Malte  Brun  ingeniously  suggests,  that  the  cities 
might  themselves  have  been  built  of  bitumi- 
nous stones,  and  thus  have  been  set  in  flames 
by  the  fire  of  heaven.  We  learn  from  the  Mo- 
saic account,  that  the  Vale  of  Siddim,  which  is 
now  occupied  by  the  Dead  Sea,  was  full  of 
"  slime  pits,"  or  pits  of  bitumen.  Pococke  says  : 
"  It  is  observed,  that  the  bitumen  floats  on  the 
water,  and  comes  ashore  after  windy  weather ; 
the  Arabs  gather  it  up,  and  it  serves  as  pitch 
for  all  uses,  goes  into  the  composition  of  me- 
dicines, and  is  thought  to  hayo  been  a  very 
great  ingredient  in  the  bitumen  used  in  em- 
balming the  bodies  in  Egypt :  it  lias  been  much 
used  for  cerecloths,  and  has  an  ill  smell  when 
burnt.  It  is  probable  that  there  are  subterra- 
neous fires,  that  throw  up  this  bitumen  at  the 
bottom  of  the  sea,  whore  it  may  form  itself  into 
a  mass,  which  may  be  broken  by  the  motion 
of  the  water  occasioned  by  high  winds ;  and  it 
is  very  remarkable,  that  the  stone  called  the 
stone  of  Moses,  found  about  two  or  three 
leagues  from  the  sea,  which  burns  like  a  coal, 
and  turns  only  to  a  white  stone,  and  not  to 
ashes,  has  the  same  smell,  when  burnt,  as  this 
pitch ;  so  that  it  is  probable,  a  stratum  of  the 
stone  under  the  Dead  Sea  is  one  part  of  the 
matter  that  feeds  the  subterraneous  fires,  and 


DEB 


296 


DED 


that  this  bitumen  boils  up  out  of  it."     To  give 
force  to  this  last  conjecture,  however,  it  would 
be  requisite  to  ascertain,  whether  bitumen  is 
capable  of  being  detached  from  this  stone,  in 
a  liquid  state,  by  the  action  of  fire.     The  stone 
in  question  is  the  black  feited  limestone,  used 
at  Jerusalem  in  the   manufacture  of  rosaries 
and  amulets,  and  worn  as  a  charm  against,  the 
plague.    The  effluvia  which  it  emits  on  friction, 
is  owing  to  a  strong  impregnation  of  sulphur- 
etted hydrogen.      It'  the   buildings  were  con- 
structed of  materials  of  this  description,  with 
quarries  of  which  the  neighbouring  mountains 
abound,   they  would  be  easily  susceptible   of 
ignition  by  lightning.    The  Scriptural  account, 
however,  is  explicit,  that    "  the   Lord   rained 
upon  Sodom  and  Gomorrah  brimstone  and  fire 
from  heaven  ;"  which  we  may  safely  interpret 
as  implying  a  shower  of  inflamed  sulphur,  or 
nitre.     At  the  same  time  it  is  evident,  that  the 
whole   plain  underwent  a  simultaneous  con- 
vulsion, which  seems  referable  to  the  conse- 
quences of  a  bituminous  explosion.     In  perfect 
accordance  with  this  view  of  the  catastrophe,  we 
find  the  very  materials,  as  it  were,  of  this  awful 
visitation  still  at  hand  in  the  neighbouring  hills ; 
from  which  they  might  have  been  poured  down 
by  the  agency  of  thunder  storms,  directed  by 
the  hand  of  offended  Heaven.     Captains  Irby 
and  Mangles  collected,  on  the  southern  coast, 
lumps  of  nitre  and  fine  sulphur,  from  the  size 
of  a  nutmeg  up  to  that  of  a  small  hen's  egg, 
which,  it  was  evident  from  their  situation,  had 
been  brought  down  by  the  rain:  "their  great 
deposit  must  be  sought  for,"  they  say,  "in  the 
cliff."     These  cliffs  then  were  probably  swept 
by  the  lightnings,  and  their  flaming   masses 
poured  in  a  deluge  of  fire  upon  the  plain. 

DEBORAH,  a  prophetess,  wife  of  Lapidoth, 
judged  the  Israelites,  and  dwelt  under  a  palm 
tree  between  Ramah  and  Bethel,  Judges  iv, 
4,  5.  She  sent  for  Barak,  directed  him  to  at- 
tack Sisera,  and,  in  the  name  of  God,  promised 
him  victory ;  but  Barak  refusing  to  go,  unless 
she  went  with  him,  she  told  him,  that  the 
honour  of  this  expedition  would  be  given  to  a 
woman,  and  not  to  him.  After  the  victory, 
Deborah  and  Barak  sung  a  fine  thanksgiving 
song,  the  composition  probably  of  Deborah 
alone,  which  is  preserved,  Judges  v. 

DEBTS.  In  nothing,  perhaps,  do  the  Israel- 
itish  laws  deviate  so  far  from  our  own,  as  in 
regard  to  matters  of  debt.  Imprisonment  was 
unknown  among  the  Hebrews,  who  were 
equally  free  from  those  long  and  expensive 
modes  of  procedure  with  which  we  are  ac- 
quainted, for  the  recovery  of  debts.  Their 
laws  in  this  respect  were  simple,  but  efficient. 
Where  pledges  were  lodged  with  a  creditor  for 
the  payment  of  a  debt,  which  was  not  discharg- 
ed, the  creditor  was  allowed  to  appropriate  the 
pledge  to  his  own  benefit,  without  any  inter- 
position of  a  magistrate,  and  to  keep  it  as  right- 
fully as  if  it  had  been  bought  with  the  sum 
which  had  been  lent  for  it.  But,  beside  the 
pledge,  every  Israelite  had  various  pieces  of 
property,  on  which  execution  for  debt  might 
readily  be  made;  as  (1.)  His  hereditary  land, 
the  produce  of  which  might  be  attached  till 


the  year  of  jubilee :  (2.)  His  houses,  which,  with 
the  sole  exception  of  those  of  the  Levites,  might 
be  sold  in  perpetuity,  Lev.  xxv,  29, 30  :  (3.)  His 
cattle,  household  furniture,  and  ornaments,  ap. 
pear  also  liable  to  be  taken  in  execution.  See 
Job  xxiv,  3;  Proverbs  xxii,  27.  From  Deut. 
xv,  1-11,  we  see  that  no  debt  could  be  exacted 
from  a  poor  man  in  the  seventh  year ;  because 
the  land  lying  fallow,  he  had  no  income  whence 
to  pay  it:  (4.)  The  person  of  the  debtor,  who 
might  be  sold,  along  with  his  wife  and  children, 
if  he  had  any.  See  Lev.  xxv,  39 ;  Job  xxiv,  9 ; 
2  Kings  iv,  1 ;  Isaiah  1,  1  ;  Nchemiah  v.  We 
have  no  intimation,  in  the  writings  of  Moses, 
that  suretyship  was  practised  among  the  He- 
brews in  cases  of  debt.  In  the  Proverbs  of 
Solomon,  however,  there  are  many  admoni- 
tions respecting  it.  Where  this  warranty  was 
given,  the  surety  was  treated  with  the  same 
severity  as  if  he  had  been  the  actual  debtor ; 
and  if  he  could  not  pay,  h'p  very  bed  might  be 
taken  from  under  him,  Prov.  xxii,  27.  There 
is  a  reference  to  the  custom  observed  in  con- 
tracting this  obligation  in  Prov.  xvii,  18 :  "A 
man  void  of  understanding  striketh  hands," 
&c  ;  and  also  in  Prov.  xxii,  26  :  "  Be  not  thou 
one  of  them  that  strike  hands,"  &c.  It  is  to 
be  observed  that  the  hand  was  given,  not  to 
the  creditor,  but  to  the  debtor,  in  the  creditor's 
presence.  By  this  act  the  surety  intimated  that 
he  became  in  a  legal  sense  one  with  the  debtor, 
and  rendered  himself  liable  to  pay  the  debt. 

2.  We  have  above  noticed  the  practice  of 
lending  on  pledge ;  but  as  this  was  liable  to 
considerable  abuse,  the  following  judicial  regu- 
lations were  adopted  :  (1.)  The  creditor  was 
not  allowed  to  enter  the  house  of  the  debtor  to 
fetch  the  pledge,  but  was  obliged  to  stand  with- 
out the  door,  and  wait  till  it  was  brought  to 
him,  Deut.  xxiv,  10,  11.  This  law  was  wisely 
designed  to  restrain  avaricious  and  unprinci- 
pled persons  from  taking  advantage  of  their 
poor  brethren  in  choosing  their  own  pledges. 
(2.)  The  upper  garment,  which  served  by  night 
for  a  blanket,  Exod.  xxii,  25,  26 ;  Deut.  xxiv, 
12,  13,  and  mills  and  millstones,  if  taken  in 
pledge,  were  to  be  restored  to  the  owner  be- 
fore sunset.  The  reason  of  this  law  was,  that 
these  articles  were  indispensable  to  the  com- 
fortable subsistence  of  the  poor;  and  for  the 
same  reason,  it  is  likely  that  it  extended  to  all 
necessary  utensils.  Such  a  restoration  was  no 
loss  to  the  creditor;  for  he  had  it  in  his  power 
at  last,  by  the  aid  of  summary  justice,  to  lay 
hold  of  the  whole  property  of  the  debtor  ;  and 
if  he  had  none,  of  his  person :  and,  in  the 
event  of  non-payment,  as  before  stated,  to  take 
him  for  a  bond  slave. 

DECALOGUE,  the  ten  principal  command- 
ments, Exod.  xx,  1,  &c,  from  the  Greek  Sexu 
ten,  and  Aoyot  words.  The  Jews  call  these  pre- 
cepts, the  ten  icords. 

DECAPOLIS,  a  country  in  Palestine,  so 
called,  because  it  contained  ten  principal  cities ; 
some  situated  on  the  west,  and  some  on  the 
east  side  of  Jordan,  Matt,  iv,  25  ;  Mark  v,  20. 

DEDICATION,  a  religious  ceremony, 
whereby  any  person  or  thing  was  set  apart  to 
the  service  of  Godj  and  the  purposes  ofreligion. 


DEI 


297 


DEL 


Dedications  of  persons,  temples,  and  houses, 
were  frequent  among-  the  Jews.  See  Conse- 
cration. 

DEFILEMENT.  Under  the  law,  many 
were  those  blemishes  of  person  and  conduct, 
which  were  considered  as  defilements :  some 
were  voluntary,  others  involuntary;  some 
were  inevitable,  and  the  effect  of  nature  itself, 
others  arose  from  personal  transgression. 
Under  the  Gospel,  defilements  are  those  of 
the  heart,  of  the  mind,  the  temper,  and  con- 
duct. The  ceremonial  uncleannesses  of  the 
law  are  superseded  as  religious  rites ;  though 
many  of  them  claim  attention  as  usages  of 
health,  decency,  and  civility. 

DEGREES.  Psalms  of  Degrees  is  a  name 
given  to  fifteen  psalms,  from  the  cxx,  to  the 
cxxxiv,  inclusive.  The  Hebrew  text  calls 
them  a  song  of  ascents.  Junius  and  Tremellius 
translate  the  Hebrew  a  song  of  excellences,  or 
an  excellent  song,  from  the  excellent  matter 
they  contain.  Some  call  them  psalms  of  ele- 
vation, because  they  were  sung  with  an  exalt- 
ed voice,  or  because  at  every  psalm  the  voice 
was  raised ;  but  the  translation  of  psalms  of 
degrees  has  more  generally  obtained.  Some 
think  that  they  were  called  psalms  of  degrees, 
because  they  were  sung  upon  the  fifteen  steps 
of  the  temple;  but  they  are  not  agreed  'where 
these  steps  were.  Others  are  of  opinion,  that 
they  were  so  denominated,  because  sung  in  a 
gallery,  which  was  in  the  court  of  Israel, 
where  the  Levites  sometimes  read  the  law. 
Calmet  thinks,  that  they  were  called  songs  of 
degrees,  or  of  ascent,  because  they  were  com- 
posed on  occasion  of  the  deliverance  of  the 
Jews  from  the  captivity  of  Babylon,  either  to 
implore  this  deliverance  from  God,  or  to  return 
thanks  for  it  after  it  had  been  obtained;  and 
that  the  Hebrews  used  the  term  to  go  up,  when 
they  spoke  of  their  journeying  from  Babylon 
to  Jerusalem.  Others  are  of  opinion,  that 
these  psalms  were  sung  during  the  time  of 
service,  while  the  flesh,  &c,  were  consuming 
on  the  altar,  and  while  the  fume  and  smoke 
ascended  toward  heaven ;  and  that  the  title 
Psalms  of  Ascent  seems  to  favour  this  suppo- 
sition. The  point  is  involved  in  entire  ob- 
scurity ;  and,  after  all,  the  title  of  these  Psalms 
may  be  only  a  musical  direction  to  the  temple 
choir. 

DEISTS.  This  term  appears  to  have  had 
an  honourable  origin,  being  of  the  same  im- 
port as  Theists,  designating  those  who  believe 
in  the  existence  of  a  supreme  intelligent  cause, 
in  opposition  to  the  Epicureans,  and  other 
Atheistical  philosophers.  The  name,  in  modern 
times,  is  said  to  have  been  first  assumed  about 
the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  by  some 
persons  on  the  continent,  in  order  to  avoid  the 
imputation  of  Atheism.  Peter  Viret,  a  divine 
of  that  century,  mentions  it  as  a  new  name 
assumed  by  those  who  rejected  Christianity. 
Lord  Edw.  Herbert,  baron  of  Cherbury,  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  has  been  regarded  as  the 
first  Deistical  writer  in  this  country,  or  at  least, 
the  first  who  reduced  Deism  to  a  system ; 
affirming  the  sufficiency  of  reason  and  natural 
religion,  and  rejecting  divine  revelation  as  un- 


necessary and  superfluous.     His  system,  how. 

ever,  embraced   these   five   articles: 1.  The 

being  of  God.    2.  That  he  is  to  be  worshipped. 

3.  That  piety  and  moral  virtue  are  the  chief 
parts  of  worship.  4.  That  God  will  pardon 
our  faults  on  repentance.  And,  5.  That  there 
is  a  future  state  of  rewards  and  punishment. 
Some  have  divided  all  Deists  into  two  classes— 
those  who  admit  a  future  state,  and  those  who 
deny  it.  But  Dr.  S.  Clarke,  taking  the  term 
in  the  most  extensive  sense,  arranges  them 
under  four  classes: — 1.  Those  who  admit  a 
Supreme  Being,  but  deny  that  he  concerns 
himself  with  the '  conduct  or  affairs  of  men  ; 
maintaining,  with  Lucretius,  that  God 

"Ne'er  smiles  at  good,  nor  frowns  at  wicked,  deeds." 
2.  Those  who  admit  not  only  the  being  but  the 
providence  of  God,  with  respect  to  the  natural 
world ;  but  who  allow  no  difference  between 
moral  good  and  evil,  nor  that  God  takes  any 
notice  of  our  moral  conduct.  3.  Such  as  be- 
lieve in  the  natural  attributes  of  God,  and  his 
all-governing  providence;  yet  deny  the  im- 
mortality  of  the    soul,    or   any   future    state. 

4.  Such  as  admit  the  existence  of  God,  his 
providence,  and  the  obligations  of  natural  re- 
ligion; but  so  far  only  as  these  things  are  dis- 
coverable by  the  light  of  nature,  without  any 
divine  revelation.  Some  of  the  Deists  have 
attempted  to  overthrow  the  Christian  dispen- 
sation, by  opposing  to  it  what  they  call  the 
absolute  perfection  of  natural  religion.  Others, 
as  Blount,  Collins,  and  Morgan,  have  en- 
deavoured to  gain  the  same  purpose,  by  attack- 
ing particular  parts  of  the  Christian  scheme, 
by  explaining  away  the  literal  sense  and  mean- 
ing of  certain  passages,  or  by  placing  one  por- 
tion of  the  sacred  canon  in  opposition  to  the 
other.  A  third  class,  wherein  we  meet  with 
the  names  of  Shaftesbury  and  Bolingbroke, 
advancing  farther  in  their  progress,  expunge 
from  their  creed  the  doctrine  of  future  exist- 
ence, deny  or  controvert  all  the  moral  perfec- 
tions of  the  Deity,  and  wholly  reject  the 
Scriptures. 

The  Deists  of  the  present  day  are  distinguish- 
ed by  their  zealous  efforts  to  diffuse  the  prin- 
ciples of  infidelity  among  the  common  people. 
Hume,  Bolingbroke,  and  Gibbon,  addressed 
themselves  solely  to  the  more  polished  classes 
of  the  community;  but  of  late  the  writings  of 
Paine,  Carlile,  and  others,  have  diffused  infi- 
delity among  the  lower  orders  of  society,  and 
clothed  it  in  the  dress  of  vulgar  ridicule,  the 
more  effectually  to  destroy  in  the  common 
people  all  reverence  for  sacred  things.  Among 
the  disciples  of  this  school,  Deism  has  led  to 
the  most  disgusting  Atheism.  Thus  "evil 
men  and  seducers  wax  worse  and  worse." 

DELUGE  signifies,  in  general,  any  great 
inundation ;  but  more  particularly  that  uni- 
versal flood  by  which  the  whole  inhabitants  of 
this  globe  were  destroyed,  except  Noah  and 
his  family.  According  to  the  most  approved 
systems  of  chronology,  this  remarkable  event 
happened  in  the  year  1656.  after  the  creation, 
or  about  2348  before  the  Christian  sera.  Of  so 
general  a  calamity,  from  which  only  a  single 
family  of  all  who  lived  then  on  the  face  of  the 


DEL 


298 


DEL 


earth  was  preserved,  we  might  naturally  ex- 
pect to  find  some  memorials  in  the  traditionary 
records  of  Pagan  history,  as  well  as  in  the 
sacred  volume,  where  its  peculiar  cause,  and 
the  circumstances  which  attended  it,  are  so 
distinctly  and  so  fully  related.  Its  magnitude 
and  singularity  could  scarcely  fail  to  make  an 
indelible  impression  on  the  minds  of  the  sur- 
vivors, which  would  be  communicated  from 
them  to  their  children,  and  would  not  be  easily 
effaced  from  the  traditions  even  of  their  latest 
posterity.  A  deficiency  in  such  traces  of  this 
awful  event,  though  perhaps  it  might  not 
serve  entirely  to  invalidate  our  belief  of  its 
reality,  would  certainly  tend  considerably  to 
weaken  its  claim  to  credibility ;  it  being 
scarcely  probable  that  the  knowledge  of  it 
should  be  utterly  lost  to  the  rest  of  the  world, 
and  confined  to  the  documents  of  the  Jewish 
nation  alone.  What  we  might  reasonably  ex- 
pect has,  accordingly,  been  actually  and  com- 
pletely realized.  The  evidence  which  has 
been  brought  from  almost  every  quarter  of  the 
world  to  bear  upon  the  reality  of  this  event,  is 
of  the  most  conclusive  and  irresistible  kind ; 
and  every  investigation,  whether  etymological 
or  historical,  which  has  been  made  concern- 
ing Heathen  rites  and  traditions,  has  constantly 
added  to  its  force,  no  less  than  to  its  extent. 

And  here,  it  were  injustice  to  the  memory 
of  ingenuity  and  erudition  almost  unexampled 
in  modern  times,  were  we  not  to  mention  the 
labours  of  Bryant,  the  learned  analysist  of 
ancient  mythology,  whose  patience  and  pro- 
foundness of  research  have  thrown  such  new 
and  convincing  light  on  this  subject.  Nor 
must  we  forget  his  ardent  and  successful  dis- 
ciple, Mr.  Faber,  who,  in  his  "  Dissertation  on 
the  Mysteries  of  the  Cabiri,"  has  in  travelling 
over  similar  ground  with  his  illustrious  master 
at  once  corrected  some  of  his  statements,  and 
greatly  strengthened  his  general  conclusions. 
As  the  basis  of  their  system,  however,  rests  on 
a  most  extensive  etymological  examination  of 
the  names  of  the  deities  and  other  mytholo- 
gical personages  worshipped  and  celebrated  by 
the  Heathen,  compared  with  the  varied  tra- 
ditions respecting  their  histories,  and  the  na- 
ture of  the  rites  and  names  of  the  places  that 
were  sacred  to  them,  we  cannot  do  more,  in 
the  present  article,  than  shortly  state  the  result 
of  their  investigations,  referring  for  the  par- 
ticular details,  to  the  highly  original  treatises 
already  mentioned.  According  to  them,  the 
memory  of  the  deluge  was  incorporated  with 
almost  every  part  of  the  Gentile  mythology 
and  worship  ;  Noah,  under  a  vast  multitude  of 
characters,  being  one  of  their  first  deities,  to 
whom  all  the  nations  of  the  Heathen  world 
looked  up  as  their  founder;  and  to  some  cir- 
cumstance or  other  in  whose  history,  and  that 
of  his  sons  and  the  first  patriarchs,  most,  if 
not  all,  of  their  religious  ceremonies  may 
be  considered  as  not  indistinctly  referring. 
Traces  of  these,  neither  vague  nor  obscure, 
they  conceive  to  be  found  in  the  history  and 
character,  not  only  of  Deucalion,  but  of  Atlas, 
Cronus,  or  Saturn,  Dionusos,  Inachus,  Janus, 
Minos,  Zeus,  and  others  among  the  Greeks ; 


of  Isis,  Osiris,  Sesostris,  Oannes,  Typhon,  &c, 
among  the  Egyptians ;  of  Dagon,  Agruerus, 
Sydyk,  &c,  among  the  Phenicians ;  of  Astarte, 
Derceto,  &.c,  among  the  Assyrians  ;  of  Buddha, 
Menu,  Vishnu,  &c,  among  the  Hindus;  of 
Fohi,  and  a  deity  represented  as  sitting  upon 
the  lotos  in  the  midst  of  waters,  among  the 
Chinese ;  of  Budo  and  Iakusi  among  the  Ja- 
panese, &c.  They  discover  allusions  to  the 
ark,  in  many  of  the  ancient  mysteries,  and 
traditions  with  respect  to  the  dove  and  the 
rainbow,  by  which  several  of  these  allegorical 
personages  were  attended,  which  are  not  easily 
explicable,  unless  they  be  supposed  to  relate  tc 
the  history  of  the  deluge.  By  the  celebrated 
Ogdoas  of  the  Egyptians,  consisting  of  eight 
persons  sailing  together  in  the  sacred  baris  or 
ark,  they  imagine  the  family  of  Noah,  which 
was  precisely  eight  in  number,  to  have  been 
designated ;  and  in  the  rites  of  Adonis  or 
Thammuz,  in  particular,  they  point  out  many 
circumstances  which  seem  to  possess  a  dis- 
tinct reference  to  the  events  recorded  in  the 
sixth  and  seventh  chapters  of  Genesis.  With 
regard  to  this  system,  we  shall  only  farther 
observe,  that,  after  every  reasonable  deduction 
is  made  from  it,  which  the  exuberant  indul- 
gence of  fancy  occasionally  exhibited  by  its 
authors  appears  to  render  necessary,  it  con- 
tains so  much  that  is  relevant  and  conclusive, 
that  it  induces  the  conviction  that  it  has  a 
solid  foundation  in  truth  and  fact ;  it  being 
scarcely  possible  to  conceive,  that  a  mere 
hypothesis  could  be  supported  by  evidence  so 
varied,  so  extensive,  and  in  many  particulars 
so  demonstrative,  as  that  which  its  framers 
have  produced. 

Beside,  however,  the  allusions  to  the  deluge 
in  the  mythology  and  religious  ceremonies  of 
the  Heathen,  to  which  we  have  thus  concisely 
adverted,  there  is  a  variety  of  traditions  con- 
cerning it  still  more  direct  and  circumstantial, 
the  coincidence  of  which,  witli  the  narrative 
of  Moses,  it  will  require  no  common  degree  of 
skeptical  hardihood  to  deny.  We  are  informed 
by  one  of  the  circumnavigators  of  the  world, 
who  visited  the  remote  island  of  Otaheite,  that 
some  of  the  inhabitants  being  asked  concern- 
ing their  origin,  answered,  that  their  supreme 
God  having,  a  long  time  ago,  been  angry, 
dragged  the  earth  through  the  sea,  when  their 
island  was  broken  off  and  preserved.  In  the 
island  of  Cuba,  the  people  are  said  to  believe 
that  the  world  was  pnee  destroyed  by  water 
by  three  persons,  evidently  alluding  to  the 
tliree  sons  of  Noah.  It  is  even  related,  that 
they  have  a  tradition  among  them,  that  an  old 
man,  knowing  that  the  deluge  was  approach- 
ing, built  a  large  ship,  and  went  into  it  with  a 
great  number  of  animals;  and  that  he  sent  out 
from  the  ship  a  crow,  which  did  not  imme- 
diately come  back,  staying  to  feed  on  the  car- 
casses of  dead  animals,  but  afterward  returned 
with  a  green  branch  in  its  mouth.  The  author 
who  gives  the  above  account  likewise  affirms 
that  it  was  reported  by  the  inhabitants  of  Cas- 
tella  del  Oro,  in  Terra  Firma,  that  during  a 
universal  deluge,  one  man,  and  his  children, 
were  the  only  persons  who  escaped,  by  means 


DEL 


299 


DEL 


of  a  canae,  and  that  from  them  the  world  was 
afterward  peopled.  According  to  the  Peru- 
vians, in  consequence  of  a  general  inundation, 
occasioned  by  violent  and  continued  rains,  a 
universal  destruction  of  the  human  species 
took  place,  a  few  persons  only  excepted,  who 
escaped  into  caves  on  the  tops  of  the  mount- 
ains, into  which  they  had  previously  conveyed 
a  stock  of  provisions,  and  a  number  of  live 
animals,  lest  when  the  waters  abated,  the  whole 
race  should  have  become  extinct.  Others  of 
them  affirm,  that  only  six  persons  were  saved, 
by  means  of  a  float  or  raft,  and  that  from  them 
all  the  inhabitants  of  the  country  are  descended. 
They  farther  believe,  that  this  event  took  place 
before  there  were  any  incas  or  kings  among 
them,  and  when  the  country  was  extremely 
populous.  The  Brazilians  not  only  preserve 
the  tradition  of  a  deluge,  but  believe  that  the 
whole  race  of  mankind  perished  in  it,  except 
one  man  and  his  sister ;  or,  according  to  others, 
two  brothers  with  their  wives,  who  were  pre- 
served by  climbing  the  highest  trees  on  their 
loftiest  mountains  ;  and  who  afterward  became 
the  heads  of  two  different  nations.  The  memo- 
ry of  this  event  they  are  even  said  to  celebrate 
in  some  of  their  religious  anthems  or  songs. 
Acosta,  in  his  history  of  the  Indies,  says,  that 
the  Mexicans  speak  of  a  deluge  in  their  country, 
by  which  all  men  were  drowned  ;  and  that  it 
was  afterward  peopled  by  viracocha,  who  came 
out  of  the  lake  Titicaca  ;  and,  according  to 
Herrera,  the  Machoachans,  a  people  compara- 
tively in  the  neighbourhood  of  Mexico,  had  a 
tradition,  that  a  single  family  was  formerly 
preserved  in  an  ark  amid  a  deluge  of  waters ; 
and  that  along  with  them,  a  sufficient  number 
of  animals  were  saved  to  stock  the  new  world. 
During  the  time  that  they  were  shut  up  in  the 
ark,  several  ravens  were  sent  out,  one  of  which 
brought  back  the  branch  of  a  tree.  Among 
the  Iroquois  it  is  reported  that  a  certain  spirit, 
called  by  them  Otkon,  was  the  creator  of  the 
world  ;  and  that  another  being,  called  Messou, 
repaired  it  after  a  deluge,  which  happened  in 
consequence  of  Otkon's  dogs  having  one  day 
while  he  was  hunting  with  them  lost  them- 
selves in  a  great  lake,  which,  in  consequence 
of  this,  overflowed  its  banks,  and  in  a  short 
time  covered  the  whole  earth. 

Passing  from  the  more  remote  western  to  the 
eastern  continent,  nearer  to  the  region  where 
Noah  is  generally  supposed  to  have  lived,  we 
find  the  traditions  respecting  the  deluge  still 
more  particular  and  minute.  According  to 
Josephus,  there  were  a  multitude  of  ancient 
authors  who  concurred  in  asserting  that  the 
world  had  once  been  destroyed  by  a  flood  : 
"This  deluge,"  says  he,  "  and  the  ark  are  men- 
tioned by  all  who  have  written  barbaric  histo- 
ries, one  of  whom  is  Berosus  the  Chaldean." 
Eusebius  informs  us,  that  Melo,  a  bitter  enemy 
of  the  Jews,  and  whose  testimony  is  on  this 
account  peculiarly  valuable,  takes  notice  of  the 
person  who  was  saved  along  with  his  sons  from 
the  flood,  having  been,  after  his  preservation, 
driven  away  from  Armenia,  whence  he  retired 
to  the  mountainous  parts  of  Syria.  Abydenus, 
after  giving  an   account  of  the  deluge  from 


which  Xisuthrus,  the  Chaldean  Noah,  was 
saved,  concludes  with  asserting,  in  exact  con- 
currence with  Berosus,  that  the  ark  first  rested 
on  the  mountains  of  Armenia,  and  that  its  re- 
mains were  used  by  the  natives  as  a  talisman ; 
and  Plutarch  mentions  the  Noachic  dove  being 
sent  out  of  the  ark,  and  returning  to  it  again, 
as  an  intimation  to  Deucalion  that  the  storm 
had  not  yet  ceased. 

This,  however,  is  by  no  means  all :  Sir  W. 
Jones,  speaking  of  one  of  the  Chinese  fables, says, 
"  Although  I  cannot  insist  with  confidence,  that 
the  rainbow  mentioned  in  it  alludes  to  the  Mo- 
saic narrative  of  the  flood,  nor  build  any  solid 
argument  on  the  divine  person  Niuva,  of  whose 
character,  and  even  of  whose  sex  the  historians  of 
China  speak  very  doubtfully ;  I  may  nevertheless 
assure  you,  after  full  inquiry  and  consideration, 
that  the  Chinese  believe  the  earth  to  have  been 
wholly  covered  with  water,  which,  in  works  of 
undisputed  authenticity,  they  describe  as  flowing 
abundantly,  then  subsiding,  and  separating  the 
higher  from  the  lower  age  of  mankind."  Still 
more  coincident  even  than  this  with  the  Mosaic 
account,  is  the  Grecian  history  of  the  deluge, 
as  preserved  by  Lucian,  a  native  of  Samosata 
on  the  Euphrates  ;  and  its  authority  is  the  more 
incontrovertible,  on  account  of  his  being  an 
avowed  derider  of  all  religions.  The  antedi- 
luvians, according  to  him,  had  gradually  be- 
come so  hardened  and  profligate,  as  to  be  guilty 
of  every  species  of  injustice.  They  paid  no 
regard  to  the  obligation  of  oaths  ;  were  inso- 
lent, inhospitable,  and  unmerciful.  For  this 
reason  they  were  visited  with  an  awful  ca- 
lamity. Suddenly  the  earth  poured  forth  a  vast 
quantity  of  water,  the  rain  descended  in  tor- 
rents, the  rivers  overflowed  their  banks,  and 
the  sea  rose  to  a  prodigious  height,  so  that 
"all  things  became  water,"  and  all  men  were 
destroyed  except  Deucalion.  He  alone,  for  the 
sake  of  his  prudence  and  piety,  was  reserved 
to  a  second  generation.  In  obedience  to  a 
divine  nomination,  he  entered,  with  his  sons 
and  their  wives,  into  a  large  ark,  which  they  had 
built  for  their  preservation  ;  and  immediately 
swine,  and  horses,  and  lions,  and  serpents,  and 
all  other  animals  which  live  on  earth,  came  to 
him  by  pairs,  and  were  admitted  by  him  into 
the  ark.  There  they  became  perfectly  mild 
and  innoxious,  their  natures  being  changed  by 
the  gods,  who  created  such  a  friendship  be- 
tween them,  that  they  all  sailed  peaceably 
together,  so  long  as  the  waters  prevailed  over 
the  surface  of  the  globe. 

Scarcely  less  remarkable  is  the  Hindoo  tra- 
dition. It  is  contained  in  the  ancient  poem 
of  the  Bhavagat;  and  forms  the  subject  of  the 
first  Purana,  entitled  Matsya,  or  "  The  Fish." 
The  following  is  Sir  William  Jones's  abridg- 
ment of  it ;  and  the  identity  of  the  event  which 
it  describes,  with  that  of  the  Hebrew  historian, 
is  too  obvious  to  require  any  particular  illus- 
tration:  "The  demon  Hayagriva,  having  pur- 
loined the  Vedas  from  the  custody  of  Brahma, 
while  he  was  reposing  at  the  close  of  the  sixth 
Manwantara,  the  whole  race  of  men  became 
corrupt,  except  the  seven  Rishis,  and  Satya- 
vrata,  who  then  reigned  in  Dravira,  a  maritima 


DEL 


300 


DEL 


region  to  the  south  of  Carnata.  This  prince 
was  performing  his  ablutions  in  the  river  Criti- 
mala,  when  Vishnu  appeared  to  him  in  the 
shape  of  a  small  fish,  and  after  several  aug- 
mentations of  bulk  in  different  waters,  was 
placed  by  Satyavrata  in  the  ocean,  where  he 
thus  addressed  his  amazed  votary :  ■  In  seven 
days  all  creatures  who  have  offended  me  shall 
be  destroyed  by  a  deluge,  but  thou  shalt  be 
secured  in  a  capacious  vessel  miraculously 
formed ;  take  therefore  all  kinds  of  medicinal 
herbs,  and  esculent  grain  for  food,  and,  toge- 
ther with  the  seven  holy  men,  your  respective 
wives,  and  pairs  of  all  animals,  enter  the  ark 
without  fear :  then  shalt  thou  know  God  face 
to  face,  and  all  thy  questions  shall  be  answer- 
ed.' Saying  this,  he  disappeared  ;  and  after 
seven  days  the  ocean  began  to  overflow  the 
coasts,  and  the  earth  to  be  flooded  by  constant 
showers,  when  Satyavrata,  meditating  on  the 
deity,  saw  a  large  vessel  moving  on  the  waters. 
He  entered  it,  having  in  all  respects  conformed 
to  the  instructions  of  Vishnu  ;  who  in  the  form 
of  a  vast  fish,  suffered  the  vessel  to  be  tied  with 
a  great  sea  serpent,  as  with  a  cable,  to  his  mea- 
sureless horn.  When  the  deluge  had  ceased, 
Vishnu  slew  the  demon,  and  recovered  the 
Vedas,  instructed  Satyavrata  in  divine  know- 
ledge, and  appointed  him  the  seventh  Menu, 
by  the  name  of  Vaivaswata." 

When  we  thus  meet  with  some  traditions  of 
a  deluge  in  almost  every  country,  though  the 
persons  saved  from  it  are  said,  in  those  various 
accounts  to  have  resided  in  different  districts 
widely  separated  from  each  other,  we  are  con- 
strained to  allow  that  such  a  general  concur- 
rence of  belief  could  never  have  originated 
merely  from  accident.  While  the  mind  is  in 
this  situation,  Scripture  comes  forward,  and, 
presenting  a  narrative  more  simple,  better 
connected,  and  bearing  an  infinitely  greater 
resemblance  to  authentic  history,  than  any  of 
those  mythological  accounts  which  occur  in 
the  traditions  of  Paganism,  immediately  flashes 
the  conviction  upon  the  understanding,  that 
this  must  be  the  true  history  of  those  remark- 
able facts  which  other  nations  have  handed 
down  to  us,  only  through  the  medium  of  alle- 
gory and  fable.  By  the  evidence  adduced  in 
this  article,  indeed,  the  moral  certainty  of  the 
Mosaic  history  of  the  flood  appears  to  be  esta- 
blished on  a  basis  sufficiently  firm  to  bid  de- 
fiance to  the  cavils  of  skepticism.  "  Let  the 
ingenuity  of  unbelief  first  account,  satisfactorily 
for  this  universal  agreement  of  the  Pagan  world ; 
and  she  may  then,  with  a  greater  degree  of 
plausibility,  impeach  the  truth  of  the  Scrip- 
tural narrative  of  the  deluge."  The  fact,  how- 
ever, is  not  only  preserved  in  the  traditions  of 
all  nations,  as  we  have  already  seen ;  but  after 
all  the  philosophical  arguments  which  were 
formerly  urged  against  it,  philosophy  has  at 
length  acknowledged  that  the  present  surface 
of  the  earth  must  have  been  submerged  under 
water.  "  Not  only,"  says  Kirwan,  "  in  every 
region  of  Europe,  but  also  of  both  the  old  and 
new  continents,  immense  quantities  of  marine 
shells,  either  dispersed  or  collected,  have  been 
discovered."    This  and  several  other  facts  seem 


to  prove,  that  at  least  a  great  part  of  the  pre- 
sent  earth  was,  before  the  last  general  convul- 
sion to  which  it  has  been  subjected,  the  bed  of 
an  ocean  which,  at  that  time,  was  withdrawn 
from  it.  Other  facts  seem  also  to  prove  with 
sufficient  evidence,  that  this  was  not  a  gradual 
retirement  of  the  waters  which  once  covered 
the  parts  now  inhabited  by  men  ;  but  a  violent 
one,  such  as  may  be  supposed  from  the  brief 
but  emphatic  relation  of  Moses.  The  violent 
action  of  water  has  left  its  traces  in  various 
undisputed  phenomena.  Stratified  mountains 
of  various  heights  exist  in  different  parts  of 
Europe,  and  of  both  continents  ;  in  and  be- 
tween whose  strata,  various  substances  of  ma- 
rine, and  some  vegetables  of  terrestrial,  origin, 
repose  either  in  their  natural  state,  or  petrified. 
To  overspread  the  plains  of  the  arctic  circle 
with  the  shells  of  Indian  seas,  and  with  the 
bodies  of  elephants  and  rhinoceri,  surrounded 
by  masses  of  submarine  vegetation ;  to  accu- 
mulate on  a  single  spot,  as  at  La  Bolca,  in 
promiscuous  confusion,  the  marine  productions 
of  the  four  quarters  of  the  globe  ;  what  con- 
ceivable instrument  would  be  efficacious  but 
the  rush  of  mighty  waters  ?  These  facts,  about 
which  there  is  no  dispute,  and  which  are  ac- 
knowledged by  the  advocates  of  each  of  the 
prevailing  geological  theories,  give  a  sufficient 
attestation  to  the  deluge  of  Noah,  in  which 
"the  fountains  of  the  great  deep  were  broken 
up,"  and  from  which  precisely  such  phenomena 
might  be  expected  to  follow.  To  this  may  be 
added,  though  less  decisive  in  proof,  yet  cer- 
tainly strong  as  presumptive  evidence,  that  the 
very  aspect  of  the  earth's  surface  exhibits  inte- 
resting marks  both  of  the  violent  action,  and 
the  rapid  subsidence,  of  waters  ;  as  well  as 
affords  a  most  interesting  instance  of  the  divine 
goodness  in  converting  what  was  ruin  itself 
into  utility  and  beauty.  The  great  frame-work 
of  the  varied  surface  of  the  habitable  earth  was 
probably  laid  by  a  more  powerful  agency  than 
that  of  water ;  either  when  on  the  third  day 
the  waters  under  the  heavens  were  gathered 
into  one  place,  and  the  crust  of  the  primitive 
earth  was  broken  down  to  receive  them,  so  that 
"  the  dry  land  might  appear  ;"  or  by  those 
mighty  convulsions  which  appear  to  have  ac- 
companied the  general  deluge  ;  but  the  round- 
ing, so  to  speak,  of  what  was  rugged,  where 
the  substance  was  yielding,  and  the  graceful 
undulations  of  hill  and  dale  which  so  frequently 
present  themselves,  were  probably  effected  by 
the  retiring  waters.  The  flood  has  passed 
away  ;  but  the  soils  which  it  deposited  remain  ; 
and  the  valleys  through  which  its  last  streams 
were  drawn  off  to  the  ocean,  with  many  an 
eddy  and  sinuous  course,  still  exist,  exhibiting 
visible  proofs  of  its  agency,  and  impressed  with 
forms  so  adapted  to  the  benefit  of  man,  and 
often  so  gratifying  to  the  finest  taste,  that, 
when  the  flood  "  turned,"  it  may  be  said  to 
have  "  left  a  blessing  behind  it." 

The  objections  once  made  to  the  fact  of  a 
general  deluge  have,  indeed,  been  greatly 
weakened  by  the  progress  of  philosophical 
knowledge ;  and  may  be  regarded  as  nearly 
given  up,  like  the  former  notion  of  the  high 


DEM 


301 


DEM 


antiquity  of  the  race  of  men,  founded  on  the 
Chinese  and  Egyptian  chronologies  and  pre- 
fended  histories.  Philosophy  has  even  at  last 
found  out  that  there  is  sufficient  water  in  the 
ocean,  if  called  forth,  to  overflow  the  highest 
mountains'  to  the  height  given  by  Moses, — a 
conclusion  which  it  once  stoutly  denied.  Keill 
formerly  computed  that  twenty-eight  oceans 
would  be  necessary  for  that  purpose ;  but  we 
are  now  informed  "that  a  farther  progress  in 
mathematical  and  physical  knowledge  has 
shown  the  different  seas  and  oceans  to  contain, 
at  least,  forty-eight  times  more  water  than  they 
were  then  supposed  to  do ;  and  that  the  mere 
raising  of  the  temperature  of  the  whole  body 
of  the  ocean  to  a  degree  no  greater  than  ma- 
rine animals  live  in,  in  the  shallow  seas  between 
the  tropics,  would  so  expand  it  as  more  than  to 
produce  the  height  above  the  mountains  stated 
in  the  Mosaic  account."  As  to  the  deluge  of 
Noah,  therefore,  infidelity  has  almost  entirely 
lost  the  aid  of  philosophy  in  framing  objections 
to  the  Scriptures. 

DEMONIAC,  a  human  being  possessed  with 
and  actuated  by  some  spiritual  malignant  being 
of  superior  power.  The  word  demon  is  used  by 
Pagan  writers  often  in  a  good  sense,  and  ic 
applied  to  their  divinities ;  but  the  demons  of 
holy  writ  are  malignant  spirits.  We  are  not 
informed  very  particularly  about  their  origin 
or  destiny ;    but  we  find  them  represented  as 

ZSvtipaTO.   aKadapra,  and   TZvci^iara   ~ovtjpa,  unclean 

and  evil  spirits ;  and  we  must  consider  them  as 
in  league  with  the  devil,  as  the  subjects  of  his 
dominion,  and  the  instruments  of  his  will.  They 
were  the  immediate  agents  in  all  possessions ; 
and  to  expel  or  restrain  them,  or  to  cure  the 
diseases  which  they  were  supposed  to  occasion, 
was  one  of  the  miraculous  gifts  of  the  early 
times. 

2.  On  this  subject  an  ardent  controversy  was 
agitated  about  the  middle  and  toward  the  end 
of  the  last  century,  between  Dr.  Farmer  and 
his  opponents.  In  this  controversy,  of  which 
we  shall  attempt  to  give  a  short  view,  it  was 
contended,  on  the  one  hand,  that  the  demo- 
niacal cases  recorded  in  the  books  of  the  New 
Testament,  were  instances  of  real  possession  ; 
and,  on  the  other,  that  they  were  merely  dis- 
eases, set  forth  under  the  notion  of  possessions, 
in  conformity  with  the  belief  which  was  pre- 
valent at  the  time.  By  the  one  party,  the 
language  of  holy  writ  was  interpreted  literally ; 
and  by  the  other  it  was  considered  as  figurative, 
and  used  in  the  way  of  accommodation  to  the 
existing  opinions.  The  leading  asseveration 
of  Dr.  Farmer,  upon  the  general  question,  is, 
that  miracles,  or  works  surpassing  the  power 
of  men,  are  never  performed  without  a  divine 
interposition  ;  and  by  a  divine  interposition  he 
means,  either  the  immediate  agency  of  the 
Deity  himself,  or  of  beings  empowered  and 
commissioned  by  him.  And  the  proof  of  this 
asseveration,  he  tells  us,  may  very  easily  be 
found,  if  we  consider  that,  on  any  other  sup- 
position, it  is  impossible  to  show  that  a  religion 
supported  by  miracles  is  really  from  God.  For 
the  miracles  in  question,  or  works  surpassing 
the  power  of  human  beings,  may  have  been 


performed  by  evil  spirits,  acting  independently 
of  the  Divinity,  thwarting  his  purposes,  and 
marring  the  operation  of  his  goodness.  Should 
it  be  said  that,  from  the  tendency  of  the  mira- 
cle itself,  and  a  fortiori,  from  the  tendency  of 
the  miracle  and  religion  when  taken  together, 
we  may  easily  infer  the  character  of  the  being 
from  whom  the  whole  scheme  proceeds, — to 
this  also  Dr.  Farmer  is  ready  with  his  answer. 
"With  regard  to  doctrines,"  says  he  "of  a 
moral  or  useful  tendency,  it  is  not,  in  all  cases, 
easy  for  the  bulk  of  mankind,  or  even  for  the 
wise  and  learned,  to  form  a  certain  judgment 
concerning  them.  What  to  men  appeared  to 
have  a  tendency  to  promote  virtue  and  hap- 
piness, superior  beings,  who  discerned  its 
remotest  effects,  might  know  to  be  a  curse 
rather  than  a  blessing,  and  give  it  countenance 
from  a  motive  of  malevolence.  On  the  other 
hand,  a  doctrine  really  subservient  to  the  cause 
of  piety  and  virtue,  men  might  judge  to  be  pre- 
judicial to  it.  And  were  the  sanctity  of  the 
doctrine  ever  so  apparent,  it  would  not  (on  the 
principles  of  those  with  whom  we  are  here 
arguing)  certainly  follow  from  hence,  that  the 
miracles  recommending  it  were  wrought  by 
God ;  inasmuch  as  other  beings,  from  motives 
unknown  to  us,  might  interest  themselves  in 
favour  of  such  a  doctrine."  In  one  word, 
according  to  this  author,  we  do  not  know 
whether  the  tendency  of  the  miracle,  or  of  the 
religion,  be  good  or  not ;  and  therefore  we  can 
form  no  accurate  idea  of  the  character  really 
belonging  to  the  being  from  whom  the  revela- 
tion proceeds.  To  our  eyes  the  system  may 
appearwell  calculated  to  promote  our  happiness, 
but  it  may  have  been  the  contrivance  of  wicked 
spirits.  According  to  the  sense  and  discern- 
ment of  men,  the  miracle  is  useful  in  itself,  but 
we  cannot  be  sure  whether  it  may  not  have 
been  performed  by  one  of  the  rebellious  angels 
"who  kept  not  their  first  estate."  In  con- 
formity with  these  opinions,  Dr.  Farmer  main- 
tains that  there  is  not  an  instance  recorded  in 
sacred  Scripture,  where  a  miracle  has  been 
wrought,  and  where  there  is  not  sufficient 
reason  to  believe  that  the  effect  was  produced 
either  by  the  Deity  himself,  or  by  agents  com- 
missioned and  empowered  to  act  in  his  name. 
Hence  he  considers  the  Egyptian  magicians  as 
jugglers ;  the  witch  of  Endor,  as  a  ventrilo- 
quist; and,  completing  the  system,  he  has 
written  an  elaborate  dissertation  to  prove,  that 
when  Christ  was  "tempted  of  the  devil,"  as 
the  Evangelist  Matthew  expresses  it,  that 
apostate  angel  was  not  really  present;  and 
that  the  whole  transaction  took  place  in  a 
vision  or  a  dream. 

With  regard  to  the  demoniacs  of  the  New 
Testament,  this  writer  and  his  followers  con- 
tend that,  among  the  Jews,  certain  diseases, 
such  as  madness  and  epilepsy,  were  usually 
ascribed  to  the  agency  of  evil  spirits.  This 
was  the  current  notion  and  belief  of  the  coun- 
try. Upon  this  notion  the  ordinary  phraseology 
was  built.  Our  Lord  and  his  Apostles  adapted 
their  instructions  to  this  prevailing  notion,  and 
used  the  language  which  had  been  formed 
upon  it ;  just  as  Moses,  in  his  account  of  the 


DEM 


302 


DEM 


creation,  adapts  himself  to  the  popular  astro- 1  sphore  and  agency  allotted  them,  bo  it  is  re"a- 
nomy  of  his  time,  instead  of  laying  before  us    sonable  to  believe  that  malignant  spirits  have 


the  true  system  of  the  heavenly  bodies.     He 
speaks,  not  in  relation  to  what  is  physically 
correct,  but  in  relation  to  what  was  believed. 
He    founds   his   instructions   upon   the   ideas 
already  entertained  by  the  people  to  whom  the 
revelation  was  first  communicated  :  and  Christ 
and    his  Apostles   do    the    very    same    thing. 
They  speak  of  the  demoniacs,  not  according 
to  the  real  state  of  the  case,  but  according  to 
the  notions  which  the  Jews  entertained  of  it. 
Not  a  few  of  those  demoniacs  appear  to  have 
been  persons -of  a  disordered  understanding, 
subject  to  attacks  of  mania  ;  some  of  them  were 
afflicted  with  the  epilepsy,  or  falling  sickness, 
some  were  deaf,  and  others  were  dumb.    When 
a  demon  is  said  to  enter  into  a  man,  the  mean- 
ing  is,  that  his  madness  is  about  to  show  itself 
in  a  violent  paroxysm;  when  a  demon  is  said 
to  speak,  it  is  only  the  unhappy  victim  of  the 
disease  himself  that  speaks ;  and  when  a  demon 
or  devil  is  expelled,  the  exact  truth  of  the  case, 
as  well  as  the  whole  of  the  miracle,  is  nothing 
more  than  that  the  disease  is  cured.     Occa- 
sionally, too,  say  those  who  contend  against 
the  reality  of  demoniacal  possessions,  the  lan- 
guage of  the  sacred  books  confirms  the  expla- 
nation which  has  just  been  given.     Thus,  in 
the  tenth  chapter  of  St.  John's  Gospel,  we  find 
the  Jews  saying  of  Christ,  "  He  hath  a  devil, 
and  is  mad,"  as  if  the  expressions  were  per- 
fectly   equivalent;    and    the    person    who    is 
represented,    in    the    seventeenth    chapter    of 
Matthew,   as  a  lunatic,  is   spoken  of  by  St. 
Mark   as   vexed   with   a  dumb   spirit.     It  is 
farther  argued   on  this  side  of  the  question, 
that  the  instances  of  possession  recorded  in 
the  books  of  the  New  Testament  have  all  the 
features  and  appearance  of  ordinary  diseases. 
The  madness  shows  itself  in  these  cases,  just 
as  it  shows  itself  in  the  cases  which  occur 
among  ourselves  in  the  present  day:  it  is  now 
melancholy,  and  the  patient  is  silent  and  sullen, 
and  now  it  vents  itself  in  bursts  of  anger  and 
ferocious  resentment.    And  the  epilepsy  of  the 
sacred  books  is  the  epilepsy  of  all  our  systems 
of  nosology :    the  phenomena  of  the  diseases 
are  precisely  the  same.     Nor  does  this,   say 
they,   detract    from    the  very    high    character 
which    Christ    undoubtedly    sustains    in    the 
inspired  writings,  or  diminish  the  value  of  his 
miracles  as  the  evidences  of  our  religion  ;  since 
it  must  be  allowed,  that  to  cure  a  disease  with 
a  word  or  a  touch   is  an  effort  of  power  far 
beyond  the  reach  of  any  human  being.     And 
let  it  be  remembered,  that  those  who  deny  the 
expulsion  of  demons  are  ready  to  admit  thai 
diseases  were  miraculously  cured.     There  is  a 
miracle  in  either  case ;  and,  in  either  case,  it 
is  a  sufficient  proof  of  our  Saviour's  mission, 
and  an  adequate  support  of  the  Christian  faith. 
3.  To  these  statements  and  reasonings,  the 
advocates  of  possessions  have  not  been  slow 
to  reply.     They  call  in  question  the  truth  of 
Dr.   Farmer's  leading    asseveration;    namely, 
"  that  extraordinary  works   have  never  been 


a  wider  sphere,  and  an  agency  less  controlled-, 
and  that  within  this  sphere,  and  in  the  exercise 
of  this  agency,  they  perform  actions,  the  ten- 
dency of  which  is  to  thwart  the  purposes  of 
the  divine  beneficence,  and  to  introduce  con- 
fusion and  misery  into  the  world.    They  argue, 
too,   that  the  devil  himself,  the  chief  of  the 
aposte'e  spirits,  is  often  represented  in  holy 
writ  as  exerting  his  malignity  in  opposition  to 
the  designs  of  infinite   goodness ;    and  in  the 
case  of  our  first  parents,  as  a  remarkable  ex- 
ample, he  tempted  them  to  disobedience,  and 
led  them  to  their  fall.     It  was  in  consequence 
of  his  machinations,  that  they  brought  down 
upon    themselves  the   wrath   of  Heaven,  and 
were  driven  from  the  garden  in  which  "the 
Lord    had  placed   them."     The   advocates   of 
possessions  contend  still  farther,  that  the  reve- 
lation which  is  made  to  us  in  sacred  Scripture 
is  addressed  to  our  understandings ;   that  it  is 
not  only  in  our  power,  but  that  it  is  our  indis- 
pensable duty,  to  examine  it,  and  to  judge  of 
it ;   that  the  tendency  of  any  miracle,  or  sys- 
tem of  doctrine,  is  a  sufficient  evidence  of  the 
character  belonging  to  him  who  performs  the 
miracle,  or  publishes  the  doctrine;   that  good 
actions   are    demonstrative  of  the   quality  of 
goodness ;  and,  in  short,  that  a  religion  calcu- 
lated to  make  us  happy  must  have  proceeded 
from  a  Being  who  has  consulted  and  provided 
for  our  happiness.     Nor  is  this  a  matter  so 
abstruse  and  remote  from  human  apprehension, 
that  we  can  form  no  opinion  about  it.    "  For," 
say  they,  "if  any  thing  connected  with  Chris- 
tianity be  plain,  it  seems  to  be  that  the  ten- 
dency of  the  religion  is  beneficent ;    and  that 
it  is  no  less  pure  in  its  character  than  blessed 
in  its  effects.     The  very  miracles  recorded  in 
Scripture  are  proofs  of  goodness.     They  must 
have  been  wrought  by  a  good  being.     And," 
they  continue,  "we  think  ourselves  entitled  to 
hold  our  religion  as  true,  and  to  regard  it  as  in 
the  highest  degree  beneficial,  though  we  must 
allow,  at  the  same  time,  that  the  magicians  of 
Egypt   performed  many  wonderful  works  by 
the  agency  of  wicked  spirits ;  that  the  sorceress 
of  Endor  was  in  league  with  the   powers  of 
darkners,  and  that  Christ  was  literally  tempted 
'  of  the  devil,'  in  the  wilderness  of  Judea." 

4.  With  regard  to  the  more  specific  question 
of  demoniacal  possessions,  they  answer,  that 
though  God  has  often  been  pleased  to  accom- 
modate himself  to  our  apprehension  by  adopt- 
ing the  current  language  of  the  countries, 
where  the  revelation  was  first  published;  yet 
the  account  of  the  creation  given  by  Moses  is 
not  altogether  an  instance  in  point.  For,  say 
tlicv,  while  it  is  granted  that  the  true  system 
of  the  universe  is  not  laid  before  us  in  the 
first  chapter  of  Genesis,  it  ought  to  be  remem- 
bered that  the  statements  in  that  chapter  are 
exceedingly  general ;  and  that,  while  the  whole 
truth  is  not  told,  it  being  no  part  of  the  revela- 
tion to  tell  it,  there  is,  at  the  same  time,  no  error 
directly  inculcated.     In  the  demoniacal  cases. 


performed  without  a  divine  interposition  ;"  and    however,  the  conduct  of  the  inspired  writers, 
contend,  that  as  human  beings  have  a  certain  I  and,  indeed,  of  Christ  himself,  is  widely  differ- 


DEM 


303 


DES 


ent.  They  positively  and  directly  inform  us, 
that  a  demon  "  enters  into"  a  man,  and  "  comes 
out"  of  him ;  they  represent  the  demons  as 
speaking,  and  reasoning,  and  hoping,  and  fear- 
ing, as  having  inclinations  and  aversions  pe- 
culiar to  themselves,  and  distinct  from  those 
of  the  person  who  is  the  subject  of  the  posses- 
sion ;  they  tell  us  of  one  unhappy  sufferer  who 
was  vexed  with  many  devils ;  and,  in  the  case  of 
the  demoniac  of  Gadara,  they  assure  us  that  the 
devils  were  "cast  out"  of  the  man,  and  were 
permitted,  at  their  own  request,  to  "  enter 
into"  a  herd  of  swine  which  were  feeding  in 
the  neighbourhood,  and  that  immediately  the 
herd  ran  violently  down  a  steep  place,  and 
were  drowned  in  the  sea.  Who  ever  heard  of 
swine  afflicted  with  madness  as  a  natural  dis- 
ease ?  Or,  when  and  where  has  the  epilepsy, 
or  falling  sickness,  been  predicable  of  the  sow  ? 
For,  it  must  be  carefully  observed  that  the 
disease  of  the  man,  the  affection  of  the  human 
sufferer,  whatever  that  affection  might  have 
been,  was  clearly  transferred  from  him  to  the 
animals  in  question.  Beside,  as  various  in- 
stances are  recorded  in  Scripture,  and  as 
several  cases  are  given  at  considerable  length, 
might  we  not  expect,  if  possessions  were  really 
nothing  more  than  ordinary  diseases,  that  the 
truth  would  be  somewhere  told  or  hinted  at  ? 
that,  within  the  compass  of  the  sacred  canon, 
something  would  be  said,  or  something  insinu- 
ated, which  would  lead  us  to  understand  that 
the  language,  though  inaccurate  and  improper, 
was  used  in  accommodation  to  the  popular 
belief?  Might  we  not  expect  that  Christ  him- 
self would  have  declared,  in  one  unequivocal 
affirmation,  or  in  some  intelligible  way,  the 
exact  truth  of  the  case  ?  Or,  at  all  events, 
when  the  Holy  Ghost  had  descended  upon  the 
Apostles  on  the  day  of  pentecost,  and  when 
the  full  disclosure  of  the  revelation  appears  to 
have  been  made,  might  it  not  reasonably  have 
been  looked  for  that  the  popular  error  would 
have  been  rectified,  and  the  language  reduced 
from  its  figurative  character  to  a  state  of  sim- 
ple correctness  ?  What  conceivable  motive 
could  influence  our  Saviour,  or  his  Apostles,  to 
sanction  the  delusion  of  the  multitude  ?  And 
does  it  not  strike  at  the  root  of  the  Christian 
religion  itself,  to  have  it  thought,  for  a  single 
moment,  that  its  "  Author  and  Finisher,"  who 
came  to  enlighten  and  to  reform  the  world, 
should  have,  on  so  many  occasions,  not  only 
countenanced,  but  confirmed,  an  opinion  which 
he  must  have  known  to  be  "the  reverse  of  the 
truth  ?" 

Let  us  then,  say  they,  beware  how  we  relin- 
quish the  literal  sense  of  holy  writ,  in  search 
of  allegorical  or  figurative  interpretations.  And 
if,  upon  any  occasion,  we  think  it  proper  to  do 
so,  let  us  consider  well  the  grounds  and  reasons 
upon  which  our  determination  is  built.  It  is 
evident  that  the  devil  and  his  angels,  according 
to  all  that  we  can  learn  of  them  in  the  sacred 
books,  are  real  beings;  that  the  demons  of  the 
New  Testament  are  malignant  spirits;  and 
that  they  act  upon  the  same  principles,  and 
even  under  the  authority  of  Satan  himself,  who 
is  otherwise  called  Beelzebub,  and  the  prince 


of  the  devils.  Nay,  in  these  very  cases  of 
possession,  the  chief  of  the  apostate  angels  is 
clearly  set  forth  as  acting  either  in  his  own 
person,  or  by  means  of  his  infernal  agCMits. 
And  it  is  on  this  supposition  alone  that  we  can 
explain  the  language  of  Christ  in  that  remark- 
able declaration  which  he  makes  to  the  Phari- 
sees and  rulers  of  the  Jews,  and  which  we  find 
recorded  in  the  twelfth  chapter  of  the  Gospel 
by  St.  Matthew.  "The  Pharisees  heard  it," 
observes  the  Evangelist,  "  and  they  said,  This 
fellow  doth  not  cast  out  devils  but  by  Beelze- 
bub, the  prince  of  the  devils.  And  Jesus 
knew  their  thoughts,  and  said  unto  them, 
Every  kingdom  divided  against  itself  is  brought 
to  desolation ;  and  every  city  or  house  divided 
against  itself  shall  not  stand ;  and  if  Satan 
cast  out  Satan,  he  is  divided  against  himself: 
how  shall  then  his  kingdom  stand  ?" 

5.  On  this  subject  of  diseases  it  is  also  to  be 
observed,  that  the  inspired  writers  uniformly 
make  a  distinction  between  diseases  occurring 
in  the  ordinary  course  of  nature,  and  diseases 
occasioned  by  the  agency  of  evil  spirits. 
"  There  is  every  where,"  says  Bishop  Porteus, 
"  a  plain  distinction  made  between  common 
diseases  and  demoniacal  possessions,  which 
shows  that  they  are  totally  different  things.  In 
the  fourth  chapter  of  the  Gospel  of  St.  Mat- 
thew, where  the  very  first  mention  is  made  of 
these  possessions,  it  is  said  that  our  Lord's 
fame  went  throughout  all  Syria,  and  that  they 
brought  unto  him  'all  sick  people,'  that  were 
taken  with  divers  diseases  and  torments,'  and 
those  '  which  were  possessed  with  devils,'  and 
he  healed  them.  Here  those  that  were  taken 
with  divers  diseases  and  torments,  and  those 
possessed  with  devils,  are  mentioned  as  distinct 
and  separate  persons :  a  plain  proof  that  the 
demoniacal  possessions  were  not  natural  dis- 
eases :  and  the  very  same  distinction  is  made 
in  several  other  passages  of  holy  writ.  There 
can  be  no  doubt,  therefore,  that  the  demoniacs 
were  persons  really  possessed  with  evil  spirits ; 
and  although  it  may  appear  strange  to  us,  yet 
we  find,  from  Josephus  and  other  historians, 
that  it  was  in  those  times  no  uncommon  case." 

6.  We  may  conclude,  from  the  argument  on 
both  sides  of  the  question,  that  the  only  reason 
which  can  be  urged  for  departing  from  the 
obvious  sense  of  Scripture  is,  that  cases  of 
possession  involve  a  philosophical  mystery. 
This,  truly,  is  a  very  insufficient  ground,  and 
especially  when  we  consider  that  if  we  better 
knew  the  nature  of  spirits,  and  of  our  own 
frame,  the  philosophy  might  appear  all  on  the 
opposite  side,  and  no  doubt  would  do  so.  But 
no  one  who  admits  the  Scriptures  to  decide 
this  question,  can  consistently  stand  upon 
that  objectionable  ground  of  interpretation  to 
which  he  is  forced  by  denying  the  plain  and 
consistent  sense  of  innumerable  passages.  If 
he  admits  this  error,  he  must  admit  many 
others;  for  a  Bible,  so  interpreted,  may  be 
made  to  mean  any  thing. 

OBSTRUCTIONISTS,  a  denomination  of 
Christians  who  believe  that  the  final  punish- 
ment threatened  in  the  Gospel  to  the  wicked 
and  impenitent,  consists  not  in  eternal  misery, 


DEV 


304 


DEV 


but  in  a  total  extinction  of  being ;  and  that  the 
sentence  of  annihilation  shall  be  executed  with 
more  or  less  previous  torment,  in  proportion 
to  the  greater  or  less  guilt  of  the  criminal. 
This  doctrine  is  largely  maintained  in  the 
eermons  of  the  late  Dr.  John  Taylor,  of  Nor- 
wich ;  Mr.  S.  Bourn,  of  Birmingham ;  and 
many  others.  In  defence  of  the  system,  Mr. 
Bourn  argues,  that  there  are  many  passages  of 
Scripture,  in  which  the  ultimate  punishment 
to  which  wicked  men  shall  be  adjudged  is  de- 
fined, in  the  most  precise  and  intelligible  terms, 
to  be  an  everlasting  destruction,  proceeding 
from  Him  who  is  equally  able  to  destroy  as  to 
create ;  and  who,  by  our  Lord  himself,  is  said 
to  be  "able  to  destroy  both  soul  and  body  in 
hell."  By  the  "everlasting  punishment  of  the 
wicked,"  therefore,  Mr.  B.  understands  "ever- 
lasting destruction,"  literally  speaking,  "from 
the  presence  of  the  Lord,"  which  is  "the  se- 
cond death ;"  from  which  there  can  be  no 
resurrection,  and  which  is  set  in  opposition  to 
"eternal  life."  In  speaking  of  the  images 
used  to  illustrate  this  subject,  Mr.  B.  remarks, 
that  the  wicked  are  compared  to  combustible 
materials,  as  brands,  tares,  &c,  which  the  fire 
utterly  consumes  :  so  Sodom  and  Gomorrah 
suffer  "the  vengeance  of  eternal  fire,"  that  is, 
they  are  destroyed  for  ever ;  and  the  phrases, 
"the  worm  that  dieth  not,  and  the  fire  wThich 
is  not  quenched,"  are  placed  in  opposition  to 
entering  into  life,  and  denote  the  termination 
of  existence,  Mark  ix,  43. 

To  all  this  it  may  be  answered :  1.  That 
annihilation,  as  a  punishment,  admits  of  no 
degrees.  2.  If  we  connect  with  this  a  previous 
state  of  torment,  (as  Mr.  Winchester  says, 
"  for  ages  of  ages,")  annihilation  must  be 
rather  a  relief  from  punishment,  than  the  pun- 
ishment itself.  3.  That  annihilation  is  rather 
a  suspension  than  an  exertion  of  divine  power. 
4.  That  the  punishment  of  impenitent  men  is 
described  as  the  same  with  that  of  the  fallen 
angels,  who  are  not  annihilated,  Matt,  xxv, 
41,  but  remain  in  expectation  of  future  punish- 
ment, "  Art  thou  come  to  torment  us  before 
the  time  ?"  Matt,  viii,  29.  5.  In  the  state  of 
future  punishment,  there  is  said  to  be  "  weep, 
ing  and  gnashing  of  teeth,"  Matt,  xxiv,  51. 
6.  As  the  happiness  of  saints  in  the  future  state 
consists  not  merely  in  being,  but  in  well  being, 
or  happiness;  so  the  punishment  of  the  wicked 
requires  the  idea  of  eternal  suffering  to  support 
the  contrast.  It  might  be  added,  that  annihi- 
lation, as  far  as  we  know,  forms  no  part  of  the 
divine  economy.  One  thing  is  also  certain 
and  indisputable  :  the  strong  language  of  Scrip- 
ture is  intended  to  deter  men  from  sin ;  and 
whoever  attempts  to  remove  the  barrier,  offers 
insult  to  the  divine  wisdom,  and  trifles  with 
his  own  destiny.  But  the  capital  argument 
is,  that  it  is  unscriptural : — "  Where  their 
worm  dieth  not,  and  the  fire  is  not  quenched," 
is,  like  many  others,  a  declaration,  to  which 
no  dexterity  of  interpretation  can  give  any 
other  good  sense,  than  the  continuance  of 
conscious  punishment. 

DEVIL,  Diabolus,  an  evil  angel.  The  word 
is  formed  from  the  French  diable,  of  the  Latin 


diabolus,  which  comes  from  the  Greek  A,M0*ost 
which,  in  its  ordinary  acceptation,  signifies 
calumniator,  traducer,  or  false  accuser,  froiq 
the  verb  ^la&i'XAav,  to  calumniate,  &c ;  or  from 
the  ancient  British  diafol.  Dr.  Campbell  ob- 
serves, that,  though  the  word  is  sometimes, 
both  in  the  Old  Testament  and  the  New,  ap- 
plied to  men  and  women,  as  traducers,  it  is, 
by  way  of  eminence,  employed  to  denote  that 
apostate  angel,  who  is  exhibited  to  us,  parti- 
cularly in  the  New  Testament,  as  the  great 
enemy  of  God  and  man.  In  the  two  first  chap- 
ters of  Job,  it  is  the  word  in  the  Septuagint  by 
which  the  Hebrew  ]W,  Satan,  or  adversary,  is 
translated.  Indeed,  the  Hebrew  word  in  this 
application,  as  well  as  the  Greek,  has  been 
naturalized  in  most  modern  languages.  Thus 
we  say,  indifferently,  the  devil,  or  Satan;  only 
the  latter  has  more  the  appearance  of  a  proper 
name,  as  it  is  not  attended  with  the  article. 
There  is,  however,  this  difference  between  the 
import  of  such  terms,  as  occurring  in  their 
native  tongues,  and  as  modernized  in  transla- 
tions. In  the  former,  they  always  retain  some- 
what of  their  primitive  meaning,  and,  beside 
indicating  a  particular  being,  or  class  of  beings, 
they  are  of  the  nature  of  appellatives,  and  make 
a  special  character  or  note  of  distinction  in  such 
beings.  Whereas,  when  thus  Latinized  or  Eng- 
lished, they  answer  solely  the  first  of  these  uses, 
as  they  come  nearer  the  nature  of  proper  names. 
Aid6oXog  is  sometimes  applied  to  human  beings  ; 
but  nothing  is  more  easy  than  to  distinguish 
this  application  from  the  more  frequent  appli- 
cation to  the  arch-apostate.  One  mark  of  dis- 
tinction is,  that,  in  this  last  use  of  the  term,  it 
is  never  found  in  the  plural.  When  the  plural 
is  used,  the  context  always  shows  that  it  refers 
to  human  beings,  and  not  to  fallen  angels.  It 
occurs  in  the  plural  only  thrice,  and  that  only 
in  the  epistles  of  St.  Paul,  1  Tim.  iii,  11 ;  2  Tim. 
iii,  3  ;  Titus  ii,  3.  Another  criterion  whereby 
the  application  of  this  word  to  the  prince  of 
darkness  may  be  discovered,  is  its  being  at- 
tended with  the  article.  The  term  almost 
invariably  is  b  <5<a'SoXo?.  The  excepted  instances 
occur  in  the  address  of  Paul  to  Elymas  the 
sorcerer,  Acts  xiii,  10;  and  that  of  our  Lord  to 
the  Pharisees,  John  viii,  44.  The  more  doubt- 
ful cases  are  those  in  1  Peter  v,  8,  and  Rev. 
xx,  2.  These  are  all  the  examples  in  which 
the  word,  though  used  indefinitely  or  without 
the  article,  evidently  denotes  our  spiritual  and 
ancient  enemy ;  and  the  examples  in  which  it 
occurs  in  this  sense  with  the  article,  are  too 
numerous  to  be  recited. 

2.  That  there  are  angels  and  spirits,  good 
and  bad,  says  an  eminent  writer ;  that  at  the 
head  of  these  last,  there  is  one  more  consider- 
cible  and  malignant  than  the  rest,  who,  in  the 
form,  or  under  the  name,  of  a  serpent,  was 
deeply  concerned  in  the  fall  of  man,  and  whose 
head,  in  the  language  of  prophecy,  the  Son  of 
Man  was  one  day  to  bruise  ;  that  this  evil  spirit, 
though  that  prophecy  be  in  part  fulfilled,  has 
not  yet  received  his  death's  wound,  but  is  still 
permitted,  for  ends  to  us  unsearchable,  and  in 
ways  which  we  cannot  particularly  explain,  to 
have  a  certain  degree  of  power  in  this  world, 


DEV 


305 


DEV 


nostile  to  its  virtue  and  happiness, — all  this  is 
eo  clear  from  Scripture,  that  no  believer,  unless 
he  be  previously  "spoiled  by  philosophy  and 
vain  deceit,"  can  possibly  entertain  a  doubt  of 
it.  Certainly,  among  the  numerous  refinements 
of  modern  times,  there  is  scarcely  any  thing 
more  extraordinary  than  the  attempt  that  has 
been  made,  and  is  still  making,  to  persuade  us 
that  there  really  exists  no  such  being  in  the 
world  as  the  devil ;  and  that  when  the  inspired 
writers  speak  of  such  a  being,  all  that  they 
mean  is,  to  personify  the  evil  principle  !  A  bold 
effort  unquestionably  ;  and  could  its  advocates 
succeed  in  persuading  men  into  the  universal 
belief  of  it,  they  would  do  more  to  promote  his 
cause  and  interest  in  the  world  than  he  himself 
has  been  able  to  effect  since  the  seduction  of 
our  first  parents.  But  to  be  armed  against  this 
subtle  stratagem,  let  us  attend  to  the  plain  doc- 
trine  of  divine  revelation  respecting  this  matter. 
In  the  Old  Testament,  particularly  in  the  first 
two  chapters  of  Job,  this  evil  spirit  is  called 
Satan ;  and  in  the  New  Testament,  he  is  spoken 
of  under  various  titles,  which  are  also  descrip- 
tive of  his  power  and  malignity;  as  for  example, 
he  is  called,  "  the 'prince  of  this  world,"  John 
xii,  31;  "the  prince  of  the  power  of  the  air," 
Eph.  ii,  2  ;  "  the  god  of  this  world,"  2  Cor.  iv.  4 ; 
"the  dragon,  that  old  serpent,  the  devil,"  Rev. 
xx,  2;  "the  wicked  one,"  1  John  v,  19.  He 
is  represented  as  exercising  a  sovereign  sway 
over  the  human  race  in  their  natural  state,  or 
previous  to  their  being  enlightened,  regenerat- 
ed, and  sanctified  by  the  Gospel,  Eph.  ii,  2,  3. 
His  kingdom  is  described  as  a  kingdom  of  dark- 
ness; and  the  influence  which  he  exercises  over 
the  human  mind  is  called  "  the  power,"  or 
energy,  "  of  darkness,"  Col.  i,  13.  Hence  be- 
lievers are  said  to  be  "called  out  of  darkness 
into  marvellous  light,"  1  Peter  ii,  9.  Farther, 
he  is  said  to  go  about  "  as  a  roaring  lion,  seek- 
ing its  prey,  that  he  may  destroy  men's  souls," 
1  Peter  v,  8.  Christ  says,  "  He  was  a  mur- 
derer from  the  beginning,  and  abode  not  in  the 
truth,  because  there  is  no  truth  in  him ;  when 
he  speaketh  a  lie,  he  speaketh  of  that  which  is 
his  own,  for  he  is  a  liar,  and  the  father  of  it," 
John  viii,  44.  We  are  also  taught  that  this 
grand  adversary  of  God  and  man  has  a  numer- 
ous band  of  fallen  spirits  under  his  control ; 
and  that  both  he  and  they  are  reserved  under 
a  sentence  of  condemnation  unto  the  judgment 
of  the  great  day,  Jude  6 ;  and  that  "  everlast- 
ing fire,"  or  perpetual  torment,  "is  prepared 
for  the  devil  and  his  angels,"  Matt,  xxv,  41. 
In  these  various  passages  of  Scripture,  and 
many  others  which  might  be  added,  the  exist- 
ence of  the  devil  is  expressly  stated  ;  but  if,  as 
our  modern  Sadducees  affirm,  nothing  more  is 
intended  in  them  than  a  personification  of  the 
abstract  quality  of  evil,  the  Bible,  and  espe- 
cially the  New  Testament,  must  be  eminently 
calculated  to  mislead  us  in  matters  which  inti- 
mately concern  our  eternal  interests.  If,  in 
inferring  from  them  the  existence  of  evil  spirits 
m  this  world,  we  can  be  mistaken,  it  will  not 
be  an  easy  matter  to  show  what  inference  de- 
duced from  Scripture  preuiises  may  safely  be 
jelied  on,  It  ought  not,  however,  to  surprise 
SI 


Christians  that  attempts  of  this  kind  should  bo 
made.  St.  Paul  tells  us,  that  in  his  day  there 
were  "false  apostles,  deceitful  workers,  trans- 
forming themselves  into  the  apostles  of  Christ ; 
and  no  wonder,"  says  he,  "  for  Satan  himself 
is  transformed  into  an  angel  of  light,"  2  Cor 
xi,  13,  14. 

3.  To  the  notion,  that  the  Jews  derived  their 
opinions  on  this  subject  from  the  oriental  phi- 
losophy, and  that  like  the  Persians  they  set  up 
a  rival  god  ;  it  may  be  replied,  that  the  Jewish 
notion  of  the  devil  had  no  resemblance  to  what 
the  Persians  first,  and  the  Manicheans  after- 
ward, called  the  evil  principle  ;  which  they 
made  in  some  sort  coordinate  with  God,  and 
the  first  source  of  all  evil,  as  the  other  is  of 
good.  For  the  devil,  in  the  Jewish  system,  is 
a  creature  as  much  as  any  other  being  in  the 
universe,  and  is  liable  to  be  controlled  by  om- 
nipotence,— an  attribute  which  they  ascribed 
to  God  alone. 

4.  The  arguments  from  philosophy  against 
the  existence  of  evil  spirits  are  as  fjjul  as  that 
which  is  pretended  to  be  grounded  upon  criti- 
cism. For  that  there  is  nothing  irrational  in  the 
notion  of  superior  beings,  is  plain  from  this: 
that  if  there  be  other  beings  below  us,  there  may 
be  others  above  us.  If  we  have  demonstration 
of  one  Being  at  least  who  is  invisible,  there 
may  be  many  other  created  invisible  and  spi- 
ritual beings.  If  we  see  men  sometimes  so  bad 
as  to  delight  in  tempting  others  to  sin  and  ruin, 
there  may  exist  a  whole  order  of  fallen  beings 
who  may  have  the  same  business  and  the  same 
malignant  pleasure  ;  and  if  we  see  some  men 
furiously  bent  upon  destroying  truth  and  piety, 
this  is  precisely  what  is  ascribed  to  these  evil 
spirits.     It  is  one  of  the  serious  circumstances 

,of  our  probation  on  earth,  that  we  should  be 
exposed  to  this  influence  of  Satan,  and  we  are 
therefore  called  to  "  watch  and  pray  that  we 
enter  not  into  temptation." 

5.  The  establishment  of  the  worship  of  devils 
so  general  in  some  form  throughout  a  great 
part  of  the  Heathen  world,  is  at  once  a  painful 
and  a  curious  subject,  and  deserves  a  more 
careful  investigation  than  it  has  received.  In 
modern  times,  devil-worship  is  seen  Systemat- 
ized in  Ceylon,  Burmah,  and  many  parts  of 
the  East  Indies  ;  and  an  order  of  devil-priests 
exists,  though  contrary  to  the  Budhist  religion, 
against  the  temples  of  which  it  sets  up  rival 
altars. 

Mr.  Ives,  in  his  Travels  through  Persia,  gives 
the  following  curious  account  of  devil-worship  : 
"  These  people  (the  Sanj-acks,  a  nation  inhabit- 
ing the  country  about  Mosul,  the  ancient 
Nineveh)  once  professed  Christianity,  then 
Mohammedanism,  and  last  of  all  devilism. 
They  say  it  is  true  that  the  devil  has  at  present 
a  quarrel  with  God;  but  the  time  will  come 
when,  the  pride  of  his  heart  being  subdued,  he 
will  make  his  submission  to  the  Almighty ;  and, 
as  the  Deity  cannot  be  implacable,  the  devil 
will  receive  a  full  pardon  for  all  his  transgres- 
sions, and  both  he,  and  all  those  who  paid  him 
attention  during  his  disgrace,  will  be  admitted 
into  the  blessed  mansions.  This  is  the  founda- 
tion of  their  hope,  and  this  chance  for  heaven 


DEU 


306 


DIA 


they  esteem  to  be  a  better  one  than  that  of 
trusting  to  their  own  merits,  or  the  merits  of 
the  leader  of  any  other  religion  whatsoever. 
The  person  of  the  devil  they  look  on  as  sacred ; 
and  when  they  affirm  any  thing  solemnly,  they 
do  it  by  his  name.  Air"  disrespectful  expres- 
sions of  him  they  would  punish  with  death, 
did  not  the  Turkish  power  prevent  them.  When- 
ever  they  speak  of  him,  it  is  with  the  utmost 
respect ;  and  they  always  put  before  his  name 
a  certain  title  corresponding  to  that  of  high- 
ness or  lord."  The  worshippers  of  the  devil 
mentioned  by  Ives  were  also  found  by  Nicbuhr 
in  the  same  country,  in  a  village  between  Bag- 
dad and  Mosul,  called  Abd-el-asis,  on  the  great 
Zab,  a  river  which  empties  itself  into  the  Ti- 
gris. This  village,  says  he,  is  entirely  inhabited 
by  people  who  are  called  Isidians,  and  also 
Dauasin.  As  the  Turks  allow  the  free  exercise 
of  religion  only  to  those  who  possess  sacred 
books,  that  is,  the  Mohammedans,  Christians, 
and  Jews,  the  Isidians  are  obliged  to  keep  the 
principles  of  their  religion  very  secret.  They 
therefore  call  themselves  Mohammedans,Chris- 
tians,  or  Jews,  according  to  the  party  of  him 
who  inquires  what  their  religion  is.  Some 
accuse  them  of  worshipping  the  devil  under 
the  name  of  Tschellebi ;  that  is,  Lord.  Others 
say  that  they  show  great  reverence  for  the  sun 
and  fire,  that  they  are  unpolished  Heathens, 
and  have  horrid  customs.  I  have  also  been 
assured  that  the  Dauasins  do  not  worship  the 
devil ;  but  adore  God  alone  as  the  Creator  and 
Benefactor  of  all  mankind.  They  will  not 
.speak  of  Satan,  nor  even  have  his  name  men- 
tioned. They  say  that  it  is  just  as  improper 
for  men  to  take  a  part  in  the  dispute  between 
God  and  a  fallen  angel,  as  for  a  peasant  to 
ridicule  and  curse  a  servant  of  the  pacha  who 
has  fallen  into  disgrace ;  that  God  did  not  re- 
quire our  assistance  to  punish  Satan  for  his 
disobedience ;  it  might  happen  that  he  might 
receive  him  into  favour  again  ;  and  then  we 
must  be  ashamed  before  the  judgment  seat  of 
God,  if  we  had,  uncalled  for,  abused  one  of  his 
angels :  it  was  therefore  the  best  not  to  trouble 
one's  self  about  the  devil ;  but  endeavour  not 
to  incur  .God's  displeasure  ourselves.  When 
the  Isidians  go  to  Mosul,  they  are  not  detained 
by  the  magistrates,  even  if  they  are  known. 
The  vulgar,  however,  sometimes  attempt  to 
extort  money  from  them.  When  they,  offer 
eggs  or  butter  to  t  icm  for  sale,  they  endeavour 
first  to  get  the  ar* 'cles  into  their  hands,  and 
then  dispute  about  the  price,  or  for  this  or  other 
reasons  to  abuse  Satan  with  all  their  might ;  on 
which  the  Dauasin  is  often  polite  enough  to 
leave  every  thing  behind,  rather  than  hear  the 
devil  abused.  But  in  the  countries  where  they 
have  the  upper  hand,  nobody  is  allowed  to 
curse  him,  unless  he  chooses  to  be  beaten,  or 
perhaps  even  to  lose  his  life. 

DEUTERONOMY,  from  ihrtpos,  second, 
and  voji&i,  Jaw;  the  last  book  of  the  Pentateuch 
or  five  books  of  Moses.  As  its  name  imports, 
it  contains  a  repetition  of  the  civil  and  moral 
law,  which  was  a  second  time  delivered  by 
Moses,  with  some  additions  and  explanations, 
as  well  to  impress  it  more  forcibly  upon  the 


Israelites  in  general,  as  in  particular  for  the 
benefit  of  those  who,  being  born  in  the  wilder- 
ness, were  not  present  at  the  first  promulga- 
tion of  the  law.  It  contains  also  a  recapitula- 
tion of  the  several  events  which  had  befallen 
the  Israelites  since  their  departure  from  Egypt, 
with  severe  reproaches  for  their  past  miscon- 
duct, and  earnest  exhortations  to  future  obe- 
dience. The  Messiah  is  explicitly  foretold  in 
this  book  ;  and  there  are  many  remarkable  pre- 
dictions interspersed  in  it,  particularly  in  the 
twenty-eighth,  thirtieth,  thirty-second,  and 
thirty-third  chapters,  relative  to  the  future  con- 
dition of  the  Jews.  The  book  of  Deuterono- 
my finishes  with  an  account  of  the  death  of 
Moses,  which  is  supposed  to  have  been  added 
by  his  successor,  Joshua. 

DEW.  Dews  in  Palestine  arc  very  plentiful, 
like  a  small  shower  of  rain  every  morning. 
Gideon  filled  a  basin  with  the  dew  which  fell 
on  a  fleece  of  wool,  Judges  vi,  38.  Isaac, 
blessing  Jacob,  wished  him  the  dew  of  heaven, 
which  fattens  the  fields,  Gen.  xxvii,  28.  In 
those  warm  countries  where  it  seldom  rains, 
the  night  dews  supply  the  want  of  showers. 
Isaiah  speaks  of  rain  as  if  it  were  a  dew,  Isaiah 
xviii,  4.  Some  of  the  most  beautiful  and  illus- 
trative of  the  images  of  the  Hebrew  poets  are 
taken  from  the  dews  of  their  country.  The 
reviving  influence  of  the  Gospel,  the  copious- 
ness of  its  blessings,  and  the  multitude  of  its' 
converts,  are  thus  set  forth. 
DIADEM.  See  Crown. 
DIAL  is  not  mentioned  in  Scripture  before 
the  reign  of  Ahaz.  Interpreters  differ  concern- 
ing the  form  of  the  dial  of  Ahaz,  2  Kings  xx. 
The  generality  of  expositors  think  that  it  was 
a  staircase  so  disposed,  that  the  sun  showed  the 
hours  upon  it  by  the  shadow.  Others  suppose 
that  it  was  a  pillar  erected  in  the  middle  of  a 
very  level  and  smooth  pavement,  on  which  the 
hours  were  engraven.  According  to  these 
authors,  the  lines  marked  in  this  pavement  are 
what  the  Scripture  calls  degrees.  Grotius  de- 
scribes it  as  follows  :  "  It  was  a  concave  hemis- 
phere, and  in  the  midst  was  a  globe,  the  shadow 
of  which  fell  on  the  different  lines  engraven 
in  the  concavity  of  the  hemisphere  ;  these  lines 
were  twenty-eight  in  number."  This  descrip- 
tion answers  pretty  nearly  to  that  kind  of  dial, 
which  the  Greeks  called  scapha,  a  boat  or 
hemisphere,  the  invention  (rather  introduction) 
of  which,  Vitruvius  ascribes  to  Berosus  the 
Chaldean.  It  would  seem,  indeed,  that  the 
most  ancient  sun  dial  known  is  in  the  form  of 
a  half  circle,  hollowed  into  the  stone,  and  the 
stone  cut  down  to  an  angle.  This  kind  of  dial 
was  invented  in  Babylon,  and  was  very  proba- 
bly the  same  as  that  of  Ahaz. 

"DIAMOND.  pVn\  Exod.  xxviii,  18;  xxix, 
11 ;  Ezek.  xxviii,  13.  This  has  from  remote 
antiquity  been  considered  as  the  most  valuable, 
or,  more  properly,  the  most  costly  substance 
in  nature.  The  reason  of  the  high  estimation 
in  which  it  was  held  by  the  ancients  was  its 
rarity  and  its  extreme  hardness  and  brilliancy. 
It  tilled  the  sixth  place  in  the  high  priest's 
breastplate,  and  on  it  was  engraven  the  name 
of  Naphtali. 


DIS 


307 


DIS 


DIANA,  a  celebrated  goddess  of  the  Hea- 
thens, who  was  honoured  principally  at  Ephe- 
sus,  Acts  xix.  She  was  one  of  the  number  of 
the  twelve  superior  deities,  and  was  called  by 
the  several  names  of  Hebe,  Trivia,  and  Hecate. 
In  the  heavens  she  was  the  moon,  upon  earth 
she  was  called  Diana,  and  in  hell  Hecate.  She 
was  worshipped  in  Palestine,  Jeremiah  vii,  18  ; 
xliv,  17,  18. 

DIONYSIUS,  the  Areopagite,  a  convert  of 
St.  Paul,  Acts  xvii,  34.  Chrysostom  declares 
Dionysius  to  have  been  a  citizen  of  Athens ; 
which  is  credible,  because  the  judges  of  the 
Areopagus  generally  were  so.  After  his  con- 
version, Dionysius  was  made  the  first  bishop 
of  Athens  ;  having  laboured,  and  suffered  much 
in  the  Gospel,  he  is  said  to  have  been  burnt  at 
Athens,  A.  D.  95.  The  works  attributed  to 
Dionysius  are  generally  reputed  spurious. 

DIRECTORY,  an  ecclesiastical  instrument, 
containing  directions  for  the  conduct  of  reli- 
gious worship,  drawn  up  by  the  assembly  of 
divines,  by  order  of  parliament,  in  1645.  It 
was  intended  to  supply  the  use  of  the  Common 
Prayer  Book,  which  had  been  abolished.  It 
orders  the  reverent  observation  of  public  wor- 
ship, prayer,  singing  of  psalms,  the  reading  and 
exposition  of  the  Scriptures,  &c.  It  enjoins 
no  forms,  but  recommends  the  Lord's  prayer 
as  a  model  of  devotion ;  directs  that  the  Lord's 
Supper  may  be  received  sitting  ;  that  the  Sab- 
bath day  be  strictly  observed;  but  puts  down 
all  saints'  days,  consecrations  of  churches,  and 
private  or  lay  baptisms.  This  Directory,  which 
was  formerly  bound  with  the  Westminster 
confession  of  faith,  is  still,  in  effect,  the  plan 
of  worship  among  the  Dissenters,  and  espe- 
cially the  Presbyterians. 

DISCIPLE.  The  proper  signification  of 
this  word  is  a  learner ;  but  it  signifies  in  the 
New  Testament,  a  believer,  a  Christian,  a  fol- 
|  lower  of  Jesus  Christ.  Disciple  is  often  used 
instead  of  Apostle  in  the  Gospels  ;  but,  subse- 
quently, Apostles  were  distinguished  from  dis- 
ciples. The  seventy-two  who  followed  our 
Saviour  from  the  beginning,  are  called  disci- 
ples; as  are  others  who  were  of  the  body  of 
believers  and  bore  no  office.  In  subsequent 
times,  the  name  disciple,  in  the  sense  of  learner, 
was  sometimes  given  to  the  /carrj^ou^Evoi,  "  au- 
(titores,"  persons  who,  in  the  primitive  church, 
were  receiving  a  preparatory  instruction  in 
Christianity.  They  were  divided  into  two 
classes,  those  who  received  private  instruction, 
and  those  who  were  admitted  to  the  congrega- 
tions, and  were  under  immediate  preparation 
for  baptism  The  church  readers  were,  in 
some  places,  appointed  to  instruct  the  catechu- 
mens ;  and  at  Alexandria,  where  often  learned 
men  presented  themselves  for  instruction,  the 
office  of  catechist  was  filled  by  learned  laymen, 
and  these  catechists  laid  the  foundation  of  an 
important  theological  school. 

DISEASES.  In  the  primitive  ages  of  the 
world,  diseases,  in  consequence  of  the  great 
simplicity  in  the  mode  of  living,  were  but  few 
in  number.  At  a  subsequent  period  the  num- 
ber was  increased  by  the  accession  of  diseases 
that  had  been  previously  unknown.  Epidemics 


also,  diseases  somewhat  peculiar  in  their  cha- 
racter, and  still  more  fearful  in  their  conse- 
quences,  soon  made  their  appearance,  some 
infesting  one  period  of  life,  and  some  another ; 
some  limiting  their  ravages  to  one  country, 
and  some  to  another.  Prosper  Alpinus  men- 
tions the  diseases  which  are  prevalent  in  Egypt, 
and  in  other  countries  in  the  same  climate : 
they  are  ophthalmies,  leprosies,  inflammations 
of  the  brain,  pains  in  the  joints,  the  hernia, 
the  stone  in  the  reins  and  bladdsr.  the  phthisic, 
hectic,  pestilential  and  tertian  fevers,  weak- 
ness of  the  stomach,  obstructions  in  the  liver, 
and  the  spleen.  Of  these  diseases,  ophthal- 
mies, pestilential  fevers,  and  inflammations  of 
the  brain,  are  epidemics  ;  the  others  are  of  a 
different  character.  The  leprosy  prevails  in 
Egypt,  in  the  southern  part  of  Upper  Asia, 
and  in  fact  may  be  considered  a  disease  ende- 
mic in  warm  climates  generally.  According- 
ly, it  is  not  at  all  surprising,  if  many  of  the 
Hebrews,  when  they  left  Egypt,  were  infected 
with  it ;  but  the  assertion  of  Manetho,  that 
they  were  all  thus  infected,  and  were  in  con- 
sequence of  the  infection,  driven  out  by  "orce, 
in  which  he  is  precipitately  and  carele^oly  fol- 
lowed by  Strabo,  Tacitus,  by  Justin  Trogus, 
and  others  more  recent,  is  a  mere  dream  with- 
out any  foundation.  The  appearance  of  the 
disease  externally  is  not  always  the  same.  The 
spot  is  commonly  small,  and  resembling  in  its 
appearance  the  small  red  spot  that  would  be 
the  consequence  of  a  puncture  from  a  needle, 
or  the  pustules  of  a  ringworm.  The  spots  for 
the  most  part  make  their  appearance  very  sud- 
denly, especially  if  the  infected  person,  at  the 
period  when  the  disease  shows  itself  external- 
ly, happens  to  be  in  great  fear,  or  to  be  moved 
with  anger,  Num.  xii,  10 ;  2  C'hron.  xxvi,  19. 
They  commonly  exhibit  themselves  in  the  first 
instance  on  the  face,  about  the  nose  and  eyes ; 
and  gradually  increase  in  size  for  a  number  of 
years,  till  they  become,  as  respects  the  extent 
of  surface  which  they  embrace  on  the  skin,  as 
large  as  a  pea  or  bean  ;  they  are  then  called T.Ke>. 
The  white  spot  or  pustule,  mru,  morphea  alba, 
and  also  the  dark  spot,  nnflD,  morphea  nigra,  are 
indications  of  the  existence  of  the  real  lepro- 
sy, Lev.  xiii,  2,  39  ;  xiv,  56.  From  these  it  is 
necessary  to  distinguish  the  spot,  which,  what- 
ever resemblance  there  may  be  in  form,  is  so 
difibrent  in  its  effects,  called  prt3,  and  also  the 
harmless  sort  of  scab,  which  occurs  under  the 
word,  nnflDD,  Lev.  xiii,  6-8,  29.  Moses,  in  the 
thirteenth  chapter  of  Leviticus,  lays  down  very 
explicit  rules  for  the  purpose  of  distinguishing 
between  those  spots  which  are  proofs  of  the 
actual  existence  of  the  leprosy,  and  those  spots 
which  are  harmless  and  result  from  some  other 
cause.  Those  spots  which  are  the  genuine 
effects  and  marks  of  the  leprosy  gradually  di- 
late themselves,  till  at  length  they  cuver  the 
whole  body.  Not  only  the  skin  is  subject  to 
a  total  destruction,  but  tho  body  is  affected  in 
every  part.  The  pain,  it  is  true,  is  not  very 
great,  but  there  is  a  great  debility  of  the  sys- 
tem, and  great  uneasiness  and  grief,  so  much 
so,  as  almost  to  drive  the  victim  of  the  disease 
to  self-destruction. 


DIS 


308 


DIS 


2.  Moses  acted  the  part  of  a  wise  legislator 
in  making  those  laws  which  have  come  down 
to  us  concerning  the  inspection  and  separation 
of  leprous  persons.  The  object  of  these  laws 
will  appear  peculiarly  worthy,  when  it  is  con- 
sidered,  that  they  were  designed,  not  wantonly 
to  fix  the  charge  of  being  a  leper  upon  an  in- 
nocent person,  and  thus  to  impose  upon  him 
those  restraints  and  inconveniences  which  the 
truth  of  such  a  charge  naturally  implies,  but  to 
ascertain,  in  the  fairest  and  most  satisfactory 
manner,  and  to  separate  those,  and  those  only, 
who  were  truly  and  really  leprous.  As  this 
was  the  prominent  object  of  his  laws  that  have 
come  down  to  us  on  this  subject,  namely,  to 
secure  a  fair  and  impartial  decision  on  a  ques- 
tion of  this  kind,  he  has  not  mentioned  those 
signs  of  leprosy  whicli  admitted  of  no  doubt, 
but  those  only  which  might  be  the  subject  of 
contention  ;  and  left  it  to  the  priests,  who  also 
fulfilled  the  office  of  physicians,  to  distinguish 
between  the  really  leprous,  and  those  who  had 
only  the  appearance  of  being  such.  We  find 
mention,  in  the  rules  laid  down  by  Moses  for 
the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the  true  tokens  of 
leprosy,  of  a  cutaneous  disorder  which  is  de- 
nominated by  him  bohak.  The  words  of  Moses, 
which  may  be  found  in  Lev.  xiii,  38,  39,  are  as 
follows :  "  If  a  man  or  woman  have  white  spots 
on  the  skin,  and  the  priest  see  that  the  colour 
of  these  spots  is  faint  and  pale,  it  is,  in  this 
case,  the  bohak  that  has  broken  out  on  the  skin, 
and  they  are  clean."  A  person,  accordingly, 
who  was  attacked  with  this  disease,  the  bohak, 
was  not  declared  unclean  ;  and  the  reason  of 
it  was,  that  it  is  not  only  harmless  in  itself, 
hut  is  free  from  that  infectious  and  hereditary 
character  which  belongs  to  the  true  leprosy. 
"The  bohak"  says  Mr.  Niebuhr,  "is  neither 
infectious  nor  dangerous.  A  black  boy  at 
Mocha,  who  was  attacked  with  this  sort  of 
leprosy,  had  white  spots  here  and  there  on  his 
body.  It  was  said  that  the  use  of  sulphur  had 
for  some  tune  been  of  service  to  this  boy,  but 
had  not  altogether  removed  the  disease."  He 
then  adds  the  following  extract  from  the  papers 
of  a  Dr.  Foster:  "May  15th,  1763,  I  myself 
saw  a  case  of  the  bohak  in  a  Jew  at  Mocha. 
The  spots  in  this  disease  are  of  unequal  size. 
They  have  no  shining  appearance,  nor  are  they 
perceptibly  elevated  above  the  skin ;  and  they 
do  not  change  the  colour  of  the  hair.  Their 
colour  is  an  obscure  white  or  somewhat  red- 
dish. The  rest  of  the  skin  of  this  patient  was 
blacker  than  that  of  the  people  of  the  country 
was  in  general,  but  the  spots  were  not  so  white 
as  the  skin  of  an  European  when  not  sunburnt. 
The  spots,  in  this  species  of  leprosy,  do  not 
appear  on  the  hands,  nor  about  the  navel,  but 
on  the  neck  and  face ;  not,  however,  on  that 
part  of  the  head  where  the  hair  grows  very 
thick.  They  gradually  spread,  and  continue 
sometimes  only  about  two  months;  but  in  some 
cases,  indeed,  as  long  as  two  years,  and  then 
disappear,  by  degrees,  of  themselves.  This 
disorder  is  neither  infectious  nor  hereditary, 
nor  does  it  occasion  any  inconvenience." 
"  That  all  this,"  remarks  Michaelis,  "  should 
still  be  found  exactly  to  hold  at  the  distance  of 


three  thousand  five  hundred  years  from  the 
time  of  Moses,  ought  certainly  to  gain  some 
credit  to  his  laws,  even  with  those  who  will 
not  allow  them  to  be  of  divine  authority."  The 
pestilence,  in  its  effects,  is  equally  terrible  with 
the  leprosy,  and  is  much  more  rapid  in  its  pro- 
gress ;  for  it  terminates  the  existence  of  those 
who  are  infected  with  it  almost  immediately, 
and  at  the  farthest  within  three  or  four  days. 
The  Gentiles  were  in  the  habit  of  referring 
back  the  pestilence  to  the  agency  and  inter- 
ference of  that  being,  whatever  it  might  be, 
whether  idol  or  spirit,  whom  they  regarded  as 
the  divinity.  The  Hebrews,  also,  every  where 
attribute  it  to  the  agency  either  of  God  himself, 
or  of  that  legate  or  angel,  whom  they  denomi- 
nate iNSn. 

3.  The  palsy  of  the  New  Testament  is  a 
disease  of  very  wide  import.  Many  infirmi- 
ties, as  Richter  has  demonstrated,  were  com- 
prehended under  the  word  whicli  is  rendered 
palsy  in  the  New  Testament.  1.  The  apoplexy, 
a  paralytic  shock,  which  affected  the  whole 
body.  2.  The  hemiplegy,  which  affects  and 
paralyzes  only  one  side  of  the  body.  3.  The 
paraplegy,  which  paralyzes  all  the  parts  of  the 
system  below  the  neck.  4.  The  catalepsy, 
which  is  caused  by  a  contraction  of  the  mus- 
cles in  the  whole  or  a  part  of  the  body,  for 
example,  in  the  hands,  and  is  very  dangerous. 
The  effects  upon  the  parts  seized  are  very  vio- 
lent and  deadly.  For  instance :  when  a  per- 
son is  struck  with  it,  if  his  hand  happens  to 
be  extended,  he  is  unable  to  draw  it  back.  If 
the  hand  is  not  extended  when  he  is  struck 
with  the  disease,  he  is  unable  to  extend  it :  it 
appears  diminished  in  size,  arid  dried  up  in  ap- 
pearance. Hence  the  Hebrews  were  in  the 
habit  of  calling  it  "a  withered  hand,"  1  Kings 
xiii,  4-6;  Zech.  xi,  17;  Matt,  xii,  10-13;  John 
v,  3.  5.  The  cramp,  in  oriental  countries,  is 
a  fearful  malady,  and  by  no  means  unfrequent. 
It  originates  from  the  chills  of  the  night.  The 
limbs,  when  seized  with  it,  remain  immovable, 
sometimes  turned  in,  and  sometimes  out,  in  the 
same  position  as  when  they  were  first  seized. 
The  person  afflicted  resembles  those  undergo- 
ing the  torture  (l*cavi$apivoi,  and  experiences 
nearly  the  same  exquisite  sufferings.  Death 
follows  the  disease  in  a  few  days,  Matt,  viii,  6, 
8 ;  Luke  vii,  2 ;  1  Mace,  ix,  55-58. 

DISPENSATIONS,  Divine.  These  are 
otherwise  called  "the  ways  of  God,"  and  de- 
note those  schemes  or  methods  which  are 
devised  and  pursued  by  the  wisdom  and  good- 
ness of  God,  in  order  to  manifest  his  perfec- 
tions and  will  to  mankind,  for  the  purpose  of 
their  instruction,  discipline,  reformation,  and 
advancement  in  rectitude  of  temper  and  con- 
duct, in  order  to  promote  their  happiness. 
These  are  the  grand  ends  of  the  divine  dis- 
pensations; and  in  their  aptitude  to  promote 
these  ends  consist  their  excellence  ajid  glory. 
The  works  or  constitutions  of  nature  are,  in 
a  general  sense,  divine  dispensations,  by  which 
God  condescends  to  display  to  us  his  being  and 
attributes,  and  thus  to  lead  us  to  the  acknow- 
ledgment, adoration,  and  love,  of  our  Creator, 
Father,  and  Benefactor.     The   sacred   Scrip. 


DIV 


309 


DIV 


tures  reveal  and  record  other  dispensations  of 
divine  providence,  which  have  been  directed 
to  the  promotion  of  the  religious  principles, 
moral  conduct,  and  true  happiness  of  mankind. 
These  have  varied  in  several  ages  of  the  world, 
and  have  been  adapted  by  the  wisdom  and 
goodness  of  God  to  the  circumstances  of  his 
intelligent  and  accountable  creatures.  In  this 
sense  the  various  revelations  which  God  has 
communicated  to  mankind  at  different  periods, 
and  the  means  he  has  used,  as  occasion  has 
required,  for  their  discipline  and  improvement, 
have  been  justly  denominated  divine  dispensa- 
tions. Accordingly,  we  read  in  the  works  of 
theological  writers  of  the  various  dispensations 
of  religion  ;  that  of  the  patriarchs,  that  of  Mo- 
ses, and  that  of  Christ,  called  the  dispensation 
of  grace,  the  perfection  and  ultimate  object  of 
every  other.  All  these  were  adapted  to  the 
conditions  of  the  human  race  at  these  several 
periods  ;  all,  in  regular  succession,  were  mu- 
tually connected  and  rendered  preparatory  one 
to  the  other;  and  all  were  subservient  to  the 
design  of  saving  the  world,  and  promoting  the 
perfection  and  happiness  of  its  rational  and 
moral  inhabitants.     See  Covenant. 

DISPERSION  OF  MANKIND.  See  Di- 
vision of  the  Earth. 

DIVINATION,  a  conjecture  or  surmise, 
formed  concerning  future  events,  from  tilings 
which  are  supposed  to  presage  them.  The 
eastern  people  were  always  fond  of  divination, 
magic,  the  curious  arts  of  interpreting  dreams, 
and  of  obtaining  a  knowledge  of  future  events. 
When  Moses  published  the  law,  this  disposi- 
tion had  long  been  common  in  Egypt  and  the 
neighbouring  countries.  To  prevent  the  Is- 
raelites from  consulting  diviners,  fortune  tell- 
ers, interpreters  of  dreams,  &c,  he  forbade 
them,  under  very  severe  penalties,  to  consult 
persons  of  this  description,  and  promised  to 
them  the  true  spirit  of  prophecy  as  infinitely 
superior.  He  commanded  those  to  be  stoned 
who  pretended  to  have  a  familiar  spirit,  or  the 
spirit  of  divination,  Deut.  xviii,  9,  10,  15. 
The  writings  of  the  prophets  are  full  of  invec- 
tives against  the  Israelites  who  consulted  di- 
viners, and  against  false  prophets  who  by  such 
means  seduced  the  people. 

2.  Different  kinds  of  divination  have  passed 
for  sciences,  as  1.  Aeromancy,  divining  by 
the  air.  2.  Astrology,  by  the  heavens.  3.  Au- 
gury, by  the  flight  and  singing  of  birds,  &c. 
4.  Cheiromancy,  by  inspecting  the  lines  of  the 
hand.  5.  Geomancy,  by  observing  cracks  or 
clefts  in  the  earth.  6.  Haruspicy,  by  inspect- 
ing the  bowels  of  animals.  7.  Horoscopy,  a 
branch  of  astrology,  marking  the  position  of 
the  heavens  when  a  person  is  born.  8.  Hy- 
dromancy,  by  water.  9.  Physiognomy,  by  the 
countenance.  10.  Pyromancy,  a  divination 
made  by  fire. 

3.  The  kinds  of  divination,  to  which  super- 
stition in  modern  times  has  given  belief,  are 
not  less  numerous,  or  less  ridiculous,  than 
those  which  were  practised  in  the  days  of  pro- 
found ignorance.  The  divining  rod,  which  is 
mentioned  in  Scripture,  is  still  in  some  repute 
in  the  north  of  England,  though  its  application 


is  now  confined  principally  to  the  discovery  of 
veins  of  lead  ore,  seams  of  coal,  or  springs.  In 
order  that  it  may  possess  the  full  virtue  for  tins 
purpose,  it  should  be  o  ide  of  hazel.  Divina- 
tion by  Virgilian,  Horatian,  or  Bible  lots,  was 
formerly  very  common',  and  the  last  kind  is 
still  practised.  The  works  are  opened  by 
chance,  and  the  words  noticed  which  are  co- 
vered by  the  thumb  :  if  they  can  be  interpreted 
in  any  respect  relating  to  the  person,  they  are 
reckoned  prophetic.  Charles  I.  is  said  to  have 
used  this  kind  of  divination  to  ascertain  his 
fate.  The  ancient  Christians  were  so  much 
addicted  to  the  sortes  sanctorum,  or  divining  by 
the  Bible,  that  it  was  expressly  forbidden  by  a 
council.  Divination  by  the  speal,  or  blade 
bone  of  a  sheep,  is  used  in  Scotland.  In  the 
Highlands  it  is  called  sleina-reached,  or  reading 
the  speal  bone.  It  was  very  common  in  Eng- 
land in  the  time  of  Drayton,  particularly  among 
the  colony  of  Flemings  settled  in  Pembroke- 
shire. Camden  relates  of  the  Irish,  that  they 
looked  through  the  bare  blade  bone  of  a  sheep ; 
and  if  they  saw  any  spot  in  it  darker  than  or- 
dinary, they  believed  that  somebody  would  be 
buried  out  of  the  house.  The  Persians  used 
this  mode  of  divination. 

4.  Of  all  attempts  to  look  into  futurity  by 
such  means,  as  well  as  resorting  to  charms  and 
other  methods  of  curing  diseases,  and  discover- 
ing secrets,  we  may  say,  that  they  are  relics 
of  Paganism,  and  argue  an  ignorance,  folly,  or 
superstition,  dishonourable  to  the  Christian 
name ;  and  are  therefore  to  be  reproved  and 
discouraged. 

DIVISION  OF  THE  EARTH.     The  pro- 
phecy of  Noah,  says  Dr.  Hales,  was  uttered 
long  after  the  deluge.     It  evidently  alludes  to 
a  divine  decree  for  the  orderly  division  of  the 
earth  among  the  three  primitive  families  of  his 
sons,  because  it  notices  the  "tents  of  Shem" 
and  the  "  enlargement  of  Japheth,"  Genesis  ix, 
20-27.    This  decree  was  probably  promulgated 
about  the  same  time  by  the  venerable  patriarch. 
The  prevailing  tradition  of  such  a  decree  for 
this  threefold  division  of  the  earth,  is  intimated 
both  in  the  Old  and  New  Testament.     Moses 
refers  to  it,  as  handed  down  to  the  Israelites, 
"  from  the  days  of  old,  and  the  years  of  many 
generations;  as  they  might  learn  from  their 
fathers  and  their  eldtrs,"  and  farther,  as  con- 
veying a  special  grant  of  the  land  of  Palestine, 
to  be  the  lot  of  the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel : — 
"  When  the  Most  High  divided  to  the  nations  dieir  set- 
tlements, 
When  he  separated  the  sons  of  Adam, 
He  assigned  the  boundaries  of  the  peoples  [of  Israel] 
According  to  the  number  of  the  sons  of  Israel: 
For  the  portion  of  the  Lord  is  his  people, 
Jacob  is  the  lot  of  his  inheritance,"  Deut.  xxxii,  7-9. 
And  this  furnishes  an  additional  proof  of  the 
justice  of  the  expulsion  of  the  Canaanites,  as 
usurpers,  by  the  Israelites,  the  rightful   pos- 
sessors of  the  land  of  Palestine,  under  Moses, 
Joshua,  and  their  successors,  when  the  original 
grant  was  renewed  to  Abraham,  Gen.  xv,  13-21. 
And  the  knowledge  of  this  divine  decree  may 
satisfactorily  account  for  the  panic  terror  with 
which   the   devoted  nations  of  Canaan  were 
struck  at  the  miraculous  passage  of  the  Red 


DIV 


310 


DIV 


Sea  by  the  Israelites,  and  approacli  to  their 
confines,  so  finely  described  by  Moses: — 
"The  nations  shall  hear  [this]  and  tremble, 
Sorrow  shall  seize  the  inhabitants  of  Palestine. 
Then  shall  the  dukes  ofEdotn  be  amazed, 
Dismay  shall  possess  the  princes  ofMoab, 
The  inhabitants  of  Canaan  shall  melt  away: 
Fear  and  terror  shall  (all  upon  them, 
By  the  greatness  of  thine  arm  they  shall  be  petrified, 
Till  thy  people  pass  over  [Jordan]  O  Lord, 
Till  the  people  pass  over,  whom  thou  hast  redeemed." 

Exodus  xv,  14-16. 
St.  Paul,  also,  addressing  the  Athenians,  re. 
fers  to  the  same  decree,  as  a  well-known  tradi- 
tion in  the  Heathen  world  :  "  God  made  of  one 
blood  every  nation  of  men  to  dwell  upon  the 
whole  face  of  the  earth ;  having  appointed  the 
predetermined  seasons  and  boundaries  of  their 
dwellings,"  Acts  xvii,  26.  Here  he  represents 
mankind  as  all  of  "  one  blood,"  race,  or  stock, 
"the  sons  of  Adam"  and  of  Noah  in  succes- 
sion ;  and  the  seasons  and  the  boundaries  of 
their  respective  settlements,  as  previously  regu- 
lated by  the  divine  appointment.  And  this  was 
conformable  to  their  own  geographical  alle- 
gory; thatChronus,  the  god  of  time,  or  Saturn, 
divided  the  universe  among  his  three  sons, 
allotting  the  heaven  to  Jupiter,  the  sea  to  Nep- 
tune, and  hell  to  Pluto.  But  Chronus  repre- 
sented Noah,  who  divided  the  world  among 
his  three  sons,  allotting  the  upper  regions  of 
the  north  to  Japhcth,  the  maritime  or  middle 
regions  to  Shem,  and  the  lower  regions  of  the 
south  to  Ham.  According  to  the  Armenian 
tradition  recorded  by  Ahulfn.ragi,  Noah  distri- 
buted the  habitable  earth  from  north  to  south 
between  his  sons,  and  gave  to  Ham  the  region 
of  the  blacks,  to  Shem  the  region  of  the  tawny, 
fuscorum,  and  to  Japheth  the  region  of  the 
ruddy,  rtibrorum :  and  iie  dates  the  actual  divi- 
sion of  the  earth  in  the  hundred  and  fortieth 
year  of  Peleg,  B.  C.  2614,  or  five  hundred  and 
forty-one  years  after  the  deluge,  and  one  hun- 
dred and  ninety-one  years  after  the  deatli  of 
Noah,  in  the  following  order: — "To  the  sons 
of  Shem  was  allotted  the  middle  of  the  earth, 
namely,  Palestine,  Syria,  Assyria,  Samaria, 
Singar,  [or  Shinar,]  Babel,  [or  Babylonia,] 
Persia,  aind  Hegiaz ;  [Arabia  ;]  to  the  sons  of 
Ham,  Teimen,  [or  Iduinea,  Jcr.xlix,  7,]  Africa, 
Nigritia,  Egypt,  Nubia,  Ethiopia,  Scindia,  and 
India ;  [or  India  west  and  east  of  the  river  In- 
dus ;]  to  the  sons  of  Japheth,  also,  Garbia,  [the 
north,]  Spain,  France,  the  countries  of  the 
Greeks,  Sclavonians,  Bulgarians,  Turks,  and 
Armenians."  In  this  curious  and  valuable 
geographical  chart,  Armenia,  the  cradle  of  the 
human  race,  was  allotted  to  Japheth,  by  right 
pi  primogeniture  ;  and  Samaria  and  Babel  to 
the  sons  of  Shem  ;  the  usurpation  of  these 
regions,  therefore,  by  Nimrod,  and  of  Palestine 
by  Canaan,  was  in  violation  of  the  divine  de- 
cree. Though  the  migration  of  the  primitive 
families  began  at  this  time,  B.  C.  2614,  or 
about  five  hundred  and  forty-one  years  after 
the  deluge,  it  v.  as  a  length  of  time  before  they 
all  reached  their  respective  destinations.  The 
"  seasons,"  as  well  as  the  "boundaries"  of  their 
respective  settlements  were  equally  the  appoint- 
ment of  God ;  the  nearer  countries  to  the  ori- 


ginal settlement  being  planted  first,  and  the 
remoter  in  succession.  These  primitive  settle- 
ments  seem  to  have  been  scattered  and  de- 
tached from  each  other  according  to  local 
convenience.  Even  so  late  as  the  tenth  gene- 
ration after  the  flood  in  Abraham's  days,  there 
were  considerable  tracts  of  land  in  Palestine 
unappropriated,  on  which  he  and  his  nephew, 
Lot,  freely  pastured  their  cattle  without  hin- 
derance  or  molestation.  That  country  was  not 
fully  peopled  till  the  fourth  generation  after, 
at  the  exode  of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt.  And 
Herodotus  represents  Scythia  as  an  uninhabit- 
ed desert,  until  Targitorus  planted  the  first 
'colony  there,  about  a  thousand  years,  at  most, 
before  Darius  Hystaspes  invaded  Scythia,  or 
about  B.  C.  1508.  The  orderly  settlements  of 
the  three  primitive  families  arc  recorded  in 
that  most  venerable  and  valuable  geographical 
chart,  the  tenth  chapter  of  Genesis,  in  which 
it  is  curious  to  observe  how  long  the  names  of 
the  first  settlers  have  been  preserved  among 
their  descendants,  even  down  to  the  present 
day  :— 

1.  Japheth,  the  eldest  son  of  Noah,  Gen.  x, 
21,  and  his  family,  are  first  noticed,  Gen.  x,  2-5. 
The  name  of  the  patriarch  himself  was  pre- 
served among  his  Grecian  descendants,  in  the 
proverb,  rov  'ldircrov  KpicfiiTcpo;,  older  than  Jape- 
tits,  denoting  the  remotest  antiquity.  The 
radical  part  of  the  word  'IaVtr,  evidently  ex- 
presses Japheth.  (1.)  Gomer,  his  eldest  son, 
was  the  father  of  the  Gomcrians.  These, 
spreading  from  the  regions  north  of  Armenia 
and  Bactriana,  Ezek.xxxviii,  6,  extended  them- 
selves westward  over  nearly  the  whole  conti- 
nent of  Europe  ;  still  retaining  tlxeir  paternal 
denomination,  with  some  slight  variation,  as 
Cimmerians,  in  Asia;  Cimbri  and  Umbri,  in 
Gaul  and  Italy;  and  Cymri,  Cambri,  and  Cum- 
hri,  in  Wales  and  Cumberland  at  the  present 
day.  They  are  also  identified  by  ancient  au- 
thors with  the  Galata?  of  Asia  Minor,  the  Gaels, 
Gaul'',  and  Celta?,  of  Europe,  who  likewise 
spread  from  the  Euxine  Sea,  to  the  Western 
Ocean  ;  and  from  the  Baltic  to  Italy  south- 
ward, and  first  planted  the  British  Isles.  Jo- 
eephus  remarks,  that  the  Galata;  were  called 
Toftaptlg,  Gomariani,  from  their  ancestor  Gomar. 
See  the  numerous  authorities  adduced  in  sup- 
port of  the  identity  of  the  Gomerians  and  Celts, 
by  that  learned  and  ingenious  antiquary,  Faber, 
in  his  "Origin  of  Pagan  Idolatry."  Of  Comer's 
sons,  Ashkenaz  appears  to  have  settled  on  the 
coasts  of  the  Euxine  Sea,  which  from  him 
seems  to  have  received  its  primary  denomina- 
tion of  "A^cvos,  Axenus,  nearly  resembling  Ash- 
kenaz ;  but  forgetting  its  etymology  in  process 
of  time,  the  Greeks  considered  it  as  a  compound 
term  in  their  own  language,  A-^'i-of,  signifying 
inhospitable ;  and  thence  metamorphosed  it  into 
EIj-£/i<o?,  Eii-xcnus,  "  very  hospitable."  His 
precise  settlement  is  represented  in  Scripture 
as  contiguous  to  Armenia,  westward;  for  the 
kingdoms  of  Ararat,  Minni,  and  Ashkenaz,  are 
noticed  together,  Jer.  li,  27.  Riphat,  the  second 
son  of  Gomer,  seems  to  have  given  name  to 
the  Iliphean  mountains  of  the  north  of  Asia  ; 
and  Togarmah,  the  third  son,  may  be  traced 


DIV 


311 


DIV 


in  the  Tiocmi  of  Strabo,  Hie  Trogmi  of  Cicero, 
and  Trogmades  of  tlie  council  of  Chalcedon, 
inhabiting  the  confines  of  Pontus  and  Cappa- 
docia.  (2.)  Magog,  Tubal,  and  Mesech,  sons 
of  Japhet,  are  noticed  together  by  Ezekiel,  as 
settled  in  the  north,  Ezek.  xxxviii,  2,  14,  15. 
And  as  the  ancestors  of  the  numerous  Scla- 
vonic  and  Tartar  tribes,  the  first  may  be  traced 
in  the  Mongogians,  Monguls,  and  Moguls  ; 
the  second,  in  the  Tobolski,  of  Siberia  ;  and 
the  third,  Mesech,  or  Mosoc,  in  the  Moschici, 
Moscow,  and  Muscovites.  (3.)  Madai  was  the 
father  of  the  Medes,  who  are  repeatedly  so 
denominated  in  Scripture,  2  Kings  xvii,  6 ;  Isa. 
xiii,  17  ;  Jer.  li,  11 ;  Dan.  v,  28,  &c.  (4.)  From 
Javan  was  descended  the  Javanians,  or  'Ia'oi/ts 
of  the  Greeks,  and  the  Yavanas  of  the  Hindus. 
Greece  itself  is  called  Javan  by  Daniel,  xi,  2 ; 
and  the  people  'Iaorsj  by  Homer  in  his  "  Iliad." 
These  aboriginal  'Idovcs  of  Greece  are  not  to  be 
confounded,  as  is  usually  the  case,  with  the 
later  ''lores,  who  invaded  and  subdued  the  Ja- 
vanian  territories,  and  were  of  a  different  stock. 
The  accurate  Pausanias  states,  that  the  name 
of  "Iwvej,  was  comparatively  modern,  while  that 
of  'Ia'oi/£s  is  acknowledged  to  have  been  the 
primitive  title  of  the  barbarians  who  were  sub- 
dued by  the  "loiv^g.  Strabo  remarks  that  Attica 
was  formerly  called  both  Ionia  and  las,  or  Ian  ; 
while  Herodotus  asserts,  that  the  Athenians 
were  not  willing  to  be  called  "Iwves ;  and  he 
derives  the  name  from  "liev,  the  son  of  Zuth, 
descended  from  Deucalion  or  Noah.  And  this 
Ion  is  said  by  Eusebius  to  have  been  the  ring- 
leader in  the  building  of  the  tower  of  Babel, 
and  the  first  introducer  of  idol  worship,  and 
Sabranism,  or  adoration  of  the  sun,  moon,  and 
stars.  This  would  identify  Ion  with  Nimrod. 
And  the  Ionians  appear  to  have  been  composed 
of  the  later  colonists,  the  Palli,  Pelasgi,  or  rov- 
ing tribes  from  Asia,  Pheuicia,  and  Egypt,  who, 
according  to  Herodotus,  first  corrupted  the  sim- 
plicity of  the  primitive  religion  of  Greece,  and 
who,  by  the  Hindus,  were  called  Yonigas,  or 
worshippers  of  the  yoni  or  dove.  This  critical 
distinction  between  the  laones  and  the  Iones, 
the  Yavanas,  and  the  Yonigas,  we  owe  to  the 
sagacity  of  Faber.  Of  Javan's  sons,  Elishah 
and  Dodon,  may  be  recognized  in  Elis  and 
Dodona,  the  oldest  settlements  of  Greece ; 
Kittim,  in  the  Citium  of  Macedonia,  and  Chit- 
tim,  or  maritime  coasts  of  Greece  and  ltajy, 
Num.  xxiv,  24;  and  Tarshish,  in  the  Tarsus 
of  Cilicia,  and  Tartessus  of  Spain. 

2.  Ham  and  his  family  are  next  noticed, 
Gen.  x,  6-20.  The  name  of  the  patriarch  is 
recorded  in  the  title  frequently  given  to  Egypt, 
"  The  land  of  Ham,"  Psalm  cv,  23,  &c.  (1.)  Of 
his  sons,  the  first  and  most  celebrated  appears 
to  have  been  Gush,  who  gave  name  to  the  land 
of  Oush,  both  in  Asia  and  Africa ;  the  former 
still  called  Chusistan  by  the  Arabian  geo- 
graphers, and  Susiana  by  the  Greeks,  and 
Cusha  Dwipa  Within,  by  the  Hindus ;  the 
other,  called  Cusha  Dwipa  Without.  And  the 
enterprising  Cushim  or  Cuthim,  of  Scripture, 
in  Asia  and  Europe,  assumed  the  title  of  Getre, 
Guiths,  and  Goths ;  and  of  Scuths,  Scuits,  and 
Scots;  and  of  Sacas,  Sacasenas,  and  Saxons. 


The  original  family  settlement  of  Abraham 
was  "  Ur  of  the  Chasdim,"  or  Chaldecs,  Gen. 
xi,  28,  who  are  repeatedly  mentioned  in  Scrip- 
ture, Isa.  xiii,  9;  Dan.  ix,  1,  &,c.  According 
to  Faber's  ingenious  remark,  it  may  more  pro- 
perly be  pronounced  Chus-dirn,  signifying  God- 
like Cushites.  It  is  highly  improbable  that 
they  were  so  named  from  Chesed,  Abraham's 
nephew,  Gen.  xxii,  22,  who  was  a  mere  boy, 
if  born  at  all,  when  Abraham  left  Ur,  and  was 
an  obscure  individual,  never  noticed  afterward. 
Of  Cush's  sons,  Seba,  Havilah,  Sabtah,  Sab- 
tacha,  and  Raamah  ;  and.  the  sons  of  Raamah, 
Slieba,  and  Dedan,  seum  to  have  settled  in 
Idumea  and  Arabia,  from  the  similar  names  of 
places  there  ;  and  of  his  descendants,  Nimrod, 
the  mighty  hunter,  first  founded  the  kingdom 
of  Babylon,  and  afterward  of  Assyria,  invading 
the  settlements  of  the  Shemites,  contrary  to 
the  divine  decree.  His  posterity  were  probably 
distinguished  by  the  title  of  Chusdim,  Isaiah 
xxiii,  13.  (2.)  The  second  son  of  Ham  was 
Misr,  or  Mizraiin.  He  settled  in  Egypt,  whence 
the  Egyptians  were  universally  styled  in  Scrip, 
ture,  Mizraim,  or  Mizraites,  in  the  plural  form. 
But  the  country  is  denominated  in  the  east,  to 
this  day,  "  the  land  of  Misr ;"  which,  therefore, 
seems  to  have  been  the  name  of  the  patriarch 
himself.  The  children  of  Misr,  like  their 
father,  are  denominated  in  Scripture  by  the 
plural  number.  Of  these,  the  Ludim  and  Le- 
habim  were  probably  the  Copto-Libyans,  Ezek. 
xxx,  5  ;  the  Naphtuhim  occupied  the  sea  coast, 
which  by  the  Egyptians  was  called  Nephthus; 
whence,  probably,  originated  the  name  of  the 
maritime  god  Neptune.  The  Pathrusim  occu- 
pied a  part  of  Lower  Egypt,  called  from  them 
Pathros,  Isa.  xi,  11.  The  Caphtorim  and  the 
Casluhim,  whose  descendants  were  the  Philis- 
tim  of  Palestine,  occupied  the  district  which 
lies  between  the  deltc  of  the  Nile  and  the 
southern  extremity  of  Palestine,  Deut.  ii,  23 ; 
Amos  ix,  7.  (3.)  Phut  U  merely  noticed,  with- 
out any  mention  of  his  family.  But  the  tribes 
of  Phut  and  LuJ  are  mentioned  together,  with 
Cush,  or  Ethiopia,  Jer.  xlvi,  9;  Ezek.  xxx,  5; 
and  Jcrom  notices  a  district  in  Libya,  called 
Regio  Fhutensis,  or  the  land  of  Phut.  (4.)  Ca- 
naan has  been  noticed  already;  and  the  origi. 
nal  extent  of  the  land  of  Canaan  is  carefully 
marked  by  Moses.  Its  western  border,  along 
the  Mediterranean  Sea,  extended  from  Sidon, 
southward,  to  Gaza ;  its  southern  border  from 
thence,  eastward,  to  Sodom  and  Gomorrah, 
Admah  and  Zeboim,  the  cities  of  the  plain, 
afterward  covered  by  the  Dead  Sea,  or  Asphal- 
tite  Lake  ;  its  eastern  border  extending  from 
thence  northward,  to  Laish,  Dan,  or  the  springs 
of  the  Jordan;  and  its  northern  border,  from 
thence  to  Sidon,  westward.  Of  Canaan's  sons, 
Sidon,  the  eldest,  occupied  the  north-west  cor- 
ner, and  built  the  town  of  that  name,  so  early 
celebrated  for  her  luxury  and  commerce  in 
Scripture,  Judges  xviii,  7;  1  Kings  v,  6;  and 
by  Homer,  who  calls  the  Sidonians,  iroXu- 
iixda'Xot,  skilled  in  many  arts.  And  Tyre,  so 
flourishing  afterward,  though  boasting  of  her 
own  antiquity,  Isa.  xxiii,  7,  is  styled,  "  a 
daughter  of  Sidon,"  or  a  colony  from  thence, 


DIV 


312 


DIV 


Isa.  v,  12.  Heth,  his  second  son,  and  the 
Hittites,  his  descendants  appear  to  have  settled 
in  the  south,  near  Hebron,  Gen.  xxiii,  3-7; 
and  next  to  them,  at  Jerusalem,  the  Jebusites, 
or  descendants  of  Jehus,  both  remaining  in 
their  original  settlements  till  David's  days ; 
2  Sam.  xi,  3 ;  v,  6-9.  Beyond  the  Jebusites, 
were  settled  the  Emoritcs,  or  Amorites,  Num. 
xiii,  29,  who  extended  themselves  beyond  Jor- 
dan, and  were  the  most  powerful  of  the  Ca- 
naanite  tribes,  Gen.  xv,  16 ;  Num.  xxi,  21, 
until  they  were  destroyed  by  Moses  and  Joshua, 
with  the  rest  of  the  devoted  nations  of  Canaan's 
family. 

3.  Shem  and  his  family  are  noticed  last, 
Gen.  x,  21-30.  His  posterity  were  confined  to 
middle  Asia.  (1.)  His  son  Elam  appears  to 
have  been  settled  in  Elymais,  or  southern  Per- 
sia, contiguous  to  the  maritime  tract  of  Chusis- 
tan,  Dan.  viii,  2.  (2.)  His  son  Ashur  planted 
the  land  thence  called  Assyria,  which  soon 
became  a  province  of  the  Cushite,  or  Cuthic 
empire,  founded  by  Nimrod.  (3.)  Arphaxad, 
through  his  grand?nn,  Eber,  branched  out  into 
the  two  houses  of  Peleg  and  Joktan.  Peleg 
probably  remained  in  Ohaldea,  or  southern 
Babylonia,  at  the  time  of  the  dispersion  ;  for 
there  we  find  his  grandson,  Terah,  and  his 
family,  settled  at  "  Ur  of  the  Chaldecs,"  Gen. 
xi,  31.  Of  the  numerous  children  of  Joktan, 
it  is  said  by  Moses,  that  "their  dwelling  was 
from  Mesha,  as  thou  goest  unto  Sephar,  a 
mount  of  the  east."  Faber  is  inclined  to  be- 
lieve that  they  were  the  ancestors  of  the  great 
body  of  the  Hindus,  who  still  retain  a  lively 
tradition  of  the  patriarch  Shem,  Shama,  or 
Sharma;  and  that  the  land  of  Ophir,  abound- 
ing in  gold,  so  called  from  one  of  the  sons 
of  Joktan,  lay  beyond  the  Indus,  eastward. 
(4.)  Lad  was  probably  the  father  of  the  Ludim 
or  Lydians,  of  Asia  Minor ;  for  this  people  had 
a  tradition  that  they  were  descended  from  Lud 
or  Lydus,  according  to  Josephus.  (5.)  The 
children  of  Aram  planted  the  fertile  country 
north  of  Babylonia,  called  Aram  Naharaim, 
"Aram  between  the  two  rivers,"  the  Euphrates 
and  the  Tigris,  thence  called  by  the  Groeks, 
Mesopotamis,  Gen.  xxiv,  10,  and  Padan  Aram, 
the  level  country  of  Aram,  Gen.  xxv,  20.  This 
country  of  Aram  is  frequently  rendered  Syria 
in  Scripture,  Judges  x,  6 ;  Hosea  xii,  12,  <fcc ; 
which  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  Palestine 
Syria,  into  which  they  afterward  spread  them- 
selves, still  retaining  their  original  name  of 
"Api/ioi,  or  Arameans,  noticed  by  Homer  in  hie 
"  Iliad." 

4.  Upon  this  distribution  of  Noah's  posterity 
we  shall  only  observe,  that  the  Deity  presided 
over  all  their  counsels  and  deliberations, and  that 
he  guided  and  settled  all  mankind  according  to 
the  dictates  of  his  all-comprehending  wisdom 
and  benevolence.  To  this  purpose,  the  ancients 
themselves,  according  to  Pindar,  retained  some 
idea  that  the  dispersion  of  men  was  not  the  ef- 
fect of  chance,  but  that  they  had  been  settled  in 
different  countries  by  the  appointment  of  Pro- 
vidence, Gen.  xi,  8,  9 ;  Deut.  xxii,  8.  This 
dispersion,  and  that  confusion  of  languages 
with  which  it  originated,  was  intended,  by  the 


counsel  of  an  all-wise  Providence,  to  counter- 
act and  defeat  the  scheme  which  had  "b«en 
projected  by  the  descendants  of  Noah,  foi 
maintaining  their  union,  implied  in  their  pro- 
posing to  make  themselves  a  name,  op ,  which 
Schultens,  in  Job  i,  1,  derives  from  the  Arabic 
verb  i\CV,  or  ndc,  to  be  Irigh  elevated,  or  emi- 
nent. By  this  scheme,  which  seems  to  have 
been  a  project  of  state  policy,  for  keeping  all 
men  together  under  the  present  chiefs  and  their 
successors,  a  great  part  of  the  earth  must,  for 
a  long  time,  have  been  uninhabited,  and  over- 
run with  wild  beasts.  The  bad  effects  which 
this  project  would  have  had  upon  the  minds, 
the  morals,  and  religion  of  mankind,  was,  pro- 
bably, the  chief  reason  why  God  interposed  to 
frustrate  it  as  soon  as  it  was  formed.  It  had 
manifestly  a  direct  tendency  to  tyranny,  op- 
pression, and  slavery.  Whereas  in  forming 
several  independent  governments  by  a  small 
body  of  men,  the  ends  of  government,  and  the 
security  of  liberty  and  property,  would  be 
much  better  attended  to,  and  more  firmly  es- 
tablished;  which,  in  fact,  was  really  the  case; 
if  we  may  judge  of  the  rest  by  the  constitution 
of  one  of  the  most  eminent,  the  kingdom  of 
Egypt,  Gen.  xlvii,  15-27.  The  Egyptians  were 
masters  of  their  persons  and  property,  till  they 
sold  them  to  Pharaoh  for  bread ;  and  then  their 
servitude  amounted  to  no  more  than  the  fifth 
part  of  the  produce  of  the  country,  as  an 
annual  tax  payable  to  the  king.  By  this  event, 
considered  as  a  wise  dispensation  of  Provi- 
dence, bounds  were  set  to  the  contagion  of 
wickedness ;  evil  example  was  confined,  and 
could  not  extend  its  influence  beyond  the 
limits  of  one  country;  nor  could  wicked  pro- 
jects be  carried  on,  with  universal  concurrence, 
by  many  small  colonies,  separated  by  the  na- 
tural boundaries  of  mountains,  rivers,  barren 
deserts,  and  seas,  and  hindered  from  associating 
together  by  a  variety  of  languages,  unintel- 
ligible to  each  other.  Moreover,  in  this  dis- 
persed state,  they  could,  whenever  God  pleased, 
be  made  reciprocal  checks  upon  each  other,  by 
invasions  and  wars,  which  would  weaken  the 
power,  and  humble  the  pride,  of  corrupt  and 
vicious  communities.  This  dispensation  was, 
therefore,  properly  calculated  to  prevent  a 
second  universal  degeneracy ;  God  dealing  in 
it  with  men  as  rational  agents,  and  adapting 
his  scheme  to  their  state  and  circumstances. 

DIVORCE.  As  the  ancient  Hebrews  paid 
a  stipulated  price  for  the  privilege  of  marrying, 
they  seemed  to  consider  it  the  natural  conse- 
quence of  making  a  payment  of  that  kind,  that 
they  should  be  at  liberty  to  exercise  a  very 
arbitrary  power  over  their  wives,  and  to  re- 
nounce or  divorce  them  whenever  they  chose. 
This  state  of  things,  as  Moses  lumself  very 
clearly  saw,  was  not  equitable  as  respected  the 
woman,  and  was  very  often  injurious  to  both 
parties.  Finding  himself,  however,  unablo  to 
overrule  feelings  and  practices  of  very  ancient 
standing,  he  merely  annexed  to  the  original 
institution  of  marriage  a  very  serious  admoni- 
tion to  this  effect,  viz.  that  it  would  be  less 
criminal  for  a  man  to  desert  his  father  and 
mother,  than  without  adequate  cause  to  desert 


DOC 


313 


DOG 


his  wife,  Gen.  ii,  14,  compared  with  Malachi 
ii,  11-16.  He  also  laid  a  restriction  upon  the 
power  of  the  husband  as  far  as  this,  that  he 
would  not  permit  him  to  repudiate  the  wife 
without  giving  her  a  bill  of  divorce.  He 
farther  enacted  in  reference  to  this  subject 
that  the  husband  might  receive  the  repudiated 
wife  back,  in  case  she  had  not  in  the  mean- 
while been  married  to  another  person ;  but  if 
she  had  been  thus  married,  she  could  never 
afterward  become  the  wife  of  her  first  husband ; 
a  law,  which  the  faith  due  to  the  second  hus- 
band clearly  required,  Dent,  xxiv,  1-4,  compare 
Jer.  Hi,  1,  and  Matt,  i,  19 ;  xix,  8.  The  in- 
quiry, "  What  should  be  considered  an  adequate 
cause  of  divorce,"  was  left  by  Moses  to  be  de- 
termined by  the  husband  himself.  He  had 
liberty  to  divorce  her,  if  he  saw  in  her  any 
thing  naked,  any  thing  displeasing  or  improper, 
any  thing  so  much  at  war  with  propriety,  and 
a  source  of  so  much  dissatisfaction  as  to  be,  in 
the  estimation  of  the  husband,  sufficient  ground 
for  separation.  These  expressions,  however, 
„  were  sharply  contested  as  to  their  meaning  in 
the  later  times  of  the  Jewish  nation.  The 
school  of  Hillel  contended,  that  the  husband 
might  lawfully  put  away  the  wife  for  any 
cause,  even  the  smallest.  The  mistake  com- 
mitted by  the  school  of  Hillel  in  taking  this 
ground  was,  that  they  confounded  moral  and 
civil  law.  It  is  true,  as  far  as  the  Mosaic 
statute  or  the  civil  law  was  concerned,  the 
husband  had  a  right  thus  to  do;  but  it  is 
equally  clear,  that  the  ground  of  just  separation 
must  have  been,  not  a  trivial,  but  a  prominent 
and  important  one,  when  it  is  considered,  that 
he  was  bound  to  consult  the  rights  of  the 
woman,  and  was  amenable  to  his  conscience 
and  his  God.  The  school  of  Shammai  ex- 
plained the  phrase,  nakedness  of  a  thing,  to 
mean  actual  adultery.  Our  Lord  agreed  with 
the  school  of  Shammai  as  far  as  this,  that  the 
ground  of  divorce  should  be  one  of  a  moral 
nature,  and  not  less  than  adultery;  but  he  does 
not  appear  to  have  agreed  with  them  in  their 
opinion  in  respect  to  the  Mosaic  statute.  On 
the  contrary,  he  denied  the  equity  of  that  sta- 
tute, and  in  justification  of  Moses  maintained, 
that  he  permitted  divorces  for  causes  below 
adultery,  only  in  consequence  of  the  hardness 
of  the  people's  hearts,  Matt,  v,  31,  32 ;  xviii, 
1-9;  Mark  x,  2-12;  Luke  xvi,  18.  Wives, 
who  were  considered  the  property  of  their  hus- 
bands, did  not  enjoy  by  the  Mosaic  statutes  a 
reciprocal  right,  and  were  not  at  liberty  to  dis- 
solve the  matrimonial  alliance  by  giving  a  bill 
of  divorce  to  that  effect.  In  the  latter  periods, 
however,  of  the  Jewish  state,  the  Jewish  ma- 
trons, the  more  powerful  of  them  at  least, 
appear  to  have  imbibed  the  spirit  of  the  ladies 
of  Rome,  and  to  have  exercised  in  their  own 
behalf  the  same  power  that  was  granted  by 
the  Mosaic  law  only  to  their  husbands,  Mark 
vi,  17-29  ;  x,  12. 

DOCETjE,  the  advocates  of  an  early  heresy, 
which  taught  that  Christ  acted  and  suffered, 
not  in  reality,  but  in  appearance.  They  were 
so  denominated  from  ioKt'iv,  to  appear.  See 
Gnostics. 


DOCTORS,  or  Teachers,  of  the  law,  a  class 
of  men  in  great  repute  among  the  Jews.  They 
had  studied  the  law  of  Moses  in  its  various 
branches,  and  the  numerous  interpretations 
which  had  been  grafted  upon  it  in  later  times ; 
and,  on  various  occasions,  they  gave  their 
opinion  on  cases  referred  to  them  for  advice. 
Nicodemus,  himself  a  doctor  ( <5  «5<i  erica  Xos,  teach, 
er)  of  the  law,  comes  to  consult  Jesus,  whom 
he  compliments  in  the  same  terms  as  he  was 
accustomed  to  receive  from  his  scholars : 
"  Rabbi,  we  know  that  thou  art  Si&doKa\os,  a 
competent  teacher  from  God."  Doctors  of 
the  law  were  chiefly  of  the  sect  of  the  Phari- 
sees ;  but  they  are  sometimes  distinguished 
from  that  sect,  Luke  v,  17. 

DOG,  3*73,  an  animal  well  known.  By  the 
law  of  Moses,  the  dog  was  declared  unclean, 
and  was  held  in  great  contempt  among  the 
Jews,  1  Sam.  xvij,  43  ;  xxiv,  14 ;  2  Sam.  ix,  8 ; 
2  Kings  viii,  13.  Yet  they  had  them  in  con- 
siderable numbers  in  their  cities.  They  were 
not,  however,  shut  up  in  their  houses  or  courts, 
but  forced  to  seek  their  food  where  they  could 
find  it.  The  Psalmist  compares  violent  men 
to  dogs,  who  go  about  the  city  in  the  night, 
prowl  about  for  their  food,  and  growl,  and  be- 
come clamorous  if  they  be  not  satisfied,  Psalm 
lix,  6,  14,  15.  Mr.  Harmer  has  illustrated  this 
by  quotations  from  travellers  into  the  east. 
The  Turks  also  reckonthe  dog  a  filthy  creature, 
and  therefore  drive  him  from  their  houses ;  so 
that  with  them  dogs  guard  rather  the  streets 
and  districts,  than  particular  houses,  and  live 
on  the  offals  that  are  thrown  abroad.  In 
1  Sam.  xxv,  3,  Nabal  is  said  to  have  been 
"  churlish  and  evil  in  his  manners  ;  and  he  was 
of  the  house  of  Caleb  ;"  but  Caleb  here  is  not  a 
proper  najne.  Literally,  it  is,  "  He  was  the 
son  of  a  dog;"  and  so  the  Septuagint,  Syriac, 
and  Arabic  render  it, — he  was  irritable,  snap- 
pish, and  snarling  as  a  dog.  The  irritable  dis- 
position of  the  dog  is  the  foundation  of  that 
saying,  "  He  that  passeth  by,  and  meddleth 
with  strife  belonging  not  to  him,  is  like  one 
that  taketh  a  dog  by  the  ears,"  Prov.  xxvi,  17; 
that  is,  he  wantonly  exposes  himself  to  danger. 

In  1  Kings  xxi,  23,  it  is  said,  "The  dogs 
shall  eat  Jezebel."  Mr.  Bruce,  when  at  Gon- 
dar,  was  witness  to  a  scene  in  a  great  measure 
similar  to  the  devouring  of  Jezebel  by  dogs. 
He  says,  "  The  bodies  of  those  killed  by  the 
sword  were  hewn  to  pieces,  and  scattered 
about  the  streets,  being  denied  burial.  I  was 
miserable,  and  almost  driven  to  despair,  at 
seeing  my  hunting  dogs,  twice  let  loose  by  the 
carelessness  of  my  servants,  bringing  into  the 
court  yard  the  heads  and  arms  of  slaughtered 
men,  and  which  I  could  no  way  prevent  but 
by  the  destruction  of  the  dogs  themselves." 
He  also  adds,  that  upon  being  asked  by  the 
king  the  reason  of  his  dejected  and  sickly  ap- 
pearance, among  other  reasons,  he  informed 
him,  "it  was  occasioned  by  an  execution  of 
three  men,  which  he  had  lately  seen ;  because 
the  hyaenas,  allured  into  the  streets  by  the 
quantity  of  carrion,  would  not  let  him  pass 
by  night  in  safety  from  the  palace  ;  and  be- 
cause the  dogs  fled  into  his  house,  to  eat 


DOG 


314 


DOV 


pieces  of  human  carcasses  at  their  leisure." 
This  account  illustrates  also  the  readiness  of 
the  dogs  to  lick  the  blood  of  Ahab,  1  Kings 
xxii,  38  ;  in  conformity  to  which  is  the  expres- 
sion of  the  Prophet  Jeremiah,  xv,  3,  "  I  will 
appoint  over  them  the  sword  to  slay,  and  the 
dogs  to  tear." 

:2.  The  dog  was  held  sacred  by  the  Egyp- 
tians. This  fact  we  learn  from  Juvenal,  who 
complains,  in  his  fifteenth  satire, 

Oppida  tola  canem  vencrantur,  nemo  Dianam. 

"Thousands  regard  the  hound  with  holy  fear, 
Not  one,  Diana."  Gifford. 

The  testimony  of  the  Latin  poet  is  confirmed 
by  Diodorus,  who,  in  his  first  book,  assures  us 
that  the  Egyptians  highly  venerate  some  ani- 
mals, both  during  their  life  and  after  their 
death ;  and  expressly  mentions  the  dog  as  one 
object  of  this  absurd  adoration.  To  these 
witnesses  may  be  added  Herodotus,  who  says, 
that  when  a  dog  expires,  all  the  members  of 
the  family  to  which  he  belonged  worship  the 
carcass;  and  that,  in  every  part  of  the  king- 
dom, the  carcasses  of  their  dogs  are  embalmed, 
and  deposited  in  consecrated  ground.  The 
idolatrous  veneration  of  the  dog  by  the  Egyp- 
tians is  shown  in  the  worship  of  their  dog-god 
Anubis,  to  whom  temples  and  priests  were 
consecrated,  and  whose  image  was  borne  in 
all  religious  ceremonies.  Cynopolis,  the  pre- 
sent Miniehj  situated  in  the  lower  Thebais, 
was  built  in  honour  of  Anubis.  The  priests 
celebrated  his  festivals  there  with  great  pomp. 
"Anubis,"  says  Strabo,  "is  the  city  of  dogs, 
the  capital  of  the  Cynopolitan  prefecture. 
These  animals  are  fed  there  on  sacred  aliments, 
and  religion  has  decreed  them  a  worship." 
An  event,  however,  related  by  .Plutarch, 
brought  them  into  considerable  discredit  with 
the  people.  Cambyses,  having  slain  the  god 
Apis,  and  thrown  his  body  into  the  field,  all 
animals  respected  it  except  the  dogs,  which 
alone  ate  of  his  flesh.  This  impiety  diminish- 
ed the  popular  veneration.  Cynopolis  was  not 
the  only  city  where  incense  was  burned  on 
the  altars  of  Anubis.  He  had  chapels  in 
almost  all  the  temples.  On  solemnities,  his 
image  always  accompanied  those  of  Isis  and 
Osiris.  Rome,  having  adopted  the  ceremonies 
of  Egypt,  the  emperor  Commodus,  to  celebrate 
the  Isiac  feasts,  shaved  his  head,  and  himself 
carried  the  dog  Anubis. 

3.  In  Matt,  vii,  6,  we  have  this  direction  of 
our  Saviour :  "  Give  not  that  which  is  holy  un- 
to the  dogs,  neither  cast  ye  your  pearls  before 
swine,  lest  they,"  the  swine,  "trample  them 
under  their  feet,  and,"  the  dogs,  "turn  again 
and  tear  you."  It  was  customary,  not  only 
with  the  writers  of  Greece  and  Rome,  but  also 
with  the  eastern  sages,  to  denote  certain  classes 
of  men  by  animals  supposed  to  resemble  them 
among  the  brutes.  Our  Saviour  was  naturally 
led  to  adopt  the  same  concise  and  energetic 
method.  By  dogs,  which  were  held  in  great 
detestation  by  the  Jews,  he  intends  men  of 
odious  character  and  violent  temper ;  by  swine, 
the  usual  emblem  of  moral  filth,  he  means  the 
Bonsual  and  profligate ;  and  the  purport  of  his 


admonition  is,  that  as  it  is  a  maxim  with  the 
priests  not  to  give  any  part  of  the  sacrifices  to 
dogs,  so  it  should  be  a  maxim  with  you  not  to 
impart  the  holy  instruction  with  which  you 
are  favoured,  to  those  who  are  likely  to  blas- 
pheme and  to  be  only  excited  by  it  to  rage  and 
persecution.  It  is,  however,  a  maxim  of  pru- 
dence not  of  cowardice ;  and  is  to  be  Liken 
along  with  other  precepts  of  our  Lord,  which 
enjoin  the  publication  of  truth,  at  the  expense 
of  ease  and  even  life. 

DORT,  Synod  of.     See  Synods. 

DOVE,  rui\  This  beautiful  genus  of  birds 
is  very  numerous  in  the  east.  In  the  wild  state 
they  generally  build  their  nests  in  the  holes  or 
clefts  of  rocks,  or  in  excavated  trees ;  but  they 
are  easily  taught  submission  and  familiarity 
with  mankind  ;  and,  when  domesticated,  build 
in  structures  erected  for  their  accommodation, 
called  "dove-cotes."  They  are  classed  by 
Moses  among  the  clean  birds;  and  it  appears 
from  the  sacred  as  well  as  other  writers,  that 
doves  were  always  held  in  the  highest  estima- 
tion among  the  eastern  nations.  Rosenmuller, 
in  a  note  upon  Bochart,  derives  the  name  from 
the  Arabic,  where  it  signifies  mildness,  gentle- 
ness,  &c.  The  dove  is  mentioned  in  Scrip- 
ture as  the  symbol  of  simplicity,  innocence, 
gentleness,  and  fidelity,  Hosea  vii,  11 ;  Matt. 
x,  16. 

The  following  extract  from  Moricr's  Persian 
Travels  illustrates  a  passage  in  Isaiah :  "  In 
the  environs  of  the  city,  to  the  westward,  near 
the  Zainderood,  are  many  pigeon  houses, 
erected  at  a  distance  from  habitations,  for  the 
sole  purpose  of  collecting  pigeons'  dung  for 
manure.  They  are  large  round  towers,  rather 
broader  at  the  bottom  than  the  top,  and  crown- 
ed by  conical  spiracles,  through  which  the 
pigeons  descend.  Their  interior  resembles  a 
honey-comb,  pierced  with  a  thousand  holes, 
each  of  which  forms  a  snug  retreat  for  a  nest. 
More  care  appears  to  have  been  bestowed  up- 
on their  outside  than  upon  that  of  the  gene- 
rality of  the  dwelling  houses;  for  they  are 
painted  and  ornamented.  The  extraordinary 
flights  of  pigeons  which  I  have  seen  alight 
upon  one  of  these  buildings  aflord,  perhaps,  a 
good  illustration  for  the  passage  in  Isaiah  lx, 
8 :  '  Who  are  these  that  fly  as  a  cloud,  and  as 
the  doves  to  their  windows  ?'  Their  great 
numbers,  and  the  compactness  of  their  mass, 
literally  look  like  a  cloud  at  a  distance,  and 
obscure  the  sun  in  their  passage." 

The  first  mention  of  the  dove  in  the  Scrip, 
ture  is  Genesis  viii,  8,  10-12,  where  Noah  sent 
one  from  the  ark  to  ascertain  if  the  waters  of 
the  deluge  had  assuaged.  She  was  sent  forth 
thrice.  The  first  time  she  speedily  returned; 
having,  in  all  probability,  gone  but  a  little  way 
from  the  ark,  as  she  must  naturally  be  terrified 
at  the  appearance  of  the  waters.  After  seven 
days,  being  sent  out  a  second  time,  she  return- 
ed with  an  olive  leaf  plucked  off,  whereby  it 
became  evident  that  the  flood  was  considerably 
abated,  and  had  sunk  below  the  tops  of  the 
trees ;  and  thus  relieved  the  fears  and  cheered 
the  heart  of  Noah  and  his  family.  And  hence 
the  olive  branch  has  ever  been  among  the  fore. 


DRE 


315 


BUS 


runners  of  peace,  and  chief  of  those  emblems 
by  which  a  happy  state  of  renovation  and 
restoration  to  prosperity  has  been  signified  to 
mankind.  At  the  end  of  other  seven  days,  the 
dove,  being  sent  out  a  third  time,  returned  no 
more ;  from  which  Noah  conjectured  that  the 
earth  was  so  far  drained  as  to  afford  sustenance 
for  the  birds  and  fowls ;  and  he  therefore  re- 
moved the  covering  of  the  ark,  which  probably 
gave  liberty  to  many  of  the  fowls  to  fly  oft'; 
and  these  circumstances  afforded  him  the 
greater  facility  for  making  arrangements  for 
disembarking  the  other  animals.  Doves  might 
be  offered  in  sacrifice,  when  those  who  were 
poor  could  not  bring  a  more  costly  offering. 

DOWRY.  See  Bride. 
.  DRACHMA.  The  value  of  a  common 
drachma  was  sevenpence,  English.  A  didrach- 
ma,  or  double  drachma,  made  very  near  half  a 
shekel ;  and  four  drachmas  made  nearly  a 
shekel. 

DRAGON.  This  word  is  frequently  to  be 
met  with  in  our  English  translation  of  the 
Bible.  It  answers  generally  to  the  Hebrew 
>n,  pjn,  □,Jn ;  and  these  words  are  variously 
rendered  dragons,  serpents,  sea-monsters,  and 
ichales.  The  Rev.  James  Hurdis,  in  a  disser- 
tation relative  to  this  subject,  observes,  that 
the  word  translated  "whales,"  in  Gen.  i,  21, 
occurs  twenty-seven  timas  in  Scripture ;  and 
he  attempts,  with  much  ingenuity,  to  prove 
that  it  every  where  signifies  the  crocodile. 
That  it  sometimes  has  this  meaning,  he  thinks 
is  clear  from  Ezekiel  xxix,  3:  "Behold,  I  am 
against  thee,  Pharaoh  king  of  Egypt,  the  great 
dragon  that  lieth  in  the  midst  of  his  rivers." 
For,  to  what  could  a  king  of  Egypt  be  more 
properly  compared  than  the  crocodile  ?  The 
eame  argument  he  draws  from  Isaiah  li,  9 : 
"  Art  thou  not  he  that  hath  c\rt  Rahab,  [Egypt,] 
and  wounded  the  dragon  ?"  Among  the  an- 
cients the  crocodile  was  the  symbol  of  Egypt, 
and  appears  so  on  Roman  coins.  Some  how- 
ever have  thought  the  hippopotamus  intended; 
others,  one  of  the  larger  species  of  serpents. 

DRAUGHTS,  stupifying  potions.  At  the 
time  of  execution,  they  gave  the  malefactor  a 
grain  of  frankincense  in  a  cup  of  wine,  in  or- 
der to  stupify  and  render  him  less  sensible  of 
pain.  This  custom  is  traced  to  the  charge  of 
the  wise  man  :  "  Give  strong  drink  to  him  that 
is  ready  to  perish,  and  wine  to  those  that  be 
of  heavy  hearts,"  Prov.  xxxiv,  6.  The  pro- 
phet makes  an  allusion  to  the  powerful  effects 
of  this  stupifying  draught,  in  that  prediction 
which  announces  the  judgments  of  God  upon 
the  empire  of  Babylon :  "  Take  the  wine  cup 
of  this  fury  at  my  hand,  and  cause  all  the  na- 
tions to  whom  I  send  thee  to  drink  it.  And 
they  shall  drink,  and  be  moved,  and  be  mad, 
because  of  the  sword  that  I  will  send  among 
them,"  Jer.  xxv,  15,  16.  The  Jews,  according 
to  the  custom  of  their  country,  gave  our  Lord 
wine  mingled  with  myrrh  at  his  crucifixion. 
See  Cross. 

DREAMS.  The  easterns,  in  particular  the 
Jews,  greatly  regarded  dreams,  and  applied  for 
their  interpretation  to  those  who  undertook  to 
explain  them.     The  ancient  Greeks  and  Ro- 


mans had  the  same  opinion  of  them,  as  appears 
from  their  most  eminent  writers.  We  see  the 
antiquity  of  this  attention  to  dreams  in  the 
history  of  Pharaoh's  butler  and  baker,  Gen.  xl. 
Pharaoh  himself,  and  Nebuchadnezzar,  are  in- 
stances. God  expressly  condemned  to  death 
all  who  pretended  to  have  prophetic  dreams, 
and  to  foretel  futurities,  even  though  what 
they  foretold  came  to  pass,  if  they  had  any 
tendency  to  promote  idolatry,  Deut.  xiii,  1-3. 
But  the  people  were  not  forbidden,  when  they 
thought  they  had  a  significative  dream,  to  ad- 
dress the  prophets  of  the  Lord,  or  the  high 
priest  in  his  ephod,  to  have  it  explained.  Saul, 
before  the  battle  of  Gilboa,  consulted  a  woman 
who  had  a  familiar  spirit,  "because  the  Lord 
would  not  answer  him  by  dreams,  nor  by  pro- 
phets," 1  Sam.  ixviii,  6,  7.  The  Lord  himself 
sometimes  discovered  his  will  in  dreams,  and 
enabled  persons  to  explain  them.  He  inform- 
ed Abimelech  in  a  dream,  that  Sarah  was  the 
wife  of  Abraham,  Gen.  xx,  3,  6.  He  showed 
Jacob  the  mysterious  ladder  in  a  dream,  Gen. 
xxviii,  12, 13 ;  and  in  a  dream  an  angel  suggest, 
ed  to  him  a  means  of  multiplying  his  flocks, 
Genesis  xxxi,  11,  12,  &c.  Joseph  was  favoured 
very  early  with  prophetic  dreams,  whose  sig. 
nification  was  easily  discovered  by  Jacob,  Gen. 
xxxvii,  5.  God  said,  that  he  spake  to  other 
prophets  in  dreams,  but  to  Moses  face  to  face, 
The  Midianites  gave  credit  to  dreams,  as  ap. 
pears  from  that  which  a  Midianite  related  to 
his  companion  ;  and  from  whose  interpretation 
Gideon  took  a  happy  omen,  Judges  vii,  13,  15. 
The  Prophet  Jeremiah  exclaims  against  im- 
postors who  pretended  to  have  had  dreams, 
and  abused  the  credulity  of  the  people  :  "They 
prophesy  lies  in  my  name,  saying,  I  have 
dreamed,  I  have  dreamed.  The  prophet  that 
hath  a  dream,  let  him  tell  a  dream ;  and  he 
that  hath  my  word,  let  him  tell  it  faithfully, 
saith  the  Lord,"  Jer.  xxiii,  25,  28,  29.  The 
Prophet  Joel  promises  from  God,  that  in  the 
reign  of  the  Messiah,  the  effusion  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  should  be  so  copious,  that  the  old  men 
should  have  prophetic  dreams,  and  the  young 
men  should  receive  visions,  Joel  ii,  28. 

DRESS.     See  Habits. 

DROMEDARY.  This  name  answers  to 
two  words  in  the  original,  "D3,  and  feminine 
n"Q2,  Isa.  lx,  6 ;  Jer.  ii,  24 ;  and  aijirwriN, 
Esther  viii,  10,  "young dromedaries ;"  probably 
the  name  in  Persian.  The  dromedary  is  a  race 
of  camels  chiefly  remarkable  for  its  prodigious 
swiftness.  The  most  observable  difference  be- 
tween it  and  the  camel  is,  that  it  has  but  one 
protuberance  on  the  back ;  and  instead  of  the 
slow  solemn  walk  to  which  that  animal  is  ac- 
customed, it  will  go  as  far  in  one  day  as  the 
camel  in  three.  For  this  reason  it  is  used  to 
carry  messengers  where  haste  is  required.  The 
animal  is  governed  by  a  bridle,  which,  being 
usually  fastened  to  a  ring  fixed  in  the  nose, 
may  very  well  illustrate  the  expression,  2  Kings 
xix,  28,  of  turning  back  Sennacherib  by  putting 
a  hook  into  his  nose ;  and  may  farther  indicate 
his  swift  retreat. 

DUST,  or  ashes,  cast  on  the  head  was  a 
sign  of  mourning,  Josh,  vii,  6 :   sitting  in  the 


DUS 


316 


EAG 


dust,  a  sign  of  affliction,  Lam.  iii,  29 ;  Isaiah 
xlvii,  1.  The  dust  also  denotes  the  grave,  Gen. 
iii,  19  ;  Job  vii,  21 ;  Psalm  xxii,  15.  It  is  put 
for  a  great  multitude,  Gen.  xiii,  16;  Numbers 
xxiii,  10.  It  signifies  a  low  or  mean  condition, 
1  Sam.  ii,  8 ;  Nahum  iii,  18.  To  shake  or 
wipe  off  the  dust  of  a  place  from  one's  feet, 
marks  the  renouncing  of  all  intercourse  with 
it  in  future.  God  threatens  the  Jews  with  rain 
of  dust,  &c  ;  Deut.  xxviii,  24.  An  extract  from 
Sir  T.  Roe's  embassy  may  cast  light  on  this : 
"  Sometimes,  in  India,  the  wind  blows  very 
high  in  hot  and  dry  seasons,  raising  up  into 
the  air  a  very  great  height,  thick  clouds  of 
dust  and  sand.  These  dry  showers  most  griev- 
ously annoy  all  those  among  whom  they  fall ; 
enough  to  smite  them  all  with  present  blind- 
ness ;  filling  their  eyes,  ears,  nostrils,  and 
mouths  too,  if  not  well  guarded ;  searching 
every  place,  as  well  within  as  without,  so  that 
there  is  not  a  little  key-hole  of  any  trunk  or 
cabinet,  if  it  be  not  covered,  but  receives  this 
dust ;  add  to  this,  that  the  fields,  brooks,  and 
gardens,  suffer  extremely  from  these  terrible 
showers." 

2.  In  almost  every  part  of  Asia,  those  who 
demand  justice  against  a  criminal  throw  dust 
upon  him,  signifying  that  he  deserves  to  lose 
his  life,  and  be  cast  into  the  grave ;  and  that 
this  is  the  true  interpretation  of  the  action,  is 
evident  from  an  imprecation  in  common  use 
among  the  Turks  and  Persians,  "Be  covered 
with  earth!"  "  Earth  be  upon  thy  head."  We 
have  two  remarkable  instances  of  casting  dust 
recorded  in  Scripture :  the  first  is  that  of 
Shimei,  who  gave  vent  to  his  secret  hostility 
to  David,  when  he  fled  before  his  rebellious 
son,  by  throwing  stones  at  him,  and  casting 
dust,  2  Sam.  xvi,  13.  It  was  an  ancient  cus- 
tom, in  those  warm  and  >!rid  countries,  to  lay 
the  dust  before  a  person  of  distinction,  and 
particularly  before  kings  and  princes,  by 
sprinkling  the  ground  with  water.  To  throw 
dust  into  the  air  while  a  person  was  passing, 
was  therefore  an  act  of  great  disrespect ;  to  do 
so  before  a  sovereign  prince,  an  indecent  out- 
rage. But  it  is  clear  that  Shimei  meant  more 
than  disrespect  and  outrage  to  an  afflicted 
king,  whose  subject  he  was:  he  intended  to 
signify  by  that  action,  that  David  was  unfit 
to  live,  and  that  the  time  was  at  last  arrived  to 
offer  him  a  sacrifice  to  the  ambition  and  ven- 
geance of  the  house  of  Saul.  This  view  of  his 
conduct  is  confirmed  by  the  behaviour  of  the 
Jews  to  the  Apostle  Paul,  when  they  seized 
him  in  the  temple,  and  had  nearly  succeeded 
in  putting  him  to  death  :  they  cried  out,  "  Away 
with  such  a  fellow  from  the  earth,  for  it  is  not 
fit  that  he  should  live ;  and  as  they  cried  out 
and  cast  off  their  clothes,  and  threw  dust  into 
the  air,  tbe  chief  captain  commanded  him  to 
be  brought  into  the  castle,"  Acts  xxii,  23.  A 
great  similarity  appears  between  the  conduct 
of  the  Jews  on  this  occasion,  and  the  behaviour 
of  the  peasants  in  Persia,  when  they  go  to 
court  to  complain  of  the  governors,  whose  op- 
pressions they  can  no  longer  endure.  They 
carry  their  complaints  against  their  governors 
by  companies,  consisting  of  several  hundreds, 


and  sometimes  of  a  thousand ;  they  repair  to 
that  gate  of  the  palace  nearest  to  which  thoir 
prince  is  most  likely  to  be,  where  they  set 
themselves  to  make  the  most  horrid  cries,  tear, 
ing  their  garments,  and  throwing  dust  into  the 
air,  and  demanding  justice.  The  king,  upon 
hearing  these  cries,  sends  to  know  the  occasion 
of  them :  the  people  deliver  their  complaints  in 
writing,  upon  which  he  informs  them  that  he 
will  commit  the  cognizance  of  the  affair  to 
such  a  one  as  he  names ;  and  in  consequence 
of  this,  justice  is  usually  obtained. 

EAGLE,  -itt>j,  Exod.  xix,  4;  Lev.  xi,  13. 

The  name  is  derived  from  a  verb  which  signi- 
fies to  lacerate,  or  tear  in  pieces.  The  eagle  has 
always  been  considered  as  the  king  of  birds,  on 
account  of  its  great  strength,  rapidity  and  ele- 
vation of  flight,  natural  ferocity,  and  the  terror 
it  inspires  into  its  fellows  of  the  air.  Its  vo- 
racity is  so  great  that  a  large  extent  of  territory 
is  requisite  for  the  supply  of  proper  sustenance ; 
and  providence  has  therefore  constituted  it  a 
solitary  animal :  two  pair  of  eagles  are  never 
found  in  the  same  neighbourhood,  though  the 
genus  is  dispersed  through  every  quarter  of  the 
world.  Its  sight  is  quick,  strong,  and  piercing, 
to  a  proverb.  In  Job  xxxix,  27,  the  natural 
history  of  the  eagle  is  finely  drawn  up : — 

Is  it  at  thy  voice*hat  the  eagle  soars'? 

And  therefore  maketh  his  nest  on  high  1 

The  rock  is  the  place  of  his  habitation. 

He  abides  on  the  crag,  the  place  of  strength. 

Thence  he  pounces  upon  his  prey. 

His  eyes  discern  afar  off. 

Even  his  young  ones  drink  down  blood  ; 

And  wherever  is  slaughter,  there  is  he. 
Alluding  to  the  popular   opinion  that  the 
eagle  assists  its  feeble  young  in  their  flight, 
by  bearing  them  up  on  its  own  pinions,  Moses 
represents  Jehovah  as  saying,  "  Ye  have  seen 
what  I  did  to  the  Egyptians,  and  how  I  bore 
you  on  eagles'  wings,  and  brought  you  unto 
myself,"  Exod.  xix,  4.     Scheuchzer  has  quoted 
from  an  ancient  poet,  the  following  beautiful 
paraphrase  on  this  passage  : — 
Acvelut  alituum princeps,  fulvusque  tonantis 
Armiger,  implumes,  et  adhue  sine  roborenatos 
Sollicita  refovet  cura,  pinguisque  ferineB 
Jndulgel  pastus  :  mux  ut  cum  viribus  alee, 
Vesticipes  crevere,  vocat  se  blandior  aura, 
Expansa  invitat  pluma,  dorsoque  morantes 
Excipit,  attollitque  humeris,  plausuque  secundo 
Ferturin  arva,  timens  oneri,  et  tamen  impete  presso 
Jicmigium  tentans  alarum,  incurvaque  pinnis 
Vela  legens,  humiles  tranat  sub  nubibus  oras. 
Hinc  sensim  supra  alta  petit,  jam  jamque  sub  astra 
Erigitur,  cursusque  leves  citus  v.rget  in  auras, 
Omnia  pervulitans  late  loca,  et  agmine/atus 
Fertque  rejertque  suos  vario,  moremque  rolandi 
Addocet:  illi  autem,  longa  assuetndine  docti, 
Paulutim  incipiunt  pennis  se  credere  calo 
Impavidi :  tantum  a  teneris  valet  addere  curam. 

[And  as  the  king  of  birds,  and  tawny  armour, 
bearer  of  the  Thunderer,  cherishes  with  anxious 
care  his  unfledged,  and  as  yet  feeble  young, 
and  gratifies  their  appetite  with  rich  prey: 
presently  when  their  downy  wings  have  in- 
creased  in  strength,  a  milder  air  calls  them 
forth,  with  expanded  plumage  he  invites  them, 
and  receives  them  hesitating  on  his  back,  and 
sustains  them  on  his  shoulders,  and  with  easy 


EAG 


317 


EAG 


flight  is  borne  over  the  fields,  fearing  for  his 
burden,  and  yet  with  a  moderated  effort  trying 
the  rowing  of  their  wings,  and  furling  with 
his  pinions  his  curved  sails,  he  glides  through 
the  low  regions  beneath  the  clouds.  Hence  by 
degrees  he  soars  aloft,  and  now  he  mounts  to 
the  scarry  heaven,  and  swiftly  urges  his  rapid 
flight  through  the  air,  sweeping  widely  over 
space,  and  in  his  gyrations  bearing  his  offspring 
to  and  fro,  teaches  them  the  art  of  flying : — but 
they,  taught  by  long  practice,  gradually  begin 
to  trust  themselves  fearlessly  on  their  wings : 
So  much  does  it  avail  to  train  the  young  with 
care.] 

2.  When  Balaam  delivered  his  predictions 
respecting  the  fate  that  awaited  the  nations 
which  he  then  particularized,  he  said  of  the 
Kenites,  "  Strong  is  thy  dwelling,  and  thou 
puttest  thy  nest  in  a  rock,"  Num.  xxiv,  21 ; 
alluding  to  that  princely  bird,  the  eagle,  which 
not  only  delights  in  soaring  to  the  loftiest 
heights,  but  chooses  the  highest  rocks,  and  most 
elevated  mountains,  as  desirable  situations  for 
erecting  its  nest,  Hab.  ii,  9 ;  Obad.  4.  What 
Job  says  concerning  the  eagle,  which  is  to  be 
understood  in  a  literal  sense,  "  Where  the  slain 
are,  there  is  he,"  our  Saviour  turns  into  a  fine 
parable  :  "  Wheresoever  the  carcass  is,  there 
will  the  eagles  be  gathered  together,"  Matt, 
xxiv,  28  ;  that  is,  Wherever  the  Jews  are,  who 
have  corruptly  fallen  from  God,  there  will  be 
the  Romans,  who  bore  the  eagle  as  their  stand- 
ard, to  execute  vengeance  upon  them,  Luke 
xvii,  37. 

3.  The  swiftness  of  the  flight  of  the  eagle  is 
alluded  to  in  several  passages  of  Scripture ; 
as,  "  The  Lord  shall  bring  a  nation  against 
thee  from  afar,  from  the  end  of  the  earth,  as 
swift  as  the  eagle  flietli,"  Deut.  xxviii,  49.  In 
the  affecting  lamentation  of  David  over  Saul 
and  Jonathan,  their  impetuous  and  rapid  ca- 
reer is  described  in  forcible  terms:  "They 
were  swifter  than  eagles;  they  were  stronger 
than  lions,"  2  Sam.  i,  23.  Jeremiah  when  he 
beheld  in  vision  the  march  of  Nebuchadnez- 
zar, cried,  "  Behold,  he  shall  come  up  as  clouds, 
and  his  chariots  shall  be  as  a  whirlwind.  His 
horses  are  swifter  than  eagles.  Wo  unto  us, 
for  we  are  spoiled,"  Jer.  iv,  13.  To  the  wide- 
expanded  wings  of  the  eagle,  and  the  rapidity 
of  his  flight,  the  same  prophet  beautifully  al- 
ludes in  a  subsequent  chapter,  where  he 
describes  the  subversion  of  Moab  by  the  same 
ruthless  conqueror:  "Behold,  he  shall  fly  as 
an  eagle,  and  spread  his  wings  over  Moab," 
Jer.  xlviii,  40.  In  the  same  manner  he  de- 
scribes the  sudden  desolations  of  Ammon  in 
the  next  chapter;  but,  when  he  turns  his  eye 
to  the  ruins  of  his  own  country,  he  exclaims, 
in  still  more  energetic  language,  "  Our  perse- 
cutors are  swifter  than  the  eagles  of  the 
heavens,"  Lament,  iv,  19.  Under  the  same 
comparison  the  patriarch  Job  describes  the 
rapid  flight  of  time :  "  My  days  are  passed 
away,  as  the  eagle  that  hasteth  to  the  prey," 
Job  ix,  26.  The  surprising  rapidity  with  which 
the  blessings  of  common  providence  sometimes 
vanish  from  the  grasp  of  the  possessor  is  thus 
described    by    Solomon :    "  Riches    certainly 


make  themselves  wings :  they  fly  away  as  an 
eagle  toward  heaven,"  Prov.  xxiii,  5.  The 
flight  of  this  bird  is  as  sublime  as  it  is  rapid  and 
impetuous.  None  of  the  feathered  race  soar 
so  high.  In  his  daring  excursions  he  is  said 
to  leave  the  clouds  of  heaven,  and  regions  of 
thunder,  and  lightning,  and  tempest,  far  be- 
neath him,  and  to  approach  the  very  limits  of 
ether.  There  is  an  allusion  to  this  lofty  soar- 
ing in  the  prophecy  of  Obadiah,  concerning 
the  pride  of  Moab :  "  Though  thou  exalt  thy- 
self as  the  eagle,  and  though  thou  set  thy  nest 
among  the  stars,  thence  will  I  bring  thee 
down,  saith  the  Lord,"  Obad.  4.  The  prophet 
Jeremiah  pronounces  the  doom  of  Edom  in 
similar  terms :  "  O  thou  that  dwellest  in  the 
clefts  of  the  rock,  that  holdest  the  height  of 
the  hill ;  though  thou  shouldest  make  thy  nest 
high  as  the  eagle,  I  will  bring  thee  down  from 
thence,  saith  the  Lord,"  Jer.  xlix,  16.  The 
eagle  lives  and  retains  its  vigour  to  a  great  age  ; 
and,  after  moulting,  renews  its  vigour  so  sur- 
prisingly, as  to  be  said,  hyperbolically,  to  be- 
come young  again,  Psalm  ciii,  5,  and  Isaiah 
xl,  31.  It  is  remarkable  that  Cyrus,  compared, 
in  Isaiah  xlvi,  11,  to  an  eagle,  (so  the  word 
translated  "ravenous  bird"  should  be  render- 
ed,) had  an  eagle  for  his  ensign  according  to 
Xenophon,  who  uses,  without  knowing  it,  the 
identical  word  of  the  prophet,  with  only  a 
Greek  termination  to  it :  so  exact  is  the  cor- 
respondence between  the  prophet  and  the  his- 
torian, the  prediction  and  the  event.  Xenophon 
and  other  ancient  historians  inform  us  that  the 
golden  eagle  with  extended  wings  was  the  en- 
sign of  the  Persian  monarchs  long  before  it 
was  adopted  by  the  Romans ;  and  it  is  very 
probable  that  the  Persians  borrowed  the  sym- 
bol from  the  ancient  Assyrians,  in  whose  ban- 
ners it  waved,  till  imperial  Babylon  bowed  her 
head  to  the  yoke  of  Cyrus.  If  this  conjecture 
be  well  founded,  it  discovers  the  reason  why 
the  sacred  writers,  in  describing  the  victorious 
march  of  the  Assyrian  armies,  allude  so  fre- 
quently to  the  expanded  eagle.  Referring  to 
the  Babylonian  monarch,  the  prophet  Hosea 
proclaimed  in  the  ears  of  all  Israel,  the  mea- 
sure of  whose  iniquities  was  nearly  full,  "  He 
shall  come  as  an  eagle  against  the  house  of  the 
Lord,"  Hosea  viii,  1.  Jeremiah  predicted  a 
similar  calamity:  "Thus  saith  the  Lord,  Be- 
hold, he  shall  fly  as  an  eagle,  and  spread  his 
wings  over  Moab,"  Jer.  xlviii,  40 ;  and  the 
same  figure  was  employed  to  denote  the  de- 
struction that  overtook  the  house  of  Esau : 
"Behold,  he  shall  come  up  and  fly  as  the 
eagle,  and  spread  his  wings  over  Bozrah." 
xlix,  22.  The  words  of  these  prophets  received 
a  full  accomplishment  in  the  irresistible  im- 
petuosity and  complete  success  with  which  the 
Babylonian  monarchs,  and  particularly  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, pursued  their  plans  of  conquest. 
Ezekiel  denominates  him,  with  great  propriety, 
"a  great  eagle  with  great  wings,"  because  he 
was  the  most  powerful  monarch  of  his  time, 
and  led  into  the  field  more  numerous  and  bet- 
ter appointed  armies,  (which  the  prophet  calls, 
by  a  beautiful  figure,  "his  wings,"  the  wings 
of  his  army,)  than  perhaps  the  world  had  ever 


EAR 


318 


EAR 


Been.  The  Prophet  Isaiah,  referring  to  the 
same  monarch,  predicted  the  subjugation  of 
Judea  in  these  terms:  "He  shall  pass  through 
Judah.  He  shall  overflow,  and  go  over.  He 
shall  reach  even  to  the  neck ;  and  the  stretch- 
ing out  of  his  wings"  (the  array  of  his  army) 
"  shall  fill  the  breadth  of  thy  land,  O  Imman- 
uel,"  Isaiah  viii,  8.  The  king  of  Egypt  is  also 
styled  by  Ezckiel,  "  a  great  eagle,  with  great 
wings,  and  many  feathers ;"  but  he  manifestly 
gives  the  preference  to  the  king  of  Babylon, 
by  adding,  that  he  had  "long  wings,  full  of 
feathers,  which  had  divers  colours ;"  that  is, 
greater  wealth,  and  a  more  numerous  army. 

EAR,  the  organ  of  hearing.     The  Scripture 
uses   the    term    figuratively.      Uncircumcised 
ears  are  ears  inattentive  to  the  word  of  God. 
To  signify  God's  regard  to  the  prayers  of  his 
people,  the  Psalmist  says,  "His  ears  are  open 
to  their  cry,"  Psalm  xxxiv,   15.     Among  the 
Jews,  the  slave,  who  renounced  the  privilege 
of  being  made  free  from  servitude  in  the  sab- 
batical year,  submitted  to  have  his  ear  bored 
through  with  an  awl ;  which  was  done  in  the 
presence  of  some  judge,  or  magistrate,  that  it 
might  appear  a  voluntary  act.     The  ceremony 
took  place  at  his  master's  door,  and  was  the 
mark  of  servitude  and  bondage.    The  Psalmist 
says,  in  the  person  of  the  Messiah,  "  Sacrifice 
and  offering  thou  didst  not  desire ;  mine  ears 
hast  thou  opened."     Heb.  "Thou  hast  digged 
my    ears."      This    either    means,    Thou    hast 
opened  them,  removed  impediments,  and  made 
them  attentive ;  or,  thou  hast  pierced  them,  as 
those  of  such  servants  were  pierced,  who  chose 
to  remain  with  their  masters  ;   and  therefore 
imports  the  absolute  and  voluntary  submission 
of  Messiah  to  the  will  of  the  Father.     "Make 
the  ears  of  this  people  heavy,"  Isaiah  vi,  10; 
that  is,  render  their  minds  inattentive  and  dis- 
obedient; the  prophets  being  said  often  to  do 
that  of  which  they  were  the  innocent  occasion. 
EAR-RINGS  and  nose-jewels  were  favour- 
ite ornaments  among  the  eastern  females.    Both 
are  frequently  mentioned  in  Scripture.     Thus 
the  Prophet  Ezekiel :  "  And  I  put  a  jewel  on 
thy  forehead,"  or,  as  it  should  have  been  ren- 
dered, on  thy  nose.     This  ornament  was  one 
of  the  presents  which  the  servant  of  Abraham 
gave  to  Rebecca,  in  the  name  of  his  master : 
"  I  put,"  said  he,  "the  ear-ring  upon  her  face  ;" 
more    literally,    I  put   the  ring   on  her  nose. 
They  wore    car-rings  beside;    for  the   house- 
hold of  Jacob,  at  his  request,  when  they  were 
preparing  to  go  up  to  Bethel,  gave  him  all  the 
ear-rings  which  were  in  their  ears,  and  he  hid 
them  under  the  oak  which  was  by  Shechem. 
Sir  John  Chardin  says,  "It  is  the  custom  in 
almost  all  the  east  for  the  women  to  wear  rings 
in  t In  ir  noses,  in    the   left    nostril,  which  is 
bored  low  down  in  the  middle.     These  rings 
are  of  gold,  and  have  commonly  two  pearls  and 
one  ruby  between  them,  placed  in  the  ring ;  I 
never  saw  a  girl,  or  young  woman  in  Arabia, 
or  in  all  Persia,  who  did  not  wear  a  ring  after 
this  manner   in    her  nostril."     Some    writers 
contend,    that   by    the   nose-jewel,  we  are  to 
understand    rings,  which  women  attached  to 
their  forehead,  and  let  them  fall  down  upon 


their  nose ;  but  Chardin,  who  certainly  Was  a 
diligent  observer  of  eastern  customs,  no  Wijore 
saw  this  frontal  ring  in  the  east,  but  every 
where  the  ring  in  the  nose.  His  testimony  is 
supported  by  Dr.  Russel,  who  describes  the 
women  in  some  of  the  villages  about  Aleppo, 
and  all  the  Arabs  and  Chinganas,  (a  sort  of 
gipsies,)  as  wearing  a  large  ring  of  silver  or 
gold,  through  the  external  cartilage  of  then- 
right  nostril.  It  is  worn,  by  the  testimony  of 
Egmont,  in  the  same  manner  by  the  women  of 
Egypt.  Two  words  are  used  in  the  Scriptures 
to  denote  these  ornamental  rings,  du  and  ^jy. 
Mr.  Harmer  seems  to  think  they  properly  sig- 
nified ear-rings;  but  this  is  a  mistake;  the  sacred 
writers  use  them  promiscuously  for  the  rings 
both  of  the  nose  and  of  the  ears.  That  writer, 
however,  is  probably  right  in  supposing  that 
nezem  is  the  name  of  a  much  smaller  ring  than 
agil.  Chardin  observed  two  sorts  of  rings  in 
the  east;  one  so  small  and  close  to  the  ear, 
that  there  is  no  vacuity  between  them ;  the 
other  so  large,  as  to  admit  the  fore  finger  be- 
tween it  and  the  ear;  these  last  are  adorned 
with  a  ruby  and  a  pearl  on  each  side,  strung 
on  the  ring.  Some  of  these  ear-rings  had 
figures  upon  them,  and  strange  characters, 
which  he  believed  were  talismans  or  charms ; 
but  which  were  probably  the  names  and  sym- 
bols of  their  false  gods.  We  know  from  tho 
testimony  of  Pliny,  that  rings  with  the  images 
of  their  gods  were  worn  by  the  Romans.  The 
Indians  say,  they  are  preservatives  against 
enchantment;  upon  which  Chardin  hazards  a 
very  probable  conjecture,  that  the  ear-rings  of 
Jacob's  family  were  perhaps  of  this  kind,  which 
might  be  the  reason  of  his  demanding  them,, 
that  he  might  bury  them  under  the  oak  before 
they  went  up  to  Bethel. 

EARTH  is  used  for  that  gross  clement  which 
sustains  and  nourishes  us  by  producing  plants 
and  fruits;  for  the  continent  as  distinguished 
from  the  sea,  "  God  called  the  dry  land  earth," 
Gen.  i,  10 ;  for  the  terraqueous  globe,  and  its 
contents,  men,  animals,  plants,  metals,  waters,. 
&c.  "  The  earth  is  the  Lord's,  and  the  fulness 
thereof,  Psalm  xxiv,  1  ;  for  the  inhabitants  of 
the  earth,  or  continent,  "The  whole  earth  was 
of  one  language,"  Genesis  xi,  1;  for  Judea,  or 
the  whole  empire  of  Chaldca  and  Assyria. 
Thus  Cyrus  says,  Ezra  i,  2,  "The  Lord  God 
of  heaven  hath  given  me  all  the  kingdoms  of 
the  earth."  The  restriction  of  the  term  "  earth" 
to  Judea  is  more  common  in  Scripture  than  is 
usually  supposed ;  and  this  acceptation  of  it 
has  great  effect  on  several  passages,  in  which 
it  ought  to  be  so  understood. 

Earth  in  a  moral  sense  is  opposed  to  heaven, 
and  to  what  is  spiritual.  "He  that  is  of  the 
earth  is  earthy,  and  speakcth  of  the  earth  ;  he 
that  cometh  from  above  is  above  all,"  John 
iii,  31.  "If  ye  then  be  risen  with  Christ,  set 
your  affections  on  things  above,  not  on  things 
on  the  earth,"  Col.  iii,  1,  2. 

E  A  RTHQUAKE.  The  Scripture  speaks  of 
several  earthquakes.  One  happened  in  the 
twenty-seventh  year  of  Uzziah,  king  of  Judah,. 
in  tho  year  of  the  world  3221.  This  is  men- 
tioned in  Amos  i,  1,  and  in  Zechariah  xiv,  5. 


EAT 


319 


EAT 


Joser^us  says  that  its  violence  divided  a  mount. 
qui,  which  lay  west  of  Jerusalem,  and  drove  one 
part  of  it  four  furlongs.  A  very  memorable  earth, 
quake  is  that  which  happened  at  our  Saviour's 
death,  Matt,  xxvii,  51.  Many  have  thought 
that  this  was  perceived  throughout  the  world. 
Others  are  of  opinion  that  it  was  felt  only  in  Ju- 
dea.oreven  in  the  temple  at  Jerusalem.  St.  Cyril 
of  Jerusalem  says,  that  the  rocks  upon  mount 
Calvary  were  shown  in  his  time,  which  had 
been  rent  asunder  by  this  earthquake.  Maun, 
drell  and  Sandys  testify  the  same,  and  say  that 
they  examined  the  breaches  in  the  rock,  and 
were  convinced  that  they  were  the  effects  of 
an  earthquake.  It  must  have  been  terrible, 
since  the  centurion  and  those  with  him  were 
so  affected  by  it,  as  to  acknowledge  the  inno- 
cence of  our  Saviour,  Luke  xxiii,  47.  Phle- 
gon,  Adrian's  freedman,  relates  that,  together 
with  the  eclipse,  which  happened  at  noon  day, 
in  the  fourth  year  of  the  two  hundred  and  se- 
cond Olympiad,  or  A.  D.  33,  a  very  great  earth, 
quake  was  also  felt,  principally  in  Bythynia. 
The  effects  of  God's  power,  wrath,  and  venge- 
ance are  compared  to  earthquakes,  Psalm  xviii, 
7 ;  xlvi,  2 ;  cxiv,  4.  An  earthquake  signifies 
also,  in  prophetic  language,  the  dissolution  of 
governments  and  the  overthrow  of  states. 

EAST,  one  of  the  four  cardinal  points  of 
the  work! ;  namely,  that  particular  point  of  the 
horizon  in  which  the  sun  is  seen  to  rise.  The 
Hebrews  express  the  east,  west,  north,  and 
south  by  words  which  signify  before,  behind, 
left,  and  right,  according  to  the  situation  of  a 
man  who  has  his  face  turned  toward  the  east. 
By  the  east,  they  frequently  describe,  not  only 
Arabia  Deserta,  and  the  lands  of  Moab  and 
Amnion,  which  lay  to  the  east  of  Palestine, 
but  also  Assyria,  Mesopotamia,  Babylonia,  and 
Chaldea,  though  they  are  situated  rather  to  the 
north  than  to  the  east  of  Judea.  Balaam,  Cy- 
rus, and  the  wise  men  who  visited  Bethlehem 
at  the  time  Christ  was  born,  are  said  to  come 
from  the  east,  Num.  xxiii,  7 ;  Isaiah  xlvi,  11 ; 
Matt,  ii,  1. 

EASTER,  the  day  on  which  the  Christian 
church  commemorates  our  Saviour's  resurrec- 
tion. Easter  is  a  word  of  Saxon  origin,  and 
imports  a  goddess  of  *the  east.  This  goddess 
was  Astarte,  in  honour  of  whom  sacrifices  were 
annually  offered  about  the  passover  time  of  the 
year,  the  spring;  and  hence  the  Saxon  name 
".  ffiaster"  became  attached  by  association  of 
ideas  to  the  Christian  festival  of  the  resur- 
rection. 

EATING.  The  ancient  Hebrews  did  not 
eat  indifferently  with  all  persons :  they  would 
have  esteemed  themselves  polluted  and  disho- 
noured by  eating  with  people  of  another  reli- 
gion, or  of  an  odious  profession.  In  Joseph's 
day  they  neither  ate  with  the  Egyptians,  nor 
the  Egyptians  with  them,  Gen.  xliii,  32 ;  nor, 
in  our  Saviour's  time,  with  the  Samaritans, 
John  iv,  9.  The  Jews  were  scandalized  at 
Christ's  eating  with  publicans  and  sinners,  Matt. 
ix,  11.  As  there  were  several  sorts  of  meats, 
the  use  of  which  was  prohibited,  they  could 
not  conveniently  eat  with  those  who  partook 
of  them,  fearing  to  receive  pollution  by  touch- 


ing  such  food,  or  if  by  accident  any  particles 
of  it  should  fall  on  them.  The  ancient  He- 
brews, at  their  meals,  had  each  his  separate  ta- 
ble. Joseph,  entertaining  his  brethren  in  Egypt, 
seated  them  separately,  each  at  his  particular 
table  ;  and  he  himself  sat  down  separately  from 
the  Egyptians,  who  ate  with  him ;  bat  he  gent 
to  his  brethren  portions  out  of  the  provisions 
which  were  before  him,  Gen.  xliii,  31,  &c. 
Elkanah,  Samuel's  father,  who  had  two  wives, 
distributed  their  portions  to  them  separately, 
1  Sam.  i,  4,  5.  In  Homer,  each  guest  has  his 
little  table  apart ;  and  the  master  of  the  feast 
distributes  meat  to  each.  We  arc  assured 
that  this  is  still  practised  in  China;  and  that 
many  in  India  never  eat  out  of  the  same  dish, 
nor  on  the  same  table,  with  another  person, 
believing  that  they  cannot  do  so  without  sin  ; 
and  this,  not  only  in  their  own  country,  but 
when  travelling,  and  in  foreign  lands. 

The  ancient  manners  which  we  see  in  Ho. 
mer  we  see  likewise  in  Scripture,  with  regard 
to  eating,  drinking,  and  entertainments :  we 
find  great  plenty,  but  little  delicacy  ;  and  great 
respect  and  honour  paid  to  the  guests  by  serv- 
ing them  plentifully.  Joseph  sent  his  brother 
Benjamin  a  portion  five  times  larger  than  those 
of  his  other  brethren.  Samuel  set  a  whole 
quarter  of  a  calf  before  Saul.  The  women  did 
not  appear  at  table  in  entertainments  with  the 
men  :  this  would  have  been  an  indecency  ;  as  it 
is  at  this  day  throughout  the  east.  The  pre- 
sent Jews,  before  they  sit  down  to  table,  care- 
fully wash  their  hands  :  they  speak  of  this  cere- 
mony as  essential  and  obligatory.  After  meals 
they  wash  them  again.  When  they  sit  down 
to  table,  the  master  of  the  house^or  the  chief 
person  in  the  company,  taking  bread,  breaks 
it,  but  does  not  wholly  separate  it;  then,  put- 
ting his  hand  on  it,  he  recites  this  blessing: 
"  Blessed  be  thou,  O  Lord  our  God,  the  King  of 
the  world,  who  producest  the  bread  of  the 
earth."  Thosd  present  answer,  "  Amen." 
Having  distributed  the  bread  among  the  guests, 
he  takes  the  vessel  of  wine  in  his  right  hand, 
saying,  "  Blessed  art  thou,  O  Lord  our  God, 
King  of  the  world,  who  hast  produced  the  fruit 
of  the  vine."  They  then  repeat  the  twenty- 
third  Psalm.  Buxtorf,*  and  Leo  of  Modena, 
who  have  given  particular  accounts  of  the  Jew- 
ish ceremonies,  differ  in  some  circumstances : 
the  reason  is,  Buxtorf  wrote  principally  the 
ceremonies  of  the  German  Jews,  and  Leo,  these 
of  the  Italian  Jews.  They  take  care  that,  after 
meals,  there  shall  be  a  piece  of  bread  remain- 
ing on  the  table  ;  the  master  of  the  house 
orders  a  glass  to  be  washed,  fills  it  with  wine, 
and,  elevating  it,  says,  "  Let  us  bless  Him  of 
whose  benefits  we  have  been  partaking i"  the 
rest  answer,  "  Blessed  be  He  who  has  heaped 
his  favours  on  us,  and  by  his  goodness  has  now 
fed  us."  Then  he  recites  a  pretty  Long  prayer, 
wherein  he  thanks  God  for  his  many  benefits 
vouchsafed  to  Israel;  beseeches  him  to  pity 
Jerusalem  and  his  temple,  to  restore  the  throne 
of  David,  to  send  Elias  and  the  Messiah,  to 
deliver  them  out  of  their  long  captivity,  &c. 
All  present  answer,  "  Amen  ;"  and  then  recite 
Psalm  xxxiv,  9,  10.     Then,  giving  the  glass 


EBA 


320 


EBI 


with  the  little  wine  in  it  to  be  drunk  round,  he 
drinks  what  \  left,  and  the  table  is  cleared. 
See  Banquets\ 

Partaking  ofUie  benefits  of  Christ's  passion 
by  faith  is  also  galled  eating,  because  this  is 
the  support  of  ouryspiritual  life,  John  vi,  53,  56. 
Hosea  reproaches  -{he  priests  of  his  time  with 
eating  the  sins  of  the  people,  Hosea  iv,  8 ;  that 
is,  feasting  on  their  sin  offerings,  rather  than 
reforming  their  manners.  John  the  Baptist  is 
said  to  have  come  "  neither  eating  nor  drink- 
ing," Matt,  xi,  18 ;  that  is,  as  other  men  did ; 
for  he  lived  in  the  wilderness,  on  locusts,  wild 
honey,  and  water,  Matt,  iii,  4 ;  Luke  i,  15.  This 
is  expressed,  in  Luke  vii,  33,  by  his  neither 
eating  "  bread,"  nor  drinking  V  wine."  On  the 
other  hand,  the  Son  of  Man  is  said,  in  Matt,  xi, 
19,  to  have  come  "  eating  and  drinking  ;"  that 
is,  as  others  did  ;  and  that  too  with  all  sorts  of 
persons,  Pharisees,  publicans,  and  Sinners. 

EBAL,  a  celebrated  mountain  in  the  tribe 
of  Ephraim,  near  Shechem,  over  against  Mount 
Gerizirn.  These  two  mountains  are  within 
two  hundred  paces  of  each  other,  and  separat- 
ed by  a  deep  valley,  in  which  stcod  the  town 
of  Shechem.  The  two  mountains  are  much 
alike  in  magnitude  and  form,  being  of  a  semi- 
circular figure,  about  half  a  league  in  length, 
and,  on  the  sides  nearest  Shechem,  nearly  per- 
pendicular. One  of  them  is  barren ;  the  other, 
covered  with  a  beautiful  verdure.  Moses  com- 
manded the  Israelites,  as  soon  as  they  should 
have  passed  the  river  Jordan,  to  go  directly  to 
Shechem,  and  divide  the  whole  multitude  into 
two  bodies,  each  composed  of  six  tribes ;  one 
company  to  be  placed  on  Ebal,  and  the  other 
on  Gerizirn.  •The  six  tribes  that  were  on  Ge- 
rizirn were  to  pronounce  blessings  on  those 
who  should  faithfully  observe  the  law  of  the 
Lord,  and  the  six  others  on  Mount  Ebal  were 
to  pronounce  curses  against  those  who  should 
violate  it,  Deut.  xi,  29,  &c ;  xxvii,  and  xxviii ; 
Joshua  viii,  30,  31. 

This  consecration  of  the  Hebrew  common- 
wealth is  thought  to  have  been  performed  in 
the  following  manner  :  The  heads  of  the  first 
six  tribes  went  up  to  the  top  of  Mount  Gerizirn, 
and  the  heads  of  the  other  six  tribes  to  the  top 
of  Mount  Ebal.  The* priests,  with  the  ark, 
and  Joshua  at  the  head  of  the  ciders  of  Israel, 
took  their  station  in  the  middle  of  the  valley 
which  lies  between  the  two  mountains.  The 
Levites  ranged  themselves  in  a  circle  about  the 
ark;  and  the  elders,  with  the  people,  placed 
themselves  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain,  six 
tribes  on  a  side.  When  they  were  thus  dispos- 
ed in  order,  the  priests  turned  toward  Mount 
Gerizirn,  on  the  top  of  which  were  the  six 
heads  of  the  six  tribes  who  were  at  the  foot  of 
the  same  mountain,  and  pronounced,  for  exam- 
ple, these  words: — "Blessed  be  the  man  that 
maketh  not  any  graven  images."  The  six 
princes  who  were  upon  the  top  of  the  mount- 
ain, and  the  six  tribes  who  were  below  at  its 
foot,  answered,  "  Amen."  Afterward,  the 
priests,  turning  toward  Mount  Ebal,  upon 
which  were  the  princes  of  the  other  six  tribes, 
cried,  with  a  loud  voice,  "  Cursed  be  the  man 
that  maketh  any  graven  image ;"  and  were 


answered  by  the  princes  opposite  to  then.  ami 
their  tribes,  "  Amen."  The  Scripture,  at  fiia. 
view,  seems  to  intimate  that  there  were  six 
tribes  upon  one  mountain,  and  six  on  the  other  ; 
but  beside  that  it  is  by  no  means  probable  that 
the  tribes  of  the  Israelites,  who  were  so  nume- 
rous, should  be  able  to  stand  on  the  summhq  of 
these  two  mountains,  it  would  not  have  been 
possible  for  them  to  have  seen  the  ceremony, 
nor  to  have  heard  the  blessings  and  curses  in 
order  to  answer  them.  Moreover,  the  Hebrew 
particle,  in  the  original,  signifies,  near,  over 
against,  as  well  as  at  the  top,  Joshua  viii,  33, 
Accordingly,  we  may  say,  that  neither  Joshua, 
nor  the  priests  or  tribes,  went  up  to  the  top  of 
the  mountains,  but  the  heads  only,  who  in  their 
persons  might  represent  all  the  tribes. 

EBENEZER,  the  name  of  that  field  wherein 
the  Israelites  were  defeated  by  the  Philistines, 
when  the  ark  of  the  Lord  was  taken,  1  Sam. 
iv,  1  ;  also  a  memorial  stone  set  up  by  Samuel 
to  commemorate  a  victory  over  the  Philistines. 
The  word  signifies  the  stone  of  help ;  and  it  was 
erected  by  the  prophet,  saying,  "Hitherto  the 
Lord  hath  helped  us." 

EBIONITES,  a  sect  of  the  first  two  or  three 
centuries;  but  it  is  not  certain  whether  they 
received  their  name  from  a  leader  of  the  name 
of  Ebion,  (whom  Dr.  Lardner  considers  as  a  dis- 
ciple of  Cerinthus,)  or  from  the  meaning  of 
the  Hebrew  word  ebion,  which  implies  poverty  ; 
and  if  the  latter,  whether  they  assumed  the 
name,  as  affecting  to  be  poor,  like  the  Founder 
of  Christianity ;  or  wrhether  it  was  conferred 
on  them  by  way  of  reproach,  as  being  of  the 
lower  orders.  The  use  of  the  term,  also,  ac- 
cording to  Dr.  Horsley,  was  various  and  inde- 
finite. Sometimes  it  was  the  peculiar  name  of 
those  sects  that  denied  both  the  divinity  of 
•our  Lord,  and  his  miraculous  conception. 
Then  its  meaning  was  extended,  to  take  in 
another  party  ;  who  admitted  the  miraculous 
conception  of  Jesus,  but  still  denied  his  divini- 
ty, and  questioned  his  previous  existence.  At 
last,  it  seems,  the  Nazarites,  whose  error  was 
rather  a  superstitious  severity  in  their  practice, 
than  any  deficiency  in  their  faith,  were  includ- 
ed by  Origen  in  the  infamy  of  the  appellation. 
Dr.  Priestley,  claiming  the  Ebionites  as  Jewish 
Unitarians,  considers  the  ancient  Nazarenes, 
that  is,  the  first  Jewish  converts,  as  the  true 
Ebionites;  these,  he  thinks,  were  called  Naza- 
renes,  from  their  attachment  to  Jesus  of  Naza- 
rcth ;  and  Ebionites,  from  their  poor  and 
mean  condition,  just  as  son:e  of  the  reformers 
were  called  Beghards,  or  beggars.  The  Doc- 
tor cites  the  authorities  of  Origen  and  Epipha- 
nius,  to  prove  that  both  these  denominations 
related  to  the  same  people,  differing  only, 
like  the  Socinians,  in  receiving  or  rejecting 
the  fact  of  tiie  miraculous  conception ;  and 
neither,  as  he  assures  us,  were  reckoned  here- 
tics  by  any  writers  of  the  two  first  centuries. 
To  this  Dr.  Horsley  replies,  that  both  Jews  and 
Heathens  called  the  first  Christians  Nazarenes, 
in  allusion  to  the  mean  and  obscure  birthplace 
of  their  Master,  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  Matthew 
ii,  23 ;  Acts  x,  38 ;  but  insists,  and  answers 
every  pretended  proof  to  the  contrary,  that  the 


EBI 


321 


EBI 


term  Nazarenes  was  never  applied  to  any  dis- 
tinct sect  of  Christians  before  the  final  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem  by  Adrian.  Vr.  Semler,  a 
German  writer,  gives  the  following  opinion  : 
"Those  who  more  rigidly  maintained  the  Mo- 
saic observances,  and  who  were  numerous  in 
Palestine,  are  usually  called  Ebionites  and  Na- 
sareeans.  Some  believe  that  they  ought  not  to 
be  reckoned  heretics ;  others  think  that  they 
were  united  in  doctrine,  differing  only  in  name  ; 
others  place  them  in  the  second  century.  It  is 
of  little  consequence  whether  we  distinguish  or 
not  the  Nazarenes,  or  Nazarffians  from  the  Ebi- 
onites. It  is  certain  that  both  these  classes 
were  tenacious  of  the  Mosaic  ceremonies,  and 
more  inclined  to  the  Jews  than  to  the  Gentiles, 
though  they  admitted  the  Messiahship  of  Jesus 
in  a  very  low  and  Judaizing  manner.  The  Ebi- 
onites held  in  execration  the  doctrine  of  the 
Apostte  Paul."  Dr.  J.  Pye  Smith,  who  quotes 
this  passage  from  Dr.  Semler,  adds,  "  Such,  it 
js  apprehended,  on  grounds  of  reasonable  pro- 
bability, was  the  origin  of  Unitarianism ;  the 
child  of  Judaism  misunderstood,  and  of  Chris- 
tianity imperfectly  received." 

2.  On  this  controversy  great  light  has,  how- 
ever, been  since  thrown  by  Dr.  Burton.  It  is 
well  known  to  those  who  have  studied  the 
Unitarian  controversy,  that  it  has  been  often 
asserted  that  the  Cerinthians  and  Ebionites 
were  the  teachers  of  genuine  Christianity,  and 
that  the  doctrine  of  Christ's  divinity,  and  of 
universal  redemption  through  his  blood,  were 
the  inventions  of  those  who  corrupted  the 
preaching  of  the  Apostles.  If  this  were  so, 
we  must  convict  all  the  fathers,  not  merely  of 
ignorance  and  mistake,  but  of  deliberate  and 
wilful  falsehood.  To  suppose  that  the  fathers 
of  the  second  century  were  ignorant  of  what 
was  genuine  and  what  was  false  in  Christiani- 
ty, would  be  a  bold  hypothesis ;  but  if  Irenasus, 
the  disciple  of  Polycarp,  asserted,  as  a  matter 
of  fact,  that  St.  John  wrote  his  Gospel  to  refute 
the  errors  of  Cerinthus,  it  is  idle,  or  something 
worse,  to  say  that  Irenasus  did  not  know  for 
certain  if  the  fact  was  really  so.  As  far,  then, 
as  the  testimony  of  the  fathers  is  concerned, 
the  Cerinthians  and  Ebionites  were  decidedly 
heretics.  The  Unitarians,  on  the  other  hand, 
maintain  that  the  Ebionites  were  the  true  and 
genuine  believers  ;  and  it  is  easy  to  see  that 
the  preference  was  given  to  these  teachers,  be- 
cause they  held  that  Jesus  was  born  of  human 
parents.  Never,  I  conceive,  was  there  a  more 
unfortunate  and  fatal  alliance  formed  than 
that  between  the  Ebionites  and  modern  Unita- 
rians. We  find  the  Ebionites  referred  to,  as 
if  they  agreed  in  every  point  with  the  Soci- 
nian  or  Unitarian  creed  ;  and  yet  it  may  almost 
be  asserted,  that  in  not  one  single  point  do 
their  sentiments  exactly  coincide.  If  a  real 
Ebionite  will  declare  himself,  we  are  not  afraid 
to  meet  him.  Let  him  avow  his  faith  ;  let  him 
believe  of  Christ  as  Ebion  or  Cerinthus  taught; 
let  him  adopt  the  ravings  of  the  Gnostics  ;  we 
shali  then  know  with  whom  we  have  to  com- 
bat ;  we  may  gird  on  the  sword  of  Irenreus, 
and  meet  him  in  the  field.  But  let  him  not 
eelect  a  few  ingredients  only  from  the  poison  ; 
22 


let  him  not  take  a  part  only  of  their  infatuated 
system.  If  he  will  lean  on  that  broken  reed, 
let  him  talk  no  more  of  Ebion  or  Cerinthus 
only ;  but  let  him  say  boldly,  either  that  the 
Gnostics  agreed  with  the  Apostles,  or  that  the 
Gnostics  preached  the  true  Gospel,  while  the 
Apostles  were  in  error. 

3.  We  can  hardly  suppose  the  Unitarians  to 
be  ignorant  that  the  Ebionites  and  Cerinthians 
were  a  branch  of  the  Gnostics.  If  the  fact  be 
denied,  the  whole  of  this  discussion  might  as 
well  at  once  be  closed.  We  know  nothing  of 
Cerinthus  and  Ebion,  but  from  the  writings  of 
the  fathers.  If  it  had  not  been  for  them,  we 
should  never  have  known  that  these  persons 
believed  Jesus  to  be  born  of  human  parents : 
the  su.me  fathers  unanimously  add,  that  in  this 
point  they  differed  from  the  preceding  Gnostics, 
though  agreeing  with  them  on  other  points. 
If  we  are  to  receive  the  testimony  of  the  fathers 
in  one  particular,  but  to  reject  it  in  every  other, 
I  need  not  say  that  argument  is  useless.  But 
the  fact  can  never  be  denied  nor  evaded.  The 
Cerinthians,  to  whom  some  Unitarians  have 
appealed,  did  not  ascribe  the  creation  of  the 
world  to  God,  but  to  an  inferior  being.  Like 
the  rest  of  the  Gnostics,  who  engrafted  that 
philosophy  on  Judaism,  the  Cerinthians  and 
Ebionites  retained  some  of  the  Jewish  cere- 
monies, though  they  rejected  some  of  the  Jew- 
ish Scriptures.  Many  of  them  taught  that  the 
restraints  of  morality  were  useless  ;  and  the 
Cerinthians,  it  is  well  known,  promised  to  their 
followers  a  millennium  of  sensual  indulgence. 
With  respect  to  their  notions  concerning 
Christ,  it  is  true  that  they  believed  Jesus  to  be 
born  of  human  parents ;  and  this  fact  is  re- 
ferred to,  as  if  it  proved  the  falsehood  of  what 
is  called  the  miraculous  conception  of  Jesus. 
But  it  is  plain  that  this  tenet  is  mentioned  by 
the  fathers,  as  being  opposed  to  that  of  the 
other  Gnostics,  who  held  that  the  body  of 
Jesus  was  an  illusive  phantom.  Sucli  had 
hitherto  been  the  belief  of  all  the  Gnostics. 
But  Cerinthus  and  Ebion,  who  were  perhaps 
more  rational  in  their  speculations,  and  who 
lived  after  the  publication  of  the  three  first 
Gospels,  could  not  resist  the  evidence  that 
Jesus  was  actually  born,  and  that  he  had  a 
real,  substantial  body.  This  is  the  mear.uig 
of  the  statement,  that  Cerinthus  and  Ebion 
believed  Jesus  to  be  born  of  human  parents. 
It  shows  that  they  were  not  Docetce.  But  be. 
cause  there  were  other  Gnostics  who  were 
more  irrational  and  visionary  than  themselves, 
we  are  not  immediately  to  infer  that  their  own 
notion  concerning  the  birth  of  Christ  was  the 
true  one.  They  believed,  at  least,  many  of 
them  believed,  that  Jesus  was  born  in  the  ordi- 
nary way;  that  Joseph  was  his  parent  as  well 
as  Mary.  But  they  could  hardly  help  believing 
so;  for  they  agreed  with  all  the  Gnostics  in 
thinking  (though  it  might  seem  as  if  this  point 
bad  been  forgotten)  that  Jesus  and  Christ  were 
separate  persons:  they  believed,  as  I  have  al- 
ready st'ted,  that  Christ  descended  upon  Jesus 
at  his  baptism,  and  quitted  him  before  his  cruci- 
fixion. They  were  therefore  almost  compelled 
to  believe  that  Jesus,  who  was  wholly  distinct 


EBI 


322 


ECB 


from  Christ,  had  nothing  divine  in  his  nature, 
and  nothing  miraculous  in  his  birth ;  in  the 
same  manner  that  they  believed  that  the  death 
of  Jesus,  from  whom  Christ  had  then  departed, 
was  like  the  death  of  any  ordinary  mortal,  and 
that  no  atonement  was  made  by  it.  But  are 
we  on  these  grounds  to  reject  the  miraculous 
conception  and  the  atonement  of  Christ?  Or 
are  the  Unitarians  to  quote  these  Gnostics  as 
holding  the  human  nature  of  Jesus,  and  to  for- 
get that  by  Jesus  they  meant  a  person  wholly 
different  from  Christ  ? 

4.  We  are  told,  indeed,  that  the  first  part  of 
St.  Matthew's  Gospel  is  spurious,  because  the 
Ebionites  rejected  it.  Undoubtedly  they  did. 
They  read  in  it  that  Jesus  Christ  was  born,  not 
Jesus  only ;  and  that  he  was  born  of  a  virgin. 
They  therefore  rejected  this  part  of  St.  Mat- 
thew's Gospel ;  or  rather,  by  mutilating  and 
altering  the  whole  of  it,  they  composed  a  new 
gospel  of  their  own  to  suit  their  purpose  ;  and 
yet  this  is  the  only  authority  which  is  quoted  for 
rejecting  the  commencement  of  St.  Matthew's 
Gospel.  The  fact,  that  some  even  of  the 
Ebionites  believed  the  miraculous  conception, 
speaks  infinitely  more  in  favour  of  the  genu- 
ineness of  that  part  of  the  Gospel,  and  of  the 
truth  of  the  doctrine  itself,  than  can  be  inferred 
on  the  contrary  side  from  those  who  denied  the 
doctrine,  and  mutilated  the  Gospel.  Those 
other  Ebionites  appear  in  this  respect  to  have 
agreed  with  the  first  Socinians,  and  to  have 
held  that  Jesus  was  born  of  a  virgin,  though 
they  did  not  believe  in  his  preexistence  or 
divinity.  But  the  miraculous  conception  was  so 
entirely  contrary  to  all  preconceived  opinions, 
and  the  more  simple  doctrine  of  the  other  Ebion- 
ites and  Cerinthians  was  so  much  more  suited 
to  the  Gnostic  system,  which  separated  Jesus 
from  Christ,  that  the  evidence  must  have  been 
almost  irresistible,  which  led  one  part  of  the 
Ebionites  to  embrace  a  doctrine  contrary  to  all 
experience,  contrary  to  the  sentiments  of  their 
brethren,  and  hardly  reconcilable  with  other 
parts  of  their  own  ereed.  The  testimony,  there- 
fore, of  these  Ebionites,  in  favour  of  the  mira- 
culous conception,  is  stronger,  perhaps,  than 
even  that  of  persons  who  received  the  whole 
of  the  Gospel,  and  departed  in  no  points  from 
the  doctrine  of  the  Apostles.  If  the  Apostles 
had  preached,  according  to  the  statement  of 
the  Unitarians,  that  Jesus  Christ  was  a  mere 
human  being,  born  in  the  ordinary  way,  what 
could  possibly  have  led  the  Gnostics  to  rank 
him  immediately  with  their  iEons,  whom  they 
believed  to  have  been  produced  by  God,  and  to 
have  dwelt  with  him  from  endless  ages  in  the 
pleroma?  There  literally  was  not  one  single 
heretic  in  the  first  century,  who  did  not  believe 
that  Christ  came  down  from  heaven  :  they  in- 
vented, it  is  true,  various  absurdities  to  account 
for  his  union  with  the  man  Jesus ;  but  the  fair 
and  legitimate  inference  from  this  fact  would 
be,  that  the  Apostles  preached  that  in  some 
way  or  other  the  human  nature  was  united  to 
the  divine.  So  far  from  the  Socinian  or  Uni- 
tarian doctrine  being  supported  by  that  of  the 
Cerinthians  and  Ebionites,  I  have  no  hesita- 
tion in  saying,  that  not  one  single  person  is 


recorded  in  the  whole  of  the  first  century  who 
ever  imagined  that  Christ  was  a  mere  man. 
It  has  been  oWrved,  that  one  branch  of  the 
Ebionites  resembled  the  first  Socinians,  that  is, 
they  believed  in  the  miraculous  conception  of 
Jesus,  though  they  denied  his  preexistence ; 
but  this  was  because  they  held  the  common 
notion  of  the  Gnostics,  that  Jesus  and  Christ 
were  two  separate  persons;  and  they  believed 
in  the  preexistence  and  divine  nature  of  Christ, 
which  Socinus  and  his  followers  uniformly 
denied. 

ECBATANA,  a  city  of  Media,  which,  ac- 
cording to  Herodotus,  was  built  by  Dejoces, 
king  of  the  Medes.  It  was  situated  on  a  gentle 
declivity,  distant  twelve  stadia  from  Mount 
Orontes,  and  was  in  compass  one  hundred  and 
fifty  stadia,  and,  next  to  Nineveh  and  Babylon, 
was  one  of  the  strongest  and  mosi  beautiful 
cities  of  the  east.  After  the  union  of  Media 
with  Persia,  it  was  the  summer  residence  of 
the  Persian  kings.  Sir  R.  K.  Porter,  in  his 
Travels,  says,  "Having  for  a  few  moments 
gazed  at  the  venerable  mountain,  (Orontes,  at 
the  foot  of  which  Ecbatana  wyas  built,)  and  at 
the  sad  vacuum  at  its  base ;  what  had  been 
Ecbatana,  being  now  shrunk  to  comparative 
nothingness ;  I  turned  my  eye  on  the  still  busy 
scene  of  life  which  occupied  the  adjacent  coun- 
try; the  extensive  plain  of  Hamadan,  and  its 
widely  extending  hills.  On  our  right,  the  re- 
ceding vale  was  varied,  at  short  distances,  with 
numberless  castellated  villages  rising  from 
amidst  groves  of  the  noblest  trees ;  while  the 
great  plain  itself  stretched  northward  and  east- 
ward to  such  far  remoteness,  that  its  mountain 
boundaries  appeared  like  clouds  upon  the  hori- 
zon. This  whole  tract  seemed  one  carpet  of 
luxuriant  verdure,  studded  with  hamlets,  and 
watered  by  beautiful  rivulets.  On  the  south- 
west, Orontes,  or  Elwund,  (by  whichever  name 
we  may  designate  this  most  towering  division 
of  the  mountain,)  presents  itself,  in  all  the  stu- 
pendous grandeur  of  its  fame  and  form.  Near 
to  its  base,  appear  the  dark  coloured  dwellings 
of  Hamadan,  crowded  thickly  on  each  other; 
while  the  gardens  of  the  inhabitants  with  their 
connecting  orchards  and  woods,  fringe  the  en- 
tire slope  of  that  part  of  the  mountain."  "The 
site  of  the  modern  town,  like  that  of  the  ancient, 
is  on  a  gradual  ascent,  terminating  near  the 
foot  of  the  eastern  side  of  the  mountain ;  but 
there  all  trace  of  its  past  appearance  would 
cease,  were  it  not  for  two  or  three  consider- 
able elevations,  and  overgrown  irregularities 
on  and  near  them,  which  may  have  been  the 
walls  of  the  royal  fortress,  with  those  of  the 
palaces,  temples,  and  theatres,  seen  no  more. 
I  passed  one  of  these  heights,  standing  to  the 
south-west,  as  I  entered  the  city,  and  observed 
that  it  bore  many  vestiges  of  having  been 
strongly  fortified.  The  sides  and  summit  are 
covered  with  large  re?nnants  of  ruined  walls  of 
a  great  thicknes?,  and  also  of  towers,  the  ma- 
terials of  which  were  sun-dried  bricks.  It  has 
the  name  of  the  Inner  Fortress,  and  certainly 
holds  the  most  commanding  station  near  the 
plain."  Of  the  interior  of  the  city,  the  same 
author  says,  "  The  mud  alleys,  which  now  oc- 


ECB 


323 


ECB 


cupy  the  site  of  the  ancient  streets  or  squares, 
are  narrow,  interrupted  by  large  holes  or  hoi- 
lows  in  the  way,  and  heaps  of  the  fallen  crum- 
bled walls  of  deserted  dwellings.  A  miserable 
bazaar  or  two  are  passed  through  in  traversing 
tho  town ;  and  large  lonely  spots  are  met  with, 
marked  by  broken  low  mounds  over  older  ruins  ; 
with  here  and  there  a  few  poplars,  or  willow 
trees,  shadowing  the  border  of  a  dirty  stream, 
abandoned  to  the  meanest  uses  ;  which,  proba- 
bly, flowed  pellucid  and  admired,  when  these 
places  were  gardens,  and  the  grass-grown  heap 
some  stately  dwelling  of  Ecbatana.  In  one  or 
two  spots  I  observed  square  platforms,  com- 
posed of  large  stones  ;  the  faces  of  many  of 
which  were  chiselled  all  over  into  the  finest 
arabesque  fretwork,  while  others  had,  in  addi- 
tion, long  inscriptions  in  the  Arabic  character. 
They  had  evidently  been  tomb-stones  of  the 
inhabitants,  during  the  caliph  rule  in  Persia. 
But  when  we  compare  relics  of  the  seventh 
century,  with  the  deep  antiquity  of  the  ruins 
on  which  they  lie,  these  monumental  remains 
seem  but  the  register  of  yesterday."  Here  is 
shown  the  tomb  of  Mordecai  and  Esther ;  as 
well  as  that  of  Avicenna,  the  celebrated  Ara- 
bian physician.  The  sepulchre  of  the  former 
stands  near  the  centre  of  the  city  of  Hamadan  : 
the  tombs  are  covered  by  a  dome,  on  which  is 
the  following  inscription  in  Hebrew  :  "  This 
day,  15th  of  the  month  Adar,  in  the  year  4474 
from  the  creation  of  the  world,  was  finished 
the  building  of  this  temple  over  the  graves  of 
Mordecai  and  Esther,  by  the  hands  of  the  good- 
hearted  brothers,  Elias  and  Samuel,  the  sons 
of  the  deceased  Ismael  of  Kashan."  This  in- 
scription, the  date  of  which  proves  the  dome 
to  have  been  built  eleven  hundred  years,  was 
sent  by  Sir  Gore  Ouseley  to  Sir  John  Malcolm, 
who  has  given  it  in  his  History  of  Persia  ;  who 
also  says  that  the  tombs,  which  are  of  a  black 
coloured  wood,  are  evidently  of  very  great 
antiquity,  but  in  good  preservation,  as  the 
wood  has  not  perished,  (and  the  inscriptions 
are  still  very  legible.  Sir  R.  K.  Porter  has 
given  a  more  particular  description  of  this 
tomb.  He  says,  "  I  accompanied  the  priest 
through  the  town,  over  much  ruin  and  rubbish, 
to  an  enclosed  piece  of  ground,  rather  more 
elevated  than  any  in  its  immediate  vicinity. 
In  the  centre  was  the  Jewish  tomb ;  a  square 
building  of  brick,  of  a  mosque-like  form,  with 
a  rather  elongated  dome  at  the  top.  The  whole 
seems  in  a  very  decaying  state,  falling  fast  to 
the  mouldering  condition  of  some  wall  frag- 
ments around,  which,  in  former  times,  had 
been  connected  with,  and  extended  the  con- 
sequence of,  the  sacred  enclosure.  The  door 
that  admitted  us  into  the  tomb,  is  in  the  ancient 
sepulchral  fashion  of  the  country,  very  small ; 
consisting  of  a  small  stone  of  great  thickness, 
and  turning  on  its  own  pivots  from  one  side. 
Its  key  is  always  in  possession  of  the  head  of 
the  Jews  resident  at  Hamadan."  "  On  passing 
through  the  little  portal,  which  we  did  in  an 
almost  doubled  position,  we  entered  a  small 
arched  chamber,  in  which  are  seen  the  graves 
of  several  rabbies :  probably,  one  may  cover 
the  remains  of  the  pious  Jsiuael ;  and,  not  un- 


likely, the  others  may  contain  the  bodies  of  the 
first  rebuilders  after  the  sacrilegious  destruc- 
tion by  Timour.  Having  '  trod  lightly  by  their 
graves,'  a  second  door  of  such  very  confined 
dimensions  presented  itself  at  the  end  of  this 
vestibule,  we  were  constrained  to  enter  it  on 
our  hands  and  knees,  and  then  standing  up,  we 
found  ourselves  in  a  larger  chamber,  to  which 
appertained  the  dome.  Immediately  under  its 
concave,  stand  two  sarcophagi,  made  of  a  very 
dark  wood,  carved  with  great  intricacy  of  pat- 
tern, and  richness  of  twisted  ornament,  with  a 
line  of  inscription  in  Hebrew  running  round 
the  upper  ledge  of  each.  Many  other  inscrip- 
tions, in  the  same  language,  are  cut  on  the 
walls ;  while  one  of  the  oldest  antiquity,  en- 
graved on  a  slab  of  white  marble,  is  let  into 
the  wall  itself."  This  inscription  is  as  follows : 
"  Mordecai,  beloved  and  honoured  by  a  king, 
was  great  and  good.  His  garments  were  as 
those  of  a  sovereign.  Ahasuerus  covered  him 
with  this  rich  dress,  and  also  placed  a  golden 
chain  around  his  neck.  The  city  of  Susa 
rejoiced  at  his  honours,  and  his  high  fortune 
became  the  glory  of  the  Jews."  The  inscrip- 
tion which  encompasses  the  sarcophagus  of 
Mordecai,  is  to  this  effect :  "  It  is  said  by  Da- 
vid, Preserve  me,  O  God  !  I  am  now  in  thy 
presence.  I  have  cried  at  the  gate  of  heaven, 
that  thou  art  my  God;  and  what  goodness  I 
have  received  from  thee,  O  Lord  !  Those  whose 
bodies  are  now  beneath  in  this  earth,  when 
animated  by  thy  mercy  were  great ;  and  what- 
ever happiness  was  bestowed  upon  them  in  this 
world,  came  from  thee,  O  God !  Their  grief 
and  sufferings  were  many,  at  the  first ;  but  they 
became  happy,  because  they  always  called  upon 
thy  holy  name  in  their  miseries.  Thou  liftedst 
me  up,  and  I  became  powerful.  Thine  ene- 
mies sought  to  destroy  me,  in  the  early  times 
of  my  life  ;  but  the  shadow  of  thy  hand  was 
upon  me,  and  covered  me,  as  a  tent,  from 
their  wicked  purposes  ! — Mordecai."  Th#  fol- 
lowing is  the  corresponding  inscription  on  the 
sarcophagus  of  Esther :  "  I  praise  thee,  O  God, 
that  thou  hast  created  me  !  I  know  that  my 
sins  merit  punishment,  yet  I  hope  for  mercy  at 
thy  hands  ;  for  whenever  I  call  upon  thee,  thou 
art  with  me ;  thy  holy  presence  secures  me 
from  all  evil.  My  heart  is  at  ease,  and  my  fear 
of  thee  increases.  My  life  became,  through 
thy  goodness,  at  the  last,  full  of  peace.  O  God, 
do  not  shut  my  soul  out  from  thy  divine  pre- 
sence !  Those  whom  thou  lovest,  never  feel 
the  torments  of  hell.  Lead  me,  O  merciful 
Father,  to  the  life  of  life;  that  I  may  be  filled 
with  the  heavenly  fruits  of  paradise ! — Esther." 
The  Jews  at  Hamadan  have  no  tradition  of  the 
cause  of  Esther  and  Mordecai  having  been  in- 
terred at  that  place  ;  but  however  that  might 
be,  there  are  sufficient  reasons  for  believing  the 
validity  of  their  interment  in  this  spot.  The 
strongest  evidence  we  can  have  of  the  truth  of 
any  historical  fact,  is,  its  commemoration  by 
an  annual  festival.  It  is  weli  known,  that  seve- 
ral important  events  in  Jewish  history  are  thus 
celebrated  ;  and  among  the  rest,  the  feast  of 
Purim  is  kept  on  the  13th  and  14th  of  the 
month  Adar,  to  commemorate  the  deliverance 


ECC 


324 


ECC 


obtained  by  the  Jews,  at  the  intercession  of 
Esther,  from  the  general  massacre  ordered  by 
Ahasuerus,  and  tbo  slaughter  they  were  per- 
mitted to  make  of  their  enemies.  Now  on  this 
same  festival,  in  the  same  day  and  month, 
Jewish  pilgrims  resort  from  all  quarters  to  the 
sepulchre  of  Mordecai  and  Esther;  and  have 
done  so  for  centuries, — a  strong  presumptive 
proof  that  the  tradition  of  their  burial  in  this 
place  rests  on  some  authentic  foundation. 

ECCLESIASTES,  a  canonical  book  of  the 
Old  Testament,  of  which  Solomon  was  the 
author,  as  appears  from  the  first  sentence. 
The  design  of  this  book  is  to  show  the  vanity 
of  all  sublunary  things ;  and  from  a  review  of 
the  whole,  the  author  draws  this  pertinent 
conclusion,  "  Fear  God,  and  keep  his  com- 
mandments, fur  this  is  the  whole  of  man ;" — 
his  whole  wisdom,  interest,  and  happiness,  as 
well  as  his  whole  duty.  Ecclesiastes,  accord- 
ing to  a  modern  author,  is  a  dialogue,  in  which 
a  man  of  piety  disputes  with  a  libertine  who 
favoured  the  opinion  of  the  Sadducecs.  His 
reason  is,  that  there  are  passages  in  it  which 
seem  to  contradict  each  other,  and  could  not, 
he  thinks,  proceed  from  the  same  person.  But 
this  may  be  accounted  for  by  supposing  that  it 
was  Solomon's  method  to  propose  the  objec- 
tions of  infidels  and  sensualists,  and  then  to 
reply  to  them. 

ECCLESIASTICAL  POLITY,  the  rules 
by  which  churches  are  governed,  as  to  their 
spiritual  concerns.  The  reformers  having 
renounced  the  pope  as  antichrist,  and  having 
laid  it  down  as  their  fundamental  principle, 
that  Scripture  is  the  only  rule  of  faith,  and 
that  it  is  the  privilege  of  every  man  to  inter- 
pret it  according  to  his  own  judgment,  had  to 
consider  in  what  manner  the  churches  which 
they  had  formed  were  to  be  regulated ;  and 
there  soon  arose  among  them  upon  this  point 
diversity  of  sentiment.  Melancthon  and  the 
earliest  reformers  viewed  with  veneration  the 
hierarchy  which  had  so  long  subsisted,  as  also 
many  of  the  ceremonies  which  for  ages  had 
been  observed  ;  and  they  expressed  their  readi- 
ness to  continue  that  distinction  of  pastors 
which  their  researches  into  the  history  of  the 
church  had  enabled  them  to  trace  back  to  the 
early  ages  of  Christianity.  But  while  they  de- 
clared in  favour  of  this  form  of  ecclesiastical 
polity,  they  did  so,  not  upon  the  ground  that 
it  was  of  divine  institution,  or  positively  re- 
quired by  the  author  of  Christianity  as  insepa- 
rable from  a  church ;  but  on  the  ground,  that 
taking  into  estimation  every  thing  connected 
with  it,  it  appeared  to  them  eminently  adapted 
to  carry  into  effect  that  renovation  of  piety, 
and  that  religious  influence,  which  they  were 
so  eager  to  promote.  They  thus  made  eccle- 
siastical polity  a  matter  of  expediency,  or  of 
prudential  regulation ;  the  one  thing  in  their 
view,  binding  upon  all  Christians,  being  to 
strengthen  the  practical  power  of  religion. 
That  this  is  a  just  representation  of  the  state  of 
opinion  among  the  first  Protestants,  will  be 
placed  beyond  a  doubt  by  a  few  quotations  from 
the  confession  of  Augsburg,  and  from  the 
works  of  some  of  the  most  eminent  divines 


who  then  flourished.  Speaking  of  this  sub- 
ject, the  compilers  of  the  confession  declare, 
"  that  they  were  most  desirous  to  preserve  the 
ecclesiastical  polity,  and  those  degrees  in  the 
church  which  had  been  introduced  by  human 
authority,  knowing  that,  for  wise  and  good 
purposes,  the  discipline,  as  described  in  the 
canons,  had  been  introduced  by  the  fathers." 
"We  wish,"  they  add,  "to  testify  that  we 
would  willingly  preserve  the  ecclesiastical  and 
canonical  polity,  if  the  bishops  would  cease  to 
act  with  cruelty  against  our  churches."  And 
once  again  they  remark,  that  they  had  often 
declared  that  they  venerated  not  only  the 
ecclesiastical  power  which  was  instituted  in 
the  Gospel,  but  that  they  approved  of  the 
ecclesiastical  polity  which  had  subsisted,  and 
wished,  as  much  as  was  in  their  power,  to 
preserve  it.  It  is  quite  plain  from  these  pas- 
sages, that  the  framers  of  that  confession,  and 
those  who  adhered  to  it  as  the  standard  of  their 
faith,  viewed  ecclesiastical  polity  as  a  matter 
of  human  appointment ;  and  that,  although 
they  venerated  that  form  of  it  which  had  long 
existed,  they  looked  upon  themselves  as  at 
liberty,  under  peculiar  circumstances,  to  de- 
part from  it.  The  truth,  accordingly,  is,  that 
a  great  part  of  the  Lutheran  churches,  as  we 
shall  afterward  find,  did  introduce  many  devia- 
tions from  that  model  for  which  their  founders 
had  expressed  respect  and  admiration  ;  although 
episcopacy  was  in  several  places  continued. 

3.  In  consequence,  however,  of  the  exertions 
of  Calvin,  what  were  denominated  the  reform- 
ed churches  deemed  it  expedient  wholly  to 
change  this  form  of  polity,  and  to  introduce 
again  the  equality  among  pastors  which  had 
existed  in  the  primitive  times.  That  celebrated 
theologian,  resting  upon  the  undisputed  fact, 
that  in  the  Apostolic  age  no  distinction  subsist- 
ed between  bishops  and  presbyters,  thought 
himself  at  liberty  to  frame  a  system  of  polity 
upon  this  principle,  persuaded  that,  by  doing 
so,  lie  would  most  effectually  guard  against 
those  abuses  that  had  given  rise  to  the  Papal 
tyranny  which  Protestants  had  abjured.  He 
accordingly  introduced  his  scheme  where  he 
had  influence  to  do  so;  and  he  employed  all 
the  vigour  of  his  talents  in  pressing  upon  dis- 
tant churches  the  propriety  of  regulating,  in 
conformity  with  his  sentiments,  their  eccle- 
siastical government.  But,  while  he  was  firmly 
persuaded  that  an  equality  among  pastors  was 
agreeable  to  the  Apostolic  practice,  he  has 
shown  that  he  did  not  conceive  this  equality 
to  be  so  absolutely  required  by  Scripture,  that 
there  could  in  no  case  be  a  departure  from  it. 
He  was,  in  fact,  convinced  that  all  the  pur- 
poses of  religion  might  be  accomplished  under 
a  form  of  polity  in  which  it  was  not  recog- 
nised: "Wherever,"  he  says,  "the  preaching 
of  the  Gospel  is  heard  with  reverence,  and  the 
sacraments  are  not  neglected,  there  at  that 
time  there  is  a  church."  Speaking  of  faithful 
pastors,  he  describes  them  to  be  "those  who 
by  the  doctrine  of  Christ  lead  men  to  true 
piety,  who  property  administer  the '  sacred 
mysteries,  and  who  preserve  and  exercise  right 
discipline."     In  tracing  the   progress   of  the 


ECC 


325 


ECC 


hierarchy,  he  observes,  that  "those  to  whom 
the  office  of  teaching  was  assigned  were  de- 
nominated presbyters;  that  to  avoid  the  dis- 
sensions often  arising  among  equals,  they 
chose  one  of  their  number  to  preside,  to  whom 
the  title  of  bishop  was  exclusively  given  ;  and 
that  the  practice,  as  the  ancients  admitted, 
was  introduced  by  human  consent,  from  the 
necessity  of  the  times."  That  this  exaltation 
of  the  bishop,  and,  of  course,  this  departure 
from  parity,  did  not,  in  his  estimation,  render 
the  church  unchristian,  is  apparent  from  what 
he  says  of  it  after  the  change  was  introduced : 
"  Such  was  the  severity  of  these  times,  that  all 
the  ministers  were  led  to  discharge  their  duty 
as  the  Lord  required  of  them."  Even  after 
archbishops  and  patriarchs  had  arisen,  he 
merely  says,  in  recording  their  introduction, 
"This  arrangement  was  calculated  to  preserve 
discipline." 

3.  What  Calvin  thus  taught  in  his  "  Insti- 
tututes,"  he  confirmed  in  many  of  the  interest- 
ing letters  which  he  wrote  to  various  eminent 
persons.  In  these  letters  he  speaks  with  the 
highest  respect  of  the  church  of  England, 
where  the  distinction  of  clerical  orders  was 
preserved.  He  corresponds  with  the  highest 
dignitaries  of  that  church  in  a  style  which  he 
assuredly  would  not  have  adopted,  had  he  con- 
sidered them  as  upholding  an  anticbristian 
polity  ;  and  he  repeatedly  avows  the  principle, 
that,  in  regulating  the  government  of  the 
church,  attention  must  be  paid  to  the  circum- 
stances in  which  its  members  were  placed. 
Beza,  who  was  warmly  attached  to  presbytery, 
and  who  upon  every  occasion  strenuously  de- 
fended it,  still  admits  that  the  human  order  of 
episcopacy  was  useful,  as  long  as  the  bishops 
were  good ;  and  he  professes  all  reverence  for 
those  modern  bishops  who  strive  to  imitate  the 
primitive  ones  in  the  reformation  of  the  church 
according  to  the  wofd  of  God :  adding  that  it 
was  a  calumny  against  him,  and  those  who 
entertained  his  sentiments,  to  affirm,  as  some 
had  done,  that  they  wished  to  prescribe  their 
form  of  government  to  all  other  churches.  In 
the  excellent  letter  which  he  addressed  to 
Grindal,  bishop  of  London,  and  in  which  he 
pleads  the  cause  of  those  ministers  who  scru- 
pled to  use  the  ceremonies  which  their  brethren 
approved,  he  bears  his  testimony  to  the  con- 
formity of  the  church  of  England  in  doctrine 
with  his  church,  expresses  himself  with  the 
highest  respect  of  the  prelate  to  whom  he  was 
writing,  and  concludes  by  asking  his  prayers 
in  his  own  behalf,  and  in  that  of  the  church  of 
Geneva ;  all  of  which  is  quite  inconsistent  with 
the  tenet,  that  presbytery  is  absolutely  pre- 
scribed by  divine  authority. 

4.  The  same  general  principle  was  avowed 
by  the  most  eminent  English  divines.  Cran- 
mer  explicitly  declared,  that  bishops  and  priests 
were  of  the  same  order  at  the  commencement 
Of  Christianity ;  and  this  was  the  opinion  of 
several  of  his  distinguished  contemporaries. 
Holding  this  maxim,  their  support  of  episco- 
pacy must  have  proceeded  from  views  of  ex- 
pediency, or,  in  some  instances,  from  a  con- 
viction which  prevailed  very  generally  at  this 


early  period,  that  it  belonged  to  the  supreme 
civil  magistrate  to  regulate  the  spiritual  no  less 
than  the  political  government;  an  idea  involv- 
ing in  it  that  no  one  form  of  ecclesiastical 
polity  is  of  divine  institution.  At  a  later  period, 
during  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  we  find 
the  same  conviction,  that  it  was  no  violation 
of  Christianity  to  choose  different  modes  of 
administering  the  church.  Archbishop  Whit- 
gift,  who  distinguished  himself  by  the  zeal 
with  which  he  supported  the  English  hierarchy, 
frequently  maintains,  that  the  form  of  discipline 
is  not  particularly,  and  by  name,  set  down  in 
Scripture;  and  he  also  plainly  asserts,  "that 
no  form  of  church  government  is,  by  the  Scrip- 
tures, prescribed  or  commanded  to  the  church 
of  God."  This  principle  is  admirably  illustrat- 
ed and  confirmed  by  the  venerable  Hooker,  in 
the  third  book  of  his  work  on  ecclesiastical 
polity;  and  another  divine  of  the  English 
church,  who  lived  about  the  same  period,  has 
laid  down  what  he  conceives  to  be  an  unques- 
tionable position,  "  that  all  churches  have  not 
the  same  form  of  discipline;  neither  is  it 
necessary  that  they  should,  because  it  cannot 
be  proved  that  any  particular  form  of  church 
government  is  enjoined  by  the  word  of  God." 
We  have,  indeed,  a  succession  of  testimonies 
from  the  introduction  of  the  reformation  down 
through  the  reign  of  Elizabeth, — testimonies 
given  by  the  prunates,  and  bishops,  and  theo- 
logians, who  have  been  venerated  as  the  lumi- 
naries of  the  church  of  England,  that  the  divine 
ri°ht  or  institution  of  episcopacy  constituted 
no  part  of  their  faith ;  and  this  is  confirmed  by 
their  correspondence  with  reformed  divines, 
who  did  not  live  under  the  episcopal  model, 
but  who,  notwithstanding,  were  often  consulted 
as  to  the  ecclesiastical  arrangements  which  the 
convocation  should  adopt.  The  same  general 
sentiment  is  to  be  traced  in  those  churches 
which  had  reverted  to  the  primitive  equality 
among  the  ministers  of  Christ.  In  the  second 
Helvetic  confession,  which  was  approved  by 
many  churches,  it  is  taught,  that  bishops  and 
presbyters  in  the  beginning  governed  the  church 
with  equal  power,  none  exalting  himself  above 
another ;  the  inequality  which  soon  was  intro- 
duced originating  from  the  desire  of  preserving 
order.  Various  passages  from  Cyprian  and 
Jerom  are  quoted  in  confirmation  of  this  ;  and 
the  article  thus  concludes  :  "  Wherefore  no  one 
can  be  lawfully  hindered  from  returning  to  the 
ancient  constitution  of  the  church  of  God,  and 
to  adopt  it  in  preference  to  what  custom  has 
introduced."  Had  the  compilers  believed  that 
this  ancient  constitution  was  of  divine  obliga- 
tion, they  would  have  expressed  themselves 
much  more  strongly  with  respect  to  it ;  and 
instead  of  representing  the  return  to  it  as  what 
ought  not  to  be  hindered,  they  would  have  en- 
joined it,  as  what  it  was  a  violation  of  the  law 
of  God  to  neglect. 

5.  The  reformation  in  Scotland,  conducted 
by  Knox,  who  had  spent  a  considerable  part  of 
his  life  at  Geneva,  and  who  had  imbibed  the 
opinions  of  Calvin,  proceeded  upon  those 
views  of  polity  which  that  reformer  had  adopt- 
ed.    Still,  however,  he  authorized  a  modifica- 


ECC 


326 


ECL 


tiori  of  these  opinions,  accommodated  to  the 
state  of  his  native  country ;  for  although  the 
title  of  bishop  was  not  used,  superintendents, 
with  powers  little  inferior  to  those  committed 
to  prelates  in  England,  were  sanctioned  by  the 
first  Book  of  Discipline ;  and  these  superin- 
tendents were  classed,  in  the  acts  of  different 
general  assemblies,  among  the  necessary  minis- 
ters of  the  church.  The  necessity  must  have 
arisen  out  of  the  circumstances  of  the  period 
when  the  book  was  framed;  for  the  polity 
which  it  prescribed  was  said  to  be  only  for  a 
time ;  and  the  office  of  superintendent,  as  has 
been  strenuously  urged  by  some  of  the  most 
zealous  defenders  of  presbytery,  was  not  in- 
tended to  be  permanent.  The  Lutheran  church, 
with  the  exception  of  those  branches  of  it 
established  in  Denmark  and  Sweden,  has 
adopted  a  kind  of  intermediate  constitution 
between  episcopacy  and  presbytery.  While 
it  holds  that  there  is  no  divine  law  creating  a 
distinction  among  ministers,  it  yet  contends 
that  such  a  distinction  is  on  many  accounts  ex- 
pedient;  and  accordingly  a  diversity  in  point 
of  rank  and  privileges  has  been  universally 
introduced,  approaching  in  different  places, 
more  or  less,  to  the  hierarchy  which  subsisted 
before  the  reformation.  But,  although  it  has 
thus  regulated  its  own  practice,  it  unambigu- 
ously admits,  that  as  the  Gospel  is  §ilent  as  to 
any  particular  form  of  polity,  different  forms 
may  be  chosen,  without  any  breach  of  Chris- 
tian union. 

6.  It  appears  from  the  statement  which  has 
now  been  given,  that  all  Protestants  imme- 
diately after  the  reformation,  while  they  ab- 
jured the  papal  supremacy,  were  united  in 
holding  that  the  mode  of  administering  the 
ehurch  might  be  varied,  some  of  them  being 
attached  to  episcopacy,  others  to  presbytery ; 
but  all  founding  this  attachment  upon  the 
judgment  which  they  had  formed  as  to  the 
tendency  or  utility  of  either  of  these  modes  of 
government.  An  idea  soon  was  avowed  by 
some  of  the  reformers,  that  the  whole  regu- 
lation of  the  church  pertained  to  the  magis- 
trate ;  this  branch  of  power  being  vested  in 
him  no  less  than  that  of  administering  the 
civil  government;  and  to  this  opinion  the 
name  of  Erastianism,  from  Erastus,  who  first 
defended  it,  was  given.  Cranmer,  in  an  offi- 
cial reply  which  he  made  to  certain  questions 
that  had  been  submitted  for  his  consideration, 
declared,  "  that  the  civil  ministers  under  the 
king's  majesty  be  those  that  shall  please  his 
highness  for  the  time  to  put  in  authority  under 
him  ;  as,  for  example,  the  lord  chancellor,  lord 
great  master,  &c ;  the  ministers  of  God's  word 
under  his  majesty  be  the  bishops,  parsons, 
vicars,  and  such  other  priests  as  be  appointed 
by  his  highness  to  that  ministration ;  as,  for 
example,  the  bishop  of  Canterbury,  &c.  All 
the  6aid  officers  and  ministers,  as  well  of  the 
one  sort  as  the  other,  be  appointed,  assigned, 
and  elected  in  every  place  by  the  laws  and 
orders  of  kings  and  princes."  By  the  great 
majority  of  Protestants,  however,  the  tenets  of 
Erastus  were  condemned ;  for  they  maintained 
that  the  Lord  Jesus  had  conveyed  to  his  church 


a  spiritual  power  quite  distinct  from  the  tem- 
poral ;  and  that  it  belonged  to  the  ministers  of 
religion  to  exercise  it,  for  promoting  the  spi- 
ritual welfare  of  the  Christian  community.  But, 
wliile  they  disputed  as  to  this  point,  they  agreed 
in  admitting  there  was  no  model  prescribed  in 
the  New  Testament  for  a  Christian  church,  as 
there  had  been  in  the  Mosaical  economy  for 
the  Jewish  church ;  and  that  it  was  a  branch 
of  the  liberty  of  the  disciples  of  Christ,  or  one 
of  their  privileges,  to  choose  the  polity  which 
seemed  to  them  best  adapted  for  extending  the 
power  and  influence  of  religion. 

ECLECTICS,  a  sect  of  ancient  philosophers, 
who  professed  to  select  whatever  was  good  and 
true  from  all  the  other  philosophical  sects. 
The  Eclectic  philosophy  was  in  a  flourishing 
state  at  Alexandria  when  our  Saviour  was  upon 
earth.  Its  founders  formed  the  design  of  se- 
lecting from  the  doctrines  of  all  former  phi- 
losophers such  opinions  as  seemed  to  approach 
nearest  the  truth,  and  of  combining  them  into 
one  system.  They  held  Plato  in  the  highest 
esteem ;  but  did  not  scruple  to  join  with  his 
doctrines  whatever  they  thought  conformable 
to  reason  in  the  tenets  of  other  philosophers. 
Potamon,  a  Platonist,  appears  to  have  been  the 
projector  of  this  plan.  The  Eclectic  system 
was  brought  to  perfection  by  Ammonius  Sac 
cas,  who  blended  Christianity  with  his  philoso- 
phy, and  founded  the  sect  of  the  Ammonians, 
or  New  Platonists,  in  the  second  century.  The 
moral  doctrine  of  the  Alexandrian  school  was 
as  follows : — The  mind  of  man,  originally  a 
portion  of  the  Divine  Being,  having  fallen  into 
a  state  of  darkness  and  defilement,  by  its  union 
with  the  body,  is  to  be  gradually  emancipated 
from  the  chains  of  matter,  and  rise  by  con- 
templation to  the  knowledge  and  vision  of 
God.  The  end  of  philosophy,  therefore,  is  the 
liberation  of  the  soul  from  its  corporeal  im- 
prisonment. For  this  .purpose,  the  Eclectic 
philosophy  recommends  abstinence,  with  other 
voluntary  mortifications,  and  religious  exer- 
cises. In  the  infancy  of  the  Alexandrian 
school,  not  a  few  of  the  professors  of  Chris- 
tianity were  led,  by  the  pretensions  of  the 
Eclectic  sect,  to  imagine  that  a  coalition  might, 
with  great  advantage,  be  formed  between  its 
system  and  that  of  Christianity.  This  union 
appeared  the  more  desirable,  when  several  phi- 
losophers of  this  sect  became  converts  to  the 
Christian  faith.  The  consequence  was,  that 
Pagan  ideas  and  opinions  were  by  degrees 
mixed  with  the  pure  and  simple  doctrines  of 
the  Gospel.     See  Platonism. 

ECLIPSE.  The  word  eclipse,  i>c\et\].ts,  sig- 
nifies failure,  namely,  of  light.  An  eclipse  of 
the  sun  is  caused  by  the  intervention  of  the 
moon,  at  new,  or  in  conjunction  with  the  sun, 
intercepting  his  light  from  the  earth,  either  to- 
tally or  partially.  An  eclipse  of  the  moon  Is 
caused  by  the  intervention  of  the  earth,  inter- 
cepting the  sun's  light  from  the  moon,  when 
full,  or  in  opposition  to  the  sun,  either  totally 
or  partially.  The  reason  why  the  sun  is  not 
eclipsed  every  new  moon,  nor  the  moon  at 
every  full,  is  owing  to  the  inclination  of  the 
moon's  orbit  to  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic,  or 


ECL 


327 


EDE 


earth's  orbit,  in  an  angle  of  about  five  degrees 
and  a  half;  in  consequence  of  which,  the 
moon  is  generally  too  much  elevated  above 
the  plane  of  the  ecliptic,  or  too  much  depressed 
below  it,  for  her  disk  to  touch  the  earth's 
shadow  at  full,  or  for  her  shadow,  or  her  pe- 
numbra, to  touch  the  earth's  disk  at  new.  An 
eclipse,  therefore,  of  either  luminary  can  only 
take  place  when  they  are  within  their  proper 
limits,  or  distances,  from  the  nodes  or  inter- 
sections of  both  orbits.  And  because  the  limits 
of  solar  eclipses  are  wider  than  those  of  lunar, 
in  general  there  will  be  more  eclipses  of  the 
sun  than  of  the  moon.  In  any  year,  the  num- 
ber of  eclipses  of  both  luminaries  cannot  be 
less  than  two,  and  these  will  both  be  of  the 
sun,  nor  more  than  seven :  the  usual  number 
is  four ;  and  it  is  very  rare  to  have  more  than 
six.  But  though  solar  eclipses  happen  oftener, 
\unar  are  more  frequently  observed  in  any  par- 
ticular place.  For  an  eclipse  of  the  moon  is 
visible  to  the  inhabitants  of  half  the  globe  at 
the  same  instant;  whereas,  an  eclipse  of  the 
sun  is  visible  only  within  that  part  of  the 
earth's  surface,  traversed  by  the  moon's  total 
shadow,  and  by  her  penumbra,  or  partial 
shadow.  But  her  total  shadow,  when  she  is 
nearest  to  the  earth,  cannot  cover  a  space  of 
more  than  a  hundred  and  fifty-eight  geographi- 
cal miles  in  diameter,  nor  at  her  mean  distance 
more  than  seventy-nine,  and  at  her  greatest 
distance  may  not  touch  the  earth  at  all.  In 
the  two  former  cases,  the  sun  will  be  eclipsed 
in  the  places  covered  by  the  shadow  totally,  or 
by  the  penumbra  partially :  in  the  last  it  may 
be  annular,  but  not  total.  Without  the  reach 
of  the  shadow,  and  within  the  limits  of  the 
penumbra,  which  cannot  cover  more  than  four 
thousand  five  hundred  and  fifty-two  miles  of 
the  earth's  surface,  there  will  be  a  partial 
eclipse  of  the  sun,  and  without  these  limits  no 
eclipse  at  all.  Hence  lunar  eclipses  are  more 
frequently  noticed  by  historians  than  solar; 
and  Diogenes  Laertius  may  be  credited  when 
he  relates,  that,  during  the  period  in  which 
the  Egyptians  had  observed  eight  hundred  and 
thirty-two  eclipses  of  the  moon,  they  had  only 
observed  three  hundred  and  seventy-three  of 
the  sun.  In  the  midst  of  a  total  lunar  eclipse, 
the  moon's  disk  is  frequently  visible,  and  of  a 
deep  red  or  copperish  colour.  This,  in  the  poetic 
language  of  sacred  prophecy,  is  expressed  by 
"  the  moon's  being  turned  into  blood,"  Joel 
ii,  31.  This  remarkable  phenomenon  is  caused 
by  the  sun's  lateral  rays  in  their  passage 
through  the  dense  atmosphere  of  the  earth, 
being  inflected  into  the  shadow  by  refraction, 
and  falling  pretty  copiously  upon  the  moon's 
disk,  are  reflected  from  thence  to  the  eye  of 
the  spectator.  If  the  earth  had  no  atmosphere, 
the  moon's  disk  would  then  be  as  black  as  in  a 
solar  eclipse.  A  total  eclipse  of  the  moon  may 
occasion  a  privation  of  her  light  for  an  hour 
and  a  half,  during  her  total  immersion  in  the 
shadow ;  whereas,  a  total  eclipse  of  the  sun 
can  never  last  in  any  particular  place  above 
four  minutes,  when  the  moon  is  nearest  to  the 
earth,  and  her  shadow  thickest.  Hence  it  ap- 
pears, that  the  darkness  which  "overspread 


the  whol3  land  of  Judea,"  at  the  time  of  our 
Lord's  crucifixion,  was  preternatural,  "from 
the  sixth  until  the  ninth  hour,"  or  from  noon 
till  three  in  the  afternoon,  in  its  duration,  and 
also  in  its  time,  about  full  moon,  when  the 
moon  could  not  possibly  eclipse  the  sun.  It 
was  accompanied  by  an  earthquake,  which 
altogether  struck  the  spectators,  and  among 
them  the  centurion  and  Roman  guard,  with 
great  feaj^and  a  conviction,  that  Jesus  was 
the  Son  o^God,  Matt,  xxvii,  51-54. 

Eclipses,  says  Dr.  Hales,  are  justly  reckoned 
among  the  surest  and  most  unerring  characters 
of  chronology  ;  for  they  can  be  calculated  with 
great  exactness  backward  as  well  as  forward ; 
and  there  is  such  a  variety  of  distinct  circum- 
stances of  the  time  when,  and  the  place  where, 
they  were  seen ;  of  the  duration,  or  beginning, 
middle,  or  end  of  every  eclipse,  and  of  the  quan. 
tity,  or  number  of  digits  eclipsed ;  that  there 
is  no  danger  of  confounding  any  two  eclipses 
together,  when  the  circumstances  attending 
each  are  noticed  with  any  tolerable  degree  of 
precision.  Thus,  to  an  eclipse  of  the  moon 
incidentally  noticed  by  the  great  Jewish  chro- 
nologer,  Josephus,  shortly  before  the  death  of 
Herod  the  Great,  we  owe  the  determination  of 
the  true  year  of  our  Saviour's  nativity.  During 
Herod's  last  illness,  and  not  many  days  before 
his  death,  there  happened  an  eclipse  of  the  moon 
on  the  very  night  that  he  burned  alive  Matthias, 
and  the  ringleaders  of  a  sedition,  in  which  the 
golden  eagle,  which  he  had  consecrated  and 
set  up  over  the  gate  of  the  temple,  was  pulled 
down  and  broken  to  pieces  by  these  zealots. 
This  eclipse  happened,  by  calculation,  March 
13,  U.  C.  750,  B.  C.  4.  But  it  is  certain  from 
Scripture,  that  Christ  was  born  during  Herod's 
reign ;  and  from  the  visit  of  the  magi  to  Jeru- 
salem "  from  the  east,"  anb  avaro^iav,  from  the 
Parthian  empire,  to  inquire  for  the  true  "born 
King  of  the  Jews,"  whose  star  they  had  seen 
"at  its  rising,"  iv  tjj  avaroXfi,  and  also  from  the 
age  of  the  infants  massacred  at  Bethlehem, 
"  from  two  years  old  and  under,"  Matt,  ii,  1-16. 
It  is  no  less  certain,  that  Jesus  could  not  have 
been  born  later  than  B.  C.  5,  which  is  the  year 
assigned  to  the  nativity  by  Chrysostom,  Peta- 
vius  and  Prideaux. 

EDEN,  Garden  of,  the  residence  of  our  first 
parents  in  their  state  of  purity  and  blessedness. 
The  word  Eden  in  the  Hebrew  denotes  "plea- 
sure" or  "  delight :"  whence  the  name  has  been 
given  to  several  places  which,  from  their  situa- 
tion, were  pleasant  or  delightful.  Thus  the 
Prophet  Amos,  i,  5,  speaks  of  an  Eden  in 
Syria,  which  is  generally  considered  to  have 
been  in  the  valley  of  Damascus,  where  a  town 
called  Eden  is  mentioned  by  Pliny  and  Ptole- 
my, and  where  the  tomb  of  Abel  is  pretended 
to  be  shown.  This  has  in  consequence  been 
selected  by  some  as  the  site  of  the  garden  of 
Eden.  By  others,  the  garden  has  been  placed 
on  the  eastern  side  of  mount  Libanus ;  and  by 
others  again,  in  Arabia  Felix,  where  traces  of 
the  word  Eden  are  found.  But  the  opinion 
which  has  been  most  generally  received  on  this 
subject  is  that  which  places  the  garden  on  the 
Lower  Euphrates;   between  the  junction   of 


KDK 


328 


EDO 


that  rivc.r  with  the  Tigris  and  the  gul  *  of  Per- 
sia. This  is  Dr.  Well's  opinion ;  in  which  he 
is  supported  hy  Huetius,  Grotius,  Marinus,  and 
Bochart.  To  this  it  is  replied,  that,  according 
to  this  scheme,  the  garden  was  intersected  by 
a  great  branch  of  the  Euphrates,  in  the  lower 
and  broadest  part  of  its  course ;  which  will 
give  it  an  extent  absolutely  irreconcilable  with 
the  idea  of  Adam's  "dressing"  it  by  his  own 
manual  labour,  or  even  of  overlooking  it:  be- 
side  that  all  communication  would  be  cut  off 
between  its  different  parts  by  a  stream  half  a 
mile  in  width.  Its  local  features,  too,  if  in  this 
situation,  must  have  been  of  the  most  uninter- 
esting kind ;  the  whole  of  that  region,  ae  far 
as  die  sight  can  reach,  being  a  dead,  monoto- 
nous, sandy,  or  marshy  flat,  without  a  single 
undulation  to  relieve  the  eye,  or  give  any  of 
the  beauties  which  the  imagination  involun- 
tarily paints  to  itself  as  attendant  on  a  spot 
finished  by  the  hand  of  God  as  the  residence 
of  his  creatures  in  a  state  of  innocence  ;  whose 
minds  may  be  supposed  to  be  tuned  to  the  full 
enjoyment  of  the  grand  and  beautiful  in  nature. 
How  different  will  be  the  aspect  and  arrange- 
ment of  this  favoured  spot,  if  it  be  placed  where 
only,  according  to  the  words  of  Moses,  it  can 
be  placed ;  namely,  at  the  heads  or  fountains 
of  the  rivers  described,  instead  of  their  mouths. 
The  country  of  Eden,  therefore,  according 
to  others,  was  some  where  in  Media,  Armenia, 
or  the  north  of  Mesopotamia  ;  all  mountainous 
tracts,  and  affording,  instead  of  the  sickening 
plains  of  Babylonia,  some  of  the  grandest,  as 
well  as  the  richest  scenery  in  the  world.  A 
river  or  stream  rising  in  some  part  of  this 
country,  entered  the  garden ;  where  it  was 
parted  into  four  others,  in  ail  probability,  by 
fi  st  falling  into  a  basin  or  lake,  from  which 
the  other  streams  issued  at  different  points, 
taking  different  directions,  an  1  growing  into 
mighty  rivers;  although  at  their  sources  in 
the  garden,  they  would  be  like  all  other  rivers, 
mere  brooks,  and  forming  no  b.  rrier  to  a  free 
communication  between  the  parts  of  the  garden. 
Dr.  Wells,  in  order  to  support  his  hypothesis 
of  the  situation  of  Eden  on  the  lower  parts  of 
the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  after  giving  these 
rivers  a  distribution  which  has  now  no  exist- 
ence, makes  the  Pison  and  Gihon  to  be  parts 
of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  themselves :  an 
arrangement  at  perfect  disagreement  with  the 
particular  description  of  Moses ;  beside,  that 
the  Gihon  thus  called,  instead  of  compassing 
the  whole  land  of  Cush,  can  only  be  said  to 
skirt  an  extreme  comer  of  it.  It  appears,  in- 
deed, that  in  the  time  of  Alexander,  the  Eu- 
phrates pursued  a  separate  course  to  the  sea; 
or,  at  least,  that  a  navigable  branch  of  it  was 
carried  in  that  direction :  in  the  mouth  of 
which,  .at  Diridotis,  Nearchus  anchored  with 
his  fleet.  But  what  reliance  can  be  placed  on 
the  ever  shifting  channels  of  a  river  flowing 
through  an  alluvial  soil,  and  over  a  perfect 
level  divertible  at  the  pleasure  of  the  people 
inhabiting  its  banks  ?  Or,  what  theory  can  be 
founded  on  their  distribution,  which  will  not 
be  ;.s  unstable  as  the  streams  themselves? 
This  very  channel,  so  essential  to  the  hypothe- 


sis which  places  Eden  in  this  situation,  was 
annihilated  by  the  Orcheni,  a  neighbouring 
people ;  who  directed  the  stream  to  water 
their  own  land,  and  thus  gave  it  a  shorter 
course  into  the  Tigris,  which  it  has  ever  since 
preserved.  But  it  is  only  the  lower  parts  of 
the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  as  they  creep  through 
the  plains  of  Babylonia,  which  are  thus  incon- 
stant :  higher  up  in  their  courses,  they  flow 
over  more  solid  strata,  and  in  deeper  valleys, 
unchanged  by  time.  It  is  here  that  their  con- 
formity with  the  Mosaic  account  is  to  be 
sought ;  and  it  is  here  that  they  may  be  found, 
in  the  exact  condition  in  which  they  were  left 
by  the  deluge,  and,  indeed,  according  to  Mo- 
ses, in  which  they  existed  before  that  event. 
It  is  true,  that  the  heads  of  the  four  rivers, 
above  described,  cannot  now  be  found  suffi- 
ciently near,  to  recognise  thence  the  exact 
situation  of  paradise ;  but  they  all  arise  from 
the  same  mountainous  region  ;  and  the  springs 
of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  as  already  men- 
tioned, are  even  now  nearly  interwoven.  Mr. 
Faber  supposes  the  lake  Arsissa  to  cover  the  site 
of  Eden ;  and  that  the  change  which  carried  the 
heads  of  the  rivers  to  a  greater  distance  from 
it,  was  occasioned  by  the  deluge.  But  it  is  far 
more  probable  that  this  change,  if  we  may 
infer  from  the  account  given  by  Moses  that 
the  courses  of  all  the  streams  remained  unal- 
tered by  the  flood,  may  have  taken  place  at 
man's  expulsion  from  the  garden  :  when  God 
might  choose  to  obliterate  this  fair  portion  of 
his  works,  unfitted  for  any  thing  but  the  resi- 
dence of  innocence  ;  and  to  blot  at  once  from 
the  face  of  the  earth,  like  the  guilty  cities  cf 
the  plain,  both  the  site  and  the  memorial  of 
man's  transgression, — an  awful  event,  which 
would  add  tenfold  horrors  to  the  punishment. 

EDOM,  a  province  of  Arabia,  which  derives 
its  name  from  Edom,  or  Esau,  who  there  set- 
tled in  the  mountains  of  Seir,  in  the  land  of 
the  Horites,  south-east  of  the  Dead  Sea.  His 
descendants  afterward  extended  themselves 
throughout  Arabia  Petrea,  and  south  of  Pales- 
tine, between  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean. During  the  Babylonish  captivity,  and 
when  Judea  was  almost  deserted,  they  seized 
the  south  of  Judah,  and  advanced  to  Hebron. 
Hence  that  tract  of  Judea,  which  they  inhabit- 
ed, retained  the  name  of  Idumea  in  tire  time 
of  our  Saviour,  Mark  iii,  8.  Under  Moses  and 
Joshua,  and  even  under  the  kings  of  Judah, 
the  Idumcans  were  confined  to  the  east  and 
south  of  the  Dead  Sea,  in  the  land  of  Seir; 
but  afterward  they  extended  their  territories 
more  to  the  south  of  Judah.  The  capital  of 
east  Edom  was  Bozrah  ;  and  that  of  south 
Edom,  Petra,  or  Jectael.  The  Edomites,  or 
Idumeans,  the  posterity  of  Esau,  had  kings 
long  before  the  Jews.  They  were  first  govern- 
ed by  dukes  or  princes,  and  afterward  by  kings, 
Gen.  xxxvi,  31.  They  continued  independent 
till  the  time  of  David,  who  subdued  them,  in 
completion  of  Isaac's  prophecy,  that  Jacob 
should  rule  Esau,  Gen.  xxvii,  29,  30.  The 
Idumeans  bore  this  subjection  with  great  im- 
patience ;  and  at  the  end  of  Solomon's  reign, 
Hadad,  the   Edomite,  who  had  been  carried 


EDO 


329 


EDO 


into  Egypt  during  his  childhood,  returned  into 
his  own  country,  where  he  procured  himself 
to  be  acknowledged  king,  1  Kings  xi,  22.  It 
is  probable,  however,  that  he  reigned  only  in 
east  Edom  ;  for  Edom  south  of  Judea  continued 
subject  to  the  kings  of  Judah,  till  the  reign  of 
Jehoram,  son  of  Jehoshaphat,  against  whom 
it  rebelled,  2  Chron.  xxi,  8.  Jehoram  attacked 
Edom,  but  did  not  subdue  it.  Amaziah  king 
of  Judah,  took  Petra,  killed  a  thousand  men, 
and  compelled  ten  thousand  more  to  leap  from 
the  rock,  upon  which  stood  the  city  of  Petra, 
2  Chron.  xxv,  11,  12.  But  these  conquests 
were  not  permanent.  Uzziah  took  Elath  on 
the  Red  Sea,  2  Kings  xiv,  22  ;  but  Rezin,  king 
of  Syria,  retook  it.  Some  think  that  Esar. 
haddon,  king  of  Syria,  ravaged  this  country, 
Isaiah  xxi,  11-17;  xxxiv,  6.  Holofernes  sub- 
dued it,  as  well  as  other  nations  around  Judea, 
Judith  iii,  14.  When  Nebuchadnezzar  besieged 
Jerusalem,  the  Idumeans  joined  him,  and  en- 
couraged him  to  rase  the  very  foundations  of 
that  city.  This  cruelty  did  not  long  continue 
unpunished.  Five  years  after  the  taking  Of 
Jerusalem,  Nebuchadnezzar  humbled  all  the 
states  around  Judea,  and  in  particular  Idumea. 
John  Hyreanus  entirely  conquered  the  Idu- 
means, whom  he  obliged  to  receive  circum- 
cision and  the  law.  They  continued  subject 
to  the  later  kings  of  Judea  till  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem  by  the  Romans.  They  even  came 
to  assist  that  city  when  besieged,  and  entered 
it  in  order  to  defend  it.  However,  they  did 
not  continue  there  till  it  was  taken,  but  return- 
ed into  Idumea  loaded  with  booty.  The  pro- 
phecies respecting  Edom  are  numerous  and 
striking ;  and  the  present  state  of  the  country 
as  described  by  modern  travellers  has  given  so 
remarkable  an  attestation  to  the  accuracy  of 
their  fulfilment,  that  a  few  extracts  from  Mr. 
Keith's  work,  in  which  this  is  pointed  out, 
may  be  fitly  introduced  : — 

2.  There  are  numerous  prophecies  respect- 
ing Idumea,  that  bear  a  literal  interpretation, 
however  hyperbolical  they  may  appear.  "  My 
sword  shall  come  down  upon  idumea,  and  upon 
the  people  of  my  curse,  to  judgment.  From 
generation  to  generation  it  shall  lie  waste, 
none  shall  pass  through  it  for  ever  and  ever. 
But  the  cormorant  and  the  bittern  shall  possess 
it;  the  owl  also  and  the  raven  shall  dwell  in  it : 
and  he  shall  stretch  out  upon  it  the  line  of  con- 
fusion, and  the  stones  of  emptiness.  They 
shall  call  the  nobles  thereof  to  the  kingdom ; 
but  none  shall  be  there,  and  all  her  princes 
shall  be  nothing.  And  thorns  shall  come  up 
in  her  palaces,  nettles  and  brambles  in  the 
fortresses  thereof;  and  it  shall  be  a  habitation 
of  dragons,  and  a  court  for  owls.  Seek  ye  out 
of  the  book  of  the  Lord  and  read ;  no  one  of 
these  shall  fail,  none  shall  want  her  mate ;  for 
my  mouth  it  hath  commanded,  and  his  Spirit 
it  hath  gathered  them.  And  he  hath  cast  the 
lot  for  them,  and  his  hand  hath  divided  it  unto 
them  by  line ;  they  shall  possess  it  for  ever, 
from  generation  to  generation  shall  they  dwell 
therein,"  Isa.  xxxiv,  5,  10-17.  "  I  have  sworn 
by  myself,  saith  the  Lord,  that  Bozrah"  (the 
strong  or  fortified  city)  "  shall  become  a  deso- 


lation, a  reproach,  a  waste,  and  a  curse ;  and 
all  the  cities  thereof  shall  be  perpetual  wastes. 
Lo,  I  will  make  thee  small  among  the  Heathen, 
and  despised  among  men.  Thy  terribleness 
hath  deceived  thee,  and  the  pride  of  thine  heart 
O  thou  that  dwellest  in  the  clefts  of  the  rock 
that  boldest  the  height  of  the  hill :  though 
thou  shouldest  make  thy  nest  as  high  as  the 
eagle,  I  will  bring  thee  down  from  thence,  saith 
the  Lord.  Also  Edom  shall  be  a  desolation ; 
every  one  that  goeth  by  shall  be  astonished, 
and  shall  hiss  at  all  the  plagues  thereof.  As 
in  the  overthrow  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  and 
the  neighbour  cities  thereof,  saith  the  Lord,  no 
man  shall  abide  there,  neither  shall  a  son  of 
man  dwell  in  it,"  Jer.  xlix,  13-18.  "  Thus  saith 
the  Lord  God,  I  will  stretch  out  mine  hand 
upon  Edom,  and  will  cut  off  man  and  beast 
from  it,  and  I  will  make  it  desolate  from  Te- 
man."  "  I  laid  the  mountains  of  Esau  and  his 
heritage  waste  for  the  dragons  of  the  wilder- 
ness. Whereas  Edom  saith,  We  are  impover- 
ished, but  we  will  return  and  build  the  desolate 
places ;  thus  saith  the  Lord  of  hosts,  They  shall 
build,  but  I  will  throw  down ;  and  they  shall 
call  them,  The  border  of  wickedness,"  Mala- 
chi  i,  3,  4. 

Is  there  any  country  once  inhabited  and 
opulent,  so  utterly  desolate  ?  There  is,  and 
that  land  is  Idumea.  The  territory  of  the 
descendants  of  Esau  affords  as  miraculous  a 
demonstration  of  the  inspiration  of  the  Scrip- 
tures as  the  fate  of  the  children  of  Israel.  A 
single  extract  from  the  Travels  of  Volney  will 
be  found  to  be  equally  illustrative  of  the  pro- 
phecy and  of  the  fact:  "This  country  has  not 
been  visited  by  any  traveller,  but  it  well  merits 
such  an  attention ;  for,  from  the  report  of  the 
Arabs  of  Bakir,  and  the  inhabitants  of  Gaza, 
who  frequently  go  to  Maan  and  Karak,  on  the 
road  of  the  pilgrims,  there  are,  to  the  south-east 
of  the  lake  Asphaltites,  (Dead  Sea,)  within 
three  days'  journey,  upward  of  thirty  ruined 
towns  absolutely  deserted.  Several  of  them 
have  large  edifices,  with  columns  that  may 
have  belonged  to  the  ancient  temples,  or  at 
least  to  Greek  churches.  The  Arabs  some- 
times make  use  of  them  to  fold  their  cattle  in; 
but  in  general  avoid  them  on  account  of  the 
enormous  scorpions  with  which  they  swarm. 
We  cannot  be  surprised  at  these  traces  of  an- 
cient population,  when  we  recollect  that  this 
was  the  country  of  the  Nabatheans,  the  most 
powerful  of  the  Arabs,  and  of  the  Idumeans, 
who,  at  the  time  of  the  destruction  of  Jerusa- 
lem, were  almost  as  numerous  as  the  Jews,  as 
appears  from  Josephus,  who  informs  us,  that 
on  the  first  rumour  of  the  march  of  Titus 
against  Jerusalem,  thirty  thousand  Idumeans 
instantly  assembled,  and  threw  themselves  into 
that  city  for  its  defence.  It  appears  that,  be- 
side the  advantages  of  being  under  a  tolerably 
good  government,  these  districts  enjoyed  a  con- 
siderable share  oftho  commerce  of  Arabia  and 
India,  which  increased  their  industry  and  popu- 
lation. We  know  that  as  far  back  as  the 
time  of  Solomon,  the  cities  of  Astioum  Gaber 
(Ezion  Geber)  and  Ailah  (Eloth)  were  highly 
frequented  marts.     These  towns  were  situated 


EDO 


330 


EDO' 


on  the  adjacent  gulf  of  the  Red  Sea,  where  we 
still  find  the  latter  yet  retaining  its  name,  and 
perhaps  the  former  in  that  of  El  Akaba,  or 
'the  end  of  the  sea.'  These  two  places  are  in 
the  hands  of  the  Bedouins,  who,  being  desti- 
tute of  a  navy  and  commerce,  do  not  inhabit 
them.  But  the  pilgrims  report  that  there  is  at 
El  Akaba  a  wretched  fort.  The  Idumeans, 
from  whom  the  Jews  only  took  their  ports  at 
intervals,  must  have  found  in  them  a  great 
source  of  wealth  and  population.  It  even 
appears  that  the  Idumeans  rivalled  the  Tyrians, 
who  also  possessed  a  town,  the  name  of  which 
is  unknown,  on  the  coast  of  Hedjaz,  in  the 
desert  of  Tih,  and  the  city  of  Faran,  and,  with- 
out doubt,  El-Tor,  which  served  it  by  way  of 
port.  From  this  place  the  caravans  might 
reach  Palestine  and  Judea,  (through  Idumea,) 
in  eight  or  ten  days.  This  route,  which  is 
longer  than  that  from  Suez  to  Cairo,  is  in- 
finitely shorter  than  that  from  Aleppo  to  Bas- 
sorah."  Evidence,  which  must  have  been 
undesigned,  which  cannot  be  suspected  of  par- 
tiality,  and  which  no  illustration  can  strengthen, 
and  no  ingenuity  pervert,  is  thus  borne  to  the 
truth  of  the  most  wonderful  prophecies.  That 
the  Idumeans  were  a  populous  and  powerful 
nation  long  posterior  to  the  delivery  of  the 
prophecies ;  that  they  possessed  a  tolerably 
good  government,  even  in  the  estimation  of 
Volney ;  that  Idumea  contained  many  cities ; 
that  these  cities  are  now  absolutely  deserted ; 
and  that  their  ruins  swarm  with  enormous 
scorpions ;  that  it  was  a  commercial  nation, 
and  possessed  highly  frequented  marts ;  that  it 
forms  a  shorter  route  than  the  ordinary  one  to 
India ;  and  yet  that  it  had  not  been  visited  by 
any  traveller ;  are  facts  all  recorded,  and  proved 
by  this  able  but  unconscious  commentator. 

3.  A  greater  contrast  cannot  be  imagined 
than  the  ancient  and  present  state  of  Idumea. 
It  was  a  kingdom  previous  to  Israel,  having 
been  governed  first  by  dukes  or  princes,  after- 
ward by  eight  successive  kings,  and  again  by 
dukes,  before  there  reigned  any  king  over  the 
children  of  Israel,  Gen.  xxxvi,  31,  &c.  Its 
fertility  and  early  cultivation  are  implied  not 
only  in  the  blessings  of  Esau,  whose  dwelling 
was  to  be  the  fatness  of  the  earth,  and  of  the 
dew  of  heaven  from  above ;  but  also  in  the 
condition  proposed  by  Moses  to  the  Edomites, 
when  he  solicited  a  passage  for  the  Israelites 
through  their  borders,  that  "  they  would  not 
pass  through  the  fields  nor  through  the  vine- 
yards ;"  and  also  in  the  great  wealth,  especially 
in  the  multitudes  of  flocks  and  herds,  recorded 
as  possessed  by  an  individual  inhabitant  of  that 
country,  at  a  period,  in  all  probability  even 
more  remote,  Gen.  xxvii,  39 ;  Num.  xx,  17 ; 
Job  xlii,  12.  The  Idumeans  were,  without 
doubt,  both  an  opulent  and  a  powerful  people. 
They  often  contended  with  the  Israelites,  and 
entered  into  a  league  with  their  other  enemies 
against  them.  In  the  reign  of  David  they  were 
indeed  subdued  and  greatly  oppressed,  and  many 
of  them  even  dispersed  throughout  the  neigh- 
bouring countries,  particularly  Phenicia  and 
Egypt.  But  during  the  decline  of  the  king- 
dom of  Judah,  and  for  many  years  previous  to 


its  extinction,  they  encroached  upon  the  terri- 
tories of  the  Jews,  and  extended  their  dominion 
over  the  south-western  part  of  Judea. 

4.  There  is  a  prediction  which,  being  pecu- 
liarly remarkable  as  applicable  to  Idumea,  and 
bearing  reference  to  a  circumstance  explana- 
tory of  the  difficulty  of  access  to  any  knowledge 
respecting  it,  is  entitled,  in  the  first  instance, 
to  notice  :  "  None  shall  pass  through  it  for  ever 
and  ever.  I  will  cut  oft'  from  Mount  Seir  him 
that  passeth  out,  and  him  that  returneth,"  Isa. 
xxxiv,  10 ;  Ezek.  xxxv,  7.  The  ancient  great- 
ness of  Idumea  must,  in  no  small  degree,  have 
resulted  from  its  commerce.  Bordering  with 
Arabia  on  the  east,  and  Egypt  on  the  south- 
west, and  forming  from  north  to  south  the  most 
direct  and  most  commodious  channel  of  com- 
munication between  Jerusalem  and  her  depend- 
encies on  the  Red  Sea,  as  well  as  between  Syria 
and  India,  through  the  continuous  valleys  of 
El  Ghor,  and  El  Araba,  which  terminated  on 
the  one  extremity  at  the  borders  of  Judea,  and 
on  the  other  at  Elath  and  Ezion  Geber  on  the 
Elanitic  gulf  of  the  Red  Sea,  Idumea  may  be 
said  to  have  formed  the  emporium  of  the  com- 
merce of  the  east.  A  Roman  road  passed 
directly  through  Idumea,  from  Jerusalem  to 
Akaba,  and  another  from  Akaba  to  Moab ;  and 
when  these  roads  were  made,  at  a  time  long 
posterior  to  the  date  of  the  predictions,  the 
conception  could  not  have  been  formed,  or  held 
credible  by  man,  that  the  period  would  ever 
arrive  when  none  would  pass  through  it.  Above 
seven  hundred  years  after  the  date  of  the  pro- 
phecy, Strabo  relates  that  many  Romans  and 
other  foreigners  were  found  at  Petra  by  his 
friend  Athenodorus,  the  philosopher,  who  visit- 
ed it.  The  prediction  is  yet  more  surprising 
when  viewed  in  conjunction  with  another, 
which  implies  that  travellers  would  "pass  by" 
Idumea :  "  Every  one  that  goeth  by  shall  be 
astonished."  And  the  Hadj  routes  (routes  of 
the  pilgrims)  from  Damascus  and  from  Cairo 
to  Mecca,  the  one  on  the  east  and  the  other 
toward  the  south  of  Idumea,  along  the  whole 
of  its  extent,  go  by  it,  or  touch  partially  on  its 
borders,  without  passing  through  it.  The  truth 
of  the  prophecy,  though  hemmed  in  thus  by 
apparent  impossibilities  and  contradictions, 
and  with  extreme  probability  of  its  fallacy  in 
every  view  that  could  have  been  visible  to  man, 
may  yet  be  tried. 

5.  "  Edom  shall  be  a  desolation.  From  ge- 
neration to  generation  it  shall  lie  waste,"  &c. 
Judea,  Amnion,  and  Moab,  exhibit  so  abun- 
dantly the  remains  and  the  means  of  an  exube- 
rant fertility,  that  the  wonder  arises  in  the 
reflecting  mind,  how  the  barbarity  of  man  could 
have  so  effectually  counteracted  for  so  many 
generations  the  prodigality  of  nature.  But 
such  is  Edom's  desolation,  that  the  first  senti- 
ment of  astonishment  on  the  contemplation  of 
it  is,  how  a  wide  extended  region,  now  diver, 
sified  by  the  strongest  features  of  desert  wild- 
ness,  could  ever  have  been  adorned  with  cities, 
or  tenanted  for  ages  by  a  powerful  and  opulent 
people.  Its  present  aspect  would  belie  its 
ancient  history,  were  not  that  history  corrobo- 
rated by  "  the  many  vestiges  of  former  cultiva- 


EDO 


331 


EGY 


tion,"  by  the  remains  of  walls  and  paved  roads, 
and  by  the  ruins  of  cities  still  existing  in  this 
ruined  country.      The   total   cessation  of  its 
commerce ;  the  artificial  irrigation  of  its  val- 
leys wholly  neglected ;  the  destruction  of  all 
the  cities,  and  the  continued  spoliation  of  the 
country  by  the  Arabs,  while  aught  remained 
that  they  could   destroy;   the  permanent  ex- 
posure, for  ages,  of  the  soil  unsheltered  by  its 
ancient  groves,  and  unprotected  by  any  cover- 
ing from  the  scorching  rays  of  the  sun  ;  the 
unobstructed  encroachments  of  the  desert,  and 
of  the  drifted  sands  from  the  borders  of  the 
Red  Sea ;    the    consequent  absorption    of  the 
water  of  the    springs  and    streamlets    during 
summer, — are  causes  which  have  all  combined 
their   baneful    operation   in    rendering   Edom 
"most  desolate,  the  desolation  of  desolations." 
Volney's  account   is  sufficently  descriptive  of 
the  desolation  which  now  reigns  over  Idumea  ; 
and  the  information  which  Seetzen  derived  at 
Jerusalem   respecting  it  is  of  similar  import. 
He  was  told,  that  at  the  distance  of  two  days' 
journey  and  a  half  from  Hebron,  he  would  find 
considerable  ruins  of  the  ancient  city  of  Abde, 
and  that  for  all  the  rest  of  the  journey  he  would 
see  no  place  of  habitation  ;  he  would  meet  only 
with  a  few  tribes  of  wandering  Arabs.     From 
the  borders  of  Edom,  Captains  Irby  and  Man- 
gles beheld  a  boundless  extent  of  desert  view, 
which  they  had  hardly  ever  seen  equalled  for 
singularity  and  grandeur.     And  the  following 
extract,  descriptive  of  what  Burckhardt  actu- 
ally witnessed  in  the  different  parts  of  Edom, 
cannot  be  more  graphically  abbreviated  than 
in  the  words  of  the  prophet.     Of  its  eastern 
boundary,  and  of  the  adjoining  part  of  Arabia 
Petrea,  strictly  so  called,  Burckhardt  writes : 
"  It  miglit,  with  truth,  be  called  Petrea,  not 
only  on  account  of  its  rocky  mountains,  but  also 
of  the  elevated  plain  already  described,  which  is 
so  much  covered  with  stones,  especially  flints, 
that  it  may  with  great  propriety  be  called  a 
stony  desert,  although  susceptible  of  culture  ; 
in  many  places  it  is  overgrown  with  wild  herbs, 
and  must  once  have  been  thickly  inhabited ;  for 
the  traces  of  many  towns  and  villages  are  met 
with  on  both  sides  of  the  Hadj  road  between 
Maan  and  Akaba,  as  well  as  between  Maan  and 
the  plains  of  the  Hauran,  in  which  direction 
are   also  many  springs.      At  present  all  this 
country  is  a  desert,  and  Maan  (Teman)  is  the 
only  inhabited  place  in  it :  'I  will  stretch  out 
my  hand  against  thee,  O  Mount  Seir,  and  will 
make  thee  most,  desolate.    I  will  stretch  out  my 
hand  upon  Edom,  and  will  make  it  desolate 
from  Teman.'"     In  the  interior  of  Idumea, 
where  the  ruins  of  some  of  its  ancient  cities 
are  still  visible,   and  in  the  extensive  valley 
which  reaches  from  the  Red  to  the  Dead  Sea, 
the  appearance  of  which  must  now  be  totally 
and  sadly  changed   from  what  it  was,    "the 
whole  plain  presented  to  the  view  an  expanse 
of  shifting  sands,  whose  surface  was  broken  by 
innumerable  undulations  and  low  hills.     The 
sand  appears  to  have  been  brought  from  the 
shores  of  the  Red  Sea,  by  the  southern  winds ; 
and  the  Arabs  told  me  that  the  valleys  con- 
tinue to  present  the  same  appearance  beyond 


the  latitude  of  Wady  Mousa.  In  some  parts 
of  the  valley  the  sand  is  very  deep,  and  there 
is  not  the  slightest  appearance  of  a  road, 
or  of  any  work  of  human  art.  A  few  trees 
grow  among  the  sand  hills,  but  the  depth  of 
sand  precludes  all  vegetation  of  herbage."  "  If 
grape  gatherers  come  to  thee,  would  not  they 
leave  some  gleaning  grapes?  If  thieves  by 
night,  they  will  destroy  till  they  have  enough  ; 
but  I  have  made  Esau  bare.  Edom  shall  be  a 
desolate  wilderness."  "  On  ascending  the  west- 
ern plain,"  continues  Mr.  Burckhardt,  "on  a 
higher  level  than  that  of  Arabia,  we  had  before 
us  an  immense  expanse  of  dreary  country,  en- 
tirely covered  with  black  flints,  with  here  and 
there  some  hilly  chain  rising  from  the  plain." 
"I  will  stretch  out  upon  Idumea  the  line  of 
confusion,  and  the  stones  of  emptiness."  Such 
is  the  present  desolate  aspect  of  one  of  the 
most  fertile  countries  of  ancient  times !  So 
visibly  even  now  does  the  withering  curse  of  an 
offended  God  rest  upon  it! 

EGG,  o>xo,  Deut.  xxii,  6 ;  Job  xxxix,  14 ; 
Isaiah  x,  14 ;  lix,  5 ;  &>&v,  Luke  xi,  12.  Eggs 
are  considered  as  a  very  great  delicacy  in  the 
east,  and  are  served  up  with  fish  and  honey  at 
their  entertainments.  As  a  desirable  article  of 
food,  the  egg  is  mentioned,  Luke  xi,  12:  "If 
a  son  ask  for  an  egg,  will  his  father  offer  him 
a  scorpion  ?"  It  has  been  remarked  that  the 
body  of  the  scorpion  is  very  like  an  egg,  as  its 
head  can  scarcely  be  distinguished,  especially  if 
it  be  of  the  white  kind,  which  is  the  first  species 
mentioned  by  ^Elian,  Avicenna,  and  others. 
Bochart  has  produced  testimonies  to  prove  that 
the  scorpions  in  Judea  were  about  the  bigness 
of  an  egg.  So  the  similitude  is  preserved  be- 
tween the  thing  asked,  and  the  thing  given. 

EGLON,  a  king  of*  Moab,  who  oppressed 
the  Israelites,  and  was  slain  by  Ehud,  Judges 
iii,  14,  21.  It  is  thought  to  have  been  a  com- 
mon name  of  the  kings  of  Moab,  as  Abimelech 
was  of  the  Philistines. 

EGYPT,  a  country  of  Africa,  called  also  in 
the  Hebrew  Scriptures  the  land  of  Mizraim, 
and  the  land  of  Ham  ;  by  the  Turks  and  Arabs, 
Masr  and  Misr ;  and  by  the  native  Egyptians, 
Chemi,  or  the  land  of  Ham.  Mr.  Faber  derives 
the  name  from  Ai-Capht,  or  the'  land  of  the 
Caphtorim ;  from  which,  also,  the  modern 
Egyptians  derive  their  name  of  Cophts.  Egypt 
was  first  peopled  after  the  deluge  by  Mizraim, 
or  Mizr,  the  son  of  Ham,  who  is  supposed  to 
be  the  same  with  Menes,  recorded  in  Egyptian 
history  as  the  first  king.  Every  thing  relating 
to  the  subsequent  history  and  condition  of  this 
country,  for  many  ages,  is  involved  in  fable. 
Nor  have  we  any  clear  information  from  Hea- 
then writers,  until  the  time  of  Cyrus,  and  his 
son  Cambyses,  when  the  line  of  Egyptian  prin- 
ces ceased  in  agreement  with  prophecies  to  that 
effect.  Manetho,  the  Egyptian  historian,  has 
given  a  list  of  thirty  dynasties,  which,  if  suc- 
cessive, make  a  period  of  five  thousand  three 
hundred  years  to  the  time  of  Alexander,  or 
three  thousand  two  hundred  and  eighty-two 
years  more  than  the  real  time,  according  to  the 
Mosaic  chronology.  But  this  is  a  manifest 
forgery,  which  has,  nevertheless,  been  appeal- 


EGY 


332 


EGY 


ed  to  by  infidel  writers,  as  authority  against  the 
veracity  of  the  Mosaic  history.  The  truth  is, 
that  this  pretended  succession  of  princes,  if  all 
of  them  can  be  supposed  to  have  existed  at  all, 
constituted  several  distinct  dynasties,  ruling  in 
different  cities  at  the  same  time:  thus  these 
were  the  kingdoms  of  Thebes,  Thin,  Memphis, 
and  Tanis.     See  Writing. 

2.  In  the  time  of  Moses  we  find  Egypt  re- 
nowned for  learning;    for  he  was  instructed 
"in  all  its  wisdom;"  and  it  is  one  of  the  com- 
mendations of  Solomon,  at  a  later  period,  that 
he  excelled  in  knowledge  "  all  the  wisdom  of 
the  children  of  the  east  country,  and  all  the 
wisdom  of  Egypt."     Astronomy,  which  proba- 
bly, like  that  of  the  Chaldeans,  comprehended 
also    judicial  astrology,    physics,    agriculture, 
jurisprudence,    medicine,    architecture,    paint- 
ing, and  sculpture,  were  the  principal  sciences 
and  arts ;  to  which  were  added,   and  that  by 
their   wisest    men,    the    study    of   divination, 
magic,    and   enchantments.      They   had    also 
their  consulters  with  familiar  spirits,  and  necro- 
mancers, those  who  had,  or  pretended  to  have, 
intercourse  with  the  infernal  deities,  and  the 
spirits  of  the  dead,  and  delivered  responses  to 
inquirers.      Of  all  this  knowledge,  good  and 
evil,  and  of  a  monstrous  system  of  idolatry, 
Egypt  was  the  polluted  fountain  to  the  sur- 
rounding nations  ;  but  in  that  country  itself  it 
appears  to  have  degenerated  into  the  most  ab- 
surd and  debased  forms.     Among  nations  who 
are  not  blessed  by  divine  revelation,  the  lumi- 
naries of  heaven  are  the  first  objects  of  wor- 
ship.   Diodorus  Siculus,  mentioning  the  Egyp- 
tians, informs  us,  that  "the  first  men,  looking 
up  to  the  world  above  them,  and,  struck  with 
admiration  at  the  nature  of  the  universe,  sup- 
posed the  sun  and  moon  to  be  the  principal  and 
eternal  gods."     This,  which  may  be  called  the 
natural  superstition  of  mankind,  we  can  trace 
in  the  annals  of  the  west,  as  well  as  of  the  east ; 
among  the  inhabitants  of  the  new  world,  as 
well  as  of  the  old.  The  sun  and  moon,  under  the 
names  of  Isis  and  Osiris,  were  the  chief  ob- 
jects of  adoration  among  the  Egyptians.     But 
the  earliest  times  had  a  purer  faith.     The  fol- 
lowing inscription,  engraven  in  hieroglyphics 
in  the  temple  of  Neith,  the  Egyptian  Minerva, 
conveys  the  most  sublime  idea  of  the   Deity 
which  unenlightened  reason  could  form:  "1 
am  that  which  is,  was,  and  shall  be  :  no  mortal 
hath  lifted  up  my  veil :    the  offspring  of  my 
power  is  the  sun."     A  similar  inscription  still 
remains  at  Capua,  on  the  temple  of  Isis  :  "  Thou 
art  one,  and  from  thee   all    things   proceed." 
Plutarch  also  informs  us,  that  the  inhabitants 
of  Thebais  worshipped  only  the  immortal  and 
supreme  God,  whom  they  called  Eneph.     Ac- 
cording to  the  Egyptian  cosmogony,  all  things 
sprung  from    at/wr,    or  night,  by  which  they 
denoted  the  darkness  of  chaos  before  the  crea- 
tion.    Sanchoniathon  relates,  that,  "  from  the 
breath  of  gods  and  the  void  were  mortals  creat- 
ed."    This  theology  dift'ers  little  from  that  of 
Moses,  who  says,   "The  earth  was  without 
form,  and  void ;  darkness  was  upon  the  face  of 
the  deep ;  and  the  Spirit  of  God  moved  upon 
the  face  of  the  waters." 


3.  A  superstitious  reverence  for  certain  ani- 
mals,  as   propitious  or  hurtful  to  the  human 
race,  was  not  peculiar  to  the  Egyptians.     The 
cow  has  been  venerated  in  India  from  the  most 
remote  antiquity.     The  serpent  has  been  the 
object  of  religious  respect  to  one  half  of  the 
nations  of  the  known  world.      The  Romans 
had  sacred  animals,  which  they  kept  in  their 
temples,  and  distinguished  with  peculiar  ho- 
nours.    We   need  not  therefore  be  surprised 
that  a  nation  so  superstitious  as  the  Egyptians 
should  honour,  with  peculiar  marks  of  respect, 
the  ichneumon,  the  ibis,  the  dog,  the  falcon, 
the  wolf,  and  the  crocodile.     These  they  en- 
tertained  at  great   expense,   and   with   much 
magnificence.     Lands  were  set  apart  for  their 
maintenance ;  persons  of  the  highest  rank  were 
employed  in  feeding  and  attending  them;  rich 
carpets  were  spread  in  their  apartments ;  and 
the  pomp  at  their  funerals  corresponded  to  the 
profusion    and    luxury   which   attended  them 
while  alive.     What  chiefly  tended  to   favour 
the  progress  of  animal  worship  in  Egypt,  was 
the  language  of  hieroglyphics.     In  the  hiero- 
glyphic inscriptions  on  their  temples,  and  pub- 
lic edifices,  animals,  and  even  vegetables,  were 
the  symbols  of  the  gods  whom  they  worship- 
ped. In  the  midst  of  innumerable  superstitions, 
the  theology  of  Egypt  contained  the  two  great 
principles  of  religion,  the  existence  of  a  su- 
preme Being,  and  the  immortality  of  the  soul. 
The  first  is  proved  by  the  inscription  on  the 
temple  of  Minerva;  the  second,  by  the   care 
with  which  dead  bodies  were  embalmed,  and 
the  prayer  recited  at  the  hour  of  death,  by  an 
Egyptian,  expressing  his  desire  to  be  received 
to  the  presence  of  the  deities. 

4.  The  opulence  of  Egypt  was  for  ages  in- 
creased by  the  large  share  it  had  in  the  com- 
merce with  the  east;  by  its  own  favourable 
position,  making  it  the  connecting  link  of  in- 
tercourse between  the  eastern  and  western 
nations ;  and  especially  by  its  own  remarkable 
fertility,  particularly  in  corn,  so  that  it  was,  in 
times  of  scarcity,  the  granary  of  the  world. 
Its  extraordinary  fertility  was  owing  to  the 
periodical  inundation  of  the  Nile ;  and  suffi- 
cient proofs  of  the  ancient  accounts  which  we 
have  of  its  productiveness  are  afforded  to  this 
day.  The  Rev.  Mr.  Jowett  has  given  a  strik- 
ing example  of  the  extraordinary  fertility  of 
the  soil  of  Egypt,  which  is  alluded  to  in  Gene- 
sis xli,  47  :  "  The  earth  brought  forth  by  hand- 
fuls."  "I  picked  up  at  random,"  says  3Ir. 
Jowett,  "a  few  stalks  out  of  the  thick  corn 
fields.  We  counted  the  number  of  stalks 
which  sprouted  from  single  grains  of  seed ; 
carefully  pulling  to  pieces  each  root,  in  order 
to  see  that  it  was  but  one  plant.  The  first  had 
seven  stalks,  the  next  three,  the  next  nine, 
then  eighteen,  then  fourteen.  Each  stalk 
would  have  been  an  car." 

5.  The  architecture  of  the  early  Egyptians, 
at  least  that  of  their  cities  and  dwellings,  wa9 
rude  and  simple  :  they  could  indeed  boast  of 
little  in  either  external  elegance  or  internal 
comfort,  since  Herodotus  informs  us  that  men 
and  beasts  lived  together.  The  materials  of 
their  structure  were  bricks  of  clay,  bound  to- 


EGY 


333 


EGY 


gether  with  chopped  straw,  and  baked  in  the 
eun.  Such  were  the  bricks  which  the  Israel- 
ites were  employed  in  making,  and  of  which 
the  cities  of  Pithom  and  Rameses  were  built. 
Their  composition  was  necessarily  perishable, 
and  explains  why  it  is  that  no  remains  of  the 
ancient  cities  of  Egypt  are  to  be  found.  They 
would  indeed  last  longer  in  the  dry  climate  of 
this  country  than  in  any  other ;  but  even  here 
they  must  gradually  decay  and  crumble  to 
dust,  and  the  cities  so  constructed  become 
heaps.  Of  precisely  the  same  materials  are 
the  villages  of  Egypt  built  at  this  day.  "Vil- 
lage after  village,"  says  Mr.  Jowett,  speaking 
.of  Tentyra,  "  built  of  unburnt  brick,  crumbling 
into  ruins,  and  giving  place  to  new  habitations, 
have  raised  the  earth,  in  some  parts,  nearly  to 
the  level  of  the  summit  of  the  temple.  In 
every  part  of  Egypt,  we  find  the  towns  built  in 
this  manner,  upon  the  ruins,  or  rather  the  rub- 
bish, of  the  former  habitations.  The  expres- 
sion in  Jeremiah  xxx,  18,  literally  applies  to 
Egypt,  in  the  meanest  sense :  'The  city  shall 
be  buikled  upon  her  own  heap.1  And  the  ex- 
pression in  Job  xv,  28,  might  be  illustrated  by 
many  of  these  deserted  hovels :  '  He  dwelleth 
in  desolate  cities,  and  in  houses  which  no  man 
inhabiteth,  which  are  ready  to  become  heaps.' 
Still  more  touching  is  the  allusion,  in  Job  iv, 
19,  where  the  perishing  generations  of  men 
are  fitly  compared  to  habitations  of  the  frailest 
materials,  built  upon  the  heap  of  similar  dwell- 
ing-places, now  reduced  to  rubbish :  '  How 
much  less  in  them  that,  dwell  in  houses  of  clajr, 
whose  foundation  is  in  the  dust!'" 

6.  The  splendid  temples  of  Egypt  were  not 
built,  in  all  probability,  till  after  the  time  of 
Solomon ;  for  the  recent  progress  made  in  the 
decyphering  of  hieroglyphics  has  disappointed 
the  antiquaries  as  to  the  antiquity  of  these 
stupendous  fabrics.  It  is  well  observed  by 
Dr.  Shuckford,  that  temples  made  no  great 
figure  in  Homer's  time.  If  they  nad,  he  would 
not  have  lost  such  an  opportunity  of  exerting 
his  genius  on  so  grand  a  subject,  as  Virgil  has 
done  in  his  description  of  the  temple  built  by 
Dido  at  Carthage.  The  first  Heathen  temples 
were  probably  nothing  more  than  mean  build- 
ings, which  served  merely  as  a  shelter  from 
the  weather:  of  which  kind  was,  probably,  the 
house  of  the  Philistine  god  Dagon.  But  when 
the  fame  of  Solomon's  temple  had  reached 
other  countries,  it  excited  them  to  imitate  its 
splendour ;  and  nation  vied  with  nation  in  the 
structures  erected  to  their  several  deities.  All 
Were,  however,  outdone,  at  least  in  massive- 
ness  and  durability,  by  the  Egyptians ;  the 
architectural  design  of  whose  temples,  as  well 
as  that  of  the  Grecian  edifices,  was  borrowed 
from  the  stems  and  branches  of  the  grove 
temples. 

7.  It  appears  to  be  an  unfounded  notion,  that 
the  pyramids  were  built  by  the  Israelites:  they 
were,  probably,  Mr.  Faber  thinks,  the  work  of 
the  "  Shepherds,"  or  Cushite  invaders,  who,  at 
an  early  period,  held  possession  of  Egypt  for 
two  hundred  and  sixty  years,  and  reduced  the 
Egyptians  to  bondage,  so  that  "a  shepherd 
was    an   abomination   to   the   Egyptians"   in 


Joseph's  time.  The  Israelites  laboured  in  mak- 
ing bricks,  not  in  forming  stones  such  as  the 
pyramids  are  constructed  with ;  and  a  passage 
in  Mr.  Jowctt's  "Researches,"  before  referred 
to,  will  throw  light  upon  this  part  of  their  his- 
tory. Mr.  Jowett  saw  at  one  place  the  people 
making  bricks,  with  straw  cut  into  small 
pieces,  and  mingled  with  the  clay,  to  bind  it. 
Hence  it  is,  that  when  villages  built  of  these 
bricks  fall  into  rubbish,  which  is  often  the 
case,  the  roads  are  full  of  small  particles  of 
straws,  extremely  offensive  to  the  eyes  in  a 
high  wind.  They  were,  in  fact,  engaged  ex- 
actly as  the  Israelites  used  to  be,  making 
bricks  with  straw ;  and  for  a  similar  purpose, 
to  build  extensive  granaries  for  the  bashaw ; 
"treasure-cities  for  Pharaoh."  The  same  in- 
telligent missionary  also  observes  :  "  The  mol- 
lems  transact  business  between  the  bashaw 
and  the  peasants.  He  punishes  them  if  the 
peasants  prove  that  they  oppress ;  and  yet  he 
requires  from  them  that  the  work  of  those  who 
are  under  them  shall  be  fulfilled.  They  strik- 
ingly illustrate  the  case  of  the  officers  placed 
by  the  Egytian  task-masters  over  the  children 
of^Israel ;  and,  like  theirs,  the  mollems  often 
find  their  case  is  evil,  Exodus  v." 

8.  It  is  not  necessary  to  go  over  those  parts 
of  the  Egyptian  history  which  occur  in  the 
Old  Testament.  The  prophecies  respecting 
this  haughty  and  idolatrous  kingdom,  uttered 
by  Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel  when  it  was  in  the 
height  of  its  splendour  and  prosperity,  were 
fulfilled  in  the  terrible  invasions  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, Cambyses,  and  the  Persian  monarchs. 
It  comes,  however,  again  into  an  interesting 
connection  with  the  Jewish  history  under 
Alexander  the  Great,  who  invaded  it  as  a 
Persian  dependence.  So  great,  indeed,  was 
the  hatred  of  the  Egyptians  toward  their  op- 
pressors, that  they  hailed  the  approach  of  the 
Macedonians,  and  threw  open  their  cities  to 
receive  them.  Alexander,  merciless  as  he  was 
to  those  who  opposed  his  progress  or  authority, 
knew  how  to  requite  those  who  were  devoted 
to  his  interests ;  and  the  Egyptians,  for  many 
centuries  afterward,  had  reason  to  recollect 
with  gratitude  his  protection  and  foresight.  It 
was  he  who  discerned  the  local  advantages  of 
the  spot  on  which  the  city  bearing  his  name 
afterward  stood,  who  projected  the  plan  of  the 
town,  superintended  its  erection,  endowed  it 
with  many  privileges,  and  peopled  it  with 
colonies  drawn  from  other  places  for  the  pur- 
pose, chiefly  Greeks.  But,  together  with  these, 
and  the  most  favoured  of  all,  were  the  Jews, 
who  enjoyed  the  free  exercise  of  their  religion, 
and  the  same  civil  rights  and  liberties  as  the 
Macedonians  themselves.  Kindness  shown  to 
the  people  of  Israel  has  never,  in  the  provi- 
dence of  God,  brought  evil  on  any  country; 
and  there  can  be  no  doubt  but  that  the  encou- 
ragement given  to  this  enterprising  and  com- 
mercial people,  assisted  very  much  to  promote 
the  interests  of  the  new  city,  which  soon  be- 
came the  capital  of  the  kingdom,  the  centre  of 
commerce,  of  science,  and  the  arts,  and  one  of 
the  most  flourishing  and  considerable  cities  in 
the  world.     Egypt,  indeed,  was  about  to  see 


EGY 


334 


EGY 


better  days;  and,  during  the  reigns  of  the 
Ptolemies,  enjoyed  again,  for  nearly  three 
hundred  years,  something  of  its  former  renown 
for  learning  and  power.  It  formed,  during 
this  period,  and  before  the  rapid  extension  of 
the  Roman  empire  toward  the  termination  of 
these  years,  one  of  the  only  two  ancient  king, 
doms  which  had  survived  the  Assyrian,  Baby. 
Ionian,  Persian,  and  Macedonian  empires :  the 
other  was  the  Syrian,  where  the  Seleucidae, 
another  family  of  one  of  the  successors  of 
Alexander,  reigned ;  who,  having  subdued 
Macedonia  and  Thrace,  annexed  them  to  the 
kingdom  of  Syria,  and  there  remained  out  of 
the  four  kingdoms  into  which  the  empire  of 
Alexander  was  divided  these  two  only;  distin- 
guished, in  the  prophetic  writings  of  Daniel, 
by  the  titles  of  the  kings  or  kingdoms  of  the 
north  and  the  south. 

9.  Under  the  reign  of  the  three  first  Ptole- 
mies, the  state  of  the  Jews  was  exceedingly 
prosperous.  They  were  in  high  favour,  and 
continued  to  enjoy  all  the  advantages  confer- 
red upon  them  by  Alexander.  Judea  was,  in 
fact,  at  this  time,  a  privileged  province  of 
Egypt ;  the  Jews  being  governed  by  their  own 
high  priest,  on  paying  a  tribute  to  the  kings  of 
Egypt.  But  in  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Epipha- 
nes,  the  fifth  of  the  race,  it  was  taken  by  An- 
tiochus,  king  of  Syria;  which  was  the  begin- 
ning of  fresh  sufferings  and  persecutions ;  for 
although  this  Antiochus,  who  was  the  one 
surnamed  the  Great,  was  a  mild  and  generous 
prince,  and  behaved  favourably  toward  them, 
their  troubles  began  at  his  death;  his  succes- 
sor, Seleucus,  oppressing  them  with  taxes ; 
and  the  next  was  the  monster,  Antiochus 
Epiphanes,  whose  impieties  and  cruelties  are 
recorded  in  the  two  books  of  Maccabees.  But 
still,  in  Egypt,  the  Jews  continued  in  the  en- 
joyment of  their  privileges,  so  late  as  the  reign 
of  the  sixth  Ptolemy,  called  Philometor,  who 
committed  the  charge  of  his  affairs  to  two 
Jews,  Onias  and  Dositheus ;  the  former  of 
whom  obtained  permission  to  build  a  temple 
at  Heliopolis.  The  introduction  of  Christianity 
into  Egypt  is  mentioned  under  the  article 
Alexandria. 

10.  The  prophecies  respecting  Egypt  in  the 
Old  Testament  have  had  a  wonderful  fulfil. 
ment.  The  knowledge  of  all  its  greatness  and 
glory  deterred  not  the  Jewish  prophets  from 
declaring,  that  Egypt  would  become  "  a  base 
kingdom,  and  never  exalt  itself  any  more 
among  the  nations."  And  the  literal  fulfil- 
ment of  every  prophecy  affords  as  clear  a  de- 
monstration as  can  possibly  be  given,  that 
each  and  all  of  them  are  the  dictates  of  inspi- 
ration. Egypt  was  the  theme  of  many  pro- 
phecies, which  were  fulfilled  in  ancient  times  ; 
and  it  bears  to  the  present  day,  as  it  has  borne 
throughout  many  ages,  every  mark  with  which 
prophecy  had  stamped  its  destiny:  "They 
shall  be  a  base  kingdom.  It  shall  be  the  basest 
of  kingdoms.  Neither  shall  it  exalt  itself  any 
more  among  the  nations :  for  I  will  diminish 
them,  that  they  shall  no  more  rule  over  the 
nations.  The  pride  of  her  power  shall  come 
down ;  and  they  shall  be  desolate  in  the  midst 


of  the  countries  that  are  desolate ;  and  her 
cities  shall  be  in  the  midst  of  the  cities  that  are 
wasted.  I  will  make  the  land  of  Egypt  deso- 
late, and  the  country  shall  be  desolate  of  that 
whereof  it  was  full.  I  will  sell  the  land  into 
the  hand  of  the  wicked.  I  will  make  the  land 
waste  and  all  that  is  therein,  by  the  hand  of 
strangers.  I  the  Lord  have  spoken  it.  And 
there  shall  be  no  more  a  prince  of  the  land  of 
Egypt,"  Ezek.  xxx,  5,  7,  12, 13.  "The  sceptre 
of  Egypt  shall  depart  away,"  Zech.  x,  11. 

11.  Egypt   became   entirely  subject  to  the 
Persians  about  three  hundred  and  fifty  years 
previous  to  the  Christian  sera.     It  was  after- 
ward subdued  by  the  Macedonians,  and  was 
governed  by  the  Ptolemies  for  the  space  of  two 
hundred  and  ninety-four  years ;    until,  about 
B.  C.  30,  it  became  a  province  of  the  Roman 
empire.    It  continued  long  in  subjection  to  the 
Romans, — tributary  first  to  Rome,  and  after- 
ward to  Constantinople.     It  was  transferred, 
A.  D.  641,  to  the  dominion  of  the  Saracens, 
In  1250  the  Mamelukes  deposed  their  rulers, 
and  usurped  the  command  of  Egypt.     A  mode 
of  government,  the  most  singular  and  surpris- 
ing that  ever  existed  on  earth,  was  established 
and  maintained.     Each  successive  ruler    was 
raised   to    supreme    authority,    from    being   a 
stranger  and  a  slave.     No  son  of  the  former 
ruler,  no  native  of  Egypt,  succeeded  to  the 
sovereignty ;    but   a   chief  was   chosen    from 
among  a  new  race  of  imported  slaves.     When 
Egypt  became  tributary  to  the  Turks  in  1517, 
the  Mamelukes  retained  much  of  their  pow- 
er ;   and  every  pasha  was  an  oppressor  and  a. 
stranger.      During  all   these   ages,   every  at- 
tempt to  emancipate  the  country,  or  to  create 
a  prince   of  the  land   of  Egypt,   has  proved 
abortive,  and  has  often  been  fatal  to  the  aspi- 
rant.   Though  the  facts  relative  to  Egypt  form 
too  prominent  a  feature  in  the  history  of  the 
world  to  admit  of  contradiction  or  doubt,  yet 
the  description  of  the  fate  of  that  country,  and 
of  the  form  of  its  government,  may  be  left, 
says  Keith,  to  the  testimony  of  those  whose 
authority  no  infidel  will  question,  and  whom 
no  man  can  accuse  of  adapting  their  descrip- 
tions to  the  predictions  of  the  event.     Volney 
and  Gibbon  are  our  witnesses   of  the  facts  i 
"  Such  is  the  state  of  Egypt.  Deprived,  twenty- 
three  centuries  ago,  of  her  natural  proprietors, 
she  has  seen   her  fertile  fields  successively  a 
prey  to  the  Persians,   the   Macedonians,  the 
Romans,  the  Greeks,  the  Arabs,  the  Georgians, 
and,  at  length,  the  race  of  Tartars  distinguished 
by  the  name  of  Ottoman  Turks.     The  Mame- 
lukes, purchased  as  slaves,  and  introduced  as 
soldiers,  soon  usurped  the  power  and  elected  a 
leader.     If  their  first  establishment  was  a  sin- 
gular  event,    their   continuance    is    not    less 
extraordinary.     They  are  replaced   by  slaves 
brought  from  their  original  country.    The  sys- 
tem of  oppression  is  methodical.    Every  thing 
the  traveller  sees  or  hears  reminds  him  he  is  in 
the   country   of  slavery   and   tyranny."     "A 
more  unjust  and  absurd  constitution  cannot  be 
devised  than  that  which  condemns  the  natives 
of  a  country  to  perpetual  servitude,  under  the 
arbitrary  dominion  of  strangers  and   slaves. 


EGY 


335 


ELD 


Yet  such  has  been  the  state  of  Egypt  above 
five  hundred  years.  The  most  illustrious  sul- 
tans of  the  Baharite  and  Borgite  dynasties 
were  themselves  promoted  from  the  Tartar  and 
Circassian  bands;  and  the  four-and-twenty 
beys,  or  military  chiefs,  have  ever  been  suc- 
ceeded, not  by  their  sons,  but  by  their  servants." 
These  are  the  words  of  Volney  and  of  Gibbon ; 
and  what  did  the  ancient  prophets  foretel  ? — "  I 
will  lay  the  land  waste,  and  all  that  is  therein, 
by  the  hands  of  strangers.  I  the  Lord  have 
spoken  it.  And  there  shall  be  no  more  a  prince 
of  the  land  of  Egypt.  The  sceptre  of  Egypt 
shall  depart  away."  The  prophecy  adds : 
"  They  shall  be  a  base  kingdom :  it  shall  be 
the  basest  of  kingdoms."  After  the  lapse  of 
two  thousand  and  four  hundred  years  from  the 
date  of  this  prophecy,  a  scoffer  at  religion,  but 
an  eye  witness  of  the  facts,  thus  describes  the 
self-same  spot :  "  In  Egypt,"  says  Volney, 
"there  is  no  middle  class,  neither  nobility, 
clergy,  merchants,  landholders.  A  universal 
air  of  misery,  manifest  in  all  the  traveller 
meets,  points  out  to  him  the  rapacity  of  op- 
pression, and  the  distrust  attendant  upon 
slavery.  The  profound  ignorance  of  the 
inhabitants  equally  prevents  them  from  per- 
ceiving the  causes  of  their  evils,  or  applying 
the  necessary  remedies.  Ignorance,  diffused 
through  every  class,  extends  its  effects  to  every 
species  of  moral  and  physical  knowledge. 
Nothing  is  talked  of  but  intestine  troubles,  the 
public  misery,  pecuniary  extortions,  bastina- 
does, and  murders.  Justice  herself  puts  to 
death  without  formality."  Other  travellers 
describe  the  most  execrable  vices  as  common, 
and  represent  the  moral  character  of  the  peo- 
ple as  corrupted  to  the  core.  As  a  token  of 
the  desolation  of  the  country,  mud-walled  cot- 
tages are  now  the  only  habitations  where  the 
ruins  of  temples  and  palaces  abound.  Egypt 
is  surrounded  by  the  dominions  of  the  Turks 
and  of  the  Arabs ;  and  the  prophecy  is  literally 
true  which  marked  it  in  the  midst  of  desola- 
tion: "They  shall  be  desolate  in  the  midst  of 
the  countries  that  are  desolate,  and  her  cities 
shall  be  in  the  midst  of  the  cities  that  are 
wasted."  The  systematic  oppression,  extor- 
tion, and  plunder,  which  have  so  long  pre- 
vailed, and  the  price  paid  for  his  authority  and 
power  by  every  Turkish  pasha,  have  rendered 
the  country  "  desolate  of  that  whereof  it  was 
full,"  and  still  show  both  how  it  has  been 
"  wasted  by  the  hands  of  strangers,"  and  how 
it  has  been  "  sold  into  the  hand  of  the  wicked." 
12.  Egypt  has,  indeed,  lately  somewhat  risen, 
under  its  present  spirited  but  despotic  pasha,  to 
a  degree  of  importance  and  commerce.  But 
this  pasha  is  still  a  stranger,  and  the  dominion 
is  foreign.  Nor  is  there  any  thing  like  a 
general  advancement  of  the  people  to  order, 
intelligence  and  happiness.  Yet  this  fact, 
instead  of  militating  against  the  truth  of  pro- 
phecy, may,  possibly  at  no  distant  period,  serve 
to  illustrate  other  predictions.  "The  Lord 
shall  smite  Egypt :  he  shall  smite  and  heal  it ; 
and  they  shall  return  to  the  Lord,  and  he  shall 
be  entreated  of  them,  and  shall  heal  them.  In 
that  day  shall  Israel  be  the  third  witli  Egypt 


and  with  Assyria,  even  a  blessing  in  the  midst 
of  the  land,"  &c,  Isaiah  xix,  22-25. 

ELAM,  the  eldest  son  of  Shem,  who  settled 
in  a  country  to  which  he  gave  his  name,  Gen. 
x,  22.  It  is  frequently  mentioned  in  Scripture, 
as  lying  to  the  south-east  of  Shinar.  Susiana, 
in  later  times,  seems  to  have  been  a  part  of" 
this  country,  Daniel  viii,  2 ;  and  before  the 
captivity  the  Jews  seem  always  to  have  in. 
tended  Persia  by  the  name  of  Elam.  Stepha- 
nus  takes  it  to  be  a  part  of  Assyria,  but  Pliny 
and  Josephus,  more  properly,  of  Persia,  whose 
inhabitants,  this  latter  tells  us,  sprung  from 
the  Elamites. 

ELATH,  or  ELOTH,  a  part  of  Idumea, 
situate  upon  the  Red  Sea,  the  emporium  of 
Syria  in  Asia.  It  was  taken  by  David,  2  Sam. 
viii,  14,  who  there  established  an  extensive 
trade.  There  Solomon  built  ships,  2  Chron. 
viii,  17,  18.  The  Israelites  held  possession  of 
Elath  one  hundred  and  fifty  years,  when  the 
Edomites,  in  the  reign  of  Joram,  recovered  it, 
2  Kings  viii,  20.  It  was  again  taken  from 
them  by  Azariah,  and  by  him  left  to  his  son, 
2  Kings  xiv,  22.  The  king  of  Syria  took  it 
from  his  grandson,  2  Kings  xvi,  6.  In  process 
of  time  it  fell  to  the  Ptolemies,  and  lastly  to  the 
Romans.  The  branch  of  the  Red  Sea  on  which 
this  city  stood,  obtained  among  Heathen  writers 
the  name  of  Sinus  Elaniticus  or  Elanitic  Gulf, 
from  a  town  built  on  its  site  called  Elana,  and 
subsequently  Ala ;  which,  as  we  are  informed 
by  Eusebius  and  Jerom,  was  used  as  a  port  in 
their  time.  The  modern  Arabian  town  of 
Akaba  stands  upon  or  near  the  site  either  of 
Elath  or  Ezion-Geber ;  which  of  the  two  it  is 
impossible  to  determine,  as  both  ports,  stand- 
ing at  the  head  of  the  gulf,  were  probably 
separated  from  each  other  by  a  creek  or  small 
bay  only. 

ELDAD  and  Medad  were  appointed  by 
Moses  among  the  seventy  elders  of  Israel  who 
were  to  assist  in  the  government.  Though 
not  present  in  the  general  assembly,  they  were, 
notwithstanding,  filled  with  the  Spirit  of  God, 
equally  with  those  who  were  in  that  assembly, 
and  they  began  to  prophesy  in  the  camp. 
Joshua  would  have  had  Moses  forbid  them,  but 
Moses  replied,  "  Enviest  thou  for  my  sake  ? 
Would  God  that  all  the  Lord's  people  were 
prophets,  and  that  God  would  pour  forth  his 
Spirit  upon  them !"  Numbers  xi,  24-29. 

ELDERS,  a  name  given  to  certain  laymen 
in  the  Presbyterian  discipline,  who  are  ecclesi- 
astical officers,  and  in  conjunction  with  the 
ministers  and  deacons  compose  the  kirk  ses- 
sions in  Scotland.  The  number  of  elders  is 
proportioned  to  the  extent  and  population  of 
the  parish,  and  is  seldom  less  than  two  or 
three,  but  sometimes  exceeds  fifty.  They  are 
laymen  in  this  respect,  that  they  have  no  right 
to  teach,  or  to  dispense  the  sacraments ;  and 
on  this  account  they  form  an  office  in  the 
Presbyterian  church  inferior  in  rank  and  power 
to  that  of  pastors.  They  generally  discharge 
the  office  which  originally  belonged  to  the  dea- 
cons, of  attending  to  the  interests  of  the  poor. 
But  their  peculiar  business  is  expressed  by  the 
name  ruling  elders;   for  in  every  jurisdiction 


ELE 


336 


ELE 


within  the  parish  they  are  the  spiritual  court, 
of  which  the  minister  is  officially  moderator ; 
and  in  the  presbytery,  of  which  the  pastors  of 
all  the  parishes  within  its  bounds  are  officially 
members,  lay  elders  sit  as  the  representatives 
of  the  several  sessions  or  consistories. 

Elders  of  Israel.  By  this  name  we  under- 
stand the  heads  of  tribes,  or  rather  of  the  great 
families  in  Israel,  who,  before  the  settlement 
of  the  Hebrew  commonwealth,  had  a  govern- 
ment and  authority  over  their  own  families, 
and  the  people.  When  Moses  was  sent  into 
Egypt  to  deliver  Israel,  he  assembled  the  elders 
of  Israel,  and  told  them  that  the  God  of  Abra- 
ham, Isaac,  and  Jacob,  had  appeared  to  him, 
Exod.  iii,  15;  iv,  29,  &c.  Moses  and  Aaron 
treat  the  elders  of  Israel  as  the  representatives 
of  the  nation.  When  God  gave  the  law  to 
Moses,  he  said,  "Take  Aaron,  Nadab,  and 
Abihu,  his  sons,  and  the  seventy  elders  of 
Israel,  and  worship  ye  afar  off,"  Exod.  xxiv, 
1,  9,  10.  They  advanced  only  to  the  foot  of 
the  mountain.  On  all  occasions  afterward,  we 
find  this  number  of  seventy  elders.  But  it  is 
credible,  that  as  there  were  twelve  tribes,  there 
were  seventy-two  elders,  six  from  each  tribe, 
and  that  seventy  is  set  down,  instead  of  seventy- 
two  ;  or  rather,  that  Moses  and  Aaron  should 
be  added  to  the  number  seventy,  and  that,  ex- 
clusive of  them,  there  were  but  four  elders 
from  the  tribe  of  Levi.  After  Jethro's  arrival 
in  the  camp  of  Israel,  Moses  made  a  consider- 
able change  in  the  governors  of  the  people. 
He  established  over  Israel  heads  of  thousands, 
hundreds,  fifties,  and  tens,  that  justice  might 
be  readily  administered  to  applicants ;  only 
difficult  cases  were  referred  to  himself,  Exod. 
xviii,  24,  25,  &c.  But  this  constitution  did 
not  continue  long ;  for  on  the  murmuring  of 
the  people  at  the  encampment  called  the 
Graves  of  Lust,  Num.  xi,  24-35,  Moses  ap- 
pointed seventy  elders  of  Israel,  to  whom  God 
communicated  part  of  that  legislator's  spirit ; 
they  began  to  prophesy,  and  ceased  not  after- 
ward. This,  according  to  the  generality  of 
interpreters,  was  the  beginning  of  the  san- 
hedrim ;  but,  to  support  this  opinion,  many 
things  must  be  supposed,  whereby  to  infer,  that 
this  court  of  justice  was  constantly  in  being 
during  the  Scripture  history.  It  seems  that 
the  establishment  of  the  seventy  elders  by  Mo- 
ses continued,  not  only  during  his  life,  but 
undor  Joshua  likewise,  and  under  the  judges. 
The  elders  of  the  people  and  Joshua  swore  to 
the  treaty  with  the  Gibeonites,  Josh,  ix,  15. 
A  little  before  his  death,  Joshua  renewed  the 
covenant  with  the  Lord,  in  company  witli  the 
elders,  the  princes,  the  heads,  and  officers  of 
Israel,  Joshua  xxiii;  xxiv,  1,  28.  After  the 
death  of  Joshua,  and  the  elders  who  survived 
him,  the  people  were  several  times  brought  into 
bondage,  and  were  delivered  by  their  judges. 
We  do  not  see  distinctly  what  authority  the 
elders  had  during  this  time,  and  still  less  under 
the  kings  who  succeeded  the  judges. 

ELEAZAR,  the  third  son  of  Aaron,  and  his 
successor  in  the  dignity  of  high  priest,  Exod. 
vi,  23.  He  entered  into  the  land  of  Canaan 
with  Joshua,  and  is  supposed  to  have  lived 


there  upward  of  twenty  years.  The  high  priest- 
hood continued  in  his  family  till  the  time  of 
Eli.  He  was  buried  in  a  hill  that  belonged  to 
the  son  of  Phineas,  Joshua  xxiv. 

2.  Eleazar,  the  son  of  Aminadab,  to  whose 
care  the  ark  was  committed  when  it  was  sent 
back  by  the  Philistines,  1  .Samuel  vii.  He  is 
thought  to  have  been  a  priest,  or  at  least  a 
Levite,  though  he  is  not  mentioned  in  the  ca- 
talogue of  the  sons  of  Levi. 

ELECTION.  Of  a  divine  election,  a  choos- 
ing and  separating  from  others,  we  have  three 
kinds  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures.  The  first 
is  the  election  of  individuals  to  perform  some 
particular  and  special  service.  Cyrus  was 
"  elected"  to  rebuild  the  temple  ;  the  twelve 
Apostles  were  "  chosen,"  elected,  to  their  office 
by  Christ;  St.  Paul  was  a  "  chosen,"  or  elect- 
ed "vessel,"  to  be  the  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles. 
The  second  kind  of  election  which  we  find  in 
Scripture,  is  the  election  of  nations,  or  bodies  of 
people,  to  eminent  religious  privileges,  and  in 
order  to  accomplish,  by  their  superior  illumina- 
tion, the  merciful  purposes  of  God,  in  benefit- 
ing other  nations  or  bodies  of  people.  Thus 
the  descendants  of  Abraham,  the  Jews,  were 
chosen  to  receive  special  revelations  of  truth  ; 
and  to  be  "the  people  of  God,"  that  is,  his 
visible  church,  publicly  to  observe  and  uphold 
his  worship.  "The  Lord  thy  God  hath  chosen 
thee  to  be  a  peculiar  people  unto  himself,  above 
all  people  that  are  upon  the  face  of  the  earth." 
"  The  Lord  had  a  delight  in  thy  fathers  to 
love  them,  and  he  chose  their  seed  after  them, 
even  you,  above  all  people."  It  was  especially 
on  account  of  the  application  of  the  terms 
elect,  chosen,  and  peculiar,  to  the  Jewish  peo- 
ple, that  they  were  so  familiarly  used  by  the 
Apostles  in  their  epistles  addressed  to  the  be 
lieving  Jews  and  Gentiles,  then  constituting 
the  church  of  Christ  in  various  places.  For 
Christians  were  the  subjects,  also,  of  this 
second  kind  of  election  ;  the  election  of  bodies 
of  men  to  be  the  visible  people  and  church  of 
God  in  the  world,  and  to  be  endowed  with  pe- 
culiar privileges.  Thus  they  became,  though 
in  a  more  special  and  exalted  sense,  the  chosen 
people,  the  elect  of  God.  We  say  "in  a  more 
special  sense,"  because  as  the  entrance  into 
the  Jewish  church  was  by  natural  birth,  and 
the  entrance  into  the  Christian  church,  pro- 
perly so  called,  is  by  faith  and  a  spiritual  birth, 
these  terms,  although  many  became  Christians 
by  mere  profession,  and  enjoyed  various  privi- 
leges in  consequence  of  their  people  or  nation 
being  chosen  to  receive  the  Gospel,  have  gene- 
rally respect,  in  the  New  Testament,  to  bodies 
of  true  believers,  or  to  the  whole  body  of  true 
believers  as  such.  They  are  not,  therefore,  to 
bo  interpreted  according  to  the  scheme  of  Dr. 
Taylor  of  Norwich,  by  the  constitution  of  tho 
Jewish,  but  by  the  constitution  of  the  Chris, 
tian,  church. 

2.  To  understand  the  nature  of  this  "elec- 
tion," as  applied  sometimes  to  particular  bodies 
of  Christians,  as  when  St.  Peter  says,  "  Tho 
church  which  is  at  Babylon,  elected  together 
with  you,"  and  sometimes  to  the  whole  body 
of  believers  every  where  ;  and  also  tho  rcasos 


ELE 


337 


ELE 


of  the  frequent  uso  of  the  term  election,  and  of 
the  occurrence  of  allusions  to  the  fact ;  it  is  to 
be  remembered,  that  a  great  religious  revolu- 
tion, so  to  speak,  had  occurred  in  the  age  of 
the  Apostles;  with  the  full  import  of  which 
we  cannot,  without  calling  in  the  aid  of  a  lit- 
tle reflection,  be  adequately  impressed.  This 
change  was  no  other  than  the  abrogation  of 
the  church  state  of  the  Jews,  which  had  con- 
tinued for  so  many  ages.  They  had  been  the 
only  visibly  acknowledged  people  of  God  in  all 
the  nations  of  the  earth ;  for  whatever  pious 
people  might  have  existed  in  other  nations, 
they  were  not,  in  the  sight  of  men,  and  col- 
lectively, acknowledged  as  "the  people  of  Je- 
hovah." They  had  no  written  revelations,  no 
appointed  ministry,  no  forms  of  authorized 
initiation  into  his  church  and  covenant,  no 
appointed  holy  days,  or  sanctioned  ritual.  All 
these  wrere  peculiar  to  the  Jews,  who  were, 
therefore,  an  elected  and  peculiar  people. 
This  distinguished  honour  they  were  about  to 
lose.  They  might  have  retained  it  as  Chris- 
tians, had  they  been  willing  to  admit  the  be- 
lieving Gentiles  of  all  nations  to  share  it  with 
them  ;  but  the  great  reason  of  their  peculiarity 
and  election,  as  a  nation,  was  terminated  by 
the  coming  of  the  Messiah,  who  was  to  be  "  a 
light  to  lighten  the  Gentiles,"  as  well  as  "  the 
glory  of  his  people  Israel."  Their  pride  and 
consequent  unbelief  resented  this,  which  will 
explain  their  enmity  to  the  believing  part  of 
the  Gentiles,  who,  when  that  which  St.  Paul 
calls  "  the  fellowship  of  the  mystery"  was  fully 
explained,  chiefly  by  the  glorious  ministry  of 
that  Apostle  himself,  were  called  into  that 
church  relation  and  visible  acknowledgment 
as  the  people  of  God,  which  the  Jews  had  for- 
merly enjoyed,  and  that  with  even  a  higher 
degree  of  glory,  in  proportion  to  the  superior 
spirituality  of  the  new  dispensation.  It  was 
this  doctrine  which  excited  that  strong  irrita- 
tion in  the  minds  of  the  unbelieving  Jews,  and 
in  some  partially  Christianized  ones,  to  which 
so  many  references  are  made  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament. They  were  "provoked,"  were  made 
"jealous;"  and  were  often  roused  to  the  mad- 
ness of  persecuting  opposition  by  it.  There 
was  then  a  new  election  of  a  new  people  of 
God,  to  be  composed  of  Jews,  not  by  virtue  of 
their  natural  descent,  but  through  their  faith 
in  Christ,  and  of  Gentiles  of  all  nations,  also 
believing,  and  put  as  believers,  on  an  equal 
ground  with  the  believing  Jews  :  and  there  was 
also  a  rejection,  a  reprobation,  but  not  an  ab- 
solute one ;  for  the  election  was  offered  to  the 
Jews  first,  in  every  place,  by  offering  them  the 
Gospel.  Some  embraced  it,  and  submitted  to 
be  the  elect  people  of  God,  on  the  new  ground 
of  faith,  instead  of  the  old  one  of  natural  de- 
scent ;  and  therefore  the  Apostle,  Rom.  xi,  7, 
calls  the  believing  part  of  the  Jews,  "the  elec- 
tion," in  opposition  to  those  who  opposed  this 
"election  of  grace,"  and  still  clung  to  their 
former  and  now  repealed  election  as  Jews  and 
the  descendants  of  Abraham :  "  But  the  elec- 
tion hath  obtained  it,  and  the  rest  were  blind- 
ed." The  offer  had  been  made  to  the  whole 
nation  ;  all  might  have  joined  the  one  body  of 
33 


believing  Jews  and  believing  Gentiles ;  but  the 
major  part  of  them  refused :  they  would  not 
"come  into  the  supper;"  they  made  "light  of 
it ;"  light  of  an  election  founded  on  faith,  and 
which  placed  the  relation  of  "the  people  of 
God"  upon  spiritual  attainments,  and  offered 
to  them  only  spiritual  blessings.  They  were, 
therefore,  deprived  of  election  and  church  re! 
lationship  of  every  kind  :  their  temple  was 
burned;  their  political  state  abolished;  their 
genealogies  confounded ;  their  worship  annihi- 
lated ;  and  all  visible  ackowledgment  of  them 
by  God  as  a  church  withdrawn,  and  transfer- 
red to  a  church  henceforward  to  be  composed 
chiefly  of  Gentiles:  and  thus,  says  St.  Paul, 
"were  fulfilled  the  words  of  Moses,  I  will  pro- 
voke you  to  jealousy  by  them  that  are  no  peo- 
ple, and  by  a  foolish,"  ignorant  and  idolatrous, 
"people  I  will  anger  you."  It  is  easy,  there- 
fore, to  see  what  is  the  import  of  the  "calling" 
and  "election"  of  the  Christian  church,  as* 
spoken  of  in  the  New  Testament.  It  was  not 
the  calling  and  the  electing  of  one  nation  in 
particular  to  succeed  the  Jews  ;  but  it  was  the 
calling  and  the  electing  of  believers  in  all  na- 
tions, wherever  the  Gospel  should  be  preached, 
to  be  in  reality  what  the  Jews  typically,  and 
therefore  in  an  inferior  degree,  had  been, — the 
visible  church  of  God,  "his  people,"  under 
Christ  "  the  Head ;"  with  an  authenticated  re- 
velation ;  with  an  appointed  ministry,  never 
to  be  lost ;  with  authorized  worship ;  with  holy 
days  and  festivals ;  with  instituted  forms  of  ini- 
tiation ;  and  with  special  protection  and  favour. 
3.  The  third  kind  of  election  is  personal 
election  ;  or  the  election  of  individuals  to  be  the 
children  of  God,  and  the  heirs  of  eternal  life. 
This  is  not  a  choosing  to  particular  offices  and 
service,  which  is  the  first  kind  of  election  we 
have  mentioned  ;  nor  is  it  that  collective  elec- 
tion to  religious  privileges  and  a  visible  church 
state,  of  which  we  have  spoken.  For  although 
"  the  elect"  have  an  individual  interest  in  such 
an  election  as  parts  of  the  collective  body,  thus 
placed  in  possession  of  the  ordinances  of  Chris, 
tianity  ;  yet  many  others  have  the  same  ad- 
vantages, who  still  remain  under  the  guilt  and 
condemnation  of  sin  and  practical  unbelief. 
The  individuals  properly  called  "the  elect,"  are 
they  who  have  been  made  partakers  of  the  grace 
and  saving  efficacy  of  the  Gospel.  "  Many," 
says  our  Lord,  "are  called,  but  few  chosen:' 
What  true  personal  election  is,  we  shall  find 
explained  in  two  clear  passages  of  Scripture. 
Tt  is  explained  by  our  Lord,  where  he  says  to  his 
disciples,  "  I  have  chosen  you  out  of  the  wbrld  :" 
and  by  St.  Peter,  when  he  addresses  his  First 
Epistle  to  the  "elect  according  to  the  foreknow- 
ledge of  God  the  Father,  through  sanctification 
of  the  Spirit,  unto  obedience  and  sprinkling  of 
the  blood  of  Jesus."  To  be  elected,  therefore, 
is  to  be  separated  from  "the  world,"  and  to  be 
sanctified  by  the  Spirit,  and  by  the  blood  of 
Christ.  It  follows,  then,  not  only  that  elec- 
tion is  an  act  of  God  done  in  time,  but  also 
that  it  is  subsequent  to  the  administration  of 
the  means  of  salvation.  The  "calling"  goes 
before  the  "  election ;"  the  publication  of  the 
doctrine  of  "the  Spirit,"  and  the  atonement, 


ELI 


338 


ELI 


called  by  Peter  "  the  sprinkling  of  the  blood  of 
Christ,"  before  that  "  sanctification"  through 
which  they  become  "  the  elect"  of  God.  In  a 
word,  "  the  elect"  are  the  body  of  true  believ- 
ers; and  personal  election  into  the  family  of 
God  is  through  personal  faith.  All  who  truly 
believe  are  elected ;  and  all  to  whom  the  Gos- 
pel is  sent  have,  through  the  grace  that  accom- 
panies it,  the  power  to  believe  placed  within 
their  reach ;  and  all  such  might,  therefore,  at- 
tain to  the  grace  of  personal  election. 

ELEMENTS,  s-oi^da,  the  elements  or  first 
principles  of  any  art,  whence  the  subsequent 
parts  proceed.  The  elements  or  first  princi- 
ples of  the  Christian  doctrine,  Heb,  v,  12.  St. 
Paul  calls  the  ceremonial  ordinances  of  the 
Mosaic  law,  "worldly  elements,"  Gal.  iv,  3; 
Col.  ii,  8,  20  ;  "weak  and  beggarly  elements," 
Gal.  iv,  9.  Elements,  as  containing  the  rudi- 
ments of  the  knowledge  of  Christ,  to  which 
knowledge  the  law,  as  a  pedagogue,  Gal.  iii,  24, 
was  intended,  by  means  of  those  ordinances, 
to  bring  the  Jews ;  worldly,  as  consisting 
in  outward  wordly  institutions,  Heb.  ix,  1 ; 
weak  and  beggarly,  when  considered  in  them- 
selves, and  set  up  in  opposition  to  the  great 
realities  to  which  they  were  designed  to  lead. 
But,  in  Col.  ii,  8,  the  elements  or  rudiments  of 
the  world  are  so  closely  connected  with  philoso- 
phy and  vain  deceit,  or  an  empty  and  deceitful 
philosophy,  that  they  must  be  understood  there 
to  include  the  dogmas  of  Pagan  philosophy ;  to 
which,  no  doubt,  many  of  the  Colossians  were 
in  their  unconverted  state  attached,  and  of 
which  the  Judaizing  teachers,  who  also  were 
probably  themselves  infected  with  them,  took 
advantage  to  withdraw  the  Colossian  converts 
from  the  purity  of  the  Gospel,  and  from  Christ 
their  living  head.  And  from  the  general  tenor 
of  this  chapter,  and  particularly  from  verses 
18-23,  it  appears,  that  these  philosophical  dog. 
mas,  against  which  the  Apostle  cautioned  his 
converts,  were  partly  Platonic,  and  partly  Py- 
thagorean ;  the  former  teaching  the  worship 
of  angels,  or  demons,  as  mediators  between 
God  and  man  ;  the  latter  enjoining  such  absti- 
nence from  particular  kinds  of  meats  and 
drinks,  and  such  severe  mortifications  of  the 
body,  as  God  had  not  commanded. 

ELI,  a  high  priest  of  the  Hebrews,  of  the 
race  of  Ithamar,  who  succeeded  Abdon,  and 
governed  the  Hebrews,  both  as  priest  and 
judge,  during  forty  years.  How  Eli  came  to 
the  high  priesthood,  and  how  this  dignity  was 
transferred  from  Eleazar's  family  lo  that  of 
Ithamar,  who  was  Aaron's  youngest  son,  we 
know  not.  This  much,  however,  is  certain, 
that  it  was  not  done  without  an  express  decla- 
ration of  God's  will,  1  Sam.  ii,  27,  &c.  In  the 
reign  of  Solomon,  the  predictions  in  relation 
to  Eli's  family  were  fulfilled ;  for  the  high 
priesthood  was  taken  from  Abiathar,  a  de- 
scendant of  Eli,  and  given  to  Zadok,  who  was 
of  the  race  of  Eleazar,  1  Kings  ii,  26.  Eli  ap- 
pears to  have  been  a  pious,  but  indolent  man, 
blinded  by  paternal  affection,  who  suffered  his 
sons  to  gain  the  ascendancy  over  him  ;  and 
for  want  either  of  personal  courag?,  or  zeal  for 
the  glory  of  God  sufficient  to  restrain  their 


licentious  conduct,  he  permitted  them  to  go 
on  to  their  own  and  his  ruin.  Thus  he  carried 
his  indulgence  to  cruelty;  while  a  more  digni- 
fied and  austere  conduct  on  his  part  might  have 
rendered  them  wise  and  virtuous,  and  thereby 
have  preserved  himself  and  family.  A  striking 
lesson  for  parents !  God  admonished  him  by 
Samuel,  then  a  child ;  and  Eli  received  those 
awful  admonitions  with  a  mind  fully  resigned 
to  the  divine  will.  "  It  is  the  Lord,"  said  he, 
"let  him  do  what  seemejh  him  good."  God 
deferred  the  execution  of  his  vengeance  many 
years.  At  length,  however,  Hophni  and  Phi- 
neas,  the  sons  of  Eli,  were  slain  by  the  Philis- 
tines, the  ark  of  the  Lord  was  taken,  and  Eli 
himself,  hearing  this  melancholy  news,  fell 
backward  from  his  chair  and  broke  his  neck, 
in  the  ninety-eighth  year  of  his  age,  1  Sam. 
iv,  12,  18. 

ELIEZER,  a  native  of  Damascus,  and  the 
steward  of  Abraham's  house.  It  seems  that 
Abraham,  before  the  birth  of  Isaac,  intended 
to  make  him  his  heir: — "One  born  in  my 
house,"  a  domestic  slave,  "is  mine  heir,"  Gen. 
xv,  1-3.  He  was  afterward  seat  into  Meso- 
potamia, to  procure  a  wife  for  Isaac,  Gen.  xxiv, 
2,  3,  &c  ;  which  business  he  accomplished  with 
fidelity  and  expedition.  "  It  is  still  the  custom 
in  India,"  says  Forbes,  "especially  among  the 
Mohammedans,  that  in  default  of  children,  and 
sometimes  where  there  are  lineal  descendants, 
the  master  of  a  family  adopts  a  slave,  frequently 
a  Haffshee  Abyssinian,  of  the  darkest  hue,  for 
his  heir.  He  educates  him  agreeably  to  his 
wishes,  and  marries  him  to  one  of  his  daugh- 
ters. As  the  reward  of  superior  merit,  or  to 
suit  the  caprice  of  an  arbitrary  despot,  this 
honour  is  also  conferred  on  a  slave  recently 
purchased,  or  already  grown  up  in  the  family; 
and  to  him  he  bequeaths  his  wealth,  in  prefer- 
ence to  his  nephews,  or  any  collateral  branches. 
This  is  a  custom  of  great  antiquity  in  the  east, 
and  prevalent  among  the  most  refined  and 
civilized  nations.  In  the  earliest  period  of  the 
patriarchal  history,  we  find  Abraham  com- 
plaining for  want  of  children ;  and  declaring 
that  either  Eliezer  of  Damascus,  or  probably 
one  born  from  him  in  his  house,  was  his  heir, 
to  the  exclusion  of  Lot,  his  favourite  nephew, 
and  all  the  other  collateral  branches  of  his 
family." 

ELIHU,  one  of  Job's  friends,  a  descendant 
of  Nahor,  Job  xxxii,  2.     See  Job. 

ELIJAH.  Elijah  or  Elias,  a  prophet,  was 
a  native  of  Tishbe  beyond  Jordan  in  Gilead. 
Some  think  that  he  was  a  priest  descended 
from  Aaron,  and  say  that  one  Sabaca  was  his 
father  ;  but  this  has  no  authority.  He  was 
raised  up  by  God,  to  be  set  like  a  wall  of  brass, 
in  opposition  to  idolatry,  and  particularly  to 
the  worship  of  Baal,  which  Jezebel  and  Ahab 
supported  in  Israel.  The  Scripture  introduces 
Elijah  saying  to  Ahab,  1  Kings  xvii,  1,2,  A.M. 
3092,  "  As  the  Lord  God  of  Israel  liveth,  before 
whom  I  stand,  there  shall  not  be  dew  nor  rain 
these  years,  but  according  to  my  word."  It 
is  remarkable,  that  the  number  of  years  is  not 
here  specified ;  but  in  the  New  Testament  we 
are  informed  that  it  was  three  years  and  six 


ELI 


333 


ELI 


months.     By  the  prohibition  of  dew  as  well  as 
fain,   the   whole  vegetable   kingdom  was  de- 
prived of  that  moisture,  without  which  neither 
the   more  hardy,   nor  more  delicate   kinds   of 
plants  could  shoot  into  herbage,  or  bring  that 
herbage  to  maturity.     The  Lord  commanded 
Elijah  to  conceal  himself  beyond  Jordan,  near 
the  brook  Cherith.     He  obeyed,  and  God  sent 
ravens  to  him  morning  and  evening,   which 
brought  him  flesh  and  bread.      Scheuzer  ob- 
serves, that  he  cannot  think  that  the  orebim 
of  the   Hebrew,   rendered   "  ravens,"    means, 
as  some   have  thought,   the  inhabitants   of  a 
town  called  Oreb,  nor  a  troop  of  Arabs  called 
orbhim;  and  contends  that  the  bird  called  the 
raven,  or  one  of  the  same  genus  is  intended. 
Suppose  that  Elijah  was  concealed  from  Ahab 
in   some   rocky   or  mountainous   spot,   where 
travellers  never  came ;  and  that  here  a  num- 
ber of  voracious  birds  had  built  their  nests  upon 
the  trees  which  grew  around  it,  or  upon  a  pro- 
jecting rock,  &c.     These  flying  every  day  to 
procure    food    for    their   young,    the    prophet 
availed  himself  of  a  part  of  what  they  brought ; 
'and  while  they,  obeying  the  dictates  of  nature, 
designed  only  to   provide   for  their   offspring, 
Divine  providence  directed  them  to  provide  at 
the  same  time  for  the  wants  of  Elijah.    What, 
therefore,    he    collected,   whether    from   their 
nests,  from  what  they  dropped,  or  under  a  su- 
pernatural influence,  brought  to  him,  or  occa- 
sionally from  all  these  means,  was  enough  for 
his  daily  support.     "  And  the  orebim  furnished 
him  bread  or  flesh  in  the  morning,  and  bread 
or  flesh  in  the  evening."     But  as  there  were 
probably  several  of  them,  some  might  furnish 
bread  and  others  flesh,  as  it  happened ;  so  that 
a  little  from  each  formed  his  solitary  but  satis- 
factory meal.     To  such  straits  was  the  exiled 
prophet  driven  !  perhaps  these  orebim  were  not 
strictly  ravens,  but  rooks.     The  word  rendered 
raven,  includes  the  whole  genus,  among  which 
are  some  less  impure  than  the  raven,  as  the 
rook.     Rooks  living  in  numerous  societies  are 
supposed  by  some  to  be  the  kind  of  birds  em- 
ployed  on   this   occasion   rather  than  ravens, 
which  fly  only  in  pairs.     But  upon  all  these 
explanations  we  may  observe,  that  when  an 
event  is  evidently  miraculous,  it  is  quite  super- 
fluous, and  often  absurd,  to  invent  hypotheses 
to  make  it  appear  more  easy.     After  a  time 
the   brook  dried  up,   and  God  sent   Elijah  to 
Zarephath,  a  city  of  the  Sidonians.      At  the 
city  gate  he  met  with  a  widow  woman  gather- 
ing sticks,  from  whom  he  desired  a  little  water, 
adding,  "  Bring  me,  I  pray  thee,  also  a  morsel 
of  bread."    She  answered,  "  As  the  Lord  liveth, 
I  have  no  bread,  but  only  a  handful  of  meal, 
and  a  little  oil  in  a  cruse  ;  and  I  am  gathering 
some  sticks,  that  I  may  dress  it  for  me  and  my 
son,  that  we  may  eat  it,  and  die."    Elijah  said, 
"  Make  first  a  little  cake,  and  bring  it  me,  and 
afterward  make  for  thee  and  thy  son  :  for  thus 
saith  the  Lord,  the  barrel  of  meal  shall  not 
waste,  neither  shall  the  cruse  of  oil  fail,  until 
the  day  the  Lord  sendeth  rain  upon  the  earth." 
His  prediction  was  fully  accomplished,  and  he 
dwelt  at  the  house  of  this  widow.     Some  time 
after,  the  son  of  this  woman  fell  sick,  and  died. 


The  mother,  overwhelmed  with  grief,  intreated 
the  assistance  and  interposition  of  Elijah,  who 
taking  the  child  in  his  arms  laid  him  on  his 
own  bed,  and  cried  to  the  Lord  for  the  restora- 
tion of  the  child's  life.  The  Lord  heard  the 
prophet's  petition,  and  restored  the  child. 

2.  After  three  years  of  drought  the  Lord 
commanded  Elijah  to  show  himself  to  Ahab. 
The  famine  being  great  in  Samaria,  Ahab  sent 
the  people  throughout  the  country,  to  inquire 
after  places  where  they  might  find  forage  for 
the  cattle.  Obadiah,  an  officer  of  the  king's 
household,  being  thus  employed,  Elijah  pre- 
sented himself,  and  directed  him  to  tell  Ahab, 
"  Behold,  Elijah  is  here  !"  Ahab  came  to  meet 
the  prophet,  and  reproached  him  as  the  cause 
of  the  famine.  Elijah  retorted  the  charge  upon 
the  king,  and  his  iniquities,  and  challenged 
Ahab  to  gather  the  people  together,  and  the 
prophets  of  Baal,  that  it  might  be  determined 
by  a  sign  from  heaven,  the  falling  of  fire  upon 
the  sacrifice,  who  was  the  true  God.  In  this 
the  prophet  obeyed  the  impulse  of  the  Spirit 
of  God ;  and  Ahab,  either  under  an  influence 
of  which  he  was  not  conscious,  or  blindly  con- 
fident in  the  cause  of  idolatry,  followed  Elijah's 
direction,  and  convened  the  people  of  Israel, 
and  four  hundred  prophets  of  Baal.  The  pro- 
phets of  Baal  prepared  their  altar,  sacrificed 
their  bullock,  placed  it  on  the  altar,  and  called 
upon  their  gods.  They  leaped  upon  the  altar, 
and  cut  themselves  after  their  manner,  crying 
with  all  their  might.  Elijah  ridiculed  them, 
and  said,  "  Cry  aloud,  for  he  is  god ;  either  he 
is  talking,  or  he  is  pursuing,  or  he  is  on  a  jour- 
ney, or  peradventure  he  sleepeth,  and  must  be 
awaked."  When  midday  was  past,  Elijah  re- 
paired the  altar  of  the  Lord  ;  and  with  twelve 
stones,  in  allusion  to  the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel, 
he  built  a  new  altar.  He  then  laid  his  bullock 
upon  the  wood,  poured  a  great  quantity  of  wa- 
ter three  times  upon  the  sacrifice  and  the  wood, 
so  that  the  water  filled  the  trench  which  was 
dug  round  the  altar.  After  this  he  prayed,  and, 
in  answer  to  his  prayer,  the, Lord  sent  fire  from 
heaven,  and  consumed  the  wood,  the  burnt 
sacrifice,  the  stones,  and  dust  of  the  place, 
and  even  dried  up  the  water  in  the  trench. 
Upon  this,  all  the  people  fell  on  their  faces, 
and  exclaimed,  "  The  Lord,  he  is  the  God." 
Elijah  then,  having  excited  the  people  to  slay 
the  false  prophets  of  Baal,  said  to  Ahab,  "  Go 
home,  eat  and  drink,  for  I  hear  the  sound  of 
abundance  of  rain  ;"  which  long-expected  bless- 
ing descended  from  heaven  according  to  his 
prediction,  and  gave  additional  proof  to  the 
truth  of  his  mission  from  the  only  living  and 
true  God. 

3.  Jezebel,  the  wife  of  Ahab,  threatened  Eli- 
jah for  having  slain  her  prophets.  He  therefore 
fled  to  Beersheba,  in  the  south  of  Judah,  and 
thence  into  Arabia  Petrea.  In  the  evening, 
being  exhausted  with  fatigue,  he  laid  himself 
down  under  a  juniper  tree,  and  prayed  God  to 
take  him  out  of  the  world.  An  angel  touched 
him,  and  he  arose,  and  saw  a  cake  baked  on 
the  coals,  and  a  cruse  of  water ;  and  he  ate 
and  drank,  and  slept  again.  The  angel  again 
awakened  him,  and  said,  "  Rise  and  eat,  for  the 


ELI 


340 


ELI 


journey  is  too  great  for  thee  ;"  and  he  ate  and 
drank,  and  went  in  the  strength  of  that  meat 
forty  days  and  forty  nights,  unto  Horeb,  the 
mount  of  God.  Here  he  had  visions  of  the 
glory  and  majesty  of  God,  and  conversed  with 
him ;  and  was  commanded  to  return  to  the 
wilderness  of  Damascus,  to  anoint  Hazael  king 
over  Syria,  and  Jehu  king  over  Israel,  and  to 
appoint  Elisha  his  successor  in  the  prophetic 
office.  Some  years  after,  Ahab  having  seized 
Naboth's  vineyard,  the  Lord  commanded  Elijah 
to  reprove  Ahab  for  the  crime  he  had  commit. 
ted.  Elijah  met  him  going  to  Nahoth's  vine- 
yard  to  take  possession  of  it,  and  said,  "  In  the 
place  where  dogs  licked  the  blood  of  Naboth, 
shall  they  lick  thy  blood,  even  thine.  And  the 
dogs  shall  eat  Jezebel  by  the  wall  of  Jezreel." 
Both  of  which  predictions  were  fulfilled  in  the 
presence  of  the  people.  Ahaziah,  king  of  Israel, 
being  hurt  by  a  fall  from  the  platform  of  his 
house,  sent  to  consult  Baalzebub,  the  god  of 
Ekron,  whether  he  should  recover.  Elijah  met 
the  messengers,  and  said  to  them,  "  Is  it  be- 
cause there  is  no  God  in  Israel  that  ye  go  to 
inquire  of  Baalzebub,  the  god  of  Ekron  ?  Now, 
therefore,  saith  the  Lord,  Thou  shalt  surely 
die."  The  messengers  of  Ahaziah  returned, 
and  informed  the  king,  that  a  stranger  had 
told  them  he  should  certainly  die ;  and  Ahaziah 
knew  that  this  was  the  Prophet  Elijah.  The 
king,  therefore,  sent  a  captain  with  his  com. 
pany  of  fifty  men,  to  apprehend  him;  and  when 
the  officer  was  come  to  Elijah,  who  was  sitting 
upon  a  hill,  he  said,  "Thou  man  of  God,  the 
king  commands  thee  to  come  down."  Elijah 
answered,  "  If  I  be  a  man  of  God,  let  fire  come 
down  from  heaven,  and  consume  thee  and  thy 
fifty."  The  prophet's  words  were  followed 
with  the  effect  predicted.  The  king  sent  an- 
other  captain,  who  was  also  consumed ;  but  a 
third  captain  going  to  Elijah  intreated  him  to 
save  him  and  his  people's  lives,  and  Elijah  ac- 
companied him  to  the  king.  By  these  fearful 
miracles  he  was  accredited  to  this  successor  of 
Ahab  as  a  prophet  of  the  true  God,  and  the 
destruction  of  these  companies  of  armed  men 
was  a  demonstration  of  God's  anger  against 
the  people  at  large.  Elijah  could  not  in  this 
case  act  from  any  other  impulse  than  that  of 
the  Spirit  of  God. 

4.  Elijah,  understanding  by  revelation  that 
God  would  soon  translate  him  out  of  this 
world,  was  desirous  of  concealing  this  fact 
from  Elisha,  his  inseparable  companion.  He 
therefore  said  to  Elisha,  "Tarry  thou  here, 
for  the  Lord  hath  sent  me  to  Bethel."  But 
Elisha  answered,  "  I  will  not  leave  thee."  At 
Bethel,  Elijah  said,  "Tarry  thou  here,  the 
Lord  hath  sent  me  to  Jericho ;"  but  Elisha  re- 
plied, he  would  not  forsake  him.  At  Jericho 
Elijah  desired  him  to  stay ;  but  Elisha  would 
not  leavo  him.  They  went  therefore  together 
to  Jordan,  and  fifty  of  the  sons  of  the  prophets 
followed  them  at  a  distance.  When  they  were 
come  to  the  Jordan,  Elijah  took  his  mantle, 
and  with  it  struck  the  waters,  which  divided, 
and  they  went  over  on  dry  ground.  Elijah 
then  said  to  Elisha,  "Ask  what  I  shall  do  for 
thee  before  I  be  taken  away  from  thee."     "  I 


pray  thee,"  said  Elisha,  "  let  a  double  portion 
of  thy  spirit  be  upon  me ;"  that  is,  obtain  the 
gift  of  prophecy  from  God  for  me,  in  the  same 
measure  that  thou  possessest  it.  Double  may 
signify  like  ;  or  the  gift  of  prophecy,  and  of 
miracles,  in  a  degree  double  to  what  thou  dost 
possess,  or  to  what  I  now  possess.  Elijah  an- 
swered, "  Thou  hast  asked  me  a  very  hard 
thing;  yet,  if  thou  see  me  when  I  am  taken 
from  thee,  it  shall  be  so  unto  thee  ;  but  if  not, 
it  shall  not  be  so."  As  they  journeyed,  a  fiery 
chariot,  with  horses  of  fire,  suddenly  separated 
them,  and  Elijah  was  carried  in  a  whirlwind 
to  heaven ;  while  Elisha  exclaimed,  "  My 
father,  my  father,  the  chariots  of  Israel  and 
the  horsemen  thereof!" 

5.  Elijah  was  one  of  the  most  eminent  of 
that  illustrious  and  singular  race  of  men,  the 
Jewish  prophets.     Every  part  of  his  character 
is    marked    by    a   moral    grandeur,    wThich    is 
heightened  by  the  obscurity  throwrn  around  his 
connections,  and  his  private  history.  He  often 
wears  the  air  of  a  supernatural  messenger  sud- 
denly issuing  from  another  world,  to  declare 
the    commands    of  heaven,    and  to  awe  the 
proudest    mortals    by   the    menace    of  fearful 
judgments.     His  boldness  in  reproof;  his  lofty 
zeal  for  the  honour  of  God;  his  superiority  to 
softness,  ease,  and  suffering,  are  the  characters 
of  a  man  filled  with  the  Holy  Spirit ;  and  he 
was  admitted  to  great  intimacy  with  God,  and 
enabled  to  work  miracles  of  a  very  extraordi- 
nary and  unequivocal  character.     These  were 
called   for   by  the  stupid  idolatry  of  the  age, 
and  were  in  some  instances  equally  calculated 
to  demonstrate  the  being  and  power  of  Jeho. 
vah,   and  to  punish  those  who  had  forsaken 
him  for  idols.     The   author  of  Ecclesiasticus 
has  an  encomium  to  his  memory,  and  justly 
describes  him  as  a  prophet  "who  stood  up  as 
fire,  and  whose  word  burned  as  a  lamp."     In 
the  sternness  and  power  of  his  reproofs  he  was 
a  striking  type  of  John  the  Baptist,  and  the 
latter    is   therefore    prophesied    of,    under  his 
name.     Malachi,  iv,  5,  6,   has  this  passage : 
"  Behold,  I  will  send  you  Elijah  the  prophet, 
before  the   coming  of  the  great  and  dreadful 
day  of  the  Lord."     Our  Saviour  also  declares 
that  Elijah  had  already  come  in  spirit,  in  the 
person  of  John  the  Baptist.     At  the  transfigu- 
ration of  our  Saviour,  Elijah  and  Moses  both 
appeared  and  conversed  with  him  respecting 
his  future  passion,  Matt,  xvii,  3,  4 ;  Mark  ix, 
4;  Luke  ix,   30.     Many  of  the  Jews  in  our 
Lord's  time  believed  him  to  be  Elijah,  or  that 
the  soul  of  Elijah  had  passed  into  his  body. 
Matt,  xvi,  14;  Mark  vi,  15;  Luke  ix,  8.     In 
conclusion,  we  may  observe,  that  to  assure  the 
world  of  the  future  existence  of  good  men  in  a 
state  of  glory  and  felicity,  and  that  in  bodies 
changed  from  mortality  to  immortality,  each 
of  the   three   grand   dispensations  of  religion 
had  its  instance   of  translation  into  heaven ; 
the   patriarchal    in  the  person  of  Enoch,  the 
Jewish    in    the    person   of  Elijah,    and   the 
Christian  in  the  person  of  Christ. 

ELISHA,  the  son  of  Shaphat,  Elijah's  dis- 
ciple and  successor  in  the  prophetic  office, 
was  of  the  city  of  Abelmeholah,  1  Kings  xix, 


ELI 


341 


ELI 


16,  &c.  Elijah  having  received  God's  com- 
mand to  anoint  Elisha  as  a  prophet,  came  to 
Abelmeholah ;  and  finding  him  ploughing  with 
oxen,  he  threw  his  mantle  over  the  shoulders 
of  Elisha,  who  left  the  oxen,  and  accompanied 
him.  Under  the  article  Elijah,  it  has  been 
observed  that  Elisha  was  following  his  master, 
when  he  was  taken  up  to  heaven ;  and  that  he 
inherited  Elijah's  mantle,  with  a  double  por- 
tion of  his  spirit.  Elisha  smote  the  waters  of 
Jordan,  and  divided  them ;  and  he  rendered 
wholesome  the  waters  of  a  rivulet  near  Jericho. 
The  kings  of  Israel,  Judah,  and  Edom,  having 
taken  the  field  against  the  king  of  Moab,  who 
had  revolted  from  Israel,  were  in  danger  of 
perishing  for  want  of  water.  Elisha  was  at 
that  time  in  tho  camp ;  and  seeing  Jehoram, 
the  king  of  Israel,  he  said,  "What  have  I  to 
do  with  thee  ?  get  thee  to  the  prophets  of  thy 
father,  and  to  the  prophets  of  thy  mother.  As 
the  Lord  liveth,  were  it  not  out  of  respect  to 
Jehoshaphat,  the  king  of  Judah,  who  is  here 
present,  I  would  not  so  much  as  look  on  thee. 
,  But  now  send  for  a  minstrel ;  and  while  this 
man  played,  the  Spirit  of  the  Lord  fell  upon 
Elisha,  and  he  said,  Thus  saith  the  Lord, 
Make  several  ditches  along  this  valley  ;  for  ye 
shall  see  neither  wind  nor  rain,  yet  this  valley 
shall  be  filled  with  water,  and  you  and  your 
cattle  shall  drink  of  it."  The  widow  of  one 
of  the  prophets  having  told  Elisha,  that  her 
husband's  creditor  was  determined  to  take  her 
two  sons  and  sell  them  for  slaves,  Elisha  mul- 
tiplied the  oil  in  the  widow's  house,  in  such 
quantity  that  she  was  enabled  to  sell  it  and  to 
discharge  the  debt.  Elisha  went  frequently  to 
Shunem,  a  city  of  Manasseh,  on  this  side  Jor- 
dan, and  was  entertained  by  a  certain  matron 
at  her  house.  As  she  had  no  children,  Elisha 
promised  her  a  son ;  and  his  prediction  was 
accomplished.  Some  years  after,  the  child 
died.  Elisha,  who  was  then  at  Mount  Carmel, 
was  solicited  by  the  mother  to  come  to  her 
house.  The  prophet  went,  and  restored  the 
child.  At  Gilgal,  during  a  great  famine,  one 
of  the  sons  of  the  prophets  gathered  wild 
gourds,  which  he  put  into  the  pot,  and  they 
were  served  up  to  Elisha  and  the  other  pro- 
phets. It  was  soon  found  that  they  were  mor- 
tal poison ;  but  Elisha  ordering  meal  to  be 
thrown  into  the  pot,  corrected  the  quality  of 
the  pottage.  Naaman,  general  of  the  king  of 
Syria's  forces,  having  a  leprosy,  was  advised 
to  visit  Elisha  in  order  to  be  cured.  Elisha 
appointed  him  to  wash  himself  seven  times  in 
the  Jordan ;  and  by  this  means  Naaman  was 
perfectly  healed.  He  returned  to  Elisha,  and 
offered  him  large  presents,  which  the  man  of 
God  resolutely  refused.  But  Gehazi,  Elisha's 
servant,  did  not  imitate  the  disinterestedness  of 
his  master.  He  ran  after  Naaman,  and  in 
Elisha's  name  begged  a  talent  of  silver,  and 
two  changes  of  garments.  Naaman  gave  him 
two  talents.  Elisha,  to  whom  God  had  dis- 
covered Gehazi's  action,  reproached  him  with 
it,  and  declared,  that  the  leprosy  of  Naaman 
should  cleave  to  him  and  his  family  for  ever. 
This  is  a  striking  instance  of  the  disinterested- 
ness of  the  Jewish  prophets.     Elisha,  like  his 


master   Elijah,   had  learned  to  contemn  the 
world.     The  king  of  Syria  being  at  war  with 
the  king  of  Israel,  could  not  imagine  how  all 
his   designs  were    discovered   by  the  enemy. 
He  was  told,  that  Elisha  revealed  them  to  the 
king  of  Israel.     He  therefore  sent  troops  to 
seize  the  prophet  at  Dothan ;  but  Elisha  struck 
them  with  blindness,  and  led  them  in  that  con- 
dition into  Samaria.     When  they  were  in  the 
city,  he  prayed  to  God  to  open  their  eyes  ;  and 
after  he  had  made  them  eat  and  drink,  he  sent 
them  back  unhurt  to  their  master.    Some  time 
after,  Benhadad,  king  of  Syria,  having  besieged 
Samaria,  the  famine  became  so  extreme,  that 
a  certain  woman  ate  her  own  child.  Jehoram, 
king  of  Israel,   imputing  to   Elisha  these  ca- 
lamities,  sent  a  messenger  to  cut  off"  his  head. 
Elisha,    who   was    informed    of   this    design 
against  his  life,  ordered  the  door  to  be  shut. 
The  messenger  was  scarcely  arrived,  when  the 
king  himself  followed,  and  made  great  com. 
plaints  of  the  condition  to  which  the  town  was 
reduced.  Elisha  answered,  "  To-morrow  about 
this  time  shall  a  measure  of  fine  flour  be  sold 
for  a  shekel,  and  two  measures  of  barley  for  a 
shekel,  in  the  gate  of  Samaria."     Upon  this, 
one    of  the    king's   officers   said,    "  Were  the 
Lord  to  open  windows  in  heaven,  might  this 
thing  be."      This  unbelief  was  punished  ;  for 
the    prophet   answered,    "  Thou  shalt   see    it 
with  thine  eyes,  but  shalt  not  eat  thereof," 
which  happened  according  to  Elisha's  predic, 
tion,  for  he  was  trodden  to  death  by  the  crowd 
in  the   gate.     At  the  end  of  the  seven  years' 
famine,  which   the   prophet  had  foretold,   he 
went  to  Damascus,  to  execute  the  command 
which  God  had  given  to  Elijah  many  years 
before,    of  declaring   Hazael    king   of  Syria. 
Benhadad  being  at  that  time  indisposed,  and 
hearing  that  Elisha  was  come  into  his  territo- 
ries, sent  Hazael,  one  of  his  principal  officers, 
to  the  prophet  to  consult  him,  and  inquire  of 
him  whether  it  were  possible  for  him  to  recover, 
The  prophet  told  Hazael,  that  he  might  re- 
cover, but  that  he  was  very  well  assured  that 
he  should  not;   and  then  looking  steadfastly 
upon  him,   he  broke  out  into  tears  upon  the 
prospect,  as  he  told  him,  of  the  many  barba- 
rous   calamities  which  he  would  bring  upon 
Israel,  when  once  he  was  advanced  to  power, 
as  he  would  soon  be,  because  he  was  assured 
by  divine  revelation  that  he  was  to  be  king  of 
Syria.     Hazael,  though  offended  at  the  time  at 
being  thought  capable  of  such  atrocities,  did 
but  too  clearly  verify  these  predictions  ;  for  at 
his  return,  having  murdered  Benhadad,  and 
procured  himself  to  be  declared  king,  he  in- 
flicted  the  greatest  miseries  upon  the  Israelites. 
2.  Elisha  sent  one  cf  the  sons  of  the  pro- 
phets  to  anoint  Jehu,  the  son  of  Jehoshaphat, 
and  grandson  of  Jshmshi,  to  be  king,  in  pur- 
suance  of  an  order  given  to  Elijah  some  years 
before ;  and  Jehu  having  received  the  royal 
unction,  executed  every  thing  that  had  been 
foretold  by  Elijah  against  Ahab's  family,  and 
against  Jezebel.      Elisha   falling  sick,  Joash, 
king  of  Israel,   came  to  visit  him,   and  said, 
"  O  my  father,  my  father,  the  chariot  of  Israel, 
and  the  horsemen  thereof."     Elisha  desired  the 


EME 


342 


END 


king  to  bring  him  a  bow  and  arrows.  Joash 
having  brought  them,  Elisha  requested  him  to 
put  his  hands  on  the  bow,  and  at  the  same  time 
the  prophet  put  his  own  hand  upon  the  king's, 
and  said,  Open  the  window  which  looks  east, 
and  let  fly  an  arrow.  The  king  having  done 
this,  Elisha  said,  This  is  tiic  arrow  of  the 
Lord's  deliverance :  thou  shalt  be  successful 
against  Syria  at  Aphek.  Elisha  desired  him 
again  to  shoot,  which  he  did  three  times,  and 
Mien  stopped.  But  Elisha  with  vehemence 
said,  "  If  thou  hadst  smitten  five  or  six  times, 
then  thou  hadst  smitten  Syria  until  thou  hadst 
consumed  it ;  whereas  now  thou  shalt  smite 
Syria  only  thrice."  This  is  the  last  prediction 
of  Elisha  of  which  we  read  in  Scripture,  for 
soon  after  he  died  ;  but  it  was  not  his  last  mira- 
cle :  for,  some  time  after  hia  interment,  a  com- 
pany of  Israelites,  as  they  were  going  to  bury 
a  dead  person,  perceiving  a  band  of  Moabites 
making  toward  them,  put  the  corpse  for  haste 
into  Elisha's  tomb,  and,  as  soon  as  it  had 
touched  the  prophet's  body,  it  immediately 
revived  ;  so  that  the  man  stood  upon  his  feet : 
a  striking  emblem  of  the  life-giving  effect  of 
the  labours  of  the  servants  of  God,  after  they 
themselves  are  gathered  to  their  fathers. 

ELUL,  the  sixth  month  of  the  Hebrew  ec- 
clesiastical year,  and  the  twelfth  of  the  civil 
year,  answering  to  our  August  and  part  of  Sep- 
tember, containing  twenty-nine  days. 

EMBALMING,  the  art  of  preserving  dead 
bodies  from  putrefaction.  It  was  much  prac- 
tised by  the  Egyptians  of  ancient  times,  and 
from  them  seems  to  have  been  borrowed  by 
the  Hebrews.  It  consisted  in  opening  the  body, 
taking  out  the  intestines,  and  filling  the  place 
with  odoriferous  drugs  and  spices  of  a  desicca- 
tive  quality.  Joseph  gave  orders  for  the  em- 
balming of  the  body  of  his  father  Jacob,  Gen. 
1,  1,2;  and  Moses  informs  us  that  the  process 
took  up  forty  days.  Joseph  himself  also  was  em- 
balmed, Gen.  1,  26.  Asa,  king  of  Israel,  seems 
to  have  been  embalmed,  2  Chron.  xvi,  13,  14. 
See  Burial. 

EMERALD,  ^dj,  Exod.  xxviii,  19  ;  Ezek. 
xxvii,  16;  xxviii,  13;  cp&paySos,  Rev.  xxi,  19; 
Eccles.  xxxii,  6;  Tobit  xiii,  16;  Judith  x,  21. 
This  is  generally  supposed  to  be  the  same  with 
the  ancient  smaragdus.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  of  all  the  gems,  and  is  of  a  bright  green 
colour,  without  the  admixture  of  any  other. 
Pliny  thus  speaks  of  it :  "  The  sight  of  no  co- 
lour is  moi°  pleasant  than  green  ;  for  we  love 
to  view  green  fields  and  green  leaves;  and  are 
still  more  fond  of  looking  at  the  emerald,  be- 
cause ail  other  greens  are  dull  in  comparison 
with  this.  Beside,  these  stones  seem  larger  at 
a  distance,  by  tinging  the  circumambient  air. 
Their  lustre  is  not  changed  by  the  sun,  by  the 
shade,  nor  by  the  light  of  lamps  ;  but  they  have 
always  a  sensible  moderate  brilliancy."  From 
the  passage  in  Ezekiel  we  learn  that  the 
Tyrians  traded  in  these  jewels  in  the  marts  of 
Syria.  They  probably  had  them  from  India,  or 
the  south  of  Persia.  The  true  oriental  emerald 
is  very  scarce,  and  is  only  found  at  present  in 
the  kingdom  of  Cambay. 

EMERODS.   The  disease  of  the  Philistines, 


which  is  mentioned  in  1  Sam.  v,  C,  12 ;  vi,  17, 

is  denominated,  in  the  Hebrew,  Oi^fljj.     This 
word  occurs,  likewise,  in  Deut.  xxviii,  27;  and 
it  is  worth)7  of  remark,  that  it  is  every  where 
explained  in  the  keri,  or  marginal  readings,  by 
the  Aramaean    word,    Q^Tna ;    an    expression 
which,  in  the  Syriac  dialect,  where  it  occurs 
under  the  forms,   Nina  and  N-nna,  means  the 
fundament,    and  likewise  the    effort  which  is 
made  in  an  evacuation   of  the  system.     The 
authors,  therefore,  of  the  reading  in  the  keri 
appear  to  have  assented  to  the  opinion  of  Jo- 
sephus,  and  to  have  understood  by  this  word 
the    dysentery.      The    corresponding    Arabic 
words  mean  a  swelling,  answering  somewhat 
in  its  nature  to  the  hernia  in  men  :  a  disease, 
consequently,  very  different  from  the  hemor- 
rhoids, «  hicfa  sunie  persons  understand  to  be 
meant  by  the  word  o^C)?.     Among  other  ob- 
jections, it  may  also  be  observed,  that  the  mice, 
which  are  mentioned,  not  only  in  the  Hebrew 
text,  1  Sam.  vi,  5,  12 ;  xvi,  18,  but  also  in  the 
Alexandrine  and  Vulgate  versions,  1  Sam.  v,  6; 
vi,  5,  11,  18,  are  an  objection  to  understanding 
the  hemorrhoids  by  the  word  under  considera- 
tion, since  if  that  were  in  fact  the  disease,  we 
see  no  reason  why  mice  should  have  been  pre- 
sented as  an  offering  to  avert  the  anger  of  the 
God  of  Israel.      Lichtenstein  has  given  this 
solution  :  The  word,  Dnssj,  which  is  rendered 
mice,  he  supposes  to  mean  venomous  solpvgas, 
which  belong  to  the  spider  class,  and  yet  are 
so  large,  and  so  similar  in  their  form  to  mice, 
as  to  admit  of  their  being  denominated  by  the 
same  word.     These  venomous  animals  destroy 
and  live  upon  scorpions.     They  also  bite  men, 
whenever  they  can  have  an  opportunity,  par- 
ticularly in  the  fundament   and  the  verenda. 
Their  bite  causes  swellings,  which  are  fatal  in 
their  consequences,  called,  in  Hebrew,  QiSj", 
The  probable  supposition,  then,  is,  that  solpu- 
gas  were    at  this  time  multiplied  among  the 
Philistines  by  the  special  providence  of  God; 
and  that,  being  very  venomous,  they  were  the 
means  of  destroying  many  individuals. 

EMIMS,  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  land  of 
Canaan,  beyond  Jordan,  who  were  defeated  by 
Chedorlaorner  and  his  allies,  Gen.  xiv,  5.  Mo- 
ses tells  us  that  they  were  beaten  at  Shaveh- 
Kirjathaim,  which  was  in  the  country  of  Sihon, 
conquered  from  the  Moabjtes,  Josh,  xiii,  19-21. 
The  Emims  were  a  warlike  people,  of  a  gigantic 
stature,  great  and  numerous,  tall  as  the  Ana- 
kims,  and  were  accounted  giants  as  well  as 
they,  Deut.  ii,  10,  11. 

Emmanuel,  or  immanuel,  "God  with 

us."  It  answers  both  in  the  LXX,  and  Matt, 
i,  23,  to  the  Hebrew  Snuej;,  from  □]?,  with,  M, 
us,  and  *?N,  God,  Isa.  vji,  14;  viii,  8. 

EMM  AUS,  a  village  about  eight  miles  north- 
west of  Jerusalem  ;  on  the  road  to  which,  two 
of  the  disciples  were  travelling  in  sorrow  and 
disappointment  after  the  resurrection,  when 
our  Lord  appeared  to  them,  and  held  that  me- 
morable conversation  with  them  which  is  re- 
corded by  St.  Luke,  xxiv. 

ENDOR,  a  city  in  the  tribe  of  Manasseh, 
where  the  witch  resided  whom  Saul  consulted 
a  little  before  the  battle  of  Gilboa,  Joshua  xvii, 


ENG 


343 


ENO 


11;  1  Sam.  xxviii,  13.  Mr.  Bryant  derives 
Endor  from  En-Ador,  signifying  fons  pythonis, 
"the  fountain  of  light,"  or  oracle  of  the  god 
Ador :  which  oracle  was  probably  founded  by 
the  Canaanites,  and  had  never  been  totally 
suppressed.  The  ancient  world  had  many 
such  oracles  :  the  most  famous  of  which  were 
that  of  Jupiter-Ammon  in  Lybia,  and  that  of 
Delphi  in  Greece  :  and  in  all  of  them,  the  an- 
swers to  those  who  consulted  them  were  given 
from  the  mouth  of  a  female  ;  who,  from  the 
priestess  of  Apollo  at  Delphi,  has  generally 
received  the  name  of  Pythia.  That  many  such 
oracles  existed  in  Canaan,  is  evident  from  the 
number  which  Saul  himself  is  said  to  have  sup- 
pressed ;  and  such  a  one,  with  its  Pythia,  was 
this  at  Endor.  At  these  shrines,  either  as  mock 
oracles,  contrived  by  a  crafty  and  avaricious 
priesthood,  to  impose  on  the  credulity  and 
superstition  of  its  followers ;  or,  otherwise,  as 
is  more  generally  supposed,  as  the  real  instru- 
ments of  infernal  power,  mankind,  having 
altogether  departed  from  the  true  God,  were 
permitted  to  be  deluded.  That,  in  this  case, 
the  real  Samuel  appeared  is  plain  both  from 
the  affright  of  the  woman  herself,  and  from 
the  fulfilment  of  his  prophecy.  It  was  an 
instance  of  Go#'s  overruling  the  wickedness 
of  men,  to  manifest  his  own  supremacy  and 
justice. 

ENGEDI.  It  is  also  called  Hazazon-Tamar, 
or  city  of  palm  trees,  2  Chron.  xx,  2,  because 
there  was  a  great  quantity  of  palm  trees  in  the 
territory  belonging  to  it.  It  abounded  with 
Cyprus  vines,  and  trees  that  produced  balm. 
Solomon  speaks  of  the  "  vineyards  of  Engedi," 
Cant,  i,  14.  This  city,  according  to  Josephus, 
stood  near  the  lake  of  Sodom,  three  hundred 
furlongs  from  Jerusalem,  not  far  from  Jericho, 
and  the  mouth  of  the  river  Jordan,  through 
which  it  discharged  itself  into  the  Dead  Sea. 
There  is  frequent  mention  of  Engedi  in  the 
Scriptures.  It  was  in  the  cave  of  Engedi 
that  David  had  it  in  his  power  to  kill  Saul, 
1  Sam.  xxiv.  The  spot  where  this  transaction 
took  place,  was  a  cavern  in  the  rock,  suffi- 
ciently large  to  contain  in  its  recesses  the 
whole  of  David's  men,  six  hundred  in  number, 
unperceived  by  Saul  when  he  entered.  Many 
similar  caves  existed  in  the  Holy  Land.  Such 
were  those  at  Adullam  and  Makkedah,  and  that 
in  which  Lot  and  bis  daughters  dwelt  after  the 
destruction  of  Sodom.  Such  also  is  that  de- 
scribed by  Mr.  Maundrell,  near  Sidon,  which 
contained  two  hundred  smaller  caverns.  Many 
of  these  were  natural  cavities  in  the  limestone 
rock,  similar  to  those  in  Yorkshire  and  Derby- 
shire, and  in  the  Mendip  hills  in  Somersetshire ; 
and  others,  excavations  made  by  the  primeval 
inhabitants,  for  defence,  or  for  shelter  from  the 
sun  ;  and  which  subsequently  served  as  retreats 
for  robbers,  as  they  are  at  this  day.  Josephus 
has  given  an  interesting  account  of  these 
caves,  and  the  manner  in  which  the  robbers 
were  taken  by  Herod.  And  Dr.  E.  D.  Clarke 
has  described  similar  retreats  in  the  rocks  near 
Bethlehem ;  others,  between  Jerusalem  and 
Jericho,  are  mentioned  by  Mr.  Wilson.  Into 
such  caves  the  Israelites  frequently  retired  for 


shelter  from  their  enemies,  Judg.  vi,  2  ;  1  Sam 
xiii,  6;  xiv,  11;  a  circumstance  which  has 
afforded  some  striking  and  terrific  images  to 
the  prophets,  Isaiah  ii,  19  ;  Hosea  x,  8 ;  Rev. 
vi,  15,  16. 

ENOCH,  the  son  of  Cain,  Gen.  iv,  17,  m 
honour  of  whom  the  first  city  noticed  in  Scrip- 
ture was  called  Enoch,  by  his  father  Cain,  who 
was  the  builder.  It  was  situated  on  the  east 
of  the  province  of  Eden. 

2.  Enoch,  the  son  of  Jared,  and  father  of 
Methuselah.      He  was  born  A.  M.  622,  and 
being  contemporary  with  Adam,  he  had  every 
opportunity  of  learning  from  him  the  story  of 
the  creation,  the  circumstance  of  the  fall,  the 
terms  off  lie  promise,  and  other  important  truths. 
An  ancient  author  affirms,  that  he  was  the  fa- 
ther of  astronomy  ;  and  Eusebius  hence  infers, 
that  he  is  the  same  with  the  Atlas  of  the  Grecian 
mythology.     Enoch's  fame  rests  upon  a  better 
basis  than  his  skill  in  science.     The  encomium 
of  Enoch   is,  that  he   "  walked  with  God." 
While  mankind  were  living  in  open  rebellion 
against  Heaven,  and  provoking  the  divine  ven- 
geance daily  by  their  ungodly  deeds,  he  ob- 
tained the  exalted  testimony,  "that  he  pleased 
God."     This  he  did,  not  only  by  the  exemplary 
tenor  of  his  life,  and  by  the  attention  which 
he  paid  to  the  outward  duties  of  religion,  but 
by  the  soundness  of  his  faith,  and  the  purity 
of  his  heart  and  life :  see  Heb.  xi,  5,  6.     The 
intent  of  the  Apostle,  in  the  discourse    con- 
taining this  passage,  is,  to  show  that  there  has 
been  but  one  way  of  obtaining  the  divine  favour 
ever  since  the  fall,  and  that  is,  by  faith,  or  a 
firm  persuasion  and  confidence  in  the  atone- 
ment to  be  made  for  human  transgressions  by 
the  obedience,  sufferings,  death,  and  resurrec- 
tion of  the  promised  Messiah.     The  cloud  of 
witnesses  which  the  Apostle  has  produced  of 
Old   Testament    worthies,    all  bore,    in  their 
respective  generations,  their  testimony  to  this 
great  doctrine,  in  opposition  to  the    atheism 
or  theism,  and  gross  idolatry,  which  prevailed 
around  them.   All  the  patriarchs  are  celebrated 
for  their  faith  in  this  great  truth,  and  for  pre, 
serving  this  principle  of  religion  in  the  midst 
of  a  corrupt  generation.     Enoch,  therefore,  is 
said,    by  another  evangelical  writer,  to  have 
spoken  of  the  coming  of  Christ  to  judgment 
unto  the  antediluvian  sinners.     See  Jude  14, 
15.     This  prophecy  is  a  clear,  and  it  is  also  an 
awful,   description    of  the   day  of  judgment, 
when  the  Messiah  shall  sit  upon  his  throne  of 
justice,  to  determine  the  final  condition  of  man- 
kind, according  to  their  works;  and  it  indicates 
that  the  different  offices  of  Messiah  both  to 
save  and  to  judge,  or  as  Prophet,  Priest,  and 
King,  were  known  to  the  holy  patriarchs.    On 
what  the  Apostle  founded  this  prediction  has 
been  matter  of  much  speculation  and  inquiry. 
Some,  indeed,  have  produced  a  treatise,  called 
"  The  Cook  of  Enoch,"  which,  as  they  pretend, 
contains  the  cited  passage  ;  but  its  authority  is 
not  proved,  and  internal  evidence  sufficiently 
marks  its   spurious    origin.     It  is,  therefore, 
reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  prophecy  cited 
by  St.  Jude   was  either  traditionally  handed 
down,  or  had  been  specially  communicated  to 


EPH 


344 


EPH 


that  Apostle.  In  the  departure  of  Enoch  from 
this  world  of  sin  and  sorrow,  the  Almighty 
altered  the  ordinary  course  of  things,  and  gave 
him  a  dismissal  as  glorious  to  himself,  as  it 
was  instructive  to  mankind.  To  convince  them 
how  acceptable  holiness  is  to  him,  and  to  show 
that  lie  had  prepared  for  those  that  love  him  a 
heavenly  inheritance,  he  caused  Enoch  to  be 
taken  from  the  earth  without  passing  through 
death.    See  Elijah. 

ENOS,  or  ENOSH,  the  son  of  Seth,  and 
father  of  Cainan.  He  was  born  A.  M.  235. 
Moses  tells  us  that  then  "men  began  to  call 
upon  the  name  of  the  Lord,"  Gen  iv,  2G ;  that 
is,  such  as  abhorred  the  impiety  and  immorality 
which  prevailed  among  the  progeny  of  Cain, 
began  to  worship  God  in  public,  and  to  assem- 
ble together  at  stated  times  for  that  purpose. 
Good  men,  to  distinguish  themselves  from  the 
wicked,  began  to  take  the  name  of  sons  or  serv- 
ants of  God ;  for  which  reason  Moses,  Gen. 
vi,  1,  2,  says  that  "the  sons  of  God,"  or  the 
descendants  of  Enos,  "  seeing  the  daughters 
of  men,"  &c.  The  eastern  people  make  the 
following  additions  to  his  history : — that  Seth, 
his  father,  declared  him  sovereign  prince  and 
high  priest  of  mankind,  next  after  himself ; 
that  Enos  was  the  first  who  ordained  public 
alms  for  the  poor,  established  public  tribunals 
for  the  administration  of  justice,  and  planted, 
o.r  rather  cultivated,  the  palm  tree. 

EPHAH,  the  eldest  son  of  Midian,  who 
gave  his  name  to  a  city  and  small  extent  of 
land  in  the  country  of  Midian,  situated  on  the 
eastern  shore  cf  the  Dead  Sea,  Genesis  xxv,  4. 
This  country  abounded  with  camels  and  dro- 
medaries, Isaiah  lx,  6,  &c. 

2.  Ephah,  a  measure  both  for  things  dry  and 
Jiquid,  in  use  among  the  Hebrews.  The  ephah 
for  the  former  contained  three  pecks  and  three 
pints.  In  liquid  measure  it  was  of  the  same 
capacity  as  the  bath. 

EPHESUS,  a  much  celebrated  city  of  Ionia, 
in  Asia  Minor,  situated  upon  the  river  Cayster, 
and  on  the  side  of  a  hill.  It  was  the  metropo- 
lis of  the  Proconsular  Asia,  and  formerly  in 
great  renown  among  Heathen  authors  on  ac- 
count of  its  famous  temple  of  Diana.  This 
temple  was  seven  times  set  on  fire :  one  of  the 
principal  conflagrations  happened  on  the  very 
day  that  Socrates  was  poisoned,  four  hundred 
years  before  Christ;  the  other,  on  the  same 
night  in  which  Alexander  the  Great  was  born, 
when  a  person  of  the  name  of  Erostratus  6et  it 
on  fire,  according  to  his  own  confession,  to  get 
himself  a  name !  It  was,  however,  rebuilt  and 
beautified  by  the  Ephesians,  toward  which  the 
female  inhabitants  of  the  city  contributed  lib- 
erally. In  the  times  of  the  Apostles  it  retained 
much  of  its  former  grandeur ;  but,  so  addicted 
were  the  inhabitants  of  the  city  to  idolatry  and 
the  arts  of  magic,  that  the  prince  of  darkness 
would  seem  to  have,  at  that  time,  fixed  his 
throne  in  it.  Ephesus  is  supposed  to  have  first 
invented  those  obscure  mystical  spells  and 
charms  by  means  of  which  the  people  pretend- 
ed to  heal  diseases  and  drive  away  evil  spirits ; 
whence  originated  the  'Z<pi<ria  ypu^arn,  or  Kphe- 
tian  letters,  so  often  mentioned  by  the  ancients. 


2.  The  Apostle  Paul  first  visited  this  city 
A.  D.  54 ;  but  being  then  on  his  way  to  Jeru 
salcm,  he  abode  there  only  a  few  weeks,  Acts 
xviii,  19-21.  During  his  short  stay,  he  found 
a  synagogue  of  the  Jews,  into  which  he  went, 
and  reasoned  with  them  upon  the  interesting 
topics  of  his  ministry,  with  which  they  were 
so  pleased  that  they  wished  him  to  prolong  his 
visit.  He  however  declined  that,  for  he  had 
determined,  God  willing,  to  be  at  Jerusalem  at 
an  approaching  festival ;  but  he  promised  to 
return,  which  he  did  a  few  months  afterward, 
and  continued  there  three  years,  Acts  xix,  10 ; 
xx,  31.  While  the  Apostle  abode  in  Ephesus 
and  its  neighbourhood,  he  gathered  a  numerous 
Christian  church,  to  which,  at  a  subsequent 
period,  he  wrote  that  epistle,  which  forms  so 
important  a  part  of  the  Apostolic  writings. 
He  was  then  a  prisoner  at  Rome,  and  the  year 
in  which  he  wrote  it  must  have  been  60  or  61 
of  the  Christian  aera.  It  appears  to  have  been 
transmitted  to  them  by  the  hands  of  Tychicus, 
one  of  his  companions  in  travel,  Ephesians 
vi,  21.  The  critics  have  remarked  that  the 
style  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians  is  exceed- 
ingly elevated ;  and  that  it  corresponds  to  the 
state  of  the  Apostle's  mind  at  the  time  of  writ- 
ing. Overjoyed  with  the  accoont  which  their 
messenger  brought  him  of  the  steadfastness  of 
their  faith,  and  the  ardency  of  their  love  to  all 
the  saints,  Eph.  i,  15 ;  and,  transported  with 
the  consideration  of  the  unsearchable  wisdom 
of  God  displayed  in  the  work  of  man's  redemp- 
tion, and  of  his  amazing  love  toward  the  Gen- 
tiles, in  introducing  them,  as  fellow-heirs  with 
the  Jews,  into  the  kingdom  of  Christ,  he  soars 
into  the  most  exalted  contemplation  of  those 
sublime  topics,  and  gives  utterance  to  his 
thoughts  in  language  at  once  rich  and  varied. 
The  epistle,  says  Macknight,  is  written  as  it 
were  in  a  rapture.  Grotius  remarks  that  it 
expresses  the  sublime  matters  contained  in 
it  in  terms  more  sublime  than  are  to  be  found 
in  any  human  language  ;  to  which  Macknight 
subjoins  this  singular  but  striking  observation, 
that  no  real  Christian  can  read  the  doctrinal 
part  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians,  without 
being  impressed  and  roused  by  it,  as  by  the 
sound  of  a  trumpet. 

3.  Ephesus  was  one  of  the  seven  churches 
to  which  special  messages  were  addressed  in 
the  book  of  Revelation.  After  a  commendation 
of  their  first  works,  to  which  they  were  com- 
manded to  return,  they  were  accused  of  having 
left  their  first  love,  and  threatened  with  the 
removal  of  their  candlestick  out  of  its  place, 
except  they  should  repent,  Rev.  ii,  5.  The 
contrast  which  its  present  state  presents  to  its 
former  glory,  is  a  striking  fulfilment  of  this 
prophecy.  Ephesus  was  the  metropolis  of 
Lydia,  a  great  and  opulent  city,  and,  according 
to  Strabo,  the  greatest  emporium  of  Asia  Mi- 
nor. Its  temple  of  Diana,  "whom  all  Asia 
worshipped,"  was  adorned  with  one  hundred 
and  twenty-seven  columns  of  Parian  marble, 
each  of  a  single  shaft,  and  sixty  feet  high,  and 
which  formed  one  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the 
world.  The  remains  of  its  magnificent  theatre, 
in  which  it  is  said  that  twenty  thousand  peoplo 


EPH 


345 


EPII 


could  easily  have  been  seated,  are  yet  to  be 
seen.  But  a  few  heaps  of  stones,  and  some 
miserable  mud  cottages,  occasionally  tenanted 
by  Turks,  without  one  Christian  residing  there, 
are  all  the  remains  of  ancient  Ephesus.  It  is, 
as  described  by  different  travellers,  a  solemn 
and  most  forlorn  spot.  The  Epistle  to  the 
Ephesians  is  read  throughout  the  world ;  but 
there  is  none  in  Ephesus  to  read  it  now.  They 
left  their  first  love,  they  returned  not  to  their 
first  works.  Their  "candlestick  has  been, 
removed  out  of  its  place  ;"  and  the  great  city 
of  Ephesus  is  no  more.  Dr.  Chandler  says, 
"The  inhabitants  are  a  few  Greek  peasants, 
living  in  extreme  wretchedness,  dependence, 
and  insensibility ;  the  representatives  of  an 
illustrious  people,  and  inhabiting  the  wreck  of 
their  greatness ;  some,  in  the  substructions  of 
the  glorious  edifices  which  they  raised  ;  some, 
beneath  the  vaults  of  the  stadium,  once  the 
crowded  scene  of  their  diversions ;  and  some, 
by  the  abrupt  precipice,  in  the  sepulchres 
which  received  their  ashes.  Its  streets  are 
obscured  and  overgrown.  A  herd  of  goats 
was  driven  to  it  for  shelter  from  the  sun  at 
noon ;  and  a  noisy  flight  of  crows  from  the 
quarries  seemed  to  insult  its  silence.  We  heard 
the  partridge  call  in  the  area  of  the  theatre  and 
the  stadium.  The  glorious  pomp  of  its  Heathen 
worship  is  no  longer  remembered ;  and  Chris, 
tianity,  which  was  here  nursed  by  Apostles, 
and  fostered  by  general  councils,  until  it  in- 
creased to  fulness  of  stature,  barely  lingers  on 
in  an  existence  hardly  visible."  "  I  was  at 
Ephesus,"  says  Mr.  Arundell,  "in  January, 
1824 ;  the  desolation  was  then  complete :  a 
Turk,  whose  shed  we  occupied,  his  Arab  serv- 
ant, and  a  single  Greek,  composed  the  entire 
population  ;  some  Turcomans  excepted,  whose 
black  tents  were  pitched  among  the  ruins. 
The  Greek  revolution,  and  the  predatory  ex- 
cursions of  the  Samiotes,  in  great  measure 
accounted  for  this  total  desertion.  There  is 
still,  however,  a  village  near,  probably  the 
same  which  Chishull  and  Van  Egmont  men- 
tion, having  four  hundred  Greek  houses." 

St.  John  passed  the  latter  part  of  his  life  in 
Asia  Minor,  and  principally  at  Ephesus,  where 
he  died. 

EPHOD,  tibn.  This  article  of  dress  was 
worn  by  laymen  as  well  as  by  the  high  priest. 
The  sacred  ephod,  the  one  made  for  the  high 
priest,  differed  from  the  others,  in  being  fabri- 
cated of  cotton,  which  was  coloured  with  crim- 
son, purple,  and  blue,  and  in  being  ornamented 
with  gold.  In  the  time  of  Josephus,  it  was  a 
cubit  of  the  larger  size  in  length,  and  was 
furnished  with  sleeves.  The  high  priest's 
ephod  had  a  very  rich  button  upon  each  shoul- 
der, made  of  a  large  onyx  stone  set  in  gold. 
This  stone  was  so  large,  that  the  names  of  the 
twelve  tribes  of  Israel  were  engraven,  six  on 
each  stone,  Exod.  xxviii,  9-12.  The  word 
shoham,  which  we  render  onyx,  is  translated, 
by  the  Septuagint  smaragdos,  an  emerald ;  but 
as  we  have  no  certain  knowledge  either  of  this, 
or  of  any  of  the  twelve  stones  of  the  breast- 
plate, we  may  as  well  be  satisfied  with  our 
translation  as  with  any  other.     To  the  ephod 


belonged  a  curious  girdle,  of  the  same  rich 
fabric  as  the  ephod  itself.  This  girdle  is  said 
to  be  upon  the  ephod,  Exod.  xxviii,  8;  that 
is,  woven  with  the  ephod,  as  Maimonides  un- 
derstands ;  and,  coming  out  from  the  ephod  on 
each  side,  it  was  brought  under  the  arms  like 
a  sash,  and  tied  upon  the  breast.  Samuel, 
though  a  Levite  only,  and  a  child,  wore  a  linen 
ephod,  1  Sam.  ii,  18.  And  David,  in  the  cere- 
mony of  removing  the  ark  from  the  house  of 
Obed-edom  to  Jerusalem,  was  girt  with  a  linen 
ephod,  2  Sam.  vi,  14.  The  Levites  were  not 
generally  allowed  to  wear  the  ephod ;  but  in 
the  time  of  Agrippa,  as  we  are  told  by  Jose- 
phus, a  little  before  the  taking  of  Jerusalem  by 
the  Romans,  they  obtained  of  that  prince  per- 
mission to  wear  the  linen  stole  as  well  as  the 
priests.  Spencer  and  Cunajus  are  of  opinion, 
that  the  Jewish  kings  had  a  right  to  wear  the 
ephod,  because  David,  coming  to  Ziklag,  and 
finding  that  the  Amalekites  had  plundered  the 
city,  and  carried  away  his  and  the  people's 
wives,  ordered  Abiathar,  the  high  priest,  to 
bring  him  the  ephod,  which  being  done,  David 
inquired  of  the  Lord,  saying,  "  Shall  I  pursue 
after  this  troop?"  1  Sam.  xxx,  8.  Whence 
they  infer,  that  David  consulted  God  by  urim 
and  thummim,  and  consequently  put  on  the 
ephod.  But  it  is  probable  the  text  only  means 
that  he  ordered  the  priest  to  do  what  he  is  him- 
self said  to  have  done.  The  ephod  of  Gideon 
is  remarkable  for  having  become  the  occasion 
of  a  new  kind  of  idolatry  to  the  Israelites, 
Judges  viii,  27.  What  this  consisted  in,  is 
matter  of  dispute  among  the  learned.  Some 
authors  are  of  opinion  that  this  ephod,  as  it  is 
called,  was  an  idol ;  others,  that  it  was  only  a 
trophy  in  memory  of  the  signal  victory  ob- 
tained by  Gideon,  and  that  the  Israelites  paid 
a  kind  of  divine  worship  to  it ;  so  that  Gideon 
was  the  innocent  cause  of  their  idolatry,  in 
like  manner  as  Moses  had  been  in  making  the 
brazen  serpent,  which  was  afterward  wor- 
shipped. 

EPHRAIM  was  the  name  of  Joseph's  second 
son,  by  Asenath,  Potiphar's  daughter.  He  was 
born  in  Egypt,  A.  M.  2294.  Ephraim,  with 
his  brother  Manasseh,  was  presented  by  his 
father  Joseph  to  Jacob  on  his  death  bed,  Gen. 
xlviii,  8,  &c.  Jacob  laid  his  right  hand  on 
Ephraim  the  younger,  and  his  left  on  Manas- 
seh the  elder.  Joseph  was  desirous  to  change 
his  hands,  but  Jacob  answered,  "  I  know  it, 
my  son;  Manasseh  shall  be  multiplied,  but 
Ephraim  shall  be  greater."  The  sons  of 
Ephraim  having  made  an  inroad  into  Pales- 
tine, the  inhabitants  of  Gath  killed  them. 
Ephraim  their  father  mourned  many  days  for 
them,  and  his  brethren  came  to  comfort  him, 
1  Chron.  vii,  20,  21.  Afterward,  he  had  a  son 
named  Beriah,  and  a  daughter  Sherah.  He 
had  also  other  sons,  Rephah,  Resheph,  Tela, 
&c.  His  posterity  multiplied  in  Egypt  to  the 
number  of  forty  thousand  five  hundred  men 
capable  of  bearing  arms.  In  the  land  of  pro- 
mise, Joshua,  who  was  of  this  tribe,  gave  them 
their  portion  between  the  Mediterranean  west, 
and  the  river  Jordan  east.  The  ark  and  taber- 
nacle remained  long  in  this  tribe  at  Shiloh; 


EPI 


346 


EPI 


and  after  the  separation  of  the  ten  tribes,  the 
seat  of  the  kingdom  was  in  Ephraim,  and 
hence  Ephraim  is  frequently  used  to  denote 
the  whole  kingdom.  The  district  belonging  to 
this  tribe  is  called  Ephratah,  Psalm  cxxxii,  6. 
Ephraim  was  led  captive  beyond  the  Euphra- 
tes, with  all  Israel,  by  Salmaneser,  king  of 
Assyria,  A.  M.  3283. 

2.  Ephraim  was  also  the  name  of  a  city,  into 
which  Christ  retired  with  his  disciples  a  little 
before  his  passion,  John  xi,  54.  It  was  situated 
in  the  tribe  of  Ephraim  near  the  river  Jordan. 
There  was  also  the  wood  or  forest  of  Ephraim, 
situated  on  the  other  side  Jordan,  in  which 
Absalom's  army  was  routed  and  himself  killed, 
2  Sam.  xviii,  6. 

EPHRATH,  Caleb's  second  wife,  who  was 
the  mother  of  Hur,  1  Chron.  ii,  19.  From  her, 
it  is  believed  that  the  city  of  Ephratah,  other- 
wise called  Bethlehem,  where  our  Lord  was 
born,  had  its  name ;  and  this  city  is  more  than 
once  known  in  Scripture  by  the  name  of 
Ephrath,  Gen.  xxxv,  16. 

EPICUREANS,  a  sect  of  philosophers  in 
Greece  and  Rome.  Epicurus  was  their  foun- 
der, who  lived  about  B.  C.  300.  The  physical 
doctrine  of  Epicurus  was  as  follows :  Nothing 
can  ever  spring  from  nothing,  nor  can  any 
thing  ever  return  to  nothing.  The  universe 
always  existed,  and  will  always  remain ;  for 
there  is  nothing  into  which  it  can  be  changed. 
There  is  nothing  in  nature,  nor  can  any  thing 
be  conceived,  beside  body  and  space.  Body  is 
that  which  possesses  the  properties  of  bulk, 
figure,  resistance,  and  gravity ;  it  is  this  alone 
which  can  touch  and  be  touched.  Space,  or 
vacuum,  destitute  of  the  properties  of  body, 
incapable  of  aqtion  or  passion,  is  the  region 
which  is  or  may  be  occupied  by  body,  and 
which  affords  it  an  opportunity  of  moving 
freely.  The  existence  of  bodies  is  attested  by 
the  senses.  Space  must  also  exist,  in  order  to 
allow  bodies  place  in  which  to  move  and  exist; 
and  of  their  existence  and  motion  we  have  the 
certain  proof  of  perception.  Beside  body  and 
space,  no  third  nature  can  be  conceived.  But 
the  existence  of  qualities  is  not  precluded, 
because  these  have  no  subsistence  except  in 
the  body  to  which  they  belong.  The  universe, 
consisting  of  body  and  space,  is  infinite.  Bodies 
are  infinite  in  multitude  ;  space  is  infinite  in 
magnitude.  The  universe  is  immovable,  be- 
cause there  is  no  place  beyond  it  into  which  it 
can  move.  It  is  also  eternal  and  immutable, 
since  it  is  liable  to  neither  increase  nor  de- 
crease, to  production  nor  decay.  Nevertheless, 
the  parts  of  the  universe  are  in  motion,  and 
are  subject  to  change.  All  bodies  consist  of 
parts  which  are  either  themselves  simple  prin- 
ciples, or  may  bo  resolved  into  such.  These 
first  principles,  or  simple  atoms,  are  divisible 
by  no  force,  and  therefore  must  be  immutable. 
2.  The  formation  of  the  world  he  conceived 
to  have  happened  in  the  following  manner : 
A  finite  number  of  that  infinite  multitude  of 
atoms,  which,  with  infinite  space,  constitute 
the  universe,  falling  fortuitously  into  the  re- 
gion of  the  world,  were,  in  consequence  of 
their  innate  motion,  collected  into  one  rude 


and  indigested  mass.  In  this  chaos,  the  hea- 
viest and  largest  atoms,  or  collections  of  atoms, 
first  subsided,  while  the  smaller,  and  those 
which  from  their  form  would  move  most  freely, 
were  driven  upwards.  These  latter,  after  se- 
veral reverberations,  rose  into  the  outer  region 
of  the  world,  and  formed  the  heavens.  Those 
atoms  which,  by  their  size  and  figure,  were 
suited  to  form  fiery  bodies,  collected  themselves 
into  stars ;  those  which  were  not  capable  of 
rising  so  high  in  the  sphere  of  the  world,  being 
disturbed  by  the  fiery  particles,  formed  them- 
selves into  air.  At  length,  from  those  which 
subsided,  was  produced  the  earth.  By  the 
action  of  air,  agitated  by  heat  from  the  hea- 
venly bodies,  upon  the  mixed  mass  of  the  earth, 
its  smoother  and  lighter  particles  were  sepa- 
rated from  the  rest,  and  water  was  produced, 
which  naturally  flowed  into  the  lowest  places. 
In  the  first  combination  of  atoms,  which  formed 
the  chaos,  various  seeds  arose,  which,  being 
preserved  and  nourished  by  moisture  and  heat, 
afterward  sprung  forth  in  organized  bodies  of 
different  kinds.  The  soul  is  a  subtle  corporeal 
substance,  composed  of  the  finest  atoms,  which, 
by  the  extreme  tenuity  of  its  particles,  is  able 
to  penetrate  the  whole  body,  and  to  adhere  to 
all  its  parts.  It  is  composed  of  four  distinct 
parts :  fire,  which  causes  animal  heat ;  an 
ethereal  principle  which  is  moist  vapour ;  air ; 
and  a  fourth  principle,  which  is  the  cause  of 
sensation.  These  four  parts  are  so  perfectly 
combined  as  to  form-  one  subtle  substance, 
which,  while  it  remains  in  the  body,  is  the 
cause  of  all  its  faculties,  motions,  and  passions, 
and  which  cannot  be  separated  from  it,  with 
out  producing  the  entire  dissolution  of  the 
animal  system. 

3.  In  the  universe  there  are,  according  to 
Epicurus,  without  contradiction,  divine  na- 
tures ;  because  nature  itself  has  impressed  the 
idea  of  divinity  upon  the  minds  of  men.  The 
notion  is  universal ;  nor  is  it  established  by 
custom,  law,  or  any  human  institution ;  but  it 
is  the  effect  of  an  innate  principle,  producing 
universal  consent,  and  therefore  it  must  be 
true.  This  universal  notion  has  probably  arisen 
from  images  of  the  gods,  which  have  casually 
made  their  way  into  the  minds  of  men  in  sleep, 
and  have  afterward  been  recollected.  But  it 
is  inconsistent  with  our  natural  notions  of  the 
gods,  as  happy  and  immortal  beings,  to  sup- 
pose that  they  encumber  themselves  with  the 
management  of  the  world,  or  are  subject  to  the 
cares  and  passions  which  must  attend  so  great 
a  charge.  Hence  it  is  inferred,  that  the  gods 
have  no  intercourse  with  mankind,  nor  any 
concern  with  the  affairs  of  the  world.  Never- 
theless, on  account  of  their  excellent  nature, 
they  are  objects  of  reverence  and  worship.  In 
their  external  shape  the  gods  resemble  men  ; 
and  though  the  place  of  their  residence  is  un- 
known to  mortals ;  it  is  without  doubt  the 
mansion  of  perfect  purity,  tranquillity,  and 
happiness.  Thus  he  attempted  to  account  for 
all  the  appearances  of  nature,  even  those  which 
respect  animated  and  intelligent  beings,  upon 
the  simple  principles  of  matter  and  motion, 
without  introducing  the  agency  of  a  supreme 


EPI 


347 


EPI 


intelligence,  or  admitting  any  other  idea  of 
fate,  than  that  of  blind  necessity  inherent  in 
every  atom,  by  which  it  moves  in  a  certain 
direction. 

4.  The  ethics  of  Epicurus  are  much  less  ex- 
ceptionable than  his  physics  ;  of  which  we  may 
judge  from  the  following  summary :  The  end 
of  living,  or  the  ultimate  good,  which  is  to  be 
sought  for  its  own  sake,  according  to  the  uni- 
versal opinion  of  mankind,  is  happiness ;  which 
men  generally  fail  of  attaining,  because  they 
form  wrong  notions  of  the  nature  of  happiness, 
or  do  not  use  proper  means  for  attaining  it. 
The  happiness  which  belongs  to  man,  is  that 
state  in  which  he  enjoys  as  many  of  the  good 
things,  and  suffers  as  few  of  the  evils  incident 
to  human  nature  as  possible,  passing  his  days 
in  a  smooth  course  of  permanent  tranquillity. 
Perfect  happiness  cannot  possibly  be  possessed 
without  the  pleasure  that  attends  freedom  from 
pain,  and  the  enjoyment  of  the  good  things  of 
life.  Pleasure  is  in  its  nature  good,  and  ought 
to  be  pursued;  Mid  pain  is  in  its  nature  evil,  and 
should  be  avoided.  Beside,  pleasure  or  pain  is 
the  measure  of  what  is  good  or  evil  in  every 
object  of  desire  or  aversion.  However,  plea- 
sure ought  not  in  every  instance  to  be  pursued, 
nor  pain  to  be  avoided ;  but  reason  is  to  dis- 
tinguish and  compare  the  nature  and  degrees 
of  each,  that  the  result  may  be  a  wise  choice 
of  that  which  shall  appear  to  be,  upon  the 
whole,  good.  That  pleasure  is  the  first  good, 
appears  from  the  inclination  which  every  ani- 
mal, from  its  first  birth,  discovers  to  pursue 
pleasure  and  avoid  pain ;  and  is  confirmed  by 
the  universal  experience  of  mankind,  who  are 
incited  to  action  by  no  other  principle,  than 
the  desire  of  avoiding  pain,  or  obtaining  plea- 
sure. Of  pleasures  there  are  two  kind*;  one 
consisting  in  a  state  of  rest,  in  which  both  body 
and  mind  are  free  from  pain ;  the  other  arising 
from  an  agreeable  agitation  of  the  senses,  pro- 
ducing a  correspondent  emotion  in  the  soul. 
Upon  the  former  of  these,  the  enjoyment  of 
life  chiefly  depends.  Happiness  may,  there- 
fore, be  said  to  consist  in  bodily  ease  and  men- 
tal tranquillity.  It  is  the  office  of  reason  to 
confine  the  pursuit  of  pleasure  within  the  limits 
of  nature,  so  as  to  attain  this  happy  state  ; 
which  neither  resembles  a  rapid  torrent,  nor  a 
standing  pool,  but  is  like  a  gentle  stream,  that 
glides  smoothly  and  silently  along.  This  happy 
state  can  only  be  attained  by  a  prudent  care  of 
the  body,  and  a  steady  government  of  the 
mind.  The  diseases  of  the  body  are  to  be  pre- 
vented by  temperance,  or  cured  by  medicine, 
or  endured  tolerably  by  patience.  Against  the 
diseases  of  the  mind  philosophy  provides  suffi- 
cient antidotes  ;  the  virtues  are  its  instruments 
for  this  purpose  ;  the  radical  spring  of  which  is 
prudence,  or  wisdom,  and  this  instructs  men  to 
free  their  undemanding  from  the  clouds  of 
prejudice;  to  exercise  temperance  and  forti- 
tude in  the  government  of  themselves  ;  and  to 
practise  justice  toward  all  others.  In  a  happy 
life,  pleasure  can  never  be  separated  from  vir- 
tue. The  followers  of  Epicurus,  however,  de- 
generated into  mere  sensualists, — an  effect 
which  could  only  result  from  a  system  which 


denied  a  supreme  God,  and  excluded  from  all 
concern  with  the  affairs  of  men  even  those 
divine  natures  which  it  allowed  to  exist.  This 
sect  is  mentioned  Acts  xvii,  18. 

EPISCOPACY,  Diocesan.  The  number  of 
Christians  in  most  of  the  primitive  churches 
was  at  first  small :  they  could  easily,  when  not 
prevented  by  persecution,  assemble  together ; 
and  they  thus  formed  one  church  or  congrega- 
tion ;  for,  in  Scripture,  the  term  church  is 
never  used  in  the  more  modern  acceptation  of 
the  word,  but  is  employed  to  denote  either  the 
whole  church  of  Christ,  or  a  number  of  dis- 
ciples meeting  for  the  celebration  of  divine 
worship.  The  converts,  however,  rapidly  in- 
creased; and  when  they  could  no  longer  meet 
in  one  place,  other  places  would  be  prepared 
for  them.  But,  connected  as  they  still  were 
with  the  parent  church,  they  would  choose 
from  its  presbyters  their  own  pastors,  and  view 
themselves  as  under  the  inspection  of  the 
president  and  the  presbytery,  by  whom  the 
affairs  of  the  church  had  been  previously  con- 
ducted. The  pastors  would  thus  remain  mem- 
bers of  the  presbytery,  as  they  had  formerly 
been,  and  would  look  up  to  that  one  of  their 
number  who  had  been  accustomed  to  preside 
among  them.  They  were,  in  fact,  for  a  con- 
siderable time,  considered  as  one  with  the 
original  church :  the  bishop  sent  to  them  the 
elements  of  the  Lord's  Supper  as  the  pledge  of 
unity ;  and  we  find  it  asserted  by  ancient  writ- 
ers, that  there  was  one  altar  and  one  bishop. 
There  were  in  this  way  gradually  established, 
first  in  the  towns  or  cities  in  which  the  Apos- 
tles had  called  men  to  the  truth,  and  then  in 
the  contiguous  district  of  country,  several 
congregations  :  in  these  pastors  officiated,  who 
were  authorized  by  the  bishop  and  presbytery, 
whose  superintendence  was  extended,  so  that 
parochial  episcopacy  was  insensibly  but  natu- 
rally changed  into  diocesan  episcopacy;  many 
of  the  presbyters  sent  out  by  the  bishop  resid- 
ing at  their  churches,  but  nevertheless  compos- 
ing part  of  his  council,  and  being  summoned 
to  meet  with  him  upon  important  occasions. 
This  enlargement  of  the  field  of  inspection 
rendered  the  particular  superintendence  of  the 
bishop  more  requisite;  and  was  the  means  both 
of  adding  to  his  influence,  and  of  his  being 
regarded  as  permanently  tfaised  above  his 
brethren. 

2.  The  ministers  who  were  sent  to  the  re- 
cently erected  churches  had  probably  different 
powers,  according  to  the  numbers  to  whom 
they  were  to  officiate,  the  situation  of  the 
churches  in  respect  of  the  original  church, 
and  the  tranquillity  or  persecution  which  was 
their  lot.  In  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of 
the  bishop,  and  where  one  person  was  suffi- 
cient, he  would  merely  perform  the  duties  that 
had  been  assigned  to  him  previous  to  his  mis- 
sion ;  but  the  same  reasons  that  led  the  Apos- 
tles to  plant  several  presbyters  in  the  churches 
which  they  founded  might  render  it  expedient 
that  more  than  one,  sometimes  that  a  con- 
siderable number,  should  be  attached  to  the 
newly-formed  congregations ;  more  particular- 
ly when  the  number  attending  was  large,  and 


EPI 


348 


EPI 


when  there  was  the  prospect  of  their  still  far- 
ther increasing.  In  such  cases,  it  appears  that 
the  bishop  gave  to  one  of  the  presbyters  sent, 
and  did  so  for  the  same  reasons  that  had  at 
first  created  inequality  among  the  pastors, 
more  extensive  powers  than  were  entrusted  to 
the  rest,  and  made  him  his  representative  au- 
thorizing him  to  preside  over  the  others,  and 
to  discharge  those  parts  of  the  ministerial 
office  which,  in  his  own  church,  he  reserved 
for  himself.  When  this  happened,  the  person 
so  distinguished  was  termed  choro-episcopus : 
he  was  more  than  a  presbyter,  but  he  was  in- 
ferior to  the  bishop,  acted  by  his  directions, 
and  could  be  controlled  by  him  in  the  exercise 
of  the  privileges  which  had  been  granted. 
Such  subordinate  bishops  continued  for  a  con- 
siderable time ;  but  it  might,  from  the  begin- 
ning, have  been  foreseen  that  they  would  soon 
aspire  to  an  equality  with  the  original  bishops  ; 
and  they  were  at  length  suppressed,  under  the 
pretence  that,  by  multiplying  the  higher  order 
in  places  of  little  consequence,  the  church 
would  detract  from  the  respectability  of  that 
order,  and  lessen  the  reverence  with  which  it 
should  be  regarded. 

3.  The  different  congregations  or  churches 
which  were  established  in  various  cities  and 
the  adjoining  districts  were  in  so  far  independ- 
ent of  each  other,  that  the  bishops  and  pres- 
byters of  each  had  the  rule  of  their  particular 
church,  and  of  the  churches  which  had  sprung 
from  it,  and  were  entitled,  by  their  own  au- 
thority, to  make  such  regulations  as  appeared 
to  them  to  be  requisite  ;  and  this  species  of  in- 
dependence continued  for  a  considerable  time, 
every  bishop  presiding  in  his  congregation, 
and  afterward  in  his  diocess.  There  was, 
however,  always  a  common  tie  by  which  they 
were  united.  Neighbouring  churches,  actuat- 
ed by  ardent  zeal  for  the  interests  of  divine 
truth,  'consulted  together  upon  the  best  mode 
of  promoting  it.  We  know  that  the  Apostolic 
churches  were  enjoined  to  communicate  to 
other  bodies  the  epistles  which  they  had  re- 
ceived ;  and  while  persecution  continued,  it 
was  natural  for  all  who  were  exposed  to  it  to 
consider  by  what  means  its  fury  could  be 
avoided. 

4.  After  the  bishops  were  established  as  su- 
perior to  presbyters,  when  any  meeting  was 
held  respecting  religion,  or  the  administration 
of  the  church,  it  was  chiefly  composed  of  this 
higher  order,  and  the  president  of  the  synod 
or  council  was  elected  from  their  number. 
These  meetings  were  generally  assembled  in 
the  metropolis,  or  principal  city  of  the  district; 
and  hence  the  bishop  of  this  city,  being  fre- 
quently called  to  preside,  came,  at  length,  to 
be  regarded  as  entitled  to  do  so :  thus  acquir- 
ing a  superiority  over  the  other  bishops,  just 
as  they  had  acquired  superiority  over  the  in- 
ferior clergy.  He  was,  in  consequence,  dis- 
tinguished by  a  particular  name,  being  denomi- 
nated, from  the  city  in  which  he  presided,  a 
metropolitan. 

EPISCOPALIANS,  those  who  maintain 
that  bishops,  presbyters,  or  priests,  and  dea- 
cons, are  three  distinct  orders  in  the  church ; 


and  that  the  bishops  have  a  superiority  over 
both  the  others.  The  episcopal  form  of  church 
government  professes  to  find  in  the  days  of  the 
Apostles  the  model  upon  which  it  is  framed. 
While  our  Lord  remained  upon  earth,  he  acted 
as  the  immediate  governor  of  his  church.  Hav. 
ing  himself  called  the  Apostles,  he  kept  them 
constantly  about  his  person,  except  at  one 
time,  when  he  sent  them  forth  upon  a  short 
progress  through  the  cities  of  Judea,  and  gave 
them  particular  directions  how  they  should 
conduct  themselves.  The  seventy  disciples, 
whom  he  sent  forth  at  another  time,  are  never 
mentioned  again  in  the  New  Testament.  But 
the  Apostles  received  from  him  many  intima- 
tions that  their  office  was  to  continue  after  his 
departure ;  and  as  one  great  object  of  his  mi- 
nistry was  to  qualify  them  for  the  execution  of 
this  office,  so,  in  the  interval  between  his  re- 
surrection and  his  ascension,  he  explained  to 
them  the  duties  of  it,  and  he  invested  them 
with  the  authority  which  the  discharge  of 
those  duties  implied.  "  Go,"  said  he,  "  make 
disciples  of  all  nations,  baptizing  them,  teach- 
ing them ;  and  lo,  I  am  with  you  alway,  even 
unto  the  end  of  the  world.  As  my  Father  hath 
sent  me,  even  so  send  I  )rou.  Receive  ye  the 
Holy  Ghost,"  Matt,  xxviii,  19,  20 ;  John  xx, 
21,  22.  Soon  after  the  ascension  of  Jesus, 
his  Apostles  received  those  extraordinary  gifts 
of  which  his  promise  had  given  them  assur- 
ance ;  and  immediately  they  began  to  execute 
their  commission,  not  only  as  the  witnesses  of 
his  resurrection,  and  the  teachers  of  his  re- 
ligion, but  as  the  rulers  of  that  society  which 
was  gathered  by  their  preaching.  In  Acts  vi, 
we  find  the  Apostles  ordering  the  Christians 
at  Jerusalem  to  "  look  out  seven  men  of  honest 
report'  who  might  take  charge  of  the  daily 
ministrations  to  the  poor,  and  to  bring  the 
men  so  chosen  to  them,  that  "we,"  said  the 
Apostles,  "may  appoint  them  over  this  busi- 
ness." The  men  accordingly  were  "set  before 
the  Apostles ;  and  when  they  had  prayed,  they 
laid  their  hands  on  them."  Here  are  the  Apos- 
tles ordaining  deacons.  Afterward,  we  find 
St.  Paul,  in  his  progress  through  Asia  Minor, 
ordaining  in  every  church  elders,  zzptcGvTipm ; 
the  name  properly  expressive  of  age  being 
transferred,  after  the  practice  of  the  Jews,  as  a 
mark  of  respect,  to  ecclesiastical  rulers,  Acts 
xiv,  23.  The  men  thus  ordained  by  St.  Paul 
appear,  from  the  book  of  Acts  and  the  Epistles, 
to  have  been  teachers,  pastors,  overseers,  of 
the  flock  of  Christ ;  and  to  Timothy,  who  was 
a  minister  of  the  word,  the  Apostle  speaks  of 
"the  gift  which  is  in  thee  by  the  putting  on  of 
my  hands,"  2  Tim.  i,  6.  Over  the  persons  to 
whom  he  thus  conveyed  the  office  of  teaching, 
he  exercised  jurisdiction  ;  for  he  sent  to  Ephe- 
sus,  to  the  elders  of  the  church  to  meet  him  at 
Miletus ;  and  there,  in  a  long  discourse,  gave 
them  a  solemn  charge,  Acts  xx,  17-35;  and 
to  Timothy  and  Titus  he  writes  epistles  in  the 
style  of  a  superior. 

2.  As  St.  Paul  unquestionably  conceived 
that  there  belonged  to  him,  as  an  Apostle,  an 
authority  over  other  office-bearers  of  the 
church,  so  his  epistles  contain  two  examples 


EPI 


349 


EPI 


of  a  delegation  of  that  authority.  He  not  only 
directs  Timothy,  whom  he  had  besought  to 
abide  at  Ephesus,  how  to  behave  himself  in 
the  house  of  God  as  a  minister,  but  he  sets 
him  over  other  ministers.  He  empowers  him 
to  ordain  men  to  the  work  of  the  ministry : 
"  The  things  that  thou  hast  heard  of  me  among 
many  witnesses,  the  same  commit  thou  to 
faithful  men,  who  shall  be  able  to  teach  others 
also,"  2  Tim.  ii,  2.  He  gives  him  directions 
about  the  ordination  of  bishops  and  deacons ; 
he  places  botli  these  kinds  of  office-bearers  in 
Ephesus  under  his  inspection,  instructing  him 
in  what  manner  to  receive  an  accusation 
against  an  elder  who  laboured  in  word  and 
doctrine ;  and  he  commands  him  to  charge 
some  that  they  teach  no  other  doctrine  but  the 
form  of  sound  words.  In  like  manner  he  says 
to  Titus,  "  For  this  cause  left  I  thee  in  Crete, 
that  thou  shouldest  set  in  order  the  things  that 
are  wanting,  and  ordain  elders  in  every  city, 
as  I  had  appointed  thee,"  Titus  i,  5.  He  de- 
scribes to  Titus  the  qualifications  of  a  bishop 
or  elder,  making  him  the  judge  how  far  any 
person  in  Crete  was  possessed  of  these  qualifi- 
cations ;  he  gives  him  authority  over  all  orders 
of  Christians  there  ;  and  he  empowers  him  to 
reject  heretics.  Here,  then,  is  that  Apostle, 
with  whose  actions  we  are  best  acquainted, 
seemingly  aware  that  there  would  be  continual 
occasion  in  the  Christian  church  for  the  exer- 
cise of  that  authority  over  pastors  and  teach- 
ers, which  the  Apostles  had  derived  from  the 
Lord  Jesus ;  and  by  these  two  examples  of  a 
delegation,  given  during  his  life  time,  prepar- 
ing the  world  for  beholding  that  authority  ex- 
ercised by  the  successors  of  the  Apostles  in 
all  ages.  Accordingly,  the  earliest  Christian 
writers  tell  us  that  the  Apostles,  to  prevent, 
contention,  appointed  bishops  and  deacons: 
giving  orders,  too,  that,  upon  their  death,  other 
approved  men  should  succeed  in  their  minis- 
try. We  are  told  that  the  other  Apostles  con- 
stituted their  first-fruits,  that  is,  their  first  dis- 
ciples, after  they  had  proved  them  by  the 
Spirit,  bishops  and  deacons  of  those  who  were 
to  believe ;  and  that  the  Apostle  John,  who 
survived  the  rest,  after  returning  from  Patmos, 
the  place  of  his  banishment,  went  about  the 
neighbouring  nations,  ordaining  bishops,  esta- 
blishing whole  churches,  and  setting  apart  par- 
ticular persons  for  the  ministry,  as  they  were 
pointed  out  to  him  by  the  Spirit. 

3.  As  bishops  are  mentioned  in  the  earliest 
times,  so  ecclesiastical  history  records  the  suc- 
cession of  bishops  through  many  ages ;  and 
even  during  the  first  three  centuries,  before 
Christianity  was  incorporated  with  the  state, 
every  city,  where  the  multitude  of  Christians 
required  a  number  of  pastors  to  perform  the 
stated  offices,  presents  to  us,  as  far  as  we  can 
gather  from  contemporary  writers,  an  appear- 
ance very  much  the  same  with  that  of  the  church 
of  Jerusalem  in  the  days  of  the  Apostles.  The 
Apostle  James  seems  to  have  resided  in  that  city. 
But  there  is  also  mention  of  the  elders  of  the 
church,  who,  according  to  the  Scripture  repre- 
sentation of  elders,  must  have  discharged  the 
ministerial  office,  but  over  whom  the  Apostle 


James  presided.  So,  in  Carthage,  where  Cy- 
prian was  bishop,  and  in  every  other  Christian 
city  of  which  we  have  particular  accounts, 
there  was  a  college  of  presbyters ;  and  there 
was  one  person  who  had  not  only  presidency, 
but  jurisdiction  and  authority,  over  the  rest. 
They  were  his  council  in  matters  relating  to 
the  church,  and  they  were  qualified  to  preach, 
to  baptize,  and  to  administer  the  Lord's  Supper ; 
but  they  could  do  nothing  without  his  permis- 
sion and  authority.  It  is  a  principle  in  Chris- 
tian antiquity,  us  imvKoiros,  pia  iKK^cia,  :t  one 
bishop,  and  one  church."  The  one  bishop  had 
the  care  of  all  the  Christians,  who,  although 
they  met  in  separate  congregations,  constitut- 
ed one  church  ;  and  he  had  the  inspection  of 
the  pastors,  who,  having  received  ordination 
from  the  bishop,  officiated  in  the  separate  con- 
gregations, performed  the  several  parts  of  duty 
which  he  prescribed  to  them,  and  were  ac- 
countable to  him  for  their  conduct.  In  con- 
tinuation of  this  primitive  institution,  we  find 
episcopacy  in  all  corners  of  the  church  of 
Christ.  Until  the  time  of  the  reformation, 
there  were,  in  every  Christian  state,  persons 
with  the  name,  the  rank,  and  the  authority  of 
bishops ;  and  the  existence  of  such  persons 
was  not  considered  as  an  innovation,  but  as  an 
establishment,  which,  by  means  of  catalogues 
preserved  in  ecclesiastical  writers,  may  be 
traced  back  to  the  days  of  the  Apostles. 

4.  Upon  the  principles  which  have  now  been 
stated,  it  is  understood,  according  to  the  epis- 
copal form  of  government,  that  there  is  in  the 
church  a  superior  order  of  office-bearers,  the 
successors  of  the  Apostles,  who  possess  in  their 
own  persons  the  right  of  ordination  and  juris- 
diction, and  who  are  called  Iklckotioi,  as  being 
the  overseers  not  only  of  the  people,  but  also 
of  the  clergy  ;  and  an  inferior  order  of  minis- 
ters, called  presbyters,  the  literal  translation  of 
the  word  ^pea6vripoi,  which  is  rendered  in  our 
English  Bibles  elders,  persons  who  receive, 
from  the  ordination  of  the  bishop,  power  to 
preach  and  to  administer  the  sacraments,  who 
are  set  over  the  people,  but  are  themselves  un- 
der the  government  of  the  bishop,  and  have  no 
right  to  convey  to  others  the  sacred  office, 
which  he  gives  them  authority  to  exercise 
under  him.  According  to  a  phrase  used  by 
Charles  I,  who  was  by  no  means  an  unlearned 
defender  of  that  form  of  government  to  which 
he  was  a  martyr,  the  presbyters  are  episcopi 
gregis;  [bishops  of  the  flock  ;]  but  the  bishops 
are  episcopi  gregis  et  pastorum,  [bishops  of  the 
flock  and  of  the  pastors.] 

5.  The  liberal  writers  on  that  side,  however, 
do  not  contend  that  this  form  of  government 
is  made  so  binding  in  the  church  as  not  to  be 
departed  from,  and  varied  according  to  circum- 
stances. It  cannot  be  proved,  says  Dr.  Paley, 
that  any  form  of  church  government  was  laid 
down  in  the  Christian,  as  it  had  been  in  the 
Jewish,  Scriptures,  witli  a  view  of  fixing  a 
constitution  for  succeeding  ages.  The  truth 
seems  to  have  been,  that  such  offices  were  at 
first  erected  in  the  Christian  church  as  the  good 
order,  the  instruction,  and  the  exigencies  of 
the  society  at  that  time  required  ;  without  any 


EPI 


350 


EPI 


intention,  at  least  without  any  declared  design, 
of  regulating  the  appointment,  authority,  or 
the  distinction,  of  Christian  ministers  under 
future  circumstances.  To  the  same  effect,  also, 
Bishop  Toniline  saj's,  "  It  is  not  contended 
that  the  bishops,  priests,  and  deacons  of  Eng- 
land are  at  present  precisely  the  same  that 
bishops,  presbyters,  and  deacons  were  in  Asia 
Minor,  seventeen  hundred  years  ago.  We  only 
maintain  that  there  have  always  been  bishops, 
priests,  and  deacons,  in  the  Christian  church, 
since  the  days  of  the  Apostles,  with  different 
powers  and  functions,  it  is  allowed,  in  different 
countries  and  at  different  periods  ;  but  the  ge- 
neral principles  and  duties  which  have  respect- 
ively characterized  these  clerical  orders  have 
been  essentially  the  same  at  all  times,  and  in  all 
places ;  and  the  variations  which  they  have 
undergone  have  only  been  such  as  have  ever 
belonged  to  all  persons  in  public  situations, 
whether  civil  or  ecclesiastical,  and  which  are  in- 
deed inseparable  from  every  thing  in  which  man- 
kind are  concerned  in  this  transitory  and  fluct- 
uating world.  I  have  thought  it  right  to  take 
this  general  view  of  the  ministerial  office,  and  to 
make  these  observations  upon  the  clerical  or- 
ders subsisting  in  this  kingdom,  for  the  purpose 
of  pointing  out  the  foundation  and  principles 
of  church  authority,  and  of  showing  that  our 
ecclesiastical  establishment  is  as  nearly  con- 
formable, as  change  of  circumstances  will  per- 
mit, to  the  practice  of  the  primitive  church. 
But,  though  I  flatter  myself  that  I  have  proved 
episcopacy  to  be  an  Apostolical  institution,  yet 
I  readily  acknowledge  that  there  is  no  precept 
in  the  New  Testament  which  commands  that 
every  church  should  be  governed  by  bishops. 
No  church  can  exist  without  some  govern- 
ment ;  but  though  there  must  be  rules  and  or- 
ders for  the  proper  discharge  of  the  offices  of 
public  worship,  though  there  must  be  fixed 
regulations  concerning  the  appointment  of 
ministers,  and  though  a  subordination  among 
them  is  expedient  in  the  highest  degree,  yet  it 
does  not  follow  that  all  these  things  must  be 
precisely  the  same  in  every  Christian  country  ; 
they  may  vary  with  the  other  varying  circum- 
stances of  human  society,  with  the  extent  of 
a  country,  the  manners  of  its  inhabitants, 
the  nature  of  its  civil  government,  and  many 
other  peculiarities  which  might  be  specified. 
As  it  has  not  pleased  our  almighty  Father  to 
prescribe  any  particular  form  of  civil  govern- 
ment for  the  security  of  temporal  comforts  to 
his  rational  creatures,  so  neither  has  he  pre- 
scribed any  particular  form  of  ecclesiastical 
polity  as  absolutely  necessary  to  the  attainment 
of  eternal  happiness.  But  he  has,  in  the  most 
explicit  terms,  enjoined  obedience  to  all  go- 
vernors, whether  civil  or  ecclesiastical,  and 
whatever  may  be  their  denomination,  as  essen- 
tial to  the  character  of  a  true  Christian.  Thus 
the  Gospel  only  lays  down  general  principles, 
and  leaves  the  application  of  them  to  men  as 
free  agents."  Bishop  Tomline,  however,  and 
the  high  Episcopalians  of  the  church  of  Eng- 
land, contend  for  an  original  distinction  in  the 
oflice  and  order  of  bishops  and  presbyters ; 
which  notion  is  controverted  by  the  Presbyte- 


rians, and  is,  indeed,  contradicted  by  one  who 
may  be  truly  called  the  founder  of  the  church 
of  England,  Archbishop  Cranmer,  who  says, 
"  The  bishops  and  priests  were  at  one  time, 
and  were  not  two  things;  but  both  one  office 
in  the  beginning  of  Christ's  religion."  The 
more  rigid  Episcopalians  admit  of  no  ordina- 
tion as  valid  in  the  church  but  by  the  hands  of 
bishops,  and  those  derived  in  a  right  line  from 
the  Apostles.     See  Presbyterians. 

6.  The  churches  of  Rome  and  of  England 
are  the  principal  Episcopalian  churches  in  the 
west  of  Europe  ;  and  those  of  the  Greeks  and 
Arminians  in  the  east;  but,  beside  these,  there 
are  Episcopalians  in  Scotland,  and  in  other 
countries,  where,  Presbyterianism  being  the 
establishment,  they  are,  of  course,  Dissenters. 
Thus  a  Presbyterian  is  a  Dissenter  in  England, 
and  an  Episcopalian  a  Dissenter  in  Scotland. 
There  is  also  an  Episcopalian  church  in  the 
United  States  of  America  ;  but  there  being  no 
established  religion,  there  are,  of  course,  no 
Dissenters.  The  Episcopal  church  in  America 
is  organized  very  differently  from  that  in  Eng- 
land. The  following  particulars  are  from  the 
best  authorities  : — The  general  convention  was 
formed  in  1789,  by  a  delegation  from  the  dif- 
ferent states,  and  meets  triennially.  They  have 
eleven  diocesses,  two  of  which  are  without 
bishops,  and  are  at  liberty  to  form  more  in 
other  states.  The  above  convention  consists 
of  an  upper  and  lower  house ;  the  former  con- 
sisting of  bishops,  in  which  the  senior  bishop 
presides :  they  have  no  archbishop :  and  the 
lower,  of  the  other  clergy,  and  laymen  mingled 
with  them.  There  are  also  diocesan  conventions 
annually,  in  which  the  bishop  presides.  The 
bishops  have  no  salaries  as  such,  but  are  allow- 
ed to  hold  parishes  as  other  ministers  ;  but  it 
has  lately  been  found  more  convenient  in  many 
states  to  raise  a  fund  for  the  support  of  the 
bishop,  that  his  time  may  be  more  at  liberty 
for  visiting  the  clergy.  They  have  neither 
patronage  nor  palaces,  and  some  of  their  in- 
comes are  extremely  small.  The  English  Com- 
mon Prayer  Book  is  adopted,  with  the  omission 
of  the  Athanasian  Creed,  and  some  other  slight 
alterations.  Subscription  to  the  articles  is  not 
required  by  candidates  for  holy  orders.  The 
Methodists  in  America,  also,  form  an  episcopal 
church ;  but  founded  upon  the  primitive  prin- 
ciple that  bishops  and  presbyters  are  of  the 
same  order,  although  the  oversight  of  presby- 
ters may  be  committed  to  those  who  are,  by 
virtue  of  their  office,  also  called  bishops. 

[The  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  was  or- 
ganized in  December,  1784.  The  fundamental 
principle  on  which  the  episcopacy  of  this  church 
rests,  is  here  correctly  stated.  It  is  proper  to 
add  to  Mr.  Watson's  enumeration,  that  the  Ro- 
man and  Moravian  churches  in  the  United  States 
are  also  episcopal ;  and  that  the  statement  that 
the  bishops  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church 
receive  no  salaries  as  bishops,  is  not  at  present 
(1832)  without  except  ion.  Their  incomes,  too, 
though  doubtless  extremely  small  compared 
with  those  of  the  bishops  of  the  establishment 
in  England,  are  not  so,  compared  with  those  of 
other  ministers  generally  in  the  United  States.* 


EPI 


351 


ESA 


EPISTLES,  which  occur  under  the  same 
Hebrew  word  with  books,  namely,  ncD,  are 
mentioned  the  more  rarely,  the  farther  we  go 
back  into  antiquity.  An  epistle  is  first  men- 
tioned, 2  Sam.  xi,  14,  &c.  Afterward,  there 
is  more  frequent  mention  of  them  ;  and  some- 
times an  epistle  is  meant,  when  literally  a  mes- 
senger is  spoken  of,  as  in  Ezra  iv,  15-17.  In 
the  east,  letters  are  commonly  sent  unsealed. 
In  case,  however,  they  are  sent  to  persons  of 
distinction,  they  are  placed  in  a  valuable  purse, 
which  is  tied,  closed  over  with  wax  or  clay, 
and  then  stamped  with  a  signet,  Isaiah  xxix, 
11  ;  Job  xxxviii,  14.  The  most  ancient  epis- 
tles begin  and  end  without  either  salutation  or 
farewell ;  but  under  the  Persian  monarchy  the 
salutation  was  very  prolix.  It  is  given  in  an 
abridged  form  in  Ezra  iv,  7-10 ;  v,  7  The 
Apostles,  in  their  epistles,  used  the  salutation 
customary  among  the  Greeks ;  but  they  omit- 
ted the  usual  farewell  at  the  close,  namely, 
%aipciv,  and  adopted  a  benediction  more  con- 
formable to  the  spirit  of  the  Christian  religion. 
St.  Paul,  when  he  dictated  his  letters,  wrote 
the  benediction  at  the  close  with  his  own  hand, 
2  Thess.  iii,  17  He  was  more  accustomed  to 
dictate  his  letters  than  to  write  them  himself. 

The  name  Epistles  is  given,  by  way  of  emi- 
nence, to  the  letters  written  by  the  Apostles, 
or  first  preachers  of  Christianity,  to  particular 
churches  or  persons,  on  particular  occasions 
or  subjects.  Of  these  the  Apostle  Paul  wrote 
fourteen.  St.  James  wrote  one  general  epis- 
tle ;  St.  Peter  two ;  St.  John  three ;  and  St. 
Jude  one. 

An  epistle  has  its  Hebrew  name  from  its  be- 
ing rolled  or  folded  together.  The  modern 
Arabs  roll  up  their  letters,  and  then  flatten 
them  to  the  breadth  of  an  inch,  and  paste  up 
the  end  of  them,  instead  of  sealing  them.  The 
Persians  make  up  their  letters  in  a  roll  about 
six  inches  long,  and  a  bit  of  paper  is  fastened 
round  it  with  gum,  and  sealed  with  an  impres- 
sion of  ink,  which  resembles  our  printers'  ink, 
but  is  not  so  thick.  Letters,  as  stated  above, 
were  generally  sent  to  persons  of  distinction 
in  a  bag  or  purse  ;  but  to  inferiors,  or  those 
who  were  held  in  contempt,  they  were  sent 
open,  that  is,  unenclosed.  Lady  M.  W.  Mon- 
tagu says,  the  bassa  of  Belgrade's  answer  to 
the  English  ambassador  going  to  Constantino- 
ple was  brought  to  him  in  a  purse  of  scarlet 
satin.  But,  in  the  case  of  Nehemiah,  an  insult 
was  designed  to  be  offered  to  him  by  Sanballat, 
in  refusing  him  the  mark  of  respect  usually 
paid  to  persons  of  his  station,  and  treating  him 
contemptuously,  by  sending  the  Jetter  open, 
that  is,  without  the  customary  appendages 
when  presented  to  persons  of  respectability. 
"  Futty  Sihng,"  says  Mr.  Forbes,  "  sent  a  chop- 
dar  to  me  at  Dhuboy,  with  a  letter  of  invita- 
tion to  the  wedding,  then  celebrating  at  Bro- 
dera  at  a  great  expense,  and  of  long  continu- 
ance. The  letter,  as  usual,  from  oriental 
princes,  was  written  on  silver  paper,  flowered 
with  gold,  with  an  additional  sprinkling  of 
saffron,  enclosed  under  a  cover  of  gold  brocade. 
The  I*tter  was  accompanied  with  a  bag  of 
crimson  and  gold  keem-caub,  filled  with  sweet- 


scented  seeds,  as  a  mark  of  favour  and  good 
omen." 

EPOCH,  a  term  in  chronology  signifying  a 
fixed  point  of  time,  from  which  the  succeeding 
years  are  numbered.  Scaliger  says  it  means 
"a  stop,"  because  "in  epochs  stop  and  termi- 
nate the  measures  of  times."  It  now  usually 
denotes  a  remarkable  date ;  as,  the  epoch  of 
the  destruction  of  Troy,  B.  C.  1183,  &,c.  The 
first  epoch  is  the  creation  of  the  world,  which, 
according  to  the  Vulgate  Bible,  Archbishop 
Usher  fixes  in  the  year  710  of  the  Julian  period, 
and  4004  years  before  Jesus  Christ.  The  second 
is  the  deluge,  which,  according  to  the  Hebrew 
text,  happened  in  the  year  of  the  world  1G56. 
Six  other  epochs  are  commonly  reckoned  in 
sacred  history :  the  building  of  the  tower  of 
Babel,  which  was,  according  to  Dr.  Hales, 
B.  C.  2554;  the  calling  of  Abraham,  B.  C. 
2153;  the  departure  of  the  Israelites  out  of 
Egypt,  B.  C.  1648;  the  dedication  of  the  tem- 
ple, B.  C.  1027  ;  the  end  of  the  Babylonish 
captivity,  B.  C.  536  ;  and  the  birth  of  Jesus 
Christ,  A.  D.  1.  In  profane  history  are  reckon- 
ed five  epochs:  the  founding  of  the  Assyrian 
empire,  B.  C.  1267  ;  the  era  of  Nabonassar,  or 
death  of  Sardanapalus,  B.C.  747;  the  reign  of 
Cyrus  at  Babylon,  B.  C.  556 ;  the  reign  of 
Alexander  the  Great  over  the  Persians,  B.  C. 
330;  and  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Augus- 
tus, in  which  our  Saviour  was  born,  B.  C.  44. 

ERA.  The  term  era  (not  <era,  as  incorrectly 
written)  is  Spanish,  signifying  time,  as  in  the 
phrase,  de  era  en  era, '"  from  time  to  time."  It 
was  first  used  in  the  Era  Hispanica,  instituted 
B.  C.  38,  in  honour  of  Augustus,  when  Spain 
was  allotted  to  him  in  the  distribution  of  the 
provinces  among  the  second  triumvirate,  Au- 
gustus, Anthony,  and  Lepidus.  It  now  usually 
denotes  an  indefinite  series  of  years,  begin- 
ning from  some  known  epoch ;  and  so  differs 
from  a  period  which  is  a  definite  series :  as  the 
era  of  the  foundation  of  Rome,  the  era  of  the 
Olympiads,  the  era  of  Nabonassar,  &c.  See 
ErocH. 

ESAR-HADDON,  son  of  Sennacherib,  and 
his  successor  in  the  kingdom  of  Assyria :  called 
Sargon,  or  Saragon,  Isa.  xx,  1.  He  reigned 
twenty-nine  years.  He  made  war  with  the 
Philistines,  and  took  Azoth,  by  Tartan,  his 
general:  he  attacked  Egypt,  Cush,  and  Edom, 
Isa.  xx,  xxxiv ;  designing,  probably,  to  avenge 
the  affront  Sennacherib  his  father  had  received 
from  Tirhakah,  king  of  Cush,  and  the  king  of 
Egypt,  who  had  been  Hezekiah's  confederates. 
He  sent  priests  to  the  Cutlia\ans,  whom  Sal- 
maneser,  king  of  Assyria,  had  planled  in  Sa- 
maria, instead  of  the  Israelites:  he  took  Jeru- 
salem, and  carried  King  Manasseh  to  Babylon, 
of  which  he  had  become  master,  perhaps,  be- 
cause there  was  no  heir  to  Belesis,  king  of 
Bayblon.  He  is  said  to  have  reigned  twenty- 
nine  or  thirty  years  at  Nineveh,  and  thirteen 
years  at  Babylon ;  in  all  forty-two  years.  He 
died  A.  M.  3336. 

ESAU,  son  of  Isaac  and  Rebekah,  born 
A.  M.  2168,  B.  C.  1836.  When  the  time  of 
Rebekah's  delivery  came,  she  had  twins,  Gen. 
xxv,  24-26 :  the  first-born  was  hairy,  therefor* 


ESA 


352 


ESH 


called  Esau  ;  that  is,  a  man  full  grown  or  of 
perfect  age ;  but  some  derive  Esau  from  the 
Arabic  gescha  or  genchcva,  which  signifies  a 
hair  cloth.  Esau  delighted  in  hunting,  and 
his  father  Isaac  had  a  particular  affection  for 
him.  On  one  occasion,  Esau,  returning  from 
the  fields  greatly  fatigued,  desired  Jacob  to  give 
him  some  red  pottage,  which  he  was  then  pre- 
paring. Jacob  consented,  provided  Esau  would 
sell  him  his  birthright.  Esau  complied,  and 
by  oath  resigned  it  to  him,  Gen.  sxv,  29-34. 
Esau,  when  aged  forty,  married  two  Canaan. 
itish  women,  Judith,  daughter  of  Beeri,  the 
llittite ;  and  Bashemath,  daughter  of  Elon, 
Gen.  xxvi,  34.  These  marriages  were  very 
displeasing  to  Isaac  and  Rebekah,  because  they 
intermingled  the  blood  of  Abraham  with  that 
of  Canaanite  aliens.  Isaac  being  old,  and  his 
sight  decayed,  directed  Esau  to  procure  him 
delicate  venison  by  hunting,  that  he  might 
give  him  his  chief  blessing,  Gen.  xxvii.  The 
artifice  of  his  mother,  however,  counteracted 
his  purpose  ;  and  she  contrived  to  impose  upon 
Isaac,  and  to  obtain  the  father's  principal  bless- 
ing for  her  son  Jacob.  Esau  was  indignant  on 
account  of  this  treachery  and  determined  to 
kill  Jacob  as  soon  as  their  father  should  die. 
Rebekah  again  interposed,  and  sent  Jacob  away 
to  her  brother  Laban,  with  whom  he  might  be 
secure.  During  the  period  of  separation,  which 
lasted  several  years,  Esau  married  a  wife  of  the 
family  of  Ishmael ;  and,  removing  to  Mount 
Seir,  acquired  great  power  and  wealth.  When 
Jacob  returned,  after  long  absence,  to  his  fa- 
ther's country,  with  a  numerous  family,  and 
large  flocks  and  herds,  he  dreaded  his  brother's 
displeasure  ;  but  they  had  an  amicable  and 
affectionate  interview.  After  their  father's 
death,  they  lived  in  peace  and  amity ;  but,  as 
their  possessions  enlarged,  and  there  was  not 
sufficient  room  for  them  in  the  land  in  which 
they  were  strangers,  Esau  returned  to  Mount 
Seir,  where  his  posterity  multiplied  under  the 
denomination  of  Edomites.  (See  Edom.)  The 
time  of  his  death  is  not  mentioned ;  but  Bishop 
Cumberland  thinks  it  probable  that  he  died 
about  the  same  time  with  his  brother  Jacob,  at 
the  age  of  about  one  hundred  and  forty-seven 
years,  Gen.  xxv-xxxvi. 

2.  On  the  most  important  part  of  this  history, 
the  selling  of  the  birthright,  we  may  observe, 
(1.)  That  although  it  was  always  the  design  of 
God  that  the  blessing  connected  with  primo- 
geniture in  the  family  of  Abraham  should  be 
enjoyed  by  Jacob,  and  to  exercise  his  sove- 
reignty in  changing  the  succession  in  which 
the  promises  of  the  Abrahamic  covenant  might 
descend  ;  yet  the  conduct  of  Rebekah  and  Ja- 
cob was  reprehensible  in  endeavouring  to  bring 
about  the  divine  design  by  the  unworthy  means 
of  contrivance  and  deceit ;  and  they  were  pun- 
nished  for  their  presumption  by  their  sufferings. 
(2.)  That  the  conduct  of  Esau  in  selling  his 
birthright  was  both  wanton  and  profane.  It 
was  wanton,  because  he,  though  faint,  could 
be  in  no  danger  of  not  obtaining  a  supply  of 
food  in  his  father's  house;  and  was  therefore 
wholly  influenced  by  his  appetite,  excited  by 
the  delicacy  of  Jacob's  pottage.     It  was  pro- 


fane,  because  the  blessings  of  the  birthright 
were  spiritual  as  well  as  civil.  The  church  of 
God  was  to  be  established  in  the  line  of  the 
first-born  ;  and  in  that  line  the  Messiah  was  to 
appear.  These  high  privileges  were  despised 
by  Esau,  who  is  therefore  made  by  St.  Paul  a 
type  of  all  apostates  from  Christ,  who,  like  him, 
profanely  despise  their  birthright  as  the  sons 
of  God.     See  Birthright. 

ESDRAELON,  Plain  of,  in  the  tribe  of 
Issachar,  extends  east  and  west  from  Scytho- 
polis  to  Mount  Oarmei;  called,  likewise,  the 
Great  Plain,  the  Valley  of  Jezreel,  the  Plain  of 
Esdrela.  Dr.  E.  D.  Clarke  observes,  it  is  by 
far  the  largest  plain  in  the  Holy  Land  ;  ex- 
tending quite  across  the  country  from  Mount 
Carmel  end  the  Mediterranean  Sea  to  the 
southern  extremity  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee  ; 
about  thirty  miles  in  length,  and  twenty  in 
breadth.  It  is  also  a  very  fertile  district, 
abounding  in  pasture  ;  on  which  account  it 
has  been  selected  for  the  purposes  of  encamp- 
ment by  almost  every  army  that  has  traversed 
the  Holy  Land.  Here  Barak,  descending  with 
his  ten  thousand  men  from  Mount  Tabor, 
which  rises  like  a  cone  in  the  centre  of  the 
plain,  defeated  Sisera,  with  his  "nine  hundred 
chariots  of  iron,  and  all  the  people  that  were 
with  him,  gathered  from  Harosheth  of  the 
Gentiles  unto  the  river  of  Kishon;  and  pur- 
sued after  the  chariots  and  after  the  host  unto 
Hnrosheth  of  the  Gentiles;  and  all  the  host  of 
Sisera  fell  upon  the  edge  of  the  sword ;  and 
there  was  not  a  man  left,"  Judges  iv.  Here 
Josiah,  king  of  Judah,  fell,  fighting  against 
Necho,  king  of  Egypt,  2  Kings  xxiii,  29. 
And  here  the  Midianites  and  the  Amalekites, 
who  were  "  like  grasshoppers  for  multitude, 
and  their  camels  without  number  as  the  sand 
of  the  sea,"  encamped,  when  they  were  de- 
feated by  Gideon,  Judges  vi.  This  plain  has 
likewise  been  used  for  the  same  purpose  by 
the  armies  of  every  conqueror  or  invader,  from 
Nabuchodonosor,  king  of  Assyria,  to  his  imi- 
tator, Napoleon  Buonaparte,  who,  in  the  spring 
of  1799,  with  a  small  body  of  French,  defeated 
an  army  of  several  thousand  Turks  and  Mame- 
lukes. Jews,  Gentiles,  Saracens,  Christians, 
crusaders,  and  antichristian  Frenchmen,  Egyp- 
tians, Persians,  Druses,  Turks,  and  Arabs, 
warriors  out  of  every  nation  which  is  under 
heaven,  have  pitched  their  tents  in  the  Plain 
of  Esdraelon  ;  and  have  beheld  the  various 
banners  of  their  nations  wet  with  the  dews  of 
Tabor  and  of  Hermon.  And  it  is  to  this  day 
generally  found  to  be  the  place  of  encampment 
of  large  parties  of  Arabs. 

ESDRAS,  the  name  of  two  apocryphal 
books  which  were  always  excluded  the  Jew- 
ish canon,  and  are  too  absurd  to  be  admitted 
as  canonical  by  the  Papists  themselves.  They 
are  supposed  to  have  been  originally  written 
in  Greek  by  some  Hellenistical  Jews  ;  though 
some  imagine  that  they  were  first  written  in 
Chaldee,  and  afterward  translated  into  Greek. 
It  is  uncertain  when  they  were  composed, 
though  it  is  generally  agreed  that  the  author 
wrote  before  Joscphus. 
ESIIBAAL,  or  ISHBOSHETH,  the  fourth 


ESS 


353 


ESS 


son  of  Saul.  The  Hebrews,  to  avoid  pro- 
nouncing the  word  baal,  "lord,"  used  bosheth, 
"  confusion."  Instead  of  Mephi-baal,  they 
said  Mephi-bosheth  ;  and,  instead  of  Esh-baal, 
they  said  Ish-bosheth,  2  Sam.  ii,  8. 

ESHCOL,  one  of  Abraham's  allies,  who 
dwelt  with  him  in  the  valley  of  Mamre,  and 
accompanied  him  in  the  pursuit  of  Chedor 
laomer,  and  the  other  confederated  kings,  who 
pillaged  Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  and  carried 
away  Lot,  Abraham's  nephew,  Gen.  xiv,  24. 
Also  the  valley  or  brook  of  Eshcol  was  that  in 
which  the  Hebrew  messengers,  who  went  to 
spy  the  land  of  Canaan,  cut  a  bunch  of  grapes 
so  large  that  it  was  as  much  as  two  men  could 
carry.  It  was  situated  in  the  south  part  of 
Judah,  Num.  xiii,  24 ;  xxxii,  9. 

ESSENES,  or  ESSENIANS,  one  of  the 
three  ancient  sects  of  the  Jews.  They  appear 
to  have  been  an  enthusiastic  sect,  never  nume- 
rous, and  but  little  known ;  directly  opposite 
to  the  Pharisees  with  respect  to  their  reliance 
upon  tradition,  and  their  scrupulous  regard  to 
,  the  ceremonial  law,  but  pretending,  like  them, 
to  superior  sanctity  of  manners.  They  existed 
in  the  time  of  our  Saviour ;  and  though  they 
are  not  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament,  they 
are  supposed  to  be  alluded  to  by  St.  Paul  in  his 
Epistles  to  the  Ephesians  and  Colossians,  and 
in  his  first  Epistle  to  Timothy.  From  the  ac- 
count given  of  the  doctrines  and  institutions 
of  this  sect  by  Philo  and  Josephus,  we  learn 
that  they  believed  in  the  immortality  of  the 
soul ;  that  they  were  absolute  predestinarians ; 
that  they  observed  the  seventh  day  with  peculiar 
strictness;  that  they  held  the  Scriptures  in  the 
highest  reverence,  but  considered  them  as 
mystic  writings,  and  expounded  them  allegori- 
cally ;  that  they  sent  gifts  to  the  temple,  but 
offered  no  sacrifices  ;  that  they  admitted  no 
one  into  their  society  till  after  a  probation  of 
three  years  ;  that  they  lived  in  a  state  of  per- 
fect equality,  except  that  they  paid  respect  to 
the  aged,  and  to  their  priests ;  that  they  con- 
sidered all  secular  employment  as  unlawrful, 
except  that  of  agricu!ture  ;  that  they  had  all 
things  in  common,  and  were  industrious,  quiet, 
and  free  from  every  species  of  vice  ;  that  they 
held  celibacy  and  solitude  in  high  esteem  ;  that 
they  allowed  no  change  of  raiment  till  neces- 
sity required  it ;  that  they  abstained  from  wine  ; 
that  they  were  not  permitted  to  eat  but  with 
their  own  sect ;  and  that  a  certain  portion  of 
food  was  allotted  to  each  person,  of  which 
they  partook  together,  after  solemn  ablutions. 
The  austere  and  retired  life  of  the  Essenes  is 
supposed  to  have  given  rise  to  monkish  super- 
stition. 

The  Therapeutffi  were  a  distinct  branch  of 
the  Essenes.  Jahn  has  thus  described  the  dif- 
ference between  them :  The  principal  ground 
of  difference  between  the  Essenes  or  Essaei, 
and  Therapeutfe  consisted  in  this ;  the  former 
were  Jews,  who  spoke  the  Aramean  ;  the  latter 
were  Greek  Jews,  as  the  names  themselves  in- 
timate, namely,  n>dn  and  ecpavcvrai.  The  Es- 
senes lived  chiefly  in  Palestine  ;  the  Therapeu- 
tte,  in  Egypt.  The  Trierapeuta?  were  more 
rigid  than  the  Essenes,  since  the  latter,  although 
24 


they  made  it  a  practice  to  keep  at  a  distance 
from  large  cities,  lived,  nevertheless,  in  towns 
and  villages,  and  practised  agriculture  and  the 
arts,  with  the  exception  of  those  arts  which 
were  made  more  directly  subservient  to  the 
purposes  of  war.  The  Therapeuta;,  on  the 
contrary,  fled  from  all  inhabited  places,  dwelt 
in  fields  and  deserts  and  gardens,  and  gave 
themselves  up  to  contemplation.  Both  the 
Essenes  and  the  Therapeutre  held  their  pro- 
perty in  common,  and  those  things  which  they 
stood  in  need  of  for  the  support  and  the  com- 
forts of  life,  were  distributed  to  them  from  the 
common  stock.  The  candidates  for  admission 
among  the  Essenes  gave  their  property  to  the 
society ;  but  those  who  were  destined  for  a 
membership  with  the  Therapeutre,  left  theirs  to 
their  friends  ;  and  both,  after  a  number  of  years 
of  probation,  made  a  profession  which  bound 
them  to  the  exercise  of  the  strictest  upright- 
ness. The  Romanists  pretend,  as  Dr.  Prideaux 
observes,  without  any  foundation,  that  the  Es. 
senes  were  Christian  monks,  formed  into  a 
society  by  St.  Mark,  who  founded  the  first 
church  at  Alexandria.  But  it  is  evident,  from 
the  accounts  of  Josephus  and  Philo,  that  the 
Essenes  were  not  Christians,  but  Jews. 

Dr.  Neander's  account  of  the  Essenes  is  as 
follows  : — A  company  of  pious  men,  much  ex- 
perienced in  the  trials  of  the  outward  and  of 
the  inward  life,  had  withdrawn  themselves  out 
of  the  strife  of  theological  and  political  parties, 
at  first  apparently  (according  to  Pliny  the 
elder)  to  the  western  side  of  the  Dead  Sea ; 
where  they  lived  together  in  intimate  connec- 
tion, partly  in  the  same  sort  of  society  as  the 
monks  of  later  days,  and  partly  as  mystical 
orders  in  all  periods  have  done.  From  this 
society,  other  smaller  ones  afterward  proceed- 
ed, and  spread  themselves  over  all  Palestine. 
They  were  called  Essenes,  ''E.aarjvol  or  'Eao-uiot. 
They  employed  themselves  in  the  arts  of  peace, 
agriculture,  pasture,  handicraft  works,  and  es- 
pecially in  the  art  of  healing,  while  they  took 
great  delight  in  investigating  the  healing  pow- 
ers of  nature.  It  is  probable,  also,  that  they 
imagined  themselves  under  the  guidance  of  a 
supernatural  illumination  in  their  search  into 
nature,  and  their  use  of  her  powers.  Their  natu- 
ral knowledge,  and  their  art  of  healing,  appear 
also  to  have  had  a  religious,  theosophic  cha- 
racter, as  they  professed  also  to  have  peculiar 
prophetical  gifts.  The  Essenes  were,  no  doubt, 
distinguished  from  the  mass  of  ordinary  Jews 
by  this,  that  they  knew  and  loved  something 
higher  than  the  outward  ceremonial  and  a 
dead  faith,  that  they  did  really  strive  after  ho. 
liness  of  heart,  and  inward  communion  with 
God.  Their  quiet,  pious  habits  also  rendered 
them  remarkable,  and  by  means  of  these  they 
remained  quiet  amidst  all  the  political  changes, 
respected  by  all  parties,  even  by  the  Heathens  ; 
and  by  their  laborious  habits  and  kindness, 
their  obedience  toward  the  higher  powers,  as 
ordained  of  God,  their  fidelity  and  love  of  truth, 
they  were  enabled  to  extend  themselves  in  all 
directions.  In  their  society  every  yea  and  nay 
had  the  force  of  an  oath ;  for  every  oath,  said  . 
they,    pre-suppose3  a  mutual   distrust,  which 


ESS 


354 


EST 


ought  not  to  be  the  case  among  a  society  of 
honest  men.  Only  in  one  case  was  an  oath 
suffered  among  them,  namely,  as  a  pledge  for 
those  who  after  a  three  years'  noviciate  were 
to  be  received  into  the  number  of  the  initiated. 
According  to  the  portraiture  of  them,  given  by 
Philo,  the  Alexandrian,  in  his  separate  treatise 
concerning  the  "True  Freedom  of  the  Virtu- 
ous," we  should  take  the  Essenes  for  men  of 
an  entirely  practical  religious  turn,  far  removed 
from  alt  theosophy  and  all  idle  speculation ; 
and  we  should  ascribe  to  them  an  inward  re- 
ligious habit  of  mind,  free  from  all  mixture  of 
superstition  and  reliance  on  outward  things. 
But  the  account  of  Philo  does  not  at  all  accord 
with  that  of  Josephus;  and  the  more  historical 
Josephus  deserves  in  general  more  credit  than 
Philo,  who  was  too  apt  to  indulge  in  philoso- 
phizing and  idealism.  Beside,  Josephus  had 
more  opportunity  of  knowing  this  sect  tho- 
roughly, than  Philo ;  for  Philo  lived  in  Egypt, 
and  the  Essenes  did  not  extend  beyond  Pales- 
tine. Josephus  had  here  passed  the  greater 
part  of  his  life,  and  had  certainly  taken  all 
necessary  pains  to  inform  himself  accurately 
of  the  nature  of  the  different  sects,  among 
Which  he  was  determined,  as  a  youth  of  sixteen 
years  of  age,  to  make  choice,  although  he  can 
hardly  have  completely  passed  through  a  no- 
viciate in  the  sect  of  the  Essenes,  because  he 
made  the  round  of  all  the  three  Jewish  sects, 
in  a  period  of  from  ihree  to  four  years.  Jose- 
phus, also,  shows  himself  completely  unpreju- 
diced in  this  description ;  while  Philo,  on  the 
contrary,  wished  to  represent  the  Essenes  to 
the  more  cultivated  Greeks  as  models  of  prac- 
tical wisdom,  and,  therefore,  he  allowed  him- 
self to  represent  mr.ch,  not  as  it  really  was,  but 
as  it  suited  his  pmpose.  We  must  conclude 
that  the  Essenes  did  also  busy  themselves  with 
theosophy,  and  pretended  to  impart  to  those  of 
their  order  disclosures  relating  to  the  super- 
natural world  of  spirits,  because  those  who 
were  about  to  be  initiated,  were  obliged  to 
swear  that  they  would  never  make  known 
to  any  one  the  names  of  the  angels  then  to  be 
communicated  to  them.  The  manner  in  which 
they  kept  secret  the  ancient  books  of  their  sect 
is  also  a  proof  of  this.  And,  indeed,  Philo 
himself  makes  it  probable,  when  he  says,  that 
they  employed  themselves  with  a  <pi>ooo(p!a  <5ii 
cu/i|3oXuiy,  a  philosophy  which  was  supported  by 
an  allegorical  interpretation  of  Scripture,  for 
this  kind  of  allegorizing  interpretation  was 
usually  tba  accompaniment  of  a  certain  specu- 
lative system.  According  to  Philo,  they  rejected 
file  sacrifice  of  victims,  because  they  considered, 
that  to  consecrate  and  offer  up  themselves 
wholly  to  God,  was  the  only  true  sacrifice,  the 
only  sacrifice  worthy  of  God.  But  according 
to  Josephus  they  certainly  considered  sacrifice 
as  something  peculiarly  holy,  but  they  thought 
that  from  its  peculiar  holiness  it  must  have 
been  desecrated  by  the  profane  Jews  in  the 
temple  of  Jerusalem,  and  that  it  could  be 
worthily  celebrated  only  in  their  holy  com- 
munity, just  as  mystic  sects  of  this  nature  are 
constantly  accustomed  to  make  the  objective 
acts  of  religion  dependent  on  the  subjective 


condition  of  those  who  perform  or  take  part  in 
them.  In  the  troublesome  and  superstitious  ob- 
servance of  the  rest  of  the  Sabbath,  according 
to  the  letter,  and  not  according  to  the  spirit, 
they  went  even  farther  than  the  other  Jews, 
only  with  this  difference,  that  they  were  in  good 
earnest  in  the  matter,  while  the  Pharisees  by 
their  casuistry  relaxed  their  rules,  or  drew  them 
tighter,  just  as  it  suited  their  purpose.  The 
Essenes,  not  only  strenuously  abhorred,  like 
the  other  Jews,  contact  with  the  uncircum-, 
cised,  but,  having  divided  themselves  into  four 
classes,  the  Essenes  of  a  higher  grade  were 
averse  from  contact  with  those  of  a  lower,  as 
if  they  were  rendered  unclean  by  it,  and  when 
any  thing  of  this  kind  did  happen,  they  purified 
themselves  after  it.  Like  many  other  Jews, 
they  attributed  great  value,  in  general,  to  lus- 
tration by  bathing  in  cold  water.  To  their 
ascetic  notions,  the  constant  and  healthy  prac- 
tice in  the  east  of  anointing  with  oil  seemed 
unholy,  and  if  it  befel  any  one  of  them,  he  was 
obliged  to  purify  himself..  It  was  also  a  great 
abomination  to  them  to  eat  any  food  except 
such  as  had  been  prepared  by  persons  of  their 
own  sect.  They  would  die  rather  than  eat  of 
any  other.  This  is  a  sufficient  proof  that 
although  the  Essenes  might  possess  a  certain 
inward  religious  life,  and  a  certain  practical 
piety,  yet  that  these  qualities  with  them,  as 
well  as  with  many  other  mystical  sects,  as  for 
example,  those  of  the  middle  ages,  were  con- 
nected with  a  theosophy,  which  desired  to 
know  things  hidden  from  human  reason, 
tufiartvuv  els  a  nj  pr)  iwpciKtv,  and  therefore  lost 
itself  in  idle  imaginations  and  dreams,  and  were 
also  mixed  up  with  an  outward  asceticism,  a 
proud  spirit  of  separation  from  the  rest  of  man- 
kind, and  superstitious  observances  and  de- 
meanours totally  at  variance  with  the  true 
spirit  of  inward  religion. 

ESTHER.  The  book  of  Esther  is  so  called, 
because  it  contains  the  history  of  Esther  a 
Jewish  captive,  who  by  her  remarkable  accom- 
plishments gained  the  affection  of  King  Ahas- 
uerus,  and  by  marriage  with  him  was  raised  to 
the  throne  of  Persia ;  and  it  relates  the  origin 
and  ceremonies  of  the  feast  of  Purim,  institut- 
ed in  commemoration  of  the  great  deliverance, 
which  she,  by  her  irterest,  procured  for  the 
Jews,  whose  general  destruction  had  been  con- 
certed by  the  offended  pride  of  Haman.  There 
is  great  diversity  of  opinion  concerning  the 
author  of  this  book ;  it  has  been  ascribed  to 
Ezra,  to  Mordec.i,  to  Joachim,  and  to  the  joint 
labours  of  the  great  synagogue ;  and  it  is  im- 
possible to  decide  which  of  these  opinions  ia 
the  most  probable.  We  are  told,  that  the  facts 
here  recorded  happened  in  the  reign  of  Ahas- 
uerus  king  of  Persia,  "  who  reigned  from  In- 
dia even  unto  Ethiopia,  over  a  hundred  and 
twenty-seven  provinces,"  Esther  i,  1 ;  and  this 
extent  of  dominion  plainly  proves  that  he  was 
one  of  the  successors  of  Cyrus.  That  point  is 
indeed  allowed  by  all ;  but  learned  men  differ 
concerning  the  person  meant  by  Ahasuerus, 
whose  name  does  not  occur  in  profane  history ; 
and  consequently  they  are  not  agreed  concern- 
ing the  precise  period  to  which  we  are  to  assign 


ETE 


355 


ETE 


this  history.  Archbishop  Usher  supposed,  that 
by  Ahasuerus  was  meant  Darius  Hystaspes,  and 
Joseph  iScaliger  contended  that  Xerxes  was 
meant;  but  Dean  Prideaux  has  very  satisfac- 
torily shown,  that  by  Ahasuerus  we  are  to  un- 
derstand Artaxerxes  Longimanus.  Josephus 
also  considered  Ahasuerus  and  Artaxerxes  as 
the  same  person ;  and  we  may  observe,  that 
Ahasuerus  is  always  translated  Artaxerxes  in 
the  Septuagint  version ;  and  he  is  called  by 
that  name  in  the  apocryphal  part  of  the  book 
of  Esther.     See  Ecbatana,  and  Ahasuerus. 

ETERNITY  is  an  attribute  of  God.  (See 
God.)  The  self-existent  being,  says  the  learn- 
ed Dr.  Clarke,  must  of  necessity  be  eternal. 
The  ideas  of  eternity  and  self-existence  are  so 
closely  connected,  that  because  something 
must  of  necessity  be  eternal,  independently 
and  without  any  outward  cause  of  its  being, 
therefore  it  must  necessarily  be  self-existent ; 
and  because  it  is  impossible  but  something 
must  be  self-existent,  therefore  it  is  necessary 
that  it  must  likewise  be  eternal.  To  be  self- 
existent,  is  to  exist  by  an  absolute  necessity 
in  the  nature  of  the  thing  itself.  Now  this 
necessity  being  absolute,  and  not  depending 
upon  any  thing  external,  must  be  always  unal- 
terably tbe  same  ;  nothing  being  alterable  but 
what  is  capable  of  being  affected  by  somewhat 
without  itself.  That  being  therefore  which  has 
no  other  cause  of  its  existence  but  the  absolute 
necessity  of  its  own  nature,  must  of  necessity 
have  existed  from  everlasting,  without  begin- 
ning ;  and  must  of  necessity  exist  to  everlast- 
ing, without  end. 

On  the  eternal  duration  of  the  divine  Being, 
many  have  held  a  metaphysical  refinement. 
"  The  eternal  existence  of  God,"  it  is  said,  "  is 
not  to  be  considered  as  successive ;  the  ideas 
we  gain  from  time  are  not  to  be  allowed  in  our 
conceptions  of  his  duration.  As  he  fills  all 
space  with  his  immensity,  he  fills  all  duration 
with  his  eternity ;  and  with  him  eternity  is 
nunc  scans,  a  permanent  now,  incapable  of  the 
relations  of  past,  present,  and  future."  Such, 
certainly,  is  not  the  view  given  us  of  this  mys- 
terious subject  in  the  Scriptures ;  and  if  it 
should  be  said  that  they  speak  popularly,  and 
are  accommodated  to  the  infirmity  of  the  rea- 
son of  the  body  of  mankind,  we  may  reply, 
that  philosophy  has  not,  with  all  its  boasting 
of  superior  light,  carried  our  views  on  this  at- 
tribute of  the  divine  nature  at  all  beyond  reve- 
lation ;  and,  in  attempting  it,  has  only  obscured 
the  conceptions  of  its  admirers.  "  Filling  du- 
ration with  his  eternity,"  is  a  phrase  without 
any  meaning  :  for  how  can  any  man  conceive 
a  permanent  instant,  which  coexists  with  a 
perpetually  flowing  duration  ?  One  might  as 
well  apprehend  a  mathematical  point  coex- 
tended  with  a  line,  a  surface,  and  all  dimen- 
sions. As  this  notion  has,  however,  been  made 
the  basis  of  some  theological  opinions,  it  may 
be  proper  to  examine  it. 

2.  Whether  we  get  our  idea  of  time  from 
the  motion  of  bodies  without  us,  or  from  the 
consciousness  of  the  succession  of  our  own 
ideas,  or  both,  is  not  important  to  this  inquiry. 
Time,  in  our  conceptions,  is  divisible.     The 


artificial  division*  are  years,  months,  daj'rf, 
minutes,  seconds,  &c.  We  can  conceive  of  yet 
smaller  portions  of  duration  ;  and,  whether  we 
have  given  to  them  artificial  names  or  no',  wo 
can  concei-.-e  no  otherwise  of  duration,  than 
continuance  of  being,  estimated  as  to  degree, 
by  this  artificial  admeasurement,  and  there'.'>re 
as  substantially  answering  to  it.  It  is  not 
denied  but  that  duration  is  something  distinct 
from  these  its  artificial  measures  ;  yet  of  this 
every  man's  consciousness  will  assure  him,  that 
we  can  form  no  idea  of  duration  except  in  this 
successive  manner.  But  we  are  told  that  the 
eternity  of  God  is  a  fixed  eternal  now,  from 
which  all  ideas  of  succession,  of  past  and 
future,  are  to  be  excluded ;  and  we  are  called 
upon  to  conceive  of  eternal  duration  without 
reference  to  past  or  future,  and  to  the  exclusion 
of  the  idea  of  that^fo?*  under  which  we  con- 
ceive of  time.  The  proper  abstract  idea  of 
duration  is,  however,  simple  continuance  of 
being,  without  any  reference  to  the  exact  de- 
gree or  extent  of  it,  because  in  no  other  way 
can  it  be  equally  applicable  to  all  the  substances 
of  which  it  is  the  attribute.  It  may  be  finite 
or  infinite,  momentary  or  eternal  ;  but  that  de- 
pends upon  the  substance  of  which  it  is  the 
quality,  and  not  upon  its  own  nature.  Our 
own  observation  and  experience  teach  us  how 
to  apply  it  to  ourselves.  As  to  us,  duration  is 
dependent  and  finite  ;  as  to  God,  it  is  infinite  ; 
but  in  both  cases  the  originality  or  dependence, 
the  finiteness  or  infinity  of  it,  arises,  not  out  of 
the  nature  of  duration  itself,  but  out  of  other 
qualities  of  the  subjects  respectively. 

3.  Duration,  then,  as  applied  to  God,  is  no 
more  than  an  extension  of  the  idea  as  applied 
to  ourselves ;  and  to  exhort  us  to  conceive  of 
it  as  something  essentially  different,  is  to  re- 
quire us  to  conceive  what  is  inconceivable.  It' 
is  to  demand  of  us  to  think  without  ideas. 
Duration  is  continuance  of  existence  ;  continu- 
ance of  existence  is  capable  of  being  longer  or 
shorter ;  and  hence  necessarily  arises  the  idea 
of  the  succession  of  the  minutest  points  of  du- 
ration into  which  we  can  conceive  it  divided. 
Beyond  this  the  mind  cannot  go,  it  forms  the 
idea  of  duration  no  other  way :  and  if  what  we 
call  dufation  be  any  thing  different  from  this 
in  God,  it  is  not  duration,  properly  so  called, 
according  to  human  ideas  ;  it  is  something  else, 
for  which  there  is  no  name  among  men,  be- 
cause there  is  no  idea,  and  therefore  it  is  im- 
possible to  reason  about  it.  As  long  as  meta- 
physicians use  the  term,  they  must  take  the 
idea :  if  they  spurn  tlie  idea,  they  have  no 
right  to  the  term,  and  ought  at  once  to  con- 
fess that  they  can  go  no  farther.  Dr.  Cud- 
worth  def  nes  infinity  of  duration  to  be  no- 
thing else  but  perfection,  as  including  in  it 
necessary  existence  and  immutability.  This, 
it  is  true,  is  as  much  a  definition  of  the  moon, 
as  of  infinity  of  duration  ;  but  it  is  valuable,  as 
it  shows  that,  in  the  view  of  this  great  man, 
though  an  advocate  of  the  nunc  stans,  "the 
standing  now,"  of  eternity,  we  must  abandon 
the  term  duration,  if  we  give  up  the  only  idea 
under  w.'iich  it  can  be  conceived. 

4.  It  follows  from  this,  therefore,  that  either 


ETB 


356 


ETE 


we  must  apply  the  term  duration  to  the  divine 
Being  in  the  same  sense  in  which  we  apply  it 
to  creatures,  with  the  extension  of  the  idea  to 
a  duration  which  has  no  bounds  and  limits; 
or  blot  it  out  of  our  creeds,  as  a  word  to  which 
our  minds,  with  all  the  aid  they  may  derive 
from  the  labours  of  metaphysicians,  can  attach 
no  meaning.  The  only  objection  to  successive 
duration  as  applied  to  God,  which  has  any 
plausibility,  is,  that  it  seems  to  imply  change  ; 
but  this  wholly  arises  from  confounding  two 
very  distinct  things  ;  succession  in  the  dura- 
tion, and  change  in  the  substance.  Dr.  Cud- 
worth  appears  to  have  fallen  into  this  error. 
lie  speaks  of  the  duration  of  an  imperfect  na- 
ture, as  sliding  from  the  present  to  the  future, 
expecting  something  of  itself  which  is  not  yet 
in  being;  and  of  a  perfect  nature  being  essen- 
tially immutable,  having  a  permanent  and  un- 
changing duration,  never  losing  any  thing  of 
itself  once  present,  nor  yet  running  forward 
to  meet  something  cf  itself  which  is  not  yet  in 
being.  Now,  though  this  is  a  good  description 
of  a  perfect  and  immutable  nature,  it  is  no  de- 
scription at  all  of  an  eternally-enduring  na- 
ture. Duration  implies  no  loss  in  the  substance 
of  any  being,  nor  addition  to  it.  A  perfect 
nature  never  loses  any  thing  of  itself,  nor  ex- 
pects more  of  itself  than  is  possessed ;  but  this 
does  not  arise  from  the  attribute  of  its  duration, 
however  that  attribute  may  be  conceived  of, 
but  from  its  perfection  and  consequent  immu- 
tability. These  attributes  do  not  flow  from 
the  duration,  but  the  continuance  of  the  dura- 
tion from  them.  The  argument  is  clearly  good 
for  nothing,  unless  it  could  be  proved  that  suc- 
cessive duration  necessarily  implies  a  change 
in  the  nature  ;  but  that  is  contradicted  by  the 
experience  of  finite  beings, — their  natures  are 
not  at  all  determined  by  their  duration,  but 
their  duration  by  their  natures  ;  and  they  exist 
for  a  moment,  or  for  ages,  according  to  the 
nature  which  their  Maker  has  impressed  upon 
them.  If  it  be  said  that,  at  least,  successive 
duration  imports  that  a  being  loses  past  dura- 
tion, and  expects  the  arrival  of  future  existence, 
we  reply,  that  this  is  no  imperfection  at  all. 
Even  finite  creatures  do  not  feel  it  to  be  an 
imperfection  to  have  existed,  and  to  look  for 
continued  and  interminable  being.  It  is  true, 
with  the  past  we  lose  knowledge  and  pleasure  ; 
and  expecting  in  all  future  periods  increase  of 
knowledge  and  happiness,  we  are  reminded  by 
that  of  our  present  imperfection  ;  but  this  im- 
perfection does  not  arise  from  our  successive 
and  flowing  duration,  and  we  never  refer  it  to 
that.  It  is  not  the  past  which  takes  away  our 
knowledge  and  pleasure ;  nor  future  duration, 
simply  considered,  which  will  confer  the  in- 
crease of  both.  Our  imperfections  arise  out  of 
the  essential  nature  of  our  being,  not  out  of 
the  manner  in  which  our  being  is  continued. 
It  is  not  the  flow  of  our  duration,  but  the  flow 
of  our  nature,  which  produces  these  effects. 
On  the  contrary,  we  think  that  the  idea  of  our 
successive  duration,  that  is  of  continuance,  is 
an  advantage,  and  not  a  defect.  Let  all  ideas 
of  continuance  be  banished  from  the  mind,  let 
there  be  to  us  a  mine  semper  stans,  during  the 


whole  of  our  being,  and  we  appear  to  gain  no- 
thing, — our  pleasures  surely  are  not  diminish- 
ed by  the  idea  of  successive  duration  being 
added  to  present  enjoyment:  that  they  have 
been,  and  still  remain,  and  will  continue,  on 
the  contrary,  greatly  heightens  them.  With- 
out the  idea  of  a  flowing  duration,  we  could 
have  no  such  measure  of  the  continuance  of 
our  pleasures  ;  and  this  we  should  consider  an 
abatement  of  our  happiness.  What  is  so  ob- 
vious an  excellency  in  the  spirit  of  man,  and 
in  angelic  natures,  can  never  be  thought  an 
imperfection  in  God,  when  joined  with  a  nature 
essentially  perfect  and  immutable. 

5.  But  it  may  be  said,  that  "  eternal  duration, 
considered  as  successive,  is  only  an  artificial 
manner  of  measuring  and  conceiving  of  dura- 
tion ;  and  is  no  more  eternal  duration  itself 
than  minutes  and  moments,  the  artificial 
measures  of  time,  are  time  itself."  Were  this 
granted,  the  question  would  still  be,  whether 
there  is  any  thing  in  duration  considered  gene- 
rally, or  in  time  considered  specially,  which 
corresponds  to  these  artificial  methods  of 
measuring  and  conceiving  of  them.  The  ocean 
is  measured  by  leagues;  and  the  extension  of 
the  ocean,  and  the  measure  of  it,  are  distinct ; 
they,  nevertheless,  answer  to  each  other. 
Leagues  are  the  nominal  divisions  of  an  extend- 
ed surface  ;  but  there  is  a  real  extension,  which 
answers  to  the  artifical  conception  and  admea- 
surement of  it.  In  like  manner,  days,  and 
hours,  and  moments,  are  the  measures  of  time  : 
but  there  is  either  something  in  time  which 
answers  to  these  measures;  or  not  only  the 
measure,  but  the  thing  itself,  is  artificial — an 
imaginary  creation.  If  any  man  will  contend, 
that  the  period  of  duration  which  wTe  call  time 
is  nothing,  no  farther  dispute  can  be  held  with 
him ;  and  he  may  be  left  to  deny  also  the  ex- 
istence of  matter,  and  to  enjoy  his  philosophic 
revel  in  an  ideal  world.  We  apply  the  same 
argument  to  duration  generally,  whether  finite 
or  infinite.  Minutes  and  moments,  or  smaller 
portions,  for  which  we  have  no  name,  may  be 
artificial  things,  adopted  to  aid  our  concep- 
tions; but  conceptions  of  what?  Not  of  any 
thing  standing  still,  but  of  something  going  on. 
Of  duration  we  have  no  other  conception  ;  and 
if  there  be  nothing  in  nature  which  answers 
to  this  conception,  then  is  duration  itself  ima- 
ginary, and  we  discourse  cbout  nothing.  If 
the  duration  of  the  divine  Being  admits  not  of 
pa.st,  present,  and  future,  one  of  these  two- 
consequences  must  follow, — that  no  such  attri- 
bute as  that  of  eternity  belongs  to  him, — or 
that  there  is  no  power  in  the  human  mind  to 
conceive  of  it.  In  either  case,  the  Scriptures 
are  greatly  impugned;  for  "He  who  icas,  and 
is,  and  is  to  come,"  is  a  revelation  of  the  eternity 
of  God,  which  is  then  in  no  sense  true.  It  is 
not  true,  if  used  literally :  and  it  is  as  little  so,  if 
the  language  be  figurative  ;  for  the  figure  rests 
on  no  basis,  it  illustrates  nothing,  it  misleads. 
It  is,  however,  to  be  remembered,  that  the 
eternal,  supreme  cause,  must  of  necessity  have 
such  a  perfect,  independent,  unchangeable 
comprehension  of  all  things,  that  there  can  be 
no  one  point  or  instant  of  his  eternal  duration, 


EUN 


357 


EUT 


wherein  all  things  that  are  past,  present,  and 
to  come,  will  not  be  as  entirely  known  and 
represented  to  him  in  one  single  thought  or 
view,  and  all  things  present  and  future  be 
equally  entirely  in  his  power  and  direction ;  as 
if  there  was  really  no  succession  at  all,  but  all 
things  were  actually  present  at  once. 

6.  The  Hebrew  word  for  eternity  is  a1?!!'- 
This  is  its  proper  sense ;  but,  as  Gesenius  ob- 
serves, as  with  us  in  common  life,  it  is  often 
used  in  an  inaccurate  or  loose  manner  to  ex- 
press a  very  long  space  of  time.  So  it  is  ap- 
plied to  the  Jewish  priesthood  ;  to  the  Mosaic 
ordinances ;  to  the  possession  of  the  land  of 
Canaan;  to  the  hills  and  mountains;  to  the 
earth,  &c.  These  must,  however,  be  con- 
sidered as  exceptions  to  predominant  and  cer- 
tain usage. 

ETHAN,  the  Ezrahite,  one  of  the  wisest 
men  of  his  time  ;  nevertheless,  Solomon  was 
wiser  than  he,  1  Kings  iv,  31.  The  eighty- 
ninth  psalm  bears  the  name  of  Ethan  the  Ezra- 
hite. This  Ethan,  and  Ethan  son  of  Kishi, 
of  the  tribe  of  Levi,  and  of  the  family  of  Me- 
rari,  are  the  same  person,  1  Chron.  vi,  44.  He 
was  called  likewise  Idithun,  and  appears  under 
this  name  in  the  titles  to  several  psalms.  He 
was  a  principal  master  of  the  temple  music, 
1  Chron.  xv,  17,  &c. 

ETHANIM,  one  of  the  Hebrew  months, 
1  Kings  viii,  2.  In  this  month  the  temple  of 
Solomon  was  dedicated.  After  the  Jews  re- 
turned from  the  captivity,  the  month  Ethanim 
was  called  Tisri,  which  answers  to  our  Sep- 
tember. 

ETHIOPIA.     See  Cush. 

EUCHARIST,  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's 
Supper.  The  word,  in  its  original  Greek, 
£i/^nf,('s"(a,  properly  signifies  giving  thanks ; 
from  the  hymns  and  thanksgivings  which  ac- 
companied that  holy  service  in  the  primitive 
church.     See  Lord's  Supper. 

EUNICE,  the  mother  of  Timothy,  who  was 
a  Jewess  by  birth,  but  married  to  a  Greek, 
Timothy's  father,  2  Tim.  i,  5.  Eunice  had 
been  converted  to  Christianity  by  some  other 
preacher,  Acts  xvi,  1,  2,  and  not  by  St.  Paul; 
for  when  that  Apostle  came  to  Lystra,  he  found 
there  Eunice  and  Timothy,  already  far  ad- 
vanced in  grace  and  virtue. 

EUNUCH.  The  word  signifies,  one  who 
guards  the  bed.  In  the  courts  of  eastern  kings, 
the  care  of  the  beds  and  apartments  belonging 
to  princes  and  princesses,  was  generally  com- 
mitted to  eunuchs  ;  but  they  had  the  charge 
chiefly  of  the  princesses,  who  lived  secluded. 
The  Hebrew  saris  signifies  a  real  eunuch, 
whether  naturally  born  such,  or  rendered  such. 
But  in  Scripture  this  word  often  denotes  an 
officer  belonging  to  a  prince,  attending  his 
court,  and  employed  in  the  interior  of  his  pa- 
lace, as  a  name  of  office  and  dignity.  In  the 
Persian  and  Turkish  courts,  the  principal  em- 
ployments are  at  this  day  possessed  by  real 
eunuchs.  Our  Saviour  speaks  of  men  who 
"made  themselves  eunuchs  for  the  kingdom 
of  heaven,"  Matt.xix,  12;  that  is,  who,  from  a 
religious  motive,  renounced  marriage  or  carnal 
pleasures. 


EUPHRATES,  a  river  of  Asiatic  Turkey, 
which  rises  from  the  mountains  of  Armenia, 
as  some  have  said,  in  two  streams,  a  few  miles 
to  the  north-east  of  Erzeron,  the  streams  unit- 
ing to  the  south-west  near  that  city  ;  and  chiefly 
pursuing  a  south-west  direction  to  Semisat, 
where  it  would  fall  into  the  Mediterranean,  if 
not  prevented  by  a  high  range  of  mountain*. 
In  this  part  of  its  course  the  Euphrates  is 
joined  by  the  Morad,  a  stream  almost  doubling 
in  length  that  of*  the  Euphrates,  so  that  the 
latter  river  might  more  justly  be  said  to  spring 
from  Mount  Ararat,  about  one  hundred  and 
sixty  British  miles  to  the  east  of  the  imputed 
source.  At  Semisat,  the  ancient  Samosata, 
this  noble  river  assumes  a  southerly  direction, 
then  runs  an  extensive  course  to  the  south- 
east, and  after  receiving  the  Tigris,  falls  by 
two  or  three  mouths  into  the  gulf  of  Persia, 
about  fifty  miles  south-east  of  Bassora ;  north 
latitude  29°  50' ;  east  longitude  66°  55'.  The 
comparative  course  of  the  Euphrates  may  be 
estimated  at  about  one  thousand  four  hundred 
British  miles.  This  river  is  navigable  for  a 
considerable  distance  from  the  sea.  In  its 
course  it  separates  Aladulia  from  Armenia, 
Syria  from  Diarbekir,  and  Diarbekir  from 
Arabia,  and  passing  through  the  Arabian  Irak, 
joins  the  Tigris.  The  Euphrates  and  Tigris, 
the  most  considerable  as  well  as  the  most  re^ 
nowned  rivers  of  western  Asia,  are  remarkable 
for  their  rising  within  a  few  miles  of  each 
other,  running  the  same  course,  never  being 
more  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  asunder, 
and  sometimes,  before  their  final  junction,  ap- 
proaching within  fifteen  miles  of  each  other, 
as  in  the  latitude  of  Bagdad.  The  space  in- 
eluded  between  the  two  is  the  ancient  country 
of  Mesopotamia.  But  the  Euphrates  is  by  far 
the  more  noble  river  of  the  two.  Sir  R.  K. 
Porter,  describing  t"'is  river  in  its  course 
through  the  ruins  of  Babylon,  observes,  "The 
whole  view  was  particularly  solemn.  The 
majestic  stream  of  the  Euphrates  wandering  in 
solitude,  like  a  pilgrim  monarch  through  the 
silent  ruins  of  his  devastated  kingdom,  still 
appeared  a  noble  river,  even  under  all  the  dis- 
advantages of  its  desert-tracked  course.  Its 
banks  were  hoary  with  reeds ;  and  the  grey 
osier  willows  were  yet  there,  on  which  the 
captives  of  Israel  hung  up  their  harps,  and, 
while  Jerusalem  was  not,  refused  to  be  com- 
forted." The  Scripture  calls  it  "  the  great 
river,"  and  assigns  it  for  the  eastern  boundary 
of  that  land  which  God  promised  to  the  Israel- 
ites, Deut.  i,  7  ;  Joshua  i,  1. 

EUROCLYDON,  the  Greek  name  for  the 
north-east  wind,  very  dangerous  at  sea,  of  the 
nature  of  a  whirlwind,  which  falls  of  a  sudden 
upon  ships,  Acts  xxvii,  14.  The  same  v,  :;:u  is 
now  called  a  Levanter. 

EUTYCHIANS,  a  denomination  which 
arose,  in  the  fifth  century,  and  were  so  called 
from  Eutyches,  abbot  of  a  certain  convent  of 
monks  at  Constantinople.  The  Nestorians  hav- 
ing explained  the  two  natures  in  Christ  in  such 
a  manner  as,  in  the  oj  inion  of  many,  to  make 
them  equivalent  to  two  persons,  which  was  an 
evident  absurdity,  Eutyches,  to  avoid  this  error, 


EVI 


358 


EVI 


fell  into  the  oppoidte  extreme, and  maintained 
that  there  wan  only  one  nature  in  Jesus  Christ, 
the  divine  nature,  which,  according  to  him, 
had  so  entirely  swallowed  up  the  human,  that 
the  latter  could  not  be  distinguished.  Hence 
it  was  inferred  that  according  to  this  system 
our  Lord  had  nothing  of  humanity  but  the  ap- 
pearance. 

EVANGELISTS,  the  inspired  authors  of 
the  Gospels.  The  word  is  derived  from  the 
Greek,  evayrihov,  formed  of  tv,  bene,  "well,"  and 
ayrtXo?,  angel,  messenger.  The  name  of  evan- 
gelists is  said  by  some  to  have  been  given  in  the 
ancient  church  to  such  as  preached  the  Gospel 
without  being  attached  to  any  particular  church, 
being  either  commissioned  by  the  Apostles  to 
instruct  the  nations,  or,  of  their  own  accord, 
abandoning  every  worldly  attachment,  conse- 
crated themselves  to  the  sacred  office  of  preach- 
ing the  Gospel.  In  which  sense  these  inter- 
preters think  it  is  that  St.  Philip,  who  was  one 
of  the  seven  deacons,  is  called  "the  evangelist" 
in  Acts  xxi,  8 ;  and  that  St.  Paul,  writing  to 
Timothy,  bids  him  do  the  work  of  an  evange- 
list, 2  Tim.  iv,  5.  It  is,  however,  to  be  remarked, 
that  tho  office  in  which  the  evangelists  chiefly 
present  themselves  to  our  notice  in  the  New 
Testament,  is  that  of  assistants  to  the  Apostles ; 
.or,  as  they  might  be  termed  vice  apostles,  who 
acted  under  their  authority  and  direction.  As 
they  were  directed  to  ordain  pastors  or  bishops 
An  the  churches,  but  had  no  authority  giveTi 
them  to  ordain  successors  to  themselves  in 
their  particular  office  as  evangelists,  whatever 
it  might  be,  they  must  be  considered  as  but 
temporary  officers  in  the  church,  like  the 
Apostles  and  prophets.  The  term  evangelist 
is,  at  present,  confined  to  the  writers  of  the  four 
Gospels. 

EVE,  the  first  woman.  She  was  called  nin, 
Gen.  iii,  20,  a  word  that  signifies  life,  because 
she  was  to  be  the  mother  of  all  that  live.  Our 
translators,  therefore,  might  have  called  her 
Life,  as  the  Septuagint,  who  render  the  He- 
brew word  by  Zwn.  'Soon  after  the  expulsion 
of  the  first  pair  from  paradise,  Eve  conceived 
and  bare  a  son  ;  and  imagining,  as  is  probable, 
that  she  had  given  birth  to  the  promised  seed, 
she  called  his  name  Cain,  which  signifies  pos- 
session, saying,  "  I  have  gotten  a  man  from 
the  Lord."  She  afterward  had  Abel,  and  some 
daughters,  and  then  Seth.  The  Scriptures 
name  only  these  three  sons  of  Adam  and  Eve, 
but  sufficiently  inform  us,  Gen.  v,  4,  that  they 
had  many  more,  saying,  that  "  Adam  lived, 
after  he  had  begotten  Seth,  eight  hundred 
years,  and  begat  sons  and  daughters."  See 
Adam. 

EVIL  is  distinguished  into  natural  and 
moral.  Natural  evil  is  whatever  destroys  or 
any  way  disturbs  the  pesfection  of  natural 
beings,  such  as  blindness,  diseases,  death,  &c. 
Moral  evil  is  the  disagreement  between  the 
actions  of  a  moral  agent,  and  the  rule  of  those 
actions,  whatever  it  be.  Applied  to  choice,  or 
acting  contrary  to  the  moral  or  revealed  laws 
of  the  Deity,  it  is  termed  wickedness,  or  sin. 
Applied  to  an  act  contrary  to  a  mere  rule  of 
fitness,  it  is  called  a  fault.     The  question  con- 


cerning the  origin  of  evil  has  very  much  per- 
plexed philosophers  and  divines,  both  ancient 
and  modern.  Plato,  for  the  solution  of  this 
question,  maintained,  that  matter,  from  its 
nature,  possesses  a  blind  and  refractory  force, 
from  which  arises  in  it  a  propensity  to  disorder 
and  deformity  ;  and  that  this  is  the  cause  of  all 
the  imperfection  which  appears-  in  the  works 
of  God,  and  the  origin  of  evil.  Matter,  he  con- 
ceives, resists  the  will  of  the  supreme  Artificer, 
so  that  he  cannot  possibly  execute  his  designs ; 
and  this  is  the  cause  of  the  mixture  of  good 
and  evil,  which  is  found  in  the  material  world. 
"  It  cannot  be,"  says  he,  "  that  evil  should  be 
destroyed,  for  there  must  always  be  something 
contrary  to  good ;"  and  again,  "  God  wills,  as 
far  as  it  is  possible,  every  thing  good,  and 
nothing  evil."  What  that  property  of  matter 
is  which  opposes  the  wise  and  benevolent  in- 
tentions of  the  first  Intelligence,  Plato  has  not 
clearly  explained ;  but  he  speaks  of  it  as  £t'/<0v- 
ros  [Tndv/jila,  an  innate  propensity  to  disorder, 
and  says,  that  before  nature  was  adorned  with 
its  present  beautiful  forms,  it  was  inclined  to 
confusion  and  deformity,  and  that  from  this 
habitude  arises  all  the  evil  which  happens  in 
the  world.  Plutarch  supposes  the  Platonic 
notion  to  be,  that  there  is  in  matter  an  uncon- 
scious, irrational  soul ;  and  this  supposition  has 
been  adopted  by  several  modern  writers.  But 
the  writings' of  Plato  afford  no  evidence  that 
he  conceived  the  imperfection  of  matter  to 
arise  from  any  cause  distinct  from  its  nature. 
Such  a  notion  is  incongruous  with  Plato's  ge- 
neral system,  and  is  contrary  to-  the  doctrine 
of  the  Pythagorean  school,  to  which  he  was 
probably  indebted  for  his  notions  on  this  sub- 
ject ;  for  the  philosophers  of  that  sect  held  that 
motion  is  the  effect  of  a  power  essential  to 
matter.  Some  of  the  Stoics  adopted  the  notion 
of  the  Platonists  concerning  the  origin  of  evil, 
and  ascribed  it  to  the  defective  nature  of  mat- 
ter, which  it  is  not  in  the  power  of  the  great 
Artificer  to  change  ;  asserting,  that  imperfec- 
tions appear  in  the  world,  not  through  any  de- 
fect of  skill  in  its  author,  but  because  matter 
will  not  admit  of  the  accomplishment  of  his 
designs.  But  it  was  perceived  by  others,  that 
this  hypothesis  was  inconsistent  with  the  fun- 
damental doctrine  of  the  Stoics  concerning 
nature.  For  since,  according  to  their  system, 
matter  itself  receives  all  its  qualities  from  God, 
if  its  defects  be  the  cause  of  evil,  these  defects 
must  be  ultimately  ascribed  to  him.  No  other 
way  of  relieving  this  difficulty  remained,  than 
to  have  recourse  to  fate,  and  say,  that  evil  was 
the  necessary  consequence  of  that  eternal  ne- 
cessity to  which  the  great  whole,  comprehend- 
ing both  God  and  matter,  is  subject.  Thus, 
when  Chrysippus  was  asked  whether  diseases 
were  to  be  ascribed  to  Divine  providence,  he 
replied  that  it  was  not  the  intention  of  nature 
that  these  things  should  happen  ;  nor  were  they 
conformable  to  the  will  of  the  Author  of  nature 
and  Parent  of  all  good  things  ;  but  that,  in 
framing  tne  world,  some  inconveniences  had 
adhered  by  necessary  consequence,  to  his  wise 
and  useful  plan.  To  others  the  question  con- 
cerning the  origin  of  evil  appeared  so  intricate 


EVI 


359 


EXC 


and  difficult,  that,  finding  themselves  unequal 
to  the  solution  of  it,  they  denied  either  that 
there  is  any  God  at  all,  or,  at  least,  any  author 
or  governor  of  the  world.  The  Epicureans 
belonged  to  this  class ;  nor  does  Lucretius 
allege  any  other  reason  for  denying  the  system 
of  the  world  to  be  the  production  of  a  Deity 
beside  its  being  so  very  faulty.  Others  again 
judged  it  to  bo  more  rational  to  assign  a  double 
cause  of  visible  effects,  than  to  assign  no  cause 
at  all ;  as  nothing,  indeed,  can  be  more  absurd 
than  to  admit  actions  and  effects  without  any 
agent  and  cause.  These  persons  perceiving  a 
mixture  of  good  and  evil,  and  being  persuaded 
that  so  many  inconsistencies  and  disorders 
could  not  proceed  from  a  good  being,  supposed 
the  existence  of  a  malevolent  principle,  or  god, 
directly  contrary  to  the  good  one ;  hence  they 
derived  corruption  and  death,  diseases,  griefs, 
mischiefs,  frauds,  and  villanies,  while  from 
the  good  being  they  deduced  nothing  but 
good.  This  opinion  was  held  by  many  of  the 
ancients ;  by  the  Persian  magi,  Manicheans, 
Paulicians,  &.c. 

2.  Dr.  Samuel  Clarke,  in  his  "Demonstra- 
tion of  the  Being  and  Attributes  of  God,"  de- 
duces from  the  possibility  and  real  existence 
of  human  liberty  an  answer  to  the  question, 
What  is  the  cause  and  original  of  evil  ?  For 
liberty,  he  says,  implying  a  natural  power  of 
doing  evil,  as  well  as  good;  and  the  imperfect 
nature  of  finite  beings  making  it  possible  for 
them  to  abuse  this  their  liberty  to  an  actual 
commission  of  evil;  and  it  being  necessary  to 
the  order  and  beauty  of  the  whole,  and  for  dis- 
playing the  infinite  wisdom  of  the  Creator, 
that  there  should  be  different  and  various  de- 
grees of  creatures,  whereof,  consequently,  some 
must  be  less  perfect  than  others ;  hence  there 
necessarily  arises  a  possibility  of  evil,  notwith- 
standing that  the  Creator  is  infinitely  good. 
In  short  thus  :  all  that  we  call  evil  is  either  an 
evil  of  imperfection,  as  the  want  of  certain 
faculties  and  excellencies  which  other  crea- 
tures have  ;  or  natural  evil,  as  pain,  death,  and 
the  like ;  or  moral  evil,  as  all  kinds  of  vice. 
'The  first  of  these  is  not  properly  an  evil :  for 
every  power,  faculty,  or  perfection,  which  any 
creature  enjoys,  being  the  free  gift  of  God, 
which  he  was  no  more  obliged  to  bestow,  than 
he  was  to  confer  being  or  existence  itself,  it  is 
plain  the  want  of  any  certain  faculty  or  per- 
fection in  any  kind  of  creatures  which  never 
belonged  to  their  nature,  is  no  more  an  evil  to 
them  than  their  never  having  been  created,  or 
brought  into  being  at  all,  could  properly  have 
been  called  an  evil.  The  second  kind  of  evil, 
which  we  call  natural  evil,  is  either  a  neces- 
sary consequence  of  the  former ;  as  death,  to 
a  creature  on  whose  nature  immortality  was 
never  conferred;  and  then  it  is  no  more  pro- 
perly an  evil  than  the  former;  or  else  it  is 
counterpoised,  in  the  whole,  with  as  great  or 
greater  good,  as  the  afflictions  and  sufferings 
of  good  men,  and  then  also  it  is  not  properly 
an  evil ;  or  else,  lastly,  it  is  a  punishment ;  and 
then  it  is  a  necessary  consequent  of  the  third 
and  last  sort  of  evil,  namely,  moral  evil.  And 
this  arises  wholly  from  the  abuse  of  liberty, 


which  God  gave  to  his  creatures  for  other  pur- 
poses, and  which  it  was  reasonable  and  fit  to 
give  them  for  the  perfection  and  order  of  the 
whole  creation ;  only  they,  contrary  to  God's 
intention  and  command,  have  abused  what 
was  necessary  for  the  perfection  of  the  whole, 
to  the  corruption  and  depravation  of  them- 
selves. And  thus  all  sorts  of  evils  have  enter- 
ed into  the  world,  without  any  diminution  to 
the  infinite  goodness  of  its  Creator  and  Go- 
vernor. 

3.  This  is  obviously  all  the  answer  which 
the  question  respecting  the  origin  of  evil  is 
capable  of  receiving.  It  brings  us  to  the  point 
to  which  the  Scriptures  themselves  lead  us. 
And  though  many  questions  may  yet  be  asked, 
respecting  a  subject  so  mysterious  as  the  per- 
mission of  evil  by  the  Supreme  Being,  this  is 
a  part  of  his  counsels  of  which  we  can  have  no 
cognizance,  unless  he  is  pleased  to  reveal 
them ;  and  as  revelation  is  silent  upon  this 
subject,  except  generally,  that  all  his  acts,  his 
permissive  ones  as  well  as  others,  are  "  wise, 
and  just,  and  good,"  we  may  rest  assured,  that 
beyond  what  is  revealed,  human  wisdom  in  the 
present  state  can  never  penetrate. 

EXCOMMUNICATION,  is  the  judicial  ex- 
elusion  of  offenders  from  the  religious  rites 
and  other  privileges  of  the  particular  commu- 
nity to  which  they  belong.  Founded  in  the 
natural  right  which  every  society  possesses  to 
guard  its  laws  and  privileges  from  violation 
and  abuse  by  the  infliction  of  salutary  disci- 
pline, proportioned  to  the  nature  of  the  offences 
committed  against  them,  it  has  found  a  place, 
in  one  form  or  another,  under  every  system  of 
religion,  whether  human  or  divine.  That  it 
has  been  made  an  engine  for  the  gratification 
of  private  malice  and  revenge,  and  been  per- 
verted to  purposes  the  most  unjustifiable  and 
even  diabolical,  the  history  of  the  world  but 
too  lamentably  proves ;  yet  this,  though  un- 
questionably a  consideration  which  ought  to 
inculcate  the  necessity  of  prudence,  as  well  as 
impartiality  and  temperance  in  the  use  of  it, 
affords  no  valid  argument  against  its  legitimate 
exercise.  From  St.  Paul's  writings  we  learn 
that  the  early  excommunication  was  effected 
by  the  offender  not  being  allowed  to  "eat" 
with  the  church,  that  is,  to  partake  of  the 
Lord's  Supper,  the  sign  of  communion.  In 
the  early  ages  of  the  primitive  church  also, 
this  branch  of  discipline  was  exercised  with 
moderation,  which,  however,  gradually  gave 
place  to  an  undue  severity.  From  Tertullian's 
"  Apology"  we  learn,  that  the  crimes  which  in 
his  time  subjected  to  exclusion  from  Christian 
privileges,  were  murder,  idolatry,  theft,  fraud, 
lying,  blasphemy,  adultery,  fornication,  and 
the  like  :  and  in  Origen's  treatise  against  Cel- 
sus,  we  are  informed  that  such  persons  were 
expelled  from  the  communion  of  the  church, 
and  lamented  as  lost  and  dead  unto  God ;  [lit 
perdiios  Deoque  mortuos;]  but  that  on  making 
confession  and  giving  evidence  of  penitence, 
they  were  received  back  as  restored  to  life.  It 
was  at  the  same  time  specially  ordained,  that 
no  such  delinquent,  however  suitably  qualified 
in  other  respects,  could  be  afterward  admitted 


EXC 


360 


EXP 


to  any  ecclesiastical  office.  Bat  it  does  not 
appear  that  the  infliction  of  this  discipline  was 
accompanied  with  any  of  those  forms  of  ex- 
I'oiiuimnication,  of  delivering  over  to  Satan,  or 
of  solemn  execration,  which  were  usual  among 
the  Jews,  and  subsequently  introduced  into 
them  by  the  Romish  church.  The  authors  and 
followers  of  heretical  opinions  which  had  been 
condemned,  were  also*  subject  to  this  penalty ; 
and  it  was  sometimes  inflicted  on  whole  con- 
gregations when  they  were  judged  to  have  de- 
parted from  the  faith.  In  this  latter  case, 
however,  the  sentence  seldom  went  farther 
than  the  interdiction  of  correspondence  with 
these  churches,  or  of  spiritual  communication 
between  their  respective  pastors.  To  the  same 
exclusion  from  religious  privileges,  those  un- 
happy persons  were  doomed,  who,  whether 
from  choice  or  from  compulsion,  had  polluted 
themselves,  after  their  baptism,  by  any  act  of 
idolatrous  worship ;  and  the  penance  enjoined 
on  such  persons,  before  they  could  be  restored 
to  communion,  was  often  peculiarly  severe. 
The  consequences  of  excommunication,  even 
then,  were  of  a  temporal  as  well  as  a  spiritual 
nature.  The  person  against  whom  it  was 
pronounced,  was  denied  all  share  in  the  obla- 
tions of  his  brethren  ;  the  ties  both  of  religious 
and  of  private  friendship  were  dissolved ;  he 
found  himself  an  object  of  abhorrence  to  those 
whom  he  most  esteemed,  and  by  whom  he  had 
been  most  tenderly  beloved ;  and,  as  far  as  ex- 
pulsion from  a  society  held  in  universal  vene- 
ration could  imprint  on  his  character  a  mark 
of  disgrace,  he  was  shunned  or  suspected  by 
the  generality  of  mankind. 

2.  It  was  not,  however,  till  churchmen  be- 
gan to  unite  temporal  with  spiritual  power, 
that  any  penal  effects  of  a  civil  kind  became 
consequent  on  their  sentences  of  excommuni- 
cation ;  and  that  this  ghostly  artillery  was  not 
less  frequently  employed  for  the  purposes  of 
lawless  ambition  and  ecclesiastical  domina- 
tion, than  for  the  just  punishment  of  impeni- 
tent delinquents,  and  the  general  edification 
of  the  faithful.  But  as  soon  as  this  union 
took  place,  and  in  exact  proportion  to  the  de- 
gree in  which  the  papal  system  rose  to  its  pre- 
dominance over  the  civil  right?  as  well  as  the 
consciences  of  men,  the  list  of  offences  which 
subjected  their  perpetrators  to  excommunica- 
tion, was  multiplied ;  and  the  severity  of  its 
inflictions,  with  their  penal  effects,  increased 
in  the  same  ratio.  The  slightest  injury,  or  even 
insult,  sustained  by  an  ecclesiastic,  was  deem- 
ed a  sufficient  cause  for  the  promulgation  of 
an  anathema.  Whole  families,  and  even  pro- 
vinces, were  prohibited  from  engaging  in  any 
religious  exercise,  and  cursed  with  the  most 
tremendous  denunciations  of  divine  vengeance. 
Nor  were  kings  and  emperors  secure  against 
these  thunders  of  the  church ;  their  subjects 
were,  on  many  occasions,  declared,  by  a  papal 
bull,  to  be  absolved  from  allegiance  to  them ; 
and  all  who  should  dare  to  support  them, 
menaced  with  a  similar  judgment.  These 
terrors  have  passed  away;  the  true  Scriptural 
excommunication  ought  to  be  maintained  in 
every  church ;  which  is  the  prohibition  of  im- 


moral and  apostate  persons  from  the  use  of 
those  religious  rites  which  indicate  "  the  com- 
munion of  saints,"  but  without  any  temporal 
penalty. 

EXODUS,  from  !{,  out,  and  bios,  a  way,  the 
name  of  the  second  book  of  Moses,  and  is  so 
called  in  the  Greek  version  because  it  relates 
to  the  departure  of  the  Israelites  out  of  Egypt. 
It  comprehends  the  history  of  about  a  hundred 
aud  forty-five  years;  and  the  principal  events 
contained  in  it  are,  the  bondage  of  the  Israel- 
ites in  Egypt,  and  their  miraculous  deliverance 
by  the  hand  of  Moses ;  their  entrance  into  the 
wilderness  of  Sinai ;  the  promulgation  of  the 
law,  and  the  building  of  the  tabernacle.  See 
Pentateuch. 

EXPIATION,  a  religious  act,  by  which 
satisfaction  or  atonement  is  made  for  the  com- 
mission of  some  crime,  the  guilt  done  away, 
and  the  obligation  to  punishment  cancelled. 
The  chief  methods  of  expiation  among  the 
Jews  were  by  sacrifices ;  and  it  is  important 
always  to  recollect  that  the  Levitical  sacrifices 
were  of  an  expiatory  character ;  because  as 
among  the  Jews  sacrifices  were  unquestionably 
of  divine  original,  and  as  the  terms  taken  from 
them  are  found  applied  so  frequently  to  Christ 
and  to  his  sufferings  in  the  New  Testament, 
they  serve  to  explain  that  peculiarity  under 
which  the  Apostles  regarded  the  death  of 
Christ,  and  afford  additional  proof  that  it  was 
considered  by  them  as  a  sacrifice  of  expiation, 
as  the  grand  universal  sin-offering  for  the 
whole  world.  For  our  Lord  is  announced  by 
John  as  "the  Lamb  of  God;"  and  that  not 
with  reference  to  meekness  or  any  other  moral 
virtue ;  but  with  an  accompanying  phrase, 
which  would  communicate  to  a  Jew  the  full 
sacrificial  sense  of  the  term  employed,  "the 
Lamb  of  God,  which  taketh  away  the  sin  of 
the  world."  He  is  called  "  our  Passover,  sac. 
rificed  for  us."  He  is  said  to  have  given 
"  himself  for  us,  an  offering  and  a  sacrifice  to 
God,  for  a  sweet-smelling  savour."  As  a  priest, 
it  was  necessary  "  he  should  have  somewhat  to 
offer;"  and  he  offered  "himself,"  "his  own 
blood,"  to  which  is  ascribed  the  washing  away 
of  sin,  and  our  eternal  redemption.  He  is  de- 
clared to  have  "  put  away  sin  by  the  sacrifice 
of  himself,"  to  have  "by  himself  purged  our 
sins,"  to  have  "sanctified  the  people  by  his 
own  blood,"  to  have  "  offered  to  God  one  sac- 
rifice for  sins."  Add  to  these,  and  to  innu- 
merable other  similar  expressions  and  allusions, 
the  argument  of  the  Apostle  in  the  Epistle  to 
the  Hebrews,  in  which,  by  proving  at  length, 
that  the  sacrifice  of  Christ  was  superior  in  effi- 
cacy to  the  sacrifices  of  the  law,  he  most  un- 
equivocally assumes,  ihat  the  death  of  Christ 
was  a  sacrifice  and  sin-offering;  for  without 
that  it  would  no  more  have  been  capable  of 
comparison  with  the  sacrifices  of  the  law,  than 
the  death  of  John  the  Baptist,  St.  Stephen,  or 
St.  James,  all  martyrs  and  sufferers  for  the 
truth,  who  had  recently  sealed  their  testimony 
with  their  blood.  This  very  comparison,  we 
may  affirm,  is  utterly  unaccountable  and  absurd 
on  any  hypothesis  which  denies  the  sacrifice 
of  Christ ;  for  what  relation  could  his  death 


EXP 


361 


EXP 


have  to  the  Levitical  immolations  and  offer- 
ings, if  it  had  no  sacrificial  character?  Nothing 
could,  in  fact,  be  more  misleading,  and  even 
absurd,  than  to  apply  those  terms  which,  both 
among  Jews  and  Gentiles,  were  in  use  to  ex- 
press the  various  processes  and  means  of  atone- 
ment and  piacular  propitiation,  if  the  Apostles 
and  Christ  himself  did  not  intend  to  represent 
his  death  strictly  as  an  expiation  for  sin : — 
misleading,  because  such  would  be  the  natural 
and  necessary  inference  from  the  terms  them- 
selves, which  had  acquired  this  as  their  esta- 
blished meaning : — and  absurd,  because  if,  as 
Socinians  say,  they  used  them  metaphorically, 
there  was  not  even  an  ideal  resemblance  be- 
tween the  figure  and  that  which  it  was  intend- 
ed to  illustrate.  So  totally  irrelevant,  indeed, 
will  those  terms  appear  to  any  notion  enter- 
tained of  the  death  of  Christ  which  excludes 
its  expiatory  character,  that  to  assume  that  our 
Lord  and  his  Apostles  used  them  as  metaphors, 
is  profanely  to  assume  them  to  be  such  writers 
as  would  not  in  any  other  case  be  tolerated ; 
writers  wholly  unacquainted  with  the  com- 
monest rules  of  language,  and  therefore  wholly 
unfit  to  be  teachers  of  others,  and  that  not  only 
in  religion  but  in  things  of  inferior  importance. 
2.  The  use  of  such  terms,  we  have  said, 
would  not  only  be  wholly  absurd,  but  crimi- 
nally misleading  to  the  Gentiles,  as  well  as  to 
the  Jews,  who  were  first  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity. To  them  the  notion  of  propitiatory 
offerings,  offerings  to  avert  the  displeasure  of 
the  gods,  and  which  expiated  the  crimes  of 
offenders,  was  most  familiar,  and  terms  corre- 
sponding to  it  were  in  constant  use.  The  bold 
denial  of  this  by  Dr.  Priestley  might  well  bring 
upon  him  the  reproof  of  Archbishop  Magee, 
who,  after  establishing  this  point  from  the 
Greek  and  Latin  writers,  observes,  "  So  clearly 
does  their  language  announce  the  notion  of  a 
propitiatory  atonement,  that  if  we  would  avoid 
an  imputation  on  Dr.  Priestley's  fairness,  we 
are  driven,  of  necessity,  to  question  the  extent 
of  his  acquaintance  with  those  writers."  The 
reader  may  consult  the  instances  given  by  this 
writer,  in  No.  5  of  his  "Illustrations,"  ap- 
pended to  his  "  Discourses  on  the  Atonement ;" 
and  also  the  tenth  chapter  of  Grotius  "  De 
Satisfaclioue,"  whose  learning  has  most  amply 
illustrated  and  firmly  settled  this  view  of  the 
Heathen  sacrifices.  The  use  to  be  made  of 
this  in  the  argument  is,  that  as  the  Apostles 
found  the  very  terms  they  used  with  reference 
to  the  nature  and  efficacy  of  the  death  of  Christ, 
fixed  in  an  expiatory  signification  among  the 
Greeks,  they  could  not,  in  honesty,  use  them 
in  a  distant  figurative  sense,  much  less  in  a 
contrary  one,  without  giving  their  readers  due 
notice  of  their  having  invested  them  with  a 
new  import.  From  ayos,  a  pollution,  an  impu- 
rity, which  was  to  be  expiated  by  sacrifice,  are 
derived  ayw'fw  and  ayid^o,  which  denote  the  act 
of  expiation ;  Kadatpw,  too,  to  purify,  cleanse,  is 
applied  to  the  effect  of  expiation  ;  and  WdaKo^ai 
denotes  the  method  of  propitiating  the  gods  by 
sacrifice.  These,  and  other  words  of  similar 
import,  are  used  by  the  authors  of  the  Sep- 
tuagint,  and  by  the  Evangelists  and  Apostles; 


I  but  they  give  no  premonition  of  using  them  in 
any  strange  and  altered  sense;  and  when  they 
|  apply  them  to  the  death  of  Christ,  they  must, 
j  therefore,  be  understood  to  use  them  in  their 
received  meaning.  In  like  manner  the  Jews 
had  their  expiatory  sacrifices,  and  the  terms 
and  phrases  used  in  them  are,  in  like  manner, 
employed  by  the  Apostles  to  characterize  the 
death  of  their  Lord  ;  and  they  would  have  been 
as  guilty  of  misleading  their  Jewish  as  their 
Gentile  readers,  had  they  employed  them  in  a 
new  sense,  and  without  warning,  which,  un- 
questionably, they  never  gave. 

3.  As  to  the  expiatory  nature  of  the  sacri- 
fices  of  the  law,   it   is   not   required   by  the 
argument  to  show  that  all  the  Levitical  offer- 
ings were  of  this  character.     There  were  also 
offerings  for  persons  and  for  things  prescribed 
for   purification,  which  were  incidental ;    but 
even  they  grew  out  of  the  leading  notion  of 
expiatory  sacrifice,  and  that  legal  purification 
which  resulted  from  the  forgiveness  of  sins.  It 
is  enough  to  prove,  that  the  grand  and  emi 
nent  sacrifices  of  the  Jews  were  strictly  expi- 
atory,   and   that   by  them   the   offerers    were 
released  from  punishment  and  death,  for  which 
ends  they  were   appointed  by  the  Lawgiver. 
When  we  speak,  too,  of  vicarious  sacrifice,  we 
do  not  mean  cither,  on  the  one  hand,  such  a 
substitution  as  that  the  victim  should  bear  the 
same  quantum   of  pain   and  suffering  as  the 
offender  himself;  or,  on  the  other,  that  it  was 
put  in  the  place  of  the  offender  as  a  mere  sym- 
bolical act,  by  which  he  confessed  his  desert  of 
punishment;  but  a  substitution  made  by  divine 
appointment,  by  which  the  victim  was  exposed 
to  sufferings  and  death  instead  of  the  offender, 
in  virtue  of  which  the  offenaer  himself  was 
released.     With  this  view,  one  can  scarcely 
conceive  why  so  able  a  writer  as  Archbishop 
Magee  should  prefer  to  use  the  term,  "vica- 
rious import,"  rather  than  the  simple  and  esta- 
blished term,  "vicarious;"  since  the  Antino- 
mian  notion  of  substitution  may  be  otherwise 
sufficiently  guarded  against,   and   the  phrase 
"vicarious    import"    is-   certainly    capable    of 
being  resolved  into  that  figurative  notion  of 
mere  symbolical  action,  which,  however  plau- 
sible, does  in  fact  deprive  the  ancient  sacrifices 
of  their  typical,  and  the  oblation  of  Christ  of 
its  real,  efficacy.      Vicarious  acting,  is  acting 
for  another  ;  vicarious  suffering,  is  suffering  for 
another ;  but  the  nature  and  circumstances  of 
that  suffering  in  the  case  of  Christ  are  to  be 
determined    by  the  doctrine    of  Scripture  at 
large,  and  not  wholly  by  the  term  itself,  which 
is,  however,  useful  for  this  purpose,  (and  there- 
fore  to  be   preserved,)   that   it   indicates    the 
sense  in  which  those  who  use  it  understand 
the  declaration  of  Scripture,  "  Christ  died  for 
us,"  so  as  that   he  died  not  merely  for  our 
benefit,  but  in  our  stead ;  in  other  words,  that, 
but  for  his  having  died,  those  who  believe  in 
him  would  personally  have  suffered  that  death 
which  is  the  penalty  of  every  violation  of  the 
law  of  God. 

4.  That  sacrifices  under  the  law  were  expi- 
atory and  vicarious,  admits  of  abundant  proof. 

The  chief  objections  made  to  this  doctrine 


EXP 


362 


EXP 


are,  (1.)  That  under  the  law  in  all  capital  cases, 
the  offender,  upon  legal  proof  or  conviction, 
was  doomed  to  die,  and  that  no  sacrifice  could 
exempt  him  from  the  penalty.  (2.)  That  in  all 
lower  cases  to  which  the  law  had  not  attached 
capital  punishment,  but  pecuniary  mulcts,  or 
personal  labour  or  servitude  upon  their  non- 
payment, this  penalty  was  to  be  strictly  exe- 
cuted, and  none  could  plead  any  privilege  or 
exemption  on  account  of  sacrifice ;  and  that 
when  sacrifices  were  ordained  with  a  pecuniary 
mulct,  they  are  to  be  regarded  in  the  light  of 
fine,  one  part  of  which  was  paid  to  the  state, 
the  other  to  the  church.  This  was  the  mode 
of  argument  adopted  by  the  author  of  "the 
Moral  Philosopher;"  and  nothing  of  weight 
has  been  added  to  these  objections  since  his 
day.  Now,  much  of  this  may  be  granted, 
without  any  prejudice  to  the  argument;  and, 
indeed,  is  no  more  than  the  most  orthodox 
writers  on  this  subject  have  often  remarked. 
The  law,  under  which  the  Jews  were  placed, 
was  at  once,  as  to  them,  both  a  moral  and  a 
political  law ;  and  the  Lawgiver  excepted 
certain  offences  from  the  benefit  of  pardon, 
because  that  would  have  been  exemption  from 
temporal  death,  which  was  the  state  penalty. 
He  therefore  would  accept  no  atonement  for 
such  transgressions.  Blasphemy,  idolatry, 
murder,  and  adultery,  were  the  "  presumptuous 
sins"  which  were  thus  exempted  ;  and  the  rea- 
son will  be  seen  in  the  political  relation  of  the 
people  to  God  ;  for  in  refusing  to  exempt  them 
from  punishment  in  this  world,  respect  was 
had  to  the  order  and  benefit  of  society.  Run- 
ning parallel,  however,  with  this  political  ap- 
plication of  the  law  to  the  Jews  as  subjects  of 
the  theocracy,  we  see  the  authority  of  the 
moral  law  kept  over  them  as  men  and  crea- 
tures; and  if  these  "presumptuous  sins,"  of 
blasphemy  and  idolatry,  of  murder  and  adul- 
tery, and  a  few  others,  were  the  only  capital 
crimes  considered  politically,  they  were  not 
the  only  capital  crimes  considered  morally ; 
that  is,  there  were  other  crimes  which  would 
have  subjected  the  offender  to  death,  but  for 
this  provision  of  expiatory  oblations.  The 
true  question  then  is,  whether  such  sacrifices 
were  appointed  by  God,  and  accepted  instead 
of  the  personal  punishment  or  life  of  the  of- 
fender, which  otherwise  would  have  been  for- 
feited, as  in  the  other  cases;  and  if  so,  if  the 
life  of  animal  sacrifices  was  accepted  instead 
of  the  life  of  man,  then  the  notion  that  "they 
were  mere  mulcts  and  pecuniary  penalties" 
falls  to  the  ground,  and  the  vicarious  nature  of 
most  of  the  Levitical  oblations  is  established. 
That  other  offences,  beside  those  above  men- 
tioned, were  capital,  that  is,  exposed  the  of- 
fender to  death,  is  clear  from  this,  that  all 
offences  against  the  law  had  this  capital 
character.  As  death  was  the  sanction  of  the 
commandment  given  to  Adam,  so  every  one 
who  transgressed  any  part  of  the  law  of  Mo- 
ses became  guilty  of  death ;  every  man  was 
"  accursed,"  that  is,  devoted  to  die,  who  "con- 
tinued not  in  all  things  written  in  the  book  of 
the  law."  "The  man  only  that  doeth  these 
things  shall  live  by  them,"  was  the  rule ;  and 


it  was,  therefore,  to  redeem  the  offenders  from 
this  penalty  that  sacrifices  were  appointed.  So 
with  reference  to  the  great  day  of  expiation, 
we  read,  "For  on  that  day  shall  the  priest 
make  an  atonement  for  you,  to  cleanse  you, 
that  you  may  be  clean  from  all  your  sins ;  and 
this  shall  be  an  everlasting  statute  unto  you, 
to  make  an  atonement  for  the  children  of 
Israel,  for  all  their  sins,  once  a  year,"  Lev. 
xvi,  30-34. 

5.  To  prove  that  this  was  the  intention  and 
effect  of  the  annual  sacrifices  of  the  Jews,  we 
need  do  little  more  than  refer  to  Lev.  xvii,  10, 
11 :  "I  will  set  my  face  against  that  soul  that 
eateth  blood,  and  will  cut  him  off  from  among 
his  people.  For  the  life  of  the  flesh  is  in  the 
blood  ;  and  I  have  given  it  to  you  upon  the 
altar  to  make  an  atonement  for  your  souls  : 
for  it  is  the  blood  that  maketh  an  atonement 
for  the  soul."  Here  the  blood  which  is  said  to 
make  an  atonement  for  the  soul,  is  the  blood 
of  the  victims;  and  to  make  an  atonement  for 
the  soul  is  the  same  as  to  be  a  ransom. for  the 
soul,  as  will  appear  by  referring  to  Exodus  xxx, 
12-16  ;  and  to  be  a  ransom  for  the  soul  is  to 
avert  death.  "They  shall  give  every  man  a 
ransom  for  his  soul  unto  the  Lord,  that  there 
be  no  plague  among  them,"  by  which  their 
lives  might  be  suddenly  taken  away.  The 
"  soul"  is  also  here  used  obviously  for  the  life  ; 
the  blood,  or  the  life  of  the  victims  in  all  sacri- 
fices, was  substituted  for  the  life  of  man,  to 
preserve  him  from  death,  and  the  victims  were 
therefore  vicarious. 

6.  The  Hebrew  word  nsa,  rendered  atone- 
ment, signifying  primarily  to  cover,  to  over- 
spread, has  been  the  subject  of  some  evasive 
criticisms.  It  comes,  however,  in  the  second- 
ary sense  to  signify  atonement  or  propitiation, 
because  the  effect  of  that  is  to  cover,  or,  in 
Scripture  meaning,  to  remit  offences.  The 
Septuagint  also  renders  it  by  c^i\daKo^at,  to  ap- 
pease, to  make  propitious.  It  is  used,  indeed, 
where  the  means  of  atonement  are  not  of  the 
sacrificial  kind,  but  these  instances  equally 
serve  to  evince  the  Scripture  sense  of  the  term, 
in  cases  of  transgression,  to  be  that  of  recon- 
ciling the  offended  Deity,  by  averting  his  dis- 
pleasure ;  so  that  when  the  atonement  for  sin 
is  said  to  be  made  by  sacrifice,  no  doubt  can 
remain  that  the  sacrifice  was  strictly  a  sacrifice 
of  propitiation.  Agreeably  to  this  conclusion 
we  find  it  expressly  declared,  in  the  several 
cases  of  piacular  oblations  for  transgression  of 
the  divine  commands,  that  the  sin  for  which 
atonement  was  made  by  those  oblations  should 
be  forgiven. 

7.  As  the  notion  that  the  sacrifices  of  the 
law  were  not  vicarious,  but  mere  mulcts  and 
fines,  is  overturned  by  the  general  appoint- 
ment of  the  blood  to  be  an  atonement  for  the 
souls,  the  forfeited  lives,  of  men,  so  also  is  it 
contradicted  by  particular  instances.  Let  us 
refer  to  Leviticus  v,  15,  16  :  "  If  a  soul  commit 
a  trespass,  and  sin  through  ignorance  in  the 
holy  things  of  the  Lord,  he  shall  make  amends 
for  the  harm  that  he  hath  done  in  the  holy 
thing,  and  shall  add  a  fifth  part  thereto,  and 
shall  give  it  to  the  priest."     Here,  indeed,  is 


EXP 


363 


EXP 


the  proper  fine  for  the  trespass ;  but  it  is  added, 
"  He  shall  bring  for  his  trespass  unto  the  Lord 
a  ram  without  blemish,  and  the  priest  shall 
make  atonement  for  him  with  the  ram  of  the 
trespass  offering,  and  it  shall  be  forgiven  him." 
Thus,  then,  so  far  from  the  sacrifice  being  the 
fine,  the  fine  is  distinguished  from  it,  and  with 
the  rain  only  was  the  atonement  made  to  the 
Lord  for  his  trespass.  Nor  can  the  ceremonies 
with  which  the  trespass  and  sin  offerings  were 
accompanied  agree  with  any  notion  but  that 
of  their  vicarious  character.  The  worshipper, 
conscious  of  his  trespass,  brought  an  animal, 
his  own  property,  to  the  door  of  the  tabernacle. 
This  was  not  a  eucharistical  act ;  not  a  me- 
morial  of  mercies  received,  but  of  sins  com- 
mitted. He  laid  his  hands  upon  the  head  of 
the  animal,  the  symbolical  act  of  transferring 
punishment;  then  slew  it  with  his  own  hand, 
and  delivered  it  to  the  priest,  who  burned  the 
fat  and  part  of  the  animal  upon  the  altar  ;  and, 
having  sprinkled  part  of  the  blood  upon  the 
altar,  and,  in  some  cases,  upon  the  offerer  him- 
self, poured  the  rest  at  the  bottom  of  the  altar. 
And  thus,  we  are  told,  "The  priest  shall  make 
an  atonement  for  him,  as  concerning  his  sin, 
and  it  shall  be  forgiven  him."  So  clearly  is  it 
made  manifest  by  these  actions,  and  by  the 
description  of  their  nature  and  end,  that  the 
animal  bore  the  punishment  of  the  offender, 
and  that  by  this  appointment  he  was  recon- 
ciled to  God,  and  obtained  the  forgiveness  of 
his  offences. 

8.  An  equally  strong  proof  that  the  life  of 
the  animal  sacrifice  was  accepted  in  place  of 
the  life  of  man,  is  afforded  by  the  fact,  that 
atonement  was  required  by  the  law  to  be  made, 
by  sin  offerings  and  burnt  offerings,  for  even 
bodily  distempers  and  disorders.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary to  the  argument  to  explain  the  distinctions 
between  these  various  oblations ;  nor  yet  to 
inquire  into  the  reason  for  requiring  propitia- 
tion to  be  made  for  corporal  infirmities  which, 
in  many  cases,  could  not  be  avoided.  They 
ware,  however,  thus  connected  with  sin  as  the 
cause  of  all  these  disorders  ;  and  God,  who  had 
placed  his  residence  among  the  Israelites,  in- 
sisted upon  a  perfect  ceremonial  purity,  to  im- 
press upon  them  a  sense  of  his  moral  purity, 
and  the  necessity  of  purification  of  mind. 
Whether  these  were  the  reasons,  or  some 
others  not  at  all  discoverable  by  us,  all  such 
unclean  persons  were  liable  to  death,  and  were 
exempted  from  it  only  by  animal  sacrifices. 
This  appears  from  the  conclusion  to  all  the 
Levitical  directions  concerning  the  ceremonial 
to  be  observed  in  all  such  cases :  "  Thus  shall 
ye  separate  the  children  of  Israel  from  their 
uncleanness;  that  they  die  not  in,"  or  by,  "their 
uncleanness,  when  they  defile  my  tabernacle 
which  is  among  them,"  Lev.  xv,  31.  So  that, 
by  virtue  of  the  sin  offerings,  the  children  of 
Israel  were  saved  from  a  death  which  other- 
wise they  would  have  suffered  from  their  un- 
cleauness,  and  that  by  substituting  the  life  of 
the  animal  for  the  life  of  the  offerer.  Nor  can 
it  be  urged  that  death  is,  in  these  instances, 
threatened  only  as  the  punishment  of  not 
observing  these  laws  of  purification ;  for  the 


reason  given  in  the  passage  just  quoted  shows 
that  the  threatening  of  death  was  not  hypo- 
thetical upon  their  not  bringing  the  prescribed 
purification,  but  is  grounded  upon  the  fact  of 
"  defiling  the  tabernacle  of  the  Lord  which 
was  among  them,"  which  is  supposed  to  be 
done  by  all  uncleanness,  as  such,  in  the  first 
instance. 

9.  As  a  farther  proof  of  the  vicarious  cha- 
racter of  the  principal  sacrifices  of  the  Mosaic 
economy,  we  may  instance  those  statedly  offer- 
ed for  the  whole  congregation.  Every  day  were 
offered  two  lambs,  one  in  the  morning,  and  the 
other  in  the  evening,  "for  a  continual  burnt 
offering."  To  these  daily  victims  were  to  be 
added,  weekly,  two  other  lambs  for  the  burnt 
offering  of  every  Sabbath.  None  of  these  could 
be  considered  in  the  light  of  fines  for  offences, 
since  they  were  offered  for  no  particular  per- 
sons, and  must  be  considered,  therefore,  unless 
resolved  into  an  unmeaning  ceremony,  piacular 
and  vicarious.  To  pass  over,  however,  the 
monthly  sacrifices,  and  those  offered  at  the 
great  feasts,  it  is  sufficient  to  fix  upon  those, 
so  often  alluded  to  in  the  Epistle  to  the  He- 
brews, offered  on  the  solemn  anniversary  of 
expiation.  On  that  day,  to  other  prescribed 
sacrifices  were  to  be  added  another  ram  for  a 
burnt  offering,  and  another  goat,  the  most  emi- 
nent of  the  sacrifices  for  a  sin  offering,  whose 
blood  was  to  be  carried  by  the  high  priest  into 
the  inner  sanctuary,  which  was  not  done  by  the 
blood  of  any  other  victim,  except  the  bullock, 
which  was  offered  the  same  day  as  a  sin  offer- 
ing for  the  family  of  Aaron.  The  circum- 
stances of  this  ceremony,  whereby  atonement 
was  to  be  made  "  for  all  the  sins"  of  the  whole 
Jewish  people,  are  so  strikingly  significant, 
that  they  deserve  a  particular  detail.  On  the 
day  appointed  for  this  general  expiation,  the 
priest  is  commanded  to  offer  a  bullock  and  a 
goat,  as  sin  offerings,  the  one  for  himself,  and 
the  other  for  the  people  ;  and,  having  sprinkled 
the  blood  of  these  in  due  form  before  the 
mercy  seat,  to  lead  forth  a  second  goat,  deno- 
minated "the  scape-goat;"  and,  after  laying 
both  his  hands  upon  the  head  of  the  scape- 
goat, and  confessing  over  him  all  the  iniqui- 
ties of  the  people,  to  put  them  upon  the  head 
of  the  goat,  and  to  send  the  a/iimai,  thus  bear- 
ing the  sins  of  the  people,  away  into  the  wil- 
derness ;  in  this  manner  expressing,  by  an 
action  which  cannot  be  misunderstood,  that 
the  atonement,  which,  it  is  affirmed,  was  to 
be  effected  by  the  sacrifice  of  the  sin  offering, 
consisted  in  removing  from  the  people  their 
iniquities  by  this  translation  of  them  to  the 
animal.  For  it  is  to  be  remarked,  that  the 
ceremony  of  the  scape-goat  is  not  a  distinct 
one :  it  is  a  continuation  of  the  process,  and 
is  evidently  the  concluding  part  and  symbolical 
consummation  of  the  sin  offering:  so  that  the 
transfer  of  the  iniquities  of  the  people  upon  the 
head  of  the  scape-goat,  and  the  bearing  them 
away  into  the  wilderness,  manifestly  imply, 
that  the  atonement  effected  by  the  sacrifice  of 
the  sin  offering  consisted  in  the  transfer  and 
consequent  removal  of  those  iniquities. 

10.  How,  then,  is  this  impressive  and  singular 


EXP 


364 


EXP 


ceremonial  to  be  explained  ?  Shall  we  resort  to 
the  notion  of  mulcts  and  fines?  If  so,  then  this 
ami  other  stated  sacrifices  must  be  considered  in 
the  light  of  penal  enactments.  But  this  cannot 
agree  with  the  appointment  of  such  sacrifices 
annually  in  succeeding  generations:  "This  shall 
be  a  statute  for  ever  unto  you."  The  law  ap- 
points a  certain  day  in  the  year  for  expiating 
the  sins  both  of  the  high  priest  himself  and  of 
the  whole  congregation,  and  that  for  all  high 
priests  and  all  generations  of  the  congregation. 
Now,  could  a  law  be  enacted,  inflicting  a  cer- 
tain penalty,  at  a  certain  time,  upon  a  whole 
people,  as  well  as  upon  their  high  priest,  thus 
presuming  upon  their  actual  transgression  of 
it  ?  The  sacrifice  was  also  for  sins  in  general ; 
and  yet  the  penalty,  if  it  were  one,  is  not 
greater  than  individual  persons  were  often 
obliged  to  undergo  for  single  trespasses.  No- 
thing,  certainly,  can  be  more  absurd  than  this 
hypothesis.  Shall  we  account  for  it  by  saying 
that  sacrifices  were  offered  for  the  benefit  of 
the  worshipper,  but  exclude  the  notion  of  ex. 
piation  ?  But  here  we  are  obliged  to  confine 
the  benefit  to  reconciliation  and  the  taking 
away  of  sins,  and  that  by  the  appointed  means 
of  the  shedding  of  blood,  and  the  presentation 
of  blood  in  the  holy  place,  accompanied  by  the 
expressive  ceremony  of  imposition  of  hands 
upon  the  head  of  the  victim ;  the  import  of 
which  act  is  fixed,  beyond  all  controversy,  by 
the  priest's  confessing  over  that  victim  the  sins 
of  all  the  people,  and  at  the  same  time  impre- 
cating upon  its  head  the  vengeance  due  to  them, 
Lev.  xvi,  21.  Shall  we  content  ourselves  with 
merely  saying  that  this  was  a  symbol  ?  But  the 
question  remains,  Of  what  was  it  the  symbol? 
To  determine  this,  let  the  several  parts  of  the 
symbolic  action  be  enumerated.  Here  is  con- 
fession of  sin ;  confession  before  God  at  the 
door  of  the  tabernacle ;  the  substitution  of  a 
victim  ;  the  figurative  transfer  of  sins  to  that 
victim  ;  the  shedding  of  blood,  which  God  ap- 
pointed to  make  atonement  for  the  soul ;  the 
carrying  the  blood  into  the  holiest  place,  the 
very  permission  of  which  clearly  marked  the 
divine  acceptance;  the  bearing  away  of  ini- 
quity ;  and  the  actual  reconciliation  of  the 
people  to  God.  If,  then,  this  is  symbolical,  it 
has  nothing  correspondent  with  it,  it  never  had 
or  can  have  any  thing  correspondent  to  it  but 
the  sacrificial  death  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  the 
communication  of  the  benefits  of  his  passion 
in  the  forgiveness  of  sins  to  those  that  believe 
in  him,  and  in  their  reconciliation  with  God. 
Shall  we,  finally,  say  that  those  sacrifices  had 
respect,  not  to  God  to  obtain  pardon  by  expia- 
tion, but  to  the  offerer,  teaching  him  moral 
lessons,  and  calling  forth  moral  dispositions  ? 
We  answer,  that  this  hypothesis  leaves  many 
of  the  essential  circumstances  of  the  ceremonial 
wholly  unaccounted  for.  The  tabernacle  and 
temple  were  erected  for  the  residence  of  God, 
by  his  own  command.  There  it  was  his  will 
to  be  approached,  and  to  these  sacred  places 
the  victims  were  required  to  be  brought.  Any 
where  else  they  might  as  well  have  been  offer- 
ed, if  they  had  had  respect  only  to  the  offerer; 
but  they  were  required  to  be  brought  to  God, 


to  be  o^ered  according  to  a  prescribed  ritual, 
and  by  an  order  of  men  appointed  for  that  pur- 
pose. Now  truly  there  is  no  reason  why  they 
should  be  offered  in  the  sanctuary  rather  than 
in  any  other  place,  except  that  they  were  offered 
to  the  Inhabitant  of  the  sanctuary  ;  nor  could 
they  be  offered  in  his  presence  without  having 
respect  to  him.  There  were  some  victims 
whose  blood,  on  the  day  of  atonement,  was  to 
be  carried  into  the  inner  sanctuary;  but  for 
what  purpose  can  we  suppose  the  blood  to  have 
been  carried  into  the  most  secret  place  of  the 
divine  residence,  except  to  obtain  the  favour 
of  Him  in  whose  presence  it  was  sprinkled  ? 
To  this  we  may  add,  that  the  reason  given  for 
these  sacred  services  is  not  in  any  case  a  mere 
moral  effect  to  be  produced  upon  the  minds  of 
the  worshippers:  they  were  "to  make  atone- 
ment," that  is,  to  avert  God's  displeasure,  that 
the  people  might  not  "die." 

11.  We  may  find,  also,  another  more  expli- 
cit illustration  in  the  sacrifice  of  the  passover. 
The  sacrificial  character  of  this  offering  is 
strongly  marked  ;  for  it  was  an  offering  brought 
to  the  tabernacle  ;  it  was  slain  in  the  sanctua- 
ry ;  and  the  blood  was  sprinkled  upon  the  al- 
tar by  the  priests.  It  derives  its  name  from 
the  passing  over  and  sparing  of  the  houses  of 
the  Israelites,  on  the  door  posts  of  which  the 
blood  of  the  immolated  lamb  was  sprinkled, 
when  the  first-born  in  the  houses  of  the  Egyp- 
tians were  slain ;  and  thus  we  have  another 
instance  of  life  being  spared  by  the  instituted 
means  of  animal  sacrifice.  Nor  need  we  con- 
fine ourselves  to  particular  instances.  "  Al- 
most all  things,"  says  an  Apostle,  who  surely 
knew  his  subject,  "  are  by  the  law  purged  with 
blood  ;  and  without  shedding  of  blood  there  is 
no  remission."  Thus,  by  their  very  law,  and 
by  constant  usage,  were  the  Jews  familiarized 
to  the  notion  of  expiatory  sacrifice,  as  well  as 
by  the  history  contained  in  their  sacred  books, 
especially  in  Genesis,  which  speaks  of  the  vi- 
carious sacrifices  offered  by  the  patriarchs ;  and 
in  the  book  of  Job,  in  which  that  patriarch  is 
said  to  have  offered  sacrifices  for  the  supposed 
sins  of  his  sons ;  and  where  Eliphaz  is  com- 
manded, by  a  divine  oracle,  to  offer  a  burnt 
offering  for  himself  and  his  friends,  "lest  God 
should  deal  with  them  after  their  folly." 

12.  On  the  sentiments  ( f  the  uninspired 
Jewish  writers  on  this  point,  the  substitution 
of  the  life  of  the  animal  for  that  of  the  offerer, 
and,  consequently,  the  expiatory  nature  of  their 
sacrifices,  Outram  has  given  many  quotations 
from  their  writings,  which  the  reader  may  con- 
sult in  his  work  on  Sacrifices.  Two  or  three 
only  may  be  adduced  by  way  of  specimen. 
R.  Levi  Ben  Gerson  says,  "The  imposition  of 
the  hands  of  the  offerers  was  designed  to  indi- 
cate that  their  sins  were  removed  from  them- 
selves, and  transferred  to  the  animal."  Isaac 
Ben  Arama  :  "  He  transfers  his  sins  from  him- 
self, and  lays  them  upon  the  head  of  the  vic- 
tim." R.  Moses  Ben  Nachman  says,  with  re- 
spect  to  a  sinner  offering  a  victim,  "  It  was  just 
that  his  blood  should  be  shed,  and  that  his  body 
should  be  burned ;  but  the  Creator,  of  his  mer- 
cy, accepted  the  victim  from  him,  as  his  suhsti- 


EXP 


365 


EXP 


tute  and  ransom  ;  that  the  blood  of  the  animal 
might  be  shed  instead  of  his  blood  ;  that  is,  that 
the  blood  of  the  animal  might  be  given  for  his 
life." 

13.  Full  of  these  ideas  of  vicarious  expiation, 
then,  the  Apostles  wrote  and  spoke,  and  the 
Jews  of  their  time  heard  and  read,  the  books 
of  the  New  Testament.  The  Socinian  pre- 
tence is,  that  the  inspired  penmen  used  the 
sacrificial  terms  which  occur  in  their  writings 
figuratively ;  but  we  not  only  reply,  as  before, 
that  they  could  not  do  this  honestly,  unless 
they  had  given  notice  of  this  new  application 
of  the  established  terms  of  the  Jewish  theology ; 
but,  if  this  be  assumed,  it  leaves  us  wholly  at 
a  loss  to  discover  what  that  really  was  which 
they  intended  to  teach  by  these  sacrificial  terms 
and  allusions.  They  are  themselves  utterly 
silent  as  to  this  point ;  and  the  varying  theo- 
ries of  those  who  reject  the  doctrine  of  atone- 
ment, in  fact,  confess  that  their  writings  afford 
no  solution  of  the  difficulty.  If,  therefore,  it 
is  blasphemous  to  suppose,  on  the  one  hand, 
M  that  inspired  men  should  write  on  purpose  to 
mislead  ;  so,  on  the  other,  it  is  utterly  incon- 
ceivable that,  had  they  only  been  ordinary 
writers,  they  should  construct  a  figurative  lan- 
guage out  of  terms  which  had  a  definite  and 
established  sense,  without  giving  any  intimation 
at  all  that  they  employed  them  otherwise  than 
in  their  received  meaning,  or  telling  us  why 
they  adopted  them  at  all,  and  more  especially 
when  they  knew  that  they  must  be  interpret- 
ed, both  by  Jews  and  Greeks,  in  a  sense  which, 
if  the  Socinians  ave  right,  was  in  direct  oppo- 
sition to  that  which  they  intended  to  convey. 
See  Type,  Sacrifice,  Propitiation. 

Expiation,  or  Atonement,  Great  Day  of,  was 
the  tenth  of  Tizri,  which  nearly  answers  to 
our  September,  O.  S.  The  Hebrews  call  it 
kippur,  or  chippur,  "pardon,"  or  "expiation," 
because  the  faults  of  the  year  were  then  expiat- 
ed. The  principal  ceremonies  of  this  day  have 
been  noticed  in  the  preceding  article ;  but  a 
more  particular  detail  may  be  useful.  The 
high  priest,  after  he  had  washed,  not  only  his 
hands  and  his  feet,  as  usual  at  common  sacri- 
fices, but  his  whole  body,  dressed  himself  in 
plain  linen,  like  the  other  priests,  wearing 
neither  his  purple  robe,  nor  the  ephod,  nor  the 
pectoral,  because  he  was  to  expiate  his  own 
sins,  together  with  those  of  the  people.  He 
first  offered  a  bullock  and  a  ram  for  his  own 
sins,  and  those  of  the  priests  :  putting  his  hands 
on  the  heads  of  these  victims,  he  confessed  his 
own  sins  and  the  sins  of  his  house.  Afterward, 
he  received  from  the  princes  of  the  people  two 
goats  for  a  sin  offering,  and  a  ram  for  a  burnt 
offering,  to  be  offered  in  the  name  of  the  whole 
nation.  The  lot  determined  which  of  the  two 
goats  should  be  sacrificed,  and  which  set  at 
liberty.  After  this,  the  high  priest  put  some  of 
the  sacred  fire  of  the  altar  of  burnt  offerings 
into  a  censer,  threw  incense  upon  it,  and  en- 
tered with  it,  thus  smoking,  into  the  sanctuary. 
After  he  had  perfumed  the  sanctuary  with  this 
incense,  he  came  out,  took  some  of  the  blood 
of  the  young  bullock  he  had  sacrificed,  carried 
that  also  into  the  sanctuary,  and,  dipping  his 


fingers  in  it,  sprinkled  it  seven  times  between 
the  ark  and  the  vail,  which  separated  the  holy 
from  the  sanctuary,  or  most  holy.  Then  he 
came  out  a  second  time,  and,  beside  the  altar 
of  burnt  offerings,  killed  the  goat  which  the  lot 
had  determined  to  be  the  sacrifice.  The  blood 
of  this  goat  he  carried  into  the  most  holy  sanc- 
tuary, and  sprinkled  it  seven  times  between 
the  ark  and  the  vail,  which  separated  the  holy 
from  the  sanctuary  :  from  thence  he  returned 
into  the  court  of  the  tabernacle,  and  sprinkled 
both  sides  of  it  with  the  blood  of  the  goat. 
During  all  this,  none  of  the  priests  or  people 
were  admitted  into  the  tabernacle,  or  into  the 
court.  After  this,  the  high  priest  came  to  the 
altar  of  burnt  offerings,  wetted  the  four  horns 
of  it  with  the  blood  of  the  goat  and  young 
bullock,  and  sprinkled  it  seven  times  with  the 
same  blood.  The  sanctuary,  the  court,  and  the 
altar,  being  thus  purified,  the  high  priest  di- 
rected the  goat  which  was  set  at  liberty  by  the 
lot  to  be  brought  to  him.  He  put  his  hand  on 
the  goat's  head,  confessed  his  own  sins  and 
the  sins  of  the  people,  and  then  delivered  the 
goat  to  a  person  appointed,  who  was  to  carry 
it  to  some  desert  place,  and  let  it  loose,  or,  as 
others  say,  throw  it  down  some  precipice. 
This  being  done,  the  high  priest  washed  him- 
self all  over  in  the  tabernacle  ;  and,  putting  on 
other  clothes,  his  pontifical  dress,  that  is,  his 
robe  of  purple,  the  ephod,  and  the  pectoral,  he 
sacrificed  two  rams  for  burnt  offering,  one  for 
himself,  the  other  for  the  people.  The  great 
day  of  expiation  was  a  principal  solemnity  of 
the  Hebrews,  a  day  of  rest  and  strict  fasting. 

2.  There  have  been  various  disputes  among 
the  learned  respecting  the  meaning  of  the 
word  azazel,  the  name  of  the  scape-goat  on 
which  the  lot  fell ;  but  the  most  prevailing 
opinion  is,  that  it  is  derived  from  gnez,  "  a 
goat,"  and  azel,  "to  go  away."  So  Buxtorf 
and  many  others  explain  it ;  and  so  it  was  un- 
derstood by  our  translators,  who  have  there- 
fore rendered  it  "  a  scape-goat."  Both  goats 
were  typical  of  Christ :  that  which  was  sacri- 
ficed is  understood  to  have  denoted  his  death, 
by  means  of  which  sin  was  expiated  ;  the  other, 
which  was  to  have  the  sins  of  the  people  con- 
fessed over  him,  and,  as  it  were,  put  upon  him, 
and  then  to  be  sent  alive  into  some  desert 
place,  where  they  could  see  him  no  more,  was 
intended  to  signify  the  effect  of  the  expiation, 
namely,  the  removing  of  guilt,  indicating  that 
it  should  never  more  be  charged  on  the  par- 
doned sinner. 

3.  The  rites  attending  the  public  service  of 
the  day  of  expiation  were  chiefly  performed  by 
the  high  priest,  whose  duties  were  on  this  day 
more  arduous  than  on  any  other  day  in  the 
year,  or  perhaps  on  all  the  rest  united.  He 
was  to  kill  and  offer  the  sacrifices,  and  sprinkle 
their  blood  with  his  own  hands,  Lev.  xvi,  11- 
15;  and  he  was  to  enter  with  it  into  the  holy 
of  holies,  which  he  was  not  permitted  to  do  at 
any  other  time,  Lev.  xvi,  2,  &c  ;  Heb.  ix,  7.  It 
was  thus  his  peculiar  privilege  to  draw  nearer 
to  God,  or  to  the  tokens  of  his  special  pre- 
sence, to  the  ark  of  the  covenant,  to  the  mercy 
seat,  and  to  the  Shekinah,  than  was  allowed  to 


EYE 


366 


EYE 


•any  other  mortal.  The  services  which  he  per- 
formed  in  the  inmost  sanctuary  were,  the  burn- 
ing of  incense,  and  sprinkling  the  blood  of  the 
sacrifices  before  the  mercy  seat,  which  he  was 
to  do  with  his  finger  seven  times,  Lev.  xvi,  14. 

4.  The  spiritual  meaning  of  all  these  rites 
has  been  particularly  explained  by  the  Apostle 
Paul  in  Hebrews  ix.  As  the  high  priest  was 
a  type  of  Christ,  his  laying  aside  those  vest- 
meats  which  were  made  "  for  glory  and  beau- 
ty," Exodus  xxviii,  2,  and  appearing  in  his 
common  garments,  which  he  did  on  that  day, 
probably  signified  our  Lord's  humiliation,  when 
he  emptied  himself  of  the  glory  which  he  had 
■with  the  Father  before  the  world  was,  and 
"  was  made  in  fashion  as  a  man,"  Phil,  ii,  G,  7. 
The  expiatory  sacrifices,  offered  by  the  high 
priest,  were  typical  of  the  true  expiation  which 
Christ  made  for  the  sins  of  his  people,  when 
he  gave  himself  for  them,  that  he  might  re- 
deem them  from  all  iniquity,  Titus  ii,  14;  Heb. 
i,  3 ;  and  the  priest's  confessing  the  sins  of  the 
people  over  them,  and  putting  them  upon  the 
head  of  the  scape-goat,  Lev.  xvi,  21,  was  a 
lively  emblem  of  the  imputation  of  sin  to  Christ, 
who  "  was  made  sin  for  us,"  2  Cor.  v,  21 ;  for 
"  the  Lord  hath  laid  on  him  the  iniquity  of  us 
all,"  Isaiah  liii,  G.  Farther,  the  goat's  "  bear- 
ing upon  him  all  the  iniquities  of  the  Jews  into 
a  land  not  inhabited,"  Lev.  xvi,  22,  represents 
the  effect  of  Christ's  sacrifice  in  delivering  his 
people  from  guilt  and  punishment ;  and  the 
priest's  entering  into  the  holy  of  holies  with 
the  blood  of  the  sacrifice  is  explained  by  the 
Apostle  to  be  typical  of  Christ's  ascension  into 
heaven  itself,  and  his  making  intercession  for 
his  people  in  virtue  of  the  sacrifice  of  his  death. 

EYE,  the  organ  of  sight..  The  Hebrews 
by  a  curious  and  bold  metaphor  call  fountains 
eyes  ;  and  they  also  give  the  same  name  to 
colours :  "  And  the  eye,"  or  colour,  "  of  the 
manna  was  as  the  eye,"  or  colour,  "  of  bdel- 
lium," Num.  xi,  7.  By  an  "  evil  eye"  is  meant, 
envy,  jealous}',  grudging,  ill-judged  parsimony ; 
to  turn  the  eyes  on  any  one,  is  to  regard  him 
and  his  interests ;  to  find  grace  in  any  one's 
eyes,  Ruth  ii,  10,  is  to  win  his  friendship  and 
good  will.  "The  eyes  of  servants  look  unto 
the  hands  of  their  masters,"  Psalm  cxxiii,  2,  to 
observe  the  least  motion,  and  obey  the  least  sig- 
nal. "Their  eyes  were  opened,"  Gen.  iii,  7, 
they  began  to  comprehend  in  a  new  manner. 
"  The  wise  man's  eyes  are  in  his  head,"  Eccles. 
ii,  14,  he  does  not  act  by  chance.  The  eye  of 
the  soul,  in  a  moral  sense,  is  the  intention,  the 
desire.  God  threatens  to  set  his  eyes  on  the 
Israelites  for  evil,  and  not  for  good,  Amos  ix,  4. 
Nebuchadnezzar  recommends  to  Nebuzaradan 
that  he  would  "set  his  eyes"  on  Jeremiah,  and 
yermit  him  to  go  where  he  pleased,  Jer.  xxxix, 
12  ;  xl,  4.  Sometimes  expressions  of  this  kind 
are  taken  in  a  quite  opposite  sense:  "Behold, 
the  eyes  of  the  Lord  are  on  the  sinful  king- 
dom ;  and  I  will  destroy  it,"  Amos  ix,  8.  To 
be  eyes  to  the  blind,  or  to  serve  them  instead 
of  eyes,  is  sufficiently  intelligible,  Job  xxix,  15. 
The  Persians  called  those  officers  of  the  crown 
who  had  the  care  of  the  king's  interests  and 
tho  management  of  his  finances,  the  king's 


eyes.  Eye  service  is  peculiar  to  slaves,  who 
are  governed  by  fear  only  ;  and  is  to  be  care- 
fully guarded  against  by  Christians,  who  ought 
to  serve  from  a  principle  of  duty  and  affection, 
Eph.  vi,  6  ;  Col.  iii,  22.  The  lust  of  the  eyes, 
or  the  desire  of  the  eyes,  comprehends  every 
thing  that  curiosity,  vanity,  &,c,  seek  after ; 
every  tiling  that  the  eyes  can  present  to  men 
given  up  to  their  passions,  1  John  ii,  16. 
"Cast  ye  away  every  man  the  abomination  of 
his  eyes,"  Ezek.  xx,  7,  8;  let  not  the  idols  of 
the  Egyptians  seduce  you.  The  height  or  ele- 
vation of  the  eyes  is  taken  for  pride,  Eccles. 
xxiii,  5.  St.  Paul  says  that  the  Galatians  would 
willingly  have  "  plucked  out  their  eyes"  for  him, 
Gal.  iv,  15  ;  expressing  the  intensity  of  their 
zeal,  affection,  and  devotion  to  him.  The  He- 
brews call  the  apple  of  the  eye  the  black  daugh- 
ter of  the  eye.  To  keep  any  thing  as  the  apple 
of  the  eye,  is  to  preserve  it  with  particular 
care,  Deut.  xxxii,  10  :  "  He  that  toucheth  you, 
toucheth  the  apple  of  mine  eye,"  Zech.  ii,  8 ; 
attempts  to  injure  me  in  the  tenderest  part, 
which  men  instinctively  defend.  The  eye  and 
its  actions  are  occasionally  transferred  to  God  : 
"The  eyes  of  the  Lord  run  to  and  fro  through 
the  whole  earth,"  Zech.  iv,  10 ;  2  Chron.  xvi, 
9;  Psalm  xi,  4.  "The  eyes  of  the  Lord  are 
in  every  place,  beholding  the  evil  and  the  good," 
Proverbs  xv,  3.  "The  Lord  looked  down  from 
heaven,"  &c.  We  read,  Matthew  vi,  22,  "  The 
light,"  or  lamp,  "  of  the  body  is  the  eye ;  if 
therefore  thine  eye  be  single,"  simple,  clear, 
a-rr'Sovi,  "  thy  whole  body  shall  be  full  of  light; 
but  if  thine  eye  be  evil,"  distempered,  diseased, 
"  thy  whole  body  shall  be  darkened."  Tho 
direct  allusion  may  hold  to  a  lantern,  or  lamp, 
Xvxvos;  if  the  glass  of  it  be  clear,  the  light  will 
shine  through  it  strongly ;  but  if  the  glass  be 
soiled,  dirty,  foul,  but  little  light  will  pass 
through  it:  for  if  they  had  not  glass  lanterns, 
such  as  we  use,  they  had  others  in  the  east 
made  of  thin  linen,  &c  :  these  were  very  liable 
to  receive  spots,  stains,  and  foulnesses,  which 
impeded  the  passage  of  the  rays  of  light  from 
the  luminary  within.  So,  in  the  natural  eye, 
if  the  cornea  be  single,  and  the  humours  clear, 
the  light  will  act  correctly ;  but  if  there  be  a 
film  over  the  cornea,  or  a  catara.ct,  or  a  skin 
between  any  of  the  humours,  the  rays  of  light 
will  never  make  any  impression  on  the  inter- 
nal seat  of  sight,  the  retina.  By  analogy, 
therefore,  if  the  mental  eye,  the  judgment,  be 
honest,  virtuous,  sincere,  well-meaning,  pious, 
it  may  be  considered  as  enlightening  and  di- 
recting the  whole  of  a  person's  actions  ;  but  if 
it  be  perverse,  malign,  biassed  by  undue  pre- 
judices, or  drawn  aside  by  improper  views,  it 
darkens  the  understanding,  perverts  the  con- 
duct, and  suffers  a  man  to  be  misled  by  his 
unwise  and  unruly  passions. 

2.  The  orientals,  in  some  cases,  deprive  the 
criminal  of  the  light  of  day,  by  sealing  up  his 
eyes.  A  son  of  the  great  Mogul  was  actually 
suffering  this  punishment  when  Sir  Thomas 
Roe  visited  the  court  of  Delhi.  The  hapless 
youth  was  cast  into  prison,  and  deprived  of  the 
light  by  some  adhesive  plaster  put  upon  his 
eyes,  for  the  space  of  three  years;  after  which 


EYE 


367 


EZE 


the  seal  was  taken  away,  that  he  might  with 
freedom  enjoy  the  light ;  but  he  was  still  de- 
tained in  prison.  Other  princes  have  been 
treated  in  a  different  manner,  to  prevent  them 
from  conspiring  against  the  reigning  monarch, 
or  meddling  with  affairs  of  state :  they  have 
been  compelled  to  swallow  opium  and  other 
stupifying  drugs,  to  weaken  or  benumb  their 
faculties,  and  render  them  unfit  for  business. 
Influenced  by  such  absurd  and  cruel  policy, 
Shah  Abbas,  the  celebrated  Persian  monarch, 
who  died  in  1629,  ordered  a  certain  quantity 
of  opium  to  be  given  every  day  to  his  grand- 
son, who  was  to  be  his  successor,  to  stupify 
him,  and  prevent  him  from  disturbing  his 
government.  Such  are  probably  the  circum- 
stances alluded  to  by  the  prophet :  "  They  have 
not  known  nor  understood ;  for  he  hath  shut 
their  eyes  that  they  cannot  see ;  and  their 
hearts  that  they  cannot  understand,"  Isaiah 
xliv,  18.  The  verb  mta,  rendered  in  our  ver- 
sion, to  shut,  signifies  "to  overlay,"  "to  cover 
over  the  surface  ;"  thus,  the  king  of  Israel  pre- 
pared three  thousand  talents  of  gold,  and  seven 
thousand  talents  of  refined  silver,  to  overlay 
the  walls  of  the  temple,  1  Chron.  xxix,  4.  But 
it  generally  signifies  to  overspread,  or  daub 
over,  as  with  mortar  or  plaster,  of  which  Park- 
hurst  quotes  a  number  of  examples ;  a  sense 
which  entirely  corresponds  with  the  manner  in 
which  the  eyes  of  a  criminal  are  sealed  up  in 
some  parts  of  the  east.  The  practice  of  sealing 
up  the  eyes,  and  stupifying  a  criminal  with 
drugs,  seems  to  have  been  contemplated  by  the 
same  prophet  in  another  passage  of  his  book : 
"Make  the  heart  of  this  people  fat,  and  make 
their  ears  heavy,  and  shut  their  eyes,  lest  they 
see  with  their  eyes,  and  hear  with  their  ears, 
and  understand  with  their  heart,  and  convert 
and  be  healed." 

3.  Deprivation  of  sight  was  a  very  common 
punishment  in  the  east.  It  was  at  first  the 
practice  to  sear  the  eyes  with  a  hot  iron ;  but 
a  discovery  that  this  was  not  effectual,  led  to 
the  cruel  method  of  taking  them  out  altogether 
with  a  sharp-pointed  instrument.  The  objects 
of  this  barbarity  were  usually  persons  who 
aspired  to  the  throne,  or  who  were  considered 
likely  to  make  such  an  attempt.  It  was  also 
inflicted  on  chieftains,  whom  it  was  desirable 
to  deprive  of  power  without  putting  them  to 
death.  For  this  reason  the  hapless  Zedekiah 
was  punished  with  the  loss  of  sight,  because  he 
had  rebelled  against  the  king  of  Babylon,  and 
endeavoured  to  recover  the  independence  of 
his  throne :  "  Then  he  put  out  the  eyes  of 
Zedekiah ;  and  the  king  of  Babylon  bound  him 
in  chains,  and  carried  him  to  Babylon,  and  put 
him  In  prison  till  the  day  of  his  death,"  Jer. 
lii,  11. 

4.  Females  used  to  paint  their  eyes.  The 
substance  used  for  this  purpose  is  called  in 
Chaldee  im,  cohol;  by  the  LXX,  ?[0i.  Thus 
we  read  of  Jezebel,  2  Kings  ix,  30,  that,  un- 
derstanding that  Jehu  was  to  enter  Samaria, 
she  decked  herself  for  his  reception,  and  (as  in 
the  original  Hebrew)  "put  her  eyes  in  paint." 
This  was  in  conformity  to  a  custom  which 
prevailed  in  the  earliest  ages.     As  large  black 


eyes  were  thought  the  finest,  the  women,  to 
increase  their  lustre,  and  to  make  them  appear 
larger,  tinged  the  corner  of  their  eyelids  with 
the  impalpable  powder  of  antimony  or  of  black 
lead.  This  was  supposed  also  to  give  the  eyes 
a  brilliancy  and  humidity,  which  rendered  them 
either  sparkling  or  languishing,  as  suited  the 
various  passions.  The  method  of  performing 
this  among  the  women  in  the  eastern  countries 
at  the  present  day,  as  described  by  Russel,  is 
by  a  cylindrical  piece  of  silver  or  ivory,  about 
two  inches  long,  made  very  smooth,  and  about 
the  size  of  a  common  probe ;  this  is  wet  with 
water,  and  then  dipped  into  a  powder  finely 
levigated,  made  from  what  appears  to  be  a  rich 
lead  ore,  and  applied  to  the  eye;  the  lids  are 
closed  upon  it  while  it  is  drawn  througli  be- 
tween them.  This  blacks  the  inside,  and  leaves 
a  narrow  black  rim  all  round  the  edge.  That 
this  was  the  method  practised  by  the  Hebrew 
women,  we  infer  from  Isaiah  iii,  22,  where  the 
prophet,  in  his  enumeration  of  the  articles 
which  composed  the  toilets  of  the  delicate  and 
luxurious  daughters  of  Zion,  mentions  "  the 
wimples  and  the  crisping  pins,"  or  bodkins  for 
painting  the  eyes.  The  satirist  Juvenal  de- 
scribes the  same  practice  : — 

Me  siipercilium  madida  fuligine  linctum 
O.'iliijua  producit  acu,  pingityue  trementes 
Attollens  oculos.  Sat.  ii. 

"  These  with  a  tiring  pin  their  eyebrows  dye 
Till  the  full  arch  give  lustre  to  the  eye." 

GlFFOBD. 

This  custom  is  referred  to  by  Jeremiah, 
iv,  30  :— 

"  Though  thou  clothest  thyself  in  scarlet, 
Though  thou  adornest  thyself  with  ornaments  of  gold, 
Though  thou  distendest  thine  eyes  with  paint, 
In  vain  shalt  thou  set  forth  thy  beauty  ; 
Thy  paramours  have  rejected  thee." 

And  Ezekiel,  describing  the  irregularities  of  the 
Jewish  nation,  under  the  idea  of  a  debauched 
woman,  says,  yvy  n^no,  "  Thou  didst  dress 
thine  eyes  with  cohol ;"  which  the  Septuagint 
render,  'Es-i6i'f«  tov;  6tj>9a\ixovs  oov,  "Thou  didst 
dress  thine  eyes  with  stibium,"  Ezek.  xxiii,  40. 

5.  The  passage,  Psalm  exxiii,  2,  derives  a 
striking  illustration  from  the  customs  of  the 
east.  The  servants  or  slaves  in  eastern  coun- 
tries attend  their  masters  or  mistresses  with 
the  profoundest  respect.  Maundrell  observes, 
that  the  servants  in  Turkey  stand  round  their 
master  and  his  guests  in  deep  silence  and  per- 
fect order,  watching  every  motion.  Pococke 
says,  that  at  a  visit  in  Egypt  every  thing  is 
done  with  the  greatest  decency  and  the  most 
profound  silence,  the  slaves  or  servants  stand- 
ing at  the  bottom  of  the  room,  with  their 
hands  joined  before  them,  watching  with  the 
utmost  attention  every  motion  of  their  master, 
who  commands  them  by  signs.  De  la  Motraye 
says,  that  the  eastern  ladies  are  waited  on  even 
at  the  least  wink  of  the  eye,  or  motion  of  the 
fingers,  and  that  in  a  manner  not  perceptible 
to  strangers, 

EZEKIEL,  like  his  contemporary  Jeremiah, 
was  of  the  sacerdotal  race.  He  was  carried 
away  captive  to  Babylon  with  Jehoiachim, 
king  of  Judah,  B.  C.  598,  and  was  placed  with 


EZE 


368 


EZR 


many  others  of  his  countrymen  upon  the  river 
Chebar,  in  Mesopotamia,  where  he  was  favour- 
ed with  the  divine  revelations  contained  in  his 
l)ook.     He  began  to  prophesy  in  the  fifth  year 
of  his  captivity,  and  is  supposed  to  have  pro- 
phesied about  twenty-one  years.     The  boldness 
with  which  he  censured  the  idolatry  and  wick- 
edness of  his  countrymen  is  said  to  have  cost 
him  his  life ;   but  his  memory  was  greatly  re- 
vered, not  only  by  the  Jews,  but  also  by  the 
Medes  and  Persians.     The  book  which  bears 
his  name  may  be  considered   under  the  five 
following  divisions:    the   first  three  chapters 
contain  the  glorious  appearance  of  God  to  the 
prophet,  and    his  solemn  appointment  to  his 
office,  with  instructions  and  encouragements 
for  the  discharge  of  it.    From  the  fourth  to  the 
twenty-fourth  chapter  inclusive,  he  describes, 
under  a  variety  of  visions  and  similitudes,  the 
calamities  impending  over  Judea,  and  the  total 
destruction  of  the  temple  and  city  of  Jerusalem, 
by    Nebuchadnezzar,    occasionally    predicting 
another  period  of  yet  greater  desolation,  and 
more  general  dispersion.    From  the  beginning 
of  the  twenty-fifth  to  the  end  of  the  thirty- 
second  chapter,  the  prophet  foretels  the  con- 
quest and  ruin   of  many   nations  and  cities, 
which  had  insulted  the  Jews  in  their  affliction  ; 
of  the  Ammonites,  the  Moabites,  the  Edomites, 
and  Philistines  ;  of  Tyre,  of  Sidon,  and  Egypt ; 
all  of  which  were  to  be  punished  by  the  same 
mighty  instrument  of  God's  wrath  against  the 
wickedness  of  man  ;    and  in  these  prophecies 
he  not  only  predicts  events  which  were  soon 
to  take  place,  but  he  also  describes  the  con- 
dition of  these  several  countries  in  the  remote 
periods  of  the  world.     From  the  thirty-second 
to  the  fortieth  chapter,  he  inveighs  against  the 
accumulated  sins  of  the  Jews  collectively,  and 
the  murmuring  spirit  of  his  captive  brethren  ; 
exhorts    them    earnestly   to    repent    of    their 
hypocrisy  and  wickedness,  upon  the  assurance 
that  God  will  accept  sincere  repentance  ;  and 
comforts  them  with  promises  of  approaching 
deliverance  under  Cyrus;    subjoining  intima- 
tions of  some  far  more  glorious,  but  distant, 
redemption    under   the    Messiah,   though   the 
manner  in  which  it  is  to  be  effected  is  deeply 
involved  in  mystery.     The  last  nine  chapters 
contain  a  remarkable  vision  of  the  structure  of 
a  new  temple  and  a  new  polity,  applicable  in 
the  first  instance  to  the  return  from  the  Baby- 
lonian captivity,  but  in  its  ultimate  sense  re- 
ferring   to   the    glory    and    prosperity    of  the 
universal  church  of  Christ.      Jerom  observes 
that   the    visions   of  Ezekiel   are   among  the 
things    in    Scripture    hard   to  be  understood. 
This  obscurity  arises,  in  part  at  least,  from  the 
nature  and  design  of  the  prophecies  themselves ; 
they  were  delivered  amidst  the  gloom  of  cap- 
tivity ;    and    though  calculated    to   cheer   the 
drooping  spirits  of  the  Jews,  and  to  keep  alive 
a  watchful  and  submissive  confidence  in  the 
mercy  of  God,  yet  they  were  intended  to  com- 
municate only  such  a  degree  of  encouragement 
as  was  consistent  with  a  state  of  punishment, 
and  to  excite  an  indistinct  expectation  of  future 
blessings,  upon  condition  of  repentance  and 
amendment.     It  ought  also  to  be  observed,  that 


the  last  twelve  chapters  of  this  book  bear  a  very 
strong  resemblance  to  the  concluding  chapters 
of  the  Revelation.     The  style  of  this  prophet 
is  characterized  by  Bishop  Lowth  as  bold,  ve- 
hement, and  tragical ;  as  often  worked  up  to  a 
kind   of  tremendous  dignity.      He    is    highly 
parabolical,  and  abounds  in  figures  and  meta- 
phorical expressions.    He  may  be  compared  to 
the  Grecian  iEschylus ;   he  displays  a  rough 
but   majestic  dignity ;    an  unpolished  though 
noble  simplicity ;  inferior  perhaps  in  originality 
and  elegance  to  others  of  the  prophets,  but  un- 
equalled in  that  force  and  grandeur  for  which 
he  is  particularly  celebrated.     He  sometimes 
emphatically  and  indignantly  repeats  his  senti- 
ments, fully  dilates  his  pictures,  and  describes 
the  idolatrous  manners  of  his  countrymen  under 
the  strongest  and  most  exaggerated  represent- 
ations that  the  license  of  eastern  style  would 
admit.     The  middle  part  of  the  book  is  in  some 
measure  poetical,  and  contains  even  some  per- 
fect elegies,  though  his  thoughts  are  in  general 
too  irregular  and  uncontrolled  to  be  chained 
down  to  rule,  or  fettered  by  language. 
EZION-GEBER.     See  Elath. 
EZRA,  the  author  of  the  book  which  bears 
his  name,  was  of  the  sacerdotal  family,  being 
a  direct  descendant  from  Aaron,  and  succeed- 
ed   Zerubbabel    in    the    government  of  Judea. 
This  book   begins  with  the  repetition   of  the 
last  two  verses  of  the  second  book  of  Chroni- 
cles, and  carries  the  Jewish  history  through  a 
period  of  seventy-nine  years,  commencing  from 
the  edict  of  Cyrus.    The  first  six  chapters  con- 
tain  an  account  of  the  return  of  the  Jews  under 
Zerubbabel,    after    the    captivity    of   seventy 
years;  of  their  reestablishment  in  Judea  ;  and 
of  the  building  and  dedication  of  the  temple  at 
Jerusalem.     In    the    last    four  chapters,  Ezra 
relates   his  own  appointment  to   the   govern- 
ment of  Judea  by  Artaxerxes  Longimanus,  his 
journey  thither  from  Babylon,  the  disobedience 
of  the  Jews,  and  the  reform  which  he  imme- 
diately effected  among  them.     It  is  to  be  ob- 
served,   that  between    the    dedication    of  the 
temple  and  the  departure  of  Ezra,  that  is,  be- 
tween the  sixth  and  seventh  chapters  of  this 
book,  there  was  an  interval  of  about  fifty-eight 
years,    during  which  nothing  is  here  related 
concerning  the  Jews,  except  that,  contrary  to 
God's  command,  they  intermarried  with  Gen- 
tiles.    This  book  is  written  in  Chaldee  from 
the  eighth  verse  of  the  fourth  chapter  to  the 
twenty-seventh  verse  of  the  seventh  chapter. 
It  is  probable  that  the  sacred  historian  used 
the  Chaldean  language  in  this  part  of  his  work, 
because  it  contains  chiefly  letters  and  decrees 
written  in  that  language,  the  original  words 
of  which  he  might  think  it  right  to  record ; 
and  indeed  the  people,  who  were  recently  re- 
turned from  the  Babylonian  captivity,  were  at 
least  as  familiar  with  the  Chaldee  as  they  were 
with  the  Hebrew  tongue. 

Till  the  arrival  of  Nehemiah,  Ezra  had  the 
principal  authority  in  Jerusalem.  In  the 
second  year  of  Nehemiah's  government,  the 
people  being  assembled  in  the  temple,  at  the 
feast  of  tabernacles,  Ezra  was  desired  to  read 
the  law.     He  read  it  from  morning  till  noon, 


FAC 


369 


FAT 


and  was  accompanied  by  Levites  who  stood 
beside  him,  and  kept  silence.  The  next  day 
they  desired  to  know  of  Ezra  how  they  were 
to  celebrate  the  feast  of  tabernacles.  This  he 
explained,  and  continued  eight  days  reading 
the  law  in  the  temple.  All  this  was  followed 
by  a  solemn  renewal  of  the  covenant  with  the 
Lord.  Josephus  says  that  Ezra  was  buried  at 
Jerusalem;  but  the  Jews  believe  that  he  died 
in  Persia,  in  a  second  journey  to  Artaxerxes. 
His  tomb  is  shown  there  in  the  city  of  Zamuza. 
He  is  said  to  have  lived  nearly  one  hundred 
and  twenty  years. 

Ezra  was  the  restorer  and  publisher  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures,  after  the  return  of  the  Jews 
from  the  Babylonian  captivity.  1.  He  cor- 
rected  the  errors  which  had  crept  into  the  ex- 
isting copies  of  the  sacred  writings  by  the  ne- 
gligence or  mistake  of  transcribers.  2.  He  col- 
lected all  the  books  of  which  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures then  consisted,  disposed  them  in  their 
proper  order,  and  settled  the  canon  of  Scrip- 
ture for  his  time.  3.  He  added  throughout  the 
books  of  his  edition  what  appeared  necessary 
for  illustrating,  connecting,  or  completing 
them ;  and  of  this  we  have  an  instance  in  the 
account  of  the  death  and  burial  of  Moses,  in 
the  last  chapter  of  Deuteronomy.  In  this  work 
he  was  assisted  by  the  same  Spirit  by  which 
they  were  at  first  written.  4.  He  changed  the 
ancient  names  of  several  places  become  obso- 
lete, and  substituted  for  them  new  names,  by 
which  they  were  at  that  time  called.  5.  He  wrote 
out  the  whole  in  the  Chaldee  character;  that 
language  having  grown  into  use  after  the 
Babylonish  captivity.  The  Jews  have  an  ex- 
traordinary esteem  for  Ezra,  and  say  that  if 
the  law  had  not  been  given  by  Moses,  Ezra 
deserved  to  have  been  the  legislator  of  the 
Hebrews. 

FABLE,  a  fiction  destitute  of  truth.  St. 
Paul  exhorts  Timothy  and  Titus  to  shun  pro- 
fane and  Jewish  fables,  1  Tim.  iv,  7;  Titus  i, 
14 ;  as  having  a  tendency  to  seduce  men  from 
the  truth.  By  these  fables  some  understand 
the  reveries  of  the  Gnostics ;  but  the  fathers 
generally,  and  after  them  most  of  the  modern 
commentators,  interpret  them  of  the  vain  tra- 
ditions of  the  Jews ;  especially  concerning 
meats,  and  other  things,  to  be  abstained  from 
as  unclean,  which  our  Lord  also  styles  "the 
doctrines  of  men,"  Matt,  xv,  9.  This  sense  of 
the  passages  is  confirmed  by  their  contexts. 
In  another  sense,  the  word  is  taken  to  signify 
an  apologue,  or  instructive  tale,  intended  to 
convey  truth  under  the  concealment  of  fiction  ; 
as  Jotham's  fable  of  the  trees,  Judges  ix,  7-15, 
no  doubt  by  far  the  oldest  fable  extant. 

FACE.  Moses  begs  of  God  to  show  him 
his  face,  or  to  manifest  his  glory ;  he  replies, 
"I  will  make  all  my  goodness  pass  before 
thee,"  and  I  will  proclaim  my  name  ;  "  but  my 
face  thou  canst  not  see  ;  for  there  shall  no  man 
see  it  and  live!"  The  persuasion  was  very 
prevalent  in  the  world,  that  no  man  could  sup- 
port the  sight  of  Deity,  Genesis  xvi,  13  ;  xxxii, 
30;  Exod.  xx,  19;  xxiv,  11 ;  Judges  vi,  22,  23. 
We  read  that  God  spake  mouth  to  mouth  with 
25 


Moses,  even  apparently,  and  not  in  dark 
speeches,  Numbers  xii,  8;  "The  Canaanites 
have  heard  that  thou  art  among  thy  people, 
and  seen  face  to  face,"  Numbers  xiv,  14.  God 
talked  with  the  Hebrews  "  face  to  face  out  of 
the  midst  of  the  fire,"  Deut.  v,  4.  All  these 
places  are  to  be  understood  simply,  that  God 
so  manifested  himself  to  the  Israelites,  that  he 
made  them  hear  his  voice  as  distinctly  as  if  he 
had  appeared  to  them  face  to  face ;  but  not 
that  they  actually  saw  more  than  the  cloud  of 
glory  which  marked  his  presence.  The  face 
of  God  denotes  sometimes  his  anger:  "Tho 
face  of  the  Lord  is  against  them  that  do  evil." 
"  As  wax  melteth  before  the  fire,  so  let  the 
wicked  perish  before  the  face  of  God,"  Psalm 
lxviii,  2.  To  turn  the  face  upon  any  one,  es- 
pecially when  connected  with  the  light  or 
shining  of  the  countenance,  are  beautiful  re- 
presentations  of  the  divine  kindness  and  con- 
descension. To  regard  the  face  of  any  one,  is 
to  have  respect  of  persons,  Proverbs  xxvi'ii,  21. 
The  Apostle,  speaking  of  the  difference  be- 
tween our  knowledge  of  God  here  and  in 
heaven,  says,  "Now  we  see  through  a  glass 
darkly ;  but  then  face  to  face,"  1  Cor.  xiii,  12 ; 
by  which  he  shows  the  vast  difference  between 
our  seeing  or  knowing  God  and  divine  things 
by  an  imperfect  revelation  to  faith,  and  by 
direct  vision.  This  observation  of  the  Apostle 
is  rendered  the  more  striking,  when  it  is  recol- 
lected that  the  Roman  glass  was  not  fully 
transparent  as  ours,  but  dull  and  clouded.  Of 
this,  specimens  may  be  seen  in  the  glass  vessels 
taken  out  of  Pompeii. 

FAITH,  in  Scripture,  is  presented  to  us 
under  two  leading  views:  the  first  is  that  of 
assent  or  persuasion;  the  second,  that  of  con- 
fidence or  reliance.  The  former  may  be  sepa- 
rate from  the  latter,  but  the  latter  cannot  exist 
without  the  former.  Faith,  in  the  sense  of  an 
intellectual  assent  to  truth,  is,  by  St.  James, 
allowed  to  devils.  A  dead,  inoperative  faith  is 
also  supposed,  or  declared,  to  be  possessed  by 
wicked  men,  professing  Christianity;  for  our 
Lord  represents  persons  coming  to  him  at  the 
last  day,  saying,  "  Lord,  have  we  not  prophe- 
sied in  thy  name  ?"  &c,  to  whom  he  will  say, 
"  Depart  from  me,  I  never  knew  you."  And 
yet  the  charge  in  this  place  does  not  lie  against 
the  sincerity  of  their  belief,  but  against  their 
conduct  as  "workers  of  iniquity."  As  this 
distinction  is  taught  in  Scripture,  so  it  is  also 
observed  in  experience  :  assent  to  the  truths  of 
revealed  religion  may  result  from  examination 
and  conviction,  while  yet  the  spirit  and  con- 
duct may  remain  unrenewed  and  sinful. 

2.  The  faith  which  is  required  of  us  as  a  con- 
dition  of  salvation  always  includes  confidence 
or  reliance,  as  well  as  assent  or  persuasion. 
That  faith  by  which  "  the  elders  obtained  a 
good  report,"  was  of  this  character ;  it  united 
assent,  to  the  truth  of  God's  revelations  with  a 
noble  confidence  in  his  promise.  "Our  fathers 
trusted  in  thee,  and  were  not  confounded." 
We  have  a  farther  illustration  in  our  Lord's 
address  to  his  disciples  upon  the  withering 
away  of  the  rig  tree:  "Have  faith  in  God." 
He  did  not  question  whether  thoy  believed  tho 


FAI 


370 


FAI 


existence  of  God,  but  exhorted  them  to  confi- 
dence in  his  promises,  when  called  by  him  to 
contend  with  mountainous  difficulties  :  "  Have 
faith  in  God;  for  verily  I  say  unto  you,  that 
whosoever  shall  say  unto  this  mountain,  Be 
thou  removed,  and  be  thou  cast  into  the  sea, 
and  shall  not  doubt  in  his  heart,  but  shall  be- 
lieve (trust)  that  these  things  which  he  saith 
nha]l  come  to  pass,  he  shall  have  whatsoever 
he  saith."  It  was  in  reference  to  his  simple 
confidence  in  Christ's  power  that  our  Lord  so 
highly  commended  the  centurion,  and  said, 
"  I  have  not  found  so  great  faith,  no,  not  in 
Israel,"  Matt,  viii,  10.  And  all  the  instances 
of  faith  in  the  persons  miraculously  healed  by 
Christ,  were  also  of  this  kind:  their  faith  was 
belief  in  his  claims,  and  also  confidence  in  his 
goodness  and  power. 

3.  That  faith  in  Christ  which  in  the  New 
Testament  is  connected  with  salvation,  is 
clearly  of  this  nature ;  that  is,  it  combines 
assent  with  reliance,  belief  with  trust.  "  What- 
soever  ye  ask  the  Father  in  my  name,"  that  is, 
in  dependence  upon  my  interest  and  merits, 
"he  shall  give  it  you."  Christ  was  preached 
both  to  Jews  and  Gentiles  as  the  object  of  their 
trust,  because  he  was  preached  as  the  only 
true  sacrifice  for  sin;  and  they  were  required 
to  renounce  their  dependence  upon  their  own 
accustomed  sacrifices,  and  to  transfer  that  de- 
pendence to  his  death  and  mediation, — and 
"in  his  name  shall  the  Gentiles  trust."  He  is 
said  to  be  set  forth  as  a  propitiation,  "  through 
faith  in  his  blood;"  which  faith  can  neither 
merely  mean  assent  to  the  historical  fact  that 
his  blood  was  shed  by  a  violent  death;  nor 
mere  assent  to  the  general  doctrine  that  his 
blood  had  an  atoning  quality ;  but  as  all  ex- 
piatory offerings  were  trusted  in  as  the  means 
of  propitiation  both  among  Jews  and  Gentiles, 
faith  or  trust  was  now  to  be  exclusively  ren- 
dered to  the  blood  of  Christ,  as  the  divinely 
appointed  sacrifice  for  sin,  and  the  only  refuge 
of  the  true  penitent. 

•  4.  To  the  most  unlettered  Christian  this  then 
will  be  very  obvious,  that  true  and  saving  faith 
in  Christ  consists  both  of  assent  and  trust ;  but 
this  is  not  a  blind  and  superstitious  trust  in  the 
sacrifice  of  Christ,  like  that  of  the  Heathens  in 
their  sacrifices ;  nor  the  presumptuous  trust  of 
wicked  and  impenitent  men,  who  depend  on 
Christ  to  save  them  in  their  sins;  but  such  a 
(rust  as  is  exercised  according  to  the  authority 
and  direction  of  the  word  ot'God ;  so  that  to  know 
the  Gospel  in  its  leading  principles,  and  to  have 
a  cordial  belief  in  it,  is  necessury  to  that  more 
specific  act  of  faith  which  is  called  reliance,  or 
in  systematic  language,  fiducial  assent-  The 
Gospel,  as  the  scheme  of  man's  salvation,  de- 
clares that  he  is  under  the  law ;  that  this  law 
of  God  has  been  violated  by  all ;  and  that  every 
man  is  under  sentence  of  death.  Serious  con- 
sideration of  our  ways,  confession  of  the  fact, 
and  sorrowful  conviction  of  the  evil  anefdanger 
of  sin,  will,  under  the  influence  of  divine  grace, 
follow  the  cordial  belief  of  the  testimony  of 
God;  and  we  shall  then  turn  to  God  with 
contrite  hearts,  and  earnest  prayers,  and  sup- 
plications for  his  mercy.     This  is  called  "  re- 


pentance toward  God  ;"  and  repentance  being 
the  first  subject  of  evangelical  preaching,  and 
then  the  injunction  to  believe  the  Gospel,  it  is 
plain,  that  Christ  is  only  immediately  held  out, 
in  this  divine  plan  of  our  redemption,  as  the 
object  of  trust  in  order  to  forgiveness  to  per- 
sons in  this  state  of  penitence  and  under  this 
sense  of  danger.  The  degree  of  sorrow  for 
sin,  and  alarm  upon  this  discovery  of  our  dan- 
ger as  sinners,  is  no  where  fixed  to  a  precise 
standard  in  Scripture ;  only  it  is  supposed  every 
where,  that  it  is  such  as  to  lead  men  to  inquire 
earnestly,  "What  shall  I  do  to  be  saved?" 
and  with  earnest  seriousness  to  use  all  the 
appointed  means  of  grace,  as  those  who  feel 
that  their  salvation  is  at  issue,  that  they  are 
in  a  lost  condition,  and  must  be  pardoned 
or  perish.  To  all  such  persons,  Christ,  as  the 
only  atonement  for  sin,  is  exhibited  as  the  object 
of  their  trust,  with  the  promise  of  God,  "that 
whosoever  believeth  in  him  shall  not  perish, 
but  have  everlasting  life."  Nothing  is  required 
of  such  but  this  actual  trust  in,  and  personal 
apprehension  or  taking  hold  of,  the  merits  of 
Christ's  death  as  a  sacrifice  for  sin ;  and  upon 
their  thus  believing  they  are  justified,  their 
"  faith  is  counted  for  righteousness,"  or,  in 
other  words,  they  are  forgiven. 

5.  This  appears  to  be  the  plain  Scriptural 
representation  of  this  doctrine ;  and  we  may 
infer  from  it,  (1.)  That  the  faith  by  which  we 
are  justified  is  not  a  mere  assent  to  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Gospel,  which  leaves  the  heart 
unmoved  and  unaffected  by  a  sense  of  the  evil 
and  danger  of  sin  and  the  desire  of  salvation, 
although  it  supposes  this  assent ;  nor,  (2.)  Is 
it  that  more  lively  and  cordial  assent  to,  and 
belief  in,  the  doctrine  of  the  Gospel,  touching 
our  sinful  and  lost  condition,  which  is  wrought 
in  the  heart  by  the  Spirit  of  God,  and  from 
which  springeth  repentance,  although  this 
must  precede  it ;  nor,  (3.)  Is  it  only  the  assent 
of  the  mind  to  the  method  by  which  God  jus- 
tifies the  ungodly  by  faith  in  the  sacrifice  of 
his  Son,  although  this  is  an  element  of  it;  but 
it  is  a  hearty  concurrence  of  the  will  and  af- 
fections with  this  plan  of  salvation,  which 
implies  a  renunciation  of  every  other  refuge, 
and  an  actual  trust  in  the  Saviour,  and  personal 
apprehension  of  his  merits  :  such  a  belief  of  the 
Gospel  by  the  power  of  the  Spirit  of  God  as  lends 
us  to  come  to  Christ,  to  receive  Christ,  to  trust 
in  Christ,  and  to  commit  the  keeping  of  our 
souls  into  his  hands,  in  humble  confidence  of 
his  ability  and  his  willingness  to  save  us. 

6.  This  is  that  qualifying  condition  to  which 
the  promise  of  God  annexes  justification  ;  that 
without  which  justification  would  not  take 
place ;  and  in  this  sense  it  is  that  we  are  jus- 
tified by  faitli ;  not  by  the  merit  of  faith,  but 
by  faitli  instrumental])'  as  this  condition  :  for 
its  connection  with  the  benefit  arises  from  the 
merits  of  Christ  and  the  promise  of  God.  If 
Christ  had  not  merited,  God  had  not  promised  ; 
if  God  had  not  promised,  justification  had  never 
followed  upon  this  faith;  so  that  the  iiidi.>s<>lii- 
ble  connection  of  faith  and  justification  is  from 
God's  institution,  whereby  he  hath  bound  him. 
self  to  give  the  benefit  upon  performance  of 


FAL 


371 


FAL 


the  condition.  Yet  there  is  an  aptitude  in  this 
faith  to  be  made  a  condition ;  for  no  other  act 
can  receive  Christ  as  a  Priest  propitiating  and 
pleading  the  propitiation  and  the  promise  of 
God  for  his  sake  to  give  the  benefit.  As  re- 
ceiving Christ  and  the  gracious  promise  in  this 
manner,  it  acknowledgeth  man's  guilt,  and  so 
man  renounceth  all  righteousness  in  himself, 
and  honoureth  God  the  Father,  and  Christ  the 
Son,  the  only  Redeemer.  It  glorifies  God's 
mercy  and  free  grace  in  the  highest  degree.  It 
acknowledges  on  earth,  as  it  will  be  perpetually 
acknowledged  in  heaven,  that  the  whole  sal- 
vation of  sinful  man,  from  the  beginning  to  the 
last  degree  thereof,  whereof  there  shall  be  no 
end,  is  from  God's  freest  love,  Christ's  merit 
and  intercession,  his  own  gracious  promise, 
and  the  power  of  his  own  Holy  Spirit. 

7.  Faith,  in  Scripture,  sometimes  is  taken 
for  the  truth  and  faithfulness  of  God,  Rom. 
iii,  3  ;  and  it  is  also  taken  for  the  persuasion  of 
the  mind  as  to  the  lawfulness  of  things  indif- 
ferent, Rom.  xiv,  22,  23 ;  and  it  is  likewise  put 
for  the  doctrine  of  the  Gospel,  which  is  the 
object  of  faith,  Acts  xxiv,  24 ;  Phil,  i,  27  ;  Jude 
3  ;  for  the  belief  and  profession  of  the  Gospel, 
Rom.  i,  8 ;  and  for  fidelity  in  the  performance 
of  promises. 

FALL  OF  MAN.  In  addition  to  what  is 
stated  on  this  subject  under  the  article  Adam, 
it  may  be  necessary  to  establish  the  literal 
Sense  of  the  account  given  of  man's  fall  in  the 
book  of  Genesis.  This  account  is,  that  a  gar- 
den having  been  planted  by  the  Creator,  for 
the  use  of  man,  he  was  placed  in  it,  "  to  dress  it, 
and  to  keep  it ;" — that  in  this  garden  two  trees 
were  specially  distinguished,  one  as  "  the  tree 
of  life,"  the  other  as  "  the  tree  of  the  know- 
ledge of  good  and  evil ;" — that  from  eating  of 
the  latter  Adam  was  restrained  by  positive 
interdict,  and  by  the  penalty,  "  In  the  day  thou 
eatest  thereof  thou  shalt  surely  die  ;" — that  the 
serpent,  who  was  more  subtle  than  any  beast 
of  the  field,  tempted  the  woman  to  eat,  by  de- 
nying that  death  would  be  the  consequence, 
and  by  assuring  her,  that  her  eyes  and  her 
husband's  eyes  "  would  be  opened,"  and  that 
they  would  "be  as  gods,  knowing  good  and 
evil ;" — that  the  woman  took  of  the  fruit,  gave 
of  it  to  her  husband,  who  also  ate ; — that  for 
this  act  of  disobedience  they  were  expelled 
from  the  garden,  made  subject  to  dsath,  and 
laid  under  other  maledictions. 

2.  That  this  history  should  be  the  subject  of 
much  criticism,  not  only  by  infidels,  but  by 
those  who  hold  false  and  perverted  views  of 
the  Christian  system,  was  to  be  expected. 
Taken  in  its  natural  and  obvious  sense,  along 
with  the  comments  of  the  subsequent  Scrip- 
tures, it  teaches  the  doctrines  of  the  existence 
of  an  evil,  tempting,  invisible  spirit,  going  about 
seeking  whom  he  may  deceive  and  devour;  of 
the  introduction  of  moral  corruptness  into  hu- 
man nature,  which  has  been  transmitted  to  all 
men ;  and  is  connected  also  with  the  doctrine 
of  a  vicarious  atonement  for  sin  ;  and  wherever 
the  fundamental  truths  of  the  Christian  system 
are  denied,  attempts  will  be  made  so  to  inter- 
pret this  part  of  the  Mosaic  history  as  to  ob- 


seure  the  testimony  which  it  gives  to  them, 
either  explicitly,  or  by  just  induction.  Inter- 
preters have  adopted  various  and  often  strange 
theories ;  but  those  whose  opinions  it  seems 
necessary  to  notice  may  be  divided  into  such 
as  deny  the  literal  sense  of  the  relation  en- 
tirely ;  such  as  take  the  account  to  he  in  part 
literal  and  in  part  allegorical ;  and  those  who, 
while  they  contend  earnestly  for  the  literal 
interpretation  of  every  part  of  the  history,  con- 
sider some  of  the  terms  used,  and  some  of  the 
persons  introduced,  as  conveying  a  meaning 
more  extensive  than  the  letter,  and  as  consti- 
tuting several  symbols  of  spiritual  things  and 
of  spiritual  beings. 

3.  Those  who  have  denied  the  literal  sense 
entirely,  and  regarded  the  whole  relation  as  an 
instructive  mythos,  or  fable,  have,  as  might  be 
expected,  when  all  restraint  of  authority  was 
thus  thrown  oft'  from  the  imagination,  them- 
selves adopted  very  different  theories.  Thus 
we  have  been  taught,  that  this  account  was 
intended  to  teach  the  evil  of  yielding  to  the 
violence  of  appetite  and  to  its  control  over  rea- 
son; or  the  introduction  of  vice  in  conjunction 
with  knowledge  and  the  artificial  refinements 
of  society;  or  the  necessity  of  keeping  the 
great  mass  of  mankind  from  acquiring  too 
great  a  degree  of  knowledge,  as  being  hurtful 
to  society ;  or  to  consider  it  as  another  version 
of  the  story  of  the  golden  age,  and  its  being 
succeeded  by  times  more  vicious  and  miserable  ; 
or  as  designed,  enigmatically,  to  account  for 
the  origin  of  evil,  or  of  mankind.  This  cata- 
logue of  opinions  might  be  much  enlarged : 
some  of  them  have  been  held  by  mere  vision- 
aries; others  by  men  of  learning,  especially  by 
several  of  the  semi-infidel  theologians  and  Bib- 
lical critics  of  Germany ;  nor  has  our  own 
country  been  exempt  from  this  class  of  bold 
expositors.  How  to  fix  upon  the  moral  of  "  the 
fable"  is,  however,  the  difficulty  ;  and  the  great 
variety  of  opinion  is  a  sufficient  refutation  of 
the  general  notion  assumed  by  the  whole  class, 
since  scarcely  can  two  of  them  be  found  who 
adopt  the  same  views,  after  they  have  discarded 
the  literal  acceptation. 

4.  But  that  the  account  of  Moses  is  to  be 
taken  as  a  matter  of  real  history,  and  according 
to  its  literal  import,  is  established  by  two  con- 
siderations, against  which,  as  being  facts,  no- 
thing can  successfully  be  urged.  The  first  is, 
that  the  account  of  the  fall  of  the  first  pair  is  a 
part  of  a  continuous  history.  The  creation  of 
the  world,  of  man,  of  woman  ;  the  planting  of 
the  garden  of  Eden,  and  the  placing  of  man 
there;  the  duties  and  prohibitions  laid  upon 
him ;  his  disobedience  ;  his  expulsion  from  the 
garden ;  the  subsequent  birth  of  his  children, 
their  lives,  and  actions,  and  those  of  their  pos- 
terity, down  to  the  flood ;  and_,  from  that  event, 
to  the  life  of  Abraham,  are  given  in  the  same 
plain  and  unadorned  narrative ;  brief,  but  yet 
simple ;  and  with  no  intimation  at  all,  either 
from  the  elevation  of  the  style  or  otherwise, 
that  a  fable  or  allegory  is  in  any  part  introduced. 
As  this,  then,  is  the  case,  and  the  evidence  of 
it  lies  upon  the  very  face  of  the  history,  it  is 
clear,  that  If  the  account  of  the  fall  be  excerpt- 


FAL 


372 


FAL 


ed  from  the  whole  narrative  as  allegorical,  any 
subsequent  part,  from  Abel  to  Noah,  from  Noah 
to  Abraham,  from  Abraham  to  Moses,  may  be 
excerpted  for  the  same  reason,  which  reason 
is  merely  this,  that  it  does  not  agree  with  the 
theological  opinions  of  the  interpreter;  and 
thus  the  whole  of  the  Pentateuch  may  be 
rejected  history,  and  converted  into  fable. 
Either  then  the  account  of  the  fall  must  be 
taken  as  history,  or  the  historical  character  of 
the  whole  five  books  of  Moses  must  be  unset- 
tled ;  and  if  none  but  infidels  will  go  to  the 
latter  consequence,  then  no  one  who  admits 
the  Pentateuch  to  be  a  true  history  generally, 
can  consistenly  refuse  to  admit  the  story  of  the 
fall  of  the  first  pair  to  be  a  narrative  of  real 
events,  because  it  is  written  in  the  same  style, 
and  presents  the  same  character  of  a  continu- 
ous record  of  events.  So  conclusive  has  this 
argument  been  felt,  that  the  anti-literal  inter- 
preters have  endeavoured  to  evade  it,  by  assert- 
ing that  the  part  of  the  history  of  Moses  in 
question  bears  marks  of  being  a  separate  frag- 
ment, more  ancient  than  the  Pentateuch  itself, 
and  transcribed  into  it  by  Moses,  the  author 
and  compiler  of  the  whole.  This  point  is  ex- 
amined and  satisfactorily  refuted  in  Holden's 
learned  and  excellent  work,  entitled,  "  Disser- 
tation on  the  Fall  of  Man  ;"  but  it  is  easy  to 
show,  that  it  would  amount  to  nothing,  if 
granted,  in  the  mind  of  any  who  is  satisfied  on 
the  previous  question  of  the  inspiration  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures.  For  let  it  be  admitted  that 
Moses,  in  writing  the  pentateuchal  history, 
availed  himself  of  the  traditions  of  the  patri- 
archal ages,  a  supposition  not  in  the  least  in- 
consistent with  his  inspiration  or  with  the 
absolute  truth  of  his  history,  since  the  tradi- 
tions so  introduced  have  been  authenticated  by 
the  Holy  Spirit ;  or  let  it  be  supposed,  which 
is  wholly  gratuitous,  that  he  made  use  of  pre- 
viously existing  documents  ;  and  that  some 
differences  of  style  in  his  books  may  be  traced 
which  serve  to  point  out  his  quotations,  which 
is  a  position  that  some  of  the  best  Hebraists 
have  denied ;  yet  two  things  are  to  be  noted : 
first,  that  the  inspired  character  of  the  books 
of  Moses  is  authenticated  by  our  Lord  and  his 
Apostles,  so  that  they  must  necessarily  be 
wholly  true,  and  free  from  real  contradictions  ; 
and,  secondly,  that  to  make  it  any  thing  to 
their  purpose  who  contend  that  the  account  of 
the  fall  is  an  older  document,  introduced  by 
Moses,  it  ought  to  be  shown  that  it  is  not 
written  as  truly  in  the  narrative  style,  even  if 
it  could  be  proved  to  be,  in  some  respects,  a 
different  style,  as  that  which  precedes  and  fol- 
lows it.  Now  the  very  literal  character  of  our 
translation  will  enable  even  the  unlearned 
reader  to  discover  this.  Whether  it  be  an  em- 
bodied tradition,  or  the  insertion  of  a  more 
ancient  document,  (though  there  is  no  founda- 
tion at  all  for  the  latter  supposition,)  it  is  ob- 
viously a  narrative,  and  a  narrative  as  simple 
as  any  which  precedes  or  follows  it. 

5.  The  other  indisputable  fact  to  which  I 
just  now  adverted,  a6  establishing  the  literal 
c-cnne  of  the  history,  is  that,  as  such,  it  is  refer- 
red to  and  reasoned  upon  in  various  parts  of 


Scripture :  "  Knowest  thou  not  tins  of  old,  since 
man  (Adam)  was  placed  upon  earth,  that  the 
triumphing  of  the  wicked  is  6hort,  and  the  joy 
of  the  hypocrite  but  for  a  moment?"  Job  xx, 
4,  5.  There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  but  that  this 
passage  refers  to  the  fall  and  the  first  sin  of 
man.  The  date  agrees;  for  the  knowledge 
here  taught  is  said  to  arise  from  facts  as  old 
as  the  first  placing  of  man  upon  earth,  and 
tne  sudden  punishment  of  the  iniquity  corre- 
sponds to  the  Mosaic  account:  "The  triumph- 
ing of  the  wicked  is  short,  his  joy  but  for  a 
moment."  "  If  I  covered  my  transgressions  as 
Adam,  by  hiding  mine  iniquity  in  my  bosom," 
Job  xxxi,  33.  Magee  renders  the  verse, 
"  Did  I  cover,  like  Adam,  my  transgression, 
By  hiding  in  a  lurking  place  mine  iniquity  V 
and  adds,  "  I  agree  with  Peters,  that  this  con- 
tains a  reference  to  the  history  of  the  first  man, 
and  his  endeavours  to  hide  himself  after  his 
transgression."  Our  margin  reads,  "  after  the 
manner  of  men ;"  and  also  the  old  versions ; 
but  the  Chaldee  paraphrase  agrees  with  our 
translation,  which  is  also  satisfactorily  defend- 
ed by  numerous  critics.  "  What  is  man,  that 
he  should  be  clean  ?  and  he  which  is  born  of  a 
woman,  that  he  should  be  righteous  ?"  Job 
xv,  14.  Why  not  clean  ?  Did  God  make  woman 
or  man  unclean  at  the  beginning  ?  If  he  did, 
the  expostulation  would  have  been  more  appo- 
site, and  much  stronger,  had  the  true  cause 
been  assigned,  and  Job  had  said,  "How  canst 
thou  expect  cleanness  in  man,  whom  thou  cre- 
atedst  unclean  ?"  But,  as  the  case  now  stands, 
the  expostulation  has  a  plain  reference  to  the 
introduction  of  vanity  and  corruption  by  the 
sin  of  the  woman,  and  is  an  evidence  that  this 
ancient  writer  was  sensible  of  the  evil  conse- 
quences of  the  fall  upon  the  whole  race  of  man. 
"Eden"  and  "the  garden  of  the  Lord"  are 
also  frequently  referred  to  in  the  prophets. 
We  have  the  "tree  of  life"  mentioned  several 
times  in  the  Proverbs  and  in  the  Revelation. 
"God,"  says  Solomon,  "made  man  upright." 
The  enemies  of  Christ  and  his  church  are 
spoken  of,  both  in  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments, under  the  names  of  "  the  serpent,"  and 
"  the  dragon ;"  and  the  habit  of  the  serpent  to 
lick  the  dust  is  also  referred  to  by  Isaiah. 

G.  If  the  history  of  the  fall,  as  recorded  by 
Moses,  were  an  allegory,  or  any  thing  but  a 
literal  history,  several  of  the  above  allusions 
would  have  no  meaning ;  but  the  matter  is 
put  beyond  all  possible  doubt  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament, unless  the  same  culpable  liberties  be 
taken  with  the  interpretation  of  the  words  of 
our  Lord  and  of  St.  Paul  as  with  those  of  the 
Jewish  lawgiver.  Our  Lord  says,  "  Have  ye 
not  read,  that  he  which  made  them  at  the 
beginning,  made  them  male  and  female ;  and 
said,  For  this  cause  shall  a  man  leave  father 
and  mother,  and  shall  cleave  to  his  wife ;  and 
they  twain  shall  be  one  flesh  ?"  Matt,  xix,  4,  5. 
This  is  an  argument  on  the  subject  of  divorces, 
and  its  foundation  rests  upon  two  of  the  facts 
recorded  by  Moses  :  (1.)  That  God  made  at  first 
but  two  human  beings,  from  whom  all  the  rest 
have  sprung.  (2.)  That  the  intimacy  and  indis- 
solubility of  the  marriage  relation  recto  upon 


FAS 


373 


FAS 


the  formation  of  the  woman  from  the  man ; 
for  our  Lord  quotes  the  words  in  Genesis, 
where  the  obligation  of  man  to  cleave  to  his 
wife  is  immediately  connected  with  that  cir- 
cumstance:  "And  Adam  said,  This  is  now 
bone  of  my  bones,  and  flesh  of  my  flesh  :  she 
shall  be  called  woman,  because  she  was  taken 
out  of  man.  Therefore  shall  a  man  leave  his 
father  and  his  mother,  and  shall  cleave  unto 
his  wife ;  and  they  shall  be  one  flesh."  This 
is  sufficiently  in  proof  that  both  our  Lord  and 
the  Pharisees  considered  this  early  part  of  the 
history  of  Moses  as  a  narrative  ;  for,  otherwise, 
it  would  neither  have  been  a  reason,  on  his  part, 
for  the  doctrine  which  he  was  inculcating,  nor 
have  had  any  force  of  conviction  as  to  them.  "  In 
Adam,"  says  the  Apostle  Paul,  "  all  die  ;"  "  by 
one  man  sin  entered  into  the  world."  "  But  I 
fear  lest  by  any  means,  as  the  serpent  beguiled 
Eve  through  his  subtlety,  so  your  minds  should 
be  corrupted  from  the  simplicity  that  is  in 
Christ."  In  the  last  passage,  the  instrument 
of  the  temptation  is  said  to  be  a  serpent,  Sipig, 
which  is  a  sufficient  answer  to  those  who 
would  make  it  any  other  animal ;  and  Eve  is 
represented  as  being  first  seduced,  according  to 
the  account  in  Genesis.  This  St.  Paul  repeats 
in  1  Tim.  ii,  13, 14 :  "  Adam  was  first  formed, 
then  Eve.  And  Adam  was  not  deceived,"  first 
or  immediately,  "  but  the  woman  being  deceiv- 
ed was  in  the  transgression."  And  he  offers 
this  as  the  reason  of  an  injunction,  "  Let  the 
woman  learn  in  silence  with  all  subjection." 
When,  therefore,  it  is  considered,  that  these 
passages  are  introduced,  not  for  rhetorical 
illustration,  or  in  the  way  of  classical  quota- 
tion, but  are  made  the  basis  of  grave  and  im- 
portant reasonings,  which  embody  some  of  the 
most  important  doctrines  of  the  Christian  reve- 
lation, and  of  important  social  duties  and  points 
of  Christian  order  and  decorum  ;  it  would  be  to 
charge  the  writers  of  the  New  Testament  with 
the  grossest  absurdity,  nay,  with  even  culpable 
and  unworthy  trifling,  to  suppose  them  to 
argue  from  the  history  of  the  fall  as  a  narra- 
tive, when  they  knew  it  to  be  an  allegory.  And 
if  we  are,  therefore,  compelled  to  allow  that  it 
was  understood  as  a  real  history  by  our  Lord 
and  his  inspired  Apostles,  those  speculations 
of  modern  critics,  which  convert  it  into  a  para- 
ble, stand  branded  with  their  true  character  of 
infidel  and  semi-infidel  temerity. 

7.  The  effect  of  the  sin  or  lapse  of  Adam 
was  to  bring  him  under  the  wrath  of  God  ;  to 
render  him  liable  to  pain,  disease,  and  death  ; 
to  deprive  him  of  primeval  holiness ;  to  sepa- 
rate him  from  communion  with  God  and  that 
spiritual  life  which  was  before  imparted  by 
God,  and  on  which  his  holiness  alene  depended, 
from  the  loss  of  which  a  total  moral  disorder 
and  depravation  of  his  soul  resulted ;  and  finally 
to  render  him  liable  to  everlasting  misery.  See 
Original  Sin.  For  the  effect  of  the  fall  of 
Adam  upon  his  posterity,  see  Justification. 

FASTING  has  been  practised  in  all  ages, 
and  among  all  nations,  in  times  of  mourning, 
sorrow,  and  affliction.  We  see  no  example  of 
fasting,  properly  so  called,  before  Moses.  Since 
the  time  of  Moses,  examples  of  fasting  have 


been  very  common  among  the  Jews.  Joshua 
and  the  elders  of  Israel  remained  prostrate  be- 
fore the  ark  from  morning  till  evening,  with- 
out eating,  after  Israel  was  defeated  at  Ai, 
Joshua  vii,  6.  The  eleven  tribes  which  fought 
against  that  of  Benjamin,  fell  down  on  their 
faces  before  the  ark,  and  so  continued  till 
evening  without  eating,  Judges  xx,  26.  David 
fasted  while  the  first  child  he  had  by  Bathshe- 
ba  was  sick,  2  Sam.  xii,  16.  The  Heathens 
sometimes  fasted  :  the  king  of  Nineveh,  terri- 
fied by  Jonah's  preaching,  ordered  that  not 
only  men,  but  also  beasts,  should  continue 
without  eating  or  drinking;  should  be  covered 
with  sackcloth,  and  each  after  their  manner 
should  cry  to  the  Lord,  Jonah  iii,  5,  6.  The 
Jews,  in  times  of  public  calamity,  appointed 
extraordinary  fasts,  and  made  even  the  children 
at  the  breast  fast,  Joel  ii,  16.  Moses  fasted 
forty  days  upon  Mount  Horeb,  Exod.  xxiv,  18. 
Elijah  passed  as  many  days  without  eating, 
1  Kings  xix,  8.  Our  Saviour  fasted  forty  days 
and  forty  nights  in  the  wilderness,  Matt,  iv,  2. 
These  fasts  were  miraculous,  and  out  of  the 
common  rules  of  nature. 

2.  Beside  the  solemn  fast  of  expiation  insti- 
tuted by  divine  authority,  the  Jews  appointed 
certain  days  of  humiliation,  called  the  fasts  of 
the  congregation.  The  calamities  for  which 
these  were  enjoined,  were  a  siege,  pestilence, 
diseases,  famine,  &,c.  They  were  observed  on 
the  second  and  fifth  days  of  the  week :  they 
began  at  sunset,  and  continued  till  midnight 
of  the  following  day.  On  these  days  they 
wore  sackcloth  next  the  skin,  and  rent  their 
clothes ;  they  sprinkled  ashes  on  their  heads, 
and  neither  washed  their  hands,  nor  anointed 
their  heads  with  oil.  The  synagogues  were 
filled  with  suppliants,  whose  prayers  were  long 
and  mournful,  and  their  countenances  dejected 
with  all  the  marks  of  sorrow  and  repentance. 

3.  As  to  the  fasts  observed  by  Christians,  it 
does  not  appear  by  his  own  practice,  or  by  his 
commands  to  his  disciples,  that  our  Lord  in- 
stituted any  particular  fast.  But  when  the 
Pharisees  reproached  him,  that  his  disciples 
did  not  fast  so  often  as  theirs,  or  as  John  the. 
Baptist's,  he  replied,  "  Can  ye  make  the  chil- 
dren of  the  bride-chamber  fast  while  the  bride, 
groom  is  with  them  ?  But  the  days  will  come 
when  the  bride-groom  shall  be  taken  away  from 
them,  and  then  shall  they  fast  in  those  days," 
Luke  v,  34,  35.  Fasting  is  also  recommended 
by  our  Saviour  in  his  sermon  on  the  mount ; 
not  as  a  stated,  but  as  an  occasional,  duty  of 
Christians,  for  the  purpose  of  humbling  their 
minds  under  the  afflicting  hand  of  God;  and 
he  requires  that  this  duty  be  performed  in  sin- 
cerity, and  not  for  the  sake  of  ostentation, 
Matt,  vi,  16. 

4.  Although  Christians,  says  Dr.  Neander, 
did  not  by  any  means  retire  from  the  business 
of  life,  yet  they  were  accustomed  to  devote 
many  separate  days  entirely  to  examining  their 
own  hearts,  and  pouring  them  out  before  God, 
while  they  dedicated  their  life  anew  to  him 
with  uninterrupted  prayers,  in  order  that  they 
might  again  return  to  their  ordinary  occupa- 
tions with  a  renovated  spirit  of  zeal  and  serious- 


FAT 


374 


FAT 


ness,  and  with  renewed  powers  of  sanctifica- 
tion.  These  days  of  holy  devotion,  days  of 
prayer  and  penitence,  which  individual  Chris- 
tians appointed  for  themselves,  according  to 
their  individual  necessities,  were  often  a  kind 
of  fast-days.  In  order  that  their  sensual  feel- 
ings might  less  distract  and  impede  the  occu- 
pation of  their  heart  with  its  holy  contempla- 
tions, they  were  accustomed  on  these  days  to 
limit  their  corporeal  wants  more  than  usual, 
or  to  fast  entirely.  In  the  consideration  of 
this,  we  must  not  overlook  tho  peculiar  nature 
of  that  hot  climate  in  which  Christianity  was 
first  promulgated.  That  which  was  spared  by 
their  abstinence  on  these  days  was  applied  to 
the  support  of  the  poorer  brethren. 

FAT.  God  forbade  the  Hebrews  to  eat  the 
fat  of  beasts:  "All  the  fat  is  the  Lord's.  It 
shall  be  a  perpetual  statute  for  your  genera- 
tions, throughout  all  your  dwellings,  that  ye 
eat  neither  fat  nor  blood,"  Lev.  iii,  1 7.  Some 
interpreters  understand  these  words  literally, 
and  suppose  fat  as  well  as  blood  to  be  forbid- 
den. Josephus  says  Moses  forbids  only  the  fat 
of  oxen,  goats,  sheep,  and  their  species.  This 
agrees  with  Lev.  vii,  23:  "Ye  shall  eat  no 
manner  of  fat,  of  ox,  or  of  sheep,  or  of  goat." 
This  is  observed  by  the  modern  Jews,  who 
think  that  the  fat  of  other  sorts  of  clean  crea- 
tures is  allowed  them,  even  that  of  beasts 
which  have  died  of  themselves,  conformably 
to  Lev.  vii,  24  :  "  And  the  fat  of  the  beast  that 
dieth  of  itself,  and  the  fat  of  that  which  is  torn 
with  beasts,  may  be  used  in  any  other  use  ;  but 
ye  shall  in  nowise  eat  of  it."  Others  maintain 
that  the  law  which  forbids  the  use  of  fat,  should 
be  restrained  to  fat  separated  from  the  flesh, 
such  as  that  which  covers  the  kidneys  and  the 
intestines ;  and  this  only  in  the  case  of  its 
being  offered  in  sacrifice.  This  is  confirmed 
by  Lev.  vii,  25 :  "  Whosoever  eateth  of  the  fat 
of  the  beast  of  which  men  offer  an  offering 
made  by  fire  unto  the  Lord,  even  the  soul  that 
eateth  it  shall  be  cut  off  from  his  people."  In 
the  Hebrew  style,  fat  signifies  not  only  that  of 
beasts,  but  also  the  richer  or  prime  part  of 
other  things:  "He  should  have  fed  them  with 
the  finest"  (in  Hebrew  the  fat)  "  of  the  wheat." 
Fat  denotes  abundance  of  good  things  :  "  I  will 
satiate  the  souls  of  the  priests  with  fatness," 
Jer.  xxxi,  14.  "  My  soul  shall  be  satisfied  with 
marrow  and  fatness,"  Psalm  lxiii,  5.  The  fat 
of  the  earth  implies  its  fruitfulness  :  "  God  give 
thee  of  the  dew  of  heaven,  and  the  fatness  of 
the  earth,  and  plenty  of  corn  and  wine,"  Gen. 
xxvii,  28. 

FATHER.  This  word,  beside  its  common 
acceptation,  is  taken  in  Scripture  for  grand- 
father, great-grandfather,  or  the  founder  of  a 
family,  how  remote  soever.  So  the  Jews  in 
our  Saviour's  time  called  Abraham,  Isaac,  and 
Jacob,  their  fathers.  Jesus  Christ  is  called  the 
Son  of  David,  though  David  was  many  gene- 
rations distant  from  him.  By  father  is  like- 
wise understood  the  institutor  of  a  certain 
profession.  Jabal  "was  father  of  such  as 
dwell  in  tents,  and  such  as  haye  cattle."  Jubal 
"  was  father  of  all  such  as  handle  the  harp  and 
organ,"  or  flute,  &c,  Gen.  iv,  20,  21.     Huram 


is  called  father  of  the  king  of  Tyre,  2  Chron. 
ii,  13;  and,  2  Chron.  iv,  1G,  even  of  Solomon, 
because  he  was  the  principal  workman,  and 
chief  director  of  their  undertakings.  The  prin- 
cipal prophets  were  considered  as  fathers  of 
the  younger,  who  were  their  disciples,  and  are 
called  sons  of  the  prophets,  2  Kings  ii,  12. 
Father  is  a  term  of  respect  given  by  inferiors 
to  superiors.  "  My  father,"  said  Naaman's 
attendants  to  him,  "  if  the  prophet  had  bid 
thee  do  some  great  thing,"  2  Kings  v,  13 ;  and 
so  the  king  of  Israel  addresses  the  prophet 
Elisha,  2  Kings  vi,  21.  Rechab,  the  founder 
of  the  Rechabites,  is  called  their  father,  Jer. 
xxxv,  6.  A  man  is  said  to  be  a  father  to  the 
poor  and  orphans,  when  he  supplies  their  ne- 
cessities, and  sympathizes  with  their  miseries, 
as  a  father  would  do  toward  them :  "  I  was  a 
father  to  the  poor,"  says  Job,  xxix,  16.  God 
declares  himself  to  be  the  "  Father  of  the 
fatherless,  and  Judge  of  the  widow,"  Psalm 
lxviii,  5.  God  is  frequently  called  our  heavenly 
Father,  and  simply  our  Father ;  eminently 
the  Father,  Preserver,  and  Protector  of  all, 
especially  of  those  who  invoke  him,  and 
serve  him :  "  Is  he  not  thy  Father  that  bought 
thee  ?"  says  Moses,  Deut.  xxxii,  6.  Since 
the  coming  of  Jesus  Christ,  we  have  a  new 
right  to  call  God  our  Father,  by  reason  of 
the  adoption  which  our  Saviour  has  merited 
for  us,  by  clothing  himself  in  our  humanity, 
and  purchasing  us  by  his  death:  "Ye  have 
received  the  Spirit  of  adoption,  whereby  we 
cry,  Abba,  Father.  The  Spirit  itself  beareth 
witness  with  our  spirit,  that  we  are  the  chil- 
dren of  God,"  Romans  viii,  15.  Job  entitles 
God  "the  Father  of  rain,"  Job  xxxviii,  28;  he 
produces  it,  and  causes  it  to  fall.  The  devil  is 
called  the  father  of  the  wicked  and  the  father 
of  lies,  John  viii,  44.  He  deceived  Eve  and 
Adam ;  he  introduced  sin  and  falsehood ;  he 
inspires  his  followers  with  his  spirit  and  senti- 
ments. The  father  of  Sichem,  the  father  of 
Tekoah,  the  father  of  Bethlehem,  &c,  signify 
the  chief  persons  who  inhabited  these  cities ; 
he  who  built  or  rebuilt  them.  Adam  is  the 
first  father,  the  father  of  the  living ;  Abraham 
is  the  father  of  the  faithful,  the  father  of  the 
circumcision;  called  also  the  "father  of  many 
nations,"  because  many  people  sprung  from 
him ;  as  the  Jews,  Ishmaelites,  Arabs,  &c. 
God  is  called  "the  Father  of  spirits,"  Heb. 
xii,  9.  He  not  only  creates  them,  but  he  jus- 
tifies, sanctifies,  and  glorifies  them,  and  thus 
confers  upon  them  eternal  happiness. 

FATHERS,  a  term  of  honour  applied  to 
the  first  and  most  eminent  writers  of  the  Chris- 
tian church.  Those  of  the  first  century  are 
called  Apostolical  fathers;  those  of  the  first 
three  centuries,  and  till  the  council  of  Nice, 
Antc-Nicene ;  and  those  later  than  that  coun- 
cil, Post-Nicene.  Learned  men  are  not  unani- 
mous concerning  the  degree  of  esteem  which 
is  due  to  these  ancient  fathers.  Some  repre- 
sent them  as  the  most  excellent  guides,  while 
others  place  them  in  the  very  lowest  rank  of 
moral  writers,  and  treat  their  precepts  and 
decisions  as  perfectly  insipid,  and,  in  many 
respects,    pernicious.       It    appears,    however, 


FAT 


375 


FEA 


incontestable,  that,  in  the  writings  of  the 
primitive  fathers  are  many  sublime  sentiments, 
judicious  thoughts,  and  several  things  well 
adapted  to  form  a  religious  temper,  and  to 
excite  pious  and  virtuous  affections.  At  the 
same  time,  it  must  be  confessed,  that,  after 
the  earliest  age,  they  abound  still  more  with 
precepts  of  an  excessive  and  unreasonable 
austerity,  with  stoical  and  academical  dictates, 
with-  vague  and  indeterminate  notions,  and, 
what  is  still  worse,  with  decisions  absolutely 
false,  and  in  evident  opposition  to  the  com- 
mands of  Christ.  Though  the  judgment  of 
antiquity  in  some  disputable  points  may  cer- 
tainly be  useful,  yet  we  ought  never  to  consider 
the  writings  of  the  fathers  as  of  equal  authority 
with  the  Scriptures.  In  many  cases  they  may 
be  deemed  competent  witnesses,  but  we  must 
not  confide  in  their  verdict  as  judges.  As  Bib- 
lical critics  they  are  often  fanciful  and  inju- 
dicious, and  their  principal  value  consists  in 
this,  that  the  succession  of  their  writings  ena- 
bles us  to  prove  the  existence  and  authenticity 
of  the  sacred  books,  up  to  the  age  of  the 
Apostles. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  entire  fathers  : 
Contemporaries  of  the  Apostles,  iBarnabas, 
Clement  of  Rome,  Hermas,  Ignatius,  and  Po- 
lycarp.  Papias,  A.  D.  116;  Justin  Martyr, 
140;  Dionysius  of  Corinth,  170;  Tatian,  172; 
Hegesippus,  173;  Melito,  177;  Irenasus,  178; 
Athenagoras,  178;  Miltiades,  180;  Theophi- 
lus,  181;  Clement  of  Alexandria,  194;  Ter- 
tullian,  200;  Minutius  Felix,  210  ;  Ammonius, 
220;  Origen,  230;  Firmilian,  233;  Dionysius 
of  Alexandria,  247;  Cyprian,  248;  Novatus, 
or  Novatian,  251 ;  Arnobius,  306 ;  Lactantius, 
306;  Alexander  of  Alexandria,  313;  Eusebius, 
315 ;  Athanasius,  326 ;  Cyril  of  Jerusalem, 
348;  Hilary,  354;  Epiphanius,  368;  Basil, 
370  ;  Gregory  of  Nazianzum,  370  ;  Gregory  of 
Nyssa,  370;  Optatus,  370;  Ambrose,  374; 
Philaster,  380;  Jerome,  392;  Theodore  of 
Mopsuestia,  394;  Ruffin,  397;  Augustine,  398; 
Chrysostom,  398 ;  Sulpitius  Severus,  401  ; 
Cyril  of  Alexandria,  412;  Theodoret,  423; 
and  Gennadius,  494. 

Archbishop  Wake,  in.  his  Exposition  of  the 
Doctrine  of  the  Church  of  England  has  very 
satisfactorily  shown,  that  the  deference  paid 
by  Protestants  to  the  Christian  fathers  of  the 
first  three  ages,  is  neither  of  such  an  idolatrous 
description  as  is  generally  represented,  nor  is 
their  authority  ever  extolled  to  an  equality  with 
that  of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  "Though  we 
have  appealed,"  he  says,  "to  the  churches  of 
the  first  ages  for  new  proofs  of  the  truth  of  our 
doctrine,  it  is  not  that  we  think  that  the  doc- 
tors of  those  times  had  more  right  to  judge  of 
our  faith  than  those  had  that  followed  them ; 
but  it  is  because  after  a  serious  examination 
we  have  found,  that,  as  for  what  concerns  the 
common  belief  that  is  among  us,  they  have  be- 
lieved and  practised  the  same  things  without 
adding  other  opinions  or  superstitions  that  de- 
stroy them, — wherein  they  have  acted  con- 
formably to  their  and  our  rule,  the  Word  of 
God:  notwithstanding,  it  cannot  be  denied, 
but  that  they  effectually  fell  into  some  wrong 


opinions,  as  that  of  the  Millenaries  and  infant 
communion,"  &c.  The  usefulness  and  neces- 
sity of  studying  the  ancient  fathers  have  been 
defended  by  many  persons  eminent  for  their 
learning  and  piety.  Archbishop  Usher  was 
one  who  beyond  all  men  then  living  knew  the 
vast  importance  of  these  studies,  and  had 
derived  the  greatest  benefits  from  them.  The 
following  brief  advice,  in  the  language  of  Dr. 
Parr,  his  erudite  biographer,  will  convey  his 
sentiments  on  this  very  interesting  subject : 
"  Indeed  he  had  so  great  an  esteem  of  the 
ancient  authors,  for  the  acquiring  any  solid 
learning,  whether  sacred  or  profane,  that  his 
advice  to  young  students,  either  in  divinity  or 
antiquity,  was,  not  to  spend  too  much  time  in 
epitomes,  but  to  set  themselves  to  read  the 
ancient  authors  themselves  ;  as,  to  begin  with 
the  fathers,  and  to  read  them  according  to 
the  ages  in  which  they  lived,  (which  was  the 
method  he  had  taken  himself,)  and,  together 
with  them,  carefully  to  peruse  the  church 
historians  that  treated  of  that  age  in  which 
those  fathers  lived :  by  which  means  the  stu- 
dent would  be  better  able  to  perceive  the  reason 
and  meaning  of  divers  passages  in  their  writ- 
ings, (which  otherwise  would  be  obscure,) 
when  he  knew  the  original  and  growth  of 
those  heresies  and  heterodox  opinions  against 
which  they  wrote,  and  may  also  better  judge 
what  doctrines,  ceremonies,  and  opinions  pre- 
vailed in  the  church  in  every  age,  and  by  what 
means  introduced." 

FEAR,  a  painful  apprehension  of  danger. 
It  is  sometimes  used  for  the  object  of  fear ;  as, 
"the  fear  of  Isaac,"  that  is,  the  God  whom 
Isaac  feared,  Gen.  xxxi,  42.  God  says  that  he 
will  send  his  fear  before  his  people,  to  terrify 
and  destroy  the  inhabitants  of  Canaan.  Job 
speaks  of  the  terrors  of  God,  as  set  in  array 
against  him,  Job  vi,  4 ;  the  Psalmist,  that  he  had 
suffered  the  terrors  of  the  Lord  with  a  troubled 
mind,  Psalm  Ixxxviii,  15.  Fear  is  used,  also, 
for  reverence  :  "  God  is  greatly  to  be  feared" 
in  the  assembly  of  his  saints.  This  kind  of 
fear,  being  compatible  with  confidence  and 
love,  is  sometimes  called  filial  fear ;  while 
"  the  fear  which  hath  torment,"  being  the 
result  of  conscious  guilt,  and  the  anticipation 
of  punishment,  is  removed  by  that  "love"  to 
God  which  results  from  a  consciousness  of  our 
reconciliation  to  him. 

The  filial  fear  of  God  is  a  holy  affection,  or 
gracious  habit,  wrought  in  the  soul  by  God, 
Jer.  xxxii,  40,  whereby  it  is  inclined  and  ena- 
bled to  obey  all  God's  commandments,  even 
the  most  difficult,  Gen.  xxii,  12;  Eccl.  xii,  13; 
and  to  hate  and  avoid  evil,  Nehemiah  v,  15  ; 
Prov.  viii,  13;  xv,  6.  Slavish  fear  is  the  con- 
sequence of  guilt ;  it  is  a  judicial  impression 
from  the  sad  thoughts  of  the  provoked  majesty 
of  the  heaven;  it  is  an  alarm  within  that  dis- 
turbs the  rest  of  a  sinner.  Fear  is  put  for  the 
whole  worship  of  God  :  "  I  will  teach  you  the 
fear  of  the  Lord,"  Psalm  xxxiv,  11 ;  I  will  teach 
you  the  true  way  of  worshipping  and  serving 
God.  It  is  likewise  put  for  the  law  and  word 
of  God:  "The  fear  of  the  Lord  is  clean,  en- 
during for  ever,"  Psalm  xix,  9.    The  law  is  so 


TEA 


376 


FEA 


called,  because  it  it*  the  object,  the  cause,  and 
the  rule  of  the  grace  of  holy  fear. 

FEASTS.  God  appointed  several  festivals 
among  the  Jews.  1.  To  perpetuate  the  memory 
of  great  events;  so,  the  Sabbath  commemorated 
the  creation  of  the  world;  the  passover,  the 
departure  out  of  Egypt ;  the  pentecost,  the  law 
given  at  Sinai,  &.c.  2.  To  keep  them  under 
the  influence  of  religion,  and  by  the  majesty 
of  that  service  which  he  instituted  among 
them,  and  which  abounded  in  mystical  sym- 
bols or  types  of  evangelical  things,  to  convey 
spiritual  instruction,  and  to  keep  alive  the  ex- 
pectation of  the  Messiah,  and  his  more  perfect 
dispensation.  3.  To  secure  to  them  certain 
times  of  rest  and  rejoicings.  4.  To  render 
them  familiar  with  the  law ;  for,  in  their  reli- 
gious assemblies,  the  law  of  God  was  read  and 
explained.  5.  To  renew  the  acquaintance, 
correspondence,  and  friendship  of  their  tribes 
and  families,  coming  from  the  several  towns 
in  the  country,  and  meeting  three  times  a  year 
in  the  holy  city. 

The  first  and  most  ancient  festival,  the  Sab- 
bath, or  seventh  day,  commemorated  the  crea- 
tion. "  The  Lord  blessed  the  seventh  day,  and 
sanctified  it,"  says  Moses,  "  because  that  in  it 
he  had  rested  from  all  his  work,"  Gen.  ii,  3. 
See  Saecath. 

The  passover  was  instituted  in  memory  of 
the  Israelites'  departure  out  of  Egypt,  and  of 
the  favour  which  God  showed  his  people  in 
sparing  their  first-born,  when  he  destroyed  the 
first-born  of  the  Egyptians,  Exod.  xii,  14,  &c. 
See  Passover. 

The  feast  of  pentecost  was  celebrated  on  the 
fiftieth  day  after  the  passover,  in  memory  of 
the  law  being  given  to  Moses  on  Mount  Sinai, 
fifty  days  after  the  departure  out  of  Egypt. 
They  reckoned  seven  weeks  from  the  passover 
to  pentecost,  beginning  at  the  day  after  the  pass- 
over.  The  Hebrews  call  it  the  feast  of  weeks, 
and  the  Christians,  pentecost,  which  signifies 
the  fiftieth  day. 

The  feast  of  trumpets  was  celebrated  on  the 
first  day  of  the  civil  year  ;  on  which  the  trump- 
ets sounded,  proclaiming  the  beginning  of  the 
year,  which  was  in  the  month  Tisri,  answering 
to  our  September,  O.  S,  We  know  no  reli- 
gious cause  of  its  establishment.  Moses  com- 
mands it  to  be  observed  as  a  day  of  rest,  and 
that  particular  sacrifices  should  be  offered  at 
that  time. 

The  new  moons,  or  first  days  of  every  month, 
were,  in  some  sort,  a  consequence  of  the  feasts 
of  trumpets.  The  law  did  not  oblige  people  to 
rest  upon  this  day,  but  ordained  only  some  par- 
ticular sacrifices.  It  appears  that,  on  these  days, 
also,  the  trumpet  was  sounded,  and  entertain- 
ments were  made,  1  Sitm.  xx,  5-18. 

The  feast  of  expiation  or  atonement  was 
celebrated  on  the  tenth  day  of  Tisri,  which  was 
the  first  day  of  the  civil  year.  It  was  instituted 
for  a  general  expiation  of  sins,  irreverences, 
and  pollutions  of  all  the  Israelites,  from  the 
high  priest  to  the  lowest  of  the  people,  com- 
mitted by  them  throughout  the  year,  Lev.  xxiii, 
27,  28;  Num.  xxix,  7.     See  Expiation,  Day  of. 

The  feast  of  tents,  or  tabernacles,  on  which 


all  Israel  were  obliged  to  attend  the  temple, 
and  to  dwell  eight  days  under  tents  of  branches, 
in  memory  of  their  fathers  dwelling  forty  years 
in  tents,  as  travellers  in  the  wilderness.  It 
was  kept  on  the  fifteenth  of  the  month  Tisri, 
the  first  of  the  civil  year.  The  first  and 
seventh  day  of  this  feast  were  very  solemn. 
But  during  the  other  days  of  the  octave  they 
might  work,  Lev.  xxiii,  34,  35 ;  Num.  xxix, 
12,  13.  At  the  beginning  of  the  feast,  two 
vessels  of  silver  were  carried  in  a  ceremonious 
manner  to  the  temple,  one  full  of  water,  the 
other  of  wine,  which  were  poured  at  the  foot 
of  the  altar  of  burnt  offerings,  always  on  the 
seventh  day  of  this  festival. 

Of  the  three  great  feasts  of  the  year,  the 
passover,  pentecost,  and  that  of  the  tabernacles, 
the  octave,  or  seventh  day  after  these  feasts, 
was  a  day  of  rest  as  much  as  the  festival  itself; 
and  all  the  males  of  the  nation  were  obliged 
to  visit  the  temple  at  these  three  feasts.  But 
the  law  did  not  require  them  to  continue  there 
during  the  whole  octave,  except  in  the  feast  of 
tabernacles,  when  they  seem  obliged  to  be  pre- 
sent for  the  whole  seven  days. 

Beside  these  feasts,  we  find  the  feast  of  lots, 
or  purim,  instituted  on  occasion  of  the  deliver- 
ance of  the  Jews  from  Haman's  plot,  in  the 
reign  of  Ahasuerus.     See  Purim. 

The  feast  of  the  dedication  of  the  temple,  or 
rather  of  the  restoration  of  the  temple,  which 
had  been  profaned  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes, 
1  Mac.  iv,  52,  &c,  was  celebrated  in  winter, 
and  is  supposed  to  be  the  feast  of  dedication 
mentioned  in  John  x,  22.  Josephus  says,  that 
it  was  called  the  feast  of  lights,  probably  be- 
cause this  happiness  befel  them  when  least  ex- 
pected, and  they  considered  it  as  a  new  light 
risen  on  them. 

In  the  Christian  church,  no  festival  appears 
to  have  been  expressly  instituted  by  Jesus 
Christ,  or  his  Apostles.  Yet,  as  we  com- 
memorate the  passion  of  Christ  as  often  as  we 
celebrate  his  Supper,  he  seems  by  this  to  have 
instituted  a  perpetual  feast.  Christians  have 
always  celebrated  the  memory  of  his  resurrec- 
tion, and  observe  this  feast  on  every  Sunday, 
which  was  commonly  called  the  Lord's  day, 
Rev.  i,  10.  By  inference  we  may  conclude 
this  festival  to  have  been  instituted  by  Apostolic 
authority. 

The  birth-day  of  Christ,  commonly  called 
Christmas-day,  has  been  generally  observed 
by  his  disciples  with  gratitude  and  joy.  His 
birth  was  the  greatest  blessing  ever  bestowed 
on  mankind.  The  angels  from  heaven  cele- 
brated it  with  a  joyful  hymn  ;  and  every  man, 
who  has  any  feeling  of  his  own  lost  state  with- 
out a  Redeemer,  must  rejoice  and  be  glad  in  it. 
"  Unto  us  a  Child  is  born,  unto  us  a  Son  is 
given  ;  and  his  name  shall  be  called  Wonder- 
ful, Counsellor,  the  mighty  God,  the  everlast- 
ing Father,  the  Prince  of  Peace,"  Isaiah  ix,  6. 
For  this  festival,  however,  there  is  no  authority 
in  Scripture,  nor  do  we  know  that  it  was  ob- 
served in  the  age  of  the  Apostles. 

On  Easter  Sunday  we  celebrate  our  Saviour's 
victory  over  death  and  hell,  when,  having  on 
the  cross  made  an  atonement  for  the  sin  of  the 


FES 


377 


FIG 


world,  he  rose  again  from  the  grave,  brought 
life  and  immortality  to  light,  and  opened  to  all 
his  faithful  servants  the  way  to  heaven.  On 
this  great  event  rest  all  our  hopes.  "  If  Christ  be 
not  risen,"  says  St.  Paul,  "then  is  our  preaching 
vain,  and  your  faith  is  also  vain.  But  now  is 
Christ  risen  from  the  dead,  and  become  the  first- 
fruits  of  them  that  slept,"  1  Cor.  xv,  14,  20. 

Forty  days  after  his  resurrection,  our  Lord 
ascended  into  heaven,  in  the  sight  of  his  disci- 
ples. This  is  celebrated  on  what  is  called 
Ascension-day,  or  Holy  Thursday.  Ten  days 
after  his  ascension,  our  Lord  sent  the  Holy 
Spirit  to  be  the  comforter  and  guide  of  his  disci- 
ples. This  blessing  is  commemorated  on  Whit- 
Sunday,  which  is  a  very  great  festival,  andmay 
be  profitably  observed  ;  for  the  assistance  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  can  alone  support  us  through  all 
temptations,  and  guide  us  into  all  truth. 

The  pretended  success  of  some  in  discover- 
ing the  remains  of  certain  holy  men,  called 
"  relics,"  multiplied  in  the  fourth  century  of 
the  Christian  church  the  festivals  and  com- 
memorations of  the  martyrs  in  a  most  extrava- 
gant manner.  These  days,  instead  of  being 
set  apart  for  pious  exercises,  were  spent  in 
indolence,  voluptuousness,  and  criminal  pur- 
suits ;  and  were  less  consecrated  to  the  service 
of  God,  than  employed  in  the  indulgence  of 
sinful  passions.  Many  of  these  festivals  were 
instituted  on  a  Pagan  model,  and  perverted  to 
similar  purposes. 

FELIX,  CLAUDIUS.     See  Claudius. 

FERRET,  npjN,  from  pjx,  or  cry  out,  Lev. 
xi,  30.  The  ferret  is  a  species  of  the  weasel ; 
but  Bochart  will  have  the  anakah  to  be  the 
spotted  lizard,  called  by  Pliny  stellio.  Dr. 
James  takes  it  for  the  frog,  in  allusion  to  the 
name,  which  literally  signifies  the  crier,  be- 
fitting the  croaking  of  that  animal ;  but  we 
shall  find  the  frog  mentioned  under  another 
name.  Dr.  Geddes  renders  it  the  newt,  or  ra- 
ther the  lizard  of  the  Nile ;  and  it  evidently 
must  be  of  the  lizard  species.  Pliny  mentions 
' '  the  galleotes,  covered  with  red  spots,  whose 
cries  are  sharp,"  which  may  be  the  gekko, 
which  is  probably  the  animal  here  intended. 
As  its  name,  in  the  Indies  tockai,  and  in  Egypt 
gekko,  is  formed  from  its  voice,  so  the  Hebrew 
name  anakah,  or  perhaps  anakkah,  seems  to  be 
formed  in  like  manner  ;  the  double  k  being 
equally  observable  in  all  these  appellations.  If 
these  remarks  are  admissible,  this  lizard  is  suffi- 
ciently identified. 

FESTUS.  Portius  Festus  succeeded  Felix 
in  the  government  of  Judea,  A.  D.  60.  Felix 
his  predecessor,  to  oblige  the  Jews,  when  he 
resigned  his  government,  left  St.  Paul  in  bonds 
at  Cffisarea,  in  Palestine,  Acts  xxiv,  27.  Festus, 
at  his  first  coming  to  Jerusalem,  was  entreated 
by  the  principal  Jews  to  condemn  St.  Paul,  or 
to  order  him  up  to  Jerusalem,  they  having  con- 
spired to  assassinate  him  in  the  way.  Festus 
answered,  that  it  was  not  customary  with  the 
Romans  to  condemn  any  man  without  hearing 
him  ;  but  said  that  he  would  hear  their  accu- 
sations  against  St.  Paul  at  Cassarea.  From 
these  accusations  St.  Paul  appealed  to  Caesar, 
and  by  this  moans  secured  himself  from  tho 


prosecution  of  the  Jews,  and  the  wicked  inten- 
tions of  Festus,  whom  they  had  corrupted. 

FIG  TREE,  nJNn,  Gen.  iii,  7 ;  Num.  xiii, 
23;  cvKn,  Matthew  vii,  16;  xxi,  19;  xxiv,  32; 
Mark  xi,  13,  20,  21;  xiii,  28;  Luke  vi,  44; 
xiii,  6,  7 ;  xxi,  29 ;  John  i,  48 ;  James  iii,  12 ; 
Rev.  vi,  13.  This  tree  was  very  common  in 
Palestine.  It  becomes  large,  dividing  into 
many  branches,  which  are  furnished  with 
leaves  shaped  like  those  of  the  mulberry,  and 
affords  a  friendly  shade.  Accordingly,  we  read, 
in  the  Old  Testament,  of  Juda  and  Israel  dwell- 
ing, or  sitting  securely,  every  man  under  his 
fig  tree,  1  Kings  iv,  25 ;  Micah  iv,  4 ;  Zech. 
iii,  10 ;  1  Mac.  xiv,  12.  And,  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament, we  find  Nathanael  under  a  fig  tree, 
probably  for  the  purposes  of  devotional  retire- 
ment, John  i,  49-51.  Hasselquist,  in  his  jour- 
ney from  Nazareth  to  Tiberias,  says,  "  We 
refreshed  ourselves  under  the  shade  of  a  fig 
tree,  where  a  shepherd  and  his  herd  had  their 
rendezvous ;  but  without  either  house  or  hut." 
The  fruit  which  it  bears  is  produced  from  the 
trunk  and  large  branches,  and  not  from  the 
smaller  shoots,  as  in  most  other  trees.  It  is 
soft,  sweet,  and  very  nourishing.  Milton  is 
of  opinion  that  the  banian  tree  wasj^hat  with 
the  leaves  of  which  our  first  parents  made 
themselves  aprons.  But  his  account,  as  to  the 
matter  of  fact,  wants  even  probability  to  coun- 
tenance it ;  for  the  leaves  of  this  are  so  far 
from  being,  as  he  has  described  them,  of  the 
bigness  of  an  Amazonian  target,  that  they  sel- 
dom or  never  exceed  five  inches  in  length,  and 
three  in  breadth.  Therefore,  we  must  look 
for  another  of  the  fig  kind,  that  better  answers 
the  purpose  referred  to  by  Moses,  Gen.  iii,  7 ; 
and  as  the  fruit  of  the  banana  tree,  is  often,  by 
the  most  ancient  authors,  called  a  fig,  may  we 
not  suppose  this  to  have  been  the  fig  tree  of 
paradise  ?  Pliny,  describing  this  tree,  says  that 
its  leaves  were  the  greatest  and  most  shady  of  all 
others ;  and  as  the  leaves  of  these  are  often  six 
feet  long,  and  about  two  broad,  are  thin,  smooth, 
and  very  flexible,  they  may  be  deemed  more 
proper  than  any  other  for  tho  covering  spoken 
of,  especially  since  they  may  be  easily  joined 
together  with  the  numerous  threadlike  fila- 
ments, which  may,  without  labour,  be  peeled 
from  the  body  of  the  tree.  The  first  ripe  fig 
is  still  called  boccore  in  the  Levant,  which  is 
nearly  its  Hebrew  name,  mi33,  Jer.  xxiv,  2. 
Thus  Dr.  Shaw,  in  giving  an  account  of  the 
fruits  in  Barbary,  mentions  "the  black  and 
white  boccore,  or  '  early  fig,'  which  is  produced 
in  June,  though  the  kermes,  or  kermouse,  the 
'fig,'  probably  so  called,  which  they  preserve 
and  make  up  into  cakes,  is  rarely  ripe  before 
August."  And  on  Nahuin  iii,  12,  he  observes, 
that  "the  boccores  drop  as  soon  as  they  are 
ripe,  and,  according  to  the  beautiful  allusion 
of  the  prophet,  fall  into  the  mouth  of  the  eater 
upon  being  shaken."  Farther,  "  It  frequently 
falls  out  in  Barbary,"  says  he;  "and  we  need 
not  doubt  of  the  like  in  this  hotter  climate  of 
Judea,  that,  according  to  the  quality  of  the 
preceding  season,  some  of  the  more  forward 
and  vigorous  trees  will  now  and  then  yield  a 
few  ripe  figs  six  weeks  or  more  before  the  full 


FIG 


378 


FIR 


.season.  Something  like  this  may  be  alluded 
to  by  the  Prophet  Hosea,  when  he  says,  '  I  saw 
your  fathers  as  moa,  the  first  ripe,  in  the  rig 
tree,  at  her  first  time,'  Hosca  ix,  10.  Such  figs 
were  reckoned  a  great  dainty."  See  Isaiah 
x.wiii,  4.  The  Prophet  Isaiah  gave  orders  to 
apply  a  lump  of  figs  to  Hezekiah's  boil ;  and 
immediately  after  it  was  cured.  God,  in  effect- 
ing this  miraculous  cure,  was  pleased  to  order 
the  use  of  means  not  improper  for  that  end. 

2.  The  account  of  our  Saviour's  denuncia- 
tion against  the  barren  fig  true,  Matt,  xxi,  19; 
Mark  xi,  13,  has  occasioned  some  of  the  boldest 
cavils  of  infidelity;  and  the  vindication  of  it 
has  exercised  the  ingenuity  of  several  of  the 
most  learned  critics  and  commentators.  The 
whole  difficulty  arises  from  the  circumstance 
of  his  disappointment  in  not  finding  fruit  on 
the  tree,  when  it  is  expressly  said,  that  "the 
time  of  figs  was  not  yet."  While  it  was  sup- 
posed that  this  expression  signified,  that  the 
time  for  such  trees  to  bring  forth  fruit  was  not 
yet  come,  it  looked  very  unaccountable  that 
Christ  should  reckon  a  tree  barren,  though  it 
had  leaves,  and  curse  it  as  such,  when  he  knew 
that  the  time  of  bearing  figs  was  not  come; 
and  that  he  should  come  to  seek  figs  on  this 
tree,  when  he  knew  that  figs  were  not  used  to 
be  ripe  so  soon  in  the  year.  But  the  expres- 
sion does  not  signify  the  time  of  the  coming 
forth  of  figs,  but  the  time  of  the  gathering  in 
of  ripe  figs,  as  is  plain  from  the  parallel  expres- 
sions. Thus,  "  the  time  of  the  fruit,"  Matt, 
xxi,  34,  most  plainly  signifies  the  time  of 
gathering  in  ripe  fruits,  since  the  servants  were 
sent  to  receive  those  fruits  for  their  master's 
use.  St.  Mark  and  St.  Luke  express  the  same 
by  the  word  tune,  or  season  :  "  At  the  season 
he  sent  a  servant,"  &c ;  that  is,  at  the  season 
or  time  of  gathering  in  ripe  fruit,  Mark  xii.  2; 
Luke  xx,  10.  In  like  manner,  if  any  one 
should  say  in  our  language,  the  season  of  fruit, 
the  season  of  apples,  the  season  of  figs,  every 
one  would  understand  him  to  speak  of  the 
season  or  time  of  gathering  in  these  fruits. 
When,  therefore,  St.  Mark  Bays,  that  "the 
time  or  season  of  figs  was  not  yet,"  he  evident- 
ly means  that  the  time  of  gathering  ripe  tigs 
was  not  yet  past;  and,  if  so,  it  was  natural  to 
expect  figs  upon  all  those  trees  that  were  not 
barren ;  whereas,  after  the  time  of  gathering 
figs,  no  one  would  expect  to  find  them  on  a  fig 
tree,  and  its  having  none  then  would  be  no 
sign  of  barrenness.  St.  Mark,  by  saying,  "  For 
the  time  of  figs  was  not  yet,"  does  not  design 
to  give  a  reason  for  "  his  finding  nothing  but 
leaves ;"  but  he  gives  a  reason  for  what  he  said 
in  the  clause  before:  "  He  came,  if  haply  he 
might  find  any  thereon ;"  and  it  was  a  good 
reason  for  our  Saviour's  coming  and  seeking  figs 
on  the  tree,  because  the  time  for  their  being 
gathered  was  not  come.  We  have  other  like 
instances  in  the  Gospels,  and,  indeed,  in  the 
writings  of  all  mankind,  of  another  clause 
coming  in  between  the  assertion  and  the  proof. 
Thus,  in  this  very  evangelist:  "They  said 
among  themselves,  Who  shall  roll  away  the 
stone  from  the  door  of  the  sepulchre  ?  and 
when  they  looked,  they  saw  the  stone  was  roll- 


ed away ;  for  it  was  very  great,"  Mark  xvi, 
3,  4  ;  where  its  being  very  great  is  not  assign- 
ed as  a  reason  of  its  being  rolled  away,  but  of 
the  women's  wishing  for  some  one  to  roll  it 
away  for  them.  St.  Matthew  informs  us  that 
the  tree  was  "in  the  way,"  that  is,  in  the  com- 
mon road,  and  therefore,  probably,  no  particu- 
lar person's  property  ;  but  if  it  was,  being  bar- 
ren, the  timber  might  be  as  serviceable  to  the 
owner  as  before.  So  that  here  was  no  real 
injury  ;  but  Jesus  was  pleased  to  make  use  of 
this  innocent  miracle  to  prefigure  the  speedy 
ruin  of  the  Jewish  nation  on  account  of  its 
unfruitfulness  under  greater  advantages  than 
any  other  people  enjoyed  at  that  day ;  and,  like 
all  the  rest  of  his  miracles,  it  was  done  with  a 
gracious  intention,  namely,  to  alarm  his  coun- 
trymen, and  induce  them  to  repent.  In  the 
blasting  of  this  barren  fig  tree,  the  distant  ap- 
pearance of  which  was  so  fair  and  promising, 
he  delivered  one  more  awful  lesson  to  a  dege- 
nerate nation,  of  whose  hypocritical  exterior 
and  flattering  but  delusive  pretensions  it  was  a 
just  and  striking  emblem. 

FINGER.  The  finger  of  God  signifies  his 
power,  his  operation.  Pharaoh's  magicians  dis- 
covered the  finger  of  God  in  the  miracle  which 
Moses  wrought,  Exodus  viii,  19.  This  legis- 
lator gave  the  law  written  by  the  finger  of  God 
to  the  Hebrews,  Exodus  xxxi,  18.  Our  Saviour 
says  he  cast  out  devils  by  the  finger  and  Spirit 
of  God,  which  he  intimates  was  a  sign  that 
the  kingdom  of  God  was  come  ;  that  God's 
spiritual  government  of  his  church  was  begun 
to  be  exercised  among  the  Jews,  by  the  Mes- 
siah, Luke  xi,  20.  To  put  forth  one's  finger, 
is  a  bantering,  insulting  gesture.  "  If  thou  take 
away  from  the  midst  of  thee  the  yoke,  and  the 
putting  out  of  the  finger,"  Isaiah  lviii,  9 ;  if 
thou  take  away  from  the  midst  of  thee  the 
chain,  or  yoke,  wherewith  thou  loadest  thy 
debtors ;  and  forbear  pointing  at  them,  and 
using  jeering  or  menacing  gestures. 

FlRE.  God  hath  often  appeared  in  fire, 
and  encompassed  with  fire,  as  when  he  showT- 
ud  himself  in  the  burning  bush  ;  and  descended 
on  Mount  Sinai,  in  the  midst  of  flames,  thun- 
derings,  and  lightning,  Exodus  iii,  2 ;  xix,  18. 
Hence  fire  is  a  symbol  of  the  Deity:  "The 
Lord  thy  God  is  a  consuming  fire,"  Deut.  iv, 
24.  The  Holy  Ghost  is  compared  to  fire  :  "  He 
shall  baptize  you  with  the  Holy  Ghost  and  with 
fire,"  Matt,  iii,  11.  To  verify  this  prediction, 
he  sent  the  Holy  Ghost,  which  descended  upon 
his  disciples,  in  the  form  of  tongues,  or  like 
flames  of  fire,  Acts  ii,  3.  It  is  the  work  of 
the  Holy  Spirit  to  enlighten,  purify,  and  sanc- 
tify the  soul ;  and  to  inflame  it  with  love  to 
God,  and  zeal  for  his  glory.  Fire  from  heaven 
fell  frequently  on  the  victims  sacrificed  to  the 
Lord,  as  a  mark  of  his  presence  and  approba- 
tion. It  is  thought,  that  God  in  this  manner 
expressed  his  acceptance  of  Abel's  sacrifices, 
Gen.  iv,  4.  When  the  Lord  made  a  covenant 
with  Abraham,  a  fire  like  that  of  a  furnace 
passed  through  the  divided  pieces  of  the  sacri- 
fices, and  consumed  them,  Gen.  xv,  17.  Fire 
fell  upon  the  sacrifices  which  Moses  offered  at 
the  dedication  of  the  tabernacle,  Lev.  ix,  24 ; 


FIR 


379 


FIR 


and  upon  those  of  Manoali,  Samson's  father, 
Judges  xiii,  19,  20;  upon  Solomon's,  at  the 
dedication  of  the  temple,  2  Chron.  vii,  1 ;  and 
on  Elijah's,  at  Mount  Carmel,  1  Kings  xviii, 
38.  The  fire  which  came  down  from  heaven, 
first  upon  the  altar  in  the  tabernacle,  and  after- 
ward descended  anew  upon  the  altar  in  the 
temple  of  Solomon,  at  its  consecration,  was 
there  constantly  fed  and  maintained  by  the 
priests,  day  and  night,  in  the  same  manner  as 
it  had  been  in  the  tabernacle.  The  Jews  have 
a  tradition,  that  Jeremiah,  foreseeing  the  de. 
struction  of  the  temple,  took  this  fire  and  hid 
it  in  a  pit ;  but  that  at  the  rebuilding  of  the 
temple,  being  brought  again  from  thence,  it 
revived  upon  the  altar.  But  this  is  a  fiction : 
and  the  generality  of  them  allow,  that,  at  the 
destruction  of  the  temple,  it  was  extinguished  : 
and  in  the  time  of  the  second  temple,  nothing 
was  made  use  of  for  all  their  burnt  offerings  but 
common  fire  only.  The  ancient  Chaldeans 
adored  the  fire,  as  well  as  the  old  Persians,  and 
some  other  people  of  the  east.  The  torments 
of  hell  are  described  by  fire,  both  in  the  Old 
and  New  Testament.  Our  Saviour  makes  use 
of  this  similitude,  to  represent  the  punishment 
of  the  damned,  Mark  ix,  44.  He  likewise 
speaks  frequently  of  the  eternal  fire  prepared 
for  the  devil,  his  angels,  and  reprobates,  Matt. 
xxv,  41.  The  sting  and  remorse  of  conscience 
is  the  worm  that  will  never  die  ;  and  the  wrath 
of  God  upon  their  souls  and  bodies,  the  fire 
that  shall  never  go  out.  There  are  writers 
who  maintain,  that  by  the  worm  is  to  be  un- 
derstood a  living  and  sensible,  not  an  allego- 
rical and  figurative,  worm  ;  and  by  fire,  a  real 
elementary  and  material  fire.  Among  the 
abettors  of  this  opinion  are  Austin,  Cyprian, 
Chrysostom,  Jerom,  &c.  The  word  of  God  is 
compared  to  fire :  "  Is  not  my  word  like  a 
fire  ?"  Jer.  xxiii,  20.  It  is  full  of  life  and  effi- 
cacy ;  like  a  fire  it  warms,  melts,  and  heats  ; 
and  is  powerful  to  consume  the  dross,  and  burn 
up  the  chaff  and  stubble.  Fire  is  likewise  taken 
for  persecution,  dissension,  and  division:  "I 
am  come  to  send  fire  on  earth,"  Luke  xii,  49 ; 
as  if  it  was  said,  upon  my  coming  and  publish- 
ing the  Gospel,  there  will  follow,  through  the 
devil's  malice  and  corruption  of  men,  much 
persecution  to  the  professors  thereof,  and 
manifold  divisions  in  the  world,  whereby  men 
will  be  tried,  whether  they  will  be  faithful  or 
not. 

FIRMAMENT.  It  is  said,  Gen.  i,  7,  that 
God  made  the  firmament  in  the  midst  of  the 
waters,  to  separate  the  inferior  from  the  supe- 
rior. The  word  used  on  this  occasion  properly 
signifies  expansion,  or  something  expanded. 
This  expansion  is  properly  the  atmosphere, 
which  encompasses  the  globe  on  all  sides,  and 
separates  the  water  in  the  clouds  from  that  on 
the  earth. 

FIRST-BORN.  The  first-born,  who  was 
the  object  of  special  affection  to  his  parents, 
was  denominated  by  way  of  eminence,  cm 
"MO,  the  opening  of  the  ivomb.  In  case  a  man 
married  with  a  widow,  who  by  a  previous  mar- 
riage had  become  the  mother  of  children,  the 
first-born  as  respected  the  second  husband  was 


the  eldest  child  by  the  second  marriage.  Be- 
fore the  time  of  Moses,  the  father  might,  if  he 
chose,  transfer  the  right  of  primogeniture  to  a 
younger  child,  but  the  practice  occasioned 
much  contention,  Gen.  xxv,  31,  32;  and  a  law 
was  enacted,  overruling  it,  Deut.  xxi,  15-17. 
The  first-born  inherited  peculiar  rights  and 
privileges.  (1.)  He  received  a  double  portion 
of  the  estate.  Jacob,  in  the  case  of  Reuben, 
his  first-born,  bestowed  his  additional  portion 
upon  Joseph,  by  adopting  his  two  sons,  Gen. 
xlviii,  5-8 ;  Deut.  xxi,  17.  This  was  done  as 
a  reprimand,  and  a  punishment  of  his  inces- 
tuous conduct,  Genesis  xxxv,  22-;  but  Reuben,  ' 
notwithstanding,  was  enrolled  as  the  first-born 
in  the  genealogical  registers,  1  Chron.  v,  1. 
(2.)  The  first-born  was  the  priest  of  the  whole 
family.  The  honour  of  exercising  the  priest- 
hood was  transferred,  by  the  command  of  God 
communicated  through  Moses,  from  the  tribe 
of  Reuben,  to  whom  it  belonged  by  right  of 
primogeniture,  to  that  of  Levi,  Num.  iii,  12-18  ; 
viii,  18.  In  consequence  of  God  having  taken 
the  Levites  from  among  the  children  of  Israel 
instead  of  all  the  first-born  to  serve  him  as 
priests,  the  first-born  of  the  other  tribes  were 
to  be  redeemed,  at  a  valuation  made  by  the 
priest  not  exceeding  five  shekels,  from  serving 
God  in  that  capacity,  Numbers  xviii,  15,  16; 
Luke  ii,  22,  &c.  (3.)  The  first-born  enjoyed 
an  authority  over  those  who  were  younger, 
similar  to  that  possessed  by  a  father,  Gen. 
xxv,  23,  &c ;  2  Chron.  xxi,  3 ;  Gen.  xxvii,  29 ; 
Exod.  xii,  29 :  which  was  transferred  in  the 
case  of  Reuben  by  Jacob  their  father  to  Judah, 
Gen.  xlix,  8-10.  The  tribe  of  Judah,  accord- 
ingly, even  before  it  gave  kings  to  the  He- 
brews, was  every  where  distinguished  from  the 
other  tribes.  In  consequence  of  the  authority 
which  was  thus  attached  to  the  first-born,  he 
was  also  made  the  successor  in  the  kingdom. 
There  was  an  exception  to  this  rule  in  the  case 
of  Solomon,  who,  though  a  younger  brother, 
was  made  his  successor  by  David  at  the  special 
appointment  of  God.  It  is  very  easy  to  see  in 
view  of  these  facts,  how  the  word  "first-born" 
came  to  express  sometimes  a  great,  and  some- 
times the  highest,  dignity. 

2.  First-born  is  not  always  to  be  understood 
literally ;  it  is  sometimes  taken  for  the  prime, 
most  excellent,  most  distinguished  of  any  thing. 
"The  first-born  of  the  poor,"  Isaiah  xiv,  30, 
signifies  the  most  miserable  of  the  poor ;  and 
"the  first-born  of  death,"  Job  xviii,  13,  the 
most  terrible  of  deaths. 

3.  God  ordained  that  all  the  Jewish  first- 
born, both  of  men  and  beasts,  for  service,  should 
be  consecrated  to  him.  The  male  children  only 
were  subject  to  this  law.  If  a  woman's  first 
child  were  a  girl,  the  father  was  not  obliged  to 
offer  any  thing  for  her,  or  for  the  children  after 
her,  though  they  were  males.  If  a  man  had 
many  wives,  he  was  obliged  to  offer  the  first- 
born of  each  of  them  to  the  Lord.  The  first- 
born were  offered  in  the  temple,  and  were 
redeemed  for  the  sum  of  five  shekels.  The 
firstling  of  a  clean  beast  was  offered  at  the  tem- 
ple, not  to  be  redeemed,  but  to  be  killed.  An 
unclean  beast,  a  horse,  an  ass,  or  a  camel,  was 


FIR 


380 


FIS 


either  redeemed  or  exchanged.  An  ass  was 
redeemed  by  a  lamb,  or  five  shekels;  if  not  re- 
deemed, it  was  killed. 

FIRST-FRUITS,  among  the  Hebrews,  were 
presents  made  to  God  of  part  of  the  fruits  of 
the  harvest,  to  express  the  submission,  depend- 
ence, and  thankfulness  of  the  offerers.  They 
were  offered  at  the  temple,  before  the  crop  was 
touched ;  and  when  the  harvest  was  over,  be- 
fore any  private  persons  used  their  corn.  The 
first  of  these  first-fruits,  offered  in  the  name  of 
the  nation,  was  a  sheaf  of  barley,  gathered  on 
the  fifteenth  of  Nisan  in  the  evening,  and 
threshed  in  a  court  of  the  temple.  After  it 
was  well  cleaned,  about  three  pints  of  it  were 
roasted  and  pounded  in  a  mortar.  Over  this 
was  thrown  a  portion  of  oil,  and  a  handful  of 
incense.  Then  the  priest  took  this  offering, 
waved  it  before  the  Lord  toward  the  four  parts 
of  the  world,  threw  a  handful  of  it  into  the 
fire  upon  the  altar,  and  kept  the  rest.  After 
this,  every  one  was  at  liberty  to  get  in  his  har- 
vest. Beside  these  first-fruits,  every  private 
person  was  obliged  to  bring  his  first-fruits  to 
the  temple.  The  Scripture  prescribes  neither 
the  time  nor  the  quantity.  The  rabbins  say, 
that  they  were  obliged  to  bring  at  least  the 
sixtieth  part  of  their  fruits  and  harvest.  These 
first-fruits  consisted  of  wheat,  barley,  grapes, 
figs,  apricots,  olives,  and  dates.  They  met  in 
companies  of  four-and-twenty  persons  to  carry 
their  first-fruits  in  a  ceremonious  manner.  The 
company  was  preceded  by  an  ox  appointed  for 
the  sacrifice,  with  a  crown  of  olives  on  his 
head,  and  his  horns  gilded.  There  was  also 
another  sort  of  first-fruits  paid  to  God,  Num. 
xv,  19,  20,  when  the  bread  in  every  family  was 
kneaded,  a  portion  of  it  was  set  apart,  and 
given  to  the  priest  or  Levite  of  the  place.  If 
there  was  no  priest  or  Levite,  it  was  cast  into 
the  oven,  and  consumed  by  the  fire.  This  is 
one  of  the  three  precepts  peculiar  to  the 
women ;  because  they  generally  made  the 
bread.  The  first-fruits  and  tenths  were  the 
most  substantial  revenue  of  the  priests  and 
Levites.  St.  Paul  says,  Christians  have  the 
first-fruits  of  the  Spirit,  Rom.  viii,  23,  that  is, 
a  greater  abundance  of  God's  Spirit,  more  per- 
fect and  more  excellent  gifts  than  the  Jews. 
Christ  is  called  the  first-fruits  of  them  that 
slept ;  for  as  the  first-fruits  were  earnests  to  the 
Jews  of  the  succeeding  harvest,  so  Christ  is 
the  first-fruits  or  the  earnest  of  the  general 
resurrection. 

FIR  TREE,  vro,  occurs  2  Sam.  vi,  5; 
1  Kings  v,  8,  10;  vi,  15,  34;  ix,  11 ;  2  Kings 
xi.x,  23;  2  Chron.  ii,  8;  iii,  5;  Psalm  civ,  17; 
Isaiah  xiv,  8;  xxxvii,  24;  xli,  19;  lv,  13; 
Ix,  13;  Ezek.  xxvii,  5;  xxxi,  8;  Hosea  xiv,  8 ; 
Nahum  ii,  3 ;  Zech.  xi,  2.  The  LXX  render 
it  so  variously  as  to  show  that  they  knew  not 
what  particular  tree  is  meant;  the  Vulgate, 
generally  by  abietcs,  the  "fir  tree."  Celsius 
asserts  that  it  is  the  cedar ;  but  Millar  main- 
tains that  it  is  the  fir.  The  fir  tree  is  an  ever- 
green, of  beautiful  appearance,  whose  lofty 
height,  and  dense  foliage,  afford  a  spacious 
shelter  and  shade.  The  trunk  of  the  tree  is 
vory  straight.     The  wood  was  anciently  used 


for  spears,  musical  instruments,  furniture  for 
houses,  rafters  in  building,  and  for  ships.  In 
2  Sam.  vi,  5,  it  is  mentioned  that  David  played 
on  instruments  of  fir  wood ;  and  Dr.  Burney, 
in  his  "  History  of  Music,"  observes,  "  This 
species  of  wood,  60  soft  in  its  nature,  and 
sonorous  in  its  effects,  seems  to  have  been  pre- 
ferred by  the  ancients,  as  well  as  moderns,  to 
every  other  kind  for  the  construction  of  mu- 
sical instruments,  particularly  the  bellies  of 
them,  on  which  the  tone  of  them  chiefly  de- 
pends. Those  of  the  harp,  lute,  guitar,  harp- 
sichord, and  violin,  in  present  use,  are  always 
made  of  this  wood." 

FISH,  ji,  2x6is,  Matt,  vii,  10;  xvii,  27; 
Luke  v,  6;  John  xxi,  6,  8,  11,  occurs  very 
frequently.  This  appears  to  be  the  general 
name  in  Scripture  of  aquatic  animals.  Booth- 
royd,  in  the  note  upon  Num.  xi,  4,  says,  "I 
am  inclined  to  think  that  the  word  "W3,  here 
rendered  flesh,  denotes  only  the  flesh  of  fish, 
as  it  certainly  does  in  Lev.  xi,  11 ;  and  indeed 
the  next  verse  seems  to  support  this  explica- 
tion :  '  We  remember  how  freely  we  ate  fish.' 
It  was  then,  particularly,  the  flesh  offish,  for 
which  they  longed,  which  was  more  relishing 
than  either  the  beef  or  mutton  of  those  regions, 
which,  unless  when  young,  is  dry  and  unpala- 
table. Of  the  great  abundance  and  delicious- 
ness  of  the  fish  of  Egypt,  all  authors,  ancient 
and  modern,  are  agreed."  We  have  few  He- 
brew names,  if  any,  for  particular  fishes.  Moses 
says  in  general,  Lev.  xi,  9-12,  that  all  sorts  of 
river,  lake,  and  sea  fish,  might  be  eaten,  if  they 
had  scales  and  fins ;  others  were  unclean.  St. 
Barnabas,  in  his  epistle,  cites,  as  from  ancient 
authority,  "  You  shall  not  eat  of  the  lamprey, 
the  many-feet,  [polypes,]  nor  the  cuttle  fish." 
Though  fish  was  the  common  food  of  the 
Egyptians,  yet  we  learn  from  Herodotus  and 
Cha?remon,  as  quoted  by  Porphyry,  that  their 
priests  abstained  from  fish  of  all  sorts.  Hence 
we  may  see  how  distressing  to  the  Egyptians 
was  the  infliction  which  turned  the  waters  of 
the  river  into  blood,  and  occasioned  the  death 
of  the  fish,  Exod.  vii,  18-21.  Their  sacred 
stream  became  so  polluted  as  to  be  unfit  for 
drink,  for  bathing,  and  for  other  uses  of  water 
to  which  they  were  superstitiously  devoted, 
and  themselves  obliged  to  nauseate  what  was 
the  usual  food  of  the  common  people,  and  held 
sacred  by  the  priests,  Exod.  ii,  5;  vii,  15; 
viii,  20. 

In  Ezekiel  xxix,  4,  the  king  of  Egypt  is 
compared  to  the  crocodile :  "  I  am  against 
thee,  the  great  dragon  that  lieth  in  the  midst 
of  his  rivers  in  Egypt.  I  will  put  hooks  in  thy 
jaws,  and  I  will  cause  the  fish  in  thy  rivers  to 
stick  to  thy  scales,  and  I  will  bring  thee  out  of 
the  midst  of  thy  rivers,  and  all  the  fish  of  thy 
rivers  shall  stick  to  thy  scales."  If  the  remora 
is  as  troublesome  to  the  crocodile  as  it  is  to 
some  other  tenants  of  the  water,  it  may  here 
be  referred  to.  Forskal  mentions  the  echeneis 
neucrates  [remora]  at  Gidda,  there  called  kaml 
el  kersh,  "the  louse  of  the  shark,"  because  it 
often  adheres  very  strongly  to  this  fish ;  and 
Hasselquist  says  that  it  is  found  at  Alexandria. 

The  term,  fyflDf,  a  fish,  was,  at  an  early 


FIT 


381 


FLA 


period  of  the  Christian  era,  adopted  as  a  sym- 
bolical word.  It  was  formed  from  the  initial 
letters  of  the  Greek  words,  'Inuous  Xpts-bs,  Qeov 
'rid?,  Swrty,  "Jesus  Christ,  the  Son  of  God, 
our  Saviour."  From  the  use  of  symbolical 
terms,  the  transition  was  easy  to  the  adoption 
of  symbolical  representations,  and  it  therefore 
soon  became  common  for  the  Christians  to 
have  the  letters  of  the  word  i^Sur,  or  the  figures 
of  fishes,  sculptured  on  their  monuments  for 
the  dead,  struck  on  their  medals,  engraved  on 
their  rings  and  seals,  and  even  formed  on  the 
articles  of  domestic  use. 

FITCHES,  or  VETCHES,  a  kind  of  tare. 
There  are  two  words  in  Hebrew  which  our 
translators  have  rendered  fitches,  nsp  and  nDD3 : 
the  first  occurs  only  in  Isaiah  xxviii,  25,  27, 
and  must  be  the  name  of  some  kind  of  seed ; 
but  the  interpreters  differ  much  in  explaining 
it.  Jerom,  Maimonides,  R.  David  Kimchi,  and 
the  rabbins  understand  it  of  the  gith ;  and  rabbi 
Obdias  de  Bartenora  expressly  says  that  its  bar- 
barous or  vulgar  name  is  i1?"}.  The  gith  was 
called  by  the  Greeks  ptXdvOiov,  and  by  the  Latins 
nigella ;  and  is  thus  described  by  Ballester : 
"  It  is  a  plant  commonly  met  with  in  gardens, 
and  grows  to  a  cubit  in  height,  and  sometimes 
more,  according  to  the  richness  of  the  soil. 
The  leaves  are  small  like  those  of  fennel,  the 
flower  blue,  which  disappearing,  the  ovary 
shows  itself  on  the  top,  like  that  of  a  poppy, 
furnished  with  little  horns,  oblong,  divided  by 
membranes  into  several  partitions,  or  cells,  in 
which  are  enclosed  seeds  of  a  very  black  colour, 
not  unlike  those  of  the  leek,  but  of  a  very  fra- 
grant smell."  And  Ausonius  observes,  that  its 
pungency  is  equal  to  that  of  pepper : — 

Est  inter  fruges  morsu  piper  aquiparens  git. 

Pliny  says  it  is  of  use  in  bakehouses,  pistri- 
nis,  and  that  it  affords  a  grateful  seasoning  to 
the  bread.  The  Jewish  rabbins  also  mention 
the  seeds  among  condiments,  and  mixed  with 
bread.  For  this  purpose  it  was  probably  used 
in  the  time  of  Isaiah ;  since  the  inhabitants  of 
those  countries,  to  this  day,  have  a  variety  of 
rusks  and  biscuits,  most  of  which  are  strewed 
on  the  top  with  the  seeds  of  sesamum,  corian- 
der, and  wild  garden  saffron. 

The  other  word  rendered  fitches  in  our  trans- 
lation of  Ezek.  iv,  9,  is  pdm  ;  but  in  Exod.  ix, 
32,  and  Isaiah  xxviii,  25,  "  rye."  In  the  latter 
place  the  Septuagint  has  £f'«,  and  in  the  two 
former  d\vpa  ;  and  the  Vulgate  in  Exodus,  far, 
and  in  Isaiah  and  Ezekiel,  vicia.  Saadias,  like- 
wise, took  it  to  be  something  of  the  leguminous 
kind,  JNJ1?.),  cicircula,  (misprinted  circula  in  the 
Polyglott  version,)  or,  "  a  chickling."  Aquila 
has  £f'a,  and  Theodotion,  dMpa.  Onkelos  and 
Targum  have  toruu  and  Syriac,  ttrma,  which 
are  supposed  to  be  the  millet,  or  a  species  of  it 
called  panicum;  Persian,  mjmo,  the  spelt; 
and  this  seems  to  be  the  most  probable  mean- 
ing of  the  Hebrew  word ;  at  least  it  has  the 
greatest  number  of  interpreters  from  Jerom  to 
Celsius.  There  are  not,  ho  sver,  wanting, 
who  think  it  was  rye ;  amo»ig  whom  R.  D. 
Kimchi,  followed  by  Luther,  and  our  English 
translators  :  Dr.  Geddes,  too,  has  retained  it, 


though  he  says  that  he  is  inclined   to   think 
that  the  spelt  is  preferable. 

Dr.  Shaw  thinks  that  this  word  may  signify 
rice.  Hasselquist,  on  the  contrary,  affirms  that 
rice  was  brought  into  cultivation  in  Egypt 
under  the  Caliphs.  This,  however,  may  be 
doubted.  One  would  think  from  the  inter- 
course of  ancient  Egypt  with  Babylon  and 
with  India,  that  this  country  could  not  be 
ignorant  of  a  grain  so  well  suited  to  its  climate. 

FLAG,  mN,  occurs  Gen.  xli,  2,  18 ;  Job  viii, 
11 ;  and  tpo,  weeds,  Exod.  ii,  3,  5;  Isa.  xix,  6; 
John  ii,  5.  The  word  achu  in  the  first  two 
instances  is  translated  "meadows,"  and  in  the 
latter,  "  flag."  It  probably  denotes  the  sedge, 
or  long  grass,  which  grows  in  the  meadows  of 
the  Nile,  very  grateful  to  the  cattle.  It  is 
retained  in  the  Septuagint  in  Genesis,  h  rw  a^ci ; 
and  is  used  by  the  son  of  Sirach,  Ecclesiasti- 
cus  xl,  16,  <r£i  and  axct  »  f°r  ^ne  copies  vary. 

"  We  have  no  radix,"  says  the  learned  Cha- 
pelow,  "  for  irw,  unless  we  derive  it,  as  Schul- 
tens  docs,  from  the  Arabic  achi,  '  to  bind  or 
join  together.'"  Thus,  Parkhurst  defines  it 
"  a  species  of  plant,  sedge,  or  reed,  so  called 
from  its  fitness  for  making  ropes,  or  the  like, 
to  connect  or  join  things  together ;  as  the 
Latin  juncus,  a  '  bulrush,'  a  jungendo,  from 
'joining,'  for  the  same  reason  ;"  and  he  suppo- 
ses that  it  is  the  plant,  or  reed,  growing  near 
the  Nile,  which  Hasselquist  describes  as  hav- 
ing numerous  narrow  leaves,  and  growing 
about  eleven  feet  high,  of  the  leaves  of  which 
the  Egyptians  make  ropes. 

The  word  tpD  is  called  by  Eben  Ezra,  "  a 
reed  growing  on  the  borders,  of  the  river." 
Bochart,  Fuller,  Rivetus,  Ludolphus,  and  Ju- 
nius and  Tremellius,  render  it  by  juncus,  carex, 
or  alga;  and  Celsius  thinks  it  the  fucus  or 
alga,  "sea  weed."  Dr.  Geddes  says  there  is 
little  doubt  of  its  being  the  sedge  called  sari, 
which,  as  we  learn  from  Theophrastus  and 
Pliny,  grows  on  the  marshy  banks  of  the  Nile, 
and  rises  to  the  height  of  almost  two  cubits. 
This,  indeed,  agrees  very  well  with  Exod.  ii, 
3,  5,  and  the  thickets  of  arundinaceous  plants, 
at  some  small  distances  from  the  Red  Sea, 
observed  by  Dr.  Shaw  ;  but  the  place  in  Jonah 
seems  to  require  some  submarine  plant. 

FLAX,  nne»B,  Exod.  ix,  31 ;  Lev.  xiii,  47, 
48,  52,  59;  Deut.  xxii,  11 ;  Joshua  ii,  6  ;  Judg. 
xv,  14;  Prov.  xxxi,  13;  Isaiah  xix,  9;  xlii, 
3;  xliii,  17;  Jer.  xiii,  1;  Ezek.  xl,  3;  xliv, 
17,  18 ;  Hosea  ii,  5,  9  ;  Xivov  Matt,  xii,  20;  Rev. 
xv,  6 ;  a  plant  very  common,  and  too  well 
known  to  need  a  description.  It  is  a  vegetable 
upon  which  (he  industry  of  mankind  has  been 
exercised  with  the  greatest  success  and  utility 
On  passing  a  field  of  it,  one  is  struck  with  as- 
tonishment when  he  considers  that  this  appa- 
rently insignificant  plant  may,  by  the  labour 
and  ingenuity  of  man,  be  made  to  assume  an 
entirely  new  form  and  appearance,  and  to  con- 
tribute to  pleasure  and  health,  by  furnishing  as 
with  agreeable  and  ornamental  apparel.  This 
word  Mr.  Parkhurst  thinks  is  derived  from  the 
verb  otPO,  to  strip,  because  the  substance  which 
wc  term  flax  is  properly  the  bark  or  fibrous 
part  of  the  vegetable,  pilled  or  tlripped  oft'  the 


FLI 


382 


FLI 


stalks.  From  tunc  immemorial  Egypt  was 
celebrated  for  the  production  or  manufacture 
of  flax.  Wrought  into  garments,  it  constituted 
the  principal  dress  of  the  inhabitants,  and  the 
priests  never  put  on  any  other  kind  of  clothing. 
The  fine  linen  of  Egypt  is  celebrated  in  all 
ancient  authors,  and  its  superior  excellence 
mentioned  in  the  sacred  Scriptures.  The 
manufacture  of  flax  is  still  carried  on  in  that 
country,  and  many  writers  take  notice  of  it. 
Rabbi  Benjamin  Tudela  mentions  the  manu- 
factory at  Damiata;  and  Egmont  and  Hey- 
man  describe  the  article  as  being  of  a  beautiful 
colour,  and  so  finely  spun  that  the  threads  are 
hardly  discernible. 

FLEA,  B-jno,  1  Sam.  xxiv,  14;  xxvi,  20. 
The  LXX,  and  another  Greek  version  in  the 
Hexapla,  render  it  ipv'Wov,  and  the  Vulgate  pit- 
lex.  It  seems,  says  Mr.  Parkhurst,  an  evident 
derivative  from  ytiifree,  and  wy-\  to  leap,  bound, 
or  skip,  on  account  of  its  agility  in  leaping  or 
skipping.  The  flea  is  a  little  wingless  insect, 
equally  contemptible  and  troublesome.  It  is 
thus  described  by  an  Arabian  author :  "  A 
black,  nimble,  extenuated,  hunch-backed  ani- 
mal, which  being  sensible  when  any  one  looks 
on  it,  jumps  incessantly,  now  on  one  side,  now 
on  the  other,  till  It  gets  out  of  sight."  David 
likens  himself  to  this  insect ;  importing  that 
while  it  would  cost  Saul  much  pains  to  catch 
him,  he  would  obtain  but  very  little  advantage 
from  it. 

FLESH,  a  term  of  very  ambiguous  import  in 
the  Scriptures.  An  eminent  critic  has  enume- 
rated no  less  than  six  different  meanings  which 
it  bears  in  the  sacred  writings,  and  for  which, 
he  affirms,  there  will  not  be  found  a  single  au- 
thority in  any  profane  writer:  1.  It  sometimes 
denotes  the  whole  body  considered  as  animated, 
as  in  Matt,  xxvi,  41,  "The  spirit  is  willing, 
but  the  flesh  is  weak."  2.  It  sometimes  means 
a  human  being,  as  in  Luke  iii,  G,  "  All  flesh 
shall  see  the  salvation  of  Clod."  3.  Sometimes 
a  person's  kindred  collectively  considered,  as 
in  Rom.  xi,  11,  "If  by  any  means  I  may  pro- 
voke them  which  are  my  flesh."  4.  Sometimes 
anything  of  an  external  or  ceremonial  nature, 
as  opposed  to  that  which  is  internal  and  moral, 
as  in  Gal.  iii,  3,  "Having  begun  in  the  Spirit, 
are  ye  now  made  perfect  in  the  flesh  ?"  5.  The 
sensitive  part  of  our  nature,  or  that  which  is 
the  seat  of  appetite,  as  in  2  Cor.  vii,  1,  "Let 
us  cleanse  ourselves  from  all  filthiness  of  the 
flesh  and  spirit ;"  where  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  the  pollutions  of  the  flesh  must  be  those 
of  the  appetites,  being  opposed  to  the  pollutions 
of  the  spirit,  or  those  of  the  passions.  6.  It  is 
employed  to  denote  any  principle  of  vice  and 
moral  pravity  of  whatever  kind.  Thus  among 
the  works  of  the  flesh,  Gal.  v,  19-21,  are  num- 
bered not  only  adultery,  fornication,  unclean. 
niss,  lasciviousness,  drunkenness,  and  revel- 
lings,  which  all  relate  to  criminal  indulgence 
of  appetite,  but  idolatry,  witchcraft,  hatred,  va- 
riance, emulations,  wrath,  strife,  seditions,  here- 
sies,  envyings,  and  murders,  which  are  mani- 
festly vices  of  a  different  kind,  and  partake  more 
of  the  diabolical  nature  than  of  the  beastly. 

FLIES.    The  kinds  of  flics;  are  exceedingly 


numerous;  some  with  two,  and  some  with  four, 
wings.  They  abound  in  warm  and  moist  re- 
gions,  as  in  Egypt,  Chaldea,  Palestine,  and  in 
the  middle  regions  of  Africa ;  and  during  the 
rainy  seasons  are  very  troublesome.  In  the 
Hebrew  Scriptures,  or  in  the  ancient  versions, 
are  seven  kinds  of  insects,  which  Bochart  class- 
es among  musca,  or  flies.  These  are,  1.  atp, 
Exod.  viii,  20;  Psa.  lxxviii,  45;  cv,  31,  which 
those  interpreters  who,  by  residing  on  the  spot, 
have  had  the  best  means  of  identifying,  have 
rendered  the  dog-fly,  mivSpvio,  and  it  is  sup- 
posed to  be  the  same  which  in  Abyssinia  is 
called  the  zimb.  2.  313J,  2  Kings  i,  2,  3,  6, 
16 ;  Eccles.  x,  1 ;  Isa.  vii,  18.  Whether  this 
denotes  absolutely  a  distinct  species  of  fly,  or 
swarms  of  all  sorts,  may  be  difficult  to  deter- 
mine. 3.  rrOT  Judges  xiv,  18 ;  Psa.  cxviii,  12, 
rendered  bee.  4.  njnx,  aiphl,  Exodus  xxiii,  28 ; 
Joshua  xxiv,  12 ;  Deut.  vii,  20,  hornet.  5.  D^na, 
oiVpos,  Ezek.  ii,  6;  Hosea  iv,  16.  6.  pa,  kuvw^, 
Matt;  xxiii,  24,  the  gnat.  7.  a\ia,  oxviipts,  Exod. 
viii,  16;  Psa.  cv,  31,  lice. 

2.  M.  Sonnini,  speaking  of  Egypt,  says,  "Of 
insects  there  the  most  troublesome  are  the  flies. 
Both  man  and  beast  are  cruelly  tormented  with 
them.  No  idea  can  be  formed  of  their  obsti- 
nate rapacity  when  they  wish  to  fix  upon  some 
part  of  the  body.  It  is  in  vain  to  drive  them 
away ;  they  return  again  in  the  self-same  mo- 
ment ;  and  their  perseverance  wearies  out  the 
most  patient  spirit.  They  like  to  fasten  them- 
selves in  preference  on  the  corners  of  the  eye, 
and  on  the  edge  of  the  eyelid ;  tender  parts, 
toward  which  a  gentle  moisture  attracts  them." 
The  Egyptians  paid  a  superstitious  worship  to 
several  sorts  of  flies  and  insects.  If,  then,  such 
was  she  superstitious  homage  of  this  people, 
nothing  could  be  more  determinate  than  the 
judgment  brought  upon  them  by  Moses.  They 
were  punished  by  the  very  things  they  revered  ; 
and  though  they  boasted  of  spells  and  charms, 
yet  they  could  not  ward  off'  the  evil. 

3.  "  The  word  zimb,"  says  Bruce,  "  is  Arabic, 
and  signifies  tin-  fly  in  general.  The  Chaldee 
paraphrase  is  content  with  calling  it  simply 
zebub,  which  has  the  same  general  significa- 
tion. The  Ethiopic  version  calls  it  tsaltaalya, 
which  is  the  true  name  of  this  particular  fly  in 
Gcez.  It  is  in  size  very  little  larger  than  a 
bee,  of  a  thicker  proportion ;  and  its  wings, 
which  are  broader,  are  placed  separate  like 
those  of  a  fly.  Its  head  is  large  ;  the  upper  jaw 
or  lip  is  sharp,  and  has  at  the  end  of  it  a  strong 
pointed  hair,  of  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in 
length  ;  the  lower  jaw  kas  two  of  these  hairs  : 
and  this  pencil  of  hairs,  joined  together,  makes 
a  resistance  to  the  finger,  nearly  equal  to  a 
strong  bristle  of  a  hog.  Its  legs  arc  serrated 
on  the  inside,  and  the  whole  covered  with 
brown  hair,  or  down.  It  has  no  sting,  though 
it  appears  to  be  of  the  bee  kind.  As  soon  as 
this  winged  assassin  appears,  and  its  buzzing 
is  heard,  the  cattle  forsake  their  food,  and  run 
wildly  about  the  plain  till  they  die,  worn  out 
with  affright,  fatigue,  and  pain.  The  inhabit- 
ants of  Melinda  down  to  Cape  Gardefan,  to 
Saba,  and  the  south  coast  of  the  Red  Sea,  are 
obliged  to  put  themselves  in  motion,  and  re- 


FLI 


383 


FLO 


move  to  the  next  sand  in  the  beginning  of  the 
rainy  season.  This  is  not  a  partial  emigration  ; 
the  inhabitants  of  all  the  countries,  from  the 
mountains  of  Abyssinia  northward,  to  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Nile  and  Astaboras,  are,  once  in 
a  year,  obliged  to  change  their  abode,  and  seek 
protection  in  the  sands  of  Beja,  till  the  danger 
of  the  insect  is  over.  The  elephant  and  the 
rhinoceros,  which  by  reason  of  their  enormous 
bulk,  and  the  vast  quantity  of  food  and  water 
they  daily  need,  cannot  shift  to  desert  and  dry 
places,  are  obliged,  in  order  to  resist  the  zimb, 
to  roll  themselves  in  mud  and  mire,  which, 
when  dry,  coats  them  over  like  armour.  It 
was  no  trifling  judgment,  then,  with  which 
the  prophet  threatened  the  refractory  Israelites : 
"The  Lord  shall  hiss  for  the  fly  that  is  in  the 
uttermost  parts  of  the  rivers  of  Egypt,  and  for 
the  bee  that  is  in  the  land  of  Assyria,"  Isaiah 
vii,  18.  If  the  prediction  be  understood  in  the 
literal  sense,  it  represents  the  cestra  or  cincin- 
ellcB,  as  the  armies  of  Jehovah,  summoned  by 
him  to  battle  against  his  offending  people ;  or, 
if  it  be  taken  metaphorically,  which  is  perhaps 
the  proper  way  of  expounding  it,  the  prophet 
compares  the  numerous  and  destructive  armies 
of  Babylon  to  the  countless  swarms  of  these 
flies,  whose  distant  hum  is  said  to  strike  the 
quadrupeds  with  consternation,  and  whose  bite 
inflicts,  on  man  and  beast,  a  torment  almost 
insupportable.  How  intolerable  a  plague  of 
flies  can  prove,  is  evident  from  the  fact,  that 
whole  districts  have  been  laid  waste  by  them. 
Such  was  the  fate  of  Myuns  in  Ionia,  and  of 
Alarna?.  The  inhabitants  were  forced  to  quit 
these  cities,  not  being  able  to  stand  against  the 
flies  and  gnats  with  which  they  were  pestered. 
Trajan  was  obliged  to  raise  the  siege  of  a  city 
in  Arabia,  before  which  he  had  sat  down,  be- 
ing driven  away  by  the  swarms  of  these  insects. 
Hence  different  people  had  deities  whose  office 
it  was  to  defend  them  against  flies.  Among 
these  may  be  reckoned  Baalzebub,  the  fly-god 
of  Ekron  :  Hercules  muscarum  abactor,  "  Her- 
cules, the  expeller  of  flies ;"  and  hence  Jupiter 
had  the  titles  of  andiivios,  fiviaypo;,  nvi6)(o(3ot;,  be- 
cause he  was  supposed  to  expel  flies,  and  espe- 
cially to  clear  his  temples  of  these  insects. 

4.  Solomon  observes,  "  Dead  flies  cause  the 
apothecary's  ointment  to  stink,"  Eccles.  x,  1. 
"  A  fact  well  known,"  says  Scheuchzer ; 
"wherefore  apothecaries  take  care  to  prevent 
flies  from  coming  to  their  syrups  and  other 
fermentable  preparations.  For  in  all  insects 
there  is  an  acrid  volatile  salt,  which,  mixed 
with  sweet  or  even  alkaline  substances,  excites 
them  to  a  brisk  intestine  motion,  disposes  them 
to  fermentation,  and  to  putrescence  itself;  by 
which  the  more  volatile  principles  fly  off,  leav- 
ing the  grosser  behind:  at  the  same  time,  the 
taste  and  odour  are  changed,  the  agreeable  to 
fetid,  the  sweet  to  insipid."  This  verse  is  an 
illustration,  by  a  very  appropriate  similitude, 
of  the  concluding  assertion  in  the  preceding 
chapter,  that  "  one  sinner  destroyeth  much 
good,"  as  one  dead  fly  spoils  a  whole  vessel  of 
precious  ointment,  which,  in  eastern  countries, 
was  considered  as  very  valuable,  2  Kings  xx, 
13.      The    application   of  this  proverbial   ex- 


pression to  a  person's  good  name,  which  is 
elsewhere  compared  to  sweet  ointment,  Eccles. 
vii,  1  ;  Cant,  i,  3,  is  remarkably  significant. 
As  a  fly,  though  a  diminutive  creature,  can 
taint  and  corrupt  much  precious  perfume  ;  so 
a  small  mixture  of  folly  and  indiscretion  will 
tarnish  the  reputation  of  one  who,  in  other 
respects,  is  very  wise  and  honourable  ;  and  so 
much  the  more,  because  of  the  malignity  and 
ingratitude  of  mankind,  who  are  disposed  ra- 
ther to  censure  one  error,  than  to  commend 
many  excellencies,  and  from  whese  minds  one 
small  miscarriage  is  sufficient  to  blot  out  the 
memory  of  all  other  deserts.  It  concerns  us, 
therefore,  to  conduct  ourselves  unblamably, 
that  we  may  not  by  the  least  oversight  or  folly 
blemish  our  profession,  or  cause  it  ;o  be  offen- 
sive to  others. 

FLOCK.     See  Shepherd. 

FLOOR,  for  threshing  corn,  or  threshing 
floor,  is  frequently  mentioned  in  Scripture. 
This  was  a  place  in  the  open  air,  in  which 
corn  was  threshed,  by  means  of  a  cart  or  sledge, 
or  some  other  instrument  drawn  by  oxen. 
The  threshing  floors  among  the  Jews  were 
only,  as  they  are  to  this  day  in  the  east,  round 
level  plats  of  ground  in  the  open  air,  where 
the  corn  was  trodden  out  by  oxen.  Thus 
Gideon's  floor  appears  to  have  been  in  the  open 
air,  Judges  vi,  37 ;  and  also  that  of  Araunah 
the  Jebusite,  2  Sam.  xxiv,  otherwise  it  would 
not  have  been  a  proper  place  for  erecting  an 
altar,  and  offering  sacrifices.  In  Hosca  xiii,  3; 
we  read  of  the  chaff"  which  is  driven  by  the 
whirlwind  from  the  floor.  This  circumstance 
of  the  threshing  floor's  being  exposed  to  the 
agitation  of  the  wind  seems  to  be  the  principal 
reason  of  its  Hebrew  name.  It  appears,  there- 
fore, that  a  threshing  floor,  which  is  rendered 
in  our  textual  translation,  "  a  void  place," 
might  well  be  near  the  entrance  of  the  gate  of 
Samaria,  and  a  proper  situation  in  which  the 
kings  of  Israel  and  Judah  might  hear  the  pro- 
phets, 1  Kings  xxii,  10 ;  2  Chron.  xviii,  9.  An 
instrument  sometimes  used  in  Palestine  and 
the  east,  to  force  the  corn  out  of  the  ear,  and 
bruise  the  straw,  was  a  heavy  kind  of  sledge 
made  of  thick  boards,  and  furnished  beneath 
with  teeth  of  stone  or  iron,  Isa.  xli,  15.  The 
sheaves  being  laid  in  order,  the  sledge  was 
drawn  over  the  straw  by  oxen,  and  at  the  same 
time  threshed  out  the  corn,  and  cut  or  broke 
the  straw  into  a  kind  of  chaff.  An  instrument 
in  the  east  is  still  used  for  the  same  purpose. 
This  sledge  is  alluded  to  in  2  Sam.  xii,  31  ; 
Isa.  xxviii,  27;  xli,  15  ;  Amos  i,  3.  Dr.Lowth, 
in  his  notes  on  Isaiah  xxviii,  27,  28,  'observes, 
that  four  methods  of  threshing  arc  mentioned 
in  this  passage,  by  different  instruments,  the 
flail,  the  drag,  the  wain,  and  the  treading  of 
the  cattle.  The  stall',  or  Hail,  was  used  for  the 
infirmiora  semina,  the  grain  that  was  too  tender 
to  be  treated  in  the  other  methods.  The  drag 
consisted  of  a  sort  of  frame  of  strong  planks, 
made  rough  at  the  bottom  with  hard  stones  or 
iron;  it  was  drawn  by  horses  or  oxen  over  the 
corn  sheaves  on  the  floor,  the  driver  sitting 
upon  it.  The  wain  was  nearly  similar  to  this 
instrument,  but  had  wheels  with  iron  teeth,  ot 


FO 


384 


FOO 


edges  like  a  saw.  The  last  method  is  well 
known  from  the  law  of  Moses,  which  forbids 
the  ox  to  be  muzzled  when  he  treadeth  out  the 
corn.  Niebuhr,  in  his  Travels,  gives  the  fol- 
lowing description  of  a  machine  which  the 
people  of  Egypt  use  at  this  day  for  threshing 
out  their  corn  :  "  This  machine,"  says  he,  "  is 
called  nauridsj.  It  has  three  rollers  which 
turn  on  their  axles;  and  each  of  them  is  fur- 
nished with  some  irons  round  and  flat.  At  the 
beginning  of  June,  Mr.  Forskall  and  I  several 
times  saw,  in  the  environs  of  Dsjise,  how  corn 
was  threshed  in  Egypt.  Every  peasant  chose 
for  himself,  in  the  open  field,  a  smooth  plat  of 
ground  from  eighty  to  a  hundred  paces  in  cir- 
cumference, Hither  was  brought  on  camels  or 
asses  the  corn  in  sheaves,  of  which  was  formed 
a  ring  of  six  or  eight  feet  wide,  and  two  high. 
Two  oxen  were  made  to  draw  over  it  again  and 
again  the  sledge,  traincau,  above  mentioned  ; 
and  this  was  done  with  the  greatest  convenience 
to  the  driver ;  for  he  was  seated  in  a  chair  fixed 
on  the  sledge.  Two  such  parcels  or  layers  of 
corn  are  threshed  out  in  a  day,  and  they  move 
each  of  them  as  many  as  eight  times,  with  a 
wooden  fork  of  five  prongs,  which  they  call 
meddre.  Afterward  they  throw  the  straw  into 
the  middle  of  the  ring,  where  it  forms  a  heap, 
which  grows  bigger  and  bigger.  When  the  first 
layer  is  threshed  they  replace  the  straw  in  the 
ring,  and  thresh  it  as  before.  Thus  the  straw 
becomes  every  time  smaller,  till  at  last  it  re- 
sembles chopped  straw.  After  this,  with  the 
fork  just  described,  they  cast  the  whole  some 
yards  from  thence,  and  against  the  wind ; 
which  driving  back  tha  straw,  the  corn  and 
the  ears  not  threshed  out  fall  apart  from  it, 
and  make  another  heap.  A  man  collects  the 
clods  of  dirt,  and  other  impurities  to  which  any 
corn  adheres,  and  throws  them  into  a  sieve. 
They  afterward  place  in  a  ring  the  heaps,  in 
which  a  good  many  entire  ears  are  still  found, 
and  drive  over  them  for  four  or  five  hours  to- 
gether ten  couple  of  oxen  joined  two  and  two, 
till  by  absolute  trampling  they  have  separated 
the  grains,  which  they  throw  into  the  air  with 
a  shovel  to  cleanse  them." 

FO,  or  FUH,  as  the  Chinese  now  call  him, 
was  an  Indian  prince,  who  was  made  a  god  at 
thirty  years  of  age,  and  died  at  seventy-five. 
His  worshippers  form  one  of  the  three  great 
recta  of  China,  and  it  is  said  to  be  far  the  most 
numerous.  The  worship  of  this  idol,  they  pre- 
tend, was  observed  a  thousand  years  before  the 
<  linstian  era,  and  was  introduced  from  India 
into  China  within  the  first  century  after.  Many 
temples  are  reared  to  this  deity,  some  of  which 
are  magnificent ;  and  a  number  of  bonzes,  or 
priests,  are  consecrated  to  his  service.  He  is 
represented  shining  in  light,  with  his  hands 
hid  under  his  robes,  to  show  that  he  does  all 

nngs  invisibly.  The  doctors  of  this  sect,  like 
those  of  Egypt,  Greece,  and  India,  teach  a 
double  doctrine ;  the  one  public,  the  other  pri- 
vatc.  According  to  the  former,  they  say,  all 
the  good  are  recompensed,  and  the  wicked 
punished,  in  places  destined  for  each  They 
enjom  all  works  of  charity;  and  forbid  cheat- 
ing, impurity,  murder,  and  even  the  taking  of 


life  from  any  creature  whatever.  For  they 
believe  that  the  souls  of  their  ancestors  trans, 
migrate  into  irrational  creatures  ;  either  into 
such  as  they  liked  best,  or  resembled  most  in 
their  behaviour ;  for  which  reason  they  never 
kill  any  such  animals;  but,  while  they  live, 
feed  them  well,  and  when  they  die  bury  them 
with  respect.  As  they  build  temples  for  Fuh, 
which  are  filled  with  images,  so  also  monaste- 
ries for  his  priests,  providing  for  their  main- 
tenance, as  the  most  effectual  means  to  partake 
of  their  prayers.  These  priests  pretend  to 
know  into  what  bodies  the  dead  are  transmi- 
grated ;  and  seldom  fail  of  representing  their 
case  to  the  surviving  friends  as  miserable,  or 
uncomfortable ;  that  they  may  extort  money 
from  them  to  procure  for  the  deceased  a  pas- 
sage into  a  better  state,  or  pray  them  out  ot 
purgatory,  which  forms  a  part  of  their  system. 
The  interior  doctrine  of  this  sect,  which  is 
kept  secret  from  the  common  people,  teaches 
a  philosophical  atheism,  which  admits  neither 
rewards  nor  punishments  after  death ;  and  be- 
lieves not  in  a  providence,  or  the  immortality 
of  the  soul;  acknowledges  no  other  God  than 
the  void,  or  nothing;  and  which  makes  the 
supreme  happiness  of  mankind  to  consist  in  a 
total  inaction,  an  entire  insensibility,  and  a 
perfect  quietude.  Fuh,  though  the  idol  of  the 
common  people,  is  considered  as  a  foreign  deity 
in  China,  imported  by  the  Boudhists  from  India: 
great  effects  are,  however,  attached  to  the  per- 
petual reiteration  of  his  name,  and  even  to 
meditation  upon  it.  It  is  supposed  to  render 
fate  favourable,  and  life  secure  ;  to  prevent 
migration  into  the  bodies  of  inferior  animals ; 
and,  in  fine,  to  secure  a  place  in  the  paradise 
of  Fuh,  whose  land  is  yellow  gold,  whose 
towers  are  composed  of  gems,  the  bridges  of 

FOOL,  FOLLY,  or  FOOLISHNESS.    The 

term  fool  is  to  be  understood  sometimes  ac- 
cording to  its  plain,  literal  meaning,  as  denot- 
ing a  person  void  of  understanding  ;  but  it  is 
often  used  figuratively,  Psalm  xxxviii,  5;  lxix, 
5.  "  The  fool,"  that  is,  the  impious  sinner, 
"hath  said  in  his  heart,  There  is  no  God," 
Psalm  xiv,  1.  "I  have  sinned  :  do  away  the 
iniquity  of  thy  servant ;  for  I  have  done  very 
foolishly,"  1  Chron.  xxi,  8.  "  Fools  make  a 
mock  at  sin,"  Prov.  xiv,  9.  See  also  the  lan- 
guage of  Tamar  to  her  brother  Amnon  :  "Do 
not  this  folly  ;  for  whither  shall  I  cause  my 
shame  to  go  ?  And  as  for  thee,  thou  shalt  be 
as  one  of  the  fools  in  Israel,"  2  Sam.  xiii,  13; 
that  is,  Thou  wilt  be  accounted  a  very  wicked 
person.  Our  Lord  seems  to  have  used  tho 
term  in  a  sense  somewhat  peculiar  in  Mat- 
thew v,  22  :  "  Whosoever  shall  say  to  his 
brother,  Thou  fool,  shall  be  in  danger  of  hell 
fire."  But  the  whole  verse  shows  the  mean- 
ing to  be,  that  when  any  one  of  his  professed 
disciples  indulges  a  temper  and  disposition 
of  mind  contrary  to  charity,  or  that  peculiar 
love  which  the  brethren  of  Christ  are  bound 
by  his  law  lo  have;  toward  each  other,  John 
xiii,  34,  not  only  showing  anger  against  an- 
other without  a  cause,  but  also  treating  him 
with    contemptuous  language,  and  that  with 


FOO 


385 


FOU 


malicious  intent,  he  shall  be  in  danger  of 
eternal  destruction. 

FOOT.  Anciently  it  was  customary  to  wash 
the  feet  of  strangers  coming  off  a  journey, 
because  generally  they  travelled  barefoot,  or 
wore  sandals  only,  which  did  not  secure  them 
from  dust  or  dirt.  Jesus  Christ  washed  the 
feet  of  his  Apostles,  and  thereby  taught  them  to 
perform  the  humblest  services  for  one  another. 
Feet,  in  the  sacred  writers,  often  mean  incli- 
nations, affections,  propensities,  actions,  mo- 
tions: "Guide  my  feet  in  thy  paths."  "Keep 
thy  feet  at  a  distance  from  evil."  "  The  feet 
of  the  debauched  woman  go  down  to  death." 
"  Let  not  the  foot  of  pride  come  against  me." 
To  be  at  any  one's  feet,  signifies  obeying  him, 
listening  to  his  instructions  and  commands. 
Moses  says  that  "the  Lord  loved  his  people; 
all  his  saints  are  in  thy  hand  :  and  they  sat 
down  at  his  feet,"  Deut.  xxxiii,  3.  St.  Paul 
was  brought  up  at  the  feet  of  Gamaliel.  Mary 
sat  at  our  Saviour's  feet,  and  heard  his  word, 
Luke  x,  39. 

It  is  said  that  the  land  of  Canaan  is  not  like 
Egypt,  "  where  thou  sowedst  thy  seed,  and 
wateredst  it  with  thy  foot"  Deut.  xi,  10.  Pales- 
tine is  a  country  which  has  rains,  plentiful 
dews,  springs,  rivulets,  brooks,  &c,  that  supply 
the  earth  with  the  moisture  necessary  to  its 
fruitfulness.  On  the  contrary,  Egypt  has  no 
river  except  the  Nile :  there  it  seldom  rains, 
and  the  lands  which  are  not  within  reach  of 
the  inundation  Continue,  parched  and  barren. 
To  supply  this  want,  ditches  are  dug  from  the 
river,  and  water  is  distributed  throughout  the 
several  villages  and  cantons :  there  are  great 
struggles  who  shall  first  obtain  it;  and,  in  this 
dispute,  they  frequently  come  to  blows.  Not- 
withstanding these  precautions,  many  places 
have  no  water;  and,  in  the  course  of  the  year, 
those  places  which  are  nearest  the  Nile  require 
to  be  watered  again  by  means  of  art  and  labour. 
This  was  formerly  done  by  the  help  of  ma- 
chines, one  of  which  is  thus  described  by  Philo: 
It  is  a  wheel  which  a  man  turns  by  the  motion 
of  his  feet,  by  ascending  successively  the  seve- 
ral steps  that  are  within  it.  This  is  what 
Moses  means  in  this  place  by  saying,  that,  in 
Egypt,  they  water  the  earth  with  their  feet. 
The  water  is  thus  conveyed  to  cisterns ;  and 
when  the  gardens  want  refreshment,  water  is 
conducted  by  trenches  to  the  beds  in  little  rills, 
which  are  stopped  by  the  foot,  and  turned  at 
pleasure  into  different  directions. 

2.  To  be  under  any  one's  feet,  to  be  a  foot- 
stool to  him,  signifies  the  subjection  of  a  sub- 
ject to  his  sovereign,  of  a  slave  to  his  master. 
To  lick  the  dust  of  one's  feet,  is  an  abject 
manner  of  doing  homage.  In  Mr.  Hugh  Boyd's 
account  of  his  embassy  to  the  king  of  Candy, 
in  Ceylon,  there  is  a  paragraph  which  singu- 
larly illustrates  this,  and  shows  the  adulation 
and  obsequious  reverence  with  which  an  east- 
ern monarch  is  approached.  Describing  his 
introduction  to  the  king,  he  says,  "The  removal 
of  the  curtain  was  the  signal  of  our  obeisances. 
Mine,  by  stipulation,  was  to  be  only  kneeling. 
My  companions  immediately  began  the  per- 
formance of  thciry,  which  were  in  the  most 
26 


perfect  degree  of  eastern  humiliation.  They 
almost  literally  licked  the  dust ;  prostrating 
themselves  with  their  faces  almost  close  to  the 
stone  floor,  and  throwing  out  their  arms  and 
legs  ;  then,  rising  on  their  knees,  they  repeat, 
ed,  in  a  very  loud  voice,  a  certain  form  of 
words  of  the  most  extravagant  meaning  that 
can  be  conceived,  that  the  head  of  the  king  of 
kings  might  reach  beyond  the  sun  ;  that  ho 
might  live  a  thousand  years,"  &c.  Nakedness 
of  feet  was  a  sign  of  mourning.  God  says  to 
Ezekiel,  "  Make  no  mourning  for  the  dead, 
and  put  on  thy  shoes  upon  thy  feet,"  &-c.  It 
was  also  a  mark  of  respect :  "  Put  off*  thy  shoes 
from  off  thy  feet ;  for  tire  place  whereon  thou 
standest  is  holy  ground,"  Exodus  iii,  5.  The 
rabbins  say  that  the  priests  went  barefoot  in  the 
temple.  "  If  thou  turn  away  thy  foot  from  the 
Sabbath,  from  doing  thy  pleasure  on  my  holy 
day,"  Isaiah  Iviii,  13;  if  thou  forbear  walking 
and  travelling  on  the  Sabbath  day,  and  do  not 
then  thine  own  will.  We  know  that  journeys 
were  forbidden  on  the  Sabbath  day,  Matt. 
xxiv,  20 ;  Acts  i,  12.  Kissing  the  feet  was 
often  practised  as  a  mark  of  affection  and  re- 
vcrcncG. 

FORNICATION,  whoredom,  or  the  act  of 
incontinency  between  single  persons ;  for  if 
either  of  the  parties  be  married,  the  sin  is 
adultery. 

FOREHEAD,  Mark  on  the,  Ezekiel  ix,  4. 
Mr.  Maurice,  speaking  of  the  religious  rites  of 
the  Hindoos,  says,  Before  they  can  enter  the 
great  pagoda,  an  indispensable  ceremony  takes 
place,  which  can  only  be  performed  by  the  hand 
of  a  brahmin ;  and  that  is,  the  impression  of 
their  foreheads  with  the  tiluk,  or  mark  of  dif- 
ferent colours,  as  they  may  belong  either  to 
the  sect  of  Vecslmu,  or  Seeva.  If  the  temple 
be  that  of  Veeshnu,  their  foreheads  are  mark- 
ed with  a  longitudinal  line,  and  the  colour 
used  is  vermilion.  If  it  be  the  temple  of 
Seeva,  they  are  marked  with  a  parallel  line, 
and  the  colour  used  is  turmeric,  or  saffron. 
But  these  two  grand  sects  being  again  subdi- 
vided into  numerous  classes,  both  the  size  and 
the  shape  of  the  tiluk  are  varied,  in  proportion 
to  their  superior  or  inferior  rank.  In  regard  to 
the  tiluk,  I  must  observe,  that  it  was  a  custom 
of  very  ancient  date  in  Asia  to  mark  their 
servants  in  the  forehead.  It  is  alluded  to  in 
these  words  of  Ezekiel,  where  the  Almighty 
commands  his  angels  to  "  go  through  the  midst 
of  the  city,  and  set  a  mark  on  the  foreheads  of 
the  men  who  sigh  for  the  abominations  com- 
mitted in  the  midst  thereof."  The  same  idea 
occurs  also  in  Rev.  vii,  3.  The  divers  6ccts  of 
the  Hindoos  have  a  distinguishing  mark  of  the 
sect,'  by  which  they  are  known,  on  the  fore- 
head, of  powdered  sandalwood,  or  of  the  slime 
of  the  Ganges.  The  mark  of  the  Wischnites 
consists  of  two  nearly  oval  lines  down  the 
nose,  which  runs  from  two  straight  lines  on 
the  forehead.  The  mark  of  the  Schivites  con- 
sists of  two  curved  lines,  like  a  half  moon  with 
a  point  on  the  nose.  It  is  made  either  with 
the  slime  of  the  Ganges,  with  sandal  wood,  or 
the  ashes  of  cow  dung. 

FOUNTAIN  i*  properly  the  source  or  spring. 


FOX 


386 


FOX 


head  bf  waters.  There  were  several  celebrated 
fountains  in  Judea,  such  as  that  of  Rogel, 
of  Gihon,  of  Siloam,  of  Nazareth,  &c ;  and 
allusions  to  them  are  often  to  be  met  with  in 
both  the  Old  and  New  Testament.  Dr.  Chan- 
dler, in  his  travels  in  Asia  Minor,  says,  "The 
reader,  as  we  proceed,  will  find  frequent  men- 
tion  of  fountains.  Their  number  is  owing  to 
the  nature  of  the  country  and  the  climate.  The 
soil,  parched  and  thirsty,  demands  moisture  to 
aid  vegetation;  and  a  cloudless  sun,  which 
inflames  the  air,  requires  for  the  people  the  ver- 
dure, with  shade  and  air,  its  agreeable  attend- 
ants. Hence  fountains  are  met  with,  not  only 
in  the  towns  and  villages,  but  in  the  fields  and 
gardens,  and  by  the  sides  of  the  roads,  and  of 
the  beaten  track?  on  the  mountains.  Many  of 
them  are  the  useful  donations  of  humane  per- 
sons while  living,  or  have  been  bequeathed  as 
legacies  on  their  decease."  As  fountains  of 
water  were  so  extremely  valuable  to  the  inha- 
bitants of  the  eastern  countries,  it  is  easy  to 
understand  why  the  inspired  writers  so  fre- 
quently allude  to  them,  and  thence  deduce  some 
of  their  most  beautiful  and  striking  similitudes, 
when  they  would  set  forth  the  choicest  spirit- 
ual blessings.  Thus  Jeremiah  calls  the  blessed 
God,  "  the  fountain  of  living  waters,"  Jer.  ii,  13. 
As  those  springs  or  fountains  of  water  arc  the 
most  valuable  and  highly  prized  which  never 
intermit  or  cease  to  flow,  but  are  always  send- 
ing forth  their  streams ;  such  is  Jehovah  to 
his  people  :  he  is  a  perennial  source  of  felicity. 
Zechariah,  pointing  in  his  days  to  the  atone- 
ment which  was  to  be  made  in  the  fulness  of 
time,  by  the  shedding  of  the  blood  of  Christ, 
describes  it  as  a  fountain  that  was  to  be  open- 
ed in  which  the  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem  might 
wash  away  all  their  impurities:  "In  that  day 
there  shall  be  a  fountain  opened  to  the  house 
of  David,  and  to  the  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem, 
for  sin  and  for  uncleanness,"  Zech.  xiii,  1.  Joel 
predicted  the  salvation  which  was  to  come  out 
of  Zion,  under  the  beautiful  figure  of  "  a  fount- 
ain which  should  come  forth  out  of  the  bouse 
of  the  Lord,  and  water  the  plain  of  Shittim," 
Joel  iii,  18.  The  Psalmist,  expatiating  on  the 
excellency  of  the  loving-kindness  of  God,  not 
only  as  affording  a  ground  of  hope  to  the  chil- 
dren of  men,  but  also  as  the  source  of  consola- 
tion and  happiness,  adds,  "  Thou  shalt  make 
them  drink  of  the  river  of  thy  pleasures ;  for 
with  thee  is  the  fountain  of  life,"  Psalm  xxxvi, 
7-9.  In  short,  the  blessedness  of  the  heavenly 
ttate  is  shadowed  forth  under  this  beautiful 
figure  ;  for  as  "  in  the  divine  presence  there  is 
fulness  of  joy,  and  at  God's  right  hand,  plea- 
sures for  evermore,"  Psalm  xvi,  11 ;  so  it  is 
said  of  those  who  came  out  of  great  tribulation, 
that  "the  Lamb  that  was  in  the  midst  of  the 
throne  shall  lead  them  unto  living  fountains  of 
water,  and  God  shall  wipe  away  all  tears  from 
their  eyes,"  Rev.  vii,  17. 

FOX,  bpW,  Judges  xv,  4;  Nehemiah  iv,  3; 
xi,  27;  Psalm  lxiii,  10;  Cant,  ii,  15;  Lam.  v, 
11  ;  Kzek.  xiii,  1;  Matt,  viii,  20;  Luke  ix,  58; 
xiii,  32.  Parkhurst  observes  that  this  is  the 
name  of  an  animal,  probably  so  called  from  its 
burrowing,  or  making  holes  in   the    earth  to 


hide  himself  or  dwell  in.  The  LXX  render  it 
by  aX(im;|,  the  Vulgate,  vulpes,  and  our  English 
version,  fox.  It  is  recorded,  in  Judges  xv,  4, 
5,  that  "Samson  went  and  caught  three  hun- 
dred foxes,  and  took  firebrands,  and  turned  tail 
to  tail,  and  p\it  a  firebrand  in  the  midst  be- 
tween two  tails ;  and  when  he  had  set  the 
brands  on  fire,  he  let  them  go  into  the  stand- 
ing corn  of  the  Philistines,  and  burnt  up  both 
the  shocks,  and  also  the  standing  corn,  with 
the  vineyards  and  olives."  Dr.  Shaw  thinks 
jackals  to  be  the  animals  here  intended ;  observ- 
ing, that  "  as  these  are  creatures  by  far  the 
most  common  and  familiar,  as  well  as  the  most 
numerous  of  any  in  the  eastern  countries,  we 
may  well  perceive  the  great  possibility  there 
was  for  Samson  to  take,  or  cause  to  be  taken, 
three  hundred  of  them.  The  fox,  properly  so 
called,"  he  adds,  "  is  rarely  to  be  met  with, 
neither  is  it  gregarious."  So  Hasselquist  re- 
marks:  "Jackals  are  found  in  great  numbers 
about  Gaza  ;  and,  from  their  gregarious  nature, 
it  is  much  more  probable  that  Samson  should 
have  caught  three  hundred  of  them,  than  of 
the  solitary  quadruped,  the  fox." 

2.  At  the  feast  of  Ceres,  the  goddess  of  corn, 
celebrated  annually  at  Rome  about  the  middle 
of  April,  there  was  the  observance  of  this  cus- 
tom, to  fix  burning  torches  to  the  tails  of  a 
number  of  foxes,  and  to  let  them  run  through 
the  circus  till  they  were  burnt  to  death.  This 
was  done  in  revenge  upon  that  species  of  ani 
mals,  for  having  once  burnt  up  the  fields  of 
corn.  The  reason,  indeed,  assigned  by  Ovid, 
is  too  frivolous  an  origin  for  so  solemn  a  rite ; 
and  the  time  of  its  celebration,  the  seventeenth 
of  April,  it  seems,  was  not  harvest  time,  when 
the  fields  were  covered  with  corn,  vestitos  mes- 
sibus  agros ;  for  the  middle  of  April  was  seed 
time  in  Italy,  as  appears  from  Virgil's  Geor- 
gics.  Hence  we  must  infer  that  this  rite  must 
have  taken  its  rise  from  some  other  event  than 
that  by  which  Ovid  accounted  for  it ;  and  Sam- 
son's foxes  are  a  probable  origin  of  it.  The 
time  agrees  exactly,  as  may  be  collected  from 
several  passages  of  Scripture.  For  instance  : 
from  the  book  of  Exodus  we  learn,  that  before 
the  passover,  that  is,  before  the  fourteenth  day 
of  the  month  Abib,  or  March,  barley  in  Egypt 
was  in  the  ear,  Exod.  xii,  18;  xiii,  4.  And  in 
chapter  ix,  31,  32,  it  is  said,  that  the  wheat 
at  that  time  was  not  grown  up.  Barley 
harvest,  then,  in  Egypt,  and  so  in  the  coun- 
try of  the  Philistines,  which  bordered  upon  it, 
must,  have  fallen  about  the  middle  of  March. 
Wheat  harvest,  according  to  Pliny,  was  a 
month  later:  "In  Egyplo  hordrum  sexto  a 
xalu  mefue,  frumenta  septimo  metuntur."  [In 
Egypt  barley  is  reaped  in  the  sixth  month  from 
the  time  of  its  being  sown,  wheat  in  the 
seventh.]  Therefore  wheat  harvest  happened 
about  the  middle  of  April ;  the  very  time  in 
which  the  burning  of  foxes  was  observed  at 
Rome.  It  is  certain  that  the  Romans  borrow- 
ed many  of  their  rites  and  ceremonies,  both 
serious  and  ludicrous,  from  foreign  nations; 
and  Egypt  and  Phenicia  furnished  them  with 
more  perhaps  than  any  other  country.  From 
one  of  these  the  Romans  might  cither  receive 


FRI 


387 


FRI 


tins  rile  immediately,  or  through  the  hands  of 
their  neighbours,  the  Carthaginians,  who  were 
a  colony  of  Phenicians  ;  and  so  its  true  origin 
may  be  referred  back  to  the  story  which  we 
have  been  considering. 

Bochart  has  made  it  probable  that  the  o^N 
spoken  of  in  Isaiah  xiii,  22 ;  xxxiv,  14 ;  and 
Jer.  1,  39,  rendered  by  our  translators  "the 
beasts  of  the  islands,"  an  appellation  very 
vague  and  indeterminate,  are  jackals;  and  that 
the  Sue ;  of  the  Greeks,  and  the  beni  ani  of  the 
Arabians  are  the  same  animal ;  and  though  he 
takes  that  to  have  been  their  specific  name, 
yet  he  thinks,  that,  from  their  great  resem- 
blance to  a  fox,  they  might  be  comprehended 
under  the  Hebrew  name  of  a  fox,  shual;  which 
is  indeed  almost  the  same  with  sciagal  sciitgal, 
the  Persian  names  of  the  jackal.  Scaliger  and 
Olearius,  quoted  by  Bochart,  expressly  call  the 
jackal  a  fox ;  and  Mr.  Sandys  speaks  of  it  in 
the  same  manner:  "  The  jackals,  in  my  opin- 
ion, are  no  other  than  foxes,  whereof  an  infi- 
nite number,"  &c.  Hasselquist  calls  it  the  little 
eastern  fox ;  and  Ksempfer  says  that  it  might 
not  be  improperly  called  the  wolf-fox.  It  is 
therefore  very  conceivable  that  the  ancients 
might  comprehend  this  animal  under  the  gene- 
ral name  of  fox. 

3.  To  give  an  idea  of  his  own  extreme 
poverty,  the  Lord  Jesus  says,  Luke  ix,  58, 
"  Foxes  have  holes,  and  birds  of  the  air  have 
nests ;  but  the  Son  of  man  hath  not  where  to 
lay  his  head."  And  he  calls  Herod,  the  te- 
trarch  of  Galilee,  a  fox,  Luke  xiii,  32 ;  thereby 
signifying  his  craft,  and  the  refinements  of  his 
policy.  In  illustration  of  the  pertinency  of 
this  allusion,  we  may  quote  a  remark  of  Bus- 
bequius:  "I  heard  a  mighty  noise,  as  if  it  had 
been  of  men  who  jeered  and  mocked  us.  I 
asked  what  was  the  matter ;  and  was  answer- 
ed, '  Only  the  howlings  of  certain  beasts  which 
the  Turks  call,  ciagals,  or  jackals'  They  are 
a  sort  of  wolves,  somewhat  bigger  than  foxes, 
but  less  than  common  wolves,  yet  as  greedy 
and  devouring.  They  go  in  flocks,  and  seldom 
hurt  man  or  beast ;  but  get  their  food  more  by 
craft  and  stealth  than  by  open  force.  Thence 
it  is  that  the  Turks  call  subtle  and  crafty  per- 
sons by  the  metaphorical  name  of  ciagals." 

FRANKINCENSE,  nSO1?,  Exod.  xxx,  34, 
&c.  \l6avos,  Matt,  ii,  11 ;  Rev.  xviii,  13,  a  dry, 
resinous  substance,  of  a  yellowish  white  colour, 
a  strong  fragrant  smell,  and  bitter,  acrid  taste. 
The  tree  which  produces  it  is  not  known. 
Dioscorides  mentions  it  as  procured  from  India. 
What  is  here  called  the  pure  frankincense  is, 
no  doubt,  the  same  with  the  mascula.  thura  of 
Virgil,  and  signifies  what  is  first  obtained  from 
the  tree. 

FRIEND  is  taken  for  one  whom  we  love 
and  esteem  above  others,  to  whom  we  impart 
our  minds  more  familiarly  than  to  others,  and 
that  from  a  confidence  of  his  integrity  and 
good  will  toward  us  :  thus  Jonathan  and  David 
were  mutually  friends.  Solomon,  in  his  hook 
of  Proverbs,  givos  the  qualities  of  a  true  friend. 
"A  friend  loveth  at  all  times:"  not  only  in 
prosperity,  but  also  in  adversity  ;  and,  "  there 
is  a  friend  that  sticketh  closer  than  a  brother." 


He  is  more  hearty  in  the  performance  of  all 
friendly  offices  ;  he  reproves  and  rebukes  when 
he  sees  any  thing  amiss.  "  Faithful  are  the 
wounds  of  a  friend."  His  sharpest  reproofs 
proceed  from  an  upright,  and  truly  loving  and 
faithful  soul.  He  is  known  by  his  good  and 
faithful  counsel,  as  well  as  by  his  seasonable 
rebukes.  "Ointment  and  perfume  rejoice  the 
heart,  so  does  the  sweetness  of  a  man's  friend 
by  hearty  counsel :"  by  such  counsel  as  comes 
from  his  very  heart  and  soul,  and  is  the  lan- 
guage of  his  inward  and  most  serious  thoughts. 
The  company  and  conversation  of  a  friend  is 
refreshing  and  reviving  to  a  person,  who, 
when  alone,  is  sad,  dull,  and  inactive.  "  Iron 
sharpeneth  iron,  so  a  man  sharpeneth  the 
countenance  of  his  friend."  The  title,  "the 
friend  of  God,"  is  principally  given  to  Abra- 
ham :  "  Art  not  thou  our  God,  who  gavest  this 
land  to  the  seed  of  Abraham,  thy  friend,  for 
ever?"  And  in  Isaiah  xli,  8,  "  But  thou  Israel  A 
art  the  seed  of  Abraham,  my  friend."  "And 
the  Scripture  was  fulfilled,  which  saith,  Abra- 
ham believed  God,  and  it  was  imputed  to  him 
for  righteousness  ;  arid  he  was  called  the  friend 
of  God,"  James  ii,  23.  This  title  was  given 
him,  not  only  because  God  frequently  appear- 
ed to  him,  conversed  familiarly  with  him,  and 
revealed  his  secrets  to  him,  "  Shall  I  hide  from 
Abraham  that  thing  which  I  do?"  Gen.  xviii, 
17;  but  also  because  he  entered  into  a  cove- 
nant of  perpetual  friendship  both  with  him  and 
his  seed.  Our  Saviour  calls  his  Apostles 
"friends:"  "But  I  have  called  you  friends;" 
and  he  adds  the  reason  of  it,  "  for  all  things 
that  I  have  heard  of  my  Father,  I  have  made 
known  unto  you,"  John  xv,  15.  As  men  use 
to  communicate  their  counsels  and  their  whole 
mind  to  their  friends,  especially  in  things  which 
are  of  any  concern,  or  may  be  of  any  advan- 
tage for  them  to  know  and  understand,  so  I 
have  revealed  to  you  whatever  is  necessary  for 
your  instruction,  office,  comfort,  and  salvation. 
And  this  title  is  not  peculiar  to  the  Apostles 
only,  but  is  common  with  them  to  all  true  be- 
lievers. The  friend  of  the  bridegroom  is  the 
brideman ;  he  who  does  the  honours  of  the 
wedding,  and  leads  his  friend's  spouse  to  the 
nuptial  chamber.  John  the  Baptist,  with  re- 
spect to  Christ  and  his  church,  was  the  friend 
of  the  bridegroom  ;  by  his  preaching  he  pre- 
pared the  people  of  the  Jews  for  Christ,  John 
iii,  29.  Friend  is  a  word  of  ordinary  saluta- 
tion, whether  to  a  friend  or  foe :  he  is  called 
friend  who  had  not  on  a  wedding  garment, 
Matt,  xxii,  12.  And  our  Saviour  calls  Judas 
the  traitor  friend.  Some  are  of  opinion  that 
this  title  is  given  to  the  guest  by  an  irony,  or 
antiphrasis ;  meaning  the  contrary  to  what  the 
word  importeth ;  or  that  he  is  called  so,  be- 
cause he  appeared  to  others  to  be  Christ's 
friend ;  or  was  so  in  his  own  esteem  and  ac- 
count, though  falsely,  being  a  hypocrite. 
However,  this  being  spoken  in  the  person  of 
him  who  made  the  feast,  it  is  generally  taken 
for  a  usual  compellation,  and  that  Christ,  fol- 
lowing the  like  courteous  custom  of  appella- 
tion and  friendly  greeting,  did  so  salute  Judas, 
which  yet   left  a   bting  behind  it  in  hits  con- 


IRI 


388 


FRO 


science,  who  knew  himself  to  be  the  reverse  of 
what  he  was  called.  The  name  of  friend  is 
likewise  given  to  a  neighbour.  "  Which  of 
you  shall  have  a  friend,  and  shall  go  to  him  at 
midnight,  and  say,  Friend,  lend  me  three 
loaves  ?"  Luke  xi,  3. 

FRIENDS,  or  QUAKERS,  a  religious  so- 
ciety which  began  to  be  distinguished  about 
the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century.  Their 
doctrines  were  first  promulgated  in  England, 
by  George*  Fox,  about  the  year  1647 ;  for 
which  he  was  imprisoned  at  Nottingham,  in 
the  year  1649,  and  the  year  following  at  Der- 
by. Fox  evidently  considered  himself  as  act- 
ing under  a  divine  commission,  and  went,  not 
only  to  fairs  and  markets,  but  into  courts  of 
justice  and  "  steeple  houses,"  as  he  called  the 
churches,  warning  all  to  obey  the  Holy  Spirit, 
speaking  by  him.  It  is  said,  that  the  appella- 
tion of  Quakers  was  given  them  in  reproach 
by  one  of  the  magistrates,  who,  in  1650,  commit- 
ted Fox  to  prison,  on  account  of  his  bidding 
him,  and  those  about  him,  to  quake  at  the 
word  of  the  Lord.  But  they  adopted  among 
themselves,  and  still  retain,  the  kind  appella- 
tion of  Friends. 

From  their  first  appearance,  they  suffered 
much  persecution.  In  New-England  they 
were  treated  with  peculiar  severity,  imprison- 
ed, scourged,  (women  as  well  as  men,)  and  at 
Boston  four  of  them  were  even  hanged,  among 
whom  was  one  woman  ;  and  this  was  the  more 
extraordinary  and  inexcusable,  as  the  settlers 
themselves  had  but  lately  fled  from  persecution 
in  the  parent  country !  During  these  suffer- 
ings, they  applied  to  King  Charles  II,  for  re- 
lief; who,  in  1661,  granted  a  mandamus,  to 
put  a  stop  to  them.  Neither  were  the  good 
offices  of  this  prince  in  their  favour  confined 
to  the  colonies;  for  in  1672,  he  released,  un- 
der the  great  seal,  four  hundred  of  these  sufier- 
mg  people  who  were  imprisoned  in  Great 
Britain.  To  what  has  been  alleged  against 
them,  on  account  of  James  Naylor  and  his 
associates,  they  answer,  that  their  extravagan- 
cies and  blasphemies  were  disapproved  at  the 
time,  and  the  parties  disowned ;  nor  was  Nay- 
lor restored  till  he  had  given  signs  of  a  sincere 
repentance,  and  publicly  condemned  his  errors. 

In  1681,  Charles  II,  granted  to  W.  Penn  the 
province  of  Pennsylvania.  Penn's  treaty  with 
the  Indians,  and  the  liberty  of  conscience 
which  he  granted  to  all  denominations,  oven 
those  which  had  persecuted  his  own,  do  hon- 
our to  his  memory.  In  the  reign  of  James  II, 
the  Friends,  in  common  with  other  English 
Dissenters,  were  relieved  by  the  suspension  of 
the  penal  laws.  But  it  was  not  till  the  reign 
of  William  and  Mary  that  they  obtained  any 
thing  like  a  proper  legal  protection.  An  act 
was  passed  in  the  year  1696,  which,  with  a 
tew  exceptions,  allowed  to  their  affirmation 
the  legal  force  of  an  oath,  and  provided  a  loss 
oppressive  nu.de  for  recovering  tithes  under  a 
certain  amount;  which  provisions,  mirier  the 
reign  of&  -  I,  were  made  perpetual.  For  re- 
fusing to  pay  tithes,  fee,  however,  they  are  still 
liable  to  differ  in  the  exchequer  and  eccTesias- 
•  our»,  both  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 


The  true  Friends  are  orthodox,  as  to  the 
leading  doctrines  of  Christianity,  but  express 
themselves  in  peculiar  phrases.  They  hold 
special  revelations  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  yet  not 
to  the  disparagement  of  the  written  word, 
which  they  regard  as  the  infallible  rule  of  faith 
and  practice.  They  reject  a  salaried  ministry, 
and  interpret  the  sacraments  mystically.  They 
are  advocates  of  the  interior  spiritual  life  of 
religion,  to  which,  indeed,  they  have  borne 
constant  testimony  ;  and  they  are  distinguished 
by  probity,  philanthropy,  and  a  public  spirit. 
[In  the  United  States,  the  Friends  are  divided 
into  the  Orthodox,  (so  called,)  and  Hicksites, 
or  followers  of  the  late  Elias  Hicks.  The  lat- 
ter are  considered  as  having  departed  from  the 
original  doctrines  of  the  Friends,  and  very  far 
from  the  leading  doctrines  of  Christianity,  as 
held  by  Protestant  Christians  in  general.] 

FROG,  jmox ;  Arabic,  akurrak;  Greek, 
PdToax°s ;  Exod.  viii,  2-14 ;  Psalm  lxxviii,  45  j 
cv,  30;  Rev.  xvi,  13.  When  God  plagued 
Pharaoh  and  his  people,  the  river  Nile,  which 
was  the  object  of  great  admiration  to  the 
Egyptians,  was  made  to  contribute  to  their 
punishment.  "The  river  brought  forth  frogs 
abundantly ;"  but  the  circumstance  of  their 
coming  up  into  the  bed  chambers,  and  into  the 
ovens  and  kneading  troughs,  needs  explanation 
to  us,  whose  domestic  apartments  and  economy 
are  so  different  from  those  of  the  ancient  na- 
tions. Their  lodgings  were  not  in  upper  sto- 
ries, but  in  recesses  on  the  ground  floor ;  and 
their  ovens  were  not  like  ours,  built  on  the  side 
of  a  chimney,  and  adjacent  to  a  fireplace,  where 
the  glowing  heat  would  frighten  away  the 
frogs,  but  they  dug  a  hole  in  the  ground,  in 
which  they  placed  an  earthen  pot,  which  having 
sufficiently  heated,  they  stuck  their  cakes  to 
the  inside  to  be  baked.  To  find  such  places  full 
of  frogs  when  they  came  to  heat  them  in  order 
to  bake  their  bread,  and  to  see  frogs  in  the  beds 
where  they  sought  repose,  must  have  been  both 
disgusting  and  distressing  in  the  extreme. 
Frogs  were  reckoned  unclean  by  the  Hebrews. 

FRONTLETS.  Leo  of  Modena  thus  de- 
scribes them' :  The  Jews  take  four  pieces  of 
parchment,  and  write,  with  an  ink  made  on 
purpose,  and  in  square  letters,  these  four  pas- 
sages, one  on  each  piece:  1.  "Sanctify  unto 
me  all  the  first-born,"  &c,  Exodus  xiii,  1-10. 

2.  "And  when  the  Lord  shall  bring  thee  into 
the  land  of  the  Canaanites,"  &c,  verses  11-16. 

3.  "Hear,  O  Israel:  the  Lord  our  God  is  one 
Lord,"  &e,  Deut.  vi,  4-9.  4.  "  If  you  shall 
hearken  diligently  unto  my  commandments," 
&c,  Deut.  xi,  13-21.  This  they  do  in  obe- 
dience to  these  words  of  Moses:  "These  com- 
mandments shall  be  for  a  sign  unto  thee  upon 
thine  hand,  and  for  a  memorial  between  thine 
eyes."  These  four  little  pieces  of  parchment 
are  fastened  together,  and  a  square  formed  of 
them,  on  which  the  letter  V  is  written;  then  a 
little  square  of  hard  calf's  skin  is  put  upon  the 
top,  out  of  which  come  two  leathern  strings  an 
inch  wide,  and  a  cubit,  and  a  half,  or  there- 
abouts, in  length.  This  square  is  put  on  the 
middle  of  the  forehead,  and  the  strings  being 
dirt  about  the  Iliad,  make  a  knot  in  the  form. 


FRU 


389 


FUE 


of  the  letter  t  :  they  then  are  brought  before, 
and  fall  on  the  breast.  It  is  called  teffila-schel- 
rosck,  or  the  tephila  of  the  head.  The  most 
devout  Jews  put  it  on  both  at  morning  and 
noon-day  prayer;  but  the  generality  of  the 
Jews  wear  it  only  at  morning  prayer.  Only 
the  chanter  of  the  synagogue  is  obliged  to  put 
it  on  at  noon  as  well  as  morning. 

It  is  a  question,  whether  the  use  of  frontlets, 
and  other  phylacteries,  was  literally  ordained 
by  Moses.  They  who  believe  their  use  to  be 
binding,  observe,  that  the  text  of  Moses  speaks 
as  positively  of  this  as  of  other  precepts ;  he 
requires  the  commandments  of  God  to  be  writ- 
ten on  the  doors  of  houses,  as  a  sign  on  their 
hands,  and  as  an  ornament  on  their  foreheads, 
Exod.  xiii,  16.  If  there  be  any  obligation  to 
write  these  commandments  on  their  doors,  as 
the  text  intimates,  there  is  the  same  for  writing 
them  on  their  hands  and  foreheads.  On  the 
contrary,  others  maintain  that  these  precepts 
should  be  taken  figuratively  and  allegorically, 
as  denoting  that  the  Jews  should  very  carefully 
preserve  the  remembrance  of  God's  law,  and 
observe  his  commands ;  that  they  should  always 
have  them  before  them,  and  never  forget  them. 
Prior  to  the  Babylonish  captivity,  no  traces  of 
them  appear  in  the  history  of  the  Jews.  The 
prophets  never  inveigh  against  the  omission  or 
neglect  of  them,  nor  was  there  any  question 
concerning  them  in  the  reformation  of  man- 
ners at  any  time  among  the  Hebrews.  The 
almost  general  custom  in  the  east  of  wearing 
phylacteries  and  frontlets,  determines  nothing 
for  the  antiquity  or  usefulness  of  this  practice. 
The  Caraite  Jews,  who  adhere  to  the  letter  of 
the  law,  and  despise  traditions,  call  the  rab- 
binical Jews  bridled  asses,  because  they  wear 
these  tephilim  and  frontlets.    See  Phylactery. 

FRUIT,  the  product  of  the  earth,  as  trees, 
plants,  &lc.  "  Blessed  shall  be  the  fruit  of  thy 
ground  and  cattle."  The  fruit  of  the  body  sig- 
nifies children  :  "  Blessed  shall  be  the  fruit  of 
thy  body."  By  fruit  is  sometimes  meant  re- 
ward :  "  They  shall  eat  of  the  fruit  of  their 
own  ways,"  Prov.  i,  31 ;  they  shall  receive  the 
reward  of  their  bad  conduct,  and  punishment 
answerable  to  their  sins.  The  fruit  of  the  lips 
is  the  sacrifice  of  praise  or  thanksgiving,  Heb. 
xiii,  15.  The  fruit  of  the  righteous,  that  is, 
the  counsel,  example,  instruction,  and  reproof 
of  the  righteous,  is  a  tree  of  life,  is  a  means  of 
much  good,  both  temporal  and  eternal ;  and 
that  not  only  to  himself,  but  to  others  also, 
Prov.  xi,  30.  Solomon  says,  in  Prov.  xii,  14, 
"  A  man  shall  be  satisfied  with  good  by  the 
fruit  of  his  mouth ;"  that  is,  he  shall  receive 
abundant  blessings  from  God  as  the  reward  of 
that  good  he  has  done,  by  his  pious  and  profit- 
able discourses.  "  Fruits  meet  for  repentance," 
Matt,  iii,  8,  is  such  a  conduct  as  befits  the  pro- 
fession of  penitence. 

2.  The  fruits  of  the  Spirit  are  those  gracious 
habits  which  the  Holy  Spirit  of  God  produces 
in  those  in  whom  he  dwelleth  and  worketh, 
with  those  acts  which  flow  from  them,  as  na- 
turally as  the  tree  produces  its  fruit.  The 
Apostle  enumerates  these  fruits  in  Galatians 
v,  22,  23.     The  same  Apostle,  in  Eph.  v,  9, 


comprehends  the  fruits  of  the  sanctifying 
Spirit  in  these  three  things ;  namely,  goodness, 
righteousness,  and  truth.  The  fruits  of  right- 
eousness are  such  good  works  and  holy  actions 
as  spring  from  a  gracious  frame  of  heart : 
"  Being  filled  with  the  fruits  of  righteousness," 
Phil,  i,  11.  Fruit  is  taken  for  a  charitable 
contribution,  which  is  the  fruit  or  effect  of 
faith  and  love :  "  When  I  have  sealed  unto 
them  this  fruit,"  Rom.  xv,  28;  when  I  have 
safely  delivered  this  contribution.  When  fruit 
is  spoken  of  good  men,  then  it  is  to  be  under- 
stood of  the  fruits  or  works  of  holiness  and 
righteousness ;  but  when  of  evil  men,  then  are 
meant  the  fruits  of  sin,  immorality,  and  wick- 
edness. This  is  our  Saviour's  doctrine,  Matt, 
vii,  16-18. 

3.  Uncircumcised  fruit,  or  impure,  of  which 
there  is  mention  in  Lev.  xix,  23,  is  the  fruit  for 
the  first  three  years  of  a  tree  newly  planted  ;  it 
was  reputed  unclean,  and  no  one  was  permitted 
to  eat  of  it  in  all  that  time.  In  the  fourth  year 
it  was  offered  to  the  Lord ;  after  which  it  was 
common,  and  generally  eaten.  Various  reasons 
are  assigned  for  this  precept.  As  (1.)  Because 
the  first-fruits  were  to  be  offered  to  God,  who 
required  the  best :  but  in  this  time  the  fruit  was 
not  come  to-perfection.  (2.)  It  was  serviceable 
to  the  trees  themselves,  which  grew  the  better 
and  faster;  being  early  stripped  of  those  fruits 
which  otherwise  would  have  derived  to  them- 
selves, and  drawn  away,  much  of  the  strength 
from  the  root  and  tree.  (3.)  It  tended  to'  the 
advantage  of  men,  both  because  the  fruit  was 
then  waterish,  undigestible,  and  unwholesome  ; 
and  because  hereby  men  were  taught  to  bridle 
their  appetites,  a  lesson  of  great  use  and  abso- 
lute necessity  in  a  godly  life. 

FUEL.  In  preparing  their  victuals,  the 
orientals  are,  from  the  extreme  scarcity  of 
wood  in  many  countries,  reduced  to  use  cow 
dung  for  fuel.  At  Aleppo,  the  inhabitants  use 
wood  and  charcoal  in  their  rooms,  but  heat 
their  baths  with  cow  dung,  the  parings  of  fruit, 
and  other  things  of  a  similar  kind,  which  they 
employ  people  to  gather  for  that  purpose.  In 
Egypt,  according  to  Pitts,  the  scarcity  of  wood 
is  so  great,  that  at  Cairo  they  commonly  heat 
their  ovens  with  horse  or  cow  dung,  or  dirt 
of  the  streets ;  what  wood  they  have,  being 
brought  from  the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea,  and 
sold  by  weight.  Chardin  attests  the  same 
fact:  "The  eastern  people  always  used  cow 
dung  for  baking,  boiling  a  pot,  and  dressing  all 
kinds  of  victuals  that  are  easily  cooked,  espe- 
cially in  countries  that  have  but  little  wood ;" 
and  Dr.  Russel  remarks,  in  a  note,  that  "the 
Arabs  carefully  collect  the  dung  of  the  sheep 
and  camel,  as  well  as  that  of  the  cow  ;  and  that 
the  dung,  offals,  and  other  matters,  used  in  the 
bagnios,  after  having  been  new  gathered  in  the 
streets,  are  carried  out  of  the  city,  and  laid  in 
great  heaps  to  dry,  where  they  become  very 
offensive.  They  are  intolerably  disagreeable, 
while  drying,  in  the  town,  adjoining  to  the 
bagnios ;  and  are  so  at  all  times  when  it  rains, 
though  they  be  stacked,  pressed  hard  together, 
and  thatched  at  top."  These  statements  ex- 
hibit, in  a  very  strong  light,  the  extreme  misery 


FUE 


390 


FUL 


of  the  Jews,  who  escaped  from  the  devouring 
sword  of  Nebuchadnezzar :  "They  that  did 
feed  delicately  arc  desolate  in  the  streets  ;  they 
that  were  brought  up  in  scarlet  embrace  dung- 
hills," Lam.  iv,  5.  To  embrace  dunghills,  is  a 
species  of  wretchedness,  perhaps  unknown  to 
us  in  the  history  of  modern  warfare;  but  it 
presents  a  dreadful  and  appalling  image,  when 
the  circumstances  to  which  it  alludes  are  re- 
collected.  What  can  be  imagined  more  dis- 
tressing to  those  who  lived  delicately,  than  to 
wander  without  food  in  the  streets?  What 
more  disgusting  and  terrible  to  those  who  had 
been  clothed  in  rich  and  splendid  garments, 
than  to  be  forced,  by  the  destruction  of  their 
palaces,  to  seek  shelter  among  stacks  of  dung, 
the  filth  and  stench  of  which  it  is  almost  im- 
n/ftrnHiiln  to  endure?  The  dunghill,  it  appears 
from  Holy  Writ,  is  one  of  the  common  retreats 
of  the  mendicant.  This  imparts  great  force 
and  beauty  to  a  passage  in  the  song  of  Han- 
nah :  "  He  raiseth  up  the  poor  out  of  the  dust, 
and  hfteth  the  beggar  from  the  dunghill,  to  set 
them  among  princes,  and  to  make  them  inherit 
the  throne  of  glory,"  1  Sam.  ii,  8.  The  change 
in  the  circumstances  of  that  excellent  woman, 
she  reckoned  as  great,  (and  it  was  to  her  as 
unexpected,)  as  the  elevation  of  a  poor  despised 
beggar  from  a  nauseous  and  polluting  dunghill, 
rendered  tenfold  more  fetid  by  the  intense  heat 
of  an  oriental  sun,  to  one  of  the  highest  and 
most  splendid  stations  on  earth. 

2.  Dung  is  used  as  fuel  in  the  east  only 
when  wood  cannot  be  had ;  for  the  latter,  and 
even  any  other  cornbustiblo  substance,  is  pre- 
ferred when  it  can  be  obtained.  The  inhabit- 
ants of  Aleppo,  according  to  Russel,  use  thorns 
and  fuel  of  a  similar  kind  for  those  culinary 
purposes  which  require  haste,  particularly  for 
boiling,  which  seems  to  be  the  reason  that 
Solomon  mentions  the  "  crackling  of  thorns 
under  a  pot,"  rather  than  in  any  other  way. 
The  same  allusion  to  the  use  of  thorns  for 
boiling  occurs  in  other  parts  of  the  sacred 
volume  :  thus,  the  Psalmist  speaks  of  the  wicked, 
"  Before  your  pots  can  feel  the  thorns,  he  shall 
take  them  away  as  with  a  whirlwind,  both  liv- 
ing, and  in  his  wrath."  The  Jews  are  some- 
times compared  in  the  prophets  to  "a  brand 
plucked  out  of  the  burning,"  Amos  iv,  11 ; 
Zech.  iii,  2 ;  a  figure  which  Chardin  considers 
as  referring  to  vine  twigs,  and  other  brushwood 
which  the  orientals  frequently  use  for  fuel,  and 
which,  in  a  few  minutes,  must  be  consumed  if 
they  are  not  snatched  out  of  the  fire  ;  and  not 
to  those  battens,  or  large  branches,  which  will 
lie  a  long  time  in  the  fire  before  they  are  re- 
duced to  ashes.  If  this  idea  be  correct,  it  dis- 
plays in  a  stronger  and  more  lively  manner  the 
seasonable  interposition  of  God's  mercy,  than 
ii  I'm mslied  by  any  other  view  of  the  phrase. 
The  same  remark  applies  to  the  figure  by  which 
the  rVophet  Isaiah  describes  the  sudden  and 
complete  destruction  of  Rezin,  and  the  son  of 
Remain  h  ;  only  in  this  passage,  the  firebrands 
arc  supposed  to  be  smoking;  that  is,  in  the 
opinion  of  Harmer,  having  the  steam  issuing 
with  Cone  from  one  end,  in  consequence  of  the 
tire  burning  violently  at  the  other.    The  words 


of  the  prophet  are:  "Take  heed  and  be  quiet ; 
fear  not,  neither  be  faint-hearted,  for  the 
two  tails  of  these  smoking  firebrands,  for  the 
fierce  anger  of  Rezin  with  Syria,  and  of  the 
son  of  Remaliah,"  Isaiah  vii,  4.  It  is  not  easy 
to  conceive  an  image  more  striking  than  this; 
the  remains  of  two  small  twigs  burning  with 
violence  at  one  end,  as  appears  by  the  steam- 
ing of  the  other,  are  soon  reduced  to  ashes ;  so 
shall  the  kingdoms  of  Syria  and  Israel  sink 
into  ruin  and  disappear. 

3.  The  scarcity  of  fuel  in  the  east  obliges 
the  inhabitants  to  use,  by  turns,  every  kind  of 
combustible  matter.  The  withered  stalks  of 
herbs  and  flowers,  the  tendrils  of  the  vine,  "the 
small  branches  of  myrtle,  rosemary,  and  other 
plants,  are  all  used  in  heating  their  ovens  and 
bagnios.  We  can  easily  recognise  this  prac- 
tice in  these  words  of  our  Lord  :  "  Consider 
the  lilies  of  the  field,  how  they  grow  ;  they 
toil  not,  neither  do  they  spin  :  and  yet  I  say 
untD  you,  that  Solomon,  in  all  his  glory,  was 
not  arrayed  like  one  of  these.  Wherefore,  if 
God  so  clothe  the  grass  of  the  field,  which  to- 
day is,  and  to-morrow  is  cast  into  the  oven, 
shall  he  not  much  more  clothe  you,  O  ye  of 
little  faith  ?"  Matt,  vi,  28-30.  The  grass  of  the 
field,  (in  this  passage,  evidently  includes  the 
lilies  of  which  our  Lord  had  just  been  speak- 
ing, and,  by  consequence,  herbs  in  general ; 
and  in  this  extensive  sense  the  word  xtpT°s  IS 
not  unfrequently  taken.  These  beautiful  pro- 
ductions of  nature,  so  richly  arrayed,  and  so 
exquisitely  perfumed,  that  the  splendour  even 
of  Solomon  is  not  to  be  compared  with  theirs, 
shall  Soon  wither  and  decay,  and  be  used  as  fuel 
to  heat  the  oven  and  the  bagnio.  Has  God  so 
adorned  these  flowers  and  plants  of  the  field, 
which  retain  their  beauty  and  vigour  but  for  a 
few  days,  and  are  then  applied  to  some  of  the 
meanest  purposes  of  life;  and  will  he  not  much 
more  clothe  you  who  are  the  disciples  of  his 
own  Son,  who  are  capable  of  immortality,  and 
destined  to  the  enjoyment  of  oternal  happiness  ? 

FULNESS.  "The  fulness  of  time"  is  the 
time  when  the  Messiah  appeared,  which  was 
appointed  by  God,  promised  to  the  fathers, 
foretold  by  the  prophets,  expected  by  the  Jews 
themselves,  and  earnestly  longed  for  by  all  the 
faithful :  "  When  the  fulness  of  the  time  was 
come,  God  sent  his  Son,"  Gal.  iv,  4.  The  ful- 
ness of  Christ  is  the  superabundance  of  grace 
with  which  he  was  filled  :  "  Of  his  fulness  have 
all  we  received,"  John  i,  16.  And  whereas 
men  are  said  to  be  filled  with  the  Holy  Ghost, 
as  John  the  Baptist,  Luke  i,  15 ;  and  Stephen, 
Acts  vi,  5 ;  this  differs  from  the  fulness  of 
Christ  in  these  three  respects:  (1.)  Grace  in 
others  is  by  participation,  as  the  moon  hath 
her  light  from  the  sun,  rivers  their  waters  from 
the  fountain  :  but  in  Christ  all  that  perfection 
and  influence  which  we  include  in  that  term  is 
originally,  naturally,  and  of  himself.  (2.)  The 
Spirit  is  in  Christ  infinitely  and  above  measure, 
John  iii,  34 ;  but  in  the  saints  by  measure  ac- 
cording to  the  gift  of  God,  Eph.  iv,  16.  The 
saints  cannot  communicate  their  graces  to 
others,  whereas  the  gifts  of  the  Spirit  are  in 
Christ  as  a  head  and  fountain,  to  impart  them 


GAD 


391 


GAL 


to  his  members.  "  We  have  received  of  his 
fulness,"  John  i,  16.  It  is  said,  that  "the  ful- 
ness of  the  Godhead  dwells  in  Christ  bodily," 
Col.  ii,  2 ;  that  is,  the  whole  nature  and  attri- 
butes of  God  are  in  Christ,  and  that  really, 
essentially,  or  substantially ;  and  also  person- 
ally, by  nearest  union;  as  the  soul  dwells  in 
the  body,  so  that  the  same  person  who  is  man 
is  God  also.  The  church  is  called  the  fulness 
of  Christ,  Eph.  i,  23.  It  is  the  church  which 
makes  him  a  complete  and  perfect  head ;  for 
though  he  has  a  natural  and  personal  fulness 
as  God,  yet,  as  Mediator,  he  is  not  full  and 
complete,  without  his  mystical  body,  (as  a 
king  is  not  complete  without  his  subjects,)  but 
receives  an  outward,  relative,  and  mystical 
fulness  from  his  members. 

FUNERAL  RITES.     See  Burial. 

FURNACE,  a  fireplace  for  melting  gold  and 
other  metals.  "The  fining  pot  is  for  silver, 
the  furnace  for  gold,"  Prov.  xvii,  3.  It  signi- 
fies also  a  place  of  cruel  bondage  and  oppres- 
sion, such  as  Egypt  was  to  the  Israelites,  who 
there  met  with  much  hardship,  rigour,  and 
severity,  to  try  and  purge  them,  Deut.  iv,  20 ; 
Jer.  xi,  4 ;  the  sharp  and  grievous  afflictions 
and  judgments,  wherewith  God  tries  his  people, 
Ezek.  xxii,  18  ;  xx,  22 ;  also  a  place  of  torment, 
as  Nebuchadnezzar's  fiery  furnace,  Dan.  iii,  6, 
11.  On  the  last  we  may  remark,  that  this  mode 
of  putting  to  death  is  not  unusual  in  the  east 
in  modern  times.  After  speaking  of  the  com- 
mon modes  of  punishing  with  death  in  Persia, 
Chardin  says,  "  But  there  is  still  a  particular 
way  of  putting  to  death  such  as  have  trans- 
gressed in  civil  affairs,  either  by  causing  a 
dearth,  or  by  selling  above  the  tax  by  a  false 
weight,  or  who  have  committed  themselves  in 
any  other  manner:  they  are  put  upon  a  spit 
and  roasted  over  a  slow  fire,  Jer.  xxix,  22. 
Bakers,  when  they  offend,  are  thrown  into  a 
hot  oven.  During  the  dearth  in  1668,  I  saw 
such  ovens  heated  in  the  royal  square  in  Ispa- 
han, to  terrify  the  bakers,  and  deter  them  from 
deriving  advantage  from  the  general  distress." 

GABBATHA,  a  place  in  Pilate's  palace, 
from  whence  he  pronounced  sentence  of  death 
upon  Jesus  Christ,  John  xix,  13.  This  was 
probably  an  eminence,  or  terrace,  paved  with 
marble,  for  the  Hebrew  means  elevated. 

GABRIEL,  one  of  the  principal  angels  of 
heaven.  He  was  sent  to  the  Prophet  Daniel, 
to  explain  to  him  the  visions  of  the  ram  and 
goat,  and  the  mystery  of  the  seventy  weeks, 
which  had  been  revealed  to  him,  Dan.  viii,  15 ; 
ix,  21 ;  xi,  1,  &c.  The  same  angel  was  sent 
to  Zechariah,  to  declare  to  him  the  future 
birth  of  John  the  Baptist,  Luke  i,  11,  &c.  Six 
months  after  this  he  appeared  to  a  virgin, 
whose  name  was  Mary,  of  the  city  of  Naza- 
reth, as  related  Luke  i,  26,  &c. 

GAD  was  the  name  of  the  son  of  Jacob  and 
Zilpah,  Leah's  servant,  Gen.  xxx,  9-11.  Leah, 
Jacob's  wife,  gave  him  also  Zilpah,  that  by  her 
she  might  have  children.  Zilpah  brought  a 
son,  whom  Leah  called  Gad,  saying,  "A  troop 
cometh."  Gad  had  seven  sons,  Ziphion,  Haggi, 
Shuni,  Ezbon,  Eri,  Arodi,  and  Areli,  Genesis 


xlvi,  16.  Jacob,  blessing  Gad,  said,  "  A  troop 
shall  overcome  him,  but  he  shall  overcome  at 
the  last,"  Gen.  xlix,  19  ;  and  Moses,  in  his  last 
song,  mentions  Gad  as  "  a  lion  which  teareth 
the  arm  with  the  crown  of  the  head,"  &c, 
Deut.  xxxiii,  20,  21.  The  tribe  of  Gad  came 
out  of  Egypt  in  number  forty-five  thousand 
six  hundred  and  fifty.  After  the  defeat  of  the 
kings  Og  and  Sihon,  Gad  and  Reuben  desired 
to  have  their  lot  in  the  conquered  country,  and 
alleged  their  great  number  of  cattle.  Moses 
granted  their  request,  on  condition  that  they 
would  accompany  their  brethren,  and  assist  in 
the  conquest  of  the  land  beyond  Jordan.  Gad 
had  his  inheritance  between  Reuben  south,  and 
Manasseh  north,  with  the  mountains  ofGilead 
east,  and  Jordan  west. 

2.  Gad,  a  prophet,  David's  friend,  who  fol- 
lowed him  when  persecuted  by  Saul.  The 
Scripture  calls  him  a  prophet  and  David's  seer, 
2  Sam.  xxiv,  11.  The  first  time  we  find  him 
with  this  prince  is  when  he  fled  into  the  land 
of  Moab,  1  Sam.  xxii,  5,  to  secure  his  father 
and  mother  in  the  first  year  of  Saul's  persecu- 
tion. The  Prophet  Gad  warned  him  to  return 
into  the  land  of  Judah.  After  David  had  de- 
termined to  number  his  people,  the  Lord  sent 
to  him  the  Prophet  Gad,  to  offer  him  his  choice 
of  three  scourges :  seven  years'  famine,  or  three 
months'  flight  before  his  enemies,  or  three  days* 
pestilence.  Gad  also  directed  David  to  erect 
an  altar  to  the  Lord,  in  the  threshing  floor  of 
Oman  or  Araunah,  the  Jebusite,  2  Sam.  xxiv, 
13-19 ;  and  he  wrote  a  history  of  David's  life, 
cited  in  1  Chron.  xxix,  29. 

GADARA,  a  city  which  gave  name  to  the 
country  of  the  Gadarenes ;  situated  on  a  steep 
rocky  hill  on  the  river  Hieromax,  or  Yermuck, 
about  five  miles  from  its  junction  with  the  Jor- 
dan. It  was  a  place  of  considerable  note  in 
the  time  of  Josephus,  and  the  metropolis  of 
Perasa,  or  the  country  beyond  Jordan.  It  was 
also  celebrated  for  its  hot  baths.  The  vicinity 
was  likewise  called  the  country  of  the  Gerge- 
senes,  from  Gerasa,  or  Gergesa,  another  con- 
siderable city  in  the  same  neighbourhood. 
Thus  the  miracle  of  our  Lord  performed  here 
is  represented  by  St.  Mark  to  have  been  done 
in  the  country  of  the  Gadarenes,  Mark  v,  1 ; 
and  by  St.  Matthew,  in  that  of  the  Gergesenes, 
Matt,  viii,  28. 

GALATIA,  a  province  of  the  Lesser  Asia, 
bounded  on  the  west  by  Phrygia,  on  the  east 
by  the  river  Haylys,  on  the  north  by  Paphla- 
gonia,  and  on  the  south  by  Lycaonia.  The 
Galatians  are  said  to  have  been  descended  from 
those  Gauls,  who,  finding  their  own  country 
too  strait  for  them,  left  it,  after  the  death  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  in  quest  of  new  settle- 
ments. Quitting  their  own  country,  they 
migrated  eastward  along  the  Danube  till  they 
came  where  the  Saave  joins  that  river;  then 
dividing  themselves  into  three  bodies,  under 
the  conduct  of  different  leaders,  one  of  these 
bodies  entered  Pannonia ;  another  marched 
into  Thrace  ;  a  third  into  Ulyricum  and  Mace- 
donia. The  party  which  proceeded  into  Thrace, 
crossed  the  Bosphorus  into  the  Lesser  Asia, 
and  hiring  themselves  to  Nicomcdcs,  king  of 


<;al 


392 


GAL 


fiithynia,  assisted  him  to  subdue  his  brother 
Zipetcs,  with  whom  he  was  then  at  war;  and 
as  a  reward  of  their  services  they  received  from 
him  a  country  in  the  middle  of  Asia  Minor, 
ivhich  from  them  was  afterward  called  Gallo- 
UrcBcia,  and,  by  contraction,  Galatia.  As 
their  inland  situation  in  a  great  measure  cut 
them  off  from  all  intercourse  with  more  civil- 
ized nations,  the  Galatians  long  remained  a 
rude  and  illiterate  people.  And  as  a  proof  of 
this,  it  is  mentioned  by  Jeroni,  that  when  the 
Apostle  Paul  preached  the  Gospel  among  them, 
and  for  many  ages  afterward,  they  continued 
to  speak  the  language  of  the  country  from 
whence  they  came  out. 

2.  Paul  and  Barnabas  carried  the  light  of  the 
Gospel  into  the  regions  of  Galatia  at  a  very 
early  period ;  and  it  appears  from  the  epistle 
which  the  former  subsequently  wrote  to  the 
churches  in  that  country,  that  they  had  at  first 
received  it  with  great  joy,  Gal.  iv,  15.  But 
some  Judaizing  teachers  getting  access  among 
them  eoon  after  the  Apostle's  departure,  their 
minds  became  corrupted  from  the  simplicity 
that  was  in  Christ  Jesus ;  and,  though  mostly 
Gentiles,  they  were  beginning  to  mingle  cir- 
cumcision, and  other  Jewish  observances,  with 
their  faith  in  Christ,  in  order  to  render  it  more 
available  to  their  salvation.  This  occasioned 
Paul's  writing  his  epistle  to  those  churches  ; 
and  his  object  throughout  nearly  the  whole  of 
it  is  to  counteract  the  pernicious  influence  of 
the  doctrine  of  those  false  teachers  particu- 
larly as  it  respected  the  article  of  justification, 
or  a  s-nner's  acceptance  with  God.  And  in 
no  part  of  the  Apostle's  writings  is  that  im- 
portant doctrine  handled  in  a  more  full  and 
explicit  manner;  nor  does  he  any  where  dis- 
play, such  a  firm,  determined,  and  inflexible 
opposition  to  all  who  would  corrupt  the  truth 
from  its  simplicity.  He  begins  by  expressing 
his  astonishment  that  they  were  so  soon  turned 
aside  "unto  another  gospel,"  but  instantly 
checking  himself,  he  recals  the  word  and  de- 
clares, "  it  is  not  another  gospel,"  but  a  per- 
version of  the  Gospel  of  Christ.  "  And  though 
we,  or  an  angel  from  heaven,  preach  any  other 
gospel  unto  you  than  that  which  we  have 
preached  unto  you,  let  him  be  accursed." 
There  are  in  his  epistle  several  other  things 
equally  pointed  and  severe,  particularly  his 
expostulation  on  the  folly  and  absurdity  of 
their  conduct  in  subjecting  themselves  to  the 
Jewish  yoke  of  bondage,  Gal.  hi,  1.  "The 
erroneous  doctrines  of  the  Judaizing  teachers," 
says  Pr.  Macknight,  "and  the  calumnies  they 
spread  for  the  purpose  of  discrediting  St.  Paul's 
apostieship,  no  doubt  occasioned  great  uneasi- 
ness of  mind  to  him  and  to  the  faithful  in  that 
age,  and  did  much  hurt,  at  least  for  a  while, 
among  the  Galatians,  But  in  the  issue  these 
evils  have  proved  of  no  small  service  to  the 
church  in  general ;  for  by  obliging  the  Apostle 
to  produce  tlfe  evidences  of  his  apostleship, 
and  to  relate  the  history  of  his  life,  especially 
after  his  conversion,  we  have  obtained  the 
full..-  ;t  assurance  of  his  being  a  real  Apostle, 
called  to  tho  office  by  Jesus  Christ  himself; 
consequently  we  are  a-i-.ured  that  our  faith  in 


the  doctrines  of  the  Gospel,  ae  taught  by  him 
(and  it  is  he  who  hath  taught  the  peculiar  doc- 
trines of  the  Gospel  most  fully,)  is  not  built  on 
the  credit  of  a  man,  but  on  the  authority  of  the 
Spirit  of  God,  by  whom  St.  Paul  was  inspired 
in  the  whole  of  the  doctrine  which  he  has  de- 
livered to  the  world." 

GALBANUM,  ru&n,  Exod.  xxx,  34.  Mi- 
ehaelis  makes  the  word  a  compound  of  j*?n, 
milk  or  gum,  (for  the  Syriac  uses  the  noun  in 
both  senses,)  and  p1?,  white,  as  being  the  white 
milk  or  gum  of  a  plant.  It  is  the  thickened 
sap  of  an  umbelliferous  plant,  called  metopion, 
which  grows  on  Mount  Amanus,  in  Syria,  and 
is  frequently  found  in  Persia,  and  in  some  parts 
of  Africa.  It  was  an  ingredient  in  the  holy 
incense  of  the  Jews. 

GALILEANS.  In  the  twelfth  year  of  Christ, 
about  the  time  that  Archelaus  was  sent  away 
from  his  government,  a  secession  was-  made 
from  the  sect  of  the  Pharisees,  and  a  new  sect 
arose,  called  the  Galileans.  Not  long  after 
this  time,  Judea,  which  was  a  Roman  province, 
was  added,  for  civil  purposes,  to  Syria,  over 
which  Quirinus  was  governor.  It  happened, 
when  the  tax  was  levied  by  Quirinus,  that  one 
Judas,  of  Galilee,  otherwise  called  Gaulonites, 
in  company  with  Zaduk,  a  Sadducee,  publicly 
taught,  that  such  taxation  was  repugnant  to 
the  law  of  Moses,  according  to  which  the  Jews, 
they  maintained,  had  no  king  but  God.  The 
tumults  which  this  man  excited  were  suppress- 
ed, Acts  v,  37 ;  but  his  disciples,  who  were 
called  Galileans,  continued  to  propagate  this 
doctrine,  and,  farthermore,  required  of  all 
proselytes  that  they  should  be  circumcised.  It 
was  in  reference  to  this  sect  that  the  captious 
question  was  proposed  in  Matt,  xxii,  17,  &c ; 
namely,  whether  it  was  lawful  to  give  tribute 
to  Caesar.  The  Galileans,  whom  Pilate  slew  in 
the  temple,  Luke  xiii,  1,  2,  appear  to  have 
been  of  this  sect.  By  degrees,  the  Galileans 
swallowed  up  almost  all  the  other  sects;  and 
it  is  highly  probable  that  the  zealots,  particu- 
larly mentioned  at  the  siege  of  Jerusalem,  were 
of  this  faction. 

GALILEE  was  one  of  the  most  -extensive 
provinces  into  which  the  Holy  Land  was  di- 
vided. It  exceeded  Judea  in  extent,  but  proba- 
bly varied  in  its  limits  at  different  times.  This 
province  is  divided  by  the  rabbins  into,  1.  The 
Upper;  2.  The  Nether;  and,  3.  The  Valley. 
Josephus  divides  it  into  only  Upper  and  Lower ; 
and  he  says  that  the  limits  of  Galilee  were,  on 
the  south,  Samaria  and  Scythopolis,  unto  the 
flood  of  Jordan.  Galilee  contained  four  tribes, 
Issachar,  Zebulun,  Naphtali,  and  Asher ;  a 
part,  also,  of  Dan,  and  part  of  Peraea,  that  is, 
beyond  the  river.  Upper  Galilee  abounded  in 
mountains.  Lower  Galilee,  which  contained 
the  tribes  of  Zebulun  and  Asher,  was  sometimes 
called  the  Great  Field,  "  the  champaign,"  Deut. 
xi,  30.  T'le  Valley  was  adjacent  to  the  sea  of 
Tiberias.  Josephus  describes  Galilee  as  very 
populous,  and  containing  two  hundred  and  four 
cities  and  towns.  It  was  also  very  rich,  and 
paid  two  hundred  talents  in  tribute.  The  na. 
tives  were  brave  and  good  soldiers;  but  they 
were    seditious,   and    prone    to    insolence  and 


GAL 


393 


GAL 


rebellion.  In  the  books  of  Ezra  and  Nehe- 
trriah,  the  inhabitants  of  Galilee  and  Pereea  are 
scarcely  mentioned,  whether  they  were  Jews 
returned  from  Babylon,  or  a  mixture  of  differ- 
ent nations.  The  language  of  these  regions 
differed  considerably  from  that  of  Judea ;  as 
did  various  customs,  in  which  each  followed 
its  own  mode.  Our  Lord  so  frequently  visited 
Galilee,  that  he  was  called  a  Galilean,  Matt. 
xxvi,  69.  The  population  of  Galilee  being 
very  great,  he  had  many  opportunities  of  doing 
good  in  this  country ;  and,  being  there  out  of 
the  power  of  the  priests  at  Jerusalem,  he  seems 
to  have  preferred  it  as  his  abode.  Nazareth 
and  Capernaum  were  in  this  division.  From 
sucli  a  mixture  of  people,  many  provincialisms 
might  be  expected.  Hence,  we  find  Peter  de- 
tected by  his  language,  probably  by  his  phrase- 
ology, as  well  as  his  pronunciation,  Mark  xiv, 
70.  Upper  Galilee  had  Mount  Lebanon  and 
the  countries  of  Tyre  and  Sidon  on  the  north  ; 
the  Mediterranean  Sea  on  the  west ;  Abilene, 
Itureea,  and  the  country  of  the  Decapolis,  on 
the  east ;  and  Lower  Galilee  on  the  south.  Its 
principal  city  was  Caesarea  Philippi.  This  part 
of  Galilee,  being  less  inhabited  by  Jews,  was 
thence  called  Galilee  of  the  Nations,  or  of  the 
Gentiles.  Lower  Galilee  had  the  upper  divi- 
sion of  the  same  country  to  the  north ;  the 
Mediterranean  on  the  west ;  the  sea  of  Gali- 
lee, or  lake  of  Gennesareth,  on  the  east ;  and 
Samaria  on  the  south.  Its  principal  cities 
were  Tiberias,  Chorazin,  Bethsaida,  Nazareth, 
("ana,  Capernaum,  Nain,  Cassarea  of  Palestine, 
and  Ptolemais.  This  district  was  of  all  others 
most  honoured  with  the  presence  of  our  Sa- 
viour. Here  he  was  conceived ;  here  he  was 
brought  back  by  his  mother  and  reputed  father, 
after  their  return  from  Egypt ;  here  he  lived 
with  them  till  he  was  thirty  years  of  age  ;  and, 
although  after  his  entrance  on  his  public  minis- 
try he  frequently  visited  the  other  provinces, 
it  was  here  that  he  chiefly  resided.  Here, 
also,  he  made  his  first  appearance  after  his 
resurrection  to  his  Apostles,  who  were  them- 
selves natives  of  the  same  country,  and  were 
thence  called  men  of  Galilee. 

Gamlee,  Sea  of.  This  inland  sea,  or  more 
properly  lake,  which  derives  its  several  names, 
the  lake  of  Tiberias,  the  sea  of  Galilee,  and  the 
lake  of  Gennesareth,  from  the  territory  which 
forms  its  western  and  south-western  border,  is 
computed  to  be  between  seventeen  and  eighteen 
miles  in  length,  and  from  five  to  six  in  breadth. 
The  mountains  on  the  east  come  close  to  its 
shore,  and  the  country  on  that  side  has  not  a 
very  agreeable  aspect :  on  the  west,  it  has  the 
plain  of  Tiberias,  the  high  ground  of  the  plain 
of  Hutin,  or  Hottein,  the  plain  of  Gennesareth, 
and  the  foot  of  those  hills  by  which  you  as- 
cend to  the  high  mountain  of  Saphet.  To  the 
north  and  south  it  has  a  plain  country,  or  val- 
ley. There  is  a  current  throughout  the  whole 
breadth  of  the  lake,  even  to  the  shore  ;  and  the 
passage  of  the  Jordan  through  it  is  discernible 
by  the  smoothness  of  the  surface  in  that  part. 
Various  travellers  have  given  different  accounts 
of  its  general  aspect.  According  to  Captain 
Mangles,  the  land  about  it  has  no  striking  fea- 


tures, and  the  scenery  is  altogether  devoid  of 
character.  "It  appeared,"  he  says,  "to  par- 
ticular disadvantage  to  us,  after  those  beautiful 
lakes  we  had  seen  in  Switzerland ;  but  it  be. 
comes  a  very  interesting  object  when  you  con- 
sider the  frequent  allusions  to  it  in  the  Gospel 
narrative."  Dr.  Clarke,  on  the  contrary,  speaks 
of  the  uncommon  grandeur  of  this  memorable 
scenery.  "  The  lake  of  Gennesareth,"  he 
says,  "  is  surrounded  by  objects  well  calculated 
to  heighten  the  solemn  impressions  made  by 
such  recollections,  and  affords  one  of  the  most 
striking  prospects  in  the  Holy  Land.  Speak- 
ing of  it  comparatively,  it  may  be  described  as 
longer  and  finer  than  any  of  our  Cumberland 
and  Westmoreland  lakes,  although  perhaps 
inferior  to  Loch  Lomond.  It  does  not  possess 
the  vastness  of  the  lake  of  Geneva,  although 
it  much  resembles  it  in  certain  points  of  view. 
In  picturesque  beauty,  it  comes  nearest  to  the 
lake  of  Locarno,  in  Italy,  although  it  is  desti- 
tute of  any  thing  similar  to  the  islands  by 
which  that  majestic  piece  of  water  is  adorned. 
It  is  inferior  in  magnitude,  and  in  the  height 
of  its  surrounding  mountains,  to  the  Lake  As- 
phaltites."  Mr.  Buckingham  may  perhaps  be 
considered  as  having  given  the  most  accurate 
account,  and  one  which  reconciles,  in  some 
degree,  the  differing  statements  above  cited, 
when,  speaking  of  the  lake  as  seen  from  Tel 
Hoom,  he  says,  that  its  appearance  is  grand, 
but  that  the  barren  aspect  of  the  mountains  on 
each  side,  and  the  total  absence  of  wood,  give 
a  cast  of  dulness  to  the  picture  :  this  is  in- 
creased to  melancholy  by  the  dead  calm  of  its 
waters,  and  the  silence  which  reigns  throughout 
its  whole  extent,  where  not  a  boat  or  vessel  of 
any  kind  is  to  be  found.  The  situation  of  the 
lake,  lying,  as  it  were,  in  a  deep  basin  between 
the  hills  which  enclose  it  on  all  sides,  excepting 
only  the  narrow  entrance  and  outlets  of  the 
Jordan  at  either  end,  protects  its  waters  from 
long-continued  tempests  :  its  surface  is  in  gene- 
ral as  smooth  as  that  of  the  Dead  Sea.  But 
the  same  local  features  render  it  occasionally 
subject  to  whirlwinds,  squalls,  and  sudden  gusts 
from  the  mountains,  of  short  duration ;  espe- 
cially when  the  strong  current  formed  by  the 
Jordan  is  opposed  by  a  wind  of  this  description 
from  the  south-east,  sweeping  from  the  mount- 
ains with  the  force  of  a  hurricane,  it  may 
easily  be  conceived  that  a  boisterous  sea  must 
be  instantly  raised,  which  the  small  vessels  of 
the  country  would  be  unable  to  resist.  A  storm 
of  this  description  is  plainly  denoted  by  the 
language  of  the  evangelist,  in  recounting  one 
of  our  Lord's  miracles :  "There  came  down  a 
storm  of  wind  on  the  lake,  and  they  were  filled 
with  water,  and  were  in  jeopardy.  Then  he 
arose,  and  rebuked  the  wind  and  the  raging  of 
the  water ;  and  they  ceased,  and  there  was  a 
calm,"  Luke  viii,  23,  24.  There  were  fleets  of 
some  force  on  this  lake  during  the  wars  of  the 
Jews  with  the  Romans,  and  very  bloody  bat- 
tles were  fought  between  them.  Josephus 
gives  a  particular  account  of  a  naval  engage- 
ment between  the  Romans  under  Vespasian, 
and  the  Jews  who  had  revolted  during  the 
administration  of  Agrippa.     Titus  and  Trajan 


GAL 


394   ' 


GAM 


were  both  present,  and  Vespasian  himself  was 
on  board  the  Roman  fleet.  The  rebel  force 
consisted  of  an  immense  multitude,  who,  as 
fugitives  after  the  capture  of  Tarichaea  by  Ti- 
tus, had  sought  refuge  on  the  water.  The 
vessels  in  which  the  Romans  defeated  them 
were  built  for  the  occasion,  and  yet  were  larger 
than  the  Jewish  ships.  The  victory  was  fol- 
lowed by  so  terrible  a  slaughter  of  the  Jews, 
that  nothing  was  to  be  seen,  either  on  the  lake 
or  its  shores,  but  the  blood  and  mangled  corses 
of  the  slain  ;  and  the  air  was  infected  by  the 
number  of  dead  bodies.  Six  thousand  five 
hundred  persons  are  stated  to  have  perished  in 
this  naval  engagement,  and  in  the  battle  of 
Tarichaea,  beside  twelve  hundred  who  were 
afterward  massacred  in  cold  blood,  by  order  of 
Vespasian,  in  the  ampitheatre  at  Tiberias,  and 
a  vast  number  who  were  given  to  Agrippa  as 
slaves. 

GALL,  b»ni,  something  excessively  bitter, 
and  supposed  to  be  poisonous,  Deut.  xxix,  18; 
xxxii,  32;  Psalm  lxix,  21;  Jer.  viii,  14;  ix, 
15;  xxiii,  15;  Lam.  iii,  19;  Hosea  x,  4;  Amos 
vi,  12.  It  is  evident,  from  the  first-mentioned 
place,  that  some  herb  or  plant  is  meant  of  a 
malignant  or  nauseous  kind.  It  is  joined  with 
wormwood,  and,  in  the  margin  of  our  Bibles, 
explained  to  be  "  a  very  poisonful  herb."  In 
Psalm  lxix,  21,  which  is  justly  considered  as  a 
prophecy  of  our  Saviour's  sufferings,  it  is  said, 
"They  gave  me  b>nt  to  eat ;  which  the  LXX 
have  rendered  xo^'i">  gnll.  And,  accordingly, 
it  is  recorded  in  the  history,  "  They  gave  him 
vinegar  to  drink,  mingled  with  gall,"  ofa;  fttTu 
X°^is,  Matt,  xxvii,  34.  But,  in  the  parallel 
passage,  it  is  said  to  be,  iajiv^vin^ivov  oTvov,  "  wine 
mingled  with  myrrh,"  Mark  xv,  23,  a  very 
bitter  ingredient.  From  whence  it  is  probable 
that  ^oXi),  and  perhaps  w\,  may  be  used  as  a 
general  name  for  whatever  is  exceedingly  bit- 
ter ;  and,  consequently,  where  the  sense  re- 
quires it,  may  be  put  specially  for  any  bitter 
herb  or  plant,  the  infusion  of  which  may  be 
called  s»st'D. 

GALLIO  was  the  name  of  the  brother  of 
Seneca,  the  philosopher.  He  was  at  first  named 
Marcus  Annaeus  Novatus ;  but,  being  adopted 
by  Lucius  Junius  Gallio,  he  took  the  name  of 
his  adoptive  father.  The  Emperor  Claudius 
made  him  proconsul  of  Achaia.  He  was  of  a 
mild  and  agreeable  temper.  To  him  his  brother 
Seneca  dedicated  his  books,  "Of  Anger."  He 
shared  in  the  fortunes  of  his  brothers,  as  well 
when  out  of  favour  as  in  their  prosperity  at 
court.  At  length,  Nero  put  him,  as  well  as 
them,  to  death.  The  Jews  were  enraged  at 
St.  Paul  for  converting  many  Gentiles,  and 
dragged  him  to  the  tribunal  of  Gallio,  who,  as 
proconsul,  generally  resided  at  Corinth,  Acts 
xviii,  13,  13.  They  accused  him  of  teaching 
"  men  to  worship  God  contrary  to  the  law." 
St.  Paul  being  about  to  speak,  Gallio  told  the 
Jews,  that  if  the  matter  in  question  were  a 
breach  of  justice,  or  an  action  of  a  criminal 
nature,  he  should  think  himself  obliged  to  hear 
them  ;  but,  as  the  dispute  was  only  concerning 
their  law,  he  would  not  determine  such  differ^ 
emeu,  nor  judge  them._  Sosthenes,  the  chief 


ruler  of  the  synagogue,  was  beaten  by  the 
Greeks  before  Gallio's  seat  of  justice ;  but  this 
governor  did  not  concern  himself  about  it. 
His  abstaining  from  interfering  in  a  religious 
controversy  did  credit  to  his  prudence ;  never- 
theless, his  name  has  oddly  passed  into  a  re- 
proachful proverb  ;  and  a  man  regardfess  of  all 
piety  is  called  "  a  Gallio,"  and  is  said  "  Gallio- 
like  to  care  for  none  of  these  things."  Little 
did  this  Roman  anticipate  that  his  name  would 
be  so  immortalized. 

GAMALIEL,  a  celebrated  rabbi,  and  doctor 
of  the  Jewish  law,  under  whose  tuition  the 
great  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles  was  brought  up, 
Acts  xxii,  3.  Barnabas  and  Stephen  are  also 
supposed  to  have  been  among  the  number  of 
his  pupils.  Soon  after  the  day  of  pentecost, 
when  the  Jewish  sanhedrim  began  to  be  alarmed 
at  the  progress  the  Gospel  was  making  in  Je- 
rusalem, and  consequently  wished  to  put  to 
death  the  Apostles,  in  the  hope  of  checking  its 
farther  progress,  they  were  apprehended  and 
brought  before  the  national  council,  of  which 
Gamaliel  seems  to  have  been  a  leading  mem- 
ber. It  is  very  probable  that  many  zealots 
among  them  would  have  despatched  the  affair 
in  a  very  summary  manner,  but  their  impetu- 
osity was  checked  by  the  cool  and  prudent 
advice  of  Gamaliel ;  for,  having  requested  the 
Apostles  to  withdraw  for  a  while,  he  represented 
to  the  sanhedrim  that,  if  the  Apostles  were  no 
better  than  impostors,  their  fallacy  would 
quickly  be  discovered ;  but  on  the  other  hand, 
if  what  they  were  engaged  in  was  from  God,  it 
was  vain  for  them  to  attempt  to  frustrate  it, 
since  it  was  the  height  of  folly  to  contend  with 
the  Almighty.  The  assembly  saw  the  wisdom 
of  his  counsel,  and  very  prudently  changed  the 
sentence,  upon  which  they  were  originally  bent 
against  the  Apostles'  lives,  into  that  of  corporal 
punishment. 

2.  It  may  here  also  be  remarked,  that  the 
sanhedrim  could  not  themselves  believe  that 
tale  which  they  had  diligently  circulated  among 
the  people,  that  the  disciples  had  stolen  away 
the  body  of  Jesus,  and  then  pretended  that  he 
had  arisen  from  the  dead.  If  the  Jewish  coun- 
cil had  thought  this,  it  would  have  been  very 
absurd  in  Gamaliel  to  exhort  them  to  wait  to 
see  wdiether  "the  counsel  and  work"  was  of 
Cod,  that  is,  whether  the  Apostles  related  a 
fact  when  they  preached  the  resurrection,  and 
grounded  the  divine  authority  of  their  religion 
upon  that  fact.  Gamaliel's  advice  was  wholly 
based  upon  the  admission,  that  an  extraordi- 
nary, and  to  them  an  inexplicable,  event  had 
happened. 

GAMES.  Games  and  combats  were  insti- 
tuted by  the  ancients  in  honour  of  their  gods ; 
and  were  celebrated  with  that  view  by  the  most 
polished  and  enlightened  nations  of  antiquity. 
The  most  renowned  heroes,  legislators,  and 
statesmen,  did  not  think  it  unbecoming  their 
character  and  dignity,  to  mingle  with  the  com- 
batants, or  contend  in  the  race ;  they  even 
reckoned  it  glorious  to  share  in  the  exercises, 
and  meritorious  to  carry  away  the  prize.  The 
victors  were  crowned  with  a  wreath  of  laurel 
in  presence  of  their  country;  they  were  cele. 


GAM 


395 


GAM 


brated  in  the  rapturous  effusions  of  their  poets ; 
they  were  admired,  and  almost  adored,  by  the 
in  numerable  multitudes  which  flocked  to  the 
games,  from  every  part  of  Greece,  and  many 
of  the  adjacent  countries.  They  returned  to 
their  own  homes  in  a  triumphal  chariot,  and 
made  their  entrance  into  their  native  city,  not 
through  the  gates  which  admitted  the  vulgar 
throng,  but  through  a  breach  in  the  walls, 
which  were  broken  down  to  give  them  admis- 
sion ;  and  at  the  same  time  to  express  the  per- 
suasion of  their  fellow  citizens,  that  walls  are 
of  small  use  to  a  city  defended  by  men  of  such 
tried  courage  and  ability.  Hence  the  surpris- 
ing ardour  which  animated  all  the  states  of 
Greece  to  imitate  the  ancient  heroes,  and  en- 
circle their  brows  with  wreaths,  which  ren- 
dered them  still  more  the  objects  of  admiration 
or  envy  to  succeeding  times,  than  the  vic- 
tories they  had  gained,  or  the  laws  they  had 
enacted. 

2.  But   the  institutors  of  those  games  and 
combats  had  higher  and  nobler  objects  in  view 
than  veneration  for  the  mighty  dead,  or  the 
gratification  of  ambition  or  vanity ;  it  was  their 
design  to  prepare  the  youth  for  the  profession 
of  arms  ;  to  confirm  their  health  ;  to  improve 
their  strength,  their  vigour,  and  activity ;   to 
inure  them  to  fatigue ;    and  to  render  them 
intrepid  in  close  fight,  where,  in  the  infancy 
of  the  art  of  war,  muscular  force  commonly 
decided  the  victory.     This  statement  accounts 
for  the  striking  allusions    which  the  Apostle 
Paul  makes  in  his  epistles  to  these  celebrated 
exercises.     Such  references  were  calculated  to 
touch  the  heart  of  a  Greek,  and  of  every  one 
familiarly  acquainted  with  them,  in  the  live- 
liest manner,  as  well  as  to  place   before  the 
eye  of  his  mind  the  most  glowing  and  correct 
images   of  spiritual    and  divine  things.      No 
passages  in  the  nervous  and  eloquent  epistles 
from  the  pen  of  St.  Paul,  have  been  more  ad- 
mired by  the  critics  and  expositors  of  all  times, 
than  those  into  which  some  allusion  to  these 
agonistic  exercises  is  introduced ;  and,  perhaps, 
none  are  calculated  to  leave  a  deeper  impres- 
sion on  the  Christian's  mind, or  excite  a  stronger 
and  more  salutary  influence   on   his  actions. 
Certain  persons  were  appointed  to  take  care 
that  all  things  were  done  according  to  custom, 
to  decide  controversies  that  happened  among 
the  antagonists,  and  to  adjudge  the  prize  to  the 
victor.     Some  eminent  writers  are  of  opinion 
that  Christ  is  called  the  "  Author  and  Finisher 
of  faith,"  in  allusion  to  these  judges.     Those 
who  were  designed  for  the  profession  o?athlet<n, 
or  combatants,  frequented  from  their  earliest 
years  the  academies  maintained  for  that  pur- 
pose at  the  public  expense.     In  these  places 
they  were  exercised  under  the  direction  of  dif- 
ferent masters,  who  employed  the  most  effectual 
methods  to  inure  their  bodies  for  the  fatigues 
of  the  public  games,  and  to  form  them  for  the 
combats.    The  regimen  to  which  they  submit- 
ted was  very  hard  and  severe.     At  first,  they 
had  no  other  nourishment  than  dried  figs,  nuts, 
soft  cheese,  and  a  gross  heavy  sort  of  bread 
called  fid^a  ;  they  were  absolutely  forbidden  the 
use  of  wine,  and  enjoined  continence.     When 


they   proposed    to  contend    in    the  Olympian 
games,  they  were  obliged  to  repair  to  the  pub- 
lic gymnasium  at  Elis,  ten  months  before  the 
solemnity,  where  they  prepared  themselves  by 
continual  exercises.    No  man  that  had  omitted 
to  present  himself  at  the  appointed  time,  was 
allowed  to  be  a  candidate  for  the  prizes ;   nor 
were  the  accustomed  rewards  of  victory  given 
to  such  persons,  if  by  any  means  they  insinu- 
ated themselves,  and  overcame  their  antago- 
nists;  nor  would  any  apology,  though  seem- 
ingly ever  so  reasonable,  serve  to  excuse  their 
absence.     No  person  that  was  himself  a  noto- 
rious criminal,  or  nearly  related  to  one,  was 
permitted   to    contend.      Farther,    to   prevent 
underhand  dealings,  if  any  person  was  con- 
victed of  bribing  his  adversary,  a  severe  fine 
was  laid  upon  him  ;  nor  was  this  alone  thought 
a  sufficient  guard  against  unfair  contracts,  and 
unjust    practices,    but    the    contenders    were 
obliged  to  swear  they   had  spent  ten  whole 
months  in  preparatory  exercises ;    and,  beside 
all  this,  they,  their  fathers,  and  their  brethren, 
took  a  solemn  oath,  that  they  would  not,  by 
any  sinister  or  unlawful  means,  endeavour  to 
stop  the  fair  and  just  proceedings  of  the  games. 
3.  The  spiritual  contest,  in  which  all  true 
Christians  aim  at  obtaining  a  heavenly  crown, 
has  its  rules  also,  devised  and  enacted  by  in- 
finite   wisdom    and    goodness,   which    require 
implicit   and   exact   submission,   which   yield 
neither  to  times  nor  circumstances,  but  main- 
tain their  supreme  authority,  from  age  to  age, 
uninterrupted  and  unimpaired.     The  combat- 
ant who  violates  these  rules  forfeits  the  prize, 
and    is   driven    from   the   field  with  indelible 
disgrace,    and    consigned   to    everlasting    wo. 
Hence  the  great  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles  ex- 
horts his  son  Timothy  strictly  to  observe  the 
precepts  of  the  Gospel,  without  which,  he  can 
no  more  hope  to  obtain  the  approbation  of  God, 
and  the  possession  of  the  heavenly  crown,  than 
a  combatant  in  the  public  games  of  Greece, 
who  disregarded    the  established  rules,  could 
hope  to  receive  from  the  hands  of  his  judge 
the  promised  reward :    "  And  if  a   man  also 
strive   for   masteries,  yet  is    he  not  crowned 
except  he  strive  lawfully,"  2   Tim.   ii,   5,  or 
according  to  the  established  laws  of  the  games. 
Like  the   Grecian  combatants,  the    Christian 
must  "abstain  from  fleshly  lusts,"  and  "walk 
in  all  the  statutes  and  commandments  of  the 
Lord,  blameless."     Such  was  St.  Paul ;  and  in 
this  manner  he  endeavoured  to  act :    "But  I 
keep  under  my  body,  and  bring  it  into  subjec- 
tion:  lest  that  by  any  means,  when  I  have 
preached  to  others,  I  myself  should  be  a  cast- 
away," 1  Cor.  ix,  27.     The  latter  part  of  this 
verse  Doddridge  renders,   "lest  after  having 
served  as  a  herald  I  should  be  disapproved ;" 
and  says  in  a  note,  "I  thought  it  of  import- 
ance to   retain  the  primitive   sense   of  these 
gymnastic  expressions."     It  is  well  known  to 
those    who    are    at    all   acquainted    with    the 
original,  that  the  word  used  means  to  discharge 
the  office  of  a  herald,  whose  business  it  was  to 
proclaim  the  conditions  of  the  games,  and  dis- 
play the  prizes,  to  awaken  the  emulation  and 
resolution  of  those  who  were  to  contend  in 


GAM 


396 


GAM 


tnem.  But  the  Apostle  intimates,  that  there 
was  this  peculiar  circumstance  attending  the 
Christian  contest,  that  the  person  who  pro- 
claimed its  laws  and  rewards  to  others,  was 
also  to  engage  in  it  himself;  and  that  there 
would  be  a  peculiar  infamy  and  misery  in  his 
miscarrying.  'A&Jki^oj,  which  we  render  cast- 
away, signifies  one  who  is  disapproved  by  the 
judge  of  the  games,  as  not  having  fairly  de- 
served the  prize  :  he  therefore  loses  it ;  even 
the  prize  of  eternal  life.  The  rule  which  the 
Apostle  applies  to  himself  he  extends  in  another 
passage  to  all  the  members  of  the  Christian 
church:  "Those  who  strive  for  the  mastery 
are  temperate  in  all  things ;  now  they  do  it  to 
obtain  a  corruptible  crown,  but  we  an  incor- 
ruptible." Tertullian  uses  the  same  thought 
to  encourage  the  martyrs.  He  urges  constancy 
upon  them,  from  what  the  hopes  of  victory 
made  the  alhlcta  endure ;  and  repeats  the  se- 
vere and  painful  exercises  they  were  obliged 
to  undergo,  the  continual  anguish  and  con- 
straint in  which  they  passed  the  best  years  of 
their  lives,  and  the  voluntary  privation  which 
they  imposed  on  themselves,  of  all  that  was 
most  grateful  to  their  appetites  and  passions. 

4.  The  athletcB  took  care  to  disencumber  their 
bodies  of  every  article  of  clothing  which  could 
in  any  manner  hinder  or  incommode  them.  In 
the  race,  they  were  anxious  to  carry  as  little 
weight  as  possible,  and  uniformly  stripped  them- 
selves of  all  such  clothes  as,  by  their  weight, 
length,  or  otherwise,  might  entangle  or  retard 
them  in  the  course.  The  Christian  also  must 
"lay  aside  every  weight,  and  the  sin  which 
doth  so  easily  beset"  him,  Heb.  xii,  1.  In  the 
exercise  of  faith  and  self-denial,  he  must  "  cast 
off  the  works  of  darkness,"  lay  aside  all  malice 
and  guile,  hypocrisies,  and  envyings,  and  evil 
speakings,  inordinate  affections,  and  worldly- 
cares,  and  whatever  else  might  obstruct  his 
holy  profession,  damp  his  spirits,  and  hinder 
his  progress  in  the  paths  of  righteousness. 

5.  The  foot  race  seems  to  have  been  placed 
ill  the  first  rank  of  public  games,  and  culti- 
vated with  a  care  and  industry  proportioned 
to  the  estimation  in  which  it  was  held.  The 
Olympic  games  generally  opened  with  races, 
and  were  celebrated  at  first  with  no  other  ex- 
ercise. Tho  lists  or  course  where  the  athleta 
exercised  themselves  in  running,  was  at  first 
but  one  stadium  in  length,  or  about  six  hun- 
dred feet ;  and  from  this  measure  it  took  its 
name,  and  was  called  the  stadium,  whatever 
might  be  its  extent.  This,  in  the  language  of 
St.  Paul,  speaking  of  the  Christian's  course, 
was  "  the  race  which  was  set  before  them," 
determined  by  public  authority,  and  carefully 
measured.     On  each  Bide  of  the  stadium  and 

'remity,  ran  an  ascent  or  kind  of  terrace, 
covered  with  seats  and  benches,  upon  which 
the  spectators  were  seated,  an  innumerable 
multitude  collected  from  all  parts  of  Greece, 
to  which  tho  Apostle  thus  alludes  in  his  figura- 
tive description  of  the  Christian  life:  "Seeing 
we  are  compassed  about  with  so  great  a  cloud 
of  witnesses,  let  us  lav  aside  every  weieht ," 
Hob.  xii,  1.  J         6 

The  most  remarkable  parts  of  the  stadium 


were  its  entrance,  middle,  and  extremity.  The 
entrance  was  marked  at  first  only  by  a  line 
drawn  on  tho  sand,  from  side  to  side  of  the 
stadium.  To  prevent  any  unfair  advantage 
being  taken  by  the  more  vigilant  or  alert  can- 
didates,  a  cord  was  at  length  stretched  in  front 
of  the  horses  or  men  that  were  to  run  ;  and 
sometimes  the  space  was  railed  in  with  wood. 
The  opening  of  this  barrier,  was  the  signal 
for  the  racers  to  start.  The  middle  of  the 
stadium  was  remarkable,  only  by  the  circum- 
stance of  having  the  prizes  allotted  to  the  vic- 
tors set  up  there.  From  this  custom,  Crysos- 
tom  draws  a  fine  comparison  :  "  As  the  judges 
in  the  races  and  other  games,  expose  in  the 
midst  of  the  stadium,  to  the  view  of  the  cham- 
pions, the  crowns  which  they  were  to  receive  ; 
in  like  manner,  the  Lord,  by  the  mouth  of  his 
prophets,  has  placed  the  prizes  in  the  midst  of 
the  course,  which  he  designs  for  those  who 
have  the  courage  to  contend  for  them."  At 
the  extremity  of  the  stadium  was  a  goal,  where 
the  foot  races  ended ;  but  in  those  of  chariots 
and  horses,  they  were  to  run  several  times 
round  it  without  stopping,  and  afterward  con- 
clude the  race  by  regaining  the  other  extre- 
mity of  the  lists  from  whence  they  started.  It 
is  therefore  to  the  foot  race  the  Apostle  alludes, 
when  he  speaks  of  the  race  set  before  the  Chris- 
tian, which  was  a  straight  course,  to  be  run 
only  once,  and  not,  as  in  the  other,  several 
times  without  stopping. 

6.  According  to  some  writers,  it  was  at  the 
goal,  and  not  in  the  middle  of  the  course,  that 
the  prizes  were  exhibited ;  and  they  were  placed 
in  a  very  conspicuous  situation,  that  the  com- 
petitors might  be  animated  by  having  them 
always  in  their  sight.  This  accords  with  the 
view  which  the  Apostle  gives  of  the  Christian 
life:  "Brethren,  I  count  not  myself  to  have 
apprehended;  but  this  one  thing  I  do,  forget- 
ting those  things  which  are  behind,  and  reach- 
ing forth  unto  those  things  which  are  before, 
I  press  toward  the  mark  for  the  prize  of  the 
high  calling  of  God  in  Christ  Jesus,"  Phil,  iii, 
13,  14.  L'Enfant  thinks,  the  Apostle  here 
alludes  to  those  who  stood  at  the  elevated  place 
at  the  end  of  the  course,  calling  the  racers  by 
their  names,  and  encouraging  them  by  holding 
out  the  crown,  to  exert  themselves  with  vigour. 
Within  the  measured  and  determinate  limits  of 
the  stadium,  the  athleta  were  bound  to  contend 
for  the  prize,  which  they  forfeited  without  hope 
of  recovery,  if  the}7  deviated  ever  so  little  from 
the  appointed  course. 

7.  The  honours  and  rewards  granted  to  the 
victors  were  of  several  kinds.  They  were  ani- 
mated in  their  course  by  the  rapturous  applauses 
of  the  countless  multitudes  that  lined  the  sta- 
dium, and  waited  the  issue  of  the  contest  with 
eager  anxiety  ;  and  their  success  was  instantly 
followed  by  reiterated  and  long  continued 
plaudits ;  but  these  were  only  a  prelude  to  the 
appointed  rewards,  which,  though  of  little 
value  in  themselves,  were  accounted  the  high- 
est honour  to  which  a  mortal  could  aspire. 
These  consisted  of  different  wreaths  of  wild 
olive,  pine,  parsley,  or  laurel,  according  to  the 
different  places  where  the  games  were  cele- 


GAM 


397 


GAR 


orated.  After  the  judges  had  passed  sentence, 
a  public  herald  proclaimed  the  name  of  the  vic- 
tor ;  one  of  the  judges  put  the  crown  upon  his 
head,  and  a  branch  of  palm  into  his  right  hand, 
which  he  carried  as  a  token  of  victorious  cou- 
rage and  perseverance.  As  he  might  be  victor 
more  than  once  in  the  same  games,  and  some- 
times on  the  same  day,  he  might  also  receive 
several  crowns  and  palms.  When  the  victor 
had  received  his  reward,  a  herald,  preceded 
by  a  trumpet,  conducted  him  througli  the 
stadium,  and  proclaimed  aloud  his  name  and 
country;  while  the  delighted  multitudes,  at 
the  sight  of  him,  redoubled  their  acclamations 
and  applauses. 

8.  The  crown  in  the  Olympic  games  was 
of  wild  olive ;  in  the  Pythian,  of  laurel ;  in  the 
Isthmian  or  Corinthian,  of  pine  tree  ;  and  in  the 
Nemasan,  of  smallage  or  parsley.  Now,  most  of 
these  were  evergreens;  yet  they  would  soon 
grow  dry,  and  crumble  into  dust.  Eisner  pro- 
duces many  passages  in  which  the  contenders  in 
these  exercises  are  rallied  by  the  Grecian  wits, 
on  account  of  the  extraordinary  pains  they 
took  for  such  trifling  rewards ;  and  Plato  has 
a  celebrated  passage,  which  greatly  resembles 
that  of  the  Apostle,  but  by  no  means  equals  it 
in  force  and  beauty  :  "  Now  they  do  it  to  obtain 
a  corruptible  crown,  but  we  an  incorruptible." 
The  Christian  is  thus  called  to  fight  the  good 
fight  of  faith,  and  to  lay  hold  of  eternal  life ; 
and  to  this  he  is  more  powerful^  stimulated 
by  considering  that  the  ancient  athletce  took 
all  their  care  and  pains  only  for  the  sake  of 
obtaining  a  garland  of  flowers,  or  a  wreath  of 
laurel,  which  quickly  fades  and  perishes,  pos- 
sessed little  intrinsic  value,  and  only  served  to 
nourish  their  pride  and  vanity,  without  impart- 
ing any  solid  advantage  to  themselves  or  others ; 
but  that  which  is  placed  in  the  view  of  the  spi- 
ritual combatants,  to  animate  their  exertions, 
and  reward  their  labours,  is  no  less  than  a 
crown  of  glory  which  never  decays;  "an  in- 
heritance incorruptible,  undefiled,  and  that 
fadeth  not  away,  reserved  in  heaven  for  them," 
1  Pet.  i,  4 ;  v,  4.  But  the  victory  sometimes 
remained  doubtful,  in  consequence  of  which  a 
number  of  competitors  appeared  before  the 
judges,  and  claimed  the  prize.  The  candidates 
who  were  rejected  on  such  occasions  by  the 
judge  of  the  games,  as  not  having  fairly  merit- 
ed the  prize,  were  called  by  the  Greeks  aSoKifioi, 
or  disapproved,  which  we  render  cast  away,  in 
a  passage  already  quoted  from  St.  Paul's  First 
Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  :  "  But  I  keep  under 
my  body,  and  bring  it  into  subjection,  lest  that 
by  any  means,  when  I  have  preached  to  others, 
I  myself  should  be,  aSdici/ios,  cast  away,"  reject- 
ed by  the  Judge  of  all  the  earth,  and  disappoint- 
ed of  my  expected  crown.  What  has  been 
observed  concerning  the  spirit  and  ardour  with 
which  the  competitors  engaged  in  the  race, 
and  concerning  the  prize  they  had  in  view  to 
reward  their  arduous  contention,  will  illustrate 
the  following  sublime  passage  of  the  same 
sacred  writer  in  his  Epistle  to  the  Philippiane : 
"  Not  as  though  I  had  already  attained,  either 
■were  already  perfect ;  hut  I  follow  after,  if  that 
I  may  apprehend  that  for  which  also  1  am  ap- 


prehended of  Christ  Jesus.  Brethren,  I  count 
not  myself  to  have  apprehended:  but  this  one 
thing  I  do,  forgetting  those  things  which  are 
behind,  and  reaching  forth  unto  those  things 
which  are  before,  I  press  toward  the  mark,  for 
the  prize  of  the  high  calling  of  God  in  Christ 
Jesus,"  Phil,  iii,  12-14.  The  affecting  passage, 
also,  of  the  same  Apostle,  in  the  Second  Epis- 
tle of  Timothy,  written  a  little  before  his  mar- 
tyrdom, is  beautifully  allusive  to  the  above- 
mentioned  race,  to  the  crown  that  awaited  the 
victory,  and  to  the  Hellanodics  or  judges  who 
bestowed  it :  "1  have  fought  a  good  fight,  1 
have  finished  my  course,  I  have  kept  the  faith. 
Henceforth  there  is  laid  up  for  me  a  crown  of 
righteousness,  which  the  Lord,  the  righteous 
Judge,  shall  give  me  at  that  day :  and  not  to  me 
only,  but  to  all  them  also  that  love  his  appear- 
ing," 2  Tim.  iv,  8. 

GARDENS.  In  the  language  of  the  He- 
brews, every  place  where  plants  and  trees  were 
cultivated  with  greater  care  than  in  the  open 
field,  was  called  a  garden.  The  idea  of  such 
an  enclosure  was  certainly  borrowed  from  the 
garden  of  Eden,  which  the  bountiful  Creator 
planted  for  the  reception  of  our  first  parents. 
Beside,  the  gardens  of  primitive  nations  were 
commonly,  if  not  in  every  instance,  devoted  to 
religious  purposes.  In  these  shady  retreats  were 
celebrated,  for  a  long  succession  of  ages,  the 
rites  of  Pagan  superstition.  Thus  Jehovah  calls 
the  apostate  Jews,  "a  people  that  provoketh 
me  continually  to  anger  to  my  face,  that  sacri- 
ficeth  in  gardens,"  Isa.  lxv,  3.  And  in  a  preced- 
ing chapter,  the  prophet  threatens  them  in  the 
name  of  the  Lord  :  "  They  shall  be  ashamed  of 
the  oaks  which  ye  have  desired,  and  ye  shall 
be  confounded  for  the  gardens  which  ye  have 
chosen."  The  oriental  gardens  were  either 
open  plantations,  or  enclosures  defended  by 
walls  or  hedges.  Some  fences  in  the  Holy 
Land,  in  later  times,  are  not  less  beautiful 
than  our  living  fences  of  white  thorn  ;  and 
perfectly  answer  the  description  of  ancient 
Jewish  prophets,  who  inform  us  that  the  hedges 
in  their  tjmes  consisted  of  thorns,  and  that 
the  spikes  of  these  thorny  plants  were  exceed- 
ingly sharp.  Doubdan  found  a  very  fruitful 
vineyard,  full  of  olives,  fig  trees,  and  vines, 
about  eight  miles  south-west  from  Bethlehem, 
enclosed  with  a  hedge ;  and  that  part  of  it 
adjoining  to  the  road,  strongly  formed  of  thorns 
and  rose  bushes,  intermingled  with  pomegra- 
nate trees  of  surpassing  beauty  and  fragrance 
A  hedge  composed  of  rose  bushes  and  wild 
pomegranate  shrubs,  then  in  full  flower, 
mingled  with  other  thorny  plants,  adorned  in 
the  varied  livery  of  spring,  must  have  made 
at  once  a  strong  and  beautiful  fence.  The  wild 
pomegranate  tree,  the  species  probably  used  in 
fencing,  is  much  more  prickly  than  the  other 
variety ;  and  when  mingled  with  other  thorny 
bushes,  of  which  they  have  several  kinds  in 
Palestine,  some  of  whose  prickles  are  very  long 
and  sharp,  must  form  a  hedge  very  difficult  to 
penetrate.  These  facts  illustrate  the  beauty 
and  force  of  several  passages  in  the  sacred 
volume  :  thus,  in  the  Proverbs  of  Solomon, 
"The  way  of  the  slothful  man  ib  a.  a  hedge  of 


CAR 


398 


GAR 


thorns,"  Prov.  xv,  19;  it  is  obstructed  with  diffi- 
culties, which  the  sloth  and  indolence  ot*  his 
temper  represent  as  galling  or  insuperable ;  but 
winch  a  moderate  share  of  resolution  and  per- 
severance would  easily  remove  or  surmount. 
In  the  prophecies  of  Ilosea,  God  threatens  his 
treacherous  and  idolatrous  people  with  many 
painful  embarrassments  and  perplexities,  which 
would  as  effectually  retard  or  obstruct  their 
progress  in  the  paths  of  wickedness,  as  a  hedge 
of  thorny  plants  stretching  across  the  travel- 
ler's way,  the  prosecution  of  his  journey : 
"  Therefore,  behold,  I  will  hedge  up  thy  way 
with  thorns,  and  make  a  wall,  that  she  shall 
not  find  her  paths,"  Ilosea  ii,  6.  In  the  days 
of  Micah,  the  magistrates  of  Judah  had  be- 
come exceedingly  corrupt :  "  The  best  of  them 
is  a  brier;  the  most  upright  is  sharper  than 
a  thorn  hedge  ;"  to  appear  before  their  tribunal, 
or  to  have  any  dealings  with  them,  was  to  in- 
volve one's  self  in  endless  perplexities,  and  to 
be  exposed  to  galling  disappointments,  if  not 
to  certain  destruction.  They  resembled  those 
thorny  plants  which  are  twisted  together,  whose 
spines  point  in  every  direction,  and  arc  so 
sharp  and  strong  that  they  cannot  be  touched 
without  danger,  and  so  entangling  that  when 
the  traveller  has  with  much  pain  and  exertion 
freed  himself  from  one,  he  is  instantly  seized 
by  another.  "  But  the  sons  of  Belial,"  said  the 
king  of  Israel,  "shall  be  all  of  them  as  thorns 
thrust  away,  because  they  cannot  be  taken  with 
hands  :  but  the  man  that  shall  touch  them  must 
be  fenced  with  iron,  and  the  stall"  of  a  spear  ; 
and  they  shall  be  utterly  burned  with  fire  in  the 
same  place,"  2  Sam.  xxiii,  6,  7.  Other  enclo- 
sures had  fences  of  loose  stones,  or  mud  walls, 
some  of  them  very  low,  which  often  furnished 
a  retreat  to  venomous  reptiles.  To  this  cir- 
cumstance the  royal  preacher  alludes,  in  his 
observations  of  wisdom  and  folly:  "He  that 
diggeth  a  pit,  shall  fall  into  it :  and  whoso 
breaketh  a  hedge,  a  serpent  shall  bite  him," 
Fccles.  x,  8.  The  term  which  our  translators 
render  hedge  in  this  passage,  they  might  with 
more  propriety  have  rendered  wall,  as  they  had 
done  in  another  part  of  the  writings  of  Solo- 
mon :  "  I  went  by  the  field  of  the  slothful,  and 
by  the  vineyard  of  the  man  void  of  understand- 
ing ;  and  lo,  it  was  all  grown  over  with  thorns, 
and  nettles  had  covered  the  face  thereof,  and 
the  stone  wall  thereof  was  broken  down," 
Proverbs  xxiv,  30. 

2.  The  land  of  promise  has  been,  from  the 
earliest  ages,  an  unenclosed  country,  with  a 
few  spots  defended  by  a  hedge  of  thorny  plants, 
or  a  stone  wall  built  without  any  cement.  At 
Aleppo,  most  of  the  vineyards  are  fenced  with 
stone  walls  ;  for  in  many  parts  of  Syria  a  hedge 
would  not  grow  for  want  of  moisture.  But, 
as  their  various  esculent  vegetables  arc  now 
n<>i  iinfrequently  planted  in  the  open  fields, 
both  in  Syria  and  Palestine,  so  Chardin 
seems  to  suppose  they  were  often  unfenced  in 
ancient  times;  and,  on  this  account,  those 
lodges  and  booths,  to  which  Isaiah  refers,  in 
the  first  chapter  of  Ins  prophecy,  were  built. 
In  rlindostan  they  follow  the  same  custom. 
Ai  the  commencement  of  the  rainy  season,  the 


peasants  plant  abundance  of  melons,  cucum- 
bers, and  gourds,  which  are  then  the  principal 
food  of  the  inhabitants.  They  are  planted  in 
the  open  fields  and  extensive  plains,  and  are 
therefore  liable  to  the  depredations  of  men  and 
beasts.  In  the  centre  of  the  field  is  an  arti- 
ficial mount,  with  a  hut  on  the  top,  sufficiently 
large  to  shelter  a  single  person  from  the  in- 
clemency of  the  weather.  There,  amid  heavy 
rains  and  tempestuous  winds,  a  poor  solitary 
being  is  stationed  day  and  night  to  protect  the 
crop.  From  thence  he  gives  an  alarm  to  the 
nearest  village.  Few  situations  can  be  more 
unpleasant  than  a  hovel  of  this  kind,  exposed 
for  three  or  four  months  to  wind,  lightning, 
and  rain.  To  such  a  cheerless  station  the  pro- 
phet no  doubt  alludes,  in  that  passage  where 
he  declares  the  desolations  of  Judah  :  "The 
daughter  of  Zion  is  left  as  a  cottage  in  a  vine- 
yard, as  a  lodge  in  a  garden  of  cucumbers," 
Isa.  i,  8.  If  such  watch  houses  were  necessary 
in  those  gardens  which  were  defended  by  walls 
or  hedges,  sonic  of  which,  indeed,  it  was  not 
difficult  to  get  over,  they  must  have  been  still 
more  necessary  in  those  which  were  perfectly 
open. 

3.  The  oriental  garden  displays  little  method, 
or  design  ;  the  whole  being  commonly  no  more 
than  a  confused  medley  of  fruit  trees,  with  beds 
of  esculent  plants,  and  even  plots  of  wheat  and 
barley  sometimes  interspersed.  The  garden 
belonging  to  the  governor  of  Eleus,  a  Turkish 
town  on  the  western  border  of  the  Hellespont, 
which  Dr.  Chandler  visited,  consisted  only  of 
a  very  small  spot  of  ground,  walled  in,  and 
containing  only  two  vines,  a  fig  and  a  pome- 
granate tree,  and  a  well  of  excellent  water. 
And,  it  would  seem,  the  garden  of  an  ancient 
Israelite  could  not  boast  of  greater  variety  ; 
for  the  grape,  the  fig,  and  the  pomegranate, 
are  almost  the  only  fruits  which  it  produced. 
This  fact  may  perhaps  give  us  some  insight 
into  the  reason  of  the  sudden  and  irresistible 
conviction  which  flashed  on  the  mind  of  Na- 
thanael,  when  our  Saviour  said  to  him,  "  When 
thou  wast  under  the  fig  tree,  I  saw  thee."  The 
good  man  seems  to  have  been  engaged  in  de- 
votional exercises  in  a  small  retired  garden, 
walled  in,  and  concealed  from  the  scrutinizing 
eyes  of  men.  The  place  was  so  small,  that  he 
was  perfectly  certain  no  man  but  himself  was 
there ;  and  so  completely  defended,  that  none 
could  break  through,  or  look  over,  the  fence; 
and,  by  consequence,  that  no  eye  was  upon 
him,  but  the  all-seeing  eye  of  God  ;  and.  there- 
fore, since  Christ  saw  him  there,  Nathanael 
knew  he  could  be  no  other  than  the  Son  of  God, 
and  the  promised  Messiah. 

GARLICK,  dw.  As  this  word  occurs  only 
in  Numbers  xi,  5,  some  doubts  have  arisen  re- 
specting the  plant  intended.  From  its  being 
coupled  with  leeks  and  onions,  there  can  be 
but  little  doubt  that  the  garlick  is  meant. 
The  Talmudists  frequently  mention  the  use 
of  this  plant  among  the  Jews,  and  their  fond- 
ness for  it.  That  garlicks  grew  plenteously  in 
Egypt,  is  asserted  by  Dioscorides :  there  they 
were  much  esteemed,  and  were  both  eaten  and 
worshipped : — 


GAT 


399 


GAZ 


"  Then  gods  were  recommended  by  their  taste. 
Such  savoury  deities  must  needs  be  good, 
Which  served  at  once  for  worship  and  for  food." 

GARMENT.  See  Habits. 
GATE  is  often  used  in  Scripture  to  denote 
a  place  of  public  assembly,  where  justice  was 
administered,  Dout.  xvii,  5,  8 ;  xxi,  19 ;  xxii, 
15 ;  xxv,  6,  7,  &c.  One  instance  of  these 
judgments  appears  in  that  given  at  the  gate  of 
Bethlehem,  between  Boaz  and  a  relation  of 
Naomi,  on  the  subject  of  Ruth,  chap,  iv,  2; 
another  in  Abraham's  purchase  of  a  field  to 
bury  Sarah,  Gen.  xxiii,  10,  18.  The  gate  of 
judgment  is  a  term  still  common  to  the  Ara- 
bians to  express  a  court  of  justice,  and  even 
introduced  by  the  Saracens  into  Spain.  "  I 
had  several  times,"  says  Jacob,  "  visited  the 
Alhambra,  the  ancient  palace  and  fortress  of 
the  Moorish  kings :  it  is  situated  on  the  top  of 
a  hill,  overlooking  the  city,  and  is  surrounded 
by  a  wall  of  great  height  and  thickness.  The 
entrance  is  through  an  archway,  over  which 
is  carved  a  key,  the  symbol  of  the  Mohamme- 
dan monarchs.  This  gate,  called  the  gate  of 
judgment,  according  to  eastern  forms,  was  the 
place  where  the  kings  administered  justice." 
In  Morocco,  the  gate  is  still  the  place  where 
judgment  is  held.  "  All  complaints,"  says 
Host,  "are  brought,  in  the  first  instance,  to 
the  cadi,  or  governor,  who,  for  that  purpose, 
passes  certain  hours  of  the  day  in  the  gate  of 
the  city,  partly  for  the  sake  of  the  fresh  air, 
and  partly  to  see  all  those  who  go  out;  and, 
lastly,  to  observe  a  custom  which  has  long  pre- 
vailed, of  holding  judgment  there.  The  gate 
is  contrived  accordingly,  being  built  like  a 
square  chamber,  with  two  doors,  which  are 
not  directly  opposite  to  each  other,  but  on  two 
adjoining  sides,  with  seats  on  the  other  sides. 
In  this  manner  David  sat  between  two  gates," 
2  Sam.  xviii,  24.  Gate  sometimes  signifies 
power,  dominion,  almost  in  the  same  sense  as 
the  Turkish  emperor's  palace  is  called  the 
Porte.  God  promises  Abraham  that  his  pos- 
terity shall  possess  the  gates  of  their  enemies, 
their  towns,  their  fortresses,  Genesis  xxii,  17. 
Jesus  Christ  says  to  Peter,  "Thou  art  Peter; 
and  on  this  rock  will  I  build  my  church,  and 
the  gates  of  hell  shall  not  prevail  against  it," 
Matt,  xvi,  18.  This  may  mean  either  the 
powers  of  hell,  or  invisible  spirits ;  or  simply 
death, — the  church  shall  be  replenished  by 
living  members  from  generation  to  generation, 
so  that  death  shall  never  annihilate  it. 

Solomon  says,  "  He  that  exalteth  his  gate 
seeketh  destruction."  The  Arabs  are  accus- 
tomed to  ride  into  the  houses  of  those  they 
design  to  harass.  To  prevent  this,  Thevenot 
tells  us  that  the  door  of  the  house  in  which  the 
French  merchants  live  at  Rama  was  not  three 
feet  high,  and  that  all  the  doors  of  that  town 
are  equally  low.  Agreeably  to  this  account, 
the  Abbe  Mariti,  speaking  of  his  admission 
into  a  monastery  near  Jerusalem,  says,  "The 
passage  is  so  low,  that  it  will  scarcely  admit  a 
horse  ;  and  it  is  shut  by  a  gate  of  iron,  strongly 
secured  in  the  inside.  As  soon  as  we  entered, 
it  was  again  made  fast  with  various  bolts  and 
barb  of  iron  :  a  precaution  extremely  necessary 


in  a  desert  place,  exposed  to  the  incursions, 
and  insolent  attacks  of  the  Arabs."  Mr.  Drum- 
niond  says,  that  in  the  country  about  Roudge, 
in  Syria,  "the  poor  miserable  Arabs  are  under 
the  necessity  of  hewing  their  houses  out  of  the 
rock,  and  cutting  very  small  doors  or  openings 
to  them,  that  they  may  not  be  made  stables  for 
the  Turkish  horse,  as  they  pass  and  repass." 
And  thus,  long  before  him,  Sandys,  at  Gaza, 
in  Palestine  :  "  We  lodged  under  an  arch  in  a 
little  court,  together  with  our  asses ;  the  door 
exceeding  low,  as  are  all  that  belong  unto 
Christians,  to  withstand  the  sudden  entrance 
of  the  insolent  Turks."  "To  exalt  the  gate," 
would  consequently  be  to  court  destruction. 
Morier  says,  "A  poor  man's  door  is  scarcely 
three  feet  in  height ;  and  this  is  a  precautionary 
measure  to  hinder  the  servants  of  the  great 
from  entering  it  on  horseback ;  which,  when 
any  act  of  oppression  is  intended,  they  would 
make  no  scruple  to  do.  But  the  habitation  of 
a  man  in  power  is  known  by  his  gate,  which 
is  generally  elevated  in  proportion  to  the  vanity 
of  its  owner.  A  lofty  gate  is  one  of  the  insignia 
of  royalty:  such  isthevl^an  Capi,  at  Ispahan, 
and  Bob  Homayan,  or  the  Sublhne  Porte,  at 
Constantinople.  It  must  have  been  the  same 
in  ancient  days;  the  gates  of  Jerusalem,  Zion, 
&e,  are  often  mentioned  in  the  Scripture,  with 
the  same  notion  of  grandeur  annexed  to  them." 

GATH,  the  fifth  of  the  Philistine  cities.  It 
was  a  place  of  strength  in  the  tune  of  the  pro- 
phets Amos  and  Micah,  and  is  placed  by  Jerom 
on  the  road  between  Eleutheropolis  and  Gaza. 
It  appears  to  have  been  the  extreme  boundary 
of  the  Philistine  territory  in  one  direction,  as 
Ekron  was  on  the  other.  Hence  the  expres- 
sion, "  from  Ekron  even  unto  Gath,"  1  Sam. 
vii,  14. 

GAULAN,  or  GOLAN,  a  city  beyond  Jor- 
dan, from  which  the  small  province  called 
Gaulonitis  took  its  name.  It  was  given  to  the 
half  tribe  of  Manasseh,  on  the  other  side  Jor- 
dan, Deut.  iv,  43 ;  and  became  a  city  of  refuge, 
Joshua  xxi,  27. 

GAZA,  a  city  of  the  Philistines,  made  by 
Joshua  part  of  the  tribe  of  Judah.  It  was  one 
of  the  five  principalities  of  the  Philistines, 
situated  toward  the  southern  extremity  of  the 
promised  land,  1  Sam.  vi,  17,  between  Raphia 
and  Askelon.  The  advantageous  situation  of 
Gaza  was  the  cause  of  the  numerous  revolu- 
tions which  it  underwent.  It  first  of  all  be- 
longed to  the  Philistines,  and  then  to  the 
Hebrews.  It  recovered  its  liberty  in  the  reigns 
of  Jotham  and  Ahaz,  and  was  reconquered  by 
Hezekiah,  2  Kings  xviii,  8.  It  was  subject  to 
the  Chaldeans,  who  conquered  Syria  and  Phe- 
nicia.  Afterward,  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Persians.  It  must  have  been  a  place  of  con- 
siderable strength.  For  two  months  it  baffled 
all  the  efforts  of  Alexander  the  Great,  who  was 
repeatedly  repulsed,  and  wounded  in  the  siege  , 
which  he  afterward  revenged  in  a  most  infa- 
mous manner  on  the  person  of  the  gallant 
defender  Betis,  whom,  while  yet  alive,  having 
ordered  his  ankles  to  be  bored,  he  dragged 
round  the  walls,  tied  to  his  chariot  wheels,  in 
the   barbarous   parade   of  imitating   the    lesi 


GEM 


400 


GEN 


savage  treatment  of  the  corpse  of  Hector  by 
Achilles. 

l>r.  Wittman  gives  the  following  description 
of  his  visit  to  Gaza:  "In  pursuing  our  route 
toward  this  place,  the  view  became  still  more 
interesting  and  agreeable  :  the  groves  of  olive 
trees  extending  from  the  place  where  we  had 
halted  to  the  town,  in  front  of  whicli  a  fine 
avenue  of  these  trees  was  planted.  Gaza  is 
situated  on  an  eminence,  and  is  rendered 
picturesque  by  the  number  of  fine  minarets 
which  rise  majestically  above  the  buildings, 
and  by  the  beautiful  date  trees  which  are  inter- 
spersed. The  suburbs  of  Gaza  are  composed 
of  wretched  mud  huts;  but  within  side  the 
town  the  buildings  make  a  much  better  appear, 
ance  than  those  we  had  generally  met  with  in 
Syria.  The  streets  are  of  a  moderate  breadth. 
Many  fragments  of  statues,  columns,  &c,  of 
marble  were  seen  in  the  walls  and  buildings 
in  different  parts  of  the  town.  The  suburbs 
and  environs  of  Gaza  are  rendered  infinitely 
agreeable  by  a  number  of  large  gardens,  cul- 
tivated with  the  nicest  care,  which  lie  in  a 
direction  north  and  south  of  the  town  ;  while 
others  of  the  same  description  run  to  a  con- 
siderable distance  westward.  These  gardens 
are  filled  with  a  great  variety  of  choice  fruit 
trees,  such  as  the  fig,  the  mulberry,  the  pome- 
granate, the  apricot,  the  peach,  and  the 
almond  ;  together  with  a  few  lemon  and  orange 
trees.  The  numerous  plantations  of  olive  and 
date  trees  which  are  interspersed  contribute 
greatly  to  the  picturesque  effect  of  the  scene 
exhibited  by  the  surrounding  plains.  These, 
on  our  arrival,  were  overspread  with  flowers, 
the  variegated  colours  of  which  displayed  every 
tint  and  every  hue.  Among  these  were  the 
chrysanthemum,  scarlet  ranunculus,  lupin, 
pheasant-eye,  tulip,  china-aster,  dwarf-iris, 
lintel,  daisy,  &c,  all  of  them  growing  wild  and 
abundantly,  with  the  exception  of  the  lupin, 
which  was  cultivated  in  patches,  regularly 
ploughed  and  sowed,  with  a  view  to  collect 
the  seeds,  which  the  inhabitants  employ  at 
their  meals,  more  especially  to  thicken  their 
ragouts.  The  few  corn  fields,  which  lay  at  a 
distance,  displayed  the  promise  of  a  rich  gold- 
en harvest ;  and  the  view  of  the  sea,  distant 
about  a  league,  tended  to  diversify  still  more 
the  animated  features  of  this  luxuriant  scene." 
This  and  similar  descriptions  of  modern  travel- 
lers, which  are  occasionally  introduced  into 
this  work,  are  given  both  as  interesting  in 
themselves,  and  to  show  that  relics  of  the  an- 
cient beauty  and  fertility  of  the  Holy  Land  are 
Mill  to  be  round  in  many  parts  of  it. 

GEMARA.  This  word  signifies  comple- 
ment, perfection.  The  rabbins  call  the  Penta- 
>i  mh  the  law,  without  any  addition.  Next  to 
this  they  have  the  Talmud,  which  is  divided 
into  two  parts  :  the.  first  is  only  an  application 
of  the  law  to  particular  eases,  with  the  decision 
of  toe  ancient  rabbins,  and  is  called  mi.s/uiit/i, 
or  "second  law:"  the  other  part,  which  is  a 
more  extensive  application  of  the  same  law,  is 
i  collection  of  determinations  by  rabbins,  later 
than  the  mieknah.  This  lasl  is  termed  gnnara, 
"perfection,"  "finishing,"  because  they  con- 


sider it  as  a  conclusive  explanation  of  the  law, 
to^  which  no  farther  additions  can  be  made. 
There  are  two  gemaras,  or  two  Talmuds,  that 
of  Jerusalem,  and  that  of  Babylon.  The 
former  was  compiled,  according  to  the  Jew.:, 
about  the  end  of  the  second  or  third  century, 
by  a  celebrated  rabbin,  called  Jochanan  ;  but 
father  Morinus  maintains  that  the  gemara  was 
not  finished  till  about  the  seventh  century. 
Dr.  Prideaux  says  that  it  was  completed  about 
A.  U.  300.  The  Jews  have  little  value  for 
this  Jerusalem  Talmud,  on  account  of  its  ob- 
scurity. The  Babylonish  gemara  is,  as  the 
rabbins  say,  more  modern.  It  was  begun  by  a 
Jewish  doctor,  named  Asa,  and  continued  by 
Marmar  and  Mar,  his  sons  or  disciples.  The 
Jews  believe  that  the  gemara  contains  nothing 
but  the  word  of  God,  preserved  in  the  tradition 
of  the  elders,  and  transmitted,  without  altera- 
tion, from  Moses  to  rabbi  Judah,  Ihe  holy, 
and  the  other  compilers  of  the  Talmud ;  who 
did  not  reduce  it  to  writing  till  they  were 
afraid  it  would  be  corrupted  by  the  several 
transmigrations  and  persecutions  to  which 
their  nation  was  subjected. 

GENEALOGY,  ycvea\oyia,  signifies  a  list 
of  a  person's  ancestors.  The  common  He- 
brew expression  for  it  is  Sepher-Toledot/i,  "  the 
Book  of  Generations."  No  nation  was  ever 
more  careful  to  preserve  their  genealogies  than 
the  Jews.  The  sacred  writings  contain  gene- 
alogies extended  three  thousand  five  hundred 
years  backward.  The  genealogy  of  our  Sa- 
viour is  deduced  by  the  evangelists  from  Adam 
to  Joseph  and  Mary,  through  a  space  of  four 
thousand  years  and  upward.  The  Jewish 
priests  were  obliged  to  produce  an  exact 
genealogy  of  their  families,  before  they  were 
admitted  to  exercise  their  function.  Wherever 
placed,  the  Jews  were  particularly  careful  not 
to  marry  below  themselves;  and  to  prevent 
this,  they  kept  tables  of  genealogy  in  their 
several  families,  the  originals  of  which  were 
lodged  at  Jerusalem,  to  be  occasionally  con- 
sulted. These  authentic  monuments,  during  ail 
their  wars  and  persecutions,  were  taken  great 
care  of,  and  from  time  to  time  renewed.  But, 
since  the  last  destruction  of  their  city,  and  the 
dispersion  of  the  people,  their  ancient  gene- 
alogies are  lost.  But  to  this  the  Jews  reply, 
that  either  Elias,  or  some  other  inspired  priest 
or  prophet,  shall  come,  and  restore  their  gene- 
alogical tables  before  the  Messiah's  appear- 
ance; a  tradition,  which  they  ground  on  a 
passage  in  Nehemiab  vii,  64,  65,  to  this  effect ; 
the  genealogical  register  of  the  families  of 
certain  priests  being  lost,  they  were  not  able 
to  make  out  their  lineal  descent  from  Aaron  ; 
and  therefore,  "as  polluted,  were  put  from  the 
priesthood;"  the  "Tirshatha  said  unto  them, 
that  they  should  not  eat  of  the  most  holy 
things,  till  there  stood  up  a  priest  with  Urim 
and  Thumniim."  From  hence  the  Jews  con- 
clude, that  such  a  priest  will  stand  up,  and 
restore  and  complete  the  genealogies  of  their 
families  :  though  others  suppose  these  words 
to  import,  that  they  should  never  exercise 
their  priesthood  any  more;  and  that,  "till 
there  shall  stand  up  a   priest  with  Urim   and 


GEN 


401 


GER 


Thummim,"  amounts  to  the  same  as  the  Ro- 
man proverb,  ad  Gracas  calendas,  [never,] 
since  the  Urim  and  Thummim  were  now  abso- 
lutely and  for  ever  lost. 

GENERATION.  Beside  the  common  ac- 
ceptation of  this  word,  as  signifying  descent, 
it  is  used  for  the  history  and  genealogy  of  any 
individual,  as  "  The  book  of  the  generations  of 
Adam,"  Genesis  v,  1,  the  history  of  Adam's 
creation,  and  of  his  posterity.  "  The  genera- 
tions of  the  heavens  and  of  the  earth,"  Gene- 
sis ii,  4,  is  a  recital  of  the  creation  of  heaven 
and  earth.  "  The  book  of  the  generation  of 
Jesus  Christ,  the  Son  of  David,"  Matthew  i,  1, 
is  the  genealogy  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  the  his- 
tory of  his  life.  The  ancients  sometimes 
computed  by  generations :  "  In  the  fourth 
generation  thy  descendants  shall  come  hither 
again,"  Genesis  xv,  16.  "  Joseph  saw  Ephraim's 
children  of  the  third  generation,"  Genesis  1,  23. 
"A  bastard  shall  not  be  admitted  into  the  con- 
gregation, till  the  tenth  generation,"  Deut. 
xxiii,  2.  Among  the  ancients,  when  the  dura- 
tion of  generations  was  not  exactly  described 
by  the  age  of  four  men  succeeding  one  another 
from  father  to  son,  it  was  fixed  by  some  at  a 
hundred  years,  by  others  at  a  hundred  and  ten, 
by  others  at  thirty-three,  thirty,  twenty-five, 
and  even  at  twTenty  years ;  being  neither  uni- 
form nor  settled :  only,  it  is  remarked,  that  a 
generation  is  longer  as  it  is  more  ancient. 

GENESIS,  a  canonical  book  of  the  Old 
Testament,  so  called  from  the  Greek  ytvtais, 
genesis,  or  generation,  because  it  contains  an 
account  of  the  origin  of  all  visible  things,  and 
of  the  genealogy  of  the  first  patriarchs.  In  the 
Hebrew  it  is  called  rwfrna,  which  signifies,  in 
the  beginning,  because  it  begins  with  that 
word.     See  Pentateuch. 

GENNESARETII,  Land  of,  or  GENNE- 
SAR,  a  small  district  of  Galilee,  supposed  to 
have  been  so  called  from  its  pleasantness,  and 
extending  about  four  miles  along  the  north- 
western shore  of  the  sea  of  Galilee,  or  Genne- 
sareth,  so  called  from  this  same  region.  It  is 
more  probable,  however,  that  Gennesareth  is 
nothing  more  than  a  word  moulded  from  Cin- 
nereth,  the  ancient  name  of  a  city  and  adjoin- 
ing tract  in  this  very  situation,  as  well  as  of 
the  lake  itself.  This  part  of  Galilee  is  de- 
scribed by  Josephus  as  possessing  a  singular 
fertility,  with  a  delightful  temperature  of  the 
air,  and  abounding  in  the  fruits  of  different 
climates. 

GENTILE.  The  Hebrews  called  the  Gen- 
tiles D"U,  cdvtj,  the  nations,  that  is,  those  who 
have  not  received  the  faith  or  law  of  God. 
All  who  are  not  Jews,  and  circumcised,  are 
gown.  Those  who  were  converted,  and  em- 
braced Judaism,  they  called  proselytes.  Since 
the  Gospel,  the  true  religion  is  not  confined  to 
any  one  nation  or  country,  as  heretofore,  God, 
who  had  promised  by  his  prophets  to  call  the 
Gentiles  to  the  faith,  with  a  superabundance 
of  grace,  has  fulfilled  his  promise;  so  that  the 
Christian  church  is  now  composed  principally 
of  Gentile  converts;  and  the  Jews,  too  proud 
of  their  particular  privileges,  and  abandoned  to 
their  reprobate  sense  of  things,  have  disowned 
27 


Jesus  Christ,  their  Messiah  and  Redeemer,  for 
whom,  during  so  many  ages,  they  had  looked 
so  impatiently.  In  the  writings  of  St.  Paul, 
the  Gentiles  are  generally  denoted  as  Greeks, 
Rom.  i,  14,  16 ;  ii,  9,  10 ;  iii ;  x,  12  ;  1  Cor.  i,  ' 
22-24 ;  Gal.  iii,  28.  St.  Luke,  in  the  Acts, 
expresses  himself  in  the  same  manner,  Acts  vi, 
1 ;  xi,  20  ;  xviii,  &c. 

2.  St.  Paul  is  commonly  called  the  Apostle 
of  the  Gentiles,  1  Tim.  ii,  7,  or  Greeks;  be- 
cause he,  principally,  preached  Jesus  Christ  to 
them ;  whereas  Peter,  and  the  other  Apostles, 
preached  generally  to  the  Jews,  and  are  called 
Apostles  of  the  circumcision,  Gal.  ii,  8.  The 
prophets  declared  very  particularly  the  calling 
of  the  Gentiles.  Jacob  foretold  that  the  Mes- 
siah, he  who  was  to  be  sent,  the  Shiloh,  should 
gather  the  Gentiles  to  himself.  Solomon,  at 
the  dedication  of  his  temple,  prays  for  "the 
stranger"  who  should  there  entreat  God.  The 
Psalmist  says,  that  the  Lord  would  give  the 
Gentiles  to  the  Messiah  for  his  inheritance ; 
that  Egypt  and  Babylon  shall  know  him ;  that 
Ethiopia  shall  hasten  to  bring  him  presents ; 
that  the  kings  of  Tarshish,  and  of  the  isles,  the 
kings  of  Arabia  and  Sheba,  shall  be  tributary 
to  him,  Psalm  ii,  8;  lxvii,  4;  lxxii,  9,  10. 
Isaiah  abounds  with  prophecies  of  the  like 
nature,  on  which  account  he  has  justly  been 
distinguished  by  the  name  of  "  the  prophet  of 
the  Gentiles." 

Gentiles,  Court  of  the.  Josephus  says 
there  was,  in  the  court  of  the  temple,  a  wall, 
or  balustrade,  breast-high,  with  pillars  at  par- 
ticular distances,  and  inscriptions  on  them  in 
Greek  and  Latin,  importing  that  strangers 
were  forbidden  from  entering  farther ;  here 
their  offerings  were  received,  and  sacrifices 
were  offered  for  them,  they  standing  at  the 
barrier ;  but  they  were  not  allowed  to  approach 
to  the  altar.  Pompey,  nevertheless,  went 
even  into  the  sanctuary,  but  behaved  with 
strict  decorum  ;  and  the  next  day  he  command- 
ed the  temple  to  be  purified,  and  the  customary 
sacrifices  to  be  offered.  A  little  before  the  last 
rebellion  of  the  Jews,  some  mutineers  would 
have  persuaded  the  priests  to  accept  no  victim 
not  presented  by  a  Jew ;  and  obliged  thorn  to 
reject  those  which  were  olfered  by  Command 
of  the  emperor,  for  the  Roman  people.  The 
wisest  in  vain  remonstrated  with  them  on  the 
danger  this  would  bring  on  their  country; 
urged  that  their  ancestors  had  never  rejected 
the  presents  of  Gentiles;  and  that  the  temple 
was  mostly  adorned  with  the  offerings  of  such 
people ;  at  the  same  time,  the  most  learned 
priests,  who  bad  spent  their  whole  lives  in  the 
study  of  the  law,  testified  that  their  forefathers 
had  always  received  the  sacrifices  of  strangers. 

From  the  above  particulars,  we  learn  the 
meaning  of  what  the  Apostle  Paul  calls  "the. 
middle  wall  of  partition,"  between  Jews  and 
Gentiles  broken  down  by  the  Gospel. 

GERAR,  a  royaj  city  of  the  Philistines, 
situate  not  far  from  the  angle  where  the  south 
and  west  sides  of  Palestine  meet. 

GER1Z1M,  a  mount  near  Shechem,  in 
Ephraina,  a  province,  of  Samaria.  Shechem 
lay  at  the  foot  of  two  mountains,   Ebal  and 


GIA 


402 


GIA 


Gemini.  Gerizim  was  fruitful,  Ebal  was 
barren.  God  commanded  that  the  Hebrews, 
after  passing  the  Jordan,  should  be  so  divided, 
that  six  tribes  might  be  stationed  on  Mount 
Gerizim,  and  six  on  Mount  Ebal.  The  former 
was  to  pronounce  blessings  on  those  who  ob- 
served the  law  of  the  Lord ;  the  others,  curses 
against  those  who  should  violate  it,  Deut. 
xi,  29 ;  xxvii,  12.  As  to  the  original  of  the 
temple  upon  Gerizim,  we  must  take  Josephus's 
relation  of  it.  Manasseh,  the  grandson  of 
Eliashib,  the  high  priest,  and  brother  to 
Jaddus,  high  priest  of  the  Jews,  having  been 
driven  from  Jerusalem  in  the  year  of  the  world 
3671,  and  not  enduring  patiently  to  see  him- 
self deprived  of  the  honour  and  advantages  of 
the  priesthood,  Sanballat,  his  father-in-law, 
addressed  himself  to  Alexander  the  Great,  who 
was  then  carrying  on  the  siege  of  Tyre ;  and 
having  paid  him  homage  for  the  province  of 
Samaria,  whereof  he  was  governor,  he  farther 
offered  him  eight  thousand  of  his  best  troops, 
which  disposed  Alexander  to  grant  what  he 
desired  for  his  son-in-law,  and  for  many  other 
priests,  who  being  married,  as  well  as  he,  con- 
trary to  the  law,  chose  rather  to  forsake  their 
country  than  their  wives,  and  had  joined  Ma- 
nasseh in  Samaria.  When  Antiochus  Epi- 
phanes  began  to  persecute  the  Jews,  A.  M. 
3836  ;  B.  C.  186,  the  Samaritans  entreated  him 
that  their  temple  upon  Gerizim,  which  hitherto 
had  been  dedicated  to  an  unknown  and  name- 
less god,  might  be  consecrated  to  Jupiter  the 
Grecian,  which  was  easily  consented  to  by 
Antiochus.  The  temple  of  Gerizim  subsisted 
some  time  after  the  worship  of  Jupiter  was  in- 
troduced into  it ;  but  it  was  destroyed  by  John 
Hircanus  Maccabseus,  and  was  not  rebuilt  till 
Gabinius  was  governor  of  Syria ;  who  repaired 
Samaria,  and  called  it  by  his  own  name.  It  is 
certain,  that,  in  our  Saviour's  time,  this  temple 
was  in  being;  and  that  the  true  God  was  wor- 
shipped there,  since  the  woman  of  Samaria, 
pointing  to  Gerizim,  said  to  him,  "  Our  fathers 
worshipped  in  this  mountain,  and  ye  say,  that 
in  Jerusalem  is  the  place  where  men  ought  to 
worship,"  John  iv,  20.  We  are  assured,  that 
Herod  the  Great,  having  rebuilt  Samaria,  and 
called  it  Sebaste,  in  honour  of  Augustus,  would 
have  obliged  the  Samaritans  to  worship  in  the 
temple  which  he  had  erected  there,  but  they 
constantly  refused. 

GETHSEMANE.  See  Olives,  Mount  of. 
GIANT,  "?cj,  Greek,  ylym,  a  monster,  »  ter- 
rible man,  a  chief  who  beats  and  bears  down 
other  men.  Scripture  speaks  of  giants  before 
the  flood :  "  Nephilim,  mighty  men  who  were 
of  old,  men  of  renown,"  Gen.  vi,  4.  Aquila 
I  ranslatcs  nephilim,  innrlvrovres,  men  who  titlark, 
who  fall  with  impetuosity  on  their  enemies, 
which  renders  very  well  the  force  of  the  term. 
Syromachus  translates  it  /3<«io<,  ri«h ni  men, 
cnftl,  whose  only  rule  of  action  is  violence. 
Scripture  sometimes  calls  giants  Rephaim: 
Chedorlaomei  beat  the  Rephaim  at  Ashtorothi 
K  i rti.i i in.  The  Kioini,  ancient  inhabitants  of 
Moab,  were  of  a  gigantic  stature,  that  is,  Re- 
phaim. Tli.-  Rephaim  and  the  Perizzitea  ;ire 
connected  as  old  inhabitants  of  Canaan.    The 


Rephaim  in  some  parts  of  Scripture  signify 
spirits  in  the  invisible  world,  in  a  state  of 
misery.  Job  says  that  the  ancient  Rephaim 
groan  under  the  waters ;  and  Solomon,  that 
the  ways  of  a  loose  woman  lead  to  the  Re- 
phaim ;  that  he  who  deviates  from  the  ways 
of  wisdom,  shall  dwell  in  the  assembly  of 
Rephaim,  that  is,  in  hell,  Prov.  ii,  18;  iv,  18; 
xxi,  16,  &c  ;  Gen.  xiv,  5;  Deut.  ii,  11,  20; 
iii,  11,  13  ;  Joshua  xii,  4 ;  xiii,  12 ;  Job  xxvi,  5. 
The  Anakim,  or  the  sons  of  Anak,  were  the 
most  famous  giants  of  Palestine.  They  dwelt 
at  Hebron  and  thereabouts.  The  Israelites 
sent  to  view  the  promised  land  reported,  that, 
in  comparison,  they  themselves  were  but  grass- 
hoppers, Num.  xiii,  33. 

2.  As  to  the  existence  of  giants,  several 
writers,  both  ancient  and  modern,  have  thought 
that  the  giants  of  Scripture  were  men  famous 
for  violence  and  crime,  rather  than  for  strength 
or  stature.  But  it  cannot  be  denied,  that  there 
have  been  races  of  men  of  a  stature  much  above 
that  common  at  present ;  although  their  size 
has  often  been  absurdly  magnified.  The  an- 
cients considered  persons  whose  stature  ex- 
ceeded seven  feet  as  gigantic.  Living  giants 
have  certainly  been  seen  who  were  somewhat 
taller  ;  but  the  existence  of  those  who  greatly 
surpassed  it,  or  were  double  the  height,  has 
been  inferred  only  from  remains  discovered  in 
the  earth,  but  not  from  the  ocular  testimony 
of  credible  witnesses.  Were  we  to  admit  what 
has  been  reported  on  the  subject,  there  would 
be  no  bounds  to  the  dimensions  of  giants  ;  the 
earth  would  seem  unsuitable  for  them  to  tread 
upon.  History,  however,  acquaints  us  that,  in 
the  reign  of  Claudius,  a  giant  named  Galbara, 
ten  feet  high  was  brought  to  Rome  from  the 
coast  of  Africa.  An  instance  is  cited  by  Go- 
ropius,  an  author  with  whom  we  are  otherwise 
unacquainted,  of  a  female  of  equal  stature.  A 
certain  Greek  sophist,  Proseresius,  is  said  to 
have  been  nine  feet  in  height.  Julius  Capito- 
linus  affirms  that  Maximinian,  the  Roman 
emperor  was  eight  feet  and  a  half;  there  was 
a  Swede,  one  of  the  life  guards  of  Erederick 
the  Great,  of  that  size.  M.  Le  Cat  speaks  of 
a  giant  exhibited  at  Rouen,  measuring  eight 
fret  and  some  inches;  and  we  believe  some 
have  been  seen  in  this  country,  within  the  last 
thirty  years,  whose  stature  was  not  inferior. 
In  Plotl's  "  History  of  Staffordshire,"  there  is 
an  instance  of  a  man  of  seven  feet  and  a  half 
high,  and  another,  in  Thoresby's  account  of 
Leeds,  of  seven  feet  five  inches  high.  Ex- 
amples may  be  found  elsewhere  of  several 
individuals  seven  feet  in  height,  below  which- 
after  the  opinion  of  the  ancients,  we  may  cease 
to  consider  men  gigantic.  Entire  families 
sometimes,  though  rarely,  occur  of  six  feet 
four,  or  six  feet  six  inches  high.  From  all  this 
we  may  conclude,  that  there  may  have  possibly 
been  seen  some  solitary  instances  of  men  who 
were  ten  feet  in  height  ;  that  those  of  eight 
feet  are  extremely  uncommon,  and  thai  even 
six  feet  and  a  half  far  exceeds  the  height  of 
men  in  Europe.  We  may  reasonably  under- 
stand that  the  gigantic  nations  of  Canaan  were 
above  the  average  size  of  other  people,  with 


GIB 


403 


GIE 


instances  among  them  of  several  families  of 
gigantic  stature.  This  is  all  that  is  necessary 
to  suppose,  in  order  to  explain  the  account  of 
Moses ;  but  the  notion  that  men  have  gradu- 
ally degenerated  in  size  has  no  foundation. 
There  is  no  evidence  whatever,  that  the  mo- 
dern tribes  of  mankind  have  thus  degenerated. 
The  catacombs  of  ancient  Egypt  and  Pales- 
tine ;  the  cenotaph,  if  it  be  truly  such,  in  the 
great  pyramid ;  the  tomb  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  are  all  calculated  for  bodies  of  ordinary 
dimensions.  The  truth  is  still  more  satisfac- 
torily established  from  the  mummies  which  are 
yet  withdrawn  from  their  receptacles  in  Egypt, 
and  the  caverns  of  the  Canary  Islands.  In 
the  most  ancient  sepulchres  of  Britain,  those 
apparently  anterior  to  the  introduction  of 
Christianity,  no  remains  are  discovered  which 
indicate  the  larger  stature  of  the  inhabitants 
than  our  own.  In  every  part  of  the  world 
domestic  implements  and  personal  ornaments, 
many  centuries  old,  are  obtained  from  tombs, 
from  bogs  and  mosses,  or  those  cities  over- 
whelmed by  volcanic  eruptions,  which  would 
be  ill  adapted  to  a  gigantic  race  of  ancestors. 
GIBEON,  the  capital  city  of  the  Gibeonites, 
who  took  advantage  of  the  oaths  of  Joshua, 
and  of  the  elders  of  Israel,  procured  by  an 
artful  representation  of  their  belonging  to  a 
very  remote  country,  Joshua  ix.  Joshua  and 
the  elders  had  not  the  precaution  to  consult 
God  on  this  affair,  but  inconsiderately  made  a 
league  with  these  people.  They  soon  dis- 
covered their  mistake,  and,  without  revoking 
their  promise  of  saving  their  lives,  they  con- 
demned them  to  labour  in  carrying  wood  and 
water  for  the  tabernacle ;  and  to  other  works, 
as  slaves  and  captives  ;  in  which  state  of  servi- 
tude they  remained,  till  the  entire  dispersion 
of  the  Jewish  nation,  A.  M.  2553  ;  B.  C.  1451. 
Three  days  after  the  Gibeonites  had  surren- 
dered to  the  Hebrews,  the  kings  of  Canaan 
being  informed  of  it,  five  of  them  came  and 
besieged  the  city  of  Gibeon.  The  Gibeonites 
sent  to  Joshua,  and  desired  speedy  help. 
Joshua  attacked  the  five  kings  early  in  the 
morning,  put  them  to  flight,  and  pursued  them 
to  Bethoron,  Josh,  x,  3,  &c.  The  Gibeonites 
were  descended  from  the  Hivites,  the  old  in- 
habitants of  the  country,  and  possessed  four 
cities  :  Cephirah,  Beeroth,  Kirjath-jearim,  and 
Gibeon,  their  capital ;  all  afterward  given  to 
Benjamin,  except  Kirjath-jearim,  which  felt  to 
Judah.  The  Gibeonites  continued  subject 
to  those  burdens  which  Joshua  imposed  on 
them,  and  were  very  faithful  to  the  Israelites. 
Nevertheless,  Saul  destroyed  a  great  number 
of  them,  2  Sam.  xxi,  1 ;  but  God,  in  the  reign 
of  David,  sent  a  great  famine,  which  lasted 
three  years,  A.  M.  2983 ;  B.  C.  1021 ;  and  the 
prophets  told  David  that  this  calamity  would 
continue  while  Saul's  cruelty  remained  un- 
avenged. David  asked  the  Gibeonites  what 
satisfaction  they  desired.  They  answered, 
"  Seven  of  Saul's  sons  we  will  put  to  death,  to 
avenge  the  blood  of  our  brethren."  The  Gibeon- 
ites  rrucificd  them.  From  this  time  there  is  no 
mention  of  the  Gibeonites  as  a  distinct  people. 
But  they  were  probably  included  among  the 


Nethinim,  appointed  for  the  service  of  the  tem- 
ple, 1  Chron.  ix,  2.  Afterward,  those  of  the 
Canaanites  who  were  subdued,  and  had  their 
lives  spared,  were  added  to  the  Gibeonites. 
We  see  m  Ezra  viii,  20 ;  ii,  58 ;  1  Kings  ix, 
20,  21,  that  David,  Solomon,  and  the  princes 
of  Judah,  gave  many  such  to  the  Lord ;  these 
Nethinim  being  carried  into  captivity  with  Ju- 
dah and  the  Levites,  many  of  them  returned 
with  Ezra,  Zerubbabel,  and  Nehemiah,  and 
continued,  as  before,  in  the  service  of  the  tem- 
ple, under  the  priests  and  Levites.  We  neither 
know  when,  nor  by  whom,  nor  on  what  occa- 
sion, the  tabernacle  and  altar  of  burnt  sacri- 
fices, made  by  Moses  in  the  wilderness,  were 
removed  to  Gibeon;  but  this  we  certainly 
know,  that,  toward  the  end  of  David's  reign, 
and  in  the  beginning  of  Solomon's,  they  were 
there,  1  Chron.  xxi,  29,  30.  David,  seeing  air 
angel  of  the  Lord  at  Araunah's  threshing  floor, 
was  so  terrified,  that  he  had  not  time  or 
strength  to  go  so  far  as  Gibeon  to  offer  sacri- 
fice;  but  Solomon,  being  seated  on  the  throne, 
went  to  sacrifice  at  Gibeon,  1  Kings  iii,  4. 

GIDEON,  the  son  of  Joash,  of  the  tribe  of 
Manasseh ;  the  same  with  Jerubbaal,  the 
seventh  judge  of  Israel.  He  dwelt  in  the  city 
of  Ophra,  and  was  chosen  by  God  in  a  very 
extraordinary  manner  to  deliver  the  Israelites 
from  the  oppression  of  the  Midianites,  under 
which  they  had  laboured  for  the  space  of  seven 
years.     See  Judges  vi,  14-27;  viii,  1-24,  &c. 

GIER  EAGLE,  onl,  Lev.  xi,  18;  Deut. 
xiv,  17.  As  the  root  of  this  word  signifies 
tenderness  and  affectimt,  it  is  supposed  to  refer 
to  some  bird  remarkable  for  its  attachment  to 
its  young ;  hence  some  have  thought  that  the 
pelican  is  to  be  understood ;  and  Bochart  en- 
deavours to  prove  that  the  golden'  vulture  is 
meant ;  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  is 
the  percnoptervs  of  the  ancients,  the  ach-bobba 
of  the  Arabians,  particularly  described  by 
Bruce  under  the  name  of  rachamah.  He  says, 
"  We  know  from  Horlis  Apollo,  that  the 
rachma,  or  she  vulture,  was  sacred  to  Isis,  and 
adorned  the  statue  of  the  goddess  ;  that  it  waw 
the  emblem  of  parental  affection ;  and  that 
it  was  the  hieroglyphic  for  an  affectionate 
mother."  He  farther  says,  that  "this  female 
vulture,  having  hatched  her  young  ones,  con- 
tinues with  them  one  hundred  and  twenty 
days,  providing  them  with  all  necessaries ;  and, 
when  the  stock  of  food  fails  them,  she  tears  off" 
the  fleshy  part  of  her  thigh,  and  feeds  them  with 
that  and  the  blood  which  Mows  from  the  wound." 

Hasselquist  thus  describes  the  Egyptian 
vulture  :  "The  appearanco  of  the  bird  is  as 
horrid  as  can  well  be  imagined.  The  face  is 
naked  and  wrinkled,  the  eyes  are  large  and 
black,  the  beak  black  and  crooked,  the  talons 
large,  and  extended  ready  for  prey,  and  the 
whole  body  polluted  with  filth.  These  are 
qualities  enough  to  make  tltc  beholder  shudder 
with  horror.  Notwithstanding  this,  the  Inha- 
bitants of  Egy^t  cannot  be  enough  thankful  to 
Providence  for  this  bird.  All  the  places  round 
Cairo  arc  tilled  with  the  dead  bodies  of  asses 
and  camels  ;  ami  thousands  of  these  birdr,  fly 
about  and  dc\oui   the  carcasses,,  before  they 


GIF 


404 


GIL 


putrify  and  fill  the  air  with  noxious  exhala- 
tions." No  wonder  that  such  an  animal  should 
be  deemed  unclean. 

GIFT  OF  TONGUES,  an  ability  given  to 
the  Apostles  and  others  of  readily  and  intelli- 
gibly speaking  a  variety  of  languages  which 
they  had  never  learned.  This  was  a  glorious 
and  decisive  attestation  to  the  Gospel,  as  well 
as  a  suitable,  and,  indeed,  in  their  circum- 
stances, a  necessary  qualification  for  the  mis- 
sion for  which  the  Apostles  and  their  coadju- 
tors were  designed.  Nor  is  there  any  reason, 
with  Dr.  Middlcton,  to  understand  it  as  merely 
an  occasional  gill,  so  that  a  person  might  speak 
a  language  most  fluently  one  hour,  and  be  en- 
tirely ignorant  of  it  the  next;  which  neither 
agrees  with  what  is  said  of  the  abuse  of  it,  nor 
would  it  have  been  sufficient  to  answer  the  end 
proposed,  Acts  ii.  Some  appear  to  have  been 
gifted  with  one  tongue,  others  with  more.  To 
Si.  Paul  this  endowment  was  vouchsafed  in  a 
more  liberal  degree,  than  to  many  others  :  for, 
as  to  the  Corinthians,  who  had  received  the 
gift  of  tongues,  he  says,  "that  he  spake  with 
tongues  more  than  they  all." 

GIFTS.  The  practice  of  making  presents 
is  very  common  in  oriental  countries.  The 
custom  probably  had  its  origin  among  those 
men  who  first  sustained  the  office  of  kings  or 
rulers,  and  who,  from  the  novelty  and  perhaps 
the  weakness  attached  to  their  situation,  chose, 
rather  than  make  the  hazardous  attempt  of 
exacting  taxes,  to  content  themselves  with 
receiving  those  presents  which  might  be  freely 
offered,  1  Sam.  x,  27.  Hence  it  passed  into  a 
custom,  that  whoever  approached  the  king 
should  come  with  a  gift.  This  was  the  prac- 
tice and  the  expectation.  The  custom  of  pre- 
senting gifts  was  subsequently  extended  to  other 
great  men ;  to  men  who  were  inferior  to  the 
king,  but  who  were,  nevertheless,  men  of 
influence  and  rank  ;  it  was  also  extended  to 
those  who  were  equals,  wben  they  were  visited, 
Proverbs  xviii,  16.  Kings  themselves  were 
in  the  habit  of  making  presents,  probably  in 
reference  to  the  custom  in  question  and  the 
feelings  connected  with  it,  to  those  individuals, 
their  inferiors  in  point  of  rank,  whom  they 
wished  to  honour,  and  also  to  those  who,  like 
themselves,  were  clothed  with  the  royal  autho- 
rity. These  presents,  namely,  such  as  were 
presented  by  the  king  as  a  token  of  the  royal 
esteem  and  honour,  arc  almost  invariably 
denominated  in  the  Hebrew,  *ine>  and  nsia, 
1  Kings  xv,  19;  2  Kings  xvi,  8;  xviii,  14; 
Isaiah  xxxvi,  16.  The  more  ancient  prophets 
did  not  deem  it  discreditable  to  them  to  receive 
presents,  nor  unbecoming  their  sacred  calling, 
except  when,  as  was  sometimes  the  case,  they 
refused  by  way  of  expressing  their  dissatisfae. 
tion  or  indignation,  2  Kings  v,  15;  viii,  ■•. 
In  later  times,  when  false  prophets,  in  order 
to  obtain  money,  prophesied  without  truth  and 
v  ithout  authority,  the  true  prophets,  for  the 
purpose  of  keeping  the  line  of  distinction  as 
broad  as  possible,  rejected  every  thing  that 
looked  like  reward.  Gifts  of  this  kind,  that 
have  now  been  described,  are  not  to  bo  con- 
founded with  those  which  are  called  inr,  and 


which  were  presented  to  judges,  not  as  a  mark 
of  esteem  and  honour,  but  for  purposes  of 
bribery  and  corruption.  The  former  was  con- 
sidered an  honour  to  the  giver,  but  a  gift  of  the 
latter  kind  has  been  justly  reprobated  in  every 
age,  Exod.  xxii,  8 ;  Deut.  x,  17 ;  xvi,  19 ;  xxvii, 
25 ;  Psalm  xv,  5 ;  xxvi,  10  ;  Isaiah  i,  23 ;  v,  23 ; 
xxxiii,  15.  The  giver  was  not  restricted  as  to 
the  kind  of  present  which  he  should  make.  He 
might  present  not  only  silver  and  gold,  but 
clothes  and  arms,  also  different  kinds  of  food, 
in  a  word  any  thing  which  could  be  of  benefit 
to  the  recipient,  Gen.  xliii,  11 ;  1  Sam.  ix,  7; 
xvi,  20;  Job  xlii,  11.  It  was  the  custom  an- 
ciently, as  it  is  at  the  present  time  in  the  east, 
for  an  individual  when  visiting  a  person  of 
high  rank,  to  make  some  presents  of  small 
value  to  the  servants  or  domestics  of  the  per- 
son visited,  1  Sam.  xxv,  27.  It  was  the  usual 
practice  among  kings  and  princes  to  present 
to  their  favourite  officers  in  the  government,  to 
ambassadors  from  foreign  courts,  to  foreigners 
of  distinction,  and  to  men  eminent  for  their 
learning,  garments  of  greater  or  less  value, 
Genesis  xlv,  22,  23;  Esther  viii,  15.  The 
royal  wardrobe,  in  which  a  large  number  of 
such  garments  was  kept,  is  denominated  in 
Hebrew  onJ3,  2  Chronicles  xxxiv,  22.  It  was 
considered  an  honour  of  the  highest  kind,  if  a 
king  or  any  person  in  high  authority  thought 
it  proper,  as  a  manifestation  of  his  favour,  to 
give  away  to  another  the  garment  which  he 
had  previously  worn  himself,  1  Sam.  xviii,  4. 
In  the  east,  at  the  present  day,  it  is  expected, 
that  every  one  who  has  received  a  garment 
from  the  king  will  immediately  clothe  himself 
in  it,  and  promptly  present  himself  and  render 
his  homage  to  the  giver ;  otherwise  he  runs  the 
hazard  of  exciting  the  king's  displeasure,  Matt, 
xxii,  11,  12.  It  was  sometimes  the  case,  that 
the  king,  when  he  made  a  feast,  presented  vest, 
ments  to  all  the  guests  who  were  invited,  with 
which  they  clothed  themselves  before  they  sat 
down  to  it,  2  Kings  x,  22  ;  Gen.  xlv,  22 ;  Rev. 
iii,  5.  In  oriental  countries,  the  presents  which 
are  made  to  kings  and  princes  are  to  this  day 
carried  on  beasts  of  burden,  are  attended  with 
a  body  of  men,  and  are  escorted  with  much 
pomp.  It  matters  not  how  light  or  how  small 
the  present  may  be,  it  must  either  be  carried 
on  the  back  of  a  beast  of  burden,  or  by  a  man, 
who  must  support  it  with  both  his  hands,  Judges 
iii,  18;  2  Kings  viii,  9. 

GIHON,  the  name  of  one  of  the  four  rivers 
the  source  of  which  was  in  paradise,  Genesis 
ii,  13.  (See  Eden.)  Kcland,  Cahnet,  &c,  think 
that  Gihon  is  the  Araxes,  which  has  its  source, 
as  well  as  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  in  tlu 
mountains  of  Armenia,  and,  running  with 
almost  incredible  rapidity,  falls  into  the  Caspian 
Sea.  Gihon  was  also  the  name  of  a  fountain 
to  the  west  of  Jerusalem,  at  which  Solomon 
was  anointed  king  by  the  high  priest  Zadok, 
and  the  Prophet  Nathan,  I  Kings  i,  33. 

GILBOA,  Mount,  a  ridge  of  mountains  on 
the  north  of  Bethshan,  or  Scythopolis,  form- 
ing in  that  part  the  boundary  of  the  plain  of 
Jordan  to  the  west.  It  is  memorable  from  I  ho 
defeat   of  Saul   by  the  Philistines  ;   when  hi:; 


GIL 


405 


GIR 


three  sons  were  slain,  and  he  himself  died  by 
his  own  hand,  his  armourbearer  refusing  to 
kill  him,  1  Sam.  xxxm 

GILEAD,  the  name  given  to  the  monument 
erected  by  Laban  and  Jacob,  in  testimony  of  a 
mutual  covenant  and  agreement,  Gen.  xxxi, 
47,  48.  Hence  the  hill  upon  which  it  was 
erected,  was  called  Mount  Gilead,  Cant,  iv,  1 ; 
vi,  5 ;  Jer.  1,  19.  The  mountains  of  Gilead 
were  part  of  that  ridge  of  mountains  which  ex- 
tend from  Mount  Lebanon  southward,  on  the 
east  of  the  Holy  land ;  they  gave  their  name  to 
the  whole  country  which  lies  on  the  east  of 
the  sea  of  Galilee,  and  included  the  mountain- 
ous region  called  in  the  New  Testament  Tra- 
chonitis.  The  Scripture  speaks  of  the  balm 
of  Gilead,  Jer.  viii,  22 ;  xlvi,  11 ;  li,  8.  The 
merchants  who  bought  Joseph  came  from 
Gilead,  and  were  carrying  balm  into  Egypt, 
Gen.  xxxvii,  25.     See  Balm. 

GILGAL,  a  celebrated  place  situated  on  the 
west  of  Jordan,  where  the  Israelites  encamped 
some  time  after  their  passage  over  that  river, 
and  where  Joshua  pitched  twelve  stones  taken 
out  of  Jordan  as  a  memorial.  A  considerable 
city  was  afterward  built  there,  which  became 
renowned  for  many  events  recorded  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  Jews.  Gilgal  was  about  a  league 
from  Jordan,  and  at  an  equal  distance  from 
Jericho.  It  received  its  name  from  the  cir- 
cumstance of  the  Hebrews  being  there  circum- 
cised ;  for  when  by  divine  command  that  rite 
had  been  performed  upon  them,  the  Lord  said, 
"  This  day  have  I  rolled  away  from  ofF  you 
the  reproach  of  Egypt,"  Joshua  v,  2-4,  &c. — 
The  word  Gilgal  signifies  rolling.  Here  the 
ark  was  long  stationed,  and  consequently  the 
place  was  much  resorted  to  by  the  Israelites. 
It  seems  to  have  been  the  place  in  which  Jero- 
boam or  some  of  the  kings  of  Israel  instituted 
idolatrous  worship  ;  and  hence  the  allusions  to 
it  by  the  prophets,  Hosea  iv,  15 ;  Amos  iv,  4. 
It  is  probable  that  there  were  idols  at  Gilgal  as 
early  as  the  days  of  Ehud,  who  was  one  of 
the  judges ;  for  it  is  said  that,  having  delivered 
his  presents  to  the  king,  "  Ehud  went  away, 
but  returned  again  from  the  quarries  that  were 
by  Gilgal,"  Judges  iii,  19.  The  margin  of  our 
Bibles  reads,  "  the  graven  images,"  or  idols  set 
up  by  the  Moabites,  the  viewing  of  which,  it  is 
thought,  stirred  up  Ehud  to  revenge  the  affront 
thereby  offered  to  the  God  of  Israel.  At  this 
same  place,  the  people  met  to  confirm  the  king- 
dom to  Saul,  1  Sam.  xi,  14,  15.  It  was  at  Gil- 
gal, too,  that  Saul  incurred  the  divine  displea- 
sure, in  offering  sacrifice  before  Samuel  arrived, 
1  Sam.  xiii ;  and  there  also  it  was  that  he  re- 
ceived the  sentence  of  his  rejection  for  disobey- 
ing the  divine  command,  and  sparing  the  king 
of  Amalek  with  the  spoils  which  he  had  re- 
served, I  Sam.  xv. 

It  has  been  supposed  that  the  setting  up  of 
stones,  as  at  Gilgal  and  other  places,  gave  rise 
to  the  rude  stone  circular  temples  of  the  Druids, 
and  other  Heathens.  The  idea,  however,  ap- 
pears fanciful,  and  there  is  an  essential  differ- 
ence between  stones  erected  for  memorials,  and 
those  used  to  mark  sacred,  or  supposed  sacred, 
places  for  worship. 


GIRDLE.  The  girdle  is  an  indispensable 
article  in  the  dress  of  an  oriental :  it  has  various 
uses  ;  but  the  principal  one  is  to  tuck  up  their 
long  flowing  vestments,  that  they  may  not  in- 
commode them  in  their  work,  or  on  a  journey. 
The  Jews,  according  to  some  writers,  wore  a 
double  girdle,  one  of  greater  breadth,  with 
which  they  girded  their  tunic  when  they  pre- 
pared for  active  exertions :  the  other  they 
wore  under  their  shirt,  around  their  loins. 
This  under  girdle  they  reckon  necessary  to 
distinguish  between  the  heart  and  the  less 
honourable  parts  of  the  human  frame.  The 
upper  girdle  was  sometimes  made  of  leather, 
the  material  of  which  the  girdle  of  John  the 
Baptist  was  made  ;  but  it  was  more  commonly 
fabricated  of  worsted,  often  very  artfully  woven 
into  a  variety  of  figures,  and  made  to  fold  seve- 
ral times  about  the  body ;  one  end  of  which 
being  doubled  back,  and  sewn  along  the  edges, 
serves  them  for  a  purse,  agreeably  to  the  ac- 
ceptation of  %wvrj,  in  the  Scriptures,  which  is 
translated  purse,  in  several  places  of  the  New 
Testament,  Matt,  x,  9 ;  Mark  vi,  8.  The  an- 
cient Romans,  in  this,  as  in  many  other  things, 
imitated  the  orientals  ;  for  their  soldiers,  and 
probably  all  classes  of  the  citizens,  used  to 
carry  their  money  in  their  girdles.  Whence, 
in  Horace,  qui  zonam  perdiait,  means  one  who 
had  lost  his  purse  ;  and  Aulus  Gellius,  C.  Grac- 
chus is  introduced,  saying,  "  Those  girdles 
which  I  carried  out  full  of  money  when  I  went 
from  Rome,  I  have,  at  my  return  from  the 
province,  brought  again  empty."  The  Turks 
make  a  farther  use  of  these  girdles,  by  fixing 
their  knives  and  poinards  in  them ;  while  the 
writers  and  secretaries  suspend  in  them  their 
ink-horns ;  a  custom  as  old  as  the  Prophet 
Ezekiel,  who  mentions  "  a  person  clothed  in 
white  linen,  with  an  ink-horn  upon  his  loins," 
Ezek.  ix,  2.  That  part  of  the  ink-holder  which 
passes  between  the  girdle  and  the  tunic,  and 
receives  their  pens,  is  long  and  flat ;  but  the 
vessel  for  the  ink,  which  rests  upon  the  girdle, 
is  square,  with  a  lid  to  clasp  over  it. 

2.  To  loose  the  girdle  and  give  it  to  another 
was,  among  the  orientals,  a  token  of  great 
confidence  and  affection.  Thus,  to  ratify  the 
covenant  which  Jonathan  made  with  David, 
and  to  express  his  cordial  regard  for  his  friend, 
among  other  things,  he  gave  him  his  girdle. 
A  girdle  curiously  and  richly  wrought  was 
among  the  ancient  Hebrews  a  mark  of  honour, 
and  sometimes  bestowed  as  a  reward  of  merit ; 
for  this  was  the  recompense  which  Joab  de- 
clared he  meant  to  bestow  on  the  man  who 
put  Absalom  to  death :  "  Why  didst  thou  not 
smite  him  there  to  the  ground  ?  and  I  would 
have  given  thee  ten  shekels  of  silver,  and  a 
girdle,"  2  Samuel  xviii,  11.  The  reward  was 
certainly  meant  to  correspond  with  the  im- 
portance of  the  service  which  he  expected  him 
to  perform,  and  the  dignity  of  his  own  station 
as  commander  in  chief:  we  may,  therefore, 
suppose  that  the  girdle  promised  was  not  a 
.common  one  of  leather,  or  plain  worsted,  but 
of  costly  materials  and  richly  adorned  ;  for 
people  of  rank  and  fashion  in  the  east  wear 
very  broad  girdles,  all  of  silk,  and  superbly 


GLO 


40C 


GNA 


.ornamented  with  gold  anil  silver,  and  precious 
stones,  of  which  they  are  extremely  proud, 
jegarding  them  as  the  tokens  of  their  superior 
station  and  the  proof  of  their  riches.  "  To  gird 
up  the  loins"  is  to  bring  the  flowing  robe 
within  the  girdle,  and  so  to  prepare  for  a  jour- 
ney, or  for  some  vigorous  exercise. 

GLASS,  HaXot.  This  word  occurs  Rev.  xxi, 
18,  21 ;  and  the  adjective  vaXivos,  Rev.  iv,  6 ; 
xv,  2.  Parkhurst  says  that  in  the  later  Greek 
writers,  and  in  the  New  Testament,  ia\os  de- 
notes the  artificial  substance,  glass ;  and  that 
we  may  either  with  Mintert  derive  it  from  "i\ri, 
splendour,  or  immediately  from  the  Hebrew  'Wl, 
to  shine.  There  seems  to  be  no  reference  to 
glass  in  the  Old  Testament.  The  art  of  mak- 
ing it  was  not  known.  Our  translators  have 
rendered  the  Hebrew  word  pn-id,  in  Exodus 
xxxviii,  8,  and  Job  xxxvii,  18,  "  looking-glass." 
Hut  the  making  mirrors  of  glass  coated  with 
^quicksilver,  is  an  invention  quite  modern. 
The  word  looking-glass  occurs  in  our  version 
of  Ecclesiastir.us  xii,  11,  "Never  trust  thine 
enemy  ;  for  like  as  iron  rusteth,  so  is  his  wick- 
edness. Though  he  humble  himself,  and  go 
crouching,  yet  take  good  heed  and  beware  of 
him,  and  thou  shalt  be  unto  liim  as  if  thou 
hadst  washed  a  looking-glass,  and  thou  shalt 
.know  that  Ids  rust  hath  not  been  altogether 
wiped  away."  This  passage  proves,  by  its 
mention  of  rust,  that  mirrors  were  then  made 
of  polished  metal.  The  word  iaonrpov,  or  mir- 
ror, occurs  in  1  Cor.  xiii,  12,  and  James  i,  23. 
Dr.  Pearce  thinks  that  in  the  former  place  it 
signifies  any  of  those  transparent  substances 
which  the  ancients  used  in  their  windows,  and 
through  wliich  they  saw  external  objects  ob- 
scurely. But  others  are  of  opinion  that  the 
word  denotes  a  mirror  of  polished  metal ;  as 
this,  however,  was  liable  to  many  imperfec- 
tions, so  that  the  object  before  it  was  not  seen 
clearly  or  fully,  the  meaning  of  the  Apostle  is, 
that  we  sec  things  as  it  were  by  images  reflect- 
ed from  a  mirror,  which  shows  them  very  ob- 
scurely and  indistinctly.  In  the  latter  place,  a 
mirror  undoubtedly  p  meant;  "  For  if  any  be 
a  hearer  of  the  word,  and  not  a  doer,  he  is  like 
unto  a  man  beholding  Ids  natural  face  in  a 
glass  :  for  he  heholdeth  himself,  and  goeth  hie 
way,  and  straightway  he  forgetteth  what  man- 
ner of  man  he  was  :"  but  in  the  former,  1  Cor. 
xiii,  1-2,  semi-transparent  glass  such  as  that 
which  we  see  in  the  ancient  glass  vases  of  the 
Romans  is  obviously  intended.  Speoimcus  of 
Roman  glass  may  be  seen  in  collections  of 
antiquities,  and  some  havo  been  dug  up  at 
Pompeii;  but  in  all  it  is  cloudy  and  dull,  and 
objects  can  only  be  seen  through  it  with  indis- 
tinctness, i'roin  this  we  may  fully  perceive 
the  force  of  the  Apostle's  words,  "  now  we  see 
through  a  glass  darkly." 

GLEAN.  To  glean  is  properly  to  gather 
ears  of  corn,  or  grapes,  left  by  the  reapers, 
&.c.  The  Jews  were  not  allowed  to  glean 
their  fields,  but  were  to  leave  this  to  the 
poor,  Ley.  x'fx,  JO  ;  xxiii,  22 ;  Deut.  xxiv,  21  ; 
Ruth  ii,  3. 

GLORIFY,  to  make  glorious  or  honourable, 
or  to  cause  to  appear  so,  John  xii,  28 ;  xiii, 


31,  32;  xv,  8;  xvii,  4,  5;  xxi,  19;  Acts  in, 
13.  In  this  view  it  particularly  refers  to  the 
resurrection  of  Christ,  and  his  ascension  to 
the  right  hand  of  God,  John  vii,  39;  xii,  16 
It  also  expresses  that  change  which  shall  pass 
upon  believers  at  the  general  resurrection,  and 
their  admission  into  heaven. 

GLORY,  splendour,  magnificence.  The 
glory  of  God  in  the  writings  of  Moses,  denotes, 
generally,  the  divine  presence ;  as  when  he 
appeared  on  Mount  Sinai ;  or,  the  bright  cloud 
which  declared  his  presence,  and  descended  on 
the  tabernacle  of  the  congregation,  Exod.  xxiv, 
9,  10,  16,  17.  Moses,  with  Aaron,  Nadab, 
Abihu,  and  seventy  ciders  of  Israel,  went  up 
to  Mount  Sinai,  and  "  saw  the  glory  of  the 
Lord."  Now  "  the  glory  of  the  Lord  was,  as 
it  were,  a  burning  fire  on  the  mountain  ;  and 
under  his  feet  was,  as  it  were,  the  brightness 
of  the  sappldre  stone,  resembling  heaven  itself 
in  clearness."  The  glory  of  the  Lord  appeared 
to  Israel  in  the  cloud  also,  when  he  gave  them 
manna  and  quails,  Exod.  xvi,  7,  10.  Moses 
having  earnestly  begged  of  God  to  show  his 
glory  to  him,  God  said,  "  Thou  canst  not  see 
my  face,  for  there  shall  no  man  see  me  and 
live.  And  the  Lord  said,  There  is  a  place  by 
me,  and  thou  shalt  stand  upon  a  rock :  and  it 
shall  come  to  pass,  while  my  glory  passeth  by, 
that  I  will  put  thee  in  the  cleft  of  the  rock, 
and  will  cover  thee  with  my  hand  wThile  1 
pass  by :  and  I  will  take  away  my  hand,  and 
thou  shalt  see  my  back  parts :"  (the  train, 
the  fainter  rays  of  the  glory  :)  "but  my  face 
shall  not  be  seen,"  Exod.  xxxiii,  18.  The 
ark  of  God  is  called  the  glory  of  Israel ;  and 
the  glory  of  God,  1  Samuel  iv,  21,  22;  Psalm 
xxvi,  8.  The  priestly  ornaments  are  called 
"  garments  of  glory,"  Exod.  xxviii,  2,  40  ;  and 
the  sacred  vessels,  "vessels  of  glory,"  1  Mace, 
ii,  9,  12.  Solomon  "  in  all  his  glory,"  in  all 
his  lustre,  in  his  richest  ornaments,  was  not 
so  beautifully  arrayed  as  a  lily,  Matt,  vi,  29 ; 
Luke  xii,  27.  When  the  prophets  describe  the 
conversion  of  the  Gentiles,  they  speak  of  the 
"glory  of  the  Lord"  as  filling  the  earth  ;  that 
is,  his  knowledge  shall  universally  prevail,  and 
he  shall  be  every  where  worshipped  and  glori- 
fied. The  term  "glory"  is  used  also  of  the 
Gospel  dispensation  by  St.  Paul ;  and  to  ex- 
press the  future  felicity  of  the  saints  in  heaven. 
When  the  Hebrews  required  an  oath  of  any 
man,  they  said,  "  Give  glory  to  God  :"  confess 
the  truth,  give  him  glory,  confess  that  God 
knows  the  most  secret  thoughts,  the  very 
bottom  of  your  hearts,  Joshua  vii,  19  ;  John 
ix,  24. 

GNAT,  Kiivw^',  Matt,  xxiii,  24,  a  small-winged 
insect,  comprehending  a  genus  of  the  order  of 
digtera.  In  those  hot  countries,  as  Servius 
remarks,  speaking  of  the  cast,  gnats  and  flies 
are  very  apt  to  fall  into  wine,  if  it  be  not  care- 
fully covered  ;  and  passing  the  liquor  through 
a  strainer,  that  no  gnat  or  part  of  one  might 
remain,  became  a  proverb  for  exactness  about 
little  matters.  This  may  help  us  to  under- 
stand that  passage,  Matt.  x\iii,  24,  where  the 
proverbial  expression  of  carefully  straining 
out   a  little  fly  from  the  liquor  to  be  drunk, 


GNO 


407 


GNO 


and  yet  swallowing  a  camel,  intimates,  that 
the  scribes  and  Pharisees  affected  to  scruple 
little  things,  and  yet  disregarded  those  of  the 
greatest  moment. 

GNOSTICS,  from  yvwais,  "  knowledge," 
men  of  science  and  wisdom,  illuminati ;  men 
who,  from  blending  the  philosophy  of  the  east, 
or  of  Greece,  with  the  doctrines  of  the  Gospel, 
boasted  of  deeper  knowledge  in  the  Scriptures 
and  theology  than  others.  It  was,  therefore, 
not  so  properly  a  distinct  sect  as  a  generic 
term,  comprehending  all  who,  forsaking  the 
simplicity  of  the  Gospel,  pretended  to  be 
"  wise  above  what  is  written,"  to  explain  the 
New  Testament  by  the  dogmas  of  the  philo- 
sophers, and  to  derive  from  the  sacred  writings 
mysteries  which  never  were  contained  in  them. 
The  origin  of  the  Gnostic  heresy,  as  it  is  called, 
has  been  variously  stated.  The  principles  of 
this  heresy  were,  however,  much  older  than 
Christianity ;  and  many  of  the  errors  alluded 
to  in  the  apostolic  epistles  are  doubtless  of  a 
character  very  similar  to  some  branches  of  the 
Gnostic  system.  (See  Cabhala.)  Cerinthus, 
against  whom  St.  John  wrote  his  Gospel ;  the 
Nicolaitans,  mentioned  in  the  Revelation,  and 
the  Ebionites,  (described  under  that  article,) 
were  all  early  Gnostics,  although  the  system 
was  not  then  so  completely  formed  as  after- 
ward. Dr.  Burton,  in  his  Bampton  Lectures, 
has  thus  sketched  the  Gnostic  system  : — In 
attempting  to  give  an  account  of  these  doc- 
trines, I  must  begin  with  observing  what  we 
shall  see  more  plainly  when  we  trace  the  causes 
of  Gnosticism,  that  it  was  not  by  any  means 
a  new  and  distinct  philosophy,  but  made  up  of 
selections  from  almost  every  system.  Thus 
we  find  in  it.  the  Platonic  doctrine  of  ideas, 
and  the  notion  that  every  thing  in  this  lower 
world  has  a  celestial  and  immaterial  archetype. 
We  find  in  it  evident  traces  of  that  mystical 
and  cabalistic  jargon  which,  after  their  return 
from  captivity,  deformed  the  religion  of  the 
Jews  ;  and  many  Gnostics  adopted  the  oriental 
notion  of  two  independent  coeternal  principles, 
the  one  the  author  of  good,  the  other  of  evil. 
Lastly,  we  find  the  Gnostic  theology  full  of 
ideas  and  terms  which  must  have  been  taken 
from  the  Gospel ;  and  Jesus  Christ,  under  some 
form  or  other,  of  (ton,  emanation,  or  incor- 
poreal phantom,  enters  into  all  their  systems, 
and  is  the  means  of  communicating  to  them 
that  knowledge  which  raised  them  above  all 
other  mortals,  and  entitled  them  to  their  pe- 
culiar name.  The  genius  and  very  soul  of 
Gnosticism  was  mystery :  its  end  and  object 
was  to  purify  its  followers  from  the  corrup- 
tions of  matter,  and  to  raise  them  to  a  higher 
scale  of  being,  suited  only  to  those-  who  were 
become  perfect  by  knowledge. 

2.  We  have  a  key  to  many  parts  of  their 
system,  when  we  know  that  they  held  matter 
to  be  intrinsically  evil,  of  which,  consequently, 
God  could  not  be  the  author.  Hence  arose 
their  fundamental  tenet,  that  the  creator  of  the 
world,  or  Demiurgus,  was  not  the  same  with 
the  supreme  God,  the  Author  of  good,  and  the 
Father  of  Christ.  Their  system  allowed  some 
of  them  to  call  the  creator  God ;  but  the  title 


most  usually  given  to  him  was  Demiurgus. 
Those  who  embraced  the  doctrine  of  two  prin- 
ciples supposed  the  world  to  have  been  produced 
by  the  evil  principle ;  and,  in  most  systems, 
the  creator,  though  not  the  father  of  Christ, 
was  looked  upon  as  the  God  of  the  Jews,  and 
the  author  of  the  Mosaic  law.  Some,  again, 
believed  that  angels  were  employed  in  creating 
the  world ;  but  all  were  agreed  in  maintaining 
that  matter  itself  was  not  created,  that  it  was 
eternal,  and  remained  inactive,  till 

Disposilam,  quisquis  fuit  ille  Dcorvm, 
Congeriem  secuit,  sectamque  in  mumbra  redegit. 

Ovid. 

[Some  God,  whoever  he  was,  separated  and 
arranged  the  mass,  and  reduced  it,  when  se- 
parated, into  elements.] 

The  supreme  God  had  dwelt  from  all  eternity 
in  a  pleroma  of  inaccessible  light ;  and  beside 
the  name  of  first  Father,  or  first  Principle,  they 
called  him  also  Bythus,  as  if  to  denote  the  un- 
fathomable nature  of  his  perfections.  This 
being,  by  an  operation  purely  mental,  or  by 
acting  upon  himself,  produced  two  other  beings 
of  different  sexes,  from  whom,  by  a  series  of 
descents,  more  or  less  numerous  according  to 
different  schemes,  several  pairs  of  beings  were 
formed,  who  were  called  ceons,  from  the  periods 
of  their  existence  before  time  was,  or  emana- 
tions, from  the  mode  of  their  production. 
These  successive  ceons  or  emanations  appear 
to  have  been  inferior  each  to  the  preceding ; 
.and  their  existence  was  indispensable  to  the 
Gnostic  scheme,  that  they  might  account  for 
the  creation  of  the  world  without  making  God 
the  author  of  evil.  These  ceons  lived  through 
countless  ages  with  their  first  father ;  but  the 
system  of  emanations  seems  to  have  resembled 
that  of  concentric  circles  ;  and  they  gradually 
deteriorated,  as  they  approached  nearer  and 
nearer  to  the  extremity  of  the  pleroma.  Be- 
yond this  pleroma  was  matter,  inert  and  power- 
less, though  coeternal  with  the  supreme  God, 
and  like  him  without  beginning.  At  length, 
one  of  the  ceons  passed  the  limits  of  the  ple- 
roma, and,  meeting  with  matter,  created  the 
world,  after  the  form  and  model  of  an  ideal 
world  which  existed  in  the  pleroma  or  in  the 
mind  of  the  supreme  God.  Here  it  is  that 
inconsistency  is  added  to  absurdity  in  the 
Gnostic  scheme.  For,  let  the  intermediate 
ceons  be  as  many  as  the  wildest  imagination 
could  devise,  still  God  was  the  remote,  if  not 
the  proximate,  cause  of  creation.  Added  to 
which,  we  are  to  suppose  that  the  Demiurgus 
formed  the  world  without  the  knowledge  of 
God ;  and  that,  having  formed  it,  he  rebelled 
against  him.  Here,  again,  we  find  a  strong 
resemblance  to  the  oriental  doctrine  of  two 
principles,  good  and  evil,  or  light  and  dark- 
ness. The  two  principles  were  always  at 
enmity  with  each  other.  God  must  have  been 
conceived  to  be  more  powerful  than  matter,  or 
an  emanation  from  God  could  not  have  shaped 
and  moulded  it  into  form :  yet  God  was  not 
able  to  reduce  matter  into  its  primeval  chaos, 
nor  to  destroy  the  evil  which  the  Demiurgus 
had  produced.  What  God  could  not  prevent, 
he  was  always  endeavouring  to  cure  :  and  here 


GNU 


408 


GOA 


it  is  that  the  Gnostics  borrowed  so  largely 
from  the  Christian  scheme.  The  names,  in- 
deed, of  several  of  their  ceoiis  were  evidently 
taken  from  terms  which  they  found  in  the 
Gospel.  Thus  we  meet  with  Logos,  Monogenes, 
Zoc,  Ecclesia,  all  of  them  successive  emana- 
tions from  the  supreme  God,  and  all  dwelling 
in  the  pieroma.  At  length,  wo  meet  with 
Christ  and  the  Holy  Ghost,  as  two  of  the  last 
(Tons  which  were  put  forth.  Christ  was  sent 
into  the  world  to  remedy  the  evil  which  the 
creative  aon  or  Demiurgus  had  caused.  He 
was  to  emancipate  men  from  the  tyranny  of 
matter,  or  of  the  evil  principle ;  and,  by  re- 
vealing to  them  the  true  God,  who  was  hitherto 
unknown,  to  fit  them,  by  a  perfection  and  sub- 
limity of  knowledge,  to  enter  the  divine  ple- 
ruiiiti.  To  give  this  knowledge,  was  the  end 
and  object  of  Christ's  coming  upon  earth;  and 
hence  the  invenf.nrs  and  believers  of  the  doc- 
trine assumed  to  themselves  the  name  of 
Gnostics.  In  all  their  notions  concerning 
Christ,  we  still  find  them  struggling  with  the 
same  dilliculty  of  reconciling  the  author  of 
good  with  the  existence  of  evil.  Christ,  as 
being  an  emanation  from  God,  could  have  no 
real  connection  with  matter :  yet,  the  Christ 
of  the  Gnostics  was  held  out  to  be  the  same 
with  him  who  was  revealed  in  the  Gospel ; 
and  it  was  notorious  that  lie  was  revealed  as 
the  Son  of  Mary,  who  appeared  in  a  human 
form.  The  methods  which  they  took  to  ex- 
tricate themselves  from  the  difficulty,  were 
principally  two  :  they  either  denied  that  Christ 
had  a  real  body  at  all,  and  held  that  he  was 
an  unsubstantial  phantom  ;  or,  granting  that 
there  was  a  man  called  Jesus,  the  son  of 
human  parents,  they  believed  that  one  of  the 
ccons,  called  Christ,  quitted  the  pieroma,  and 
descended  upon  Jesus  at  his  baptism. 

3.  We  have  seen  that  the  God  who  was  the 
father  or  progenitor  of  Christ,  was  not  con- 
sidered to  be  the  creator  of  the  world.  Neither 
was  he  the  God  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  the 
giver  of  the  Mosaic  law.  This  notion  was 
supported  by  the  same  argument  which  infidels 
have  often  urged,  that  the  God  of  the  Jews  is 
represented  as  a  God  of  vengeance  and  of  cru- 
elty ;  but  it  was  also  a  natural  consequence  of 
their  fundamental  principle,  that  the  author 
of  good  cannot  in  any  manner  be  the  author 
of  evil.  In  accordance  with  this  notion,  we 
find  all  the  Gnostics  agreed  in  rejecting  the 
Jewish  .Scriptures,  or,  at  least,  in  treating 
them  with  contempt.  Since  they  held  that 
the  supreme  God  was  revealed  for  the  first 
time  to  mankind  by  Christ,  he  could  not  have 
been  the  God  who  inspired  the  prophets;  and 
yet,  with  that  strange  inconsistency  which  we 
have  already  observed  in  them,  they  appealed 
1o  these  very  Scriptures  in  support  of  their 
own  doctrines.  They  believed  the  prophets  to 
have  been  inspired  by  the  same  creative  aon, 
or  the  same  principle  of  evil,  which  acted 
originally  upon  matter  ;  and  if  their  writings 
had  com.-  down  to  us,  we  should  perhaps  find 
them  arguing,  that,  though  the  prophets  were 
not  inspired  by  the  supreme  God,  they  still 
could  not  help  giving  utterance  to  truth. 


4.  Their  same  abhorrence  of  matter,  and 
their  same  notion  concerning  that  purity  of 
knowledge  which  Christ  came  upon  earth  to 
impart,  led  them  to  reject  the  Christian  doc- 
trines of  a  future  resurrection  and  a  general 
judgment.  They  seem  to  have  understood  the 
Apostles  as  preaching  literally  a  resurrection 
of  the  body ;  and  it  is  certain  that  the  fathers 
insisted  upon  this  very  strongly  as  an  article 
of  belief.  But  to  imagine  that  the  body,  a 
mass  of  created  and  corruptible  matter,  could 
ever  enter  into  heaven,  into  that  pieroma 
which  was  the  dwelling  of  the  supreme  God, 
was  a  notion  which  violated  the  fundamental 
principle  of  the  Gnostics.  According  to  their 
scheme,  no  resurrection  was  necessary,  much 
less  a  final  judgment.  The  Gnostic,  the  man 
who  had  attained  to  perfect  knowledge,  was 
gradually  emancipated  from  the  grossness  of 
matter;  and,  by  an  imperceptible  transition, 
which  none  but  a  Gnostic  could  comprehend, 
he  was  raised  to  be  an  inhabitant  of  the  divine 
pieroma.  If  we  would  know  the  effect  which 
the  doctrines  of  the  Gnostics  had  upon  their 
moral  conduct,  we  shall  find  that  the  same 
principle  led  to  two  very  opposite  results. 
Though  the  fathers  may  have  exaggerated  the 
errors  of  their  opponents,  it  seems  undeniable, 
that  many  Gnostics  led  profligate  lives,  and 
maintained  upon  principle  that  such  conduct 
was  not  unlawful.  Others,  again,  are  repre- 
sented as  practising  great  austerities,  and 
endeavouring,  by  every  means,  to  mortify  the 
body  and  its  sensual  appetites.  Both  parties 
were  actuated  by  the  same  common  notion, 
that  matter  is  inherently  evil.  The  one  thought 
that  the  body,  which  is  compounded  of  matter, 
ought  to  be  kept  in  subjection  ;  and  hence  they 
inculcated  self-denial,  and  the  practice  of 
moral  virtue  :  while  others,  who  had  persuaded 
themselves  that  knowledge  was  every  thing, 
despised  the  distinctions  of  the  moral  law, 
which  was  given,  as  they  said,  not  by  the  su- 
preme God,  but  by  an  inferior  aon,  or  a  prin- 
ciple of  evil,  who  had  allied  himself  with 
matter. 

5.  With  respect  to  the  origin  of  this  system 
the  same  author  observes :  There  is  no  system 
of  philosophy  which  has  been  traced  to  a 
greater  number  of  sources  than  that  which  we 
are  now  discussing ;  and  the  variety  of  opin- 
ions seems  to  have  arisen  from  persons-  either 
not  observing  the  very  different  aspects  which 
Gnosticism  assumed,  or  from  wishing  to  derive 
it  from  one  exclusive  quarter.  Thus,  some 
have  deduced  it  from  the  eastern  notion  of  a 
good  and  evil  principle,  some  from  the  Jewish 
Cabbala,  and  others  from  the  doctrines  of  the 
later  Platonists.  Each  of  these  systems  is  able 
to  support  itself  by  alleging  very  strong  resem- 
blances ;  and  those  persons  have  taken  the 
most  natural  and  probably  the  truest  course, 
who  have  concluded  that  all  these  opinions 
contributed  to  build  up  the  monstrous  system, 
whjch  was  known  by  the  name  of  Gnosticism. 

GOAT,  ty.  There  are  other  names  or 
appellations  given  to  the  goat,  as,  1.  own, 
1  Kings  xx,  27,  which  means  the  ram-goat,  or 
leader  of  the  flock.     2.  oninj',  a  word  which 


GOA 


409 


GOD 


never  occurs  but  in  the  plural,  and  means,  the 
best  prepared,  or  choicest  of  the  flock;  and 
metaphorically  princes,  as,  Zech.  x,  3,  "  I  will 
visit  the  goats,  saith  the  Lord,"  that  is,  I  will 
begin  my  vengeance  with  the  princes  of  the 
people.  "Hell  from  beneath  is  moved  for 
thee,  to  meet  thee  at  thy  coming;  it  stirreth 
up  the  dead  for  thee,  even  all  the  great  goats 
of  the  earth,"  Isaiah  xiv,  9;  all  the  kings,  all 
the  great  men.  And  Jeremiah,  speaking  of  the 
princes  of  the  Jews,  says,  "  Remove  out  of 
the  midst  of  Babylon,  and  be  as  the  he-goats 
before  the  flocks,"  Jer.  1,  8.  3.  "vex,  a  name 
lor  the  goat,  of  Chaldee  origin,  and  found  only 
in  Ezra  vi,  17;   viii,  35;   Daniel  viii,  5,  21. 

4.  ^rxry,  from  ?j?,  a  goat,  and  *?jn,  to  wander 
about,    Leviticus    xvi,    8,    "  Ihe    scape-goat." 

5.  nyp,  hairy,  or  shaggy,  whence  on'jif,  "  the 
shaggy  07ies."  In  Lev.  xvii,  7,  it  is  said,  "  And 
they  shall  no  more  offer  their  sacrifices  unto 
devils,"  (seirim,  "  hairy  ones,")  "  after  whom 
they  have  gone  a  whoring."  The  word  here 
means  idolatrous  images  of  goats,  worshipped 
by  the  Egyptians.  It  is  the  same  word  that  is 
translated  satyrs,  in  Isaiah  xiii,  21 ;  where  the 
LXX  render  it  Sai/iovia,  demons.  But  here  they 
have  jiaTawh,  to  vain  things  or  idols,  which 
comes  to  the  same  sense.  What  gives  light  to 
so  obscure  a  passage  is  what  we  read  in  Mai- 
monides,  that  the  Zabian  idolaters  worshipped 
demtins  under  the  figure  of  goats,  imagining 
them  to  appear  in  that  form,  whence  they 
called  them  by  the  names  of  seirim;  and  that 
this  custom,  being  spread  among  other  nations, 
gave  occasion  to  this  precept.  In  like  man. 
ner  we  learn  from  Herodotus,  that  the  Egyp- 
tians of  Mendes  held  goats  to  be  sacred  ani- 
mals, and  represented  the  god  Pan  with  the 
legs  and  head  of  that  animal.  From  those 
ancient  idolaters  the  same  notion  seems  to 
have  been  derived  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
who  represented  their  Pan,  their  fauns,  satyrs, 
and  other  idols,  in  the  form  of  goats :  from  all 
which  it  is  highly  probable,  that  the  Israelites 
hud  learned  in  Egypt  to  worship  certain  de- 
mons, or  sylvan  deities,  under  the  symbolical 
figure  of  goats.  Though  the  phrase,  "  after 
whom  they  have  gone  a  whoring,"  is  equiva- 
lent in  Scripture  to  that  of  committing  idolatry, 
yet  we  are  not  to  suppose  that  it  is  not  to  be 
taken  in  a  literal  sense  in  many  places,  even 
where  it  is  used  in  connection  with  idolatrous 
acts  of  worship.  It  is  well  known  that  Baal- 
peor  and  Ashtaroth  were  worshipped  with 
unclean  rites,  and  that  public  prostitution 
formed  a  grand  part  of  the  worship  of  many 
d<  it ies  among  the  Egyptians,  Moabites,  Ca- 
naanites,  &c. 

The  goat  was  one  of  the  clean  beasts  which 
the  Israelites  might,  both  eat  and  offer  in  sa- 
crifice. The  kid,  »«u  is  often  mentioned  as  a 
food,  in  a  way  that  implies  that  it  was  con- 
sidered as  a  delicacy.  The  lpN,  or  wild  goat, 
mentioned  Dent,  xiv,  5,  and  no  where  else  in 
the  Hebrew  Bible,  is  supposed  to  be  the  lra~ 
gelaphus,  or  "goat-deer."  Schultens  conjee- 
lures  that  this  animal  might  have  its  name, 
ob  fugaritatem,  from  its  shyness,  or  running 
away.     The  word  ty»,  occurs  1  Sam.  xxiv,  3 ; 


Job  xxxix,  1;  Psalm  civ,  18;  Prov.  v,  19: 
and  various  have  been  the  sentiments  of  inter- 
preters on  the  animal  intended  by  it.  Bochart 
insists  that  it  is  the  ibex,  or  "rock-goat." 
The  root  whence  the  name  is  derived,  signi- 
fies to  ascend,  to  mount ;  and  the  ibex  is  famous 
for  clambering,  climbing,  and  leaping,  on  the 
most  craggy  precipices.  The  Arab  writers 
attribute  to  the  jaal  very  long  horns,  bending 
backward ;  consequently  it  cannot  be  the 
chamois.  The  horns  of  the  _y'aoZ  are  reckoned 
among  the  valuable  articles  of  traffic,  Ezek. 
xxvii,  15.  The  ibex  is  finely  shaped,  graceful 
in  its  motions,  and  gentle  in  its  manners. 
The  female  is  particularly  celebrated  by  natu- 
ral historians  for  tender  affection  to  her  young, 
and  the  incessant  vigilance  with  which  she 
watches  over  their  safety ;  and  also  for  ardent 
attachment  and  fidelity  to  her  mate. 

GOD,  an  immaterial,  intelligent,  and  free 
Being  ;  of  perfect  goodness,  wisdom,  and  pow- 
er ;  who  made  the  universe,  and  continues  to 
support  it,  as  well  as  to  govern  and  direct  it, 
by  his  providence.  Philologists  have  hitherto 
considered  the  word  God  as  being  of  the  same 
signification  with  good  ;  and  this  is  not  denied 
by  M.  Hallenberg.  But  he  thinks  that  both 
words  originally  denoted  unity;  and  that  the 
root  is  inx,  turns;  whence  the  Syriac  Chad 
and  Gada;  the  Arabic  Ahd  and  Gahd;  the 
Persic  Choda  and  Chuda;  the  Greek  uyadug 
and  yddos ;  the  Teutonic  Gud ;  the  German 
Gott ;  and  our  Saxon  God.  The  other  names 
of  God,  this  author  thinks,  are  referable  to  a 
similar  origin. 

2.  By  his  immateriality,  intelligence,  and 
freedom,  God  is  distinguished  from  Fate,  Na- 
ture, Destiny,  Necessity,  Chance,  Anima  Mun- 
di,  and  from  all  the  other  fictitious  beings 
acknowledged  by  the  Stoics,  Pantheists,  Spi- 
nosists,  and  other  sorts  of  Atheists.  The 
knowledge  of  God,  his  nature,  attributes,  word, 
and  works,  with  the  relations  between  him 
and  his  creatures,  makes  the  subject  of  the 
extensive  science  called  theology.  In  Scrip- 
ture God  is  defined  by,  "  I  am  that  I  am ; 
Alpha  and  Omega ;  the  Beginning  and  End  of 
all  things."  Among  philosophers,  he  is  de- 
fined a  Being  of  infinite  perfection ;  or  in 
whom  there  is  no  defect  of  any  thing  which 
we  conceive  may  raise,  improve,  or  exalt  his 
nature.  He  is  the  First  Cause,  the  First 
Being,  who  has  existed  from  the  beginning, 
has  created  the  world,  or  who  subsists  neces- 
sarily, or  of  himself. 

3.  The  plain  argument,  says  Maclaurin,  in 
his  "Account  of  Sir  I.  Newton's  Philosophi- 
cal  Discoveries,"  for  the  existence  of  the 
Deity,  obvious  to  all,  and  carrying  irresistible 
conviction  with  it,  is  from  the  evident  con- 
trivance and  fitness  of  things  for  one  another, 
which  we  meet  with  throughout  all  parts  of 
the  universe.  There  is  no  need  of  nice  or 
subtle  reasonings  in  this  matter ;  a  manifest 
contrivance  immediately  suggests  a  contriver. 
It  strikes  us  like  a  sensation ;  and  artful  rea- 
sonings against  it  may  puzzle  us,  but  it  is 
without  shaking  our  belief.  No  person,  for 
example,  that  knows  the  principles  of  optics, 


GOD 


410 


GOD 


and  the  structure  of  the  eye,  can  believe  that 
it.  was  formed  without  skill  in  that  science ;  or 
that  the  ear  was  formed  without  the  know- 
ledge of  sounds  ;  or  that  the  male  and  female 
in  animals  were  not  formed  for  each  other, 
and  for  continuing  the  species.  All  our  ac- 
counts of  nature  are  full  of  instances  of  this 
kind.  The  admirable  and  beautiful  structure 
of  things  for  final  causes,  exalts  our  idea  of  the 
Contriver ;  the  unity  of  design  shows  him  to 
be  one.  The  great  motions  in  the  system  per- 
formed with  the  same  facility  as  the  least, 
suggest  his  almighty  power,  which  gave  mo- 
tion to  the  earth  and  the  celestial  bodies  with 
equal  ease  as  to  the  minutest  particles.  The 
subtilty  of  the  motions  and  actions  in  the 
internal  parts  of  bodies,  shows  that  his  influ- 
ence penetrates  the  inmost  recesses  of  things, 
and  that  he  is  equally  active  and  present  every 
where.  The  simplicity  of  the  laws  that  pre- 
vail in  the  world,  the  excellent  disposition  of 
things,  in  order  to  obtain  the  best  ends,  and 
the  beauty  which  adorns  the  works  of  nature, 
far  superior  to  any  thing  in  art,  suggest  his 
consummate  wisdom.  The  usefulness  of  the 
whole  scheme,  so  well  contrived  for  the  intel- 
ligent beings  that  enjoy  it,  with  the  internal 
disposition  and  moral  structure  of  these  beings 
themselves,  shows  his  unbounded  goodness. 
These  are  arguments  which  are  sufficiently 
open  to  the  views  and  capacities  of  the  un- 
learned, while  at  the  same  time  they  acquire 
new  strength  and  lustre  from  the  discoveries 
of  the  learned.  The  Deity's  acting  and  inter- 
posing in  the  universe,  show  that  he  governs 
as  well  as  formed  it ;  and  the  depth  of  his 
counsels,  even  in  conducting  the  material  uni- 
verse, of  which  a  great  part  surpasses  our 
knowledge,  keeps  up  an  inward  veneration 
and  awe  of  this  great  Being,  and  disposes  us 
to  receive  what  may  be  otherwise  revealed  to 
us  concerning  him.  It  has  been  justly  ob- 
served, that  some  of  the  laws  of  nature  now 
known  to  us  must  have  escaped  us  if  we  had 
wanted  the  sense  of  seeing.  It  may  be  in  his 
power  to  bestow  upon  us  other  senses,  of 
which  we  have  at  present  no  idea ;  without 
which  it  may  be  impossible  for  us  to  know  all 
his  works,  or  to  have  more  adequate  ideas  of 
himself.  In  our  present  state,  we  know 
enough  to  be  satisfied  of  our  dependency  upon 
him,  and  of  the  duty  we  owe  to  him,  the  Lord 
and  Disposer  of  all  things.  He  is  not  the 
object  of  sense  ;  his  essence,  and,  indeed,  that 
of  all  other  substances,  are  beyond  the  reach 
of  all  our  discoveries  ;  but  his  attributes  clearly 
appear  in  his  admirable  works.  We  know 
that  the  highest  conceptions  we  are  able  to 
form  of  them,  arc  still  beneath  his  real  per- 
fections ;  but  his  power  and  dominion  over  us, 
and  our  duty  toward  him,  are  manifest. 

4.  Though  God  has  given  us  no  innate 
ideas  nf  himself,  says  Mr.  Locke,  yet,  having 
furnished  us  with  those  faculties  our  minds 
are  endowed  with,  he  hath  not  left  himself 
without  a  witness;  since  we  have  sense,  per- 
ception, and  reason,  and  cannot  want  a  clear 
proof  of  him  as  long  as  we  carry  ourselves 
about  us.    To  show,  therefore,  that  we  are 


capable  of  knowing,  that  is,  of  being  certain 
that  there  is  a  God,  and  how  we  may  come  by 
this  certainty,  I  think  we  need  go  no  farther 
than  ourselves,  and  that  undoubted  knowledge 
we  have  of  our  own  existence.     I  think  it  is 
beyond  question,  that  man  has  a  clear  percep- 
tion   of  his  own  being;  he  knows  certainly 
that  he  exists,  and  that  he  is  something.     In 
the   next  place,  man  knows,  by  an  intuitive 
certainty,  that  bare  nothing  can  no  more  pro- 
duce any  real  being,  than  it  can  be  equal  to 
two  right  angles.  If,  therefore,  we  know  there 
is  some  real  Being,  it  is  an  evident  demonstra- 
tion, that  from  eternity  there  has  been  some- 
thing ;  since  what  was  not  from  eternity  had 
a  beginning ;  and  what  had  a  beginning  must 
be  produced  by  something  else.     Next  it  is 
evident,  that  what  has  its  being  from  another 
must  also  have  all  that  which  is  in,  and  be- 
longs to,  its  being  from  another  too ;  all  the 
powers  it  has  must  be  owing  to,  and  derived 
from,  the  same  source.     This  eternal  source, 
then,  of  all  being  must  be  also  the  source  and 
original    of  all   power ;   and    so    this   eternal 
Being  must  be  also  the  most  powerful.   Again  : 
man   finds   in    himself  perception  and  know- 
ledge :  we  are  certain,  then,  that  there  is  not 
only  some  Being,  but  some  knowing,  intelli- 
gent Being,  in  the  world.     There  was  a  time, 
then,  when  there  was  no  knowing  Being,  or 
else    there    has  been  a  knowing  Being  from 
eternity.     If  it  be  said  there  was  a  time  when 
that  eternal  Being  had  no  knowledge,  I  reply, 
that  then  it  is  impossible  there   should  have 
ever  been  any  knowledge ;  it  being  as  impos- 
sible  that  things  wholly  void   of  knowledge, 
and  operating  blindly,  and  without  any  per- 
ception, should  produce  a  knowing  Being,  as 
it  is  impossible   that  a  triangle  should  make 
itself  three  angles  bigger  than  two  right  ones. 
Thus  from  the  consideration  of  ourselves,  and 
what  we  infallibly  find  in  our  own  constitu- 
tions, our  reason  leads  us  to  the  knowledge  of 
this  certain  and  evident  truth,  that  there  is  an 
eternal,  most  powerful,  and  knowing  Being, 
which,  whether  any  one  will  call  God,  it  mat- 
ters not.     The  thing  is  evident ;  and  from  this 
idea,  duly  considered,  will  easily  be  deduced 
all  those  other  attributes  we  ought  to  ascribe 
to  this  eternal  Being.     From  what  has  been 
said,  it  is  plain  to  me,  that  we  have  a  more 
certain  knowledge  of  the  existence  of  a  God, 
than  of  any  thing  our  senses  have  not  immedi- 
ately discovered  to  us.     Nay,  I  presume  I  may 
say  that  we  more  certainly  know  that  there  is 
a  God,  than  that  there  is  any  thing  else  with- 
out us.     When  I  say  we  know,  I  mean,  there 
is  such  a  knowledge  within  our  reach,  which 
we    cannot   miss,    if  we  will    but    apply    our 
minds  to  that  as  we  do  to  several  other  in- 
quiries.    It    being    then    unavoidable    for    all 
rational  creatures  to  conclude  that  something 
has  existed  from  eternity,  let  us  next  see  what 
kind  of  thing  that  must  be.     There  are  but 
two    sorts    of  beings    in  the  world  that  man 
knows  or  conceives ;  such  as  are  purely  ma- 
terial without  sense  or  perception,  and  sensi- 
ble, perceiving  beings,  such  as  we  find  ourselves 
to  be.     These  two  sorts  we  shall  call  cogita- 


GOD 


411 


GOD 


tive  and  incogitative  beings ;  which  to  our 
present  purpose  are  better  than  material  and 
immaterial.  If,  then,  there  must  be  something 
eternal,  it  is  very  obvious  to  reason  that  it 
must  be  a  cogitative  being ;  because  it  is  as 
impossible  to  conceive  that  bare  incogitative 
matter  should  ever  produce  a  thinking,  intelli- 
gent being,  as  that  nothing  should  of  itself 
produce  matter.  Let  us  suppose  any  parcel 
of  matter  eternal,  we  shall  find  it  in  itself  un- 
able to  produce  any  thing.  Let  us  suppose  its 
parts  firmly  at  rest  together,  if  there  were  no 
other  being  in  the  world,  must  it  not  eternally 
remain  so,  a  dead  inactive  lump  ?  Is  it  pos- 
sible to  conceive  that  it  can  add  motion  to 
itself,  or  produce  any  thing?  Matter,  then, 
by  its  own  strength  cannot  produce  in  itself 
so  much  as  motion.  The  motion  it  has  must 
also  be  from  eternity,  or  else  added  to  matter 
by  some  other  being,  more  powerful  than  mat- 
ter. But  let  us  suppose  motion  eternal  too, 
yet  matter,  incogitative  matter,  and  motion 
could  never  produce  thought :  knowledge  will 
still  be  as  far  beyond  the  power  of  nothing  to 
produce.  Divide  matter  into  as  minute  parts 
as  you  will,  vary  its  figure  and  motion  as 
much  as  you  please,  it  will  operate  no  other- 
wise upon  other  bodies  of  proportionable  bulk, 
1  ban  it  did  before  this  division.  The  minutest 
particles  of  matter  knock,  impel,  and  resist 
one  another,  just  as  the  greater  do  ;  so  that  if 
we  suppose  nothing  eternal,  matter  can  never 
begin  to  be  ;  if  we  suppose  bare  matter  with- 
out motion  eternal,  motion  can  never  begin  to 
lie ;  if  we  suppose  only  matter  and  motion  to 
be  eternal,  thought  can  never  begin  to  be  ;  for 
it  is  impossible  to  conceive  that  matter,  either 
with  or  without  motion,  could  have  originally 
in  and  from  itself,  sense,  perception,  and 
knowledge,  as  is  evident  from  hence,  that  then 
sense,  perception,  and  knowledge  must  be  a 
property  eternally  inseparable  from  matter, 
and  every  particle  of  it.  Since,  therefore, 
whatsoever  is  the  first  eternal  Being  must 
necessarily  be  cogitative ;  and  whatsoever  is 
first  of  all  things  must  necessarily  contain  in 
it,  and  actually  have,  at  least  all  the  perfec- 
tions that  can  ever  after  exist,  it  necessarily 
follows,  that  the  first  eternal  Being  cannot  be 
matter.  If,  therefore,  it  be  evident  that  some- 
thing must  necessarily  exist  from  eternity,  it 
is  also  evident  that  that  something  must  ne- 
cessarily be  a  cogitative  Being.  For  it  is  as 
impossible  that  incogitative  matter  should 
produce  a  cogitative  Being,  as  that  nothing, 
or  the  negation  of  all  being,  should  produce  a 
positive  Being  or  matter. 

This  discovery  of  the  necessary  existence 
^i"  an  eternal  mind  sufficiently  leads  us  to  the 
knowledge  of  God.  For  it  will  hence  follow, 
that  all  other  knowing  beings  that  have  a  begin- 
ning must  depend  upon  him,  and  have  no  other 
ways  of  knowledge  or  extent  of  power  than 
what  he  gives  them  ;  and  therefore  if  he  made 
those,  he  made  also  the  less  excellent  pieces  of 
this  universe,  all  inanimate  bodies,  whereby 
his  omniscience,  power,  and  providence  will 
be  established,  and  from  thence  all  his  other 
attributes  necessarily  follow. 


5.  In  the  Scriptures  no  attempt  is  made  to 
prove  the  existence  of  a  God  ;  such  an  attempt 
would  have  been  entirely  useless,  because  the 
fact  was  universally  admitted.  The  error  of 
men  consisted,  not  in  denying  a  God,  but  in 
admitting  too  many ;  and  one  great  object  of 
the  Bible  is  to  demonstrate  that  there  is  but 
one.  No  metaphysical  arguments,  however, 
are  employed  in  it  for  this  purpose.  The  proof 
rests  on  facts  recorded  in  the  history  of  the 
Jews,  from  which  it  appears  that  they  were 
always  victorious  and  prosperous  so  long  as 
they  served  the  only  living  and  true  God,  Je- 
hovah, the  name  by  which  the  Almighty  made 
himself  known  to  them,  and  uniformly  unsuc- 
cessful when  they  revolted  from  him  to  serve 
other  gods.  What  argument  could  be  so  effect- 
ual to  convince  them  that  there  was  no  god  in 
all  the  earth  but  the  God  of  Israel  ?  The  sove- 
reignty and  universal  providence  of  the  Lord 
Jehovah  are  proved  by  predictions  delivered  by 
the  Jewish  prophets,  pointing  out  the  fate  of 
nations  and  of  empires,  specifying  distinctly 
their  rise,  the  duration  of  their  power,  and  the 
causes  of  their  decline ;  thus  demonstrating 
that  one  God  ruled  among  the  nations,  and 
made  them  the  unconscious  instruments  of 
promoting  the  purposes  of  his  will.  In  the 
same  manner,  none  of  the  attributes  of  God 
are  demonstrated  in  Scripture  by  reasoning; 
they  are  simply  affirmed  and  illustrated  by 
facts;  and  instead  of  a  regular  deduction  of 
doctrines  and  conclusions  from  a  few  admitted 
principles,  we  are  left  to  gather  them  from  the 
recorded  feelings  and  devotional  expressions  of 
persons  whose  hearts  were  influenced  by  the 
fear  of  God.  These  circumstances  point  out 
a  marked  singularity  in  the  Scriptures,  con- 
sidered as  a  repository  of  religious  doctrines, 
The  writers,  generally  speaking,  do  not  reason, 
but  exhort  and  remonstrate ;  they  do  not  at- 
tempt to  fetter  the  judgment  by  the  subtleties 
of  argument,  but  to  rouse  the  feelings  by  an 
appeal  to  palpable  facts.  This  is  exactly  what 
might  have  been  expected  from  teachers  acting 
under  a  divine  commission,  and  armed  with 
undeniable  facts  to  enforce  their  admonitions. 

6.  In  three  distinct  ways  do  the  sacred  writ- 
ers furnish  us  with  information  on  this  great 
and  essential  subject,  the  existence  and  the 
character  of  God ;  from  the  names  by  which 
he  is  designated ;  from  the  actions  ascribed  to 
him;  and  from  the  attributes  with  which  he  is 
invested  in  their  invocations  and  praises ;  and 
in  those  lofty  descriptions  of  his  nature  which, 
under  the  inspiration  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  they 
have  recorded  for  the  instruction  of  the  world. 
These  attributes  will  be  considered  under  their 
respective  heads ;  but  the  impression  of  the 
general  view  of  the  divine  character,  as  thus 
revealed,  is  too  important  to  be  omitted. 

7.  The  names  of  God  as  recorded  in  Scripture 
convey  at  once  ideas  of  overwhelming  greatness 
and  glory,  mingled  with  that  awful  mysteri- 
ousness  with  which,  to  all  finite  minds,  and 
especially  to  the  minds  of  mortals,  the  divine 
essence  and  mode  of  existence  must  ever  be 
invested.  Though  One  he  is  □<nt>N,  Elohim, 
Gods,  persons  adorable.     He  is  mrv,  Jehovah, 


GOD 


412 


GOD 


ee]£-exi8ting i  Sn,  Et,,  strong,  powerful;  nVW, 
EImieh,  /  am,  I  will  be,  self-existence,  inde. 
pendency,  all-sufficiency,  immutability,  eternity; 

HIP,  Shaddai,  almighty,  all-sufficient;  pN, 
Adon,  Supporter,  Lord,  Judge.  These  are 
among  the  adorable  appellatives  of  God  which 
are  scattered  throughout  the  revelation  that  he 
has  been  pleased  to  make  of  himself:  but  on 
one  occasion  he  was  pleased  more  particularly 
to  declare  his  name,  that  is,  such  of  the  quali- 
ties and  attributes  of  the  divine  nature  as  mor- 
tals are  the  most  interested  in  knowing ;  and 
to  unfold,  not  only  his  natural,  but.  also  those 
of  his  moral  attributes  by  which  his  conduct 
toward  his  creatures  is  regulated.  "  And  the 
Lord  passed  by  and  proclaimed,  The  Lord,  the 
Lord  God,  merciful  and  gracious,  long-suffer- 
ing, and  abundant  in  goodness  and  truth, 
keeping  mercy  for  thousands,  forgiving  ini- 
quity, transgression,  and  sin,  and  that  will  by 
no  means  clear  the  guilty;  visiting  the  iniquity 
of  the  fathers  upon  the  children,  and  upon  the 
children's  children,  unto  the  third  and  fourth 
generation,"  Exodus  xxxiv.  This  is  the  most 
ample  and  particular  description  of  the  cha- 
racter of  God,  as  given  by  himself  in  the  sa- 
cred records;  and  the  import  of  the  several 
titles  by  which  he  has  thus  in  his  infinite  con- 
descension manifested  himself,  has  been  thus 
exhibited.  He  is  not  only  Jehovah,  self-exist- 
ent, and  El,  the  strong  or  mighty  God;  but  he 
is,  says  Dr.  A.  Clarke,  "aim,  Rochum,  the 
merciful  Being,  who  is  full  of  tenderness  and 
compassion  ;  pjn,  Cjianun,  the  gracious  One,  he 
whose  nature  is  goodness  itself,  the  loving 
God.  o>D  *pN,  Eiiec  Apayim,  long-suffering, 
the  Being  who,  because  of  his  tenderness,  is 
not  easily  irritated,  but  suffers  long  and  is 
kind;  m,  Rab,  the  great  or  mighty  One:  ion, 
Cbbseo,  the  bountiful  Being,  he  who  is  exube- 
rant in  his  beneficence;  pdn,  Emf.tm,  ike  Truth, 
or  True  One,  he  alone  who  can  neither  deceive 
nor  be  deceived;  -ion  -ixj,  Notser  Chesed,  the 
Preserver  of  beuntifulneaa,  he  whose  benefi- 
cence never  ends,  beeping  mercy  for  thousands 
of  generations,  showing  compassion  and  mercy 
while  the  world  endures;  nMBTO  j'CCi  p>>  ncj, 
NpBE  avon  vapesiia  vechataah,  he  xoho  bears 
away  iniquity,  transgression,  and  sin  ;  properly 
the  Redeemer,  the  Pardoner,  the  Forgvaer,  the 
Being  whose  prerogative  it  is  to  forgive  sin, 
and  save  the  soul ;  r\px*  N1?  npj,  Nakeh  lo 
yiwakeu,  the  righteous  Judge,  who  distributes 
justice  with  an  impartial  hand;  and  pjr  ips, 
Pared  avon,  &c,  he  who  visits  iniquity,  he  who 
punishes  transgressors,  and  from  whose  jus- 
tice no  sinner  can  escape  ;  the  God  of  retribu- 
te and  vindictive  justice." 

8.  The  second  means  by  which  the  Scrip- 
tures convey  to  us  the  knowledge  of  God,  is 
by  the  actions  which  they  ascribe  to  him.  They 
contain,  indeed,  the  important  record  of  his 
dealings  with  men  in  every  age  which  is  com- 
prehended within  the  limit  of  the  sacred  history ; 
and,  by  prophetic  declaration,  they  also  exhi- 
bit the  principles  on  which  he  will  govern  the 
world  to  the  end  of  time  :  so  that  the  whole 
course  of  the  divine  administration  may  be 
considered  as  exhibiting  a  singularly  illustra- 


tive comment  upon  those  attributes  of  his 
nature  which,  in  their  abstract  form,  are  con- 
tained in  such  declarations  as  those  which 
have  been  just  quoted.  The  first  act  ascribed 
to  God  is  that  of  creating  the  heavens  and  the 
earth  out  of  nothing;  and  by  his  fiat  alone 
arranging  their  parts,  and  peopling  them  with 
*iving  creatures.  By  this  were  manifested — 
his  eternity  and  self-existence,  as  he  wIiq  cre- 
ates must  be  before  all  creatures,  and  he  who 
gives  being  to  others  can  himself  derive  it  from 
none  : — his  almighty  power,  shown  both  in  the 
act  of  creation  and  in  the  number  and  vastness 
of  the  objects  so  produced : — his  wisdom,  in  their 
arrangement,  and  in  their  fitness  to  their  re- 
spective ends : — and  his  goodness,  as  the  whole 
tended  to  the  happiness  of  sentient  beings. 
The  foundations  of  his  natural  and  moral 
government  are  also  made  manifest  by  his 
creative  acts.  In  what  he  made  out  of  nothing 
he  had  an  absolute  right  and  prerogative :  it 
awaited  his  ordering,  and  was  completely  at 
his  disposal ;  so  that  to  alter  or  destroy  his 
own  work,  and  to  prescribe  the  laws  by  which 
the  intelligent  and  rational  part  of  his  creatures 
should  be  governed,  are  rights  which  none  can 
question.  Thus  on  the  one  hand  his  charac- 
ter of  Lord  or  Governor  is  established,  and  on 
the  other  our  duty  of  lowly  homage  and  abso- 
lute obedience. 

9.  Agreeably  to  this,  as  soon  as  man  was 
created,  he  was  placed  under  a  rule  of  conduct. 
Obedience  was  to  be  followed  with  the  con- 
tinuance of  the  divine  favour ;  transgression, 
with  death.  The  event  called  forth  new 
manifestations  of  the  character  of  God.  His 
tender  mercy,  in  the  compassion  showed  to  the 
fallen  pair ;  his  justice,  in  forgiving  them  only 
in  the  view  of  a  satisfaction  to  be  hereafter 
offered  to  his  justice  by  an  innocent  representa- 
tive of  the  sinning  race;  his  love  to  that  race, 
in  giving  his  own  Son  to  become  this  Redeemer, 
and  in  the  fulness  of  time  to  die  for  the  sins 
of  the  whole  world ;  and  his  holiness,  in  con- 
necting with  this  provision  for  the  pardon  of 
man  the  means  of  restoring  him  to  a  sinless 
state,  and  to  the  obliterated  image  of  God  in 
which  he  had  been  created.  Exemplifications 
of  the  divine  mercy  are  traced  from  age  to  age, 
in  his  establishing  his  own  worship  among 
men,  and  remitting  the  punishment  of  indivi- 
dual and  national  offences  in  answer  to  prayer 
offered  from  penitent  hearts,  and  in  depend- 
ence upon  the  typified  or  actually  offered 
universal  sacrifice : — of  his  condescension,  in 
stooping  to  the  cases  of  individuals ;  in  his 
dispensations  both  of  providence  and  grace, 
by  showing  respect  to  the  poor  and  humble ; 
and,  principally,  by  the  incarnation  of  God  in 
the  form  of  a  servant,  admitting  men  into  fa- 
miliar and  friendly  intercourse  with  himself, 
and  then  entering  into  heaven  to  be  their 
patron  and  advocate,  until  they  should  be  re- 
ceived unto  the  same  glory,  "and  so  be  for 
ever  with  the  Lord:" — of  his  strictly  righteous 
government,  in  the  destruction  of  the  old  world, 
the  cities  of  the  plain,  the  nations  of  Canaan, 
and  all  ancient  states,  upon  their  "  filling  up 
the  measure  of  their  iniquities ;"  and,  to  show 


GOD 


413 


GOD 


that  "he  will  by  no  means  clear  the  guilty;" 
in  the  numerous  and  severe  punishments  in- 
flicted even  upon  the  chosen  seed  of  Abraham, 
because  of  their  transgressions  : — of  his  long- 
suffering,  in  frequent  warnings,  delays,  and 
corrective  judgments  inflicted  upon  individuals 
and  nations,  before  sentence  of  utter  excision 
and  destruction  : — of  faithfulness  and  truth,  in 
the  fulfilment  of  promises,  often  many  ages 
after  they  were  given,  as  in  the  promises  to 
Abraham  respecting  the  possession  of  the  land 
of  Canaan  by  his  seed,  and  in  all  the  "  pro- 
mises made  to  the  fathers"  respecting  the  ad- 
vent, vicarious  death,  and  illustrious  offices  of 
the  "  Christ,"  the  Saviour  of  the  world : — of 
his  immutability,  in  the  constant  and  unchang- 
ing laws  and  principles  of  his  government, 
which  remain  to  this  day  precisely  the  same, 
in  every  thing  universal,  as  when  first  promul- 
gated, and  have  been  the  rule  of  his  conduct  in  all 
places  as  well  as  through  all  time  : — of  his  pre- 
science  of  future  events,  manifested  by  the  pre- 
dictions of  Scripture : — and  of  the  depth  and 
stability  of  his  counsel,  as  illustrated  in  that 
plan  and  purpose  of  bringing  back  a  revolted 
world  to  obedience  and  felicity,  which  we  find 
steadily  kept  in  view  in  the  Scriptural  history 
of  the  acts  of  God  in  former  ages ;  which  is 
still  the  end  toward  which  all  his  dispensations 
bend,  however  wide  and  mysterious  their 
sweep ;  and  which  they  will  finally  accomplish, 
as  we  learn  from  the  prophetic  history  of  the 
future,  contained  in  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments. 

Thus  the  course  of  divine  operation  in  the 
world  has  from  age  to  age  been  a  manifesta- 
tion of  the  divine  character,  continually  receiv- 
ing new  and  stronger  illustrations  until  the 
completion  of  the  Christian  revelation  by  the 
ministry  of  Christ  and  his  inspired  followers, 
and  still  placing  itself  in  brighter  light  and 
more  impressive  aspects  as  the  scheme  of  hu- 
man redemption  runs  on  to  its  consummation. 
From  all  the  acts  of  God  as  recorded  in  the 
Scriptures,  we  are  taught  that  he  alone  is  God ; 
that  he  is  present  every  where  to  sustain  and 
govern  all  things ;  that  his  wisdom  is  infinite, 
his  counsel  settled,  and  his  power  irresistible ; 
that  he  is  holy,  just,  and  good  ;  the  Lord  and  the 
Judge,  but  the  Father  and  the  Friend,  of  man. 

10.  More  at  large  do  we  learn  what  God  is, 
from  the  declarations  of  the  inspired  writings. 
As  to  his  substance,  that  "  God  is  a  Spirit." 
As  to  his  duration,  that  "  from  everlasting  to 
everlasting  he  is  God ;"  "  the  King,  eternal, 
immortal,  invisible."  That,  after  all  the  mani- 
festations he  has  made  of  himself,  he  is,  from 
the  infinite  perfection  and  glory  of  his  nature, 
incomprehensible  :  "  Lo,  these  are  but  parts  of 
his  ways,  and  how  little  a  portion  is  heard  of 
him  !"  "  Touching  the  Almighty,  we  cannot 
find  him  out."  That  he  is  ■unchangeable  : 
"The  Father  of  Lights,  with  whom  there  is 
no  variableness,  neither  shadow  of  turning." 
That  "  he  is  the  fountain  of  life,"  and  the  only 
independent  Being  in  the  universe:  "Who 
only  hath  immortality."  That  every  other 
being,  however  exalted,  has  its  existence  from 
him :  "  For  by  him  were  all  things   created, 


which  are  in  heaven  and  in  earth,  whether 
they  are  visible  or  invisible."  That  the  exist- 
ence of  every  thing  is  upheld  by  him,  no  crea- 
ture being  for  a  moment  independent  of  his 
support :  "  By  him  all  things  consist ;"  "  up- 
holding all  things  by  the  word  of  his  power." 
That  he  is  omnipresent :  "  Do  not  I  fill  heaven 
and  earth  with  my  presence,  saith  the  Lord  V 
That  he  is  omniscient :  "  All  things  are  naked 
and  open  before  the  eyes  of  him  with  whom 
we  have  to  do."  That  he  is  the  absolute  Lord 
and  Owner  of  all  things  :  "  The  heavens,  even 
the  heaven  of  heavens,  are  thine,  and  all  the 
parts  of  them:"  "The  earth  is  thine,  and  the 
fulness  thereof,  the  world  and  them  that  dwell 
therein  :"  "  He  doeth  according  to  his  will  in 
the  armies  of  heaven,  and  among  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  earth."  That  his  providence  ex- 
tends to  the  minutest  objects  :  "  The  hairs  of 
your  head  are  all  numbered  :"  "  Are  not  two 
sparrows  sold  for  a  farthing  ?  and  one  of  them 
shall  not  fall  on  the  ground  without  your  Fa- 
ther." That  he  is  a  Being  of  unspotted  •purity 
and  perfect  rectitude  :  "  Holy,  holy,  holy,  LoiV 
God  of  hosts  !"  "  A  God  of  truth,  and  in  whom 
is  no  iniquity  :"  "  Of  purer  eyes  than  to  behold 
iniquity."  That  he  is  just  in  the  administra- 
tion of  his  government :  "  Shall  not  the  Judge 
of  the  whole  earth  do  right  ?"  "  Clouds  and 
darkness  are  round  about  him  ;  judgment  and 
justice  are  the  habitation  of  his  throne."  That 
his  wisdom  is  unsearchable :  "  O  the  depth  of 
the  wisdom  and  knowledge  of  God  !  How  un- 
searchable are  his  judgments,  and  his  ways 
past  finding  out !"  And,  finally,  that  he  is  good 
and  merciful :  "  Thou  art  good,  and  thy  mercy 
endureth  for  ever  :"  "  His  tender  mercy  is  over 
all  his  works  :"  "  God,  who  is  rich  in  mercy, 
for  his  great  love  wherewith  he  loved  us,  even 
when  we  were  dead  in  sins,  hath  quickened  us 
together  with  Christ :"  "  God  was  in  Christ, 
reconciling  the  world  unto  himself,  not  im- 
puting their  trespasses  unto  them :"  "  God 
hath  given  to  us  eternal  life,  and  this  life  is  in 
his  Son." 

11.  Under  these  deeply  awful  but  consolatory 
views,  do  the  Scriptures  present  to  us  the  su- 
preme object  of  our  worship  and  trust ;  and 
they  dwell  upon  each  of  the  above  particulars 
with  inimitable  sublimity  and  beauty  of  lan- 
guage, and  with  an  inexhaustible  variety  of 
illustration.  Nor  can  we  compare  these  views 
of  the  divine  nature  with  the  conceptions  of 
the  most  enlightened  of  Pagans,  without  feel- 
ing how  much  reason  we  have  for  everlasting 
gratitude,  that  a  revelation  so  explicit,  and  so- 
comprehensive,  should  have  been  made  to  us 
on  a  subject  which  only  a  revelation  from  (  rod 
himself  could  have  made  known.  It  is  thus 
that  Christian  philosophers,  even  when  they 
do  not  use  the  language  of  the  Scriptures,  are 
able  to  speak  on  this  great  and  mysterious  doc- 
trine, in  language  so  clear,  and  witli  concep- 
tions so  noble;  in  a  manner  too  so  equable, 
so  different  from  the  sages  of  antiquity,  who, 
if  at  any  time  they  approach  the  truth  when 
speaking  of  flic  divine  nature,  never  fail  to 
mingle  with  it  some  essentially  erroneous  or 
grovelling  conception.  "  By  t  lie  Word  of  God," 


GOD 


414 


GOD 


<-ays  Dr.  Barrow,  "  we  mean  a  Being  of  infi- 
nite wisdom,'  goodness,  and  power,  the  Creator 
and  the  Governor  of  all  things,  to  whom  the 
great  attributes  of  eternity  and  independency, 
omniscience  and  immensity,  perfect  holiness 
and  purity,  perfect  justice  and  veracity,  com- 
plete happiness,  glorious  majesty,  and  supreme 
right  of  dominion  belong ;  and  to  whom  the 
highest  veneration,  and  most  profound  sub- 
mission and  obedience  are  due."  "  Our  notion 
of  Deity,"  says  Bishop  Pearson,  "  doth  ex- 
pressly signify  a  Being  or  Nature  of  infinite 
perfection  ;  and  the  infinite  perfection  of  a 
being  or  nature  consists  in  this,  that  it  be  ab- 
solutely and  essentially  necessary ;  an  actual 
Being  of  itself;  and  potential,  or  causative  of 
all  beings  beside  itself,  independent  from  any 
other,  upon  which  all  things  else  depend,  and 
by  which  all  things  else  are  governed."  "God 
is  a  Being,"  says  Lawson,  "and  not  any  kind 
of  being  ;  but  a  substance,  which  is  the  founda- 
tion of  other  beings.  And  not  only  a  substance, 
but  perfect.  Yet  many  beings  arc  perfect  in 
their  kind,  yet  limited  and  finite.  But  God  is 
absolutely,  fully,  and  every  way  infinitely  per- 
fect; and  therefore  above  spirits,  above  angels, 
who  are  perfect  comparatively.  God's  infinite 
perfection  includes  all  the  attributes,  even  the 
most  excellent.  It  excludes  all  dependency, 
borrowed  existence,  composition,  corruption, 
mortality,  contingency,  ignorance,  unright- 
eousness, weakness,  misery,  and  all  imperfec- 
tions whatever.  It  includes  necessity  of  being, 
independency,  perfect  unity,  simplicity,  im- 
mensity, eternity,  immortality  ;  the  most  per- 
fect life,  knowledge,  wisdom,  integrity,  power, 
glory,  bliss,  and  all  these  in  the  highest  degree. 
We  cannot  pierce  into  the  secrets  of  this  eternal 
Being.  Our  reason  comprehends  but  little  of 
him,  and  when  it  can  proceed  no  farther,  faith 
comes  in,  and  we  believe  far  more  than  we  can 
understand  ;  and  this  our  belief  is  not  contrary 
to  reason;  but  reason  itself  dictates  unto  us, 
that  we  must  believe  far  more  of  God  than  it 
can  in  form  us  of."  To  these  we  may  add  an 
admirable  passage  from  Sir  Isaac  Newton : 
"  The  word  Gon  frequently  signifies  Lord ;  but 
every  lord  is  not  God ;  it  is  the  dominion  of  a 
spiritual  Being  or  Lord  that  constitutes  God ; 
true  dominion,  true  God;  supreme,  the  Su- 
preme ;  feigned,  the  false  god.  From  such 
true  dominion  it  follows,  that  the  true  God  is 
living,  intelligent,  and  powerful ;  and  from  his 
other  perfections,  that  he  is  supreme,  or  su- 
premely perfect ;  he  is  eternal  and  infinite ; 
omnipotent  .and  omniscient;  that  is,  he  en- 
dures from  eternity  to  eternity;  and  is  pre- 
sent from  infinity  to  infinity.  He  governs  all 
tilings  that  exist,  and  knows  all  things 
lhat  arc  to  be  known;  he  is  not  eternity  or 
infinity,  but  eternal  and  infinite;  he  is  not 
duration  or  space,  but  he  endures  and  is  pre- 
sent ;  he  endures  always,  and  is  present  every 
where;  he  is  omnipresent,  not  only  virtually, 
but  also  substantially?  for  power  without  sub- 
tance  cannol  Bubsist.  All  things  are  con- 
tained and  move  in  him,  but  without  any 
mutual  passion;  he  surfers  nothing  from  the 
motions  of  bodies ;  nor  do  they  undergo  any 


resistance  from  his  omnipresence.  It  is  con- 
fessed, that  God  exists  necessarily,  and  by  the 
same  necessity  he  exists  always  and  every  where. 
Hence  also  he  must  be  perfectly  similar,  all 
eye,  all  ear,  all  arm,  all  the  power  of  perceiving, 
understanding,  and  acting  ;  but  after  a  manner 
not  at  all  corporeal,  after  a  manner  not  like 
that  of  men,  after  a  manner  wholly  to  us  un- 
known. He  is  destitute  of  all  body,  and  all 
bodily  shape ;  and  therefore  cannot  be  seen, 
heard,  or  touched ;  nor  ought  he  to  be  wor- 
shipped under  the  representation  of  any  thing 
corporeal.  We  have  ideas  of  the  attributes  of 
God,  but  do  not  know  the  substance  of  even 
any  thing ;  we  see  only  the  figures  and  colours 
of  bodies,  hear  only  sounds,  touch  only  the 
outward  surfaces,  smell  only  odours,  and  taste 
tastes ;  and  do  not,  cannot,  by  any  sense,  or 
reflex  act,  know  their  inward  substances ;  and 
much  less  can  we  have  any  notion  of  the  sub- 
stance of  God.  We  know  hiin  by  his  proper- 
ties and  attributes." 

12.  Many  able  works  in  proof  of  the  exist- 
ence of  God  have  been  written,  the  arguments 
of  which  are  too  copious  for  us  even  to  analyze. 
It  must  be  sufficient  to  say  that  they  all  pro- 
ceed, as  it  is  logically  termed,  either  a  priori, 
from  cause  to  effect,  or,  which  is  the  safest 
and  most  satisfactory  mode,  a  posteriori,  from 
the  effect  to  the  cause.  The  irresistible  argu- 
ment from  the  marks  of  design  with  which  all 
nature  abounds,  to  one  great  intelligent,  de- 
signing Cause,  is  by  no  writers  brought  out  in 
so  clear  and  masterly  a  manner  as  by  Howe, 
in  his  "  Living  temple,"  and  Paley,  in  his 
"  Natural  Theology." 

GODS,  in  the  plural,  is  used  of  the  false 
deities  of  the  Heathens,  many  of  which  were 
only  creatures  to  whom  divine  honours  and 
worship  were  superstitiously  paid.  The  Greeks 
and  Latins,  it  is  observable,  did  not  mean,  by 
the  name  God,  an  all-perfect  being,  whereof 
eternity,  infinity,  omnipresence,  &c,  were 
essential  attributes  :  with  them  the  word  only 
implied  an  excellent  and  superior  nature  ;  and, 
accordingly,  they  give  the  appellation  gods  to 
all  beings  of  a  rank  or  class  higher  or  more 
perfect  than  that  of  men,  and  especially  to 
those  who  were  inferior  agents  in  the  divine 
administration,  all  subject  to  the  one  Supreme. 
Thus  men  themselves,  according  to  their  sys- 
tem, might  become  gods  after  death,  inasmuch 
as  their  souls  might  attain  to  a  degree  of  ex- 
cellence superior  to  what  they  were  capable 
of  in  life.  The  first  idols,  or  false  gods,  that, 
are  said  to  have  been  adored  were  the  star;., 
sun,  moon,  &c,  on  account  of  the  light,  heat, 
and  other  benefits  which  we  derive  from  them. 
(See  Idolatry.)  Afterward  the  earth  came  to 
be  deified,  for  furnishing  fruits  necessary  for 
the  subsistence  of  men  and  animals:  then  fire 
and  water  became  objects  of  divine  worship, 
for  their  usefulness  to  human  life.  In  process 
of  time,  and  by  degrees,  gods  became  multi- 
plied to  infinity;  ami  there  was  scarce  any 
thing  hut  the  weakness  or  capricB  of  some 
devotee  or  other,  elevated  into  the  rank  of 
deity  :  things  useless  or  even  destructive  not 
excepted.     The  principal  of  the  ancient  gods. 


GOD 


415 


GOD 


whom  the  Romans  called  dii  major  urn  gentium, 
and  Cicero  celestial  gods,  Varro  select  gods, Ovid 
nobiles  deos,  others  consentes  deos,  were  Jupiter, 
Juno,  Vesta,  Minerva,  Ceres,  Diana,  Venus, 
Mars,  Mercury,  Neptune,  Vulcan,  and  Apollo. 
Jupiter  is  considered  as  the  god  of  heaven ; 
Neptune,  as  god  of  the  sea;  Mars,  as  the  god 
of  war ;  Apollo,  of  eloquence,  poetry,  and 
physic ;  Mercury,  of  thieves ;  Bacchus,  of 
wine ;  Cupid,  of  love,  &c.  A  second  sort  of 
gods,  called  demi-gods,  semi-dii,  dii  minor um 
gentium,  indigetes,  or  gods  adopted,  were  men 
canonized  and  deified.  As  the  greater  gods 
had  possession  of  heaven  by  their  own  right, 
these  secondary  deities  had  it  by  merit  and 
donation,  being  translated  into  heaven  because 
they  had  lived  as  gods  upon  earth. 

2.  The  Heathen  gods  may  be  all  reduced  to  the 
following  classes  :  (1.)  Created  spirits,  angels, 
or  demons,  whence  good  and  evil  gods  ;  Genii, 
Lares,  Lemures,  Typhones,  guardian  gods, 
infernal  gods,  &c.  (2.)  Heavenly  bodies ;  as, 
the  sun,  moon,  and  other  planets ;  also,  the  fixed 
stars,  constellations,  &,c.  (3.)  Elements ;  as  air, 
earth,  ocean,  Ops,  Vesta ;  the  rivers,  fountains, 
&c.  (4.)  Meteors.  Thus  the  Persians  adored 
the  wind  :  thunder  and  lightning  were  honour- 
ed under  the  name  of  Geryon ;  and  several 
nations  of  India  and  America  have  made  them- 
selves gods  of  the  same.  Castor,  Pollux,  He- 
lena, and  Iris,  have  also  been  preferred  from 
meteors  to  be  gods  ;  and  the  like  has  been  prac- 
tised in  regard  to  comets  :  witness  that  which 
appeared  at  the  murder  of  Caesar.  (5.)  They 
erected  minerals  or  fossils  into  deities.  .Such 
was  the  Bcetylus.  The  Finlanders  adored 
stones  ;  the  Scythians,  iron  ;  and  many  nations, 
silver  and  gold.  (6.)  Plants  have  been  made 
gods.  Thus  leeks  and  onions  were  deities  in 
Egypt ;  the  Sclavi,  Lithuanians,  Celtas,  Van- 
dals, and  Peruvians,  adored  trees  and  forests  ; 
the  ancient  Gauls,  Britons,  and  Druids,  paid  a 
particular  devotion  to  the  oak ;  and  it  was  no 
other  than  wheat,  corn,  seed,  &c,  that  the  an- 
cients adored  under  the  names  of  Ceres  and 
Proserpina.  (7.)  They  took  themselves  gods 
from  among  the  waters.  The  Syrians  and 
Egyptians  adored  fishes ;  and  what  were  the 
Tritons,  the  Nereids,  Syrens,  &c,  but  fishes  ? 
Several  nations  have  adored  serpents ;  particu- 
larly the  Egyptians,  Prussians,  Lithunians, 
Samogitians,  &c.  (8.)  Insects,  as  flies  and 
ants,  had  their  priests  and  votaries.  (9.)  Among 
birds,  the  stork,  raven,  sparrowhawk,  ibis,  eagle, 
grisson,  and  lapwing  have  had  divine  honours  ; 
the  last  in  Mexico,  the  rest  in  Egypt  and  at 
Thebes.  (10.)  Four-footed  beasts  have  had 
their  altars ;  as  the  bull,  dog,  cat,  wolf,  baboon, 
lion,  and  crocodile,  in  Egypt  and  elsewhere  ; 
t  lie  hog  in  the  island  of  Crete  ;  rats  and  mice  in 
the  Troas,  and  at  Tenedos ;  weasels  at  Thebes  ; 
and  the  porcupine  throughout  all  Zoroaster's 
school.  (11.)  Nothing  was  more  common  than 
to  place  men  among  the  number  of  deities ; 
and  from  Belus  or  Baal,  to  the  Roman  empe- 
rors before  Constantine,  the  instances  of  this 
kind  are  innumerable  :  frequently  they  did  not 
wait  so  long  as  their  deaths  for  the  apotheosis. 
Nebuchadnezzar  procured  his  statue  to  be  wor- 


shipped while  living;  and  Virgil  shows  that 
Augustus  had  altars  and  sacrifices  offered  to 
him  ;  as  we  leaf  n  from  other  hands  that  he  had 
priests  called  Augustales,  and  temples  at  Lyons, 
Narbona,  and  several  other  places,  and  he  must 
be  allowed  the  first  of  the  Romans  in  whose 
behalf  idolatry  was  carried  to  such  a  pitch. 
The  Ethiopians  deemed  all  their  kings  gods : 
the  Velleda  of  the  Germans,  the  Janus  of  the 
Hungarians,  and  the  Thaut,  Woden,  and  Assa 
of  the  northern  nations,  were  indisputably  men. 
(12.)  Not  men  only,  but  every  thing  that  re- 
lates to  man,  has  also  been  deified ;  as  labour, 
rest,  sleep,  youth,  age,  death,  virtues,  vices, 
occasion,  time,  place,  numbers,  among  the 
Pythagoreans ;  the  generative  power,  under 
the  name  of  Priapus.  Infancy  alone  had  a 
cloud  of  deities  ;  as,  Vagetanus,  Levana,  Ru- 
mina,  Edufa,  Potina,  Cuba,  Cumina,  Carna, 
Ossilago,  Statulinus,  Fabulinus,  &c.  They 
also  adored  the  gods  Health,  Fever,  Fear, 
Love,  Pain,  Indignation,  Shame,  Impudence, 
Opinion,  Renown,  Prudence,  Science,  Art, 
Fidelity,  Felicity,  Calumny,  Liberty,  Money, 
War,  Peace,  Victory,  Triumph,  &c.  Lastly, 
Nature,  the  universe,  or  t&  zzuv,  was  reputed  a 
great  god. 

3.  Hesiod  has  a  poem  under  the  title  of 
Qcoyovia,  that  is,  "  The  Generation  of  the  Gods," 
in  which  he  explains  their  genealogy  and 
descent,  sets  forth  who  was  the  first  and  prin- 
cipal, who  next  descended  from  him,  and  what 
issue  each  had  :  the  whole  making  a  sort  of 
system  of  Heathen  theology.  Beside  this  popu- 
lar theology,  each  philosopher  had  his  system, 
as  may  be  seen  from  the  "Timteus"  of  Plato, 
and  Cicero  "  De  Natura  De.orum"  Justin 
Martyr,  Tertullian,  Arnobius,  Minutius  Felix, 
Lactantius,  Eusebius,  St.  Augustine,  andTheo- 
doret,  show  the  vanity  of  the  Heathen  gods. 
It  is  very  difficult  to  discover  the  real  senti- 
ments of  the  Heathens  with  respect  to  their 
gods :  they  are  exceedingly  intricate  and  con- 
fused, and  even  frequently  contradictory.  They 
admitted  so  many  superior  and  inferior  gods, 
who  shared  the  empire,  that  every  place  was 
full  of  gods.  Varro  reckons  up  no  less  than 
thirty  thousand  adored  within  a  small  extent 
of  ground,  and  yet  their  number  was  every 
dav  increasing.  In  modern  oriental  Paganism 
they  amount  to  many  millions,  i.nd  are,  in  fact, 
innumerable. 

4.  The  name  of  God,  in  Hebrew,  Elohim,  is 
very  ambiguous  in  Scripture.  The  true  God  is 
often  called  so,  as  are  sometimes  angels,  judges, 
and  princes,  and  sometimes  idols  and  false  gods  ; 
for  example:  "God  created  the  heaven  and 
the  earth,"  Gen.  i,  1.  The  Hebrew  Elohim 
denotes,  in  this  place,  the  true  God.  "  He  who 
sacrificcth  unto  any  god,  (Elohim,)  shall  be 
put  to  death,"  Exodus  xxii,  20.  And  again  : 
"  Among  the  gods  there  is  none  like  unto  thee," 
Psalm  lxxxvi,  8.  Princes,  magistrates,  and 
great  men  nrc  called  gods  in  the  following  pas- 
sages :  "  If  a  slave  is  desirous  to  continue  with 
his  master,  he  shall  be  brought  to  the  judges," 
Exod.  xxi,  6,  in  the  original,  to  the  gods 
Again:  "If the  thief  be  not.  found,  then  tin. 
master  of  the  house  ohull  be  brought  unto  the 


GOE 


41G 


GOE 


judges,"  Exod.  xxii,  8,  in  the  original,  to  the 
gods;  mid  in  the  twenty-eighth  verse  of  the 
same  chapter,  "Thou  shalt  not  speak  evil  of 
l  he  gods  ;"  that  is,  of  the  judges  or  great  men. 
The  Psalmist  says  that  the  Lord  "judgeth 
among  the  gods,"  Psalm  lxxxii,  1.  And  again, 
God  says  to  Moses,  "I  have  made  thee  a  god 
to  Pharaoh,"  Exod.  vii,  1.  The  pious  Israel- 
ites had  so  great  an  aversion  and  such  an 
extreme  contempt  for  strange  gods,  that  they 
scorned  even  to  mention  them  ;  they  disguised 
and  disfigured  their  names  by  substituting  in 
the  room  of  them  some  term  of  contempt;  for 
example,  instead  of  Elohim,  they  called  them 
Elilim,  "nothings,  gods  of  no  value;"  instead 
of  Mrp/iih/ml,  Meribaal,  and  Jerubaal,  they  said 
"  Mephibosheth,  Meribosheth,  and  Jeribo- 
sheth."  Ihud  signifies  master,  husband;  and 
bosheth,  something  to  be  ashamed  of,  some- 
thing apt  to  put  one  in  confusion.  God  for- 
bade the  Israelites  to  swear  by  strange  gods, 
and  to  pronounce  the  names  of  them  in  their 
oaths,  Exod.  xxiii,  13. 

(if  ►DLINESS,  strictly  taken,  signifies  right 
worship,  or  devotion ;  but,  in  general,  it  im- 
ports the  whole  of  practical  religion,  1  Tim. 
iv,  8  ;  2  Peter  i,  6. 

GOEL,   Snj,  the  avenger  of  blood.      The 
inhabitants  of  the  east,  it  is  well  known,  are 
now,  what  they  anciently  were,  exceedingly 
revengeful.     If,  therefore,  an  individual  should 
unfortunately  happen  to  lay  violent  hands  upon 
another  person  and  kill  him,  the  next  of  kin  is 
bound  to  avenge  the  death  of  the  latter,  and 
to  pursue  the  murderer  with  unceasing  vigi- 
kmce   until   he   have  caught  and  killed  him, 
either  by  force  or  by  fraud.     The  same  custom 
exists  in  Arabia,  and  it  appears  to  have  been 
alluded  to  by  Rebecca:  when  she  learned  that 
Esau  was  threatening  to  kill  his  bother  Jacob, 
she  endeavoured  to  send  the  latter  out  of  the 
country,  saying,   "Why  should  I  be  bereft  of 
you  both   in  one  day  ?"  Gen.  xxvii,  15.     She 
could  not  be  afraid  of  the  magistrate  for  punish- 
ing the  murderer,  for  the  patriarchs  were  sub- 
ject to  no  superior  in    Palestine;  and    Isaac 
was  much  too  partial  to  Esau  for  her  to  enter- 
tain any  expectation  that  he  would  condemn 
him  to  death  for  it.     It  would  therefore  appear 
t  hat   she   dreaded   lest   he   should   fall  by  the 
band  of  the  b')od  avenger,   perhaps  of  some 
Islunaelite.     The  office,  therefore,  of  the  goel 
was  in  use  before  the  time  of  Moses ;  and  it 
was  probably  filled  by  the  nearest  of  blood  to 
tlie  party  killed,  as  the  right  of  redeeming  a 
mortgage  field  is  given  to  bun.     To  prevent 
the  unnecessary  loss  of  life  through  a  sangui- 
nary spirit  of  revenge,  the  Hebrew  legislator 
made  various  enactments  concerning  the  blood 
avenger.     In  most  ages  and  countries,  certain 
reputed  sacred  places  enjoyed  the  privileges  of 
being  asylums  ;  Moses,  therefore,  taking  it  for 
granted  that  the  murderer  would  flee  to  the 
altar,  commanded  that  when  the  crime  was  de- 
liberate and  intentional,  be  should  be  torn  even 
from  the  altar,  and  put  to  death,  Exod.  xxi,  14. 
But  in  the  case  of  unintentional  murder,  the 
man-slayer  was  enjoined  to  flee  to  one  of  the 
■ix  cities  i  In-li  wen-  appropriated 


for  his  residence.  The  roads  to  these  cities, 
it  was  enacted,  should  be  kept  in  such  a  state 
that  the  unfortunate  individual  might  meet 
with  no  impediment  whatever  in  his  way,  Deut. 
xix,  3.  If  the  goel  overtook  the  fugitive  be- 
fore he  reached  an  asylum,  and  put  him  to 
death,  he  was  not  considered  as  guilty  of 
blood ;  but  if  the  man-slayer  had  reached  a 
place  of  refuge,  he  was  immediately  protected, 
and  an  inquiry  was  instituted  whether  he  had 
a  right  to  such  protection  and  asylum,  that  is, 
whether  he  had  caused  his  neighbour's  death 
undesignedly,  or  was  a  deliberate  murderer. 
In  the  latter  case  he  was  judicially  delivered 
to  the  gocl,  who  might  put  him  to  death  in 
whatever  way  he  chose ;  but  in  the  former 
case  the  homicide  continued  in  the  place  of 
refuge  until  the  high  priest's  death,  when  bo 
might  return  home  in  perfect  security.  If, 
however,  the  gocl  found  him  without  the  city,  or 
beyond  its  suborns,  he  might  slay  him  without 
being  guilty  of  blood,  Numbers  xxxv,  26,  27. 
Farther,  to  guard  the  life  of  man,  and  prevent 
the  perpetration  of  murder,  Moses  positively 
prohibited  the  receiving  of  a  sum  of  money 
from  a  murderer  in  the  way  of  compensation, 
Numbers  xxxv,  31.  It  would  seem  that  if  no 
avenger  of  blood  appeared,  or  if  he  were  dila- 
tory in  the  pursuit  of  the  murderer,  it  became 
the  duty  of  the  magistrate  himself  to  inflict 
the  sentence  of  the  law  ;  and  thus  we  find  that 
David  deemed  this  to  be  his  duty  in  the  case 
of  Joab,  and  that  Solomon,  in  obedience  to  his 
father's  dying  entreaty,  actually  discharged  it 
by  putting  that  murderer  to  death,  1  Kings 
ii,  5;  vi,  28-34.  There  is  a  beautiful  allusion 
to  the'  blood  avenger  in  Heb.  vi,  17,  18 

The  following  extracts  will  prove  how 
tenaciously  the  eastern  people  adhere  to  the 
principle  of  revenging  the  death  of  their  re- 
lations  and  friends : — "  Among  the  Circas- 
sians," says  Pallas,  "  all  the  relatives  of  the 
murderers  are  considered  as  guilty.  This  cus- 
tomary infatuation  to  revenge  the  blood  of 
relations  generates  most  of  the  feuds,  and 
occasions  great  bloodshed  among  all  the  tribes 
of  Caucasus  ;  for  unless  pardon  be  purchased, 
or  obtained  by  intermarriage  between  the  two 
families,  the  principle  of  revenge  is  propagated 
to  all  succeeding  generations.  If  the  thirst  of 
vengeance  is  quenched  by  a  price  paid  to  the 
family  of  the  deceased,  this  tribute  is  called 
thlil-uasa,  or,  'the  price  of  blood  ;'  but  neither 
princes  nor  usdens  accept  such  compensation, 
as  it  is  an  established  law  among  them  to 
demand  blood  for  blood."  "The  Nubians," 
observes  Light,  "possess  few  traces  among 
them  of  government,  or  law,  or  religion. 
They  know  no  master,  although  the  cashief 
claims  a  nominal  command  of  the  country. 
They  look  for  redress  of  injuries  to  t heir  own 
means  of  revenge,  wbieb,  in  cases  of  blood, 
extends  from  one  generation  to  another,  till 
blood  is  repaid  by  blood.  On  Ibis  account  they 
are  obliged  to  be  ever  on  the  watch,  and 
armed:  and  in  this  manner  even  their  daily 
labours  arc  carried  on  ;  I  he  very  boys  nre 
armed."  "  If  one  Nubian,"  remarks  Burek- 
|  hardt,  "happen  to  kill  another,  he  is  obliged 


GOL 


417 


GOS 


to  pay  the  debt  of  blood  to  the  family  of  the 
deceased,  and  a  fine  to  the  governors  of  six 
camels,  a  cow,  and  seven  sheep,  or  they  are 
taken  from  his  relations.  Every  wound  in- 
flicted has  its  stated  fine,  consisting  of  sheep 
and  d/wurra,  but  varying  in  quantity,  accord- 
ing to  the  parts  of  the  body  wounded."  "  When 
a  man  or  woman  is  murdered,"  says  Malcolm, 
"  the  moment  the  person  by  whom  the  act  was 
perpetrated  is  discovered,  the  heir-at-law  to  the 
deceased  demands  vengeance  for  the  blood. 
Witnesses  are  examined,  and  if  the  guilt  be 
established,  the  criminal  is  delivered  into  his 
hands,  to  deal  with  as  he  chooses.  It  is  alike 
legal  for  him  to  forgive  him,  to  accept  a  sum 
of  money  as  the  price  of  blood,  or  to  put  him 
to  death.  It  is  only  a  few  years  ago  that  the 
English  resident  at  Abusheher  saw  three  per- 
sons delivered  into  the  hands  of  the  relations 
of  those  whom  they  had  murdered.  They  led 
their  victims  bound  to  the  burial  ground,  where 
they  put  them  to  death ;  but  the  part  of  the 
execution  that  appeared  of  the  most  import- 
ance, was  to  make  the  infant  children  of  the 
deceased  stab  the  murderers  with  knives,  and 
imbrue  their  little  hands  in  the  blood  of  those 
who  had  slain  their  father.  The  youngest 
princes  of  the  blood  that  could  hold  a  dagger 
were  made  to  stab  the  assassins  of  Aga  Ma- 
homed Khan.  When  they  were  executed,  the 
successor  of  Nadir  Shah  sent  one  of  the  mur- 
derers of  that  monarch  to  the  females  of  his 
harem,  who,  we  are  told,  were  delighted  to 
become  his  executioners." 

GOG  AND  MAGOG.  Moses  speaks  of 
Magog,  son  of  Japheth,  but  says  nothing  of 
Gog,  Gen.  x,  2.  According  to  Ezekiel,  Gog 
was  prince  of  Magog,  Ezek.  xxxviii,  2,  3,  &c  ; 
xxxix,  1,  2,  &c.  Magog  signifies  the  country 
or  people,  and  Gog  the  king  of  that  country; 
the  general  name  of  the  northern  nations  of 
Europe  and  Asia,  or  the  districts  north  of  the 
Caucasus,  or  Mount  Taurus.  The  prophecy 
of  Ezekiel,  xxxix,  1-22,  seems  to  be  revived  in 
the  Apocalypse,  where  the  hosts  of  Gog  and 
Magog  are  represented  as  coming  to  invade 
"  the  beloved  city,"  and  perishing  with  im- 
mense slaughter  likewise  in  Armageddon, 
"  the  mount  of  Mageddo,"  or  Megiddo,  Rev. 
xvi,  14-16 ;  xx,  7-10. 

GOLD,  aru,  Gen.  xxiv,  22,  and  very  fre- 
quently in  all  other  parts  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment ;  xpixros,  Matt,  xxiii,  16,  17,  &c  ;  the  most 
perfect  and  valuable  of  the  metals.  In  Job 
xxviii,  15-18,  19,  gold  is  mentioned  five  times, 
and  four  of  the  words  are  different  Jn  the 
original:  1.  11.10,  which  may  mean  "gold  in 
the  mine,"  or  "shut  up,"  as  the  root  signifies, 
"  in  the  ore."  2.  qpd,  kcthem,  from  oro, 
catham,  "to  sign,"  "seal,"  or  "stamp;"  gold 
made  current  by  being  coined  ;  standard  gold, 
exhibiting  the  stamp  expressive  of  its  value. 
3.  3DT,  wrought  gold,  pure,  highly  polished 
gold.  4.  ?c,  denoting  solidity,  compactness, 
and  strength ;  probably  gold  formed  into  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  plate,  or  vessels.  Jerom,  in 
his  comment  on  Jer.  x,  9,  writes  "  Seplrm 
dominibus  apud  Hebrceos  appMalnr  nuriu»." 
The  seven  names,  which  he  does  not  mention, 
28 


are  as  follows,  and  thus  distinguished  by  tho 
Hebrews:  1.  Zahab,  gold  in  general.  2.  Za- 
hab  tob,  good  gold,  of  a  more  valuable  kind, 
Gen.  ii,  12.  3.  Zahab  Ophir,  gold  of  Ophir, 
1  Kings  ix,  28,  such  as  was  brought  by  the 
navy  of  Solomon.  4.  Zahab  muphaz,  solid 
gold,  pure,  wrought  gold,  translated,  1  Kings 
x,  18,  "the  best  gold."  5.  Zahab  shachut, 
beaten  gold,  2  Chron.  ix,  15.  6.  Zahab  segori 
shut  up  gold ;  either  as  mentioned  above,  gold 
in  the  ore,  or  as  the  rabbins  explain  it,  "  gold 
shut  up  in  the  treasuries,"  gold  in  bullion. 
7.  Zahab  parvaim,  2  Chron.  iii,  6.  To  these 
Buxtorf  adds  three  others:  1.  aro,  pure  gold 
of  the  circulating  medium.  2.  isa,  gold  in  the 
treasury.  3.  ?mn,  choice,  fine  gold.  Arabia 
had  formerly  its  golden  mines.  "The  gold  of 
Sheba,"  Psalm  lxxii,  15,  is,  in  the  Septuagint 
and  Arabic  versions^  "  the  gold  of  Arabia." 
Sheba  was  the  ancient  name  of  Arabia  Felix. 
Mr.  Bruce,  however,  places  it  in  Africa,  at 
Azab.  The  gold  of  Ophir,  so  often  mentioned, 
must  be  that  which  was  procured  in  Arabia,  on 
the  coast  of  the  Red  Sea.  We  are  assured  by 
Sanchoniathon,  as  quoted  by  Eusebius,  and  by 
Herodotus,  that  the  Phenicians  carried  on  a 
considerable  traffic  with  this  gold  even  before 
the  days  of  Job,  who  speaks  of  it,  xxii,  24. 

GOLIATH,  a  famous  giant  of  the  city  of 
Gath,  who  was  slain  by  David,  1  Sam.  xvii, 
4,  5,  &c.     See  Giants. 

GOMER,  the  eldest  son  of  Japheth,  by 
whom  a  great  part  of  Asia  Minor  was  first 
peopled,  and  particularly  that  extensive  tract 
which  was  called  Phrygia,  including  the  sub- 
divisions of  Mysia,  Galatia,  Bithynia,  Lyca- 
onia,  &c.  The  colonies  of  Gomer  extended 
into  Germany,  Gaul,  (in  both  of  which  traces 
of  the  name  are  preserved,)  and  Britain,  which 
was  undoubtedly  peopled  from  Gaul.  Among 
the  descendants  of  the  ancient  inhabitants  of 
this  island,  namely,  the  Welsh,  the  words 
Kumero  and  Kumeraeg,  the  names  of  the  peo- 
ple and  the  language,  sufficiently  point  out 
their  origin.  In  fact,  under  the  names  of 
Cimmerii,  Cimbri,  Cymrig,  Cumbri,  Umbri, 
and  Cambri,  the  tribes  of  Gomerians  extended 
themselves  from  the  Euxine  to  the  Atlantic, 
and  from  Italy  to  the  Baltic ;  having  added  to 
their  original  names  those  of  Celts,  Gauls, 
GalatEe,  and  Gaels,  superadded. 

GOMORRAH,  one  of  the  five  cities  of  the 
Pentapolis,  consumed  by  fire,  Genesis  xix,  24, 
&c.    See  Dead  Sea. 

GOSHEN.  This  was  the  most  fertile  pas- 
ture ground  in  the  whole  of  Lower  Egypt; 
thence  called  Goshen,  from  gush,  in  Arabic, 
signifying  "  a  heart,"  or  whatsoever  is  choice 
or  precious.  There  was  also  a  Goshen  in  the 
territory  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  so  called  for  the 
same  reason,  Joshua  x,  41.  Hence  Joseph 
recommended  it  to  his  fnmily  as  "the  best  of 
the  land,"  Gen.  xlvii,  11,  and  "the  fat  of  the 
land,"  Gen.  xlv,  18.  The  land  of  Goshen  lay 
al6ng  the  most  easterly  branch  of  the  Nile, 
and  on  the  east  side  of  it ;  for  it  is  evident  that, 
at  the  time  of  the  exode,  the  Israelites  did  not 
cross  the  Nile:  In  ancient-  times,  the  fertile 
•land  was  considerably  more  extensive,  both  in 


GOS 


418 


GOS 


length  and  breadth,  than  at  present,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  general  failure  of  the  eastern 
branches  of  the  Nile ;  the  main  body  of  the 
river  verging  more  and  more  to  the  west  con- 
tinually, and  deepening  the  channels  on  that 
side. 

GOSPEL,  a  history  of  the  life,  actions, 
death,  resurrection,  ascension,  and  doctrine 
of  Jesus  Christ.  The  word  is  Saxon,  and  of 
the  same  import  with  the  Latin  term  emmgeli- 
um,  or  the  Greek  eiayySuov,  which  signifies 
"  glad  tidings,"  or  "  good  news  ;"  the  history 
of  our  Saviour  being  the  best  history  ever 
published  to  mankind.  This  history  is  con- 
tained in  the  writings  of  St.  Matthew,  St. 
Mark,  St.  Luke,  and  St.  John,  who  from 
thence  are  called  evangelists.  The  Christian 
church  never  acknowledged  any  more  than 
these  four  Gospels  as  canonical :  notwithstand- 
ing which,  several  apocryphal  gospels  are 
handed  down  to  us,  and  others  are  entirely 
lost.  The  four  Gospels  contain  each  of  them 
the  history  of  our  Saviour's  life  and  ministry; 
but  we  must  remember,  that  no  one  of  the 
evangelists  undertook  to  give  an  account  of 
all  the  miracles  which  Christ  performed,  or  of 
all  the  instructions  which  he  delivered.  They 
are  written  with  different  degrees  of  concise- 
ness ;  but  every  one  of  them  is  sufficiently  full 
to  prove  that  Jesus  was  the  promised  Messiah, 
the  Saviour  of  the  world,  who  had  been  pre- 
dicted by  a  long  succession  of  prophets,  and 
whose  advent  was  expected  at  the  time  of  his 
appearance,  both  by  Jews  and  Gentiles. 

2.  That  all  the  books  which  convey  to  us 
the  history  of  events  under  the  New  Testa- 
ment were  written  and  immediately  published 
by  persons  contemporary  with  the  events,  is 
most  fully  proved  by  the  testimony  of  an  un- 
broken series  of  authors,  reaching  from  the 
days  of  the  evangelists  to  the  present  times ; 
by  the  concurrent  belief  of  Christians  of  all 
denominations;  and  by  the  unreserved  con- 
fession of  avowed  enemies  to  the  Gospel.  In 
this  point  of  view  the  writings  of  the  ancient 
fathers  of  the  Christian  church  are  invaluable. 
They  contain  not  only  frequent  references  and 
allusions  to  the  books  of  the  New  Testament, 
but  also  such  numerous  professed  quotations 
from  them,  that  it  is  demonstratively  certain 
that  these  books  existed  in  their  present  state 
a  few  years  after  the  conclusion  of  Christ's 
ministry  upon  earth.  No  unbeliever  in  the 
apostolic  age,  in  the  age  immediately  subse- 
quent to  it,  or,  indeed,  in  any  age  whatever, 
was  ever  able  to  disprove  the  facts  recorded  in 
these  books  ;  and  it  does  not  appear  that  in  the 
early  times  any  such  attempt  was  made.  The 
facts,  therefore,  related  in  the  New  Testament 
most  be  admitted  to  have  really  happened.  But 
if  all  the  circumstances  of  the  history  of  Jesus, 
that  is,  his  miraculous  conception  in  the  womb 
of  the  virgin!  the  time  at  which  ho  was  bom, 
i.ho  place  where  he  was  born,  the  family  from 
which  he  was  descended,  the  nature  of  the 
doctrines  which  he  preached,  the  meanness  of 
his  condition,  his  rejection,  death,  burial,  re- 
surrection, i -with    many   other 

minute  particulars  ;  if  all  these  various  circum- 


stances in  the  history  of  Jesus  exactly  accorcf 
with  the  predictions  of  the  Old  Testament 
relative  to  the  promised  Messiah,  in  whom  all 
the  nations  of  the  earth  were  to  be  blessed, 
it  follows  that  Jesus  was  that  Messiah.  And 
again:  if  Jesus  really  performed  the  miracles 
as  related  in  the  Gospels,  and  was  perfectly 
acquainted  with  the  thoughts  and  designs  of 
men,  his  divine  mission  cannot  be  doubted. 
Lastly  :  if  he  really  foretold  his  own  death  and 
resurrection,  the  descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
its  miraculous  effects,  the  sufferings  of  the 
Apostles,  the  call  of  the  Gentiles,  and  the  de- 
struction  of  Jerusalem,  it  necessarily  follows 
that  he  spake  by  the  authority  of  God  himself. 
These,  and  many  other  arguments,  founded  in 
the  more  than  human  character  of  Jesus,  in 
the  rapid  propagation  of  the  Gospel,  in  the  ex- 
cellence of  its  precepts  and  doctrines,  and  in 
the  constancy,  intrepidity,  and  fortitude  of  its 
early  professors,  incontrovcrtibly  establish  the 
truth  and  divine  origin  of  the  Christian  reli- 
gion, and  afford  to  us,  who  live  in  these  latter 
times,  the  most  positive  confirmation  of  the 
promise  of  our  Lord,  that  "the  gates  of  hell 
shall  not  prevail  against  it." 

3.  The  Gospels  recount  those  wonderful  and 
important  events  with  which  the  Christian 
religion  and  its  divine  Author  were  introduced 
into  the  world,  and  which  have  produced  so 
great  a  change  in  the  principles,  the  manners, 
the  morals,  and  the  temporal  as  well  as  spirit- 
ual condition  of  mankind.  They  relate  the 
first  appearance  of  Christ  upon  earth,  his  ex- 
traordinary and  miraculous  birth,  the  testimony 
borne  to  him  by  his  forerunner,  John  the  Bap- 
tist, the  temptation  in  the  wilderness,  the 
opening  of  his  divine  commission,  the  pure, 
the  perfect,  and  sublime  morality  which  he 
taught,  especially  in  his  inimitable  sermon  on 
the  mount,  the  infinite  superiority  which  he 
showed  to  every  other  moral  teacher,  both  in 
the  matter  and  manner  of  his  discourses,  more 
particularly  by  crushing  vice  in  its  very  c 
in  the  first,  risings  of  wicked  desires  and  pro. 
pensities  in  the  heart,  by  giving  a  decided 
preference  to  the  mild,  gentle,  passive,  con- 
ciliating virtues,  before  that  violent,  vindictive, 
high-spirited,  unforgiving  temper,  which  has 
In  :mi  always  too  much  the  favourite  character 
of  the  world;  by  requiring  us  to  forgive  our 
very  enemies,  and  to  do  good  to  them  that 
harte  us  ;  by  excluding  from  our  devotions,  our 
alms,  and  all  our  virtues,  all  regard  to  fame, 
reputation,  and  applause;  by  laying  down  two 
greet  general  principles  of  morality,  love  to 
Sod*,  and  love  to  mankind,  and  deducing  from 
thence  every  other  human  duty  ;  by  conveying 
his  instructions  under  the  easy,  familiar,  and 
impressive  form  of  parables;  by  expressing 
himself  in  a  tone  of  dignity  and  authority  un- 
known before;  by  exemplifying  (very  virtue 
that  he  taught  in  his  own  unblemished  and 
perfect  life  and  conversation  ;  and,  above  all, 
by  adding  those  awful  sanctions,  which  hi 
alone, 'of  all  moral  instructors,  had  the  power 
to  hold  'but,  eternal  rewards  to  the  vn 
and  eternal  punishments  to  the  wicked.  The 
sacred  narratives  then  represent  to  us  the  high 


GOS 


419 


GOV 


character  that  he  assumed  ;  the  claim  he  made 
to  a  divine  original ;  the  wonderful  miracles 
he  wrought  in  proof  of  his  divinity ;  the  vari- 
ous prophecies  which  plainly  marked  him  out 
as  the  Messiah,  the  great  Deliverer  of  the 
Jews  ;  the  declarations  he  made  that  he  came 
to  offer  himself  a  sacrifice  for  the  sins  of  all 
mankind  ;  the  cruel  indignities,  sufferings,  and 
persecutions  to  which,  in  consequence  of  this 
great  design,  he  was  exposed  ;  the  accomplish- 
ment of  it,  by  the  painful  and  ignominious 
death  to  which  he  submitted,  by  his  resurrec- 
tion after  three  days  from  the  grave,  by  his 
ascension  into  heaven,  by  his  sitting  there  at 
the  right  hand  of  God,  and  performing  the 
office  of  a  Mediator  and  Intercessor  for  the 
sinful  sons  of  men,  till  he  shall  come  a  second 
time  in  his  glory  to  sit  in  judgment  on  all  man- 
kind, and  decide  their  final  doom  of  happiness 
or  misery  for  ever.  These  are  the  momentous, 
the  interesting,  truths  on  which  the  Gospels 
principally  dwell. 

4.  We  find  in  the  ancient  records  a  twofold 
order,  in  which  the  evangelists  are  arranged. 
They  stand  either  thus,  Matthew,  John,  Luke, 
Mark ;  or  thus,  Matthew,  Mark,  Luke,  John. 
The  first  is  made  with  reference  to  the  cha- 
racter and  the  rank  of  the  persons,  according 
to  which  the  Apostles  precede  their  assistants 
and  attendants  (ekoXouOoif,  comitibus.)  It  is 
observed  in  the  oldest  Latin  translations  and 
in  the  Gothic ;  sometimes  also  in  the  words  of 
Latin  teachers  ;  but  among  all  the  Greek  MSS. 
only  in  that  at  Cambridge.  But  the  other, 
namely,  Matthew,  Mark,  Luke,  and  John,  is, 
in  all  the  old  translations  of  Asia  and  Africa, 
in  all  catalogues  of  the  canonical  books,  and 
in  Greek  MSS.  in  general,  the  customary  and 
established  one  as  it  regarded  not  personal  cir- 
cumstances, but  as  it  had  respect  to  chronolo- 
gical; which  is  to  us  a  plain  indication  what 
accounts  concerning  the  succession  of  the 
evangelists,  the  Asiatic,  and  Greek  churches, 
and  also  those  of  Africa,  had  before  them, 
when  the  Christian  books  were  arranged  in 
collections.  It  is  a  considerable  advantage, 
says  Michaelis,  that  a  history  of  such  import- 
ance as  that  of  Jesus  Christ  has  been  recorded 
by  the  pens  of  separate  and  independent  writ- 
ers, who,  from  the  variations  which  are  visible 
in  these  accounts,  have  incontestably  proved 
that  they  did  not  unite  with  a  view  of  imposing 
a  fabulous  narrative  on  mankind.  That  St. 
Matthew  had  never  seen  the  Gospel  of  St.  Luke, 
nor  St.  Luke  the  Gospel  of  S%  Matthew,  is 
evident  from  a  comparison  of  their  writings. 
The  Gospel  of  St.  Mark,  which  was  written 
later,  must  likewise  have  been  unknown  to 
St.  Luke ;  and  that  St.  Mark  had  ever  read 
the  Gospel  of  St.  Luke,  is  at  least  improbable, 
because  their  Gospels  so  frequently  differ.  It 
is  a  generally  received  opinion,  that  St.  Mark 
made  use  of  St.  Matthew's  Gospel  in  the  com- 
position of  his  own  ;  but  this  is  an  unfounded 
hypothesis.  The  Gospel  of  St.  John,  being 
written  after  the  other  three,  supplies  what 
they  had  omitted.  Tims  have  we  four  distinct 
and  independent  writers  of  one  and  the  same 
history ;  and,  though  trifling  variations  may 


seem  to  exist  in  their  narratives,  yet  these  ad- 
mit of  easy  solutions;  and  in  all  matters  of 
consequence,  whether  doctrinal  or  historical, 
there  is  such  a  manifest  agreement  between 
them  as  is  to  be  found  in  no  other  writings 
whatever.  Though  we  have  only  four  original 
writers  of  the  hfe  of  Jesus,  the  evidence  of 
the  history  does  not  rest  on  the  testimony  of 
four  men.  Christianity  had  been  propagated 
in  a  great  part  of  the  world  before  any  of  them 
had  written,  on  the  testimony  of  thousands  and 
tens  of  thousands,  who  had  been  witnesses  of 
the  great  facts  which  they  have  recorded;  so 
that  the  writing  of  these  particular  books  is 
not  to  be  considered  as  the  cause,  but  rather 
the  effect,  of  the  belief  of  Christianity ;  nor 
could  those  books  have  been  written  and  re- 
ceived as  they  were,  namely,  as  authentic  his- 
tories, of  the  subject  of  which  all  persons  of 
that  age  were  judges,  if  the  facts  they  have 
recorded  had  not  been  well  known  to  be  true. 

5.  The  term  Gospel  is  often  used  in  Scrip- 
ture to  signify  the  whole  Christian  doctrine  : 
hence,  "  preaching  the  Gospel"  is  declaring  all 
the  truths,  precepts,  promises,  and  threaten ings 
of  Christianity.  This  is  termed,  "the  Gosptl 
of  the  grace  of  God,"  because  it  flows  from 
Gods  free  love  and  goodness,  Acts  xx,  24; 
and  when  truly  and  faithfully  preached,  is 
accompanied  with  the  influences  of  the  divine 
Spirit.  It  is  called,  "  the  Gospel  of  the  king- 
dom," because  it  treats  of  the  kingdom  of 
grace,  and  shows  the  way  to  the  kingdom  of 
glory.  It  is  styled,  "the  Gospel  of  Christ," 
because  he  is  the  Author  and  great  subject  of 
it,  Romans  i,  16;  and  "the  Gospel  of  peace 
and  salvation,"  because  it  publishes  peace  with 
God  to  the  penitent  and  believing,  gives,  to 
such,  peace  of  conscience  and  tranquillity  of 
mind,  and  is  the  means  of  their  salvation, 
present  and  eternal.  As  it  displays  the  jj'lory 
of  God  and  of  Christ,  and  ensures  to  his  true 
followers  eternal  glory,  it  is  entitled,  "the 
glorious  Gospel,"  and,  "  the  everlasting  Gos-- 
pel,"  because  it  commenced  from  the  fall  of 
man,  is  permanent  throughout  all  time,  and 
produces  effects  which  are  everlasting. 

GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  HEBREWS. 
The  posterity  of  Jacob,  while  remaining  in 
Egypt,  maintained,  notwithstanding  the  aug- 
mentation of  their  numbers,  that  patriarchal 
form  of  government  which  is  so  prevalent 
among  the  noinades.  Every  father  of  a  family 
exercised  a  father's  authority  over  those  of  his 
own  household.  Every  tribe  obeyed  its  own 
prince,  NitfJ,  who  was  originally  the  first-born 
of  the  founder  of  the  tribe,  but  who,  in  process 
of  time,  appears  to  have  been  elected.  As  the 
people  increased  in  numbers,  various  heads  of 
families  united  together,  and  selected  some 
individual  from  their  own  body,  who  waa 
somewhat  distinguished,  for  their  leader.  Per- 
haps the  choice  was  made  merely  by  tacit 
consent;  and,  without  giving  him  the  title  of 
ruler  in  form,  they  were  willing,  while  con 
vinced  of  his  virtues,  to  render  submission  to 
his  will.  Such  a  union  of  families  was  de- 
nominated "the  house  of  the  father;"  and 
"  the  house  of  the  father   of  the  families,." 


GOV 


420 


GOV 


Num.  ni,  24,  30,  35.  In  other  instances, 
although  the  number  varied,  being  sometimes 
more  and  sometimes  less  than  a  thousand,  it 
was  denominated,  O'd'jn  qSv,  a  thousand. 
"  Now  therefore  present  yourselves  before  the 
Lord  by  your  tribes,  and  by  your  thousands ;" 
"  the  thousands  of  Judah  ;"  "  the  thousands 
of  Israel,"  &.c,  1  Sam.  x,  19  ;  xxiii,  23  ;  Judges 
vi,  15;  Num.  xxvi,  5-50.  The  heads  of  these 
united  families  were  designated  "heads  of 
thousands,"  Num.  i,  16 ;  x,  4.  They  held 
themselves  in  subjection  to  the  "  princes  of 
the  tribes."  Both  the  princes  and  heads  of 
families  are  mentioned  under  the  common 
names  of  O^jp?,  seniors  or  senators,  and  cnD:jtt> 
•>vti-\  heads  of  tribes.  Following  the  law  of 
reason,  and  the  rules  established  by  custom, 
they  governed  with  a  paternal  authority  the 
tribes  and  united  families  ;  and,  while  they  left 
the  minor  concerns  to  the  heads  of  individual 
families,  aimed  to  superintend  and  promote  the 
best  interests  of  the  community  generally. 
Originally,  it.  fell  to  the  princes  of  the  tribes 
themselves  to  keep  genealogical  tables  :  sub- 
sequently, they  employed  scribes  especially  for 
this  purpose,  who,  in  the  progress  of  time, 
acquired  so  great  authority,  that  under  the 
name  of  onaii-',  translated,  in  the  English 
version,  officers,  they  were  permitted  to  exer- 
cise a  share  in  the  government  of  the  nation. 
It  was  by  magistrates  of  this  description  that 
the  Hebrews  were  governed  while  they  re- 
mained in  Egypt ;  and  the  Egyptian  kings 
made  no  objection  to  it,  Exod.  iii,  16 ;  v,  1, 
14,  15,  19. 

2.  The  posterity  of  Abraham,  Isaac,  and 
Jacob  were  set  apart  and  destined  to  the  great 
object  of  preserving  and  transmitting  the  true 
religion,  Gen.  xviii,  16-20  ;  xvii,  9-14 ;  xii,  3 ; 
xxii,  18 ;  xxviii,  14.  Having  increased  in 
numbers,  it  appeared  very  evident  that  they 
could  not  live  among  nations  given  to  idolatry 
without  running  the  hazard  of  becoming  in- 
fected with  the  same  evil.  They  were,  there- 
fore, in  the  providence  of  God,  assigned  to  a 
particular  country,  the  extent  of  which  was 
so  small,  that  they  were  obliged,  if  they  would 
live  independently  of  other  nations,  to  give  up 
in  a  great  measure  the  life  of  shepherds,  and 
devote  themselves  to  agriculture.  Farther : 
very  many  of  the  Hebrews  during  their  resi- 
dence in  Egypt  had  fallen  into  idolatrous 
habits.  These  were  to  be  brought  back  again 
to  the  knowledge  of  the  true  God,  and  all  were 
to  be  excited  to  engage  in  those  undertakings 
which  should  be  found  necessary  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  true  religion.  All  the  Mosaic 
institutions  aim  at  the  accomplishment  of 
these  objocts.  The  fundamental  principle, 
therefore,  of  those  institutions  was  this, — that 
the  true  God,  the  Creator  and  Governor  of  the 
universe,  and  none  other,  ought  to  be  wor- 
shipped. To  secure  this  end  the  more  cer- 
tainly, God  became  king  to  the  Hebrews. 
Accordingly,  the  land  of  Canaan,  which  was 
destined  to  be  occupied  by  them,  was  declared 
to  be  the  land  of  Jehovah,  of  which  he  was  to 
be  tho  king,  and  the  Hebrews  merely  the  here- 
ditary occupants.    God  promulgated,  from  the 


clouds  of  Mount  Sinai,  the  prominent  law* 
for  the  government  of  his  people,  considered 
as  a  religious  community,  Exod.  xx.  These 
laws  were  afterward  more  fully  developed  and 
illustrated  by  Moses.  The  rewards  which 
should  accompany  the  obedient,  and  the  pu- 
nishments which  should  be  the  lot  of  the 
transgressor,  were  at  the  same  time  announced, 
and  the  Hebrews  promised  by  a  solemn  oath  to 
obey,  Exodus  xxi-xxiv;  Deut.  xxvii-xxx. 

3.  In  order  to  keep  the  true  nature  of  the 
community  fully  and  constantly  in  view,  all 
the  ceremonial  institutions  had  reference  to 
God,  not  only  as  the  Sovereign  of  the  universe, 
but  as  the  King  of  the  people.  The  people 
were  taught  to  feel  that  the  tabernacle  was 
not  only  the  temple  of  Jehovah,  but  the  palace 
of  their  King ;  that  the  priests  were  the  royal 
servants,  and  were  bound  to  attend  not  only  to 
sacred  but  to  secular  affairs,  and  were  to  receive, 
as  their  salary,  the  first  tithes,  which  the  peo- 
ple, as  subjects,  were  led  to  consider  a  part  of 
that  revenue  which  was  due  to  God,  their  im- 
mediate Sovereign.  Other  things  of  a  less 
prominent  and  important  nature  had  reference 
to  the  same  great  end.  Since,  therefore,  God 
was  the  Sovereign,  in  a  civil  point  of  view  as 
well  as  others,  of  Palestine  and  its  inhabitants, 
the  commission  of  idolatry  by  any  inhabitant 
of  that  country,  even  a  foreigner,  was  a  de- 
fection from  the  true  King.  It  was,  in  fact, 
treason ;  was  considered  a  crime  equal  in 
aggravation  to  that  of  murder ;  and  was,  conse- 
quently, attended  with  the  severest  punishment. 
Whoever  invited  or  exhorted  to  idolatry  was 
considered  seditious,  and  was  obnoxious  to  the 
same  punishment.  Incantations  also,  necro- 
mancy, and  other  practices  of  this  nature, 
were  looked  upon  as  arts  of  a  kindred  aspect 
with  idolatry  itself;  and  the  same  punishment 
was  to  be  inflicted  upon  the  perpetrators  of 
them  as  upon  idolaters.  The  same  rigour  of 
inquiry  after  the  perpetrators  of  idolatry  wis 
enforced,  that  was  exhibited  in  respect  to  other 
crimes  of  the  deepest  aggravation;  and  the  per- 
son who  knew  of  the  commission  of  idolatry 
in  another  was  bound  by  the  law  to  complain 
of  the  person  thus  guilty  before  the  judge, 
though  the  criminal  sustained  the  near  relation- 
ship of  a  wife  or  a  brother,  a  daughter  or  a  son. 

4.  Many  things  in  the  administration  of  the 
government  remained  the  same  under  the  Mo- 
saic economy,  as  it  had  been  before.  The 
authority  which  they  had  previously  possessed, 
was  continued  in  the  time  of  Moses  and  after 
his  time,  to  the  princes  of  the  tribes,  to  the 
heads  of  families  and  combinations  of  families, 
and  to  tho  genealogists,  Num.  xi,  16;  Deut 
xvi,  18 ;  xx,  5 ;  xxxi,  28.  Yet  Moses,  by  the 
.advice  of  Jcthro,  his  father-in-law,  increased 
the  number  of  rulers  by  the  appointment  of  an 
additional  number  of  judges ;  some  to  judge 
over  ten,  some  over  fifty,  some  over  a  hundred, 

■and  some  over  a  thousand,  men,  Exodus  xviii 
13-26.  These  judges  were  elected  by  the  suf- 
frages of  the  people  from  those  who,  by  their 
authority  and  rank,  might  be  reckoned  among 
the  rulers  oj  princes  of  the  people.  The  infe- 
rior judges,  that  is,  those  who  superintended 


GOV 


421 


GOV 


She  judicial  concerns  of  the  smaller  numbers, 
were  subordinate  to  the  superior  judges,  or 
those  who  judged  a  larger  number  ;  and  cases, 
accordingly,  of  a  difficult  nature  went  up  from 
the  inferior  to  the  superior  judges.  Those  of 
a  very  difficult  character,  so  much  so  as  to  be 
perplexing  to  the  superior  judges,  were  appeal- 
ed to  Moses  himself,  and  in  some  cases  from 
Moses  to  the  high  priest.  The  judges,  of 
whom  we  have  now  spoken,  sustained  a  civil 
as  well  as  a  judicial  authority,  and  were  in- 
cluded in  the  list  of  those  who  are  denominated 
the  elders  and  princes  of  Israel :  that  is  to  say, 
supposing  they  were  chosen  from  the  elders 
and  princes,  they  did  not  forfeit  their  seat 
among  them  by  accepting  a  judicial  office ;  and, 
on  the  contrary,  the  respectability  attached  to 
their  office,  supposing  they  were  not  chosen 
from  them,  entitled  them  to  be  reckoned  in 
their  number,  Deut.  xxxi,  28  ;  Joshua  viii,  33  ; 
xxiii,  2;  xxiv,  1.  The  various  civil  officers 
that  have  been  mentioned,  namely,  judges, 
heads  of  families,  genealogists,  elders,  princes 
of  the  tribes,  &c,  were  dispersed,  as  a  matter 
of  course,  in  different  parts  of  the  country. 
Those  of  them,  accordingly,  who  dwelt  in  the 
same  city,  or  the  same  neighbourhood,  formed 
the  comitia,  senate  or  legislative  assembly  of 
their  immediate  vicinity,  Deut.  xix,  12 ;  xxv, 
8,  9  ;  Judges  viii,  14 ;  ix,  3-46 ;  xi,  5  ;  1  Sam. 
viii,  4 ;  xvi,  4.  When  all  that  dwelt  in  any 
particular  tribe  were  convened,  they  formed 
the  legislative  assembly  of  the  tribe  ;  and  when 
they  were  convened  in  one  body  from  all  the 
tribes,  they  formed  in  like  manner  the  legisla- 
tive assembly  of  the  nation,  and  were  the  re- 
presentatives of  all  the  people,  Joshua  xxiii, 
1,  2;  xxiv,  1.  The  priests,  who  were  the 
learned  class  of  the  community,  and  beside 
were  hereditary  officers  in  the  state,  being  set 
apart  for  civil  as  well  as  religious  purposes, 
had,  by  the  divine  command,  a  right  to  a  sit- 
ting in  this  assembly,  Exod.  xxxii,  29 ;  Num. 
xxxvi,  15 ;  viii,  5-26.  Being  thus  called  upon 
to  sustain  very  different  and  yet  very  import- 
ant offices,  they  became  the  subjects  of  that 
envy  which  would  naturally  be  excited  by  the 
honour  and  the  advantages  attached  to  their 
situation.  In  order  to  confirm  them  in  the 
duties  which  devolved  upon  them,  and  to  throw 
at  the  greatest  distance  the  mean  and  lurking 
principle  just  mentioned,  God,  after  the  sedi- 
tion of  Korah,  Dathan,  and  Abiram,  sanction- 
ed the  separation  of  the  whole  tribe,  which  had 
been  previously  made  to  the  service  of  religion 
and  the  state,  by  a  most  evident  and  striking 
miracle,  Num.  xvi,  1-7. 

5.  Each  tribe  was  governed  by  its  own  rulers, 
and  consequently  to  a  certain  extent  consti- 
tuted a  civil  community,  independent  of  the 
other  tribes,  Judges  xx,  11-46;  2  Sam.  ii,  4; 
Judges  i,  21.  If  any  affair  concerned  the 
whole  or  many  of  the  tribes,  it  was  determined 
by  them  in  conjunction  in  the  legislative  assem- 
bly of  the  nation,  Judges  xi,  1-11;  1  Chron. 
v,  10, 18,  19  ;  2  Sam.  iii,  17  ;  1  Kings  xii,  1-24. 
If  one  tribe  found  itself  unequal  to  tho  execu- 
tion of  any  proposed  plan,  it  might  connect 
itself  with  another,  or  even  a  number  of  the 


other  tribes,  Judges  i,  1-3,  22 ;  iv,  10 ;  vii,  23, 
24 ;  viii,  1-3.  But,  although  in  many  things 
each  tribe  existed  by  itself,  and  acted  sepa- 
rately, yet  in  others  they  were  united,  and 
formed  but  one  community :  for  all  the  tribes 
were  bound  together,  so  as  to  form  one  church 
and  one  civil  community,  not  only  by  their 
common  ancestors,  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob; 
not  only  by  the  common  promises  which  they 
had  received  from  those  ancestors ;  not  only 
by  the  need  in  which  they  stood  of  mutual 
counsel  and  assistance ;  but  also  by  the  cir- 
cumstance that  God  was  their  common  King, 
and  that  they  had  a  common  tabernacle  for 
his  palace,  and  a  common  sacerdotal  and  Le- 
vitical  order  for  his  ministers.  Accordingly, 
every  tribe  exerted  a  sort  of  inspection  over 
the  others,  as  respected  their  observance  of  the 
law.  If  any  thing  had  been  neglected,  or  any 
wrong  had  been  done,  the  particular  tribe  con- 
cerned was  amenable  to  the  others ;  and,  in 
case  justice  could  not  be  secured  in  any  other 
way,  might  be  punished  with  war,  Joshua  xxii, 
9-34;  Judges  xx,  1,  &c. 

6.  When  we  remember  that  God  was  ex- 
pressly chosen  the  King  of  the  people,  and  that 
he  enacted  laws  and  decided  litigated  points  of 
importance,  Numbers  xvii,  1-11 ;  xxvii,  1-11 ; 
xxxvi,  1-10 ;  when  we  remember  also  that  he 
answered  and  solved  questions  proposed,  Num. 
xv,  32-41 ;  Joshua  vii,  16-22  ;  Judges  i,  1,  2  ; 
xx,  18,  27,  28 ;  1  Sam.  xiv,  37 ;  xxiii,  9-12 ; 
xxx,  8 ;  2  Sam.  ii,  1 ;  that  he  threatened  pun- 
ishment, and  that,  in  some  instances,  he  actu- 
ally inflicted  it  upon  the  hardened  and  impeni- 
tent, Num.  xi,  33-35;  xii,  1-15;  xvi,  1-50; 
Lev.  xxvi,  3-46 ;  Deut.  xxvi-xxx ;  when,  finally, 
we  take  into  account,  that  he  promised  pro- 
phets, who  were  to  be,  as  it  were,  his  ambas- 
sadors, Deut.  xviii,  and  afterward  sent  them 
according  to  his  promise,  and  that,  in  order  to 
preserve  the  true  religion,  he  governed  the 
whole  people  by  a  striking  and  peculiar  provi- 
dence, we  are  at  liberty  to  say,  that  God  was, 
in  fact,  the  Monarch  of  the  people,  and  that 
the  government  was  a  theocracy.  But,  although 
the  government  of  the  Jews  was  a  theocracy, 
it  was  not  destitute  of  the  usual  forms  which 
exist  in  civil  governments  among  men.  God, 
it  is  true,  was  the  King,  and  the  high  priest,  if 
we  may  be  allowed  so  to  speak,  was  his  minis- 
ter of  state ;  but  still  the  political  affairs  were 
in  a  great  measure  under  the  disposal  of  the 
elders,  princes,  &c.  It  was  to  them  that  Moses 
gave  the  divine  commands,  determined  express- 
ly their  powers  ;  and  submitted  their  requests 
to  the  decision  of  God,  Num.  xiv,  5 ;  xvi,  4, 
&c ;  xxvii,  5 ;  xxxvi,  5,  6.  It  was  in  reference 
to  the  great  power  possessed  by  these  men, 
who  formed  the  legislative  assembly  of  the 
nation,  that  Josephus  pronounced  the  govern- 
ment to  be  aristocratical.  But  from  the  cir- 
cumstance that  the  people  possessed  so  much 
influence,  as  to  render  it  necessary  to  submit 
laws  to  them  for  their  ratification,  and  that 
they  even  took  upon  themselves  sometimes  to 
propose  laws  or  to  resist  those  which  were 
enacted ;  from  the  circumstance  also  that  the 
legislature  of  the  nation  had  not  the  power  of 


gov 


422 


GOV 


laying  taxes,  and  that  the  civil  code  was  regu- 
lated and  enforced  by  Cod  himself,  independ- 
ently of  the  legislature,  Lowman  and  Michaelis 
are  in  favour  of  considering  the  Hebrew  govern- 
ment a  democracy.  In  support  of  their  opinion 
such  passages  are  exhibited  as  the  following, 
Exodus  xix,  7,  8  ;  xxiv,  3-8  ;  Dcut.  xxix,  9-14  ; 
Joshua  ix,  18,  l'J;  xxiii,  1,  &c  ;  xxiv,  2,  &c ; 
1  Samuel  x,  24 ;  xi,  14,  15 ;  Num.  xxvii,  1-8 ; 
xxxvi,  1-9.  The  truth  scorns  to  lie  between 
these  two  opinions.  The  Hebrew  government, 
putting  out  of  view  its  theocratical  feature,  was 
of  a  mixed  form,  in  some  respects  approach- 
ing to  a  democracy,  in  others  assuming  more 
of  an  aristocratical  character. 

7.  From  what  has  been  said,  it  is  clear,  that 
the  Ruler  and  supreme  Head  of  the  political 
community  in  question  was  God,  who,  with 
the  design  of  promoting  the  good  of  his  sub- 
jects, condescended  to  exhibit  his  visible  pre- 
sence in  the  tabernacle,  wherever  it  travelled 
and  wherever  it  dwelt.  If,  in  reference  to  the 
assertion,  that  God  was  the  Ruler  of  the  Jew- 
ish state,  it  should  be  inquired  what  part  was 
sustained  by  Moses,  the  answer  is,  that  God 
was  the  Ruler,  the  people  were  his  subjects, 
and  Moses  was  llie  mediator  or  internuncio 
between  them.  But  the  title  most  appropriate 
to  Moses,  and  most  descriptive  of  the  part  he 
sustained,  is  that  of  legislator  of  the  Israelites 
and  their  deliverer  from  the  Egyptians.  If 
the  same  question  should  be  put  in  respect  to 
Joshua,  the  answer  would  be,  that  he  was  not 
properly  the  successor  of  Moses,  and  that,  so 
far  from  being  the  ruler  of  the  state,  he  was 
designated  by  the  ruler  to  sustain  the  subordi- 
nate office  of  military  leader  of  the  Israelites  in 
their  conquest  of  the  land  of  Canaan. 

8.  But,  although  the  Hebrew  state  was  so 
constituted,  that  beside  God,  the  invisible  King, 
and  fads  visible  servant,  the  high  priest,  there 
was  no  other  general  ruler  of  the  common- 
wealth, yet  it  is  well  known  that  there  were 
rulers  of  a  high  rank,  appointed  at  various 
times,  called  bds'1,  a  word  which  not  only  sig- 
nifies a  judge  in  the  usual  sense  of  the  term, 
but  any  governor,  or  administrator  of  public 
affairs,  1  Sam.  viii,  20;  Isaiah  xi,  4;  I  Kings 
iii,  9.  The  power  lodged  in  these  rulers,  who 
are  called  judges  in  the  Scriptures,  seems  to 
have  been  in  some  respects  paramount  to  that 
of  the  general  romitin  of  the  nation,  and  we 
find  that  they  declared  war,  led  armies,  con- 
eluded  peace  ;  and  that  this  was  not  the  whole, 
it'  indeed  it.  was  the  most  important  part,  of 
their  duties.  For  many  of  the  judges,  for 
instance,  Jair,  Ibzah,  Elon,  Abdon,  Eli,  and 
Samuel,  ruled  the  nation  in  peace.  They  might 
appropriately  enough  be  called  the  supreme 
executive,  exercising  all  the  rights  of  sove- 
reignty, with  the  exception  of  enacting  laws, 
and  imposing  taxes.  They  were  honoured, 
but  they  bore  no  external  badges  of  distinction  ; 
they  were  distinguished,  but  they  enjoyed  no 
special  privileges  themselves,  and  communicat- 
ed n.,ne  to  their  posterity.  They  subserved  the 
public  good  without  emolument,  that  the  state 
might  be  prosperous,  that  religion  might  be 
preserved,  and  that  God  alone  might  be  King 


in  Israel.  It  ought  to  be  observed,  howevei 
that  not  all  the  judges  ruled  the  whole  nation 
some  of  them  presided  over  only  a  few  sepa 
rate  tribes. 

9.  God,  in  the  character  of  King,  had  go 
verned  the  Israelites  for  sixteen  ages.  He 
ruled  them,  on  the  terms  which  he  himself, 
through  the  agency  of  Moses,  had  proposed  to 
them,  namely,  that  if  they  observed  their  alle- 
giance to  him,  they  should  be  prosperous ;  if 
not,  adversity  and  misery  would  be  the  conse- 
quence, Exod.  xix,  4,  5 ;  xxiii,  20-33 ;  Lev. 
xxvi,  3-46 ;  Deut.  xxviii-xxx.  We  may  learn 
from  the  whole  book  of  Judges,  and  from  the 
first  eight  chapters  of  Samuel,  how  exactly 
the  result,  from  the  clays  of  Joshua  down  to 
the  time  of  Samuel,  agreed  with  these  con- 
ditions. But  in  the  time  of  Samuel,  the  go- 
vernment, in  point  of  form,  was  changed  into 
a  monarchy.  The  election  of  king,  however, 
was  committed  to  God,  who  chose  one  by  lot : 
so  that  God  was  still  the  Ruler,  and  the  king 
the  vicegerent.  The  terms  of  the  government, 
as  respected  God,  were  the  same  as  before, 
and  the  same  duties  and  principles  were  incul- 
cated on  the  Israelites  as  had  been  originally, 
1  Sam.  viii,  7;  x,  17-23;  xii,  14,  15,  20-22, 
24,  25.  In  consequence  of  the  fact,  that  Saul 
did  not  choose  at  all  times  to  obey  the  com- 
mands of  God,  the  kingdom  was  taken  from 
him  and  given  to  another,  1  Sam.  xiii,  5-14; 
xv,  1-31.  David,  through  the  agency  of 
Samuel,  was  selected  by  Jehovah  for  king, 
who  thus  gave  a  proof  that  he  still  retained, 
and  was  disposed  to  exercise,  the  right  of  ap- 
pointing the  ruler  under  him,  1  Samuel  xvi, 
1-3.  David  was  first  made  king  over  Judah  ; 
but  as  he  received  his  appointment  from  God, 
and  acted  under  his  authority,  the  other  eleven 
tribes  submitted  to  him,  2  Sam.  v,  1-3; 
1  Chron.  xxviii,  4-6.  David  expressly  ac- 
knowledged God  as  the  Sovereign,  and  as 
having  a  right  to  appoint  the  immediate  ruler 
of  the  people,  1  Chron.  xxviii,  7-10;  he  re- 
ligiously obeyed  his  statutes,  the  people 
adhered  firmly  to  God,  and  his  reign  was 
prosperous.  The  paramount  authority  of  God, 
as  Hie  King  of  the  nation,  and  his  right  to 
appoint  one  who  should  act  in  the  capacity  of 
his  vicegerent,  are  expressly  recognized  in  the 
books  of  Kings  and  Chronicles. 

16.  On  the  subversion  of  the  Babylonian 
empire  by  Cyrus,  the  founder  of  the  Persian 
monarchy,  (B.  C.  543,)  he  authorized  the 
Jews,  by  an  edict,  to  return  into  their  own 
country,  with  full  permission  to  enjoy  their 
laws  and  religion,  and  caused  the  city  and 
temple  of  Jerusalem  to  be  rebuilt.  In  the  fol- 
lowing year,  part  of  the  Jews  returned  under 
ZerUbbabel,  and  renewed  their  sacrifices  :  but 
the  reerection  of  the  city  and  temple  being 
interrupted  for  several  years  by  the  treachery 
and  hostility  of  the  Samaritans  or  Cutheans, 
the  avowed  enemies  of  the  Jewrs,  the  comple- 
tion and  dedication  of  the  temple  did  not  take 
place  until  the  year  B.  C.  511,  six  years  after 
the  accession  of  Cyrus.  The  rebuilding  of 
Jerusalem  was  accomplished,  and  the  reforma 
tion  of  their  ecclesiastical  and  civil  polity  was 


GOU 


423 


GOU 


effected,  by  the  two  divinely  inspired  and 
pious  governors,  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  ;  but  the 
theocratic  government  does  not  appear  to  have 
been  restored.  The  new  temple  was  not,  as 
formerly,  God's  palace;  and  the  cloud  of  his 
presence  did  not  take  possession  of  it.  After 
their  death  (lie  Jew  s  were  governed  by  their 
high  priests,  in  subjection  however  to  the 
Persian  kings,  to  whom  they  paid  tribute, 
Ezra  iv,  13 ;  vii,  24,  but  with  the  full  enjoy- 
ment of  their  other  magistrates,  as  well  as 
their  liberties,  civil  and  religious.  Nearly 
three  centuries  of  uninterrupted  prosperity 
ensued,  until  the  reign  of  Antiochus  Epipha- 
nes,  king  of  Syria,  when  they  were  most 
cruelly  oppressed,  and  compelled  to  take  up 
arms  in  their  own  defence.  Under  the  able 
conduct  of  Judas,  surnamed  Maccabeus,  and 
his  valiant  brothers,  the  Jews  maintained  a 
religious  war  for  twenty-six  years  with  five 
successive  kings  of  Syria;  and  after  destroy- 
ing upward  of  two  hundred  thousand  of  their 
best  troops,  the  Maccabees  finally  established 
the  independence  of  their  own  country  and 
the  aggrandizement  of  their  family.  This 
illustrious  house,  whose  princes  united  the 
regal  and  pontifical  dignity  in  their  own  per- 
sons, administered  the  affairs  of  the  Jews 
during  a  period  of  one  hundred  and  twenty- 
six  years ;  until,  disputes  arising  between 
Hyrcanus  II,  and  his  brother  Aristobulus,  the 
latter  was  defeated  by  the  Romans  under 
Pompey,  who  captured  Jerusalem,  and  reduced 
Judea,  to  dependence,  B.  C.  59. 

GOVERNOR.  Judea  having  been  reduced 
into  a  province  by  the  Romans,  they  sent  go- 
vernors thither,  who  were  subject  not  only  to 
the  emperors,  but  also  to  the  governors  of 
Syria,  whereof  Judea  made  a  part. 

GOURD,  pvp,  Jonah  iv,  6,  7,  9,  10.  Mi- 
ehaelis,  in  his  remarks  on  this  subject,  says, 
**  Celsius  appears  to  me  to  have  proved  that  it 
is  the  kiki  of  the  Egyptians."  He  refers  it  to 
the  class  of  the  ricinus,  the  great  catapucus. 
According  to  Dioscorides,  it  is  of  rapid  growth, 
and  bears  a  berry  from  which  an  oil  is  express- 
ed. In  the  Arabic  version  of  this  passage, 
which  is  to  be  found  in  Avicenna,  it  is  ren- 
dered, "  from  thence  is  pressed  the  oil  which 
they  call  oil  of  kiki,  which  is  the  oil  of  Alke- 
roa."  So  Herodotus  says:  "The  inhabitants 
of  the  marshy  grounds  in  Egypt  make  use  of 
an  oil,  which  they  term  the  kiki,  expressed 
from  the  Sillicyprian  plant.  In  Greece  this 
plant  springs  spontaneously,  without  any  cul- 
tivation ;  but  the  Egyptians  sow  it  on  the 
banks  of  the  river  and  of  the  canals ;  it  there 
produces  fruit  in  great  abundance,  but  of  a 
very  strong  odour.  When  gathered,  they  ob- 
tain from  it,  either  by  friction  or  pressure,  an 
unctuous  liquid,  which  diffuses  an  offensive 
smell,  but  for  burning  it  is  equal  in  quality  to 
the  oil  of  olives."  This  plant  rises  with  a 
strong  herbaceous  stalk  to  the  height  of  ten 
or  twelve  feet ;  and  is  furnished  with  very 
large  leaves,  not  unlike  those  of  the  plane 
tree.  Rabbi  Kimchi  says  that  the  people  of 
the  east  plant  them  before  their  shops  for  the 
sake  of  the  shade,  and  to  refresh  themselves 


under  them.  Niebuhr  says,  "I  saw,  for  the 
first  time  at  Basra,  the  plant  ei-keroa,  men- 
tioned in  Michaelis's  '  Questions.'  It  has  the 
form  of  a  tree.  The  trunk  appeared  to  me 
rather  to  resemble  leaves  than  wood ;  never- 
theless, it  is  harder  than  that  which  bears  the 
Adam's  fig.  Each  branch  of  the  keroa  has 
but  one  large  leaf,  with  six  or  seven  foldings 
in  it.  This  plant  was  near  to  a  rivulet,  which 
watered  it  amply.  At  the  end  of  October, 
17G5,  it  had  risen  in  five  months'  tune  about 
eight  feet,  and  bore  at  once  flowers  and  fruit, 
ripe  and  unripe.  Another  tree  of  this  species, 
which  had  not  had  so  much  water,  had  not 
grown  more  in  a  whole  year.  The  flowers 
and  leaves  of  it  which  I  gathered  withered  in 
a  few  minutes ;  as  do  all  plants  of  a  rapid 
growth.  This  tree  is  called  at  Aleppo,  pabiia 
Christi.  An  oil  is  made  from  it  called  oleum 
de  keroa  ;  oleum  cicinum  ;  oleum  jicus  infernalis. 
The  Christians  and  Jews  of  Mosul  (Nineveh) 
say,  it  was  not  the  keroa  whose  shadow  re- 
freshed Jonah,  but  a  sort  of  gourd,  el-kera, 
which  has  very  large  leaves,  very  large  fruit, 
and  lasts  but  about  four  months."  The  epi- 
thet which  the  prophet  uses  in  speaking  of  the 
plant,  "  son  of  the  night  it  was,  and,  as  a 
son  of  the  night  it  died,"  does  not  compel  us 
to  believe  that  it  grew  in  a  single  night,  but, 
either  by  a  strong  oriental  figure  that  it  was 
of  rapid  growth,  or  akin  to  night  in  the  shade 
it  spread  for  his  repose.  The  figure  is  not 
uncommon  in  the  east,  and  one  of  our  own 
poets  has  called  the  rose  "child  of  the  sum- 
mer." Nor  are  we  bound  to  take  the  expres- 
sion "  on  the  morrow,"  as  strictly  importing 
the  very  next  day,  since  the  word  has  refer- 
ence to  much  more  distant  time,  Exod.  xiii, 
14 ;  Deut.  vi,  20  ;  Joshua  iv,  6.  It  might  be 
simply  taken  as  afterward.  But  the  author  of 
"  Scripture  Illustrated"  justly  remarks,  "  As 
the  history  in  Jonah  expressly  says,  the  Lord 
prepared  this  plant,  no  doubt  we  may  conceive 
of  it  as  an  extraordinary  one  of  its  kind,  re- 
markably rapid  in  its  growth,  remarkably  hard 
in  its  stem,  remarkably  vigorous  in  its  branch- 
es, and  remarkable  for  the  extensive  spread  of 
its  leaves  and  the  deep  gloom  of  their  shadow  ; 
and,  after  a  certain  duration,  remarkable  for  a 
sudden  withering,  and  a  total  uselessness  to 
the  impatient  prophet." 

2.  We  read  of  the  wild  gourd  in  2  Kings  iv, 
39;  that  Elisha,  being  at  Gilgal  during  a 
great  famine,  bade  one  of  his  servants  prepare 
something  for  the  entertainment  of  the  pro- 
phets who  were  in  that  place.  The  servant, 
going  into  the  field,  found,  as  our  transla- 
tors render  it,  some  wild  gourds,  gathered  a 
lapful  of  them,  and,  having  brought  them  with 
him,  cut  them  in  pieces  and  put  them  into  a 
pot,  not  knowing  what  they  were.  When 
they  were  brought  to  table,  the  prophets,  hav- 
ing tasted  them,  thought  they  were  mortal 
poison.  Immediately,  the  man  of  God  called 
for  flour,  threw  it  into  the  pot,  and  desired 
them  to  eat  without  any  apprehensions.  They 
did  so,  and  perceived  nothing  of  the  bitter- 
ness whereof  they  were  before  sensible.  This 
plant  or  fruit  is  called  in  Hebrew  mypD  and 


GRA 


424 


GRA 


O'jjpB.  There  have  been  various  opinions 
about  it.  Celsius  supposes  it  the  colocynth. 
The  leaves  of  the  plant  are  large,  placed  alter, 
nate;  the  flowers  white,  and  the  fruit  of  the 
gourd  kind,  of  the  sizo  of  8  large  apple,  which, 
when  ripe,  is  yellow,  ;md  of  a  pleasant  and  in- 
viting appearance,  but,  to  the  taste  intolerably 
bitter,  and  proves  a.  drastic  purgative.  It 
seems  thai  the  fruit,  whatever  it  might  have 
been,  was  early  thought  proper  for  an  orna- 
ment in  architecture.  It  furnished  a  model 
for  some  of  the  carved  work  of  cedar  in  Solo- 
mon's temple,  1  Kings  vi,  18 ;  vii,  24. 

GRACE.  This  word  is  understood  in  se- 
veral senses :  for  beauty,  graceful  form,  and 
agreeableness  of  person,  Prov.  i,  9 ;  iii,  22. 
For  favour,  friendship,  kindness,  Gen.  vi,  8 ; 
xviii,  3;  Rom.  xi,  6;  2  Tim.  i,  9.  For  par- 
don, mercy,  undeserved  remission  of  offences, 
Eph.  ji,  5;  Col.  i,  G.  For  certain  gifts  of 
God,  which  he  bestows  freely,  when,  where, 
and  on  whom,  he  pleases ;  such  are  the  gifts 
of  miracles,  prophecy,  languages,  &c,  Rom. 
xv,  15;  1  Cor.  xv,  10;  Eph.  iii,  8,  &c.  For 
the  Gospel  dispensation,  in  contradistinction 
to  that  of  the  law,  Rom.  vi,  14;  1  Peter  v,  12. 
For  a  liberal  and  charitable  disposition,  2  Cor. 
viii,  7.  For  eternal  life,  or  final  salvation,  1 
Peter  i,  13.  In  theological  language  grace 
also  signifies  divine  influence  upon  the  soul ; 
and  it  derives  the  name  from  this  being  the 
effect  of  the  great  grace  or  favour  of  God  to 
mankind.  Austin  defines  inward  actual  grace 
to  be  the  inspiration  of  love,  which  prompts 
us  to  practise  according  to  what  we  know, 
out  of  a  religious  affection  and  compliance. 
He  says,  likewise,  that  the  grace  of  God  is 
the  blessing  of  God's  sweet  influence,  whereby 
we  are  induced  to  take  pleasure  in  that  which 
he  commands,  to  desire  and  to  love  it ;  and 
that  if  God  does  not  prevent  us  witli  this  bless- 
ing, what  he  commands,  not  only  is  not  per- 
fected, but  is  not  so  much  as  begun  in  us. 
Without  the  inward  grace  of  Jesus  Christ, 
man  is  not  able  to  do  the  least  thing  that  is 
good.  He  stands  in  need  of  this  grace  to  be- 
gin, continue,  and  finish  all  the  good  he  does, 
or  rather,  which  God  does  in  him  and  with 
him,  by  his  grace.  This  grace  is  free ;  it  is 
not  due  to  us :  if  jt  were  due  to  us,  it  would 
be  no  more  grace ;  it  would  be  a  debt,  Rom. 
xi,  C ;  it  is  in  its  nature  an  assistance  so  power- 
ful and  efficacious,  that  it  surmounts  the  obsti- 
nacy of  t\ie  most  rebellious  human  heart,  with- 
out destroying  human  liberty.  There  is  no 
subject  on  Which  Christian  doctors  have  writ- 
ten so  largely,  as  on  the  several  particulars 
relating  to  the  grace  of  God.  The  difficulty 
consists  in  reconciling  human  liberty  with  the 
operation  of  divine  grace;  the  concurrence  of 
man  with  the  influence  and  assistance  of  the 
Almighty.  And  who  is  able  to  set  up  an  ac- 
curate boundary  between  these  two  things? 
Who  can  pretend  to  know  how  far  the  privi- 
leges of  grace  extend  over  the  heart  of  man, 
and  what  that  man's  liberty  exactly  is,  who  is 
prevented,  enlightened,  moved,  and  attracted 
by  grace  ? 

GRAPE,  3jy,  the  fruit  of  the  vine.     There 


were  fine  vineyards  and  excellent  grapes  in 
the  promised  land.  The  bunch  of  grapes 
which  was  cut  in  the  valley  of  Eshcol,  and 
was  brought  upon  a  staff  between  two  men  to 
the  camp  of  Israel  at  Kadeshbarnea,  Num.  xiii, 
23,  may  give  us  some  idea,  of  the  largeness  ot 
the  fruit  in  that  country.  It  would  be  easy  to 
produce  a  great  number  of  witnesses  to  prove 
that  the  grapes  in  those  regions  grow  to  a  pro- 
digious size.  By  Calmet,  Scheuchzer,  and 
Harmer,  this  subject  has  been  exhausted. 
Doubdan  assures  us,  that  in  the  valley  of  Esh- 
col were  clusters  of  grapes  to  be  found  often  or 
twelve  pounds.  Moses,  in  the  law,  commanded 
that  when  the  Israelites  gathered  their  grapes, 
they  should  not  be  careful  to  pick  up  those 
that  fell,  nor  be  so  exact  as  to  leave  none  upon 
the  vines  :  what  fell,  and  what  were  left  be- 
hind, the  poor  had  liberty  to  glean,  Lev.  xix, 
10 ;  Deut.  xxiv,  21,  22.  For  the  same  bene- 
ficent purpose  the  second  vintage  was  re- 
served :  this,  in  those  warm  countries,  was 
considerable,  though  never  so  good  nor  so 
plentiful  as  the  former.  The  wise  son  of 
Sirach  says,  "  I  waked  up  last  of  all,  as  one 
that  gleaneth  after  grape  gatherers.  By  the 
blessing  of  the  Lord,  I  profited,  and  filled  my 
wine-press  like  a  gatherer  of  grapes,"  Ecclus. 
xxxiii,  16.  It  is  frequent  in  Scripture  to  de- 
scribe a  total  destruction  by  the  similitude  of 
a  vine,  stripped  in  such  a  manner,  that  there 
was  not  a  bunch  of  grapes  left  of  those  who 
came  to  glean.  The  prophecy,  "  He  shall 
wash  his  clothes  in  wine,  and  his  garments  in 
the  blood  of  the  grape,"  Gen.  xlix,  11,  means 
that  he  shall  reside  in  a  country  where  grapes 
were  in  abundance.  The  vineyards  of  Engedi 
and  of  Sorek,  so  famous  in  Scripture,  were  in 
the  tribe  of  Judah;  and  so  was  the  valley  of 
Eshcol,  whence  the  spies  brought  those  extra- 
ordinary clusters.  "  It  appears,"  says  Manti, 
"  that  the  cultivation  of  the  vine  was  never 
abandoned  in  this  country.  The  grapes,  which 
are  white,  and  pretty  large,  are,  however,  not 
much  superior  in  size  to  those  of  Europe. 
This  peculiarity  seems  to  be  confined  to  those  in 
this  neighbourhood  ;  for  at  the  distance  of  only 
six  miles  to  the  south,  is  the  rivulet  and  valley 
called  Escohol,  celebrated  in  Scripture  for  its 
fertility,  and  for  producing  very  large  grapes. 
In  other  parts  of  Syria,  also,  I  have  seen  grapes 
of  such  an  extraordinary  size,  that  a  bunch  of 
them  would  be  a  sufficient  burden  for  one  man. 
It  is  not  at  all  surprising,  therefore,  that  when 
the  spies,  sent  by  Moses  to  reconnoitre  the  pro- 
mised land,  returned  to  give  him  an  account 
of  its  fertility,  it  required  two  of  them  to  carry 
a  bunch  of  grapes,  which  they  brought  With 
them  suspended  from  a  pole  placed  upon  their 
shoulders."  Many  eye  witnesses  assure  us, 
that  in  Palestine  the  vines,  and  bunches  of 
grapes,  are  almost  of  an  incredible  size.  "At 
Beidtdjin,"  says  Sohultz,  a  "village  near  Pto- 
lcmnis,  we  took  our  supper  under  a  large  vine, 
the  stem  of  which  was  nearly  a  foot  and  a  half 
in  diameter,  the  height  about  thirty  feet,  and 
covered  with  its  branches  and  shoots  (for  the 
shoots  must  bo  supported)  a  hut  of  more  than 
fifty  feet  long  and  broad.     The  bunches  of 


GRA 


425 


GRA 


these  grapes  are  so  large  that  they  weigh  from 
ten  to  twelve  pounds,  and  the  grapes  may  be 
compared  to  our  plumbs.  Such  a  bunch  is 
cut  off  and  laid  on  a  board,  round  which  they 
seat  themselves,  and  each  helps  himself  to  as 
many  as  he  pleases."  Forster,  in  his  Hebrew 
Dictionary,  (under  the  word  Eshcol,)  says,  that 
he  knew  at  Nurnburg,  a  monk  of  the  name  of 
Acacius,  who  had  resided  eight  years  in  Pales, 
tine,  and  had  also  preached  at  Hebron,  where 
he  had  seen  bunches  of  grapes  which  were  as 
much  as  two  men  could  conveniently  carry. 

The  wild  grapes,  o>CN3,  are  the  fruit  of  the 
wild  or  bastard  vine ;  sour  and  unpalatable, 
and  good  for  nothing  but  to  make  verjuice.  In 
Isaiah  v,  2-4,  the  Lord  complains  that  he  had 
planted  his  people  as  a  choice  vine,  excellent 
as  that  of  Sorek  ;  but  that  its  degeneracy  had 
defeated  his  purpose,  and  disappointed  his 
hopes :  when  he  expected  that  it  should  bring 
forth  choice  fruit,  it  yielded  only  such  as  was 
bad ;  not  merely  useless  and  unprofitable  grapes, 
but  clusters  offensive  and  noxious.  By  the 
force  and  intent  of  the  allegory,  says  Bishop 
Lowth,  "  good  grapes"  ought  to  be  opposed 
"to  fruit  of  a  dangerous  and  pernicious  quali- 
ty," as,  in  the  application  of  it,  to  judgment  is 
opposed  tyranny,  and  to  righteousness  oppres- 
sion. Hasselquist  is  inclined  to  believe  that 
the  prophet  here  means  the  solanum  incanum, 
"  hoary  nightshade,"  because  it  is  common  in 
Egypt  and  Palestine,  and  the  Arabian  name 
agrees  well  with  it.  The  Arabs  call  it  aneb  el 
dib,  "  wolf's  grapes."  .  The  prophet  could  not 
have  found  a  plant  more  opposite  to  the  vine 
than  this  ;  for  it  grows  much  in  the  vineyards, 
and  is  very  pernicious  to  them.  It  is  likewise 
a  vine.  Jeremiah  uses  the  same  image,  and 
applies  it  to  the  same  purpose,  in  an  elegant 
paraphrase  of  this  part  of  Isaiah's  parable,  in 
his  flowing  and  plaintive  manner :  "I  planted 
thee  a  Sorek,  a  scion  perfectly  genuine.  How 
then  art  thou  changed,  and  become  to  me  the 
degenerate  shoot  of  a  strange  vine  !"  Jer.  ii,  21. 
From  some  sort  of  poisonous  fruits  of  the 
grape  kind,  Moses,  Deut.  xxxii,  32,  33,  has 
taken  those  strong  and  highly  poetical  images 
with  which  he  has  set  fortli  the  future  corrup- 
tion and  extreme  degeneracy  of  the  Israelites, 
in  an  allegory  which  has  a  near  relation,  both 
in  its  subject  and  imagery,  to  this  of  Isaiah  : — 

"  Their  vine  is  from  the  vine  of  Sodom, 
Ami  from  the  fields  of  Gomorrah. 
Their  grapes  are  grapes  of  gall ; 
And  their  clusters  are  bitter. 
Their  wine  is  the  poison  of  dragons, 
And  the  deadly  venom  of  aspics." 

GRASS,  Ntt>i,  Gen.  i,  11,  the  well  known 
vegetable  upon  which  flocks  and  herds  feed, 
and  which  decks  our  fields,  and  refreshes  our 
sight  with  its  grateful  verdure.  Its  feeble  frame 
and  transitory  duration  are  mentioned  in  Scrip- 
ture as  emblematic  of  the  frail  condition  and 
fleeting  existence  of  man.  The  inspired  poets 
draw  this  picture  with  such  inimitable  beauty 
as  the  laboured  elegies  on  mortality  of  ancient 
and  modern  times  have  never  surpassed.  See 
Psalm  xc,  6,  and  particularly  Isaiah  xl,  6-8 : 
'The  voice  said,  Cry!     And  he  said,  What 


shall  I  cry  ?  All  flesh  is  grass,  and  all  the 
goodliness  thereof  is  as  the  flower  of  the  field. 
The  grass  withereth,  the  flower  fadetli,  be 
cause  the  Spirit  of  the  Lord  bloweth  upon  it. 
Verily  this  people  is  grass.  The  grass  wither- 
eth, the  flower  fadeth ;  but  the  word  of  our 
God  shall  stand  for  ever."  As,  in  their  decay, 
the  herbs  of  the  fields  strikingly  illustrate  the 
shortness  of  human  life,  so,  in  the  order  of 
their  growth,  from  seeds  dead  and  buried, 
they  give  a  natural  testimony  to  the  doctrine 
of  a  resurrection.  The  Prophet  Isaiah,  and 
the  Apostle  Peter,  both  speak  of  bodies  rising 
from  the  dead,  as  of  so  many  seeds  springing 
from  the  ground  to  renovated  existence  and 
beauty,  although  they  do  not,  as  some  have 
absurdly  supposed,  consider  the  resurrection 
as  in  any  sense  analogous  to  the  process  of 
vegetation,  Isaiah  xxvi,  19  ;  1  Peter  i,  24,  25. 

It  is  a  just  remark  of  Grotius,  that  the  He- 
brews ranked  the  whole  vegetable  system  un- 
der two  classes,  yy,  and  atpp.  The  first  is 
rendered  %v\ov,  or  SivSpov,  tree :  to  express  the 
second,  the  LXX  have  adopted  x<(pr«,  as  their 
common  way  to  translate  one  Hebrew  word 
by  one  Greek  word,  though  not  quite  proper, 
rather  than  by  a  circumlocution.  It  is  accord- 
ingly used  in  their  version  of  Genesis  i,  11, 
where  the  distinction  first  occurs,  and  in  most 
other  places.  Nor  is  it  with  greater  propriety 
rendered  grass  in  English  than  x°PT°s  m  Greek. 
The  same  division  occurs  in  Matt,  vi,  30,  and 
Rev.  viii,  7,  where  our  translators  have  in  like 
manner  had  recourse  to  the  term  grass.  Dr. 
Campbell  prefers  and  uses  the  word  herbage, 
as  coming  nearer  the  meaning  of  the  sacred 
writer.  Under  the  name  herb  is  comprehend- 
ed every  sort  of  plant  which  has  not,  like 
trees  and  shrubs,  a  perennial  stalk.  That 
many,  if  not  all,  sorts  of  shrubs  were  included 
by  the  Hebrews  under  the  denomination,  tree, 
is  evident  from  Jotham's  apologue  of  the  trees 
choosing  a  king,  Judges  ix,  7,  where  the 
bramble  is  mentioned  as  one.     See  Hav. 

GRASSHOPPER,  ajn,  Lev.  xi,  22;  Num. 
xiii,  33 ;  2  Chron.  vii,  13 ;  Eccles.  xii,  5 ;  Isaiah 
xl,  22 ;  2  Esdrasiv,  24  ;  Wisdom  xvi,  9 ;  Eccles. 
xliii,  17.  Bochart  supposes  that  this  species 
of  the  locust  has  its  name  from  the  Arabic  verb 
hajaba,  "  to  veil,"  because,  when  they  fly,  as 
they  often  do,  in  great  swarms,  they  eclipse 
even  the  light  of  the  sun.  "  But  I  presume," 
says  Parkhurst,  "  this  circumstance  is  not  pecu- 
liar to  any  particular  kind  of  locust :  I  should 
rather,  therefore,  think  it  denotes  the  cueul- 
lated  species,  so  denominated  by  naturalists 
from  the  ciicuUus,  '  cowl'  or  '  hood,'  with  which 
they  are  furnished,  and  which  distinguishes 
them  from  the  other  kinds.  In  Scheuohzer 
may  be  seen  several  of  this  sort  ;  and  it  will 
appear  that  this  species  nearly  resemble  our 
grasshopper."  Our  translators  render  the  He- 
brew word  locust,  in  the  prayer  of  Solomon  at 
the  dedication  of  the  temple,  2  Chron.  vii,  13, 
and  with  propriety.  But  it  is  rendered  grass- 
hopper, in  Eccles.  xii,  5,  where  Solomon,  de- 
scribing the  infelicities  of  old  age,  says,  "The 
grasshopper  shall  be  a  burden."  "To  this  in- 
sect," says  Dr.  Smith,  "  the  preacher  compares 


GRE 


42G 


GRE 


i  dry,  shrunk,  shrivelled,  crumpling,  craggy 
<>ltl  man  ;  his  backbone  sticking  out,  his  knees 
projecting  forward,  bis  arms  backward,  his 
head  downward,  and  the  apophyses  or  bunch- 
ing parts  of  the  bones  in  general  enlarged. 
And  from  this  exact  likeness,  without  all  doubt, 
arose  the  fable  of  Tithonus,  who,  living  to 
extreme  old  age,  was  at  last  turned  into  a 
grasshopper."  Dr.  Hodgson,  referring  it  to 
the  custom  of  eating  locusts,  supposes  it  to 
imply  that  luxurious  gratification  will  become 
insipid  ;  and  Bishop  Reynolds,  that  the  lightest 
pressure  of  so  small  a  creature  shall  be  uncom- 
fortable to  the  aged,  as  not  being  able  to  bear 
any  weight.  Other  commentators  suppose  the 
reference  to  the  chirping  noise  of  the  grasshop- 
per, which  must  be  disagreeable  to  the  aged 
and  infirm,  who  naturally  love  quiet,  and  are 
eommonly  unable  to  bear  much  noise.  It  is 
probable  that  here,  also,  a  kind  of  locust  is 
meant ;  and  these  creatures  are  proverbially 
loquacious.  They  make  a  loud,  screaking, 
and  disagreeable  noise  with  their  wings.  If 
one  begins,  others  join,  and  the  hateful  con- 
cert becomes  universal.  A  pause  then  ensues, 
and,  as  it  were,  on  a  signal  given,  it  again 
commences  ;  and  in  this  manner  they  continue 
squalling  for  two  or  three  hours  without  inter- 
mission. The  Prophet  Isaiah  contrasts  the 
grandeur  and  power  of  God,  and  every  tiling 
reputed  great  in  this  world,  by  a  very  express- 
ive reference  to  this  insect :  Jehovah  sit.teth 
on  the  circle  of  the  earth,  and  the  inhabitants 
are  to  him  as  grasshoppers,  Isaiah  xl,  22.  What 
atoms  and  inanities  are  they  all  before  him, 
who  sitteth  on  the  circle  of  the  immense 
heavens,  and  views  the  potentates  of  the  earth 
hi  the  light  of  grasshoppers,  those  poor  insects 
llut  wander  over  the  barren  heath  for  suste- 
nance, spend  the  day  in  insignificant  chirp- 
ings, and  take  up  their  contemptible  lodging 
at  night  on  a  blade  of  grass!    See  Locust. 

GRECIA,  or  GREECE,  both  names  occur- 
ring in  ihe  English  Scriptures.  The  bounda- 
ries of  the  country  which  received  this  name 
differed  under  the  different  governments  which 
ruled  over  it.  Thus  Hie  Greece  of  the  Old 
Testament  is  not  exactly  the  same  as  that  of 
the  New:  the  former  including  Macedonia, 
Thessaly,  Epirus,  lleikis  or  Greece  l'roper, 
and  the  Peloponnesus  or  Morea;  while  the 
latter  excludes  Macedonia,  Thessaly,  and  Epi- 
rus. But  the  Romans,  in  the  time  of  the 
Apostles,  had,  in  fact,  made  two  divisions  of 
these  countries.  The  first,  which  was  that  of 
Macedonia,  included  also  Thessaly  and  Epi- 
rus ;  and  the  other,  that  ol"  Achaia,  all  the 
rest  of  Greece,  which  is,  properly  speaking, 
the  Greece  of  the  New  Testament.  But  the 
term  (hick  admits  of  a  larger  interpretation, 
and  applies  .not  only  to  the  inhabitants  of 
Greece  Proper,  but  to  those  of  Asia  Minor, 
Syria,  and  Egypt,  over  nearly  the  whole  of 
the  former  of  which  countries,  and  great  part 
of  the  two  latter,  Grecian  colonies  and  the 
Grecian  language  had  extended  themselves. 
In  feet,  in  the  two  books  of  the  Maccabees, 
and  in  those  of  the  New  Testament,  the  word 
Greek  commonly  implies  a  Gentile. 


2.  The  Scripture  has  but  little  reference  to 
Greece  till  the  time  of  Alexander,  whose  con- 
quests extended  into  Asia,  where  Greece  had 
hitherto  been  of  no  importance.  Yet  that 
some  intercourse  was  maintained  with  these 
countries  from  Jerusalem,  may  be  inferred 
from  the  desire  of  Baasha  to  shut  up  all  pas- 
sage between  Jerusalem  and  Joppa,  which 
was  its  port,  by  the  building  of  Ramah ;  and 
the  anxiety  of  Asa  to  counteract  his  scheme, 
1  Kings  xv,  2,  17.  Greece  was  certainly  in- 
tended by  the  Prophet  Daniel  under  the  sym- 
bol of  the  single-horned  goat ;  and  it  is  proba- 
ble that  when  he  calls  Greece  Chittim,  he 
spoke  the  language  of  the  Hebrew  nation, 
rather  than  that  of  the  Persian  court.  After 
the  establishment  of  the  Grecian  dynasties  in 
Asia,  Judea  could  not  but  be  considerably  af- 
fected by  them  ;  and  the  books  of  the  Macca- 
bees afford  proofs  of  this.  The  Roman  power, 
superseding  the  Grecian  establishment*,  yet 
left  traces  of  Greek  language,  customs,  &c,  to 
the  days  of  the  Herods,  when  the  Gospel  his- 
tory commences.  By  the  activity  of  the 
Apostles,  and  especially  by  that  of  St.  Paul, 
the  Gospel  was  propagated  in  those  countries 
which  used  the  Grecian  dialects :  hence,  we 
are  interested  in  the  study  of  this  language. 
Moreover  as  Greece,  like  all  other  countries, 
had  its  peculiar  manners,  we  arc  not  able  to 
estimate  properly  an  epistle  written  to  those 
who  dwell  where  they  prevailed,  without  a 
competent  acquaintance  with  the  manners 
themselves,  with  the  sentiments  and  reason- 
ings of  those  who  practised  them,  and  with 
the  arguments  employed  in  their  defence  by 
those  who  adhered  to  them. 

GREEK  LANGUAGE.  It  was  because  of 
the  wide  diffusion  of  this  language  that  the 
New  Testament  was  written  in  Greek.  Its 
diction  is  not,  however,  that  of  the  classical 
Greek,  but  it  was  chosen,  no  doubt,  with  a 
view  to  greater  usefulness.  In  the  age  which 
succeeded  Alexander  the  Great,  the  Greek 
language  underwent  an  internal  change  of  a 
double  nature.  In  part,  a  prosaic  language  of 
books  was  formed,  ij  kouij  iiaXerrds,  which  was 
built  on  the  Attic  dialect,  but  was  intermixed 
with  not  a  few  provincialisms  ;  but  a  language 
of  popular  intercourse  was  also  formed,  in 
which  the  various  dialects  of  the  different 
Grecian  tribes,  heretofore  separate,  were  more 
or  less  mingled  together,  while  the  Macedonian 
dialect  was  peculiarly  prominent.  The  latter 
language  constitutes  the  basis  of  the  diction 
employed  by  the  LXX,  the  writers  of  the 
Apocrypha,  and  of  the  New  Testament.  The 
style  of  the  New  Testament  has  a  considera- 
ble affinity  with  that  of  the  Sepluagint  version 
which  was  executed  at  Alexandria,  although 
it  approaches  somewhat  nearer  to  the  idiom  of 
the  Greek  language;  but  the  peculiarities  oi 
the  Hebrew  phraseology  are  discernible 
throughout :  the  language  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment being  formed  by  a  mixture  of  oriental 
idioms  and  expressions  with  those  which  are 
properly  Greek.  Hence  it  has,  by  some  phi- 
lologers,  been  termed  Hebraic  Greek,  and 
(from   the  Jews   having   acquired  the  Greek 


GRE 


427 


GRK 


language,  rather  by  practice  than  by  grammar, 
among  the  Greeks,  in  whose  countries  they 
resided  in  large  communities)  Hellenistic 
Greek.  The  propriety  of  this  appellation  was 
severely  contested  toward  the  close  of  the 
seventeenth,  and  in  the  early  part  of  the 
eighteenth,  century ;  and  numerous  publica- 
tions were  written  on  both  sides  of  the  ques- 
tion, with  considerable  asperity,  which,  to- 
gether with  the  controversy,  are  now  almost 
forgotten.  The  dispute,  however  interesting 
to  the  philological  antiquarian,  is  after  all  a 
mere  "  strife  of  words  ;"  and  as  the  appellation 
of  Hellenistic  or  Hebraic  Greek  is  sufficiently 
correct  for  the  purpose  of  characterizing  the 
language  of  the  New  Testament,  it  is  now 
generally  adopted.  A  large  proportion,  how- 
ever, of  the  phrases  and  constructions  of  the 
New  Testament  is  pure  Greek  ;  that  is  to  say, 
of  the  same  degree  of  purity  as  the  Greek 
which  was  spoken  in  Macedonia,  and  that  in 
which  Polybius  wrote  his  Roman  history.  It 
should  farther  be  noticed,  that  there  occur  in 
the  New  Testament,  words  that  express  both 
doctrines  and  practices  which  were  utterly 
unknown  to  the  Greeks  ;  and  also  words  bear- 
ing widely  different  interpretations  from  those 
which  are  ordinarily  found  in  Greek  writers. 
It  contains  examples  of  all  the  dialects  occur- 
ring in  the  Greek  language,  as  the  ./Eolic, 
Bajotic,  Doric,  Ionic,  and  especially  of  the 
Attic  ;  which,  being  most  generally  in  use  on 
account  of  its  elegance,  pervades  every  book 
of  the  New  Testament. 

2.  A  variety  of  solutions  has  been  given  to 
the  question,  why  the  New  Testament  was 
written  in  Greek.  The  true  reason  is,  that  it 
was  the  language  most  generally  understood 
both  by  writers  and  readers  ;  being  spoken  and 
written,  read  and  understood,  throughout  the 
Roman  empire,  and  particularly  in  the  eastern 
provinces.  To  the  universality  of  the  Greek 
language,  Cicero,  Seneca,  and  Juvenal  bear 
ample  testimony :  and  the  circumstances  of 
the  Jews  having  long  had  political,  civil,  and 
commercial  relations  with  the  Greeks,  and 
being  dispersed  through  various  parts  of  the 
Roman  empire,  as  well  as  their  having  culti- 
vated the  philosophy  of  the  Greeks,  of  which 
we  have  evidence  in  the  New  Testament,  all 
.sufficiently  account  for  their  being  acquainted 
'.villi  the  Greek  language.  And  if  the  eminent 
Jewish  writers,  Philo  and  Josephus,  had  mo- 
tives for  preferring  to  write  in  Greek,  there  is 
no  reason,  at.  least  there  is  no  general  pre- 
sumption, why  the  first  publishers  of  the 
<-ospel  might  not  use  the  Greek  language.  It 
is  indeed  probable,  that  many  of  the  common 
people  were  (acquainted  with  it;  though  it  is 
also  certain  the  Christian  churches  being  in 
many  countries  composed  chiefly  of  that  class 
of  persons,  some  did  not  understand  Greek. 
But  in  every  church,  says  Macknight,  there 
were  persons  endowed  with  the  gift  of  tongues, 
and  of  the  interpretation  of  tongues,  who 
could  readily  turn  the  Apostles'  Greek  epistles 
into  the  language  of  the  church  to  which  they 
were  sent.  In  particular,  the  president  or  the 
fipiritual  man,  who  read  the  Apostle's  Greek 


letter  to  the  Hebrews  in  their  public  assem 
bhes,  could  without  any  hesitation  render  it 
into  the  Hebrew  language,  for  the  edification 
of  those  who  did  not  understand  Creek.  And 
with  respect  to  the  Jews  in  the  provinces, 
Greek  being  the  native  language  of  most  of 
them,  this  epistle  was  much  better  calculated 
for  their  use,  written  in  the  Greek  language, 
than  if  it  had  been  written  in  the  Hebrew, 
which  few  of  them  understood.  Farther,  it 
was  proper  that  all  the  apostolical  epistles 
should  be  written  in  the  Greek  language,  be- 
cause the  different  doctrines  of  the  Gospel 
being  delivered  and  explained  in  them,  the 
explanation  of  these  doctrines  could  with  more 
advantage  be  compared  so  as  to  be  better  un- 
derstood, being  expressed  in  one  language, 
than  if,  in  the  different  epistles,  they  had  been 
expressed  in  the  language  of  the  churches  and 
persons  to  whom  they  were  sent.  Now  what 
should  that  one  language  be,  in  which  it  was 
proper  to  write  the  Christian  revelation,  but 
the  Greek,  which  was  then  generally  under- 
stood, and  in  which  there  were  many  books 
extant ;  that  treated  of  all  kinds  of  literature, 
and  on  that  account  were  likely  to  be  pre- 
served, and  by  the  reading  of  which  Christians, 
in  after  ages,  would  be  enabled  to  understand 
the  Greek  of  the  New  Testament?  This 
advantage  none  of  the  provincial  dialects  used 
in  the  Apostles'  days  could  pretend  to.  Being 
limited  to  particular  countries,  they  were  soon 
to  be  disused ;  and  few  (if  any)  books  being 
written  in  them  which  merited  to  be  preserved, 
the  meaning  of  such  of  the  Apostles'  letters  as 
were  composed  in  the  provincial  languages 
could  not  easily  have  been  ascertained. 

GREEK  CHURCH.  As  the  Gospel  spread 
in  the  first  ages  both  east  and  west,  the  first 
Christian  churches  were  so  denominated. 
From  the  languages  respectively  used  in  their 
devotions,  they  were  also  called  the  Greek 
and  Latin  or  Roman  churches.  For  the  first 
seven  centuries  these  churches  preserved  a 
friendly  communion  with  each  other,  notwith- 
standing they  disagreed  as  to  the  time  of  keep- 
ing Easter,  and  some  other  points.  But 
about  the  middle  of  the  eighth  century,  dis- 
putes arose,  which  terminated  in  a  schism, 
that  continues  to  this  day.  It  arose  out  of  a 
controversy  respecting  the  use  of  images  in 
the  churches.  It  happened  that  at  this  time 
both  churches  were  under  prelates  equally 
dogmatical  and  ambitious.  The  patriarch  of 
Constantinople  insisted  on  putting  down  the 
use  of  all  images  and  pictures,  not  only  in  his 
own  church,  but  at  Rome  also,  which  the  pope 
resented  with  equal  violence  and  asperity. 
They  mutually  excommunicated  each  other; 
and  the  pope  of  Rome  excommunicated  not 
only  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  but  1  he 
emperor  also.  The  controversy  respecting 
images  engendered  another,  no  less  bitter, 
respecting  the  procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
both  from  the  Father  and  the  .Son,  which  the 
Greeks  flatly  denied,  and  charged  the  Romans 
with  interpolating  the  word  Jilioq tie  into  the  an- 
cient creeds.  These  controversies  occupied 
the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries,  after  which 


GRE 


428 


GRO 


some  intervals  of  partial  peace  occurred  ;  but 
in  the  eleventh  century,  the  flame  broke  out 
afresh,  and  a  total  separation  took  place.  At 
that  time,  the  Patriarch  Michael  Cerularius, 
who  was  desirous  to  free  himself  from  the 
papal  authority,  published  an  invective  against 
the  Latin  church,  and  accused  its  members  of 
maintaining  various  errors.  Pope  Leo  retorted 
the  charge,  and  sent  legates  from  Rome  to 
Constantinople.  The  Greek  patriarch  refused 
to  see  them ;  upon  which  they  excommuni- 
cated him  and  his  adherents,  publicly,  in  the 
church  of  St.  Sophia,  A.  D.  1054.  The  Greek 
patriarch  excommunicated  those  legates,  with 
all  their  adherents  and  followers,  in  a  public 
council ;  and  procured  an  order  of  the  emperor 
for  burning  the  act  of  excommunication  which 
they  had  pronounced  against  the  Greeks.  Thus 
the  separation  was  completed,  and  at  this  day 
a  very  considerable  part  of  the  world  profess 
the  religion  of  the  Greek  or  eastern  church. 
The  Nicene  and  Athanasian  creeds,  with  the 
exception  of  the  words  above-mentioned,  are 
the  symbols  of  their  faith. 

2.  The  principal  points  which  distinguish 
the  Greek  church  from  the  Latin,  are  as  fol- 
lows :    they    maintain   that   the    Holy   Ghost 
proceeds  from  the  Father  only,  and  not  from 
the  Father  and  Son.     They  disown  the  au- 
thority of  the  pope,  and  deny  that  the  church 
of  Rome    is  the   only  true   catholic   church. 
They  do  not  affect  the  character  of  infallibility, 
and  utterly  disallow  works  of  supererogation, 
and  indulgences.     They  admit  of  prayers  and 
services  for  the  dead,  as  an  ancient  and  pious 
custom ;  but  they  will  not  admit  the  doctrine 
of  purgatory,  nor  determine  any  thing   dog- 
matically   concerning   the    state    of  departed 
souls.      In  baptism  they  practise  triune    im- 
mersion, or  dip  three  times ;  but  some,  as  the 
Georgians,  defer  the  baptism  of  their  children 
till  they  are  three,  four,  or  more  years  of  age. 
The  chrism,  or  baptismal  unction,  immediately 
follows  baptism.     This  chrism,  solemnly  con- 
secrated on  Maunday  Thursday,  is  called  the 
unction  with  ointment,  and  is  a  mystery  pe- 
culiar to  the  Greek  communion,  holding  the 
place  of  confirmation  in  that  of  the  Roman  : 
it  is  styled,  "the  seal  of  the  gift  of  the  Holy 
Ghost."     They  administer  the  Lord's  Supper 
in  both  kinds,  dipping  the  bread  in  the  cup  of 
wine,  in  which  a  small  portion  of  warm  water 
is   also   inserted.     They   give   it  both  to   the 
clergy  and  laity,  and  to  children  after  baptism. 
They  exclude  confirmation  and  extreme  unc- 
tion out  of  the  number  of  sacraments ;    but 
they  use  the  holy  oil,  which  is  not  confined  to 
persons  in  the  close  of  life,  like  extreme  unc- 
tion, but    is  administered,  if  required,  to  all 
sick    persons.      Three    priests,    at   least,    are 
required  to  administer   this  sacrament,  each 
priest,  in  his  turn,  anointing  the  sick  person, 
and    praying    for    his    recovery.     They  deny 
auricular  confession  to  be  a  divine  command  ; 
but   practise   confession   attended  with  abso- 
lution, and  sometimes  penance.    Though  they 
believe  in  transubstantiation,  or   rather  con- 
substantiation,  they  do  not  worship  the  ele- 
ments. They  pay  a  secondary  kind  of  adoration 


to  the  virgin  and  other  saints.  They  do  not 
admit  of  images  or  figures  in  bas-relief,  or  em- 
bossed work ;  but  use  paintings  and  silver 
shrines.  They  admit  matrimony  to  be  a  sa- 
crament, and  celebrate  it  with  great  formality. 
Their  secular  clergy,  under  the  rank  of  bishops, 
are  allowed  to  marry  once,  and  laymen  twice  ; 
but  fourth  marriages  they  hold  in  abomination. 
They  observe  a  great  number  of  holy  days,  and 
keep  four  fasts  in  the  year  more  solemn  than 
the  rest,  of  which  Good  Friday  is  the  chief. 

3.  The  service  of  the  Greek  church  is  too 
long  and  complicated  to  be  particularly  de- 
scribed in  this  work  ;  the  greater  part  consists 
in  psalms  and  hymns.  Five  orders  of  priest- 
hood belong  to  the  Greek  church ;  namely, 
bishops,  priests,  deacons,  sub-deacons,  and 
readers  ;  which  last  includes  singers,  &c.  The 
episcopal  order  is  distinguished  by  the  titles 
of  metropolitan,  archbishops,  and  bishops. 
The  head  of  the  Greek  church,  the  patriarch 
of  Constantinople,  is  elected  by  twelve  bishops, 
who  reside  nearest  that  famous  capital.  This 
prelate  calls  councils  by  his  own  authority  to 
govern  the  church.  The  other  patriarchs  are 
those  of  Jerusalem,  Antioch,  and  Alexandria, 
all  nominated  by  the  patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople, who  enjoys  a  most  extensive  jurisdic- 
tion. For  the  administration  of  ecclesiastical 
affairs,  a  synod,  convened  monthly,  is  com- 
posed of  the  heads  of  the  church  resident  in 
Constantinople.  In  this  assembly,  the  patri- 
arch of  Constantinople  presides,  with  those 
of  Antioch  and  Jerusalem,  and  twelve  arch- 
bishops. In  regard  to  discipline  and  worship, 
the  Greek  church  has  the  same  division  of  the 
clergy  into  regular  and  secular,  the  same  spi- 
ritual jurisdiction  of  bishops  and  their  officials, 
the  same  distinction  of  ranks  and  offices,  with 
the  church  of  Rome. 

4.  The  Greek  church  comprehends  a  con- 
siderable part  of  Greece,  the  Grecian  isles, 
Wallachia,  Moldavia,  Egypt,  Abyssinia,  Nu- 
bia, Lybia,  Arabia,  Mesopotamia,  Syria,  Ci- 
licia,  and  Palestine  ;  Alexandria,  Antioch,  and 
Jerusalem ;  the  whole  of  the  Russian  empire 
in  Europe ;  great  part  of  Siberia  in  Asia,  As- 
trachan,  Casan,  and  Georgia. 
GRIND.     See  Mill. 

GROVE.  It  is  proper  to  observe,  that,  in 
order  the  more  effectually  to  guard  the  Israel- 
ites from  idolatry,  the  blessed  God,  in  institut- 
ing the  rites  of  his  own  worship,  went  directly 
counter  to  the  practice  of  the  idolatrous  na- 
tions. Thus,  because  they  worshipped  in 
groves,  he  expressly  forbade  "the  planting  a 
grove  of  trees  near  his  altar,"  Deut.  xvi,  21. 
Nor  would  he  suffer  his  people  to  offer  their 
sacrifices  on  the  tops  of  hills  and  mountains, 
as  the  Heathens  did,  but  ordered  that  they 
should  be  brought  to  one  altar  in  the  place 
which  he  appointed,  Deut.  xii,  13,  14.  And 
as  for  the  groves,  which  the  Canaanites  had 
planted,  and  the  idols  and  altars  which  they 
had  erected  on  the  tops  of  high  mountains 
and  hills  for  the  worship  of  their  gods,  the 
Israelites  are  commanded  utterly  to  destroy 
them,  Deut.  xii,  2,  3.  The  groves  and  high 
places  do  not  seem  to  have  been  different,  but 


HAB 


429 


HAB 


the  s-^me  places,  or  groves  planted  on  the  tops 
of  hills,  probably  round  an  open  area,  in 
which  the  idolatrous  worship  was  performed, 
as  may  be  inferred  from  the  following  words 
of  the  Prophet  Hosea:  "They  sacrifice  upon 
the  tops  of  mountains,  and  burn  incense  upon 
the  hills,  under  oaks,  and  poplars,  and  elms," 
Hosea  iv,  13.  The  use  of  groves  for  religious 
worship  is  generally  supposed  to  have  been  as 
ancient  as  the  patriarchal  ages ;  for  we  are 
informed,  that  "  Abraham  planted  a  grove  in 
Beersheba,  and  called  there  on  the  name  of 
the  Lord,"  Gen.  xxi,  33.  However,  it  is  not 
expressly  said,  nor  can  it  by  this  passage  be 
proved,  that  he  planted  the  grove  for  any 
religious  purpose  ;  it  might  only  be  designed 
to  shade  his  tent.  And  this  circumstance 
perhaps  is  recorded  to  intimate  his  rural  way 
of  living,  as  well  as  his  religious  character ; 
that  he  dwelt  in  a  tent,  under  the  shade  of  a 
grove,  or  tree,  as  the  word  bvN,  eshel,  may 
more  properly  be  translated  ;  and  in  this  hum- 
ble habitation  led  a  very  pious  and  devout  life. 
The  reason  and  origin  of  planting  sacred 
groves  is  variously  conjectured  ;  some  imagin- 
ing it  was  only  hereby  intended  to  render  the 
service  more  agreeable  to  the  worshippers,  by 
the  pleasantness  of  the  shade  ;  whereas  others 
suppose  it  was  to  invite  the  presence  of  the 
gods.  The  one  or  the  other  of  these  reasons 
seems  to  be  intimated  in  the  fore-cited  passage 
of  Hosea:  "They  burn  incense  under  oaks, 
and  poplars,  and  elms,  because  the  shade 
thereof  is  good,"  Hosea  iv,  13.  Others  con- 
ceive their  worship  was  performed  in  the  midst 
of  groves,  because  the  gloom  of  such  a  place 
is  apt  to  strike  a  religious  awe  upon  the  mind  ; 
or  else,  because  such  dark  concealments  suited 
the  lewd  mysteries  of  their  idolatrous  worship. 
Another  conjecture,  which  seems  as  probable 
as  any,  is,  that  this  practice  began  with  the 
worship  of  demons,  or  departed  souls.  It  was 
an  ancient  custom  to  bury  the  dead  under 
trees,  or  in  woods.  "  Deborah  was  buried 
under  an  oak,  near  Bethel,"  Genesis  xxxv,  8 ; 
and  the  bones  of  Saul  and  Jonathan  under  a 
tree  at  Jabesh,  1  Samuel  xxxi,  13.  Now  an 
imagination  prevailing  among  the  Heathen, 
that  the  souls  of  the  deceased  hover  about  their 
graves,  or  at  least  delight  to  visit  their  dead 
bodies,  the  idolaters,  who  paid  divine  honours 
to  the  souls  of  their  departed  heroes,  erected 
images  and  altars  for  their  worship  in  the 
same  groves  where  they  were  buried ;  and  from 
thence  it  grew  into  a  custom  afterward  to 
plant  groves,  and  build  temples,  near  the  tombs 
of  departed  heroes,  2  Kings  xxiii,  15, 16,  and  to 
surround  their  temples  and  altars  with  groves 
and  trees ;  and  these  sacred  groves  being  con- 
stantly furnished  witli  the  images  of  the  heroes 
or  gods  that  were  worshipped  in  them,  a  grove 
and  an  idol  came  to  be  used  as  convertible 
terms,  2  Kings  xxiii,  6. 

HABAKKUK,  the  author  of  the  prophecy 
bearing  his  name,  Habakkuk  i,  1,  &c.  Nothing 
is  certainly  known  concerning  the  tribe  or 
birth  place  of  Habakkuk.  He  is  said  to  have 
prophesied  about  B.  C.  605,  and  to  have  been 


alive  at  the  time  of  the  destruction  of  Jerusa- 
lem  by  Nebuchadnezzar.  It  is  generally  be- 
lieved that  he  remained  and  died  in  Judea. 
The  principal  predictions  contained  in  this 
book  are,  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  and 
the  captivity  of  the  Jews  by  the  Chaldeans  or 
Babylonians;  their  deliverance  from  the  op. 
pressor  "  at  the  appointed  time  ;"  and  the  total 
ruin  of  the  Babylonian  empire.  The  promise 
of  the  Messiah  is  confirmed  ;  the  overruling 
providence  of  God  is  asserted ;  and  the  con- 
cluding prayer,  or  rather  hymn,  recounts  the 
wonders  which  God  had  wrought  for  his 
people,  when  he  led  them  from  Egypt  into 
Canaan,  and  expresses  the  most  perfect  con- 
fidence in  the  fulfilment  of  his  promises.  The 
style  of  Habakkuk  is  highly  poetical,  and  the 
hymn  in  the  third  chapter  is  perhaps  unrivalled 
for  sublimity,  simplicity,  and  power. 

HABITS.  The  dress  of  oriental  nations, 
to  which  the  inspired  writers  often  allude,  has 
undergone  almost  no  change  from  the  earliest 
times.  Their  stuffs  were  fabricated  of  various 
materials ;  but  wool  was  generally  used  in  their 
finer  fabrics  ;  and  the  hair  of  goats,  camels, 
and  even  of  horses,  was  manufactured  for 
coarser  purposes,  especially  for  sackcloth, 
which  they  wore  in  time  of  mourning  and  dis- 
tress. Sackcloth  of  black  goat's  hair  was 
manufactured  for  mournings;  the  colour  and 
the  coarseness  of  which  being  reckoned  more 
suitable  to  the  circumstances  of  the  wearer, 
than  the  finer  and  more  valuable  texture  which 
the  hair  of  white  goats  supplied.  This  is  the 
reason  why  a  clouded  sky  is  represented,  in 
the  bold  figurative  language  of  Scripture, 
as  covered  with  sackcloth  and  blackness, 
the  colour  and  dress  of  persons  in  afflic- 
tion. In  Egypt  and  Syria,  they  wore  also 
fine  linen,  cotton,  and  byssus,  probably  fine 
muslin  from  India,  in  Hebrew  yi3,  the  finest 
cloth  known  to  the  ancients.  In  Canaan,  per- 
sons of  distinction  were  dressed  in  fine  linen 
of  Egypt ;  and  according  to  some  authors,  in 
silk,  and  rich  cloth,  shaded  with  the  choicest 
colours,  or,  as  the  Vulgate  calls  it,  with  fea- 
thered work,  embroidered  with  gold.  The 
beauty  of  their  clothes  consisted  in  the  fine- 
ness and  colour  of  the  stuff's  ;  and  it  seems,  the 
colour  most  in  use  among  the  Israelites,  as 
well  as  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  was 
white,  not  imparted  and  improved  by  the 
dyer's  art,  but  the  native  colour  of  the  wool. 
The  general  use  of  this  colour  seems  to  be 
recognized  by  Solomon  in  his  direction  :  "  Let 
thy  garments  lie  always  white,"  Eceles.  ix,  8. 
But  garments  in  the  native  colour  of  the  wool 
were  not  confined  to  the  lower  orders;  they 
were  also  in  great  esteem  among  persons  of 
superior  station,  and  are  particularly  valued 
in  Scripture,  as  the  emblem  of  k»owledge  and 
purity,  gladness  and  victory,  grace  and  glory. 
The  priests  of  Baal  were  habited  in  black  ;  a 
colour  which  appears  to  have  been  peculiar  to 
themselves,  and  which  few  others  in  those 
countries,  except  mourners,  would  choose  to 
wear.  Blue  was  a  colour  in  great  esteem 
among  the  Jews,  and  other  oriental  nations. 
The  robe  of  the  ephod,  in  the  gorgeous  dress 


I1AB 


430 


UAB 


of  the  high  priest.,  was  made  all  of  blue ;  it 
was  a  prominent  colour  in  the  sumptuous 
hangings  of  the  tabernacle ;  and  the  whole 
people  of  Israel  were  required  to  put  a  fringe, 
of  blue  upon  the  border  of  their  garments,  and 
on  the  fringe  a  riband  of  the  same  colour. 
The  palace  of  Aliasuerus,  the  king  of  Persia, 
was  furnished  with  curtains  of  this  colour,  on 
a  pavement  of  red,  and  blue,  and  white  mar- 
ble ;  a  proof  that  it  was  not  less  esteemed  in 
Persia  than  on  the  Jordan.  And  from  Ezekiel 
we  learn,  that  the  Assyrian  nobles  were  habit- 
ed in  robes  of  this  colour  :  "  She  doated  on  the 
Assyrians,  her  neighbours,  winch  were  clothed 
with  blue,  captains  and  rulers,  all  of  them 
desirable  young  men." 

2.  The  Jewish  nobles  and  courtiers,  upon 
great  and  solemn  occasions,  appeared  in  scar- 
let robes,  dyed,  not  as  at  present  with  madder, 
with  cochineal,  or  with  any  modern  tincture, 
but  with  a  shrub,  whose  red  berries  give  an 
orient  tinge  to  the  cloth.  Crimson  or  vermi- 
lion, a  colour,  as  the  name  imports,  from  the 
blood  of  the  worm,  was  used  in  the  temple  of 
Solomon,  and  by  many  persons  of  the  first 
quality  ;  sometimes  they  wore  purple,  the  most 
sublime  of  all  earthly  colours,  says  Mr.  Har- 
mer,  having  the  gaudincss  of  red,  of  which  it 
retains  a  shade,  softened  with  the  gravity  of 
blue.  This  was  chiefly  dyed  at  Tyre,  and  was 
supposed  to  take  the  tincture  from  the  liquor 
of  a  shell  fish,  anciently  found  in  the  adjacent 
sea  ;  though  Mr.  Bruce,  in  his  Travels,  inclines 
to  the  opinion,  that  the  inurex,  or  purple  fish 
at  Tyre,  was  only  a  concealment  of  their 
knowledge  of  cochineal,  as,  if  the  whole  city 
of  Tyre  had  applied  to  nothing  else  but  fish- 
ing, they  would  not  have  coloured  twenty 
yards  of  cloth  in  a  year.  The  children  of 
wealthy  and  noble  families  were  dressed  in 
vestments  of  different  colours.  This  mark  of 
distinction  may  be  traced  to  the  patriarchal 
age ;  for  Joseph  was  arrayed,  by  his  indulgent 
and  imprudent  father,  in  a  coat  of  many 
colours.  A  robe  of  divers  colours  was  an- 
ciently reserved  for  the  kings'  daughters  who 
were  virgins;  and  in  one  of  these  was  Tamar, 
the  virgin  daughter  of  David,  arrayed,  when 
she  was  met  by  her  brother. 

3.  In  these  parts  of  the  world,  the  fashion 
is  in  a  state  of  almost  daily  fluctuation,  and 
different  fashions  are  not  unfrcquently  seen 
contending  for  the  superiority  ;  but  in  the  east, 
where  the  people  are  by  no  means  given  to 
change,  the  form  of  their  garments  continues 
nearly  the  same  from  one  age  to  another.  The 
greater  part  of  their  clothes  are  long  and 
Bowing,  loosely  cast  about  the  body,  consist- 
ing only  of  a  large  piece  of  cloth,  in  the  cut- 
ting and  sewing  of  which  very  little  art  or 
industry  is  employed.  They  have  more  dig- 
nity ami  gracefulness  than  ours,  and  are  better 
adapted  to  the  burning  climates  of  Asia.  From 
the  simplicity  of  their  form,  and  their  loose 
adaptation  to  the  body,  the  same  clothes  might 
be  worn,  with  equal  ease  and  convenience,  by 
many  different  persons.  The  clothes  of  those 
Philistines  whom  Samson  slew  at  Askelon 
required    no   altering   to   lit    Ins   companions; 


nor  the  robe  of  Jonathan,  to  answer  his  friend. 
The  arts  of  weaving  and  fulling  seem  to  have 
been  distinct  occupations  in  Israel,  from  a  very 
remote  period,  in  consequence  of  the  various 
and  skilful  operations  which  were  necessary  to 
bring  their  stuffs  to  a  suitable  degree  of  per- 
fection ;  but  when  the  weaver  and  the  fuller 
had  finished  their  part,  the  labour  was  nearly 
at  an  end  ;  no  distinct  artizan  was  necessary 
to  make  them  into  clothes  ;  every  family  seems 
to  have  made  their  own.  Sometimes,  however, 
this  part  of  the  work  was  performed  in  the 
loom;  for  they  had  the  art  of  weaving  robes 
with  sleeves  all  of  one  piece:  of  this  kind  was 
the  coat  which  our  Saviour  wore  during  his 
abode  with -men.  The  loose  dresses  of  these 
countries,  when  the  arm  is  lifted  up,  expose  its 
whole  length  :  to  this  circumstance  the  Prophet 
Isaiah  rel'ers :  "  To  whom  is  the  arm  of  the  Lord 
revealed  .'"  that  is,  uncovered  :  who  observes 
that  he  is  about  to  exert  the  arm  of  his  power  ? 
'  4.  The  chosen  people  were  not  allowed  to 
wear  clothes  of  any  materials  or  form  they 
chose  ;  they  were  forbidden  by  their  law  to 
wear  a  garment  of  woollen  and  linen.  This 
law  did  not  prevent  them  from  wearing  many 
different  substances  together,  but  only  these 
two ;  nor  did  the  prohibition  extend  to  the 
wool  of  camels  and  goats,  (for  the  hair  of 
these  animals  they  called  by  the  same  name,) 
but  only  to  that  of  sheep.  It  was  lawful  for 
any  man  who  saw  an  Israelite  dressed  in  such 
a  garment  to  fall  upon  him  and  put  him  to 
death.  In  the  opinion  of  Maimonides,  this 
was  principally  intended  as  a  preservative  from 
idolatry ;  for  the  Heathen  priests  of  those 
times  wore  such  mixed  garments  of  woollen 
and  linen,  in  the  superstitious  hope,  it  was 
imagined,  of  having  the  beneficial  influence  of 
some  lucky  conjunction  of  the  planets  or  stars-, 
to  bring  down  a  blessing  upon  their  sheep  and 
their  flax.  The  second  restraint  referred  to 
the  sexes,  of  which  one  was  not  to  wear  the 
dress  appropriated  to  the  other.  This  practice 
is  said  to  be  an  abomination  to  the  Lord ; 
which  plainly  intimates  that  the  law  refers  to 
some  idolatrous  custom,  of  which  Moses  and 
the  prophets  always  spoke  in  terms  of  the 
utmost  abhorrence.  Nothing,  indeed,  was 
more  common  among  the  Heathen,  in  the 
worship  of  some  of  their  false  deities,  than  foi 
the  males  to  assist  in  women's  clothes,  and  the 
females  in  the  dress  appropriated  to  men;  in 
the  worship  <>l  Venus,  in  particular,  the  Women 
appeared  before  her  in  armour,  and  the  men  in 
women's  apparel ;  and  thus  the  words  literally 
run  in  the  original  Scriptures,  "Women  shall 
not  put  on  the  armour  of  a  man,  nor  a  man 
the  stole  i'f  a  woman."  Maimonides  says  he 
found  this  precept  in  an  old  magical  book, 
"That  men  ought  to  stand  before  the  star  of 
Venus  in  the  flowered  garments  of  women,  and 
women  to  put  on  the  armour  of  men  before 
the  star  of  Mars."  But  whatever  there  may 
be  in  these  observations,  it  is  certain  that,  if 
there  were  no  distinction  of  sexes  made,  by 
their  habits,  there  would  be  danger  of  involv 
ing  mankind  in  all  manner  of  licentiousness 
and  impurity. 


HAG 


431 


HAG 


5.  The  ancient  Jews  very  seldom  wore  any 
covering  upon  the  head,  except  when  they 
were  in  mourning,  or  worshipping  in  the  tem- 
ple, or  in  the  synagogue.  To  pray  with  the 
head  covered,  was,  in  their  estimation,  a  higher 
mark  of  respect  for  the  majesty  of  heaven,  as 
it  indicated  the  conscious  unworthiness  of 
the  suppliant  to  lift  up  his  eyes  in  the  divine 
presence.  To  guard  themselves  from  the 
wind  or  the  storm,  or  from  the  still  more  fatal 
stroke  of  the  sun-beam,  to  which  the  general 
custom  of  walking  bare  headed  particularly  ex- 
posed them,  they  wrapped  their  heads  in  their 
mantles,  or  upper  garments.  But  during  their 
long  captivity  in  Babylon,  the  Jews  began  to 
wear  turbans,  in  compliance  with  the  customs 
of  their  conquerors ;  for  Daniel  informs  us, 
that  his  three  friends  were  cast  into  the  fiery 
furnace  with  their  hats,  or,  as  the  term  should 
be  rendered,  their  turbans.  It  is  not,  how- 
ever, improbable,  that  the  bulk  of  the  nation 
continued  to  follow  their  ancient  custom  ;  and 
that  the  compliance  prevailed  only  among 
those  Jews  who  were  connected  with  the 
Babylonish  court;  for  many  ages  after  that, 
we  find  Antiochus  Epiphanes  introducing  the 
habits  and  fashions  of  the  Grecians  among  the 
Jews ;  and  as  the  history  of  the  Maccabees 
relates,  he  brought  the  chief  young  men  under 
his  subjection,  and  made  them  wear  a  hat,  or 
turban.  Their  legs  were  generally  bare  ;  and 
they  never  wore  any  thing  upon  the  feet,  but 
soles  fastened  in  different  ways,  according  to 
the  taste  or  fancy  of  the  wearer. 

HADAD,  son  to  the  king  of  East  Edom, 
was  carried  into  Egypt  by  his  father's  serv- 
ants, when  Joab,  general  of  David's  troops, 
extirpated  the  males  of  Edom.  Hadad  was 
then  a  child.  The  king  of  Egypt  gave  him  a 
house,  lands,  and  every  necessary  subsistence, 
and  married  him  to  the  sister  of  Tahpenes,  his 
queen.  By  her  he  had  a  son,  named  Genu- 
bath,  whom  Queen  Tahpenes  educated  in  Pha- 
raoh's house  with  the  king's  children.  Hadad 
being  informed  that  David  was  dead,  and  that 
Joab  was  killed,  desired  leave  to  return  into 
his  own  country.  Pharaoh  wished  to  detain 
him,  but  at  last  permitted  his  return  to  Edom. 
Here  he  began  to  raise  disturbances  against 
Solomon ;  but  the  Scripture  does  not  mention 
particulars.  Josephus  says,  that  Hadad  did 
not  return  to  Edom  till  long  after  the  death 
of  David,  when  Solomon's  affairs  began  to 
decline,  by  reason  of  his  impieties.  He  also 
observes,  that,  not  being  able  to  engage  the 
Edoinites  to  revolt,  because  of  the  strong  gar- 
risons which  Solomon  had  placed  there,  Hadad 
got  together  such  people  as  were  willing,  and 
carried  them  to  Razon,  then  in  rebellion  against 
Hadadezer,  king  of  Syria.  Razon  received 
Hadad  with  joy,  and  assisted  him  in  conquer- 
ing part  of  Syria,  where  he  reigned,  and  from 
whence  he  insulted  Solomon's  territories. 

HAGAR.  After  ten  years'  residence  in  the 
land  of  Canaan,  Abram,  by  the  persuasion  of 
his  wife,  who  had  been  barren  heretofore,  and 
now  despaired  of  bearing  children  herself 
when  she  was  seventy-five  years  old,  took,  as 
a  second  wife,  or  concubine,  her  handmaid, 


Hagar,  an  Egyptian.  When  Hagar  conceived, 
she  despised  her  mistress,  who  dealt  hardly 
with  her,  Abram  Riving  her  up  to  bin  wife's 
discretion ;  so  that  she  fled  toward  Effypt 
from  the  face  of  her  mistress,  but  was  stopped 
in  her  flight  by  the  angel  of  the  Lord,  win, 
foretold  that  she  should  bear  a  son  called  Ish 
mael,  because  the  Lord  heard  her  affliction, 
and  that  his  race  should  be  numerous,  warlike, 
and  unconquered ;  a  prediction,  as  seen  under 
the  article  Arabia,  remarkably  fulfilled  to  the 
present  day.  Abram  was  eighty-six  years  old 
when  Hagar  bare  Ishmael.  When  Isaac  was 
weaned,  Ishmael,  the  son  of  Hagar,  who  was 
now  about  fifteen  years  of  age,  offended  Sarah 
by  some  mockery  or  ill  treatment  of  Isaac  ; 
the  original  word  signifies  elsewhere,  "  to 
skirmish,"  or  "fight,"  2  Samuel  ii,  14;  and 
St.  Paul  represents  Ishmael  as  "  persecuting" 
him,  Gal.  iv,  29.  Sarah  therefore  complained 
to  Abraham,  and  said,  "Cast  out  this  bond- 
woman and  her  son,  for  the  son  of  this  bond- 
woman shall  not  be  heir  with  my  son  Isaac. 
And  the  thing  was  very  grievous  in  Abraham's 
sight,  because  of  his  son  Ishmael ;"  but  God 
approved  of  Sarah's  advice,  and  again  excluded 
Ishmael  from  the  special  covenant  of  grace  : 
"  For  in  Isaac  sliall  thy  seed  be  called  :  never- 
theless, the  son  of  the  bond-woman  will  I 
make  a  nation  also,  because  he  is  thy  seed." 
God  renewed  this  promise  also  to  Hagar, 
during  her  wanderings  in  the  wilderness  of 
Beersheba,  when  she  despaired  of  support; 
"  Arise,  lift  up  the  lad,  and  hold  him  in  thine 
hands,  for  I  will  make  him  a  great  nation. 
And  Cod  was  with  the  lad,  and  he  grew,  and 
dwelt  in  the  wilderness  of  Paran,  and  became 
an  archer.  And  his  mother  took  him  a  wife 
out  of  the  land  of  Egypt."  See  Abraham  and 
Ishmael. 

We  do  not  know  when  Hagar  died.  The 
rabbins  say  she  was  Pharaoh's  daughter; 
but  Chrysostom  asserts  that  she  was  one  of 
those  slaves  which  Pharaoh  gave  to  Abraham, 
Gen.  xii,  16.  The  Chaldee  paraphrasts,  and 
many  of  the  Jews,  believe  Hagar  and  Kcturah 
to  be  the  same  person ;  but  this  is  not  credi- 
ble. Philo  thinks  that  Hagar  embraced  Abra- 
ham's religion,  which  is  very  probable.  The 
Mussulmans  and  Arabians,  who  are  descended 
from  Ishmael,  the  son  of  Hagar;  speak  might  ily 
in  her  commendation.  They  call  her  in  emi- 
nency,  Mother  Hagar,  and  maintain  that  she 
was.  Abraham's  lawful  wife;  the  mother  of 
Ishmael,  his  oldest  son  ;  who,  as  such,  pos 
ed  Arabia,  which  very  much  exceeds,  say  they, 
both  in  extent,  and  riches,  the  land  of  Canaan, 
which  was  <nven  to  his  younger  son  Isaac. 

IIAGARENES,  the  descendants  of  Ish- 
mael :  called  also  Ishrhaelites  and  Saracens,  or 
Arabians,  from  their  country.  Their  name, 
Saracens,  is  not  derived,  as  some  have  thought, 
from  Sarah,  Abraham's  wife,  but  from  the  He- 
brew sarak,  which  signifies  "  to  rob"  or  "  to 
steal ;"  because  they  mostly  carry  on  the  trade 
of  thieving  :  or  from  Sahara,  the  desert ;  Sara- 
cens, inhabitants  of  the  desert.  But  some 
writers  think  Hagarcne  imports  south,  con- 
formably to  the  Arabic  ;  hence  Hagar,  that  is, 


HAI 


432 


J1AM 


the  southern  woman ;  and  Mount  Sinai  is 
called  Hagar,  that  is,  the  southern  mountain, 
Gal.  iv,  25.  But  there  seems  also  to  have  been 
a  particular  tribe  who  bore  this  name  more 
exclusively,  as  the  Hagarenes  are  sometimes 
mentioned  in  Scripture  distinct  from  the  Ish- 
maelites,  Psalm  lxxxiii,  6 ;  1  Chron.  v,  19. 

HAGGAI  was  one  of  the  Jews  who  return, 
ed  with  Zerubbabel  to  Jerusalem  in  conse- 
quence of  the  edict  of  Cyrus  ;  and  it  is  believed 
that  he  was  born  during  the  captivity,  and 
that  he  was  of  the  sacerdotal  race.  His  pro- 
phecy consists  of  four  distinct  revelations,  all 
which  took  place  in  the  second  year  of  Darius, 
king  of  Persia,  B.  C.  520.  The  prophet  re- 
proves the  people  for  their  delay  in  building 
the  temple  of  God,  and  represents  the  unfruit- 
ful seasons  which  they  had  experienced  as  a 
divine  punishment  for  this  neglect.  He  ex- 
horts them  to  proceed  in  the  important  work  ; 
and  by  way  of  encouragement  predicts,  that 
the  glory  of  the  second  temple,  however  infe- 
rior in  external  magnificence,  shall  exceed  that 
of  the  first ;  which  was  accomplished  by  its 
being  honoured  with  the  presence  of  the  Sa- 
viour of  mankind.  He  farther  urges  the  com- 
pletion of  the  temple  by  promises  of  divine 
favour,  and  under  the  type  of  Zerubbabel  he  is 
supposed  by  some  to  foretel  the  great  revolu- 
tions which  shall  precede  the  second  advent  of 
Christ.  The  style  of  Haggai  is  in  general 
plain  and  simple  ;  but  in  some  passages  it  rises 
to  a  considerable  degree  of  sublimity. 

HAIR.  The  eastern  females  wear  their  hair, 
which  the  prophet  emphatically  calls  the  "  in- 
strument of  their  pride,"  very  long,  and  divided 
into  a  great  number  of  tresses.  In  Barbary, 
the  ladies  all  affect  to  have  their  hair  hang 
down  to  the  ground,  which,  after  they  have 
collected  into  one  lock,  they  bind  and  plait 
with  ribands.  Where  nature  has  been  less 
liberal  in  its  ornaments,  the  defect  is  supplied 
by  art,  and  foreign  is  procured  to  be  inter- 
woven with  the  natural  hair.  The  Apostle's 
remark  on  this  subject  corresponds  entirely 
with  the  custom  of  the  east,  as  well  as  with 
the  original  design  of  the  Creator  :  "  Does  not 
even  nature  itself  teach  you,  that,  if  a  man 
have  long  hair,  it  is  a  shame  unto  him  ?  But 
if  a  woman  have  long  hair,  it  is  a  glory  to 
her ;  for  her  hair  is  given  her  for  a  covering," 
1  Cor.  xi,  14.  The  men  in  the  east,  Chardin 
observes,  are  shaved ;  the  women  nourish  their 
hair  with  great  fondness,  which  they  lengthen 
by  tresses,  and  tufts  of  silk  down  to  the  heels. 
But  among  the  Hebrews  the  men  did  not  shave 
tlioir  heads;  they  wore  their  natural  hair, 
though  not  long ;  and  it  is  certain  that  they 
were,  at  a  very  remote  period,  initiated  in  the 
art  of  cherishing  and  beautifying  the  hair  with 
fragrant  ointments.  The  head  of  Aaron  was 
anomted  witli  a  preeious  oil,  compounded  after 
the  art  of  the  apothecary  ;  and  in  proof  that 
they  had  already  adopted  the  practice,  the  con- 
gregation were  prohibited,  under  pain  of  being 
cut  off,  to  make  any  other  like  it,  after  the 
composition  of  it,  food,  xxx,  32,  33.  The 
royal  Psalmist  alludes  to  the  same  custom  in 
the  twenty-third  Psalm  :  "  Thou  anointest  my 


head  with  oil."  We  may  infer  from  the  direc- 
tion of  Solomon,  that  the  custom  had  at  least 
become  general  in  his  time  :  "  Let  thy  garments 
be  always  white,  and  let  thy  head  lack  no  oint- 
ment," Ecclus.  ix,  8.  After  the  hair  is  plaited 
and  perfumed,  the  eastern  ladies  proceed  to 
dress  their  heads,  by  tying  above  the  lock  into 
which  they  collect  it,  a  triangular  piece  of 
linen,  adorned  with  various  figures  in  needle- 
work. This,  among  persons  of  better  fashion, 
is  covered  with  a.sarmah,  as  they  call  it,  which 
is  made  in  the  same  triangular  shape,  of  thin 
flexible  plates  of  gold  or  silver,  carefully  cut 
through,  and  engraven  in  imitation  of  lace, 
and  might  therefore  answer  to  crnntyn,  the 
moonlike  ornament  mentioned  by  the  prophet 
in  his  description  of  the  toilette  of  a  Jewish 
lady,  Isaiah  iii,  18.  Cutting  off  the  hair  was 
a  sign  of  mourning,  Jei\  vii,  2!i ;  but  sometimes 
in  mourning  they  sutfered  it  to  grow  long.  In 
ordinary  sorrows  they  neglected  their  hair  ; 
and  in  violent  paroxysms  they  plucked  it  oft" 
with  their  hands. 

John  Baptist  was  clothed  in  a  garment  made 
of  camel's  hair,  not  with  a  camel's  skin,  as 
painters  and  sculptors  represent  him,  but  with 
coarse  camlet  made  of  camel's  hair.  The  coat 
of  the  camel  in  some  places  yields  very  fine 
silk,  of  which  are  made  stuffs  of  very  great 
price  ;  but  in  general  this  animal's  hair  is  hard, 
and  scarcely  fit  for  any  but  coarse  habits,  and 
a  kind  of  hair  cloth.  Some  are  of  opinion 
that  camlet  derives  its  name  from  the  camel, 
being  originally  composed  of  the  wool  and  hair 
of  camels ;  but  at  present  there  is  no  camel's 
hair  in  the  composition  of  it,  as  it  is  commonly 
woven  and  sold  among  us. 

HAM,  or  CHAM,  on,  son  of  Noah,  and 
brother  to  Shem  and  Japheth,  is  believed  to 
Imvo  been  Noah's  youngest  son.  Ham,  says 
Dr.  Hales,  signifies  burnt  or  black,  and  this 
name  was  peculiarly  significant  of  the  regions 
allotted  to  his  family.  To  the  Cushites,  or 
children  of  his  eldest  son,  Cush,  were  allotted 
the  hot  southern  regions  of  Asia,  along  the 
coasts  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  Susiana  or  Chusis- 
tan,  Arabia,  &c ;  to  the  sons  of  Canaan,  Pa- 
lestine and  Syria ;  to  the  sous  of  Misraim, 
Egypt  and  Libya,  in  Africa.  The  Hamites,  in 
general,  like  the  Canaanites  of  old,  were  a 
sea-faring  race,  and  sooner  arrived  at  civiliza- 
tion and  the  luxuries  of  life  than  their  simpler 
pastoral  and  agricultural  brethren  of  the  other 
two  families.  The  first  great  empires  of  As- 
syria and  Egypt  were  founded  by  them;  and 
the  republics  of  Tyre,  Sidon,  and  Carthage, 
were  early  distinguished  for  their  commerce  : 
but  they  sooner  also  fell  to  decay  ;  and  Egypt, 
which  was  one  of  the  first,  became  the  last  and 
"basest,  of  the  kingdoms,"  E/ek.  xxix,  15;  and 
has  been  successively  in  subjection  to  the 
Sheniites,  and  Japhethites :  as  have  also  the 
settlements  of  the  other  branches  of  the  Hani- 
ites.     See  Canaan. 

II  AM  AN,  son  of  Hammedatha,  the  Ama- 
lckite,  of  the  race  of  Agag  ;  or,  according  to 
other  copies,  son  of  Hamadath  the  Bugean  or 
Gogean,  that  is,  of  the  race  of  Gog;  or  it  may 
be  read,  Haman  the  son  of  Hamadath,  which 


HAN 


433 


HAN 


Haman  was  Bagua  or  Bagoas,  eunuch,  that 
is,  officer  to  the  king  of  Persia.  We  have  no 
proof  of  Hainan's  being  an  Amalekite ;  but 
Esther  iii,  1  ;  reads  of  the  race  of  Agag.  In 
the  apocryphal  Greek,  Esther  ix,  24,  and  the 
Latin,  Esther  xvi,  10,  he  is  called  a  Macedo- 
nian, animo  ct  gente  Macedo.  King  Ahasue- 
rus,  having  taken  him  into  favour,  promoted 
him  above  all  the  princes  of  his  court,  who 
bent  the  knee  to  him  (probably  prostrated 
themselves  wholly  before  him,  as  to  a  deity) 
when  he  entered  the  palace:  this  Mordecai 
the  Jew  declined,  for  which  slight,  Hainan 
plotted  the  extirpation  of  the  whole  Jewish 
nation  ;  which  was  providentially  prevented. 
He  was  hanged  on  a  gibbet  fifty  cubits  high, 
which  he  had  prepared  for  Mordecai ;  his  house 
was  given  to  Queen  Esther ;  and  his  employ- 
ments to  Mordecai.  His  ten  sons  were  like- 
wise executed.     See  Esther. 

HAMATH,  a  city  of  Syria,  capital  of  a 
province  of  the  same  name,  lying  upon  the 
Orontes,  Joshua  xiii,  5  ;  Judges  iii,  3  ;  2  Kings 
xiv,  25  ;  2  Chron.  vii,  8.  The  king  of  Hamath 
cultivated  a  good  understanding  with  David, 
2  Sam.  viii,  9.  This  city  was  taken  by  the 
kings  of  Judah,  and  afterward  retaken  by  the 
Syrians,  and  recovered  from  them  by  Jeroboam 
the  Second,  2  Kings  xiv,  28. 

HAND  sometimes  denotes  the  vengeance 
of  God  :  "  The  hand  of  the  Lord  was  heavy 
upon  them  of  Ashdod,"  after  they  had  taken 
the  ark,  1  Samuel  v,  6,  7.  To  pour  water  on 
any  one's  hands,  signifies  to  serve  him,  2  Kings 
iii,  11.  To  wash  one's  hands,  denotes  inno- 
cence :  Pilate  washed  his  hands  to  denote  his 
being  innocent  of  the  blood  of  Jesus,  Matthew 
xxvii,  24.  To  kiss  one's  hand,  is  an  act  of 
adoration,  1  Kings  xix,  18.  "  If  I  beheld  the 
sun  when  it  shined,  and  my  mouth  hath  kissed 
my  hand,"  Job  xxxi,  27.  To  fill  one's  hands, 
is  to  take  possession  of  the  priesthood,  to  per- 
form the  functions  of  that  office  ;  because  in 
this  ceremony,  those  parts  of  the  victim  which 
were  to  be  offered,  were  put  into  the  hand  of 
the  newly  created  priest,  Judges  xvii,  5,  12 ; 

1  Kings  xiii,  33.  To  lean  upon  any  one's 
hand,  is  a  mark  of  familiarity  and  superiority. 
The  king  of  Israel  had  a  confident  on  whom 
he  thus  leaned,  2  Kings  vii,  17.  The  king  of 
Syria  leaned  on  the  hand  or  arm  of  Naaman 
when  he  went  up  to  the  temple  of  Rimmon, 

2  Kings  v,  18.  To  lift  up  one's  hand,  is  a  way 
of  taking  an  oath  which  has  been  in  use  among 
all  nations.  To  give  one's  hand,  signifies  to 
grant  peace,  to  swear  friendship,  to  promise 
entire  security,  to  make  alliance,  2  Kings  x,  15. 
The  Jews  say,  they  were  obliged  to  give  the 
hand  to  the  Egyptians  and  Assyrians,  that  they 
might  procure  bread,  2  Mace,  xiii,  22  ;  that  is, 
to  surrender  to  them,  to  submit.  To  stretch 
out  one's  hand,  signifies  to  chastise,  to  exer- 
cise severity  or  justice,  Ezek.  xxv,  7.  God 
delivered  his  people  with  a  high  hand,  and  arm 
stretched  out ;  by  performing  many  wonders, 
and  inflicting  many  chastisements,  on  the 
Egyptians.  To  stretch  out  one's  hand,  some- 
times denotes  mercy  :  "  I  have  spread  out  my 
hands,"  entreated,  "  all  the  day  unto  a  rebel- 

29 


lious  people,"  Isaiah  Ixv,  2.  Hand  is  also  fre- 
quently taken  for  the  power  and  impression  of 
the  Holy  Spirit  felt  by  a  prophet :  "  The  hand 
of  the  Lord  was  on  Elijah,"  1  Kings  xviii,  46. 
It  is  said  that  God  gave  his  law  by  the  hand 
of  Moses,  that  he  spoke  by  the  hand  of  pro- 
phets, &c ;  that  is,  by  their  means,  by  them,  &c. 
The  right  hand  denotes  power,  strength.  The 
Scripture  generally  imputes  to  God's  right 
hand  all  the  effects  of  his  omnipotence  :  "  Thy 
right  hand,  O  Lord,  hath  dashed  in  pieces  the 
enemy,"  Exodus  xv,  6.  The  Son  of  God  is 
often  represented  as  sitting  at  the  right  hand 
of  his  heavenly  Father  :  "The  Lord  said  to  my 
Lord,  Sit  thou  at  my  right  hand,"  Psalm  ex,  1 ; 
thou  hast  done  thy  work  upon  earth,  now  take 
possession  of  that  sovereign  kingdom  and  glory 
which  by  right  belongeth  unto  thee  ;  do  thou 
rule  with  authority  and  honour,  as  thou  art 
Mediator.  The  right  hand  commonly  denotes 
the  south,  as  the  left  does  the  north ;  for  the 
Hebrews  speak  of  the  quarters  of  the  world, 
in  respect  of  themselves,  having  their  faces 
turned  to  the  east,  their  backs  to  the  west, 
their  right  hands  to  the  south,  and  their  left 
to  the  north.  For  example  :  "  Doth  not  David 
hide  himself  with  us  in  strong  holds,  in  the 
woods,  in  the  hill  of  Hachilah,  which  is  on 
the  south  of  Jeshimon  ?"  in  Hebrew,  "on  the 
right  hand  of  Jeshimon."  The  accuser  was 
commonly  at  the  right  hand  of  the  accused : 
"  Let  Satan  stand  at  his  right  hand,"  Psalm 
cix,  6.  And  in  Zech.  iii,  1,  Satan  was  at  the 
right  hand  of  the  high  priest  Joshua,  to  accuse 
him.  Often,  in  a  contrary  sense,  to  be  at 
one's  right  hand  signifies  to  defend,  to  protect, 
to  support  him :  "I  have  set  the  Lord  always 
before  me ;  because  he  is  at  my  right  hand,  I 
shall  not  be  moved,"  Psalm  xvi,  8.  To  turn 
from  the  law  of  God,  neither  to  the  right  hand 
nor  to  the  left,  is  a  frequent  Scripture  expres- 
sion, the  meaning  of  which  is,  that  we  must 
not  depart  from  it  at  all.  Our  Saviour,  in 
Matt,  vi,  3,  to  show  with  what  privacy  we 
should  do  good  works,  says  that  our  left  hand 
should  not  know  what  our  right  hand  does. 
Above  all  things,  we  should  avoid  vanity  and 
ostentation  in  all  the  good  we  undertake  to  do, 
and  should  not  think  that  thereby  we  merit 
any  thing.  Laying  on  hands,  or  imposition 
of  hands,  is  understood  in  different  ways  both 
in  the  Old  and  New  Testament.  It  is  often 
taken  for  ordination  and  consecration  of  priests 
and  ministers,  as  well  among  the  Jews  as 
Christians,  Num.  viii,  10;  Acts  vi,  6;  xiii,  3; 
1  Tim.  iv,  14.  It  is  sometimes  also  made  use 
of  to  signify  the  establishment  of  judges  and 
magistrates,  on  whom  it  was  usual  to  lay 
hands  when  they  were  entrusted  with  these 
employments.  Thus,  when  Moses  constituted 
Joshua  his  successor,  God  appointed  him  to 
lay  his  hands  upon  him,  Numbers  xxvii,  18. 
Jacob  laid  his  hands  on  Ephraim  and  Manas- 
seh,  when  he  gave  them  his  last  blessing,  Gen. 
xlviii,  14.  The  high  priest  stretched  out  his 
hands  to  the  people,  as  often  as  he  recited  the 
solemn  form  of  blessing,  Lev.  ix,  22.  The 
Israelites,  who  presented  sin  offerings  at  the 
tabernacle,  confetuod  their  sins  while  they  laid 


HAR 


434 


HAR 


their  bands  upon  them,  Lev.  i,  4.  This  testi- 
fied that  the  person  acknowledged  himself 
worthy  of  death,  that  lie  laid  his  sins  upon 
the  sacrifice,  that  lie  trusted  in  Christ  for  the 
expiation  of  his  sins,  and  that  he  devoted  him- 
self to  God.  Witnesses  laid  their  hands  upon 
the  head  of  the  accused  person,  as  it  were  to 
signify  that  they  charged  upon  him  the  guilt 
of  his  blood,  and  freed  themselves  froni  it,  Deut. 
xiii,  9  ;  xvii,  7.  Our  Saviour  laid  his  hands 
upon  the  children  that  were  presented  to  him, 
and  blessed  them,  Mark  x,  16.  And  the  Holy 
Ghost  was  conferred  on  those  who  were  bap- 
tized by  the  laying  on  of  the  hands  of  the 
Apostles,  Acts  viii,  17;  xix,  G. 

HANNAH.     See  Samuel. 

HARAN,  the  eldest  son  of  Terah,  and  bro- 
ther to  Abraham  and  Nahor.  He  was  the 
lather  of  Lot,  Milcah,  and  Iscah,  Gen.  xi,  26, 
&c.     Haran  died  before  his  father  Terah. 

2.  Haran,  otherwise  called  Charran,  in 
Mesopotamia,  a  city  celebrated  for  having 
been  the  place  to  which  Abraham  removed 
first,  after  he  left  Ur,  Gen.  xi,  31,  32,  and 
where  Terah  was  buried.  Thither  it  was  like- 
wise that  Jacob  repaired  to  Laban,  when  he 
fled  from  Esau,  Gen.  xxvii,  43 ;  xxviii,  10, 
&c.  Haran  was  situated  in  the  north-western 
part  of  Mesopotamia  on  a  river  of  the  same 
name  running  into  the  Euphrates.  Mr.  Kin- 
neir  says,  that  Haran,  which  is  still  so  called, 
or  rather  Harran,  is  now  peopled  by  a  few  fa- 
milies of  wandering  Arabs,  who  have  been  led 
thither  by  a  plentiful  supply  of  good  water  from 
several  small  streams.  It  is  situated  in  36°  52' 
north  latitude,  and  39°  5'  east  longitude  ;  in  a 
flat  and  sandy  plain.  Somo  think  that  it  was 
built  by  Terah,  or  by  Haran,  his  eldest  son. 

HARE,  rOJiN,  Arabic  arneb,  Lev.  xi,  G ; 
Deut.  xiv,  7.  This  name  is  derived,  as  Bo- 
chart  and  others  suppose,  from  mx,  to  crop, 
and  aiJ,  the  produce  of  the  ground;  these,  ani- 
mals being  remarkable  for  devouring  young 
plants  and  herbage.  This  animal  resembles 
the  rabbit,  but  is  larger,  and  somewhat  longer 
in  proportion  to  its  thickness.  The  hare  in 
Syria,  says  Dr.  Russel,  is  distinguished  into 
two  species,  differing  considerably  in  point  of 
size.  The  largest  is  the  Turkman  hare,  and 
chiefly  haunts  the  plains ;  the  other  is  the 
common  hare  of  the  desert :  both  arc  abundant. 
The  difficulty  as  to  this  animal  is,  that  Moses 
says  the  wrnabeth  chews  the  cud,  which  our 
hares  do  not :  but  Aristotle  takes  notice  of  the 
same  circumstance,  and  affirms  that  the  struc- 
ture of  its  stomach  is  similar  to  that  of  rumi- 
nating animals.  The  animal  here  mentioned 
may  then  be  a  variety,  of  the  species. 

HAROSHETH  OF  THE  GENTILES,  a 
.  ity  supposed  to  be  situalod  near  Hazor,  in 
the  northern  parts  of  Canaan,  called  afterward 
Upper  Galilee;  or  Galilee  of  the  Gentiles,  fo? 
the  same  reason  that  this  place  probably  ob- 
tained that  title,  namely,  from  being  less 
inhabited  by  Jews,  and  being  near  the  great 
resorts  of  the  Gentiles,  Tyre  arid  Sidoh.  This 
is  said  to  have  been  the  residence  of'Nisera, 
the  ■->  n.  i  .i  I  of  the  armies  of  Jabin,  king  of 
Canaan,  who  reigned  at  Hazor. 


HARP,  a  stringed  musical  instrument.  Th<r 
Hebrew  word  kinaor,  which  is  translated 
"  harp"  in  our  English  version,  very  probably 
denoted  all  stringed  instruments.  By  the 
Hebrews,  the  harp  was  called  the  pleasant 
harp ;  and  it  was  employed  by  them,  not  only 
in  their  devotions,  but  also  at  their  entertain- 
ments and  pleasures.  It  is  probable,  that  the 
harp  was  nearly  the  earliest,  if  not  the  earliest, 
instrument  of  music.  David  danced  when  he 
played  on  the  harp  :  the  Levites  did  the  same. 
Hence  it  appears,  that  it  was  light  and  porta- 
ble, and  that  its  size  was  restricted  within 
limits  which  admitted  of  that  service,  and  of 
that  manner  of  using  it. 

HART,  iw,  Deut.  xii,  15;  xiv,  5;  Psalm 
xlii,  1  ;  Isaiah  xxxv,  6,  the  stag,  or  male  deer. 
Dr.  Shaw  considers  its  name  in  Hebrew  as  a 
generic  word  including  all  the  species  of  the 
deer  kind ;  whether  they  are  distinguished  by 
round  horns,  as  the  slag ;  or  by  flat  ones,  as 
the  fallow  deer ;  or  by  the  smallness  of  the 
branches,  as  the  roo.  Mr.  Good  observes  that 
the  hind  and  roe,  the  hart  and  the  antelope, 
were  held,  and  still  continue  to  be,  in  the 
highest  estimation  in  all  the  eastern  countries, 
for  the  voluptuous  beauty  of  their  eyes,  the 
delicate  elegance  of  their  form,  or  their  grace- 
ful agility  of  action.  The  names  of  these 
animals  were  perpetually  applied,  therefore,  to 
persons,  whether  male  or  female,  who  were 
supposed  to  be  possessed  of  any  of  their  re- 
spective qualities.  In  2  Sam.  i,  19,  Saul  is 
denominated  "  the  roe  of  Israel ;"  and  in  the 
eighteenth  verse  of  the  ensuing  chapter,  we 
are  told  that  "  Asahel  was  as  light  of  foot  as  a 
wild  roe  :"  a  phraseology  perfectly  synonymous 
with  the  epithet  swift- footed,  which  Homer 
has  so  frequently  bestowed  upon  his  hero 
Achilles.  Thus  again  :  "  Her  princes  are  like 
harts  which  find  no  pasture ;  they  are  fled 
without  strength  before  their  pursuers,"  Lam. 
i,  6.  "  The  Lord  Jehovah  is  my  strength  ;  he 
will  make  my  feet  like  hinds'  feet ;  he  will 
cause  me  to  tread  again  on  my  own  hills," 
Hab.  iii,  19.     See  Hind; 

HARVEST.  Three  months  intervened  be- 
tween the  seed  time  and  the  first  reaping,  and 
a  month  between  this  and  the  full  harvest. 
Barley  is  in  full  ear  all  over  the  Holy  Land, 
in  the  beginning  of  April ;  and  about  the  mid- 
dle of  the  same  month,  it  begins  to  turn 
yellow,  particularly  in  the  southern  districts; 
being  as  forward  near  Jericho  in  the  latter 
end  of  March,  as  it  is  in  the  plains  of  Acre  ;i 
fortnight  afterward.  The  reaping  continues 
till  the  middle  of  Sivan,  or  till  about  the  end 
of  May  or  beginning  of  June,  which,  as  the 
time  of  wheat  harvest,  finishes  this  part  of 
the  husbandman's  labours. 

2.  The  reapers  in  Palestine  and  Syria  make 
use  of  the  sickle  in  cutting  down  their  crops, 
and,  according  to  the  present  custom  in  this  ' 
country,  "fill  their  hand"  witli  the  corn,  and 
I  hose  who  bind  up  the  sheaves,  t  heir  "  bosom," 
Psalm  exxix,  7;  Ruth  ii,  5.  When  the  crop 
is  thin  and  short,  which  is  generally  Ihe  case 
in-  light  soils,  and  with  their  imperfect  culti- 
vation,  it   is  not   reaped  with  the  sickle,  but 


HAR 


435 


HAU 


plucked  up  by  the  root  with  the  hand.  By 
this  mode  of  reaping,  they  leave  the  most 
fruitful  fields  as  naked  as  if  nothing  had  ever 
grown  oh  them ;  and  as  no  hay  is  made  in 
the  east,  this  is  done,  that  they  may  not  lose 
any  of  the  straw,  which  is  necessary  for  the 
sustenance  of  their  cattle.  The  practice  of 
plucking  up  wiih  the  hand  is  perhaps  referred 
to  in  these  words  of  the  Psalmist,  to  which 
reference  has  already  been  made  :  "  Let  them 
be  as  the  grass  upon  the  house  tops,  which 
withereth  afore  it  groweth  up ;  wherewith  the 
mower  filleth  not  his  hand,  nor  he  that  bind- 
eth  sheaves  his  bosom."  The  tops  of  the 
houses  in  Judea  are  flat,  and,  being  covered 
with  plaster  of  terrace,  are  frequently  grown 
over  with  grass.  As  it  is  but  small  and  weak, 
and  from  its  elevation  exposed  to  the  scorch- 
ing sun,  it  is  soon  withered.  A  more  beauti- 
ful and  striking  figure,  to  display  the  weak  and 
evanescent  condition  of  wicked  men,  cannot 
easily  be  conceived. 

3.  The  reapers  go  to  the  field  very  early  in 
the  morning,  and  return  home  betimes  in  the 
afternoon.     They  carry  provisions  along  with 
them,    and    leathern    bottles,    or  dried  bottle 
gourds,  filled  with  water.     They  are  followed 
by  their  own  children,  or  by  others,  who  glean 
with  much   success,  for  a  great  quantity  of 
corn  is  scattered  in  the  reaping,  and  in  their 
manner  of  carrying  it.     The  greater  part  of 
these    circumstances    are   discernible    in    the 
manners  of  the  ancient  Israelites.     Ruth  had 
not  proposed  to  Naomi,  her  mother-in-law,  to 
go  to  the  field,  and  glean  after  the  reapers ; 
nor  had  the  servant  of  Boaz,  to  whom  she  ap- 
plied for  leave,  so  readily  granted  her  request, 
if  gleaning  had  not  been  a  common  practice 
in  that  country.     When  Boaz  inquired  who 
she  was,  his  overseer,  after    informing  him, 
observes,  that  she  came  out  to  the  field  in  the 
morning ;  and  that  the  reapers  left  the  field 
early  in  the  afternoon,  as  Dr.  Russel  states,  is 
evident  from  this  circumstance,  that  Ruth  had 
time  to  beat  out  her  gleanings  before  evening. 
They  carried  water  and  provisions  with  them  ; 
for  Boaz  invited  her  to  come  and  drink  of  the 
water  which  the  young  men  had  drawn  ;  and 
at  meal-time,  to  eat  of  the  bread,  and  dip  her 
morsel  in  the  vinegar.     And  so  great  was  the 
simplicity  of  manners  in  that  part  of  the  world, 
and  in  those  times,  that  Boaz  himself,  although 
a  prince  of  high  rank  in  Judah,  sat  down  to 
dinner  in  the  field  with  his  reapers,  and  helped 
Ruth  with  his  own  hand.     Nor  ought  we  to 
pass  over  in  silence  the  mutual  salutation  of 
Boaz  and  his  reapers,  when  he  came  to  the 
field,  as  it  strongly  marks  the  state  of  religious 
feeling  in  Israel  at  the  time,   and   furnishes 
another  proof  of  the  artless,  the  happy,  and 
unsuspecting  simplicity,  which  characterized 
the  manners  of  that  highly  favoured  people. 
"  And,  behold,  Boaz  came    from  Bethlehem, 
and  said  unto  the  reapers,  The  Lord  be  with 
you.     And    they    answered    him,    The    Lord 
bless  thee,"  Ruth  ii,  4. 

4.  It  appears  from  the  beautiful  history  of 
Ruth,  that,  in  Palestine,  the  women  lent  their 
assistance  in  cutting  down  and  gathering  in 


the  harvest ;  for  Boaz  commands  her  to  keep 
fast  by  his  maidens.     The  women    in   Syria 
shared  also  in  the  labours  of  the  harvest ;  for 
Dr.  Russel  infdrms  us,  they  sang  the  ziraleet, 
or  song  of  thanks,  when  the  passing  stranger 
accepted  their  present  of  a  handful  of  corn, 
and  made  a  suitable  return.     It  was  another 
custom  among  the  Jews  to  set  a  confidentral 
servant  over  the  reapers,  to  see  that  they  exe- 
cuted   their   work    properly,    that    they    had 
suitable    provisions,    and   to    pay  them  their 
wages  :  the  Chaklees  call  hind  tab,  the  master, 
ruler,  or  governor  of  the  reapers.     Such  was 
the  person   who   directed  the   labours  of  the 
reapers  in  the  field  of  Boaz.     The  right  of  the 
poor  in  Israel  to  glean  after  the  reapers  was 
secured  by  a  positive  law,  couched  in  these 
words :  "  And  when  ye   reap  the   harvest  of 
your    land,    thou    shalt  not  wholly  reap   the 
corners  of  thy  laud  ;  neither  shalt  thou  gather 
the  gleanings  of  thy  harvest.     And  thou  shalt 
not    glean    thy  vineyard,    neither    shalt  thou 
gather   every    grape    of   thy  vineyard :    thou 
shalt  leave  them  to  the  poor  and  the  stranger  : 
I  am  the  Lord  your  God,"  Lev.  xix,  9.     It  is 
the  opinion  of  some  writers,  that,    althoagh 
the  poor  were  allowed  the  liberty  of  gleaning, 
the  Israelitish  proprietors  were  riot  obliged  to 
admit  them  immediately  into  the  field,  as  soon 
as  the  reapers  had  cut  down  the  corn,  and 
bound  it  up  in  sheaves,  but  when  it  was  car- 
ried off:  they  might  choose,  also,  among  the 
poor,  whom  they  thought  most  deserving,  or 
most    necessitous.      These    opinions    receive 
some    countenance    from    the    request  which 
Ruth  presented  to  the  servant  of  Boaz,  to  per- 
mit her  to  glean  "among  the  sheaves ;"  and 
from  the   charge  of  Boaz  to  his  young  men, 
"  Let  her  glean  even  among  the  sheaves  ;"  a 
mode   of  speaking  which  seems  to  insinuate 
that    though   they   could    not   legally  hinder 
Ruth  from  gleaning  in  the*  field,  they  had  a 
right,  if  they  chose  to  exercise  it,  to  prohibit 
her  from  gleaning  among  the  sheaves,  or  im- 
mediately after  the  reapers. 

HATE.  To  hate  is  not  always  to  be  under- 
stood rigorously,  but  frequently  signifies  merely 
a  less  degree  of  lovo.  "  If  a  man  have  two 
wives,  one  beloved  and  another  hated,"  Deut. 
xxi,  15  ;  that  is,  less  beloved.  Our  Saviour 
says  that  he  who  would  follow  him  must  hate 
father  and  mother  ;  that  is,  he  must  love  them 
less  than  Christ,  less  than  his  own  salvation, 
and  not  prefer  them  to  God.  "Jacob  have  I 
loved,  and  Esau  have  I  hated;"  that  is,  have 
deprived  of  the  privileges  of  his  primogeniture, 
through  his  own  profanity;  and  visited  him 
with  severe  judgment  on  account  of  his  sin:;. 

HAURAN.  The  tract  of  country  of  this 
name  is  mentioned  only  twice  in  Scripture, 
Ezek.  xlvii,  1G,  18.  It  was  probably  of  small 
extent  in  the  time  of  the  Jews  ;  but  was  en- 
larged under  the  Romans,  by  whom  it  was 
called  Auranitis.  At  present  it  extends  from 
about  twenty  miles  south  of  Damascus  to  a 
little  below  Bozra,  including  the  rocky  district 
of  El  Lcdja,  the  ancient  Trachonitis,  and  the 
mountainous  one  of  tho  Djebcl  Haouran.  With- 
in its  limits  are  also  included,  beside  Tracho 


HAY 


436 


HAZ 


nitis,  Ituraja  or  Ittur,  now  called  Djedour,  and 
part  of  Batanaea  or  Bashan.  It  is  represented 
by  Burckhardt  as  a  volcanic  region,  consist- 
ing of  a  porous  tufa,  pumice,  and  basalt,  with 
the  remains  of  a  crater  on  the  Tel  Shoba.,  on 
its  eastern  6ide.  It  produces,  however,  crops 
of  corn,  and  has  many  patches  of  luxuriant 
herbage,  which  are  frequented  in  the  summer 
by  the  Arab  tribes  for  pasturage.  It  abounds, 
also,  with  many  interesting  remains  of  cities, 
scattered  over  its  surface,  with  Grecian  inscrip- 
tions. The  chief  of  these  are  Bozra,  Ezra, 
Medjel,  Shoba,  Shakka,  Souerda,  Kanouat, 
Hebran,  Zarle,  Oerman,  and  Aatyl ;  with 
Messema,  Berak,  and  Om  Ezzeitoun,  in  the 
Ledja. 

HAVILAII,  the  son  of  Gush,  Genesis  x,  7. 
There  must  have  been  other,  and  perhaps 
many,  Havilahs  beside  the  original  one,  a  part 
of  the  numerous  and  wide-spread  posterity  of 
Cush.  By  one  and  the  first  of  these,  it  is  pro- 
bable that  the  western  shores  of  the  Persian 
Gulf  were  peopled  ;  by  another,  the  country 
of  Colchis ;  and  by  another,  the  parts  about 
the  southern  border  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  the 
confines  of  Judea,  the  country  afterward  inha- 
bited by  the  Amalekites. 

HAWK,  yi,  from  the  root  nxj,  to  fly,  be- 
cause of  the  rapidity  and  length  of  flight  for 
which  this  bird  is   remarkable,   Lev.  xi,   16 ; 
Deut.  xiv,  15 ;  Job  xxxix,  26.     Naz  is  used 
generically  by  the  Arabian  writers  to  signify 
both  falcon  and  hawk ;  and  the  term  is  given 
in  both  these  senses  by  Meninski.     There  can 
be  little  doubt  that  such  is  the  real  meaning  of 
the  Hebrew  word,  and  that  it  imports  various 
species  of  the  falcon  family,  as  jer-falcon,  gos- 
hawk, and  sparrow-hawk.     As  this  is  a  bird 
of  prey,  cruel  in  its  temper,  and  gross  in  its 
manners,   it  was   forbidden   as  food,   and   all 
others  of  its  kind,  in  the  Mosaic  ritual.     The 
Greeks  consecrated  the  hawk  to  Apollo ;  and 
among  the  Egyptians  no  animal  was  held  in 
so  high  veneration  as  the  ibis  and  the  hawk. 
Most  of  the   species   of  hawk,   we   are  told, 
are  birds  of  passage.     The  hawk,  therefore,  is 
produced,  in  Job  xxxix,  26,  as  a  specimen  of 
that  astonishing  instinct  which  teaches  birds 
of  passage  to  know  their  times  and  seasons, 
when    to    migrate    out    of  one  country    into 
another  for  the  benefit  of  food,  or  a  wanner 
climate,  or  both.      The   common   translation 
does  not  give  the  full  force  of  the  passa  <re  : 
"  Doth  the  hawk  fly  by  thy  wisdom  ?"     The 
real  meaning  is,   "  Doth   she  know,  through 
thy  skill   or  wisdom,  the   precise    period  for 
taking  flight,  or  migrating  and  stretching  her 
wings  toward  a  southern  or  warmer  climate  ?" 
The  passage  is  well  rendered  by  Sandys  : — 
"Doth  the  wild  haggard  tovrec  into  1 1  jo  sky, 
And  to  the  south  by  thy  direction  fly  V 
Her  migration  is  not  conducted  by  the  wisdom 
and  prudence  of  man,  but  by  the  superintend- 
ing  and  upholding   providence-  of  the    only 
wise  God. 

II, VY,  Tin.  In  the  two  places  where  this 
word  occurs,  Prov.  xxvii,  25,  and  Isaiah  xv, 
16,  our  translators  have  very  improperly  ren- 
dered it  "  hay."     But  iu  those  countries  they 


made  no  hay  ;  and,  if  they  did,  it  appears  from 
inspection  that  hay  could  hardly  be  the  mean- 
ing of  the  word  in  either  of  those  texts.  The 
author  of  "  Fragments,"  in  continuation  of 
Calmet,  has  the  following  remarks :  "  There 
is  a  gross  impropriety  in  our  version  of  Prov 
xxvii,  25  :  '  The  hay  appcareth,  and  the  tender 
grass  showeth  itself,  and  the  herbs  of  the 
mountains  are  gathered.'  Now,  certainly,  if  the 
tender  grass  is  but  just  beginning  to  show  itself, 
the  hay,  which  is  grass  cut  and  dried  after  it 
has  arrived  at  maturity,  ought  by  no  means  to 
be  associated  with  it,  still  less  ought  it  to  be 
placed  before  it.  And  this  leads  me  to  observe, 
that  none  of  the  dictionaries  which  I  have 
seen  seem  to  me  to  give  the  accurate  import 
of  the  word,  which,  I  apprehend,  means  the 
first  shoots,  the  rising,  budding,  spires  of  grass. 
So,  in  the  present  passage,  T>xn  nSj,  'the  tender 
shoots  of  the  grass  rise  up ;  and  the  buddings 
of  grass,'  grass  in  its  early  state,  as  is  the  pecu- 
liar import  of  Nan,  '  appear  ;  and  the  tufts  of 
grass,'  proceeding  from  the  same  root,  '  collect 
themselves  together,  and,  by  their  union,  begin 
to  clothe  the  mountain  tops  with  a  pleasing 
verdure.'"  Surely,  the  beautiful  progress  of 
vegetation,  as  described  in  this  passage,  must 
appear  too  poetical  to  be  lost ;  but  what  must 
it  be  to  an  eastern  beholder !  to  one  who  had 
lately  witnessed  all  surrounding  sterility,  a 
grassless  waste ! 

HAZAEL.     Elisha  coming  to  Damascus, 
the  capital  of  Syria,  Benhadad,  the  reigning 
monarch,  being  then  indisposed,  sent  Hazael, 
who  was  one  of  his  principal  officers,  to  wait 
upon  the  prophet,  and  consult  him  as  to  the 
issue  of  his  disorder,  2  Kings  viii,  7-13.     The 
prophet  told  Hazael  that  certainly  his  mastei 
might  recover,  because  his  complaint  was  not 
mortal ;  yet  he  was  very  well  assured  that  he 
would  not  recover  ;  and,  looking  him  stead- 
fastly in  the  face,  Elisha  burst  into  tears.    Sur- 
prised at  this  conduct,  Hazael  inquired  the  ca  use . 
"Because  I  know,"   said  the    prophet,    "the 
evil  that  thou  wilt  do  to  the  children  of  Israel : 
their  strong  holds  wilt  thou  set  on  fire,  and 
their  young  men  wilt  thou  slay  with  the  sword, 
and  wilt  dasli  their  infants  against  the  stones, 
and  rip  up  their  women  with  child."     Hazael 
indignantly  exclaimed,  "  Is  thy  servant  a  dog, 
that  he  should  do  t his  great  thing?"    Elisha 
merely  answered,  "  The  Lord  hath  showed  me 
that  thou  shalt  be  king  over  Syria,"  2  Kings 
viii,  7-13.     On  his  return  home,  Hazael  con- 
cealed from  his  master  Benhadad  the  prophet's 
answer,    and   inspired    him  with   hopes  of  re- 
covery ;    but  on  the  following   day,  he  took 
effectual  means  to  prevent  it,  by  stifling  the 
king  with  a  thick  cloth   dipped  with  water; 
and,  as  Benhadad  had  no  son,  and  Hazael  was 
a  man  much  esteemed  in  the  army,  he  was, 
without  difficulty  declared  his  successor,  A.  M. 
3120.    Hazael  soon  inflicted  upon  Israel  all  the 
cruelties  n  hieh  Elisha  had  foretold.    For  when 
Jehu  broke  up  the   siege    of  Ramoth-Gilead, 
and  came  with  his  army  to  Samaria,   Hazael 
took  advantage   of  Lis   absence  to  fall   upon 
his  territories  beyond  Jordan,  destroying  all 
the  land  of  Gilead,  Gad,  Reuben,  and  Manasseh. 


IIEA 


437 


HEA 


from  Aroer  to  Bashan,  2  Kings  x,  32.  Some 
years  passed  after  this  before  Hazael  under- 
took any  thing  against  the  kingdom  of  Judah, 
it  being  remote  from  Damascus ;  but  in  the 
reign  of  Joash,  the  son  of  Jehoahaz,  A.  M. 
3165,  he  besieged  the  city  of  Gath,  and,  having 
taken  it,  marched  against  Jerusalem,  2  Kings 
xii,  17,  18.  But  Joash,  conscious  of  his  infe- 
riority, bribed  him  at  the  price  of  all  the  money 
he  could  raise,  to  evacuate  Judea,  with  which 
he  for  the  moment  complied ;  yet,  in  the  fol- 
lowing year,  the  army  of  Hazael  returned, 
entered  the  territories  of  Judah,  and  the  city 
of  Jerusalem,  slew  all  the  princes  of  the  peo- 
ple, and  sent  a  valuable  booty  to  their  royal 
master,  2  Kings  xiii,  22;  2  Chron.  xxiv,  23. 

HEAD.  This  word  has  several  significa- 
tions, beside  its  natural  one,  which  denotes 
the  head  of  a  man.  It  is  sometimes  used  in 
Scripture  for  the  whole  man  :  "  Blessings  are 
upon  the  head  of  the  just,"  Prov.  x,  6  ;  that  is, 
upon  their  persons.  God  says  of  the  wicked,  "  I 
will  recompense  "their  way  upon  their  head," 
Ezek.  ix,  10.  It  signifies  a  chief  or  capital 
city  :  "  The  head  of  Syria  is  Damascus,"  Isaiah 
vii,  8.  It  denotes  a  chief  or  principal  mem- 
bers in  society:  "  The  Lord  will  cut  off  from 
Israel  head  and  tail.  The  ancient  and  honour- 
able he  is  the  head,"  Isaiah  ix,  14,  15.  "  The 
seed  of  the  woman  shall  bruise  the  head  of  the 
serpent,"  Gen.  iii,  15 ;  that  is,  Christ  Jesus, 
the  blessed  seed  of  the  woman,  shall  overthrow 
the  power,  policy,  and  works  of  the  devil.  The 
river  in  paradise  was  divided  into  four  heads 
or  branches.  In  times  of  grief,  the  mourners 
covered  their  heads  :  they  cut  and  plucked  off 
their  hair.  Amos,  speaking  of  unhappy  times, 
says,  "  I  will  bring  baldness  upon  every  head," 
Amos  viii,  10.  In  prosperity,  they  anointed 
their  heads  with  sweet  oils :  "  Let  thy  head 
lack  no"  perfumed  "ointment,"  Eccles.  ix,  8. 
To  shake  the  head  at  any  one,  expresses  con- 
tempt :  "  The  virgin,  the  daughter  of  Zion, 
hath  despised  thee,  and  laughed  thee  to  scorn  ; 
the  daughter  of  Jerusalem  hath  shaken  her 
head  at  thee,"  Isaiah  xxxvii,  22. 

Head  is  taken  for  one  that  hath  rule  and 
preeminence  over  others.  Thus  God  is  the 
head  of  Christ ;  as  Mediator,  from  him  he  de- 
rives all  his  dignity  and  authority.  Christ  is 
the  only  spiritual  head  of  the  church,  both  in 
respect  of  eminence  and  influence ;  he  com- 
municates life,  motion,  and  strength  to  every 
believer.  Also  the  husband  is  the  head  of  his 
wife,  because  by  God's  ordinance  he  is  to  rule 
over  her,  Gen.  iii,  16;  also  in  regard  to  pre- 
eminence of  sex,  1  Peter  iii,  7,  and  excellency 
of  knowledge,  1  Cor.  xiv,  35.  The  Apostle 
mentions  this  subordination  of  persons  in 
1  Cor.  xi,  3 :  "  But  I  would  have  you  know, 
that  the  head  of  every  man  is  Christ,  and  the 
head  of  the  woman  is  the  man,  and  the  head 
of  Christ  is  God."  "  The  stone  which  the 
builders  rejected  was  made  the  head  of  the 
corner,"  Psalm  cxviii,  22.  It  was  the  first  in 
the  angle,  whether  it  were  disposed  at  the  top 
of  that  angle  to  adorn  and  crown  it,  or  at  the 
bottom  to  support  it.  This,  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, is  applied  to  Christ,  who  is  the  strength 


and  beauty  of  the  church,  to  unite  the  several 
parts  of  it,  namely  both  Jews  and  Gentiles 
together. 

HEAR,  HEARING.  This  word  is  used  in 
several  senses  in  Scripture.  In  its  obvious  and 
literal  acceptation,  it  denotes  the  exercise  of 
that  bodily  sense  of  which  the  ear  is  the  organ  ; 
and  as  hearing  is  a  sense  by  which  instruction 
is  conveyed  to  the  mind,  and  the  mind  is  ex- 
cited to  attention  and  to  obedience,  so  the 
ideas  of  attention  and  obedience  are  also 
grafted  on  the  expression  or  sense  of  hearing. 
God  is  said,  speaking  after  the  manner  of 
men,  to  hear  prayer,  that  is,  to  attend  to  it, 
and  comply  with  the  requests  it  contains : 
"I  love  the  Lord,  because  he  hath  heard," 
hath  attended  to,  hath  complied  with,  "the 
voice  of  my  supplication,"  Psalm  cxvi,  1. 
On  the  contrary,  God  is  said  not  to  hear,  that 
is,  not  to  comply  with,  the  requests  of  sinners, 
John  ix,  31.  Men  are  said  to  hear,  when  they 
attend  to,  or  comply  with,  the  request  of  each 
other,  or  when  they  obey  the  commands  of 
God:  " Ho  who  is  of  God  heareth,"  obeyeth, 
practiseth,  "God's  words,"  John  viii,  47. 
"  My  sheep  hear  my  voice,"  and  show  their 
attention  to  it,  by  following  me,  John  x,  27. 
"  This  is  Biy  beloved  Son :  hear  ye  him," 
Matt,  xvii,  5.  This  seems  to  be  an  allusion 
to  Deut.  xviii,  15,  18,  19:  "The  Lord  shall 
raise  up  unto  you  a  prophet ;  him  shall  ye 
hear;"  which  is  also  expressly  applied  in 
Acts  iii,  22.  The  other  senses  which  may 
be  attached  to  the  word  "  hear,"  seem  to  rise 
from  the  preceding,  and  may  be  referred  to 
the  same  ideas. 

HEART.  The  Hebrews  regarded  the  heart 
as  the  source  of  wit,  understanding,  love, 
courage,  grief,  and  pleasure.  Hence  are  de- 
rived many  modes  of  expression.  "  An  honest 
and  good  heart,"  Luke  viii,  15,  is  a  heart 
studious  of  holiness,  being  prepared  by  the 
Spirit  of  God  to  receive  the  word  with  due 
affections,  dispositions,  and  resolutions.  We 
read  of  a  broken  heart,  a  clean  heart,  an  evil 
heart,  a  liberal  heart.  To  "  turn  the  heart  of 
the  fathers  to  the  children,  and  the  heart  of 
the  children  to  their  fathers,"  Mai.  iv,  6,  sig- 
nifies to  cause  them  to  be  perfectly  reconciled, 
and  that  they  should  be  of  the  same  mind. 
To  want  heart,  sometimes  denotes  to  want 
understanding  and  prudence  :  "  Ephraim  is 
like  a  silly  dove,  without  heart,"  Hosea  vii,  11. 
"O  fools,  and  slow  of  heart,"  Luke  xxiv,  25; 
that  is,  ignorant,  and  without  understanding. 
"This  people's  heart  is  waxed  gross,  lest  they 
should  understand  with  their  heart,"  Matt, 
xiii,  15;  their  heart  is  become  incapable  of 
understanding  spiritual  things  ;  they  resist  the 
light,  and  are  proof  against  all  impressions  of 
truth.  "The  prophets  prophesy  out  of  their 
own  heart,"  Ezekiel  xiii,  2  ;  that  is,  according 
to  their  own  imagination,  without  any  warrant 
from  God. 

The  heart  is  said  to  be  dilated  by  joy,  con- 
tracted by  sadness,  broken  by  sorrow,  to  grow 
fat,  and  be  hardened  by  prosperity.  The  heart 
melts  under  discouragement,  forsakes  one  un- 
der terror,  is  desolate  in  affliction,  and  fluctu- 


HEA 


438 


HEA 


ating  in  de(ubt.  To  speak  to  any  one's  heart 
is  to  comfojrt  him,  to  say  pleasing  and  affect- 
ing thingswto  him.  The  heart  expresses  also 
the  middle  tyirt  of  any  thing:  "  Tyre  is  in  the 
heart  of  tlieVscas,"  Ezekiel  xxvii,  4;  in  the 
midst  of  the  sens.  "  We  will  not  fear  though 
the  mountains  be  carried  into  the  heart  (middle) 
of  the  sea,"  Pealm  xlvi,  2. 

The  heart  of  man  js  naturally  depraved  and 
inclined  to  evil,  Jer.  xvii,  9.  A  divine  power 
is  requisite  for  its  renovation,  John  iii,  1-11. 
When  thus  renewed,  the  effects  will  be  seen 
in  the  temper,  conversation,  and  conduct  at 
large.  Hardness  of  heart  is  that  state  in  which 
a  sinner  is  inclined  to,  and  actually  goes  on 
in,  rebellion  against  God. 

HEATH,  ->>ny,  Jer.  xvii,  C ;  xlviii,  6.  "  He 
shall  be  like  the  heath  in  the  desert.  He  shall 
not  see  when  good  cometh  ;  but  shall  inhabit 
the  parched  places  in  the  wilderness,  a  salt 
land."  The  LXX  and  Vulgate  render  arm; 
"  the  tamarisk ;"  and  this  is  strengthened  by 
the  affinity  of  the  Hebrew  name  of  this  tree 
with  the  Turkish  mrmr.  Taylor  and  Park, 
hurst  render  it,  "  a  blasted  tree  stripped  of  its 
foliage."  If  it  be  a  particular  tree,  the  tama- 
risk is  as  likely  as  any.  Celsius  thinks  it  to 
be  the  juniper ;  but  from  the  mention  of  it  as 
growing  in  a  salt  land,  in  parched  places,  the 
author  of  "(Scripture  Illustrated"  is  disposed 
to  seek  it  among  the  lichens,  a  species  of  plants 
which  are  the  last  production  of  vegetation 
under  the  frozen  zone,  and  under  the  glowing 
heat  of  equatorial  deserts ;  so  that  it  seems 
best  qualified  to  endure  parched  places,  and  a 
salt  land.  Hasselquist  mentions  several  kinds 
seen  by  him  in  Egypt,  Arabia,  and  Syria.  In 
Jer.  xlviii,  6,  the  original  word  is  "ijmy,  which 
the  Septuagint  translators  have  read  Tnp,  for 
they  render  it  fivo;  aypws,  ?oild  ass;  and,  as 
this  seems  best  to  agree  with  the  flight  re- 
commended in  the  passage,  it  is  to  be  preferred. 
See  Wild  Ass. 

HEAVEN,  the  place  of  the  more  immediate 
residence  of  the  Most  High,  Gen.  xiv,  19.  The 
Jews  enumerated  three  heavens  :  the  first  was 
the  region  of  the  air,  where  the  birds  fly,  and 
which  are  therefore  called  "  the  fowls  of  hea- 
ven," Job  xxxv,  II.  It  is  in  this  sense  also 
that  we  read  of  the  dew  of  heaven,  the  clouds 
of  heaven,  and  the  wind  of  heaven.  The 
second  is  that,  part  of  space  in  which  are  fixed 
the  heavenly  luminaries,  the  sun,  moon,  and 
stars,  and  which  Moses  was  instructed  to  call 
"  the  firmament  or  expanse  of  heaven,"  Gen. 
i,  8.  The  third  heaven  is  the  seat  of  God  and 
of  the  holy  angels ;  the  place  into  which 
Christ  ascended  after  his  resurrection,  and 
into  which  St.  Paul  was  caught  up,  though  it 
is  not  like  the  other  heavens  perceptible  to 
mortal  view. 

2.  It  is  an  opinion  not  destitute  of  proba- 
bility, that  the  construction  of  the  tabernacle, 
in  which  Jehovah  dwelt  by  a  visible  symbol, 
termed  "the  cloud  of  glory,"  was  intended  to 
be  a  type  of  heaven.  In  the  holiest  place  of 
the  tabernacle,  "  the  glory  of  the  Lord,"  or 
visible  emblem  of  his  presence,  rested  between 
the  cherubims ;  by  the  figures  of  which,  the 


angelic  host  surrounding  the  throne  of  God  in 
heaven  was  typified ;  and  as  that  holiest  part 
of  the  tabernacle  was,  by  a  thick  vail,  con- 
cealed from  the  sight  of  those  who  frequented 
it  for  the  purposes  of  worship,  so  heaven,  the 
habitation  of  God,  is,  by  the  vail  of  flesh,  hid- 
den from  mortal  eyes.  Admitting  the  whole 
tabernacle,  therefore,  in  which  the  worship 
of  God  was  performed  according  to  a  ritual 
of  divine  appointment,  to  be  a  representation 
of  the  universe,  we  are  taught  by  it  this  beau- 
tiful lesson,  that  the  whole  universe  is  the 
temple  of  God ;  but  that  in  this  vast  temple 
there  is  "  a  most  holy  place,"  where  the  Deity 
resides  and  manifests  his  presence  to  the  an- 
gelic hosts  and  redeemed  company  who  sur- 
round him.  This  view  appears  to  be  borne 
out  by  the  clear  and  uniform  testimony  of 
Scripture ;  and  it  is  an  interesting  circum- 
stance, that  heaven,  as  represented  by  "  the 
holiest  of  all,"  is  heaven  as  it  is  presented  to 
the  eye  of  Christian  faith,  the  place  where  our 
Lord  ministers  as  priest,  to  which  believers 
now  come  in  spirit,  and  where  they  are  ga- 
thered together  in  the  disembodied  state. 
Thus,  for  instance,  St.  Paul  tells  the  believing 
Hebrews,  "Ye  are  come  unto  Mount  Zion, 
and  unto  the  city  of  the  living  God,  the  hea- 
venly Jerusalem,  and  to  an  innumerable  com- 
pany of  angels,  to  the  general  assembly  and 
church  of  the-first  born,  which  are  written," 
or  are  enrolled,  "  in  heaven,  and  to  God  the 
Judge  of  all,  and  to  the  spirits  of  just  men 
made  perfect,  and  to  Jesus  the  Mediator  of  the 
new  covenant,  and  to  the  blood  of  sprinkling, 
that  speaketh  better  things  than  the  blood  of 
Abel,"  Heb.  xii,  22-24.  Here  we  are  presented 
with  the  antitype  of  almost  every  leading  cir- 
cumstance of  the  Mosaic  dispensation.  In- 
stead of  the  land  of  Canaan,  we  have  heaven  ; 
for  the  earthly  Jerusalem,  we  have  the  hea- 
venly, the  city  of  the  living  God  ;  in  place  of 
the  congregation  of  Israel  after  the  flesh,  we 
have  the  general  assembly  and  church  of  the 
first-born,  that  is,  all  true  believers  "made 
perfect ;"  for  just  men  in  the  imperfect  state 
of  the  old  dispensation,  we  have  just  men 
made  perfect,  in  evangelical  knowledge  and 
holiness ;  instead  of  Moses,  the  mediator  of 
the  old  covenant,  we  have  Jesus  the  Mediator 
of  the  new  and  everlasting  covenant ;  and  in- 
stead of  the  blood  of  slaughtered  animals, 
which  was  sprinkled  upon  the  Israelites,  the 
tabernacle,  and  all  the  vessels  of  the  sanctuary, 
to  make  a  tpyical  atonement,  we  have  the 
blood  of  the  Son  of  God,  which  was  shed  for 
the  remission  of  the  sins  of  the  whole  world  ; 
that  blood  which  doth  not,  like  the  blood  of 
Abel,  call  for  vengeanco  but  for  mercy,  which 
hath  made  peace  between  heaven  and  earth, 
effected  the  true  and  complete  atonement  for 
sin,  and  which  therefore  communicates  peace 
to  the  conscience  of  every  sinner  that  believes 
the  Gospel. 

3.  Among  the  numerous  refinements  of 
modern  times  that  is  one  of  the  most  remark- 
able which  goes  to  deny  the  locality  of  heaven. 
"  It  is  a  state,"  say  many,  "  not  a  place."  But 
if  that  be  the  case,  the  very  language  of  the 


HE  A 


439 


IIEB 


Scriptures,  in  regard  to  this  point,  is  calculated 
to  mislead  us.  For  that  God  resides  in  a  par- 
ticular part  of  the  universe,  where  he  makes 
his  presence  known  to  his  intelligent  creatures 
by  some  transcendent,  visible  glory,  is  an 
opinion  that  has  prevailed  among  Jews  and 
Christians,  Greeks  and  Romans,  yea,  in  every 
nation,  civilized  or  savage,  and  in  every  age ; 
and,  since  it  is  confirmed  by  revelation,  why 
should  it  be  doubted  ?  Into  this  most  holy 
place,  the  habitation  of  the  Deity,  Jesus,  after 
his  resurrection,  ascended;  and  there,  present- 
ing his  crucified  body  before  the  manifestation 
of  the  divine  presence,  which  is  called  "the 
throne  of  the  Majesty  in  the  heavens,"  he 
offered  unto  God  the  sacrifice  of  himself,  and 
made  atonement  for  the  sins  of  his  people. 
There  he  is  sat  down  upon  his  throne,  crowned 
with  glory  and  honour,  as  king  upon  his  holy 
lull  of  Zion,  and  continually  officiates  as  our 
great  High  Priest,  Advocate,  and  Intercessor, 
within  the  vail.  There  is  his  Father's  house, 
into  which  he  is  gone  before,  to  prepare  man- 
sions of  bliss  for  his  disciples ;  it  is  the  king- 
dom conferred  upon  him  as  the  reward  of  his 
righteousness,  and  of  which  he  has  taken 
possession  as  their  forerunner,  Acts  i,  11 ; 
Heb.  vi,  19,  20. 

4.  Some  of  the  ancients  imagined  that  the 
habitation  of  good  men,  after  the  resurrection, 
would  be  the  sun ;  grounding  this  fanciful 
opinion  on  a  mistaken  interpretation  of  Psalm 
xix,  4,  which  they  rendered,  with  the  LXX  and 
Vulgate,  "  He  has  set  his  tabernacle  in  the  sun." 
Others,  again,  have  thought  it  to  lie  beyond 
the  starry  firmament,  a  notion  less  improbable 
than  the  former.  Mr.  Whiston  supposes  the 
air  to  be  the  mansion  of  the  blessed,  at  least 
for  the  present ; '  and  he  imagines  that  Christ 
is  at  the  top  of  the  atmosphere,  and  other 
spirits  nearer  to  or  more  remote  from  him 
according  to  the  degree  of  their  moral  purity, 
to  which  he  conceives  the  specific  gravity  of 
their  inseparable  vehicles  to  be  proportionable. 
Mr.  Hallet  has  endeavoured  to  prove  that  they 
will  dwell  upon  earth,  when  it  shall  be  restored 
to  its  paradisaical  state.  The  passages  of 
Scripture,  however,  on  which  he  grounds  his 
hypothesis,  are  capable  of  another  and  very 
different  interpretation.  After  all,  we  may 
observe,  that  the  place  of  the  blessed  is  a  ques- 
tion of  comparatively  little  importance ;  and 
we  may  cheerfully  expect  and  pursue  it,  though 
we  cannot  answer  a  multitude  of  curious  ques- 
tions, relating  to  various  circumstances  that 
pertain  to  it.  We  have  reason  to  believe  that 
heaven  will  be  a  social  state,  and  that  its  hap- 
piness will,  in  some  measure,  arise  from  mutual 
communion  and  converse,  and  the  expressions 
and  exercises  of  mutual  benevolence.  All  the 
views  presented  to  us  of  this  eternal  residence 
of  good  men  are  pure  and  noble  ;  and  form  a 
striking  contrast  to  the  low  hopes,  and  the 
gross  and  sensual  conceptions  of  a  future  state, 
which  distinguish  the  Pagan  and  Mohamme- 
dan systems.  The  Christian  heaven  may  be 
described  to  be  a  state  of  eternal  communion 
with  God,  and  consecration  to  hallowed  de- 
votional and  active  services ;  from  which  will 


result  an  uninterrupted  increase  of  knowledge, 
holiness,  and  joy,  to  the  glorified  and  immor- 
talized assembly  of  the  redeemed. 

HEBER,  or  EBER,  the  father  of  Peleg,  and 
the  son  of  Salah,  who  was  the  grandson  of 
Shem,  one  of  Noah's  sons,  was  born  A.  M. 
1723  ;  B.  C.  2281.  From  him  some  have  sup- 
posed that  Abraham  and  his  descendants  de- 
rived the  appellation  of  Hebrews.  But  others 
have  suggested,  with  greater  probability,  that 
Abraham  and  his  family  were  thus  called, 
because  they  came  from  the  other  side  of  the 
Euphrates  into  Canaan ;  Heber  signifying  in 
the  Hebrew  language  one  that  passes,  or,  a  pas- 
sage, that  is,  of  the  river  Euphrates.  Accord- 
ing to  this  opinion,  Hebrew  signifies  much  the 
same  as  foreigner  among  us,  or  one  that  comes 
from  beyond  sea.  Such  were  Abraham  and 
his  family  among  the  Canaanites ;  and  his 
posterity,  learning  and  using  the  language  of 
the  country,  still  retained  the  appellation 
originally  given  them,  even  when  they  be- 
came possessors  and  settled  inhabitants. 

2.  Heber  the  Kenite,  of  Jethro's  family, 
husband  to  Jael,  who  killed  Sisera,  Judges  iv, 
17,  &c. 

HEBREW  OF  THE  HEBREWS,  an  ap- 
pellation which  the  Apostle  Paul  applies  to 
himself,  Phil,  iii,  5,  concerning  the  meaning 
of  which  there  has  been  some  difference  of 
opinion.  Godwin,  in  his  "  Moses  and  Aaron," 
understands  by  this  expression,  a  Hebrew 
both  by  father's  and  mother's  side.  But  if  it 
meant  no  more  than  this,  there  was  little 
occasion  for  tho  Apostle's  using  it  immediately 
after  having  declared  that  ho  was  "  of  the 
stock  of  Israel,  and  the  tribe  of  Benjamin," 
which,  on  Godwin's  supposition,  is  the  same 
as  a  Hebrew  of  the  Hebrews ;  for  the  Jews 
were  not  allowed  to  marry  out  of  their  own 
nation.  Beside,  it  is  not  likely  that  St.  Paul 
would  have  mentioned  it  as  a  distinguishing 
privilege  and  honour,  that  his  parents  were 
not  proselytes.  It  is  more  probable  that  a 
Hebrew  of  the  Hebrews  signifies  a  Hebrew 
both  by  nation  and  language,  which  many  of 
Abraham's  posterity,  in  those  days,  were  not ; 
or  one  of  the  Hebrew  Jews  who  performed 
their  public  worship  in  the  Hebrew  tongue  ; 
for  such  were  reckoned  more  honourable  than 
the  Jews  born  out  of  Judea,  and  who  spoko 
the  Greek  tongue.     See  Hellenists. 

HEBREW  LANGUAGE,  called  also  abso- 
lutely  Hebrew,  is  the  language  spoken  by  tho 
Hebrews,  and  in  which  all  the  books  of  the 
Old  Testament  are  written  ;  whence  it  is  also 
called  the  holy  or  sacred  language.  It  is  said 
to  have  been  preserved  in  the  midst  of  the 
confusion  at  Babel,  in  the  family  of  Heber,  or 
Eber,  who,  as  it  is  alleged,  was  not  concerned 
in  the  building  of  Babel,  and,  consequently, 
did  not  share  in  the  punishment  inflicted  on 
the  actual  transgressors.  The  Jews,  in  gene- 
ral, have  been  of  opinion,  that  the  Hebrew 
was  the  language  of  Heber's  family,  from  whom 
Abraham  sprung.  On  the  other  hand,  it  has 
been  maintained  that  Heber's  family,  in  the 
fourth. generation  after  tho  dispersion,  lived  in 
Chaldca,  where  Abraham  was  born,  Gen.  xi, 


HEB 


440 


HEB 


27,  28,  and  that  there  is  no  reason  to  think 
they  used  a  different  language  from  their 
neighbours  around  lliem.  It  appears,  more- 
over, that  the  Chaldee,  and  not  the  Hebrew, 
was  the  language  of  Abraham's  country,  and 
of  his  kindred,  Gen.xxiv,  4;  xxxi,  46,  47  ;  and 
it  is  probable  that  Abraham's  native  language 
was  Chaldee,  and  that  the  Hebrew  was  the 
language  of  the  Canaanites,  which  Abraham 
and  Iris  posterity  learned  by  travelling  among 
them.  It  is  surprising  that  this  adoption  of 
the  Phenician  language  by  the  patriarchs 
should  have  escaped  the  notice  of  several  in- 
telligent  readers  of  the  Bible.  Jacob  and  La- 
ban,  it  is  clear,  by  the  names  they  gave  to  the 
cairn,  or  memorial  of  stones,  spoke  two  differ- 
ent dialects ;  and  it  is  nearly  equally  evident, 
that  the  language  of  Laban  was  the  dialect  of 
Ur  of  the  Chaldees,  the  original  speech  of  the 
Hebrew  race.  As  the  patriarchs  disused  the 
true  Hebrew  dialect,  it  is  manifest  that  they 
hud  conformed  to  the  speech  of  Canaan ;  and 
that  this  conformity  was  complete,  is  proved 
by  the  identity  between  all  the  remains  of 
Canaanitish  names.  At  the  same  time,  it 
must  be  remarked,  that  the  Phenician  and  the 
Chaldean  were  merely  different  dialects  of  the 
same  primitive  language  which  had  been 
spoken  by  the  first  ancestors  of  mankind. 

2.  There  is  no  work  in  all  antiquity  written 
in  pure  Hebrew,  beside  the  books  of  the  Old 
Testament ;  and  even  some  parts  of  those  are 
in  Chaldee.  The  Hebrew  appears  to  be  the 
most  ancient  of  all  the  languages  in  the  world  ; 
at  least  it  is  so  with  regard  to  us,  who  know 
of  no  oldar.  Dr.  Sharpe  adopts  the  opinion, 
that  the  Hebrew  was  the  original  language ; 
not  indeed  that  the  Hebrew  is  the  unvaried 
language  of  our  first  parents,  but  that  it  was 
the  general  language  of  men  at  the  dispersion  ; 
and,  however  it  might  have  been  improved  and 
altered  from  the  first  speech  of  our  first  parents, 
it  was  the  original  of  all  the  languages,  or 
almost  all  the  languages,  rather  dialects,  that 
have  since  arisen  in  the  world.  Arguments 
have  also  been  deduced  from  tho  nature  and 
genius  of  the  Hebrew  language,  in  order  to 
prove  that  it  was  the  original  language, 
neither  improved  nor  debased  by  foreign 
idioms.  The  words  of  which  it  is  composed 
are  short,  and  admit  of  very  little  flexion. 
The  names  of  places  are  descriptive  of  their 
nature,  situation,  accidental  circumstances, 
&c.  The  compounds  arc  few,  and  inartificially 
conjoined ;  and  it  is  less  burdened  with  those 
artificial  affixes  which  distinguish  other  cog- 
nate dialects,  such  as  the  Chaldean,  Syrian, 
Arabian,  Phenician,  &c. 

The  period,  from  the  age  of  Moses  to  that 
of  David,  has  been  considered  the  golden  age 
of  the  Hebrew  language,  which  declined  in 
purity  from  that  time  to  the  reign  of  Hezekiah 
or  Manasseh,  having  received  several  foreign 
words,  particularly  Aramean,  from  the  com- 
mercial and  political  intercourse  of  the  Jews 
and  Israelites  with  the  Assyrians  and  Babylon- 
ians. This  period  has  been  termed  the  silver 
age  of  the  Hebrew  language.  In  the  interval 
between  the  reign  of  Hezekiah  and  the  Baby- 


lonish captivity,  the  purity  of  the  language 
was  neglected,  and  so  many  foreign  words 
were  introduced  into  it,  that  this  period  has 
not  inaptly  been  designated  its  iron  age.  Dur- 
ing the  seventy  years'  captivity,  though  it 
does  not  appear  that  the  Hebrews  entirely  lost 
their  native  tongue,  yet  it  underwent  so  con- 
siderable a  change  from  their  adoption  of  the 
vernacular  languages  of  the  countries  where 
they  had  resided,  that  afterward,  on  their  re- 
turn from  exile,  they  spoke  a  dialect  of  Chal- 
dee mixed  with  Hebrew  words.  On  this 
account  it  was,  that,  when  the  Scriptures 
were  read,  it  was  found  necessary  to  interpret 
them  to  the  people  in  the  Chaldean  language , 
as,  when  Ezra  the  scribo  brought  tho  book  of 
the  law  of  Moses  before  the  congregation,  the 
Levites  are  said  to  have  caused  the  people  to 
understand  the  law,  because  "  they  read  in  the 
book,  in  the  law  of  God,  distinctly,  and  gave 
the  sense,  and  caused  them  to  understand  the 
reading,"  Nehem.  viii,  8.  Some  time  after 
the  return  from  the  great  captivity,  Hebrew 
ceased  to  be  spoken  altogether ;  though  it 
continued  to  be  cultivated  and  studied  by  the 
priests  and  Levites,  as  a  learned  language, 
that  they  might  be  enabled  to  expound  the 
law  and  the  prophets  to  the  people,  who,  it 
appears  from  the  New  Testament,  were  well 
acquainted  with  their  general  contents  and 
tenor :  this  last  mentioned  period  has  been 
called  the  leaden  age  of  the  language. 

The  present  Hebrew  characters,  or  letters, 
are  twenty-two  in  number,  and  of  a  square 
form ;  but  the  antiquity  of  these  letters  is  a 
point  that  has  been  most  severely  contested 
by  many  learned  men.  From  a  passage  in 
Eusebius's  Chronicle,  and  another  in  St. 
Jerom,  it  was  inferred  by  Joseph  Scaliger,  that 
Ezra,  when  he  reformed  the  Jewish  church, 
transcribed  the  ancient  characters  of  the  He- 
brews into  the  square  letters  of  the  Chaldeans  ; 
and  that  this  was  done  for  the  use  of  those 
Jews  who,  being  born  during  the  captivity, 
knew  no  other  alphabet  than  that  of  the  peo- 
ple among  whom  they  had  been  educated. 
Consequently,  the  old  character,  which  we 
call  the  Samaritan,  fell  into  total  disuse.  This 
opinion  Scaliger  supported  by  passages  from 
both  tho  Tahnuds,  as  well  as  from  rabbinical 
writers,  in  which  it  is  expressly  affirmed  that 
such  characters  were  adopted  by  Ezra.  But 
the  most  decisive  confirmation  of  this  point  is 
to  be  found  in  the  ancient  Hebrew  coins, 
which  were  struck  before  the  captivity,  and 
even  previously  to  the  revolt  of  the  ten  tribes. 
The  characters  engraven  on  all  of  them  are 
manifestly  the  same  with  the  modern  Sama- 
ritan, though  with  some  trifling  variations  in 
their  forms,  occasioned  by  the  depredations  of 
time. 

HEBREWS,  sometimes  called  Israelites, 
from  their  progenitor,  Jacob,  surnamed  Israel, 
and  in  modern  times  Jews,  as  the  descendants 
of  Judah,  the  name  of  this  leading  tribe  being 
given  to  all.     See  Jews. 

Hebrews,  Epistle  to  the.  Though  the 
genuineness  of  this  epistle  has  been  disputed 
both  in  ancient  and  modern  times,  its  antiquity 


HEB 


441 


IIEB 


lias  never  been  questioned.  It  is  generally 
allowed  that  there  are  references  to  it,  although 
the  author  is  not  mentioned,  in  the  remaining 
works  of  Clement  of  Rome,  Ignatius,  Polycarp, 
and  Justin  Martyr ;  and  that  it  contains,  as 
was  first  noticed  by  Chrysostom  and  Theodo- 
ret,  internal  evidence  of  having  been  written 
before  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  Heb.  viii, 
4;  ix,  25;  x,  11,  37;  xiii,  10.  The  earliest 
writer  now  extant  who  quotes  this  epistle  as 
the  work  of  St.  Paul  is  Clement  of  Alexandria, 
toward  the  end  of  the  second  century ;  but,  as 
he  ascribes  it  to  St.  Paul  repeatedly  and  with- 
out hesitation,  we  may  conclude  that  in  his 
time  no  doubt  had  been  entertained  upon  the 
subject,  or,  at  least,  that  the  common  tradition 
of  the  church  attributed  it  to  St.  Paul.  Cle- 
ment is  followed  by  Origen,  by  Dionysius  and 
Alexander,  both  bishops  of  Alexandria,  by 
Ambrose,  Athanasius,  Hilary  of  Poitiers, 
Jerom,  Chrysostom,  and  Cyril,  all  of  whom 
consider  this  epistle  as  written  by  St.  Paul ;  and 
it  is  also  ascribed  to  him  in  the  ancient  Syriac 
version,  supposed  to  have  been  made  at  the 
end  of  the  first  century.  Eusebius  says,  "Of 
St.  Paul  there  are  fourteen  epistles  manifest 
and  well  known ;  but  yet  there  are  some  who 
reject  that  to  the  Hebrews,  urging  for  their 
opinion  that  it  is  contradicted  by  the  church 
of  the  Romans,  as  not  being  St.  Paul's."  In 
Dr.  Lardner  we  find  the  following  remark : 
"  It  is  evident  that  this  epistle  was  generally 
received  in  ancient  times  by  those  Christians 
who  used  the  Greek  language,  and  lived  in 
the  eastern  parts  of  the  Roman  empire."  And 
in  another  place  he  says,  "  It  was  received  as 
an  epistle  of  St.  Paul  by  many  Latin  writers 
in  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  centuries."  The 
earlier  Latin  writers  take  no  notice  of  this 
epistle,  except  Tertullian,  who  ascribes  it  to 
Barnabas.  It  appears,  indeed,  from  the  fol- 
lowing expression  of  Jerom,  that  this  epistle 
was  not  generally  received  as  canonical  Scrip- 
ture by  the  Latin  church  in  his  time  :  "  Licet 
earn  Latina  consuetudo  inter  canonicas  Scriptu- 
ras  non  recipiat."  [Although  the  usage  of  the 
Latin  church  does  not  receive  it  among  the 
canonical  Scriptures.]  The  same  thing  is 
mentioned  in  other  parts  of  his  works.  But 
many  individuals  of  the  Latin  church  acknow- 
ledged it  to  be  written  by  St.  Paul,  as  Jerom 
himself,  Ambrose,  Hilary,  and  Philaster ;  and 
the  persons  who  doubted  its  genuineness  were 
those  the  least  likely  to  have  been  acquainted 
with  the  epistle  at  an  early  period,  from  the 
nature  of  its  contents  not  being  so  interesting 
to  the  Latin  churches,  which  consisted  almost 
entirely  of  Gentile  Christians,  ignorant,  proba- 
bly, of  the  Mosaic  law,  and  holding  but  little 
intercourse  with  Jews. 

2.  The  moderns,  who,  upon  grounds  of  in- 
ternal evidence,  contend  against  the  genuine- 
ness of  this  epistle,  rest  principally  upon  the 
two  following  arguments,  the  omission  of  the 
writer's  name,  and  the  superior  elegance  of  the 
style  in  which  it  is  written.  It  is  indeed  cer- 
tain that  all  the  acknowledged  epistles  of  St. 
Paul  begin  with  a  salutation  in  his  own  namo, 
and  that,  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  there  is 


nothing  of  that  kind ;  but  this  omission  ran 
scarcely  bo  considered  as  conclusive  against 
positive  testimony.  St.  Paul  might  have  Yea- 
sons  for  departing,  upon  this  occasion,  from 
his  usual  mode  of  salutation,  which  we  at  this 
distant  period  cannot  discover.  Some  have 
imagined  that  he  omitted  his  name,  because  he 
knew  that  it  would  not  have  much  weight  with 
the  Hebrew  Christians,  to  whom  he  was  in 
general  obnoxious,  on  account  of  his  zeal  in 
converting  the  Gentiles,  and  in  maintaining 
that  the  observance  of  the  Mosaic  law  was  not 
essential  to  salvation  :  it  is,  however,  clear, 
that  the  persons  to  whom  this  epistle  was  ad- 
dressed knew  from  whom  it  came,  as  the  writer 
refers  to  some  acts  of  kindness  which  he  had 
received  from  them,  and  also  expresses  a  hope 
of  seeing  them  soon,  Hebrews  x,  34;  xiii,  18, 
19,  23.  As  to  the  other  argument,  it  must  be 
owned  that  there  does  not  appear  to  be  such 
superiority  in  the  style  of  this  epistle,  as  should 
lead  to  the  conclusion  that  it  was  not  written 
by  St.  Paul.  Those  who  have  thought  differ 
ently  have  mentioned  Barnabas,  St.  Luke,  and 
Clement,  as  authors  or  translators  of  this  epis- 
tle. The  opinion  of  Jerom  was,  that  the  sen- 
timents are  the  Apostle's,  but  the  language  and 
composition  that  of  some  one  else,  who  com- 
mitted to  writing  the  Apostle's  sense,  and,  as 
it  were,  reduced  into  commentaries  the  things 
spoken  by  his  master.  Dr.  Lardner  says,  "  My 
conjecture  is,  that  St.  Paul  dictated  the  epistle 
in  Hebrew,  and  another,  who  was  a  great 
master  of  the  Greek  language,  immediately 
wrote  down  the  Apostle's  sentiments  in  his 
own  elegant  Greek  ;  but  who  this  assistant  of 
the  Apostle  was,  is  altogether  unknown."  But 
surely  the  writings  of  St.  Paul,  like  those  of 
other  authors,  may  not  all  have  the  same  pre- 
cise degree  of  merit;  and  if,  upon  a  careful 
perusal  and  comparison,  it  should  be  thought 
that  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  is  written  with 
greater  elegance  than  the  acknowledged  com- 
positions of  this  Apostle,  it  should  also  be 
remembered  that  the  apparent  design  and  con- 
tents of  this  epistle  suggest  the  idea  of  more 
studied  composition,  and  yet,  that  there  is 
nothing  in  it  which  amounts  to  a  marked  differ- 
ence of  style :  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  the 
same  concise,  abrupt,  and  elliptical  mode  of 
expression,  and  it  contains  many  phrases  and 
sentiments  which  are  found  in  no  part  of  Scrip- 
ture, except  in  St.  Paul's  Epistles.  We  may 
farther  observe,  that  the  manner  in  which 
Timothy  is  mentioned  in  this  epistle  makes  it 
probable  that  it  was  written  by  St.  Paul.  Com- 
pare Heb.  xiii,  23,  with  2  Cor.  i,  1,  and  Col.  i,  1. 
It  was  certainly  written  by  a  person  who  hud 
suffered  imprisonment  in  the  cause  of  Chris- 
tianity ;  and  this  is  known  to  have  been  the  case 
of  St.  Paul,  but  of  no  other  person  to  whom  this 
epistle  has  been  attributed.  Upon  the  whole, 
both  the  external  and  internal  evidence  appear 
to  preponderate  so  greatly  in  favour  of  SI 
Paul's  being  the  author  of  this  epistle,  that  it. 
cannot  but  be  considered  as  written  by  that 
Apostle. 

3.  "  They  of  Italy  salute  you,"  is  the  on  by 
expression  in  the  epistle  which  can  assist  us 


HEB 


442 


HEB 


in  determining  from  whence  it  was  written. 
The  Greek  words  are,  o\  aird  i%  'IraAi'as  which 
should  have  been  translated,  "  Those  from  Italy 
salute  you  ;"  and  the  only  inference  to  be  drawn 
from  them  seems  to  be,  that  St.  Paul,  when  he 
wrote  this  epistle,  was  at  a  place  where  some 
Italian  converts  were.  This  inference  is  not 
incompatible  with  the  common  opinion,  that 
this  epistle  was  written  from  Rome,  and  there- 
fore we  consider  it  as  written  from  that  .city. 
It  is  supposed  to  have  been  written  toward  the 
end  of  St.  Paul's  first  imprisonment  at  Rome, 
or  immediately  after  it,  because  the  Apostle 
expresses  an  intention  of  visiting  the  Hebrews 
shortly :  we  therefore  place  the  date  of  this 
epistle  in  the  year  63. 

4.  Clement,  of  Alexandria,  Eusebius,  and 
Jerom,  thought  that  this  epistle  was  originally 
written  in  the  Hebrew  language ;  but  all  the 
other  ancient  fathers  who  have  mentioned  this 
subject  speak  of  the  Greek  as  the  original 
work  ;  and  as  no  one  pretends  to  have  seen 
this  epistle  in  Hebrew,  as  there  are  no  internal 
marks  of  the  Greek  being  a  translation,  and  as 
we  know  that  the  Greek  language  was  at  this 
time  very  generally  understood  at  Jerusalem, 
we  may  accede  to  the  more  common  opinion, 
both  among  the  ancients  and  moderns,  and 
consider  the  present  Greek  as  the  original  text. 
It  is  no  small  satisfaction  to  reflect,  that  those 
who  have  denied  cither  the  genuineness  or  the 
originality  of  this  epistle  ha?e  always  supposed 
it  to  have  been  written  or  translated  by  some 
fellow  labourer  or  assistant  of  St.  Paul,  and 
that  almost  every  one  admits  that  it  carries 
with  it  the  sanction  and  authority  of  the  in- 
spired Apostle. 

5.  There  has  been  some  little  doubt  concern- 
ing the  persons  to  whom  this  epistle  was  ad- 
dressed ;  but  by  far  the  most  general  and  most 
probable  opinion  is,  that  it  was  written  to  those 
Christians  of  Judea  who  had  been  converted 
to  the  Gospel  from  Judaism.  That  it  was 
written,  notwithstanding  its  general  title,  to 
the  Christians  of  one  certain  place  or  country, 
is  evident  from  the  following  passages:  "I 
beseech  you  the  rather  to  do  this,  that  I  may 
be  restored  to  you  the  sooner,"  Heb.  xiii,  19. 
"  Know  ye  that  our  brother  Timothy  is  set  at 
liberty,  with  whom,  if  he  come  shortly,  I  will 
see  you,"  Heb.  xiii,  23.  And  it  appears  from 
the  following  passage  in  the  Acts,  "When  the 
number  of  the  disciples  was  multiplied,  there 
arose  a  murmuring  of  the  Grecians  against  the 
Hebrews,"  Acts  vi,  1,  that  certain  persons 
were  at  this  time  known  at  Jerusalem  by  the 
name  of  Hebrews.  They  seem  to  have  been 
native  Jews,  inhabitants  of  Judea,  the  language 
of  which  country  was  Hebrew,  and  therefore 
they  were  called  Hebrews,  in  contradistinction 
to  those  Jews  who,  residing  commonly  in  other 
countries,  although  they  occasionally  came  to 
Jerusalem,  used  the  Greek  language,  and  were 
therefore  called  Grecians. 

6.  The  general  design  of  this  epistle  was  to 
confirm  the  Jewish  Christians  in  the  faith  and 
practice  of  the  Gospel,  which  they  might  be 
m  danger  of  deserting,  either  through  the  per- 
suasion or  persecution  of  the  unbelieving  Jews, 


who  were  very  numerous  and  powerful  in 
Judea.  We  may  naturally  suppose,  that  the 
zealous  adherents  to  the  law  would  insist  upon 
the  majesty  and  glory  which  attended  its  first 
promulgation,  upon  the  distinguished  charac- 
ter of  their  legislator,  Moses,  and  upon  the 
divine  authority  of  the  ancient  Scriptures ; 
and  they  might  likewise  urge  the  humiliation 
and  death  of  Christ  as  an  argument  against  the 
truth  of  his  religion.  To  obviate  the  impres- 
sion which  any  reasoning  of  this  sort  might 
make  upon  the  converts  to  Christianity,  the 
writer  of  this  epistle  begins  with  declaring  to 
the  Hebrews,  that  the  same  God  who  had  for. 
merly,  upon  a  variety  of  occasions,  spoken  to 
their  fathers  by  means  of  his  prophets,  had 
now  sent  his  only  Son  for  the  purpose  of  re- 
vealing his  will ;  he  then  describes,  in  most 
sublime  language,  the  dignity  of  the  person  of 
Christ,  Heb.  i ;  and  thence  infers  the  duty  of 
obeying  his  commands,  the  divine  authority  of 
which  was  established  by  the  performance  of 
miracles,  and  by  the  gifts  of  the  Holy  Chost ; 
he  points  out  the  necessity  of  Christ's  incarna- 
tion and  passion,  Heb.  ii ;  he  shows  the  supe- 
riority of  Christ  to  Moses,  and  warns  the 
Hebrews  against  the  sin  of  unbelief,  Heb.  iii ; 
he  exhorts  to  steadfastness  in  the  profession 
of  the  Gospel,  and  gives  an  animated  descrip- 
tion of  Christ  as  our  high  priest,  Heb.  iv-vii ; 
he  shows  that  the  Levitical  priesthood  and  the 
old  covenant  were  abolished  by  the  priesthood 
of  Christ,  and  by  the  new  covenant,  Heb.  viii ; 
he  points  out  the  efficacy  of  the  ceremonies  and 
sacrifices  of  the  law,  and  the  sufficiency  of  the 
atonement  made  by  the  sacrifice  of  Christ,  Heb. 
ix,  x ;  he  fully  explains  the  nature,  merit,  and 
effects  of  faith,  Heb.  xi ;  and  in  the  last  two 
chapters  he  gives  a  variety  of  exhortations  and 
admonitions,  all  calculated  to  encourage  the 
Hebrews  to  bear  with  patience  and  constancy 
any  trials  to  which  they  might  be  exposed. 
He  concludes  with  the  valedictory  benediction 
usual  in  St.  Paul's  Epistles :  "  Grace  be  with 
you  all.  Amen."  The  most  important  articles 
of  our  faith  are  explained,  and  the  most  mate- 
rial objections  to  the  Gospel  are  answered  with 
great  force,  in  this  celebrated  epistle.  The 
arguments  used  in  it,  as  being  addressed  to 
persons  who  had  been  educated  in  the  Jewish 
religion,  are  principally  taken  from  the  ancient 
Scriptures  ;  and  the  connection  between  former 
revelations  and  the  Gospel  of  Christ,  is  pointed 
out  in  the  most  perspicuous  and  satisfactory 
manner. 

7.  In  addition,  it  may  be  observed,  that  Mr. 
Stuart,  an  American  critic,  has  published  an 
ample  investigation  of  several  of  the  points 
referred  to  in  the  above  remarks,  and  the  fol- 
lowing are  the  results: — 

(1.)  As  to  the  place  in  which  the  persons 
lived  to  whom  the  epistle  is  addressed,  I  have 
now  examined  all  the  objections  against  the 
opinion,  that  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  was 
directed  to  Palestine,  which  I  have  met  with, 
and  which  seem  to  be  of  sufficient  magnitude 
to  deserve  attention.  I  am  unable  to  perceive 
that  they  are  very  weighty ;  and  surely  they 
come  quite  short  of  being  conclusive.    On  the 


IIEB 


443 


IIEB 


other  hand,  the  positive  proof,  I  acknowledge, 
is  only  of  a  circumstantial  nature,  and  falls 
short  of  the  weight  which  direct  and  unequivo- 
cal testimony  in  the  epistle  itself  would  pos- 
sess. But  uniting  the  whole  of  it  together ; 
considering  the  intimate  knowledge  of  Jewish 
rites,  the  strong  attachment  to  their  ritual,  and 
the  special  danger  of  defection,  from  Chris- 
tianity in  consequence  of  it,  which  the  whole 
texture  of  the  epistle  necessarily  supposes,  and 
combining  these  things  with  the  other  circum- 
stances above  discussed,  I  cannot  resist  the 
impression,  that  the  universal  opinion  of  the 
ancient  church  respecting  the  persons  to  whom 
this  epistle  was  addressed,  was  well  founded, 
being  built  upon  early  tradition  and  the  con- 
tents of  the  epistle ;  and  that  the  doubts  and 
difficulties  thrown  in  the  way  by  modern  and 
recent  critics,  are  not  of  sufficient  importance 
to  justify  us  in  relinquishing  the  belief  that 
Palestine  Christians  were  addressed  by  the 
epistle  to  the  Hebrews.  Thousands  of  facts, 
pertaining  to  criticism  and  to  history,  are  be- 
lieved and  treated  as  realities,  which  have  less 
support  than  the  opinion  that  has  now  been 
examined. 

(2.)  As  to  the  author,  we  now  come  to  the 
result  of  this  investigation.  In  the  Egyptian 
and  eastern  churches,  there  were,  it  is  proba- 
ble,  at  a  pretty  early  period,  some  who  had 
doubts  whether  St.  Paul  wrote  the  Epistle  to 
the  Hebrews ;  but  no  considerable  person  or 
party  is  definitely  known  to  us,  who  enter- 
tained these  doubts ;  and  it  is  manifest,  from 
Origen  and  Eusebius,  that  there  was  not,  in 
that  quarter,  any  important  opposition  to  the 
general  and  constant  tradition  of  the  church, 
that  Paul  did  write  it.  Not  a  single  witness 
of  any  considerable  respectability  is  named, 
who  has  given  his  voice,  in  this  part  of  the 
church,  for  the  negative  of  the  question  which 
we  are  considering.  What  Jerom  avers,  ap- 
pears to  be  strictly  true,  namely,  Ah  ecclesiis 
orientis  et  ah  omnibus  retru  ecclesiasticis  Graci 
sermonis  scriptorihus,  quasi  Apostoli  Pauli 
suscipi.  In  the  western  churches  a  diversity 
of  opinion  prevailed ;  although  the  actual  quan- 
tity of  negative  testimony,  that  can  be  adduced, 
is  not  great.  Yet  the  concessions  of  Jerom 
and  Augustine  leave  no  room  to  doubt  the  fact, 
that  the  predominant  opinion  of  the  western 
churches,  in  their  times,  was  in  the  negative. 
In  early  times,  we  have  seen  that  the  case  was 
different,  when  Clement  of  Rome  wrote  his 
epistle,  and  when  the  old  Latin  version  was 
brought  into  circulation.  What  produced  a 
change  of  opinion  in  the  west,  we  are  left  to 
conjecture.  The  scanty  critical  and  literary 
records  of  those  times  afford  us  no  means  for 
tracing  the  history  of  it.  But  this  is  far  from 
being  a  singular  case.  Many  other  changes 
in  the  opinions  of  the  churches  have  taken 
place,  which  we  are,  for  a  similar  reason,  as 
little  able  to  trace  with  any  certainty  or  satis- 
faction. Storr  has  endeavoured  to  show,  that 
Marcion  occasioned  this  revolution,  when  he 
came  from  the  east  to  Rome,  and  brought  with 
him  a  collection  of  the  sacred  books,  in  which 
the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  was  omitted.    But 


it  is  very  improbable,  that  an  extravagant  man, 
excommunicated  by  the  Raman  church  itself, 
should  have  produced  such  a  revolution  there 
in  sentiment.  Others  have  with  more  proba- 
bility, attributed  it  to  the  zealous  disputes  at 
Rome  against  the  Montanist  party,  whom  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  was  supposed  particu- 
larly to  favour.  The  Montanists  strenuously 
opposed  the  reception  again  into  the  bosom  of 
the  church  of  those  persons  who  had  so  lapsed 
as  to  make  defection  from  the  Christian  faith. 
The  passages  in  Heb.  vi,  4-8,  and  x,  26-31,  at 
least  seem  strongly  to  favour  the  views  which 
they  maintained.  The  church  at  Rome  car- 
ried the  dispute  against  the  Montanists  very 
high ;  and  Ernesti  and  many  other  critics  have 
been  led  to  believe,  that  the  Epistle  to  the  He- 
brews was  ultimately  rejected  by  them,  because 
the  Montanists  relied  on  it  as  their  main  sup- 
port. As  a  matter  of  fact,  this  cannot  be 
established  by  direct  historical  evidence.  But, 
in  the  absence  of  all  testimony  in  respect  to 
this  subject,  it  must  be  allowed  as  not  improba- 
ble, that  the  Epjstle  to  the  Hebrews  may  have, 
in  this  way,  become  obnoxious  to  the  Roman 
church.  Many  such  instances  might  be  pro- 
duced from  the  history  of  the  church.  The 
Ebionites,  the  Manicheans,  the  Alogi,  and 
many  ancient  and  modern  sects,  have  rejected 
some  part  of  the  canon  of  Scripture,  because 
it  stood  opposed  to  their  party  views.  The 
Apocalypse  was  rejected  by  many  of  the  ori- 
ental churches,  on  account  of  their  opposition 
to  the  Chiliasts,  who  made  so  much  use  of  it. 
And  who  does  not  know,  that  Luther  hhnselt 
rejected  the  Epistle  of  James,  because  he 
viewed  it  as  thwarting  his  favourite  notions 
of  justification  ;  yea,  that  he  went  so  far  as  to 
give  it  the  appellation  of  epistola  straminea  ? 
[an  epistle  of  straw.]  It  cannot  be  at  all  strange, 
then,  that  the  Romish  church,  exceedingly  ini- 
bittered  by  the  dispute  with  the  Montanists, 
should  have  gradually  come  to  call  in  question 
the  apostolic  origin  of  the  epistle  ;  because  it 
was  to  their  adversaries  a  favourite  sourer  of 
appeal,  and  because,  unlike  St.  Paul's  other 
epistles,  it  was  anonymou*  That  all,  even  of 
the  Montanists,  however,  admitted  the  apos- 
tolic origin  of  our  epistle,  does  not  seem  to  be 
true.  Tertullian,  who  took  a  very  active  part 
in  favour  of  this  sect,  had,  as  we  have  already 
seen,  doubts  of  such  an  origin,  or  rather,  he 
ascribed  it  to  Barnabas.  But  whatever  might 
have  been  the  cause  that  the  epistle  in  question 
was  pretty  generally  rejected  ly  the  churches 
of  the  west,  the  fact  that  it  vas  so  cannot  be 
reasonably  disputed.  A  majority  of  these 
churches,  from  the  latter  half  of  the  second 
century  to  the  latter  half  oi*  the  fourth,  srom 
to  have  been  generally  opposed  to  receiving 
this  epistle  as  St.  Paul's ;  although  there  were 
some  among  them  who  did  receive  it.  It  re- 
mains, then,  to  balance  the  testimony  thus 
collected  together  and  compared.  The  early 
testimony  is,  of  course,  immeasurably  the  most 
important.  And  there  seems  to  me  sufficient 
evidence,  that  this  was  as  general  and  as  uni- 
form for  the  first  century  after  the  apostolic 
age  as  in  respect  to  many  other  books  of  the 


HEB 


444 


HEB 


New  Testament ;  and  more  so,  than  in  respect 
to  several.  I  cannot  hesitate  to  believe,  that 
the  weight  of  evidence  from  tradition  is  alto- 
gether preponderant  in  favour  of  the  opinion, 
that  St.  Paul  was  the  author  of  our  epistle. 

(3.)  As  to  the  language  in  which  the  epistle 
was  originally  written,  there  has  been  a  dif- 
ference of  opinion  among  critics,  both  in  an- 
cient and  modern  times.  Clement  of  Alexan- 
dria says  that  St.  Paul  wrote  to  the  Hebrews 
in  the  Hebrew  language,  and  that  St.  Luke 
carefully  translated  it  into  Greek.  Eusebius 
in  the  same  manner  says,  that  Paul  wrote 
to  the  Hebrews  in  his  vernacular  language, 
and  that,  according  to  report,  eitlier  Luke  or 
Clement  translated  it.  So  Jerom,  also,  scrip- 
serat  ut  Hebraus  Hcbrtris  Hebraice ;  [as  a 
Hebrew  he  had  written  to  the  Hebrews  in  He- 
brew ;]  and  then  he  adds  that  this  epistle  was 
translated  into  Greek,  so  that  the  colouring 
of  the  style  was  made  diverse,  in  this  way, 
from  that  of  St.  Paul's.  Of  the  same  opinion, 
in  respect  to  this,  was  Clement,  of  Alexandria  ; 
and  Origen,  as  we  have  seen  above,  supposes 
that  the  thoughts  contained  in  the  epistle  were 
St.  Paul's,  while  the  diction  or  costume  of  it 
must  be  attributed  to  the  person  who  wrote 
down  the  sentiments  of  the  Apostle.  By  the 
Hebrew  language,  no  one  can  reasonably  doubt, 
that  these  fathers  meant  the  Jerusalem  dialect, 
which  was  spoken  in  the  days  of  the  Apostles, 
and  not  the  ancient  Hebrew,  which  had  long 
ceased  to  be  a  vernacular  language.  It  is 
quite  plain  also,  that  these  fathers  were  led  to 
the  conclusion,  that  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
was  originally  written  in  the  dialect  of  Pales- 
tine, from  their  belief,  so  universal  in  ancient 
times,  of  its  having  been  addressed  to  some 
church,  or  to  the  churches,  in  that  country. 
It  was  very  natural  to  draw  such  a  conclusion  ; 
for  would  not  an  epistle  addressed  to  Hebrews 
in  all  probability  be  more  acceptable,  if  written 
in  their  own  vernacular  language  ?  Moreover, 
St.  Paul  was  well  acquainted  with  that  lan- 
guage, for  he  was  brought  up  at  Jerusalem, 
and  "  at  the  feet  of  Gamaliel ;"  and  when  he 
had  visited  that  cHy,  he  had  addressed  the 
Jewish  multitude,  who  were  excited  against 
him,  in  tlieir  native  tongue,  Acts  xxii,  1,  2. 
Why  should  it  not  be  supposed,  that  if,  as  is 
probable,  tins  epistle  was  originally  directed  to 
Palestine,  it  vas  written  in  the  dialect  of  that 
country  ?  So  the  fathers  above  quoted  evidently 
thought  and  reasoned  ;  although  other  fathers 
have  said  nothing  on  this  point,  and  do  not 
appear  to  have  coincided  in  opinion  with  those 
to  whom  I  have  just  referred.  Among  the 
moderns,  also,  several  critics  have  undertaken 
to  defend  the  same  opinion  ;  and  particularly 
Michaelis,  who  has  discussed  the  subject  quite 
at  length,  in  his  introduction  to  this  epistle. 
I  do  not  think  it  necessary  minutely  to  examine 
his  arguments.  To  my  own  mind  they  appear 
altogether  unsatisfactory.  Some  of  them  are 
built  on  an  exegesis  most  palpably  erroneous, 
and  which,  if  admitted,  would  deduce  a  very 
strange  meaning  from  the  words  of  the  epistle. 
Yet,  assuming  such  a  meaning,  he  thence  con- 
cludes,  that   the   original   writer   must   have 


expressed  a  different  idea,  and  that  the  trans. 
factor  mistook  his  meaning.  He  then  under- 
takes  to  conjecture  what  the  original  Hebrew 
must  have  been.  In  other  cases,  he  deduces 
his  arguments  from  considerations  wholly  d 
priori ;  as  if  these  were  admissible  in  a  question 
of  mere  fact.  He  has  not  adduced  a  single 
instance  of  what  he  calls  wrong  translation, 
which  wears  the  appearance  of  any  considera- 
ble probability.  On  the  other  hand,  Bolton,  a 
sharp-sighted  critic,  and  well  acquainted  with 
the  Aramean  language,  who  has  gone  through 
with  the  New  Testament,  and  found  almost, 
every  where  marks,  as  he  thinks,  of  translation 
from  Aramean  documents,  confesses,  that,  in 
respect  to  this  epistle,  he  finds  not  a  single 
vestige  of  incorrect  translation  from  an  Ara- 
mean original,  and  no  marks  that  there  ever 
was  such  an  original.  This  testimony  is  of 
considerable  importance  in  respect  to  the  ques- 
tion before  us,  as  it  comes  from  a  critic  who 
spent  many  years  on  the  study  of  that  which 
is  most  intimately  connected  with  the  very 
subject  under  consideration,  namely,  the  detec- 
tion of  the  Aramean  originals  of  the  various 
parts  of  the  New  Testament. 

(4.)  The  principal  arguments  in  favour  of  a 
Hebrew  original  are  deduced  from  two  sources  : 
That  Hebrews  are  addressed  in  our  epistle,  to 
whom  the  Hebrew  language  would  have  been 
more  acceptable  and  intelligible,  and  many  of 
whom,  indeed,  could  not  understand  Greek,  cer- 
tainly could  not  read  it :  That  the  diversity  of 
style  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  is  so  great, 
when  compared  with  that  of  St.  Paul's  epistles, 
that,  unless  we  suppose  the  Greek  costume  did 
in  fact  come  from  another  hand,  we  must  be  led 
to  the  conclusion  that  St.  Paul  did  not  write  it. 
Both  of  these  topics  have  been  already  discussed . 
I  merely  add  here,  therefore,  that  in  case  the 
writer  of  the  epistle  designed  it  should  have  a 
wide  circulation  among  the  Jews,  to  write  in 
Greek  was  altogether  the  most  feasible  method 
of  accomplishing  this.  Beside,  if  St.  Paul  did 
address  it  to  the  church  at  Caesarea,  it  is  alto- 
gether probable  that  he  wrote  in  Greek,  as  Greek 
was  the  principal  language  of  that  city.  Even  if 
he  did  not,  it  was  not  necessary  that  he  should 
write  in  Hebrew ;  for  in  every  considerable 
place  in  Palestine,  there  were  more  or  less  who 
understood  the  Greek  language.  Whoever 
wishes  to  see  this  last  position  established  be- 
yond any  reasonable  doubt,  may  read  Hug's 
"  Introduction  to  the  New  Testament,"  vol.  ii, 
pp.  32-50.  When  St.  Paul  wrote  to  the  Ro- 
mans, he  did  not  write  in  Latin  ;  yet  there  was 
no  difficulty  in  making  his  epistle  understood, 
for  the  knowledge  of  Greek  was  very  common 
in  Rome.  If  St.  Paul  understood  the  Latin 
language,  which  is  no  where  affirmed,  and  he 
had  not  resided  when  he  wrote  this  epistle,  in 
any  of  the  countries  where  it  was  commonly 
used,  still  he  understood  Greek  so  much  better 
that  he  would  of  course  prefer  writing  in  it. 
For  a  similar  reason,  if  no  other  could  be  given, 
one  may  regard  it  as  more  probable,  that  he 
would  write  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  in  the 
Greek  language.  At  the  time  of  writing  it,  he 
had  been  abroad  twenty-nvc  years  at  least,  in 


HEB 


445 


HEL 


Greek  countries,  and  had  been  in  Palestine, 
during  all  that  period,  only  a  few  days.  The 
Jews  abroad,  whom  he  every  where  saw,  spoke 
Greek,  not  Hebrew.  In  Greek  he  preached 
and  conversed.  Is  it  any  wonder,  then,  that, 
after  twenty-five  years'  incessant  labour  or 
preaching,  conversing,  and  writing,  in  this  lan- 
guage, he  should  have  preferred  writing  in  it  ? 
Indeed,  can  it  be  probable,  that,  under  circum- 
stances  like  these,  he  still  possessed  an  equal 
facility  of  writing  in  his  native  dialect  of  Pa- 
lestine ?  I  cannot  think  it  strange,  therefore, 
that  although  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  was 
in  all  probability  directed  to  some  part  of 
Palestine,  yet  it  was  written  by  St.  Paul  in 
Greek,  and  not  in  Hebrew.  But,  whatever 
may  be  the  estimation  put  upon  arguments  of 
this  nature,  there  are  internal  marks  of  its 
having  been  originally  composed  in  Greek, 
which  cannot  well  be  overlooked. 

HEBRON,  one  of  the  most  ancient  cities  in 
the  world ;  for  it  was  built  seven  years  before 
Zoan,  the  capital  of  Lower  Egypt,  Numbers 
xiii,  22.  Now,  as  the  Egyptians  gloried  much 
in  the  antiquity  of  their  cities,  and  their  coun- 
try was  indeed  one  of  the  first  that  was  peo- 
pled after  the  dispersion  of  Babel,  it  may  be 
from  hence  concluded  that  it  was  one  of  the 
most  ancient.  Some  think  it  was  founded  by 
Arba,  one  of  the  oldest  giants  in  Palestine  ;  for 
which  reason  it  was  called  Kirjath-arba,  or 
Arba's  city,  Joshua  xiv,  15 ;  which  name  was 
afterward  changed  to  that  of  Hebron,  Joshua 
xv,  13.  Arba  was  the  father  of  Anak  ;  and 
from  Anak  the  giants,  called  Anakim,  took 
their  name,  who  were  still  dwelling  at  Hebron 
when  Joshua  conquered  the  land  of  Canaan. 
When  it  was  first  called  Hebron,  is  uncertain  ; 
some  think,  not  till  it  was  conquered  by  Caleb, 
and  that  he  called  it  so  from  his  son  of  that 
name.  But  Calmet  is  of  opinion  that  the  name 
of  Hebron  is  more  ancient ;  and  that  Caleb,  to 
do  honour  to  his  son,  named  him  after  this 
ancient  ana  celebrated  place.  Hebron  was 
situated  upon  an  eminence,  twenty  miles  south- 
ward from  Jerusalem,  and  twenty  miles  north 
from  Beersheba.  Abraham,  Sarah,  and  Isaac 
were  buried  near  Hebron,  in  the  cave  of 
Machpelah,  or  the  double  cave,  which  Abra- 
ham bought  of  Ephron,  Genesis  xxiii,  7-9. 
Hebron  was  the  allotment  of  Judah.  The 
Lord  assigned  it  for  the  inheritance  of  Caleb, 
Joshua  xiv,  13  ;  x,  3,  23,  37.  Joshua  first  took 
Hebron,  and  killed  the  king,  whose  name  was 
Hoham.  But  afterward  Caleb  again  made  a, 
conquest  of  it,  assisted  by  the  troops  of  his 
tribe,  and  the  valour  of  Othniel,  Judges  i,  12, 13. 
It  was  appointed  to  be  a  dwelling  for  priests, 
and  declared  to  be  a  city  of  refuge,  Joshua 
xxi,  13.  David,  after  the  death  of  Saul,  fixed 
the  seat  of  his  government  there,  2  Sam.  ii,  2-5. 
At  Hebron,  Absalom  began  his  rebellion, 
2  Sain,  xv,  7,  8,  &c.  During  the  captivity  of 
Babylon,  the  Edomitcs  having  invaded  the 
southern  parts  of  Judea,  made  themselves 
masters  of  Hebron  ;  hence  Joscplius  sometimes 
makes  it  a  part  of  Edom.  Here  Zacharias  and 
Elizabeth  are  believed  to  have  dwelt ;  and  it  is 
suipposed  to  have  been  the  birth  place  of  John 


the  Baptist.  Hebron  is  now  called  El  Hhalil ; 
though  not  a  town  of  large  dimensions,  it  has 
a  considerable  population.  According  to  Ali 
Bey,  it  contains  about  four  hundred  families 
of  Arabs ;  but  he  does  not  notice  either  the 
Jews,  who  are  numerous,  or  the  Turks.  He 
describes  it  as  situated  on  the  slope  of  a 
mountain,  and  having  a  strong  castle.  Provi- 
sions, he  says,  are  abundant,  and  there  is  a 
considerable  number  of  shops.  The  streets 
are  winding,  and  the  houses  unusually  high. 
The  country  is  well  cultivated,  to  a  consider- 
able extent.  Hebron  is  computed  to  be  twenty- 
seven  miles  south-west  of  Jerusalem. 

HEIFER,  a  young  cow,  used  in  sacrifice  at 
the  temple,  Num.  xix,  1-10.  Moses  and  Aaron 
were  instructed  to  deliver  the  divine  command 
to  the  children  of  Israel  that  they  should  pro- 
cure "  a  red  heifer,  without  spot,"  that  is,  one 
that  was  entirely  red,  without  one  spot  of  any 
other  colour ;  "  free  from  blemish,  and  on 
which  the  yoke  had  never  yet  come,"  that  is, 
which  had  never  yet  been  employed  in  plough- 
ing the  ground  or  in  any  other  work ;  for  ac- 
cording to  the  common  sense  of  all  mankind, 
those  animals  which  had  been  made  to  serve 
other  uses,  became  unfit  to  be  offered  to  God, — 
a  sentiment  which  we  find  in  Homer  and  other 
Heathen  writers.  The  animal  was  to  be  de- 
livered to  the  priest,  who  was  to  lead  her  forth 
out  of  the  camp,  and  there  to  slay  her :  the 
priest  was  then  to  take  of  the  blood  with  his 
finger,  and  sprinkle  it  seven  times  before  the 
tabernacle,  and  afterward  to  burn  the  carcass: 
then  to  take  cedar  wood  and  hyssop,  and  scarlet 
wood,  and  cast  them  into  the  flames.  The 
ashes  were  to  be  gathered  up,  and  preserved 
in  a  secure  and  clean  place,  for  the  use  of  the 
congregation,  by  the  sprinkling  of  which  ashes 
in  water,  it  became  a  water  of  separation,  by 
means  of  which  a  typical  or  ceremonial  purifi- 
cation for  sin  was  effected,  Heb.  ix,  13. 

HELIOPOLIS.     See  On. 

HELL.  This  is  a  Saxon  word,  which  is 
derived  from  a  verb  which  signifies  to  hide  or 
conceal.  A  late  eminent  Biblical  critic,  Dr. 
Campbell,  has  investigated  this  subject  with 
his  usual  accuracy ;  and  the  following  is  the 
substance  of  his  remarks.  In  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures  the  word  sheol  frequently  occurs, 
and  uniformly,  he  thinks,  denotes  the  state  of 
the  dead  in  general,  without  regard  to  the 
virtuous  or  vicious  characters  of  the  persons, 
their  happiness  or  misery.  In  translating  that 
word,  the  LXX  have  almost  invariably  used  the 
Greek  term  aiSns,  hades,  which  means  the  re- 
ceptacle of  the  dead,  and  ought  rarely  to  have 
been  translated  hell,  in  the  sense  in  which  we 
now  use  it,  namely,  as  the  place  of  torment. 
To  denote  this  latter  object,  the  New  Testa- 
ment writers  always  make  use  of  the  Greek 
word  yitwa,  which  is  compounded  ®f  two  He- 
brew words,  Gc  Hinnom,  that  is,  "  The  Valley 
of  Hinnom,"  a  place  near  Jerusalem,  in  which 
children  were  cruelly  sacrificed  by  fire  to  Mo- 
loch, the  idol  of  the  Ammonites,  2  Chron. 
xxxiii,  6.  This  place  was  also  called  Tophct, 
2  Kings  xxiii,  10,  alluding,  as  is  supposed,  to 
the  noise  of  drums,  (toph  signifying  a  drum,) 


HEL 


446 


HEL 


there  raised  to  drown  the  cries  of  helpless  in- 
fants.    As  in  process  of  time  this  place  came 
to  be  considered  an   emblem  of  hell,   or  the 
place  of  torment  reserved  for  the  punishment 
of  the  wicked    in   a  future   state,   the   name 
Tophet  came  gradually  to  be  used  in  this  sense, 
and  at  length  to  be  confined  to  it.     In  this 
sense,  also,  the  word  gehenna,  a  synonymous 
term,  is  always  to  be  understood  in  the  New 
Testament,   where    it    occurs   about   a  dozen 
times.     The  confusion  that  has  arisen  on  this 
subject  has  been  occasioned  not  only  by  our 
English  translators  having  rendered  the  He- 
brew  word  shcol  and  the  Greek  word  gehenna 
frequently   by  the   term   hell;  but  the  Greek 
word  hades,  which  occurs  eleven  times  in  the 
New  Testament,  is,  in  every  instance,  except 
one,   translated  by  the   same   English  word, 
which  it  ought  never  to  have  been.     In  the 
following  passages   of  the  Old  Testament  it 
seems,  however,  that  a  future  world   of  wo 
is  expressed  by  sheol :    "  They,"  the  wicked, 
"  spend  their  days  in  wealth,  and  in  a  moment 
go  down  to  shcol,"  Job  xxi,  13.     "  The  wicked 
shall  be  turned  into  sheol,  and  all  the  nations 
that  forget  God,"  Psalm  ix,  17,  18.      "Her 
feet  go  down  to  death,  her  steps  take  hold  on 
sheol,"  Prov.  v,  5.     "  But  he  knoweth  not  that 
the  ghosts  are  there,  and  that  her  guests  are 
in  the  depths  of  sheol,"  Prov.  ix,  18.     "  Thou 
shalt  beat  him  with  a  rod,  and  shalt  deliver  his 
soul  from  sheol,"  Prov.   xxiii,  14.      Thus,  as 
Stuart    observes,    in    his    "  Essay   on   Future 
Punishment,"  while  the   Old  Testament  em- 
ploys shcol,   in   most  cases  to   designate  the 
grave,  the  region  of  the  dead,  the  place  of  de- 
parted spirits,  it  employs  it  also,  in  some  cases, 
to  designate  along  with  this  idea  the  adjunct 
one  of  the  place  of  misery,  place  of  punish- 
ment, region  of  wo.    In  this  respect  it  accords 
fully  with  the  New  Testament  use  of  hades. 
P'or  though  hades  signifies  the  grave,  and  often 
the  invisible  region  of  separate  spirits,  without 
reference  to  their  condition,  yet,  in  Luke  xvi, 
23,  "  In  hades  fa  r$  </"&>/,  he  lifted  up  his  eyes, 
being  in   torments,"  it  is  clearly  used  for  a 
place  and  condition  of  misery.     The  word  hell 
is  also  used  by  our   translators  for  gehenna, 
which  means  the  world  of  future  punishment, 
"  How  shall  ye  escape  the  damnation  of  hell, 
Koiatus  Ti;£  ytivvtii  ?" 

Hell,  Gates  of.  See  Gates. 
HELLENISTS.  On  this  appellation,  Dr. 
Jennings  observes,  There  is  a  very  remarkable 
appellation  which  the  Apostle  Paul,  after  glo- 
rying in  his  being  "of  the  stock  of  Israel,  and 
of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,"  applies  to  himself, 
namely,  that  he  was  "  a  Hebrew  of  the  He- 
brews,"  Phil,  hi,  5.  By  this  expression  Godwin 
understands  a  Hebrew  both  by  father's  and 
mother's  side.  Hut  if  this  be  all  that  the  phrase 
imports,  I  .here  seems  to  be  very  little  occasion  for 
the  Apostle's  using  it  immediately  after  having 
declared,  that  he  was  "of  the  stock  of  Israel, 
.nid  the  tribe  of  Benjamin;"  which,  on  God- 
\\  in's  supposition,  is  the  same  as  a  Hebrew  of 
the  Hebrews;  for  the  Jews  were  not  allowed 
to  marry  out  of  theii  own  nation  ;  or  if  they 
sometimes  married  proselytes,  yet  their  number 


was  comparatively  so  small  among  them,  espe- 
cially  while  they  were  under   oppression,   as 
they  were  at  that  time  by  the  Romans,  that 
methinks  Paul  would  hardly  have  mentioned 
it  as  a  distinguishing  privilege   and  honour, 
that  neither  of  his  parents  were  proselytes.    It 
is  therefore  a  much  more  probable  sense,  that 
a  Hebrew  of  the  Hebrews  signifies  a  Hebrew 
both  by  nation  and  language,  which  multitudes 
of  Abraham's  posterity,  in  those  days,  were 
not ;  or  one  of  the  Hebrew  Jews,  who  perform- 
ed their  public  worship  in  the  Hebrew  tongue  ; 
for  such  were  reckoned  more  honourable  than 
the  Hellenistic  Jews,  who  in  their  dispersion 
having,  in  a  manner,  lost  the  Hebrew,  used 
the  Greek  language   in  sacrrs,  and   read  the 
Scripture  out  of  the  Septuagint  version.     We 
meet  with  this   distinction   among   the    con- 
verted Jews,  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  :  "  In 
those  days,  when  the  number  of  the  disciples 
was  multiplied,  there  arose  a  murmuring  of  the 
Grecians  or  Hellenists  against  the  Hebrews," 
Acts  vi,   1.     This  is  what  St.  Paul  probably 
meant  by  his  being  a  Hebrew,  as  distinguish- 
ed from   an  Israelite  :  "  Are   they   Hebrews  ? 
So  am  I.     Are   they  Israelites  ?    So  am  I," 
2  Corinthians  xi,  22.    In  one  sense,  these  were 
convertible   terms,    both   signifying   Jews   by 
nation   and   religion ;    but   in   the    sense  just 
mentioned,  there  were  many,  in  those  days, 
who  were  Israelites,   but   not  Hebrews.      St. 
Paul  was  both,  not  only  an  Israelite  by  birth, 
but  a   Hebrew,    and  not  a   Hellenistic    Jew. 
Godwin  expresses  himself  inaccurately,  when 
he  says  that  those  who  lived  in  Palestine,  and 
who,  as  using  the  Hebrew  text  in  their  public 
worship,  were  opposed  to   the  'EXX^vis-ai,  are 
called  Hebrews,  or  Jews.     For,  though  He- 
brew  and  Jew   are   convertible  terms,   when 
opposed  to  Gentiles,  as  denoting  the  seed  of 
Abraham,  and  professors  of  the  Mosaic  reli- 
gion, see  Jer.  xxxiv,  9 ;  yet,  as  opposed  to  the 
'EXXr/pi^ai,  they  are  not  convertible  terms,  there 
being  Hebrew  Jews  and  Hellenistic  Jews ;  for 
it  is  said,  that  when  "they,  who  were  scattered 
by  the  persecution  that  arose  about  Stephen, 
travelled  into  several  countries,  preaching  the 
word  to  none  but  Jews  only,"  yet  they  spoke, 
-,. '-  rot?  'E\\r)vis-u$,  to  the  Hellenists  or  Gre- 
cians, Acts  xi,  19,  20.      In  order  to  confirm 
the  sense   which  is   here   given  of  the   word 
'EAAi;i<is-ai,  in  opposition  to  the  appellation  He- 
brews, it  is  proper  we  should  take  notiee  of  the 
distinction  between  the  "EAAi/rts  and  'EAA^i'tcai. 
The  former  were  Greeks  by  nation,  and  ;is  such 
distinguished  from  Jews,  Acts  xvi,  1  :  xix,  10; 
and  the  Greek  empire  having  been  rendered  by 
Alexander  in  a  manner  universal,  and  their 
language  being  then   the    most    common   and 
general,  the  appellation  Greeks  is  sometimes 
given  to  the  whole  1  lent  lien  world,  or  to  all 
who  were  not  Jews,  lloin.  i,  10;  ii,  9.     These 
Greeks,    called    'EAAqvtxoi    by    Josephus,    arc 
always  styled  'EXAijvsj  in  the  New  Testament. 
On  which  account  Grot  ins,  understanding  by 
the  'EXXqvtsTu,  or  "Grecians,  to  whom  some  of 
those  who  were  dispersed   on   the  persecution 
which  arose  about  Stephen,  preached  the  Lord 
Jesus,"  Acts  xi,    19,  20,   Greeks   by  nation. 


HEL 


447 


HEL 


concludes  there  is  a  mistake  in  the  text,  and 
alters  it  according  to  the  Syriac  and  Vulgate 
versions :  "  Certe  legcndum,"  [it  ought  cer- 
tainly to  be  read,]  saith  he,  "  zspo;  tovs  "EAX^kis." 
So  indeed  the  Alexandrian  manuscript  reads, 
but  it  is  supported  by  no  other  copy.  And  this 
is  decisive  against  it — that  from  the  words 
immediately  preceding,  it  is  evident  that  these 
Grecians  were  by  nation  Jews,  and  not  Greeks  ; 
it  being  expressly  said,  that  those  who  were 
scattered  on  the  persecution  "  preached  the 
Gospel  to  the  Jews  only."  As  for  the  "EWrivcs, 
or  Greeks  mentioned  in  St.  John's  Gospel,  as 
being  come  to  Jerusalem  at  the  passover  to 
worship  in  the  temple,  John  xii,  20,  and  like- 
wise those  mentioned  in  the  Acts,  as  worship- 
ping along  with  the  Jews  in  the  synagogues, 
Acts  xiv,  1 ;  xviii,  4 ;  they  wero  doubtless 
Greeks  by  birth  and  nation,  yet  proselytes  to 
the  Jewish  religion.  There  is  a  distinction 
made  between  Jews  and  proselytes,  Acts  ii, 
10  ;  but  none  between  Hebrews  and  proselytes, 
because  a  proselyte  might  be  either  a  Hebrew 
or  a  Hellenist,  according  to  the  language  in 
which  he  performed  public  worship.  That  the 
Hellenists  or  Grecians,  were  Jews,  is  farther 
argued  from  the  account  we  have,  that  when 
at  Jerusalem  St.  Paul  "disputed  against  the 
Grecians,  they  went  about  to  slay  him,"  Acts 
ix,  29,  as  the  Jews  at  Damascus  had  done  be- 
fore, Acts  ix,  23.  Now  had  these  Grecians 
been  strangers  of  a  different  nation,  it  cannot 
be  imagined  they  durst  have  attempted  to  kill 
a  Jew,  among  his  own  countrymen,  in  the 
capital,  and  without  a  formal  accusation  of 
him  before  any  of  their  tribunals.  Upon  the 
whole,  the  'EAAijvis-ai,  or  Grecians  being  Jews 
who  used  the  Greek  tongue  in  their  sacred  ex- 
ercises, the  Hebrew  Jews  and  Grecian  Jews 
were  distinguished  in  those  days,  in  like  man- 
ner as  the  Portuguese  and  Dutch  Jews  are 
among  us,  not  so  much  by  the  place  of  their 
birth,  (many  being  born  in  England,  others 
abroad,)  as  by  the  language  they  use  in  their 
public  prayers  and  sermons. 

Among  the  wonderful  dealings  of  God,  says 
Dr.  Neander,  by  which  the  coming  of  Chris- 
tianity was  prepared,  must  be  placed  the  spread- 
ing of  the  Jews  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 
Those  among  them  who  belonged  to  the  Phari- 
sees gave  themselves  much  trouble  to  obtain 
proselytes ;  and  the  loss  of  respect  for  the  old 
popular  religion,  and  the  unsatisfied  religious 
wants  of  multitudes,  farthered  their  views. 
Reverence  for  the  national  God  of  the  Jews, 
as  a  mighty  Being,  and  reverence  for  the  secret 
sanctuary  of  the  splendid  temple  of  Jerusalem, 
had  long  gained  admittance  among  the  Hea- 
then. Jewish  goetae  (enchanters,  jugglers,  &c) 
permitted  themselves  to  make  use  of  a  thou- 
sand acts  of  delusion,  in  which  they  wero  very 
skilful,  to  make  an  impression  of  astonishment 
on  the  minds  of  those  around  them.  Confi- 
dence in  Judaism  had  in  consequence  made 
such  wide  progress,  especially  in  large  capital 
towns,  that  the  Roman  writers  in  the  time  of 
the  first  emperors  openly  complain  of  it ;  and 
Seneca,  in  his  book  upon  superstition,  said  of 
Ihe  Jews,  "  Tho  conquered  havo  given  laws  to 


the  conquerors."  The  Jewish  proselyte-ma- 
kers, "  blind  leaders  of  the  blind,"  who  had 
themselves  no  conception  of  the  real  nature 
of  religion,  could  give  to  others  no  insight  into 
it.  They  often  allowed  their  converts  to  take 
up  a  kind  of  dead  monotheism,  and  merely  ex- 
change one  kind  of  superstition  for  another ; 
they  taught  them,  that,  by  the  mere  outward 
worship  of  one  God,  and  outward  ceremonials, 
they  were  sure  of  the  grace  of  God,  without 
requiring  any  change  of  life  ;  and  they  gave  to 
them  only  new  means  of  silencing  their  con- 
science, and  new  support  in  the  sins  which 
they  were  unwilling  to  renounce :  and  hence 
our  Saviour  reproached  these  proselyte-makers, 
that  they  made  their  converts  ten  times  more 
the  children  of  hell,  than  they  themselves  were. 
But  we  must  here  accurately  distinguish  be- 
tween the  two  classes  of  proselytes.  The 
proselytes  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word,  the 
proselytes  of  righteousness,  who  underwent 
circumcision  and  took  upon  themselves  the 
whole  of  the  ceremonial  law,  were  very  dif- 
ferent from  the  proselytes  of  the  gate,  who 
only  bound  themselves  to  renounce  idolatry,  to 
the  worship  of  the  one  God,  and  to  abstinence 
from  all  Heathenish  excess,  as  well  as  from 
every  thing  which  appeared  to  have  any  con- 
nection with  idolatry.  The  former  often  em- 
braced all  the  fanaticism  and  superstition  of 
the  Jews,  and  allowed  themselves  to  be  blindly 
led  by  their  Jewish  teachers.  The  more  diffi- 
cult it  had  been  to  them  to  subject  themselves 
to  the  observance  of  the  Jewish  ceremonial 
law,  necessarily  so  irksome  to  a  Greek  or  a 
Roman,  the  less  could  they  find  it  in  their 
hearts  to  believe,  that  all  this  had  been  in  vain, 
that  they  had  obtained  no  advantage  by  it,  and 
that  they  must  renounce  their  presumed  holi- 
ness. What  Justin  Martyr  says  to  the  Jews, 
holds  good  of  these  proselytes :  "  The  prose- 
lytes not  only  do  not  believe,  but  they  calum- 
niate the  name  of  Christ  twice  as  much  as  you, 
and  they  wish  to  murder  and  torture  us  who 
believe  on  him,  because  they  are  desirous  to 
resemble  you  in  every  thing."  The  proselytes 
of  the  gate,  on  the  contrary,  had  taken  many 
of  the  most  admirable  truths  out  of  Judaism. 
Without  becoming  entirely  Jews,  they  had 
become  acquainted  with  the  Holy  Scriptures 
of  the  Jews,  they  had  heard  of  the  promised 
messenger  from  God,  of  the  King  armed  with 
power  from  God,  of  whom  a  report  had  been 
spread,  as  Suetonius  says  in  the  life  of  Vespa- 
sian, over  the  whole  of  the  east.  Much  of 
that  which  they  had  heard  from  their  .lewisli 
teachers,  whose  writings  they  had  read,  had 
remained  dark  to  them,  and  they  wore  still  to 
seek  in  them.  By  the  notions  which  they  had 
received  from  the  Jews,  of  one  God,  of  the 
divine  government  of  tho  world,  of  God's  judg- 
ment, and  of  the  Messiah,  they  were  more 
prepared  for  the  Gospel  than  other  Heathens  ; 
and  because  they  still  thought  that  they  had 
too  little,  because  they  had  no  determined 
religious  system,  and  were  curious  after  more 
instruction  in  divine  things,  and  because  they 
had  not  received  many  of  tho  prejudices  which 
swayed  the  Jews,  they  were  more  fitted  to 


HEN 


448 


HER 


receive  the  Gospel  than  many  of  the  Jews. 
From  the  very  beginning  they  must  have  been 
attentive  to  the  preaching  of  the  Gospel,  which 
.secured  to  them,  without  making  them  Jews, 
a  full  share  in  the  fulfilment  of  those  promises 
of  which  the  Jews  had  spoken  to  them.  To 
these  proselytes  of  the  gate,  (tho  ipofiovptvoi  riv 
etuv,  the  ciiacpcii  of  the  New  Testament,)  passed, 
therefore,  according  to  the  Acts,  the  preach- 
ing of  the  Gospel,  when  it  had  been  rejected 
by  the  blinded  Jews ;  and  here  the  seed  of  the 
divine  word  found  a  fitting  soil  in  hearts  desir- 
ous of  holiness.  There  were,  however,  doubt, 
less,  among  the  proselytes  of  the  gate,  some 
who,  wanting  in  proper  earnestness  in  their 
search  after  religious  truth,  only  desired,  in 
every  case,  an  easy  road  to  heaven,  which  did 
not  require  any  self-denial ;  and  who,  in  order 
to  be  sure  of  being  on  the  safe  side,  whether 
power  and  truth  lay  with  the  Jews  or  the  Hea- 
thens, sometimes  worshipped  in  the  synagogue 
of  Jehovah,  sometimes  in  tho  temples  of  the 
gods,  and  who,  therefore,  fluttered  in  suspense 
between  Judaism  and  Heathenism. 

HEMLOCK,  em  and  put,  Deut.  xxix,  18 ; 
xxxii,  32  ;  Psalm  lxix,  21 ;  Jer.  viii,  14 ;  ix,  15 ; 
.xxiii,  15;  Lam.  iii,  5,  19;  Hosea  x,  4;  Amos 
vi,  12.  In  the  two  latter  places  our  translators 
have  rendered  the  word  hemlock  in  the  others, 
gall.  Hiller  supposes  it  the  centaureum,  de- 
scribed by  Pliny;  but  Celsius  shows  it  to  be 
the  hemlock.  It  is  evident,  from  Deut.  xxix, 
18,  that  some  herb  or  plant  is  meant  of  a  ma- 
lignant or  nauseous  kind,  being  there  joined 
with  wormwood,  and  in  the  margin  of  our  Bibles 
explained  to  be  "  a  poisonful  herb."  In  like 
manner  see  Jer.  viii,  14  ;  ix,  15  ;  and  xxiii,  15. 
In  Hosea  x,  4,  the  comparison  is  to  a  bitter  herb, 
which,  growing  among  grain,  overpowers  the 
useful  vegetable,  and  substitutes  a  pernicious 
weed.  "  If,"  says  the  author  of  "Scripture  Illus- 
trated," "  the  comparison  bo  to  a  plant  growing 
in  the  furrows  of  the  field,  strictly  speaking, 
then  we  are  much  restricted  in  our  plants  likely 
to  answer  this  character ;  but  if  we  may  take  the 
ditches  around,  or  the  moist  or  sunken  places 
within  the  field  also,  which  I  partly  suspect, 
then  we  may  include  other  plants;  and  I  do 
not  see  why  hemlock  may  not  be  intended. 
Scheuchzer  inclines  to  this  rather  than  worm- 
wood or  agrostes,  as  the  LXX  have  rendered  it. 
The  prophet  appears  to  mean  a  vegetable  which 
should  appear  wholesome,  and  resemble  those 
known  to  be  salutary,  as  judgment,  when  just, 
properly  is ;  but  experience  would  demonstrate 
ils  malignity,  as  unjust  judgment  is  when  en- 
forced. Hemlock  is  poisonous,  and  water- 
hemlock  especially  ;  yet  either  of  these  may  be 
mistaken,  and  some  of  their  parts,  the  root 
particularly,  may  deceive  but  too  fatally." 

IIKN,  0>m,  2'Esdra*  i,  30;  Matt,  xxiii,  37; 
Lulu  xiii,  34.  In  these  last  two  passages  our 
Saviour  exclaims,  "  O  Jerusalem,  Jerusalem, 
bow  often  would  I  have  gathered  thy  children 
together,  even  as  e  hen  gathcreth  her  chickens 
owlet  her  wings,  and  ye  would  not!"  The 
metaphor  ben  u  ed  is  a  rery  beautiful  one. 
Whrii  the  hen  sees  b  bind  of  prey  coming,  she 
makes  a  noise  to  assemble  her  chickens,  that 


she  may  cover  them  with  her  wings  from  the 
danger.  Tho  Roman  eagle  was  about  to  fall 
upon  the  Jewish  state ;  our  Lord  invited  them 
to  himself  in  order  to  guard  them  from  threat- 
ened calamities :  they  disregarded  his  invita- 
tions and  warnings,  and  fell  a  prey  to  their 
adversaries.  The  affection  of  the  hen  to  her 
brood  is  so  strong  as  to  have  become  prover- 
bial. There  is  a  beautiful  Greek  epigram  in 
the  Anthologia,  which  affords  a  very  fine  illus- 
tration of  the  affection  of  this  bird  in  another 
view.     It  has  been  thus  translated  : — 

"Beneath  her  fostering  wing  the  hen  defends 
Her  darling  offspring,  while  the  snow  descends; 
And  through  the  winter's  day  unmoved  defies 
The  chilling  fleeces  and  inclement  skies; 
Till  vanquished  by  the  cold  and  piercing  blast, 
True  to  her  charge  she  perishes  at  last." 

Plutarch,  in  his  book  De  Philostorgiti,  repre- 
sents this  parental  attachment  and  care  in  a 
very  pleasing  manner  :  "  Do  we  not  daily  ob- 
serve with  what  care  the  hen  protects  her 
chickens  ;  giving  some  shelter  under  her  wings, 
supporting  others  upon  her  back,  calling  them 
around  her,  and  picking  out  their  food  ;  and  if 
any  animal  approaches  that  terrifies  them, 
driving  it  away  with  a  courage  and  strength 
truly  wonderful  ?" 

HENOTICON,  a  decree  or  edict  of  the  Em- 
peror  Zcno,  which  was  dated  at  Constantino- 
ple in  the  year  482,  and  by  which  he  intended 
to  unite  all  the  parties  in  religion  under  one 
faith.  For  this  reason  the  decree  was  called 
henoticon,  which  signifies  "union"  or  "unit- 
ing." It  is  generally  agreed  that  it  was  pub- 
lished by  tho  advice  of  Acacius,  bishop  of 
Constantinople,  who  wished  to  reconcile  the 
contending  parties.  This  decree  repeated  and 
confirmed  all  that  had  been  enacted  in  the 
councils  of  Nice,  Constantinople,  Ephesus, 
and  Chalccdon,  against  the  Arians,  Nestorians, 
and  Eutychians,  without  particularly  mention- 
ing the  council  of  Chalcedon.  The  henoticon 
was  approved  by  all  those  of  the  two  contend- 
ing parties  who  were  remarkable  for  their 
candour  and  moderation;  but  it  was  opposed 
by  the  violent  and  obstinate,  who  complained 
that  it  was  injurious  to  the  honour  and  au- 
thority of  the  most  holy  council  of  Chalcedon. 
Hence  arose  new  contests  and  new  divisions 
not  less  deplorable  than  those  winch  this  de- 
cree was  intended  to  suppress.  The  Catholics 
opposed  it  with  all  their  strength;  and  it  was 
condemned  in  form  by  Pope  F'elix  II. 

HERESY,  hcrresis,  atpcais,  from  alpha,  J 
choose,  signifies  an  error  in  some  essential 
point  of  Christian  faith,  publicly  avowed,  and 
obstinately  maintained;  or,  according  to  the 
legal  definition,  "  Sentcntia  mum  divinarum 
humano  eenau  excogitata,  palqm  dorta,  et  per- 
tinaciter  diffusa."  [An  opinion  of  divine 
things  invented  by  human  reason,  openly 
tangnt,  and  obstinately  defended.]  Among 
the  ancients,  the  word  heresy  appears  to  have 
had  nothing  of  that  odious  signification  which 
lias  been  attached  to  it  by  ecclesiastical  writers 
in  later  times.  It  only  signified  a  peculiar 
opinion,  dogma,  or  beet,  without  conveying 
any  reproach  ;  being  indifferently  used,  either 


HER 


449 


HER 


of  a  party  approved,  or  of  one  disapproved,  by 
the  writer.  In  this  sense  they  spoke  of  the 
heresy  of  the  Stoics,  of  the  Peripatetics,  Epi- 
cureans, &c,  meaning  the  sect  or  peculiar 
system  of  these  philosophers.  In  the  histori- 
cal part  of  the  New  Testament,  the  word 
seems  to  bear  very  nearly  the  same  significa- 
tion, being  employed  indiscriminately  to  denote 
a  sect  or  party,  whether  good  or  bad.  Thus 
we  read  of  the  sect  or  heresy  of  the  Sadducees, 
of  the  Pharisees,  of  the  Nazarencs,  &c.  See 
Acts  v,  17 ;  xv,  5 ;  xxiv,  5 ;  xxvi,  5 ;  xxviii, 
22.  In  the  two  former  of  these  passages,  the 
term  heresy  seems  to  be  adopted  by  the  sacred 
historian  merely  for  the  sake  of  distinction, 
without  the  least  appearance  of  any  intention 
to  convey  either  praise  or  blame.  In  Acts 
xxvi,  4,  5,  St.  Paul,  in  defending  himself  be- 
fore King  Agrippa,  uses  the  same  term,  when 
it  was  manifestly  his  design  to  exalt  the  party 
to  which  he  had  belonged,  and  to  give  their 
system  the  preference  over  every  other  sys- 
tem of  Judaism,  both  with  regard  to  sound- 
ness of  doctrine  and  purity  of  morals. 

2.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  accepta- 
tion of  the  word  atpcats  in  the  epistles  is  dif- 
ferent from  what  it  has  been  observed  to  be  in 
the  historical  books  of  the  New  Testament. 
In  order  to  account  for  this  difference,  it  may 
be  observed  that  the  word  sect  has  always 
something  relative  in  it ;  and  therefore,  al- 
though the  general  import  of  the  term  be  the 
same,  it  will  convey  a  favourable  or  an  unfa- 
vourable idea,  according  to  the  particular 
relation  which  it  bears  in  the  application. 
When  it  is  used  along  with  the  proper  name, 
by  way  of  distinguishing  one  party  from 
another,  it  conveys  neither  praise  nor  re- 
proach. If  any  thing  reprehensible  or  com- 
mendable be  meant,  it  is  suggested,  not  by  the 
word  aipems  itself,  but  by  the  words  with  which 
it  stands  connected  in  construction.  Thus  we 
may  speak  of  a  strict  seot,  or  a  lax  sect ;  or  of 
a  good  sect,  or  a  bad  sect.  Again :  the  term 
may  be  applied  to  a  party  formed  in  a  commu- 
nity, when  considered  in  reference  to  the 
whole.  If  the  community  be  of  such  a  nature 
as  not  to  admit  of  sucli  a  subdivision,  without 
impairing  or  corrupting  its  constitution,  a 
ciiarge  of  splitting  into  sects,  or  forming  par- 
ties, is  equivalent  to  a  charge  of  corruption  in 
that  which  is  most  essential  to  the  existence 
and  welfare  of  the  society.  Hence  arises  the 
whole  difference  in  the  word,  as  it  is  used  in 
the  historical  part  of  the  New  Testament,  and 
in  the  epistles  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul ;  for 
these  are  the  only  Apostles  who  oinploy  it.  In 
the  history,  the  reference  is  always  of  the  first 
kind ;  in  the  epistles,  it  is  always  of  the  second. 
In  these  last,  the  Apostles  address  themselves 
only  to  Christians,  and  either  reprehend  them 
for,  or  warn  them  against,  forming  sects 
among  themselves,  to  the  prejudice  of  charity, 
to  the  production  of  much  mischief  within 
their  community,  and  of  great  scandal  to  the 
unconverted  world  without.  In  both  applica- 
tions, however,  the  radical  import  of  the  word 
is  the  same ;  and  even  in  the  latter  it  has  no 
necessary  reference  to  doctrine,  true  or  false. 
30 


During  the  early  ages  of  Christianity,  the 
term  heresy  gradually  lost  the  innocence  of  its 
original  meaning,  and  came  to  be  applied,  in 
a  reproachful  sense,  to  any  corruption  of  what 
was  considered  as  the  orthodox  creed,  or  even 
to  any  departure  from  the  established  rites  and 
ceremonies  of  the  church. 

3.  The  heresies  chiefly  alluded  to  In  the 
apostolical  epistles  are,  first,  those  of  the  Ju- 
daizers,  or  rigid  adherents  to  the  Mosaic  rites, 
especially  that  of  circumcision  ;  second,  those 
of  converted  Hellenists,  or  Grecian  JewTs,  who 
held  the  Greek  eloquence  and  philosophy  in 
too  high  an  estimation,  and  corrupted,  by  the 
speculations  of  the  latter,  the  simplicity  of  the 
Gospel ;  and  third,  those  who  endeavoured  to 
blend  Christianity  with  a  mixed  philosophy  of 
magic,  demonology,  and  Platonism,  which 
was  then  highly  popular  in  the  world.  With 
respect  to  the  latter,  the  remarks  of  Hug  will 
tend  to  illustrate  some  passages  in  the  writings 
of  St.  Paul : — Without  being  acquainted  with 
the  notions  of  those  teachers  who  caused  the 
Apostle  so  much  anxiety  and  so  much  vexa- 
tion, a  considerable  part  of  these  treatises 
must  necessarily  remain  dark  and  unintelligi- 
ble. From  the  criteria  by  which  the  Apostle 
points  them  out,  at  one  time  some  deemed 
that  they  recognised  the  Gnostics  ;  others  per- 
ceived none  but  the  Essenes ;  and  every  one 
found  arguments  for  his  assertions  from  the 
similarity  of  the  doctrines,  opinions,  and  mo- 
rals. It  would,  however,  be  as  difficult  to 
prove  that  the  Gnostic  school  had  at  that  time 
indeed  perfectly  developed  itself,  as  it  is  unjust 
to  charge  the  Essenes  with  that  extreme  of 
immorality  of  which  St.  Paul  accused  these 
seducers,  since  the  contemporaries  and  ac- 
quaintances of  this  Jewish  sect  mention  them 
with  honour  and  respect,  and  extol  its  mem- 
bers as  the  most  virtuous  men  of  their  age. 
The  similarity  of  the  principles  and  opinions, 
which  will  have  been  observed  in  both  parties 
compared  with  St.  Paul's  declarations,  flows 
from  a  common  source,  from  the  philosophy 
of  that  age,  whence  both  the  one  and  the  other 
have  derived  their  share.  We  shall  therefore 
go  less  astray,  if  we  recede  a  step,  and  con- 
sider the  philosophy  itself,  as  the  general 
modeller  of  these  derivative  theories.  It 
found  its  followers  among  Judaism  as  well  as 
among  the  Heathens ;  it  botli  introduced  its 
speculative  preparations  into  Christianity,  and 
endeavoured  to  unite  them  or  to  adjust  them 
to  it,  as  well  as  they  were  able,  by  which 
means  Christianity  would  have  bceome  de- 
formed and  unlike  to  itself,  and  would  have 
been  merged  in  the  ocean  of  philosophical 
reveries,  unless  the  Apostles  had  on  this  oc- 
casion defended  it  against  the  follies  of  men. 
An  oriental,  or,  as  it  is  commonly  called,  a 
Babylonian  or  Chaldean,  doctrinal  system  had 
ahead}'  long  become  known  to  the  Greeks, 
and  oven  to  the  Romans,  before  Augustus, 
and  still  more  so  in  the  Augustan  age,  and 
was  in  the  full  progress  of  its  extension  over 
Asia,  and  Europe.  It  set  up  different  deities 
and  intermediate  spirits  in  explanation  of  cer- 
tain   phenomena    of  nature,    for  the  office  of 


HER 


450 


HER 


governing  the  world,  and  for  the  solution  of 
other  metaphysical  questions,  which  from  time 
immemorial  were  reckoned  among  the  difficult 
propositions  of  philosophy.  The  practical 
part  of  this  system  was  occupied  with  the  pre- 
cepts by  means  of  which  a  person  might  enter 
into  communication  with  these  spirits  or 
demons.  But  the  result  which  they  promised 
to  themselves  from  this  union  with  the  divine 
natures,  was  that  of  acquiring;  by  their  as- 
sistance, superhuman  knowledge,  that  of  pre- 
dicting future  events,  and  of  performing 
supernatural  works.  These  philosophers  were 
celebrated  under  the  name  of  magi  and  Chal- 
deans ;  who,  for  the  sake  of  better  accommo- 
dating themselves  to  the  western  nations, 
modified  their  system  after  the  Greek  forms, 
and  then,  as  it  appears,  knew  how  to  unite  it 
with  the  doctrine  of  Plato,  from  whence  after- 
ward arose  the  Neo-Platonic  and  in  Christen- 
dom the  Gnostical  school.  These  men  forced 
their  way  even  to  the  throne.  Tiberius  had 
received  instruction  in  their  philosophy,  and 
was  very  confident  that  by  means  of  an  intel- 
ligence with  the  demons,  it  was  possible  to 
learn  and  perforin  extraordinary  things.  Nero 
caused  a  great  number  of  them  to  be  brought 
over  from  Asia,  not  unfrcquently  at  the  ex- 
penso  of  the  provinces.  Tho  supernatural 
spirits  would  not  always  appear,  yet  he  did 
not  discard  his  belief  of  them.  The  magi  and 
Chaldeans  were  the  persons  who  were  con- 
sulted on  great  undertakings,  who,  when 
conspiracies  arose,  predicted  tho  issue ;  who 
invoked  spirits,  prepared  offerings,  and  in  love 
affairs  were  obliged  to  afford  aid  from  their 
art.  Even  the  force  of  the  laws,  to  which 
recourse  was  frequently  necessary  to  be  had 
at  Rome,  tended  to  nothing  but  the  augment- 
ation of  their  authority.  As  they  found  ac- 
cess and  favour  with  people  of  all  classes  in 
the  capital,  so  did  they  also  in  the  provinces. 
Paul  found  a  magus  at  the  court  of  the  pro- 
consul at  Paphos,  Acts  xiii,  6.  Such  was  that 
Simon  in  Samaria,  Acts  viii,  10,  who  was 
there  considered  as  a  higher  being  of  the 
spiritual  class.  The  expression  is  remarkable, 
as  it  is  a  part  of  the  technical  language  of  the 
Thcurgists ;  they  called  him  <iin«//<j  roS  Qcov 
ncya\>i,  "  The  great  power  of  God."  So  also 
Pliny  calls  some  of  the  demons  and  interme- 
diate spirits,  by  whose  cooperation  particular 
results  were  effected,  potestates.  [Powers. J 
Justin  Martyr,  the  fellow  countryman  of  Si- 
mon, has  preserved  to  us  some  technical 
expressions  of  his  followers.  He  says  that 
they  ascribed  to  him  the  high  title  bxtpdva 
~daij(  apx'iSi  K"i  tjoocrioj,  Knl  6vvd^eo);.  [Far  above 
all  principality,  and  power,  and  might,]  Of 
these  classes  of  spirits,  which  appear  under 
such  different  appellations,  the  superior  were 
those  who  ruled;  hut  I  he  inferior,  who  had 
more  of  a  material  substance,  and  who,  on 
thai  account,  were  able  to  connect  themselves 
Immediately  with  matter,  were  those  who 
executed  the  commands  of  the -superior.  By 
an  intelligence  wiih  the  superior  spirits  a  per. 
son  might  have  the  Bupaltern  at  his  service 
and  assistance  ;  for  the  more  powerful  demons 


thus  commanded  the  inferior  to  execute  cer- 
tain commissions  in  the  material  world :  '2> 
t<3  <ip%uvTi  tuiv  Satjuliviwv,  "By  the  prince  of  the 
devils,"  Matt,  xii,  24. 

4.  The  Syrian  philosopher,  Jamblichus,  of 
Chalcis,  has  furnished  us  with  a  circumstantial 
representation  of  this  system  and  its  several 
varieties,  in  his  book  on  the  mysteries  of  the 
Chaldeans  and  Egyptians : — The  nature  of 
the  gods  is  a  pure,  spiritual,  and  perfect  unity. 
With  this  highest  and  perfect  immateriality 
no  influence  on  matter  is  conceivable,  conse- 
quently, no  creation  and  dominion  of  the 
world.  Certain  subordinate  deities  must  there- 
fore be  admitted,  which  are  more  compounded 
in  their  nature,  and  can  act  upon  gross  mat- 
ter. These  are  the  "  creators  of  the  world," 
ivjilovpyat,  and  the  "rulers  of  the  world," 
KoofioKpuTopt;.  The  superior  deities  are,  how- 
ever, the  real  cause  of  all  that  exists ;  and 
from  their  fulness,  from  their  sX^pu/ia,  it  de- 
rives its  existence.  The  succession  from  the 
highest  deities  down  to  the  lowest  is  not  by  a 
sudden  descent,  but  by  a  continually  graduat- 
ing decrease  from  the  highest,  pure,  and 
spiritual  natures,  down  to  those  which  are 
more  substantial  and  material,  which  are  the 
nearest  related  to  the  gross  matter  of  the 
creation,  and  which  consequently  possess  the 
property  of  acting  upon  it.  In  proportion  to 
their  purer  quality,  or  coarser  composition, 
they  occupy  different  places  as  their  residence, 
either  in  a  denser  atmosphere,  or  in  higher 
regions.  The  highest  among  these  classes  of 
spirits  arc  called  ilpxal'  01 >  dpx^ov  dniov.  Others 
among  the  "  divine  natures,"  Sdai  oiaim,  are 
"  intermediate  beings,"  fiesai.  Those  which 
occupy  themselves  with  the  laws  of  the  world 
arc  also  called  dpxovrcs,  and  "  the  ministering 
spirits"  are  tivvaftets  and  ayyeXoi.  The  arch- 
angels arc  not  generally  recognised  in  this 
theory  ;  this  class  is  said  to  have  been  of  a 
later  origin,  and  to  have  been  first  introduced 
by  Porphyry.  (See  Archavgel.)  If  we  take 
here  also  into  consideration  the  i^ovaiai,  of 
which  Justin  has  before  spoken,  we  shall  have 
enumerated  the  greater  part  of  the  technical 
appellations  of  this  demonology.  But  to 
arrive  at  a  union  with  the  higher  orders  of 
the  spiritual  world,  in  which  alone  the  highest 
bliss  of  man  consists,  it  is  necessary,  before 
all  things,  to  become  disengaged  from  the 
servitude  of  the  body,  which  detains  the  soul 
from  soaring  up  to  the  purely  spiritual.  Matri- 
mony, therefore,  and  every  inclination  to 
sexual  concupiscence,  must  be  renounced  be- 
fore the  attainment  of  this  perfection.  Hence, 
the  offerings  and  initiations  of  the  magi  can- 
not, without  great  injury,  be  even  communi- 
cated to  those  who  have  not  as  yet  emanci- 
pated themselves  from  the  libido  pror.reandi, 
and  the  propensities  to  corporeal  attachments. 
T6  eat  meat,  or  to  partake  in  general  of  any 
slain  animal,  nay,  to  even  touch  it,  contami- 
nates. Bodily  exercises  and  purifications, 
though  not  productive  of  the  gills  of  prophecy, 
are  nevertheless  conducive  to  them.  Though 
the  gods  only  attend  to  the  pure,  they  never- 
I  tholcss    sometimes    mislead    men    to    impure, 


HER 


451 


HER 


actions.  This  may  perhaps  proceed  from  the 
totally  different  ideas  of  that  which  is  good 
and  righteous,  which  subsist  between  them 
and  mankind. 

5.  This  philosophy  of  which  the  elements 
had  already  existed  a  long  time  in  the  east, 
formed  itself,  in  its  progress  to  the  west,  into 
a  doctrinal  system,  which  found  there  far  more 
approbation  and  celebrity  than  it  ever  had  de- 
served. It  was  principally  welcome  in  those 
countries,  to  which  the  epistles  of  the  Apostle 
are  directed.  When  St.'Paul  had  preached  at 
Ephesus,  a  quantity  of  magical  and  theurgical 
books  were  brought  forward  by  their  possess- 
ors and  burned  before  his  eyes,  Acts  xix,  19. 
This  city  had  long  since  been  celebrated  for 
them,  and  the  'E<pioia  d\^i(pdpnaKa,  and  'E</>f<r<a 
ypdjifjiaTa,  were  spells  highly  extolled  by  the 
ancients  for  the  purpose  of  procuring  an  au- 
thority over  the  demons.  As  late  even  as  the 
fourth  century,  the  synod  at  Laodicea  was 
obliged  to  institute  severe  laws  against  the 
worship  of  angels,  against  magic,  and  against 
incantations.  These  opinions  had  taken  such 
a  deep  root  in  the  mind,  that  some  centuries 
did  not  suffice  for  the  extinction  of  the  recol- 
lection of  them.  Now,  there  are  passages  in 
the  Apostle  which  strikingly  characterize  this 
theory.  He  calls  the  doctrinal  system  of  his 
opponents  <pi\oaotpla  oh  Kara  Xpi^or,  "  a  philoso- 
phy incompatible  with  Christianity,"  Col.  ii,  8  ; 
SpijaKtid  rwv  dyyi\oiv,  "  a  worship  of  angels," 
Col.  ii,  18;  StSnaKa\iai  Satjioviiiiv,  "  ademoiiologv," 

1  Tim.  iv,  1.     He  calls  it  still  farther  yo>)rda, 

2  Tirn.  iii,  13.  This  is  the  peculiar  expression 
by  which  the  ancients  denoted  magical  arts 
and  necromantic  experiments  ;  y6m  is,  accord- 
ing to  Hesycllius,  fidyos,  ko'Au|,  vStpUpyos,  and 
yotjTivu,  dvara  fiayeua,  (papiiantvu,  i$dt&st.   A.      St. 

Paul  compares  these  teachers  to  Jannes  and 
Jambres,  2  Timothy  iii,  8.  These  two  persons 
are,  according  to  the  ancient  tradition,  the  ma- 
gicians who  withstood  Moses  by  their  arts. 
They  were  from  time  immemorial  names  so  no- 
torious in  the  magical  science,  that  they  did  not 
remain  unknown  even  to  the  Neo-Platonics. 
When  the  Apostle  enjoins  the  Ephesians  to 
array  themselves  in  the  arms  of  faith,  and 
courageously  to  endure  the  combat,  Ephes. 
vi,  12,  he  says  that  it  is  the  more  necessary, 
because  their  combat  is  not  against  human 
force,  ou  zzpbs  [not  against]  atpa  iced  odpKu,  "flesh 
and  blood,"  but  against  superhuman  natures. 
Where  he  mentions  these,  he  enumerates  in 
order  the  names  of  this  magico-spiritual  world, 
iip^iic,  f|o!i<Tia?,  particularly  the  KoajiokpAropaS) 
"  principalities,"  "  powers,"  "  rulers  ;"  and 
likewise  fixes  their  abode  in  the  upper  aerial 
regions,  els  rdv  atpa  iv  roTs  imvpavioig.  In  like 
manner,  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Colossians,  for 
the  sake  of  representing  to  them  Christianity 
in  an  exalted  and  important  light,  and  of  prais- 
ing the  divine  nature  of  Jesus,  he  says,  that  all 
that  exists  is  his  creation,  and  is  subjected  to 
him,  not.  even  the  spiritual  world  excepted.  He 
then  selects  the  philosophic  appellations  to 
demonstrate  that  this  supposititious  dernbri- 
ocfapy  is  wholly  subservient  to  him;  whe- 
ther they  be  Spovoi,    or  Kvpidri/rts,   ap^ai  i\owlSt\ 


[thrones,  dominions,  principalities,  powers, J 
Col.  i,  16.  Finally,  to  destroy  completely  and 
decisively  the  whole  doctrinal  system,  he 
demonstrates,  that  Christ,  through  the  work 
of  redemption,  has  obtained  the  victory  over 
the  entire  spiritual  creation,  that  he  drags  in 
triumph  the  dpx"s  [principalities]  and  i^ovaiai 
[powers]  as  vanquished,  and  that  henceforth 
their  dominion  and  exercise  of  power  have 
ceased,  Col.  ii,  15.  But  what  he  says  respect- 
ing the  seared  consciences  of  these  heretics, 
respecting  their  deceptions,  their  avarice,  &c, 
is  certainly  more  applicable  to  this  class  of 
men,  than  to  any  other.  None  throughout  all 
antiquity  are  more  accused  of  these  immorali- 
ties, than  those  pretended  confidents  of  the 
occult  powers.  If  he  speaks  warmly  against 
any  distinction  of  meats,  against  abstinence 
from  matrimony,  this  also  applies  to  them ; 
and  if  he  rejects  bodily  exercise^,  it  was  be- 
cause they  recommended  them,  because  they 
imposed  baths,  lustrations,  continence,  and 
long  preparations,  as  the  conditions  by  which 
alone  the  connection  with  the  spirits  became 
possible.  These,  then,  are  the  persons  who 
passed  before  the  Apostle's  mind,  and  who, 
when  they  adopted  Christianity,  established 
that  sect  among  the  professors  of  Jesus,  which 
gave  to  it  the  name  of  Gnostics,  and  which, 
together  with  the  different  varieties  of  this 
system,  is  accused  by  history  of  magical  arts. 
Other  adherents  of  this  system  among  the 
Heathens,  to  which  the  Syrian  philosophers, 
as  well  as  some  Egyptian,  such  as  Plotinu3 
and  his  scholars,  belonged,  formed  the  sect  of 
Neo-Plalonism. 

6.  But  in  the  above  remarks  of  this  learned 
German,  some  considerations  are  wanting, 
necessary  to  the  right  understanding  of  several 
of  the  above  passages  quoted  from  St.  Paul. 
The  philosophic  system  above  mentioned  was 
built  on  the  Scripture  doctrine  of  good  and 
evil  angels,  and  so  had  a  basis  of  truth,  although 
abused  to  a  gross  superstition,  and  even  idola- 
try. It  was  grounded,  too,  upon  the  notion 
of  different  orders  among  both  good  and  evil 
spirits,  with  subordination  and  government ; 
which  also  is  a  truth  of  which  some  intimation 
is  given  in  Scripture.  The  Apostle  then  could 
use  all  these  terms  without  giving  any  sanction 
to  the  errors  of  the  day.  He  knew  that  the 
spiritual  powers  they  had  converted  into  sub- 
ordinate deities,  were  either  good  or  evil  angels 
in  their  various  ranks,  and  he  uproots  the  whole 
superstition,  by  showing  that  the  "  thrones 
and  dominions"  of  heaven  are  submissive  crc. 
ated  servants  of  Christ;  and  that  the  evil  spi- 
rits, the  rulers  of  "  the  darkness  of  this  world," 
an'  put  under  his  feet. 

HERMON,  a  celebrated  mountain  in  the 
Holy  Land,  often  spoken  of  in  Scripture.  It 
was  in  the  northern  boundary  of  the  country, 
b"eyond  .Ionian,  and  in  the  territories  which 
offgirially  belonged  to  Og,  king  of  Basilar*, 
JoMiua  x"ii,  -r> ;  xiii,  5.  The  Psalmist  connects 
Tabor  ami  Ilcrmon  together,  upon  more  than 
ono  Occasion,  Psalm  lxxxi.v,  12;  exxxiii,  3; 
from  which  it  may  he  inferred' that  they  lay 
contiguous  to  each  other.     This  is  agreeable 


HER 


452 


HER 


to  the  account  that  is  given  us  by  travellers. 
Mr.  Maundrell,  in  his  journey  from  Aleppo, 
says  that  in  three  hours  and  a  half  from  the 
river  Kishon,  he  came  to  a  small  brook  near 
which  was  an  old  village  and  a  good  kane, 
called  Legune ;  not  far  from  which  his  com- 
pany took  up  their  quarters  for  the  night,  and 
from  whence  they  had  an  extensive  prospect 
of  the  plain  of  Esdraelon.  At  about  six  or 
seven  hours'  distance  eastward,  stood,  within 
view,  Nazareth,  and  the  two  mountains  Tabor 
and  Hcrmon.  He  adds  that  they  were  suffi- 
ciently instructed  by  experience  what  the  holy 
Psalmist  means  by  tho  dew  of  Hermon  ;  their 
tents  being  as  wet  with  it  as  if  it  had  rained 
all  night,  Psalm  exxxiii,  3. 

HEROD,  surnamed  the  Great,  king  of  the 
Jews,  second  son  of  Antipater  the  Idumean, 
born  B.  C.  71.  At  the  age  of  twenty-five  he 
was  made  by  his  father  governor  of  Galilee, 
and  distinguished  himself  by  the  suppression 
of  a  band  of  robbers,  with  the  execution  of 
their  leader,  Hezekiah,  and  several  of  his  com- 
rades. As  he  had  performed  this  act  of  hero- 
ism by  his  own  authority,  and  had  executed 
the  culprits  without  the  form  of  trial,  he  was 
summoned  before  the  sanhedrim,  but,  through 
the  strength  of  his  party  and  zeal  of  his 
friends,  he  escaped  any  censure.  In  the  civil 
war  between  the  republican  and  Cajsarian 
parties,  Herod  joined  Cassius,  and  was  made 
governor  of  Ccelo-Syria  ;  and  when  Mark  An- 
tony arrived  victorious  in  Syria,  Herod  and  his 
brother  found  means  to  ingratiate  themselves 
with  him,  and  were  appointed  as  tetrarchs  in 
Judea ;  but  in  a  short  time  an  invasion  of  An- 
tigonus,  who  was  aided  by  the  Jews,  obliged 
Herod  to  make  his  escape  from  Jerusalem,  and 
retire  first  to  Idumea,  and  then  to  Egypt.  He 
at  length  arrived  at  Rome,  and  obtained  the 
crown  of  Judea  upon  occasion  of  a  difference 
between  the  two  branches  of  the  Asmodean 
family.  Uyrcanus  had  been  for  a  considerable 
time  prince  and  high  priest  of  the  Jewish  na- 
tion ;  but  while  the  Roman  empire  was  in  an 
unsettled  state,  after  the  death  of  Julius  Cajsar, 
Antigonus,  son  of  Aristobulus,  brother  of 
Hyrcanus,  made  himself  master  of  the  city 
and  all  Judea.  In  this  state  Herod  found 
tilings  when  he  came  to  Rome,  and  the  most 
that  he  then  aimed  at  was  to  obtain  the  king- 
dom for  Aristobulus,  his  wife's  brother ;  but 
the  senate  of  Rome,  moved  by  the  recommend- 
ations of  Mark  Antony,  conferred  the  king- 
dom of  Judea  upon  Herod  himself.  Having 
met  witli  this  unexpected  success  at  Rome,  he 
returned  without  delay  to  Judea,  and  in  about 
three  years  got  possession  of  the  whole  coun- 
try. Ho  had,  however,  to  fight  his  way  to  the 
throne,  which,  as  we  have  seen,  was  in  the 
possession  of  Antigonus.  Though  aided  by 
the  Roman  army,  he  was  obliged  to  lay  siege 
to  Jerusalem,  which  held  out  for  six  months, 
when  it  was  carried  by  assault,  and  a  vast 
slaughter  was  made  of  the  inhabitants,  till  the 
intercession  and  bribes  of  Herod  put  an  end  to 
it.  Antigonus  was  taken  prisoner  and  put  to 
death,  which  opened  the  way  to  Herod's  quiet 
possession    of  the    kingdom.     His   first   cares 


were  to  replenish  his  coffers,  and  to  repress  the 
faction  still  attached  to  the  Asmodean   race, 
and  which  regarded   him  as  a  usurper.     He 
was  guilty  of  many  extortions  and  cruelties  in 
the  pursuit  of  these  objects.    Shortly  after  this, 
an  accusation  was  lodged  against  Herod  before 
Mark  Antony   by  Cleopatra,   who   had    been 
influenced  to  the  deed  by  his  mother-in-law, 
Alexandra.     He  was  summoned  to  answer  to 
the  charges  exhibited  against  him  before  the 
triumvir ;  and  on  this  occasion  he  gave  a  mo§t 
remarkable  display  of  the  conflict  of  opposite 
passions  in  a  ferocious  heart.    Doatingly  fond 
of  his  wife,  Mariamne,  and  not  being  able  to 
bear  the  thought  of  her  falling  into  the  hands 
of  another,  ho  exacted  a  solemn  promise  from 
Joseph,  whom  he  appointed  to  govern  in   his 
absence,  that  should  the  accusation  prove  fatal 
to  him  he  would  put  the  queen  to  death.     Jo- 
seph disclosed  the  secret  to   Mariamne,  who, 
abhorring  such   a  savage  proof  of  his    love, 
from  that  moment  conceived  the  deepest  and 
most  settled  aversion  to  her  husband.    Herod, 
by  great  pecuniary  sacrifices,  made  his   peace 
with   Antony,   and    returned   in    high   credit. 
Some  hints  were  thrown  out  respecting  Jo- 
seph's familiarity  with  Mariamne  during  his  ab- 
sence ;  he  communicated  his  suspicions  to  his 
wife,  who,  recriminating,  upbraided  him  with 
his  cruel  order  concerning  her   His  rage  was  un- 
bounded ;  he  put  Joseph  to  death  for  communi 
eating  the  secret  entrusted  to  him  alone,  and  he 
threw  his  mother-in-law, Alexandra, into  prison. 
2.  In  the  war  between  Antony  and  Octavius, 
Herod  raised  an  army  for  the  purpose  of  join 
ing  the   former ;  but   he  was  obliged  first  to 
engage   Malchus,  king   of  Arabia,  whom  he 
defeated  and  obliged  to  sue  for  peace.     After 
the  battle  of  Actium,  his  great  object  was  to 
make  terms  with  the  conqueror  ;  and,  as  a  pre- 
liminary step,  he  put  to  death   Hyrcanus,  the 
only  suviving  male  of  the  Asmodeans  ;  and, 
having  secured  his   family,  he  embarked   for 
Rhodes,  where  Augustus  at  that  tune  was.    Ho 
appeared  before  the  master  of  the  Roman  worli: 
in  all  the  regal  ornaments  excepting  his  dia- 
dem, and  with  a  noble  confidence  related  the 
faithful  services  he  had  performed  lor  his  bene- 
factor, Antony,  concluding  that  he  was  ready 
to  transfer  the  same  gratitude  to  a  new  patron, 
from   whom    he   should   hold    his   crown    and 
kingdom.     Augustus  was  struck  with  the  mag- 
nanimity of  (lie  defence,  and  replaced  the  dia- 
dem on  the  head  of  Herod,  who  remained  the 
most    favoured    of  the    tributary    sovereigns. 
When  the  emperor  afterward  travelled  through 
Syria,  in  his  way  to  and  from  Egypt,  he  was 
entertained  \vith  the  utmost  magnificence   by 
Herod;  in  recompense  for  which  he  restored 
to   him  all  his  revenues  and  dominions,  and 
even  considerably  augmented  them.     His  good 
fortune  as  a  prince,  was  poisoned  by  domestic 
broils,  land  especially  by  the  insuperable  aver- 
sion of  Mariamne,  whom  at  length  he  brought 
to  trial,   convicted,   and  executed.     She  sub- 
mitted to  her  fate  with  all  the  intrepidity  of 
innocence,  and  was  sufficiently  avenged  by  the 
remorse  of  her  husband,  who  seems  never  after 
to  have  enjoyed  a  tranquil  hour. 


HER 


453 


HER 


3.  His  rage  being  quenched,  Herod  endea- 
voured to  banish  the  memory  of  his  evil  acts 
from  his  mind  by  scenes  of  dissipation ;  but 
the  charms  of  his  once  loved  Mariamne  haunt- 
ed him  wherever  he  went :  he  would  frequently 
call  aloud  upon  her  name,  and  insist  upon  his 
attendants  bringing  her  into  his  presence,  as 
if  willing  to  forget  that  she  was  no  longer 
among  the  living.  At  times  he  would  fly  from 
the  sight  of  men,  and  on  his  return  from  soli- 
tude, which  was  ill  suited  to  a  mind  conscious 
of  the  most  ferocious  deeds,  he  became  more 
brutal  than  ever,  and  in  fits  of  fury  spared 
neither  foes  nor  friends.  Alexandra,  whose  ma- 
lignity toward  her  daughter  has  been  noticed, 
was  an  unpitied  victim  to  his  rage.  At  length 
he  recovered  some  portion  of  self-possession, 
and  employed  himself  in  projects  of  regal 
magnificence.  He  built  at  Jerusalem  a  stately 
theatre  and  amphitheatre,  in  which  he  cele- 
brated games  in  honour  of  Augustus,  to  the 
great  displeasure  of  the  zealous  Jews,  who  dis- 
covered an  idolatrous  profanation  in  the  thea- 
trical ornaments  and  spectacles.  Nothing,  it 
is  said,  gave  them  so  much  offence  as  some 
trophies  which  he  had  set  round  his  theatre  in 
honour  of  Augustus,  and  in  commemoration  of 
his  victories,  but  which  the  Jews  regarded  as 
images  devoted  to  the  purposes  of  idol  worship. 
For  this  and  other  acts  of  the  king  a  most 
serious  conspiracy  was  formed  against  him, 
which  he,  fortunately  for  himself,  discovered  ; 
and  he  exercised  the  most  brutal  revenge  on 
all  the  parties  concerned  in  it.  He  next  built 
Samaria,  which  he  named  Sebaste,  and  adorn- 
ed it  with  the  most  sumptuous  edifices  ;  and  for 
his  security  he  built  several  fortresses  through- 
out the  whole  of  Judea,  of  which  the  principal 
was  called  Caesarea,  in  honour  of  the  emperor. 
In  his  own  palace,  near  the  temple  of  Jerusa- 
lem, he  lavished  the  most  costly  materials  and 
curious  workmanship ;  and  his  palace  Hero- 
dion,  at  some  miles'  distance  from  the  capital, 
by  the  beauty  of  its  situation,  and  other  appro- 
priate advantages,  drew  round  it  the  popula- 
tion of  a  considerable  city. 

4.  To  supply  the  place  of  his  lost  Mariamne, 
he  married  a  new  wife  of  the  same  name,  the 
beautiful  daughter  of  a  priest,  whom  he  raised 
to  the  high  rank  of  the  supreme  pontificate. 
He  sent  his  two  sons,  by  the  first  Mariamne, 
to  be  educated  at  Rome,  and  so  ingratiated 
himself  with  Augustus  and  his  ministers,  that 
he  was  appointed  imperial  procurator  for  Syria. 
To  acquire  popularity  among  the  Jews,  and 
to  exhibit  an  attachment  to  their  religion,  he 
undertook  the  vast  enterprise  of  rebuilding  the 
temple  of  Jerusalem,  which  he  finished  in  a 
noble  style  of  magnificence  in  about  a  year  and 
a  half.  During  the  progress  of  this  work  he 
visited  Rome,  and  brought  back  his  sons,  who 
had  attained  to  man's  estate.  These  at  length 
conspired  against  their  father's  person  and 
government,  and  were  tried,  convicted,  and 
executed.  Another  act  deserving  of  notice, 
performed  by  Herod,  was  the  dedication  of  his 
new  city  of  Caesarea,  at  which  time  he  dis- 
played such  profuse  magnificence,  that  Augus- 
tus said  his  soul  was  too  great  for  his  king- 


dom. Notwithstanding  the  execution  of  his 
sons,  he  was  still  a  slave  to  conspiracies  from 
his  other  near  relations.  In  the  thirty-third 
year  of  his  reign,  our  Saviour  was  born.  This 
event  was  followed,  according  to  the  Gospel 
of  St.  Matthew,  by  the  massacre  of  the  chil- 
dren of  Bethlehem.  About  this  time,  Anti- 
pater,  returning  from  Rome,  was  arrested  by 
his  father's  orders,  charged  with  treasonable 
practices,  and  was  found  guilty  of  conspiring 
against  the  life  of  the  king.  This  and  other 
calamities,  joined  to  a  guilty  conscience,  prey- 
ing upon  a  broken  constitution,  threw  the 
wretched  monarch  into  a  mortal  disease,  which 
was  doubtless  a  just  judgment  of  Heaven  on 
the  many  foul  enormities  and  impieties  of 
which  he  had  been  guilty.  His  disorder  was 
attended  with,  the  most  loathsome  circum- 
stances that  can  be  imagined.  A  premature 
report  of  his  death  caused  a  tumult  in  Jerusa- 
lem, excited  by  the  zealots,  who  were  impatient 
to  demolish  a  golden  eagle  which  he  had  placed 
over  the  gate  of  the  temple.  The  perpetrators 
of  this  rash  act  were  seized,  and  by  order  of 
the  dying  king,  put  to  death.  He  also  caused 
his  son  Antipater  to  be  slain  in  prison,  and 
his  remains  to  be  treated  with  every  species  of 
ignominy.  He  bequeathed  his  kingdom  to  his 
son  Archelaus,  with  tetrarchies  to  his  two  other 
sons.  Herod,  on  his  dying  bed,  had  planned 
a  scheme  of  horrible  cruelty  which  was  to  take 
place  at  the  instant  of  his  own  death.  He  had 
summoned  the  chief  persons  among  the  Jews 
to  Jericho,  and  caused  them  to  be  shut  up  in  the 
hippodrome,  or  circus,  and  gave  strict  orders  to 
his  sister  Salome  to  have  them  all  massacred  as 
soon  as  he  should  have  drawn  his  last  breath  : 
"  for  this,"  said  he,  "  will  provide  mourners  for 
my  funeral  all  over  the  land,  and  make  the 
Jews  and  every  family  lament  my  death,  who 
would  otherwise  exhibit  no  signs  of  concern." 
Salome  and  her  husband,  Alexas,  chose  rather 
to  break  their  oatli  extorted  by  the  tyrant,  than 
be  implicated  in  so  cruel  a  deed  ;  and  accord- 
ingly, as  soon  as  Herod  was  dead,  they  opened 
the  doors  of  the  circus,  and  permitted  every 
one  to  return  to  his  own  home.  Herod  died 
in  the  sixty-eighth  year  of  his  age.  His 
memory  has  been  consigned  to  merited  detest- 
ation, while  his  great  talents,  and  the  active 
enterprise  of  his  reign,  have  placed  him  high 
in  the  rank  of  sovereigns. 

Herod  Antipas.    See  Antipas. 

HERODIANS,  a  sect  among  the  Jews  at 
the  time  of  Jesus  Christ,  mentioned  Matt,  xxii, 
16 ;  Mark  iii,  6  ;  viii,  15  ;  xii,  13 ;  but  passed 
over  in  silence  both  by  Josephus  and  Philo. 
The  critics  and  commentators  on  the  New 
Testament  are  very  much  divided  with  regard 
to  the  Herodians ;  somo  making  them  to  be  a 
political  party,  and  others  a  religious  sect.  The 
former  opinion  is  favoured  by  the  author  of  the 
Syriac  version,  who  calls  them  the  domestics  of 
Herod  ;  and  also  by  Josephus's  having  passed 
them  over  in  silence,  though  he  professes  to 
give  an  account  of  the  several  religious  sects 
of  the  Jews.  The  latter  opinion  is  counte- 
nanced by  our  Lord's  caution  against  "  the 
leaven  of  Herod,"  which  implies  that  the  He- 


HER 


454 


HEX 


rodians  were  distinguished  from  the  other 
Jews  by  some  doctrinal  tenets.  M.  Basnagc 
supposes,  that  one  thing  rheant  by  ilio  leaven 
of  the  Herodians  might  be  ;•  conformity  to 
Roman  customs  in  some  points  which  were 
forbidden  the  Jews:  it'lliis  was  the  case,  it  is 
not  strange  that  they  are  not  mentioned  by 
Josephus  among  the  Jew  ish  sects.  St.Jerom, 
in  his  Dialogue  against  the  Luciferians,  takes 
the  name  to  have  been  given  to  such  as  owned 
Herod  for  the  Messiah;  and  Tertullian,  Epi. 
phanius,  Chrysostom,  and  Theophylact,  among 
the  ancients  ;  and  Grotius,  and  other  moderns, 
are  of  the  same  sentiment.  But  the  same  St. 
Jerom,  in  his  Comment  on  St.  Matthew,  treats 
this  opinion  as  ridiculous  ;  and  indeed  it  must 
be  highly  improbable.  He  maintains  that  the 
Pharisees  gave  this  appellation,  by  way  of  de- 
rision, to  Herod's  soldiers,  who  paid  tribute  to 
the  Romans  ;  agreeably  to  which  the  Syriac 
interpreters  render  the  word  by  the  domestics 
of  Herod,  that  is,  his  courtiers.  M.  Simon,  in 
his  notes  on  the  twenty-second  chapter  of  St. 
Matthew,  advances  a  more  probable  opinion. 
The  name  Herodiah,  he  imagines  to  have  been 
given  to  such  as  adhered  to  Herod's  party  and 
interest,  and  were  for  preserving  the  govern- 
ment in  his  family,  about  which  there  were, 
at  that  time,  great  divisions  among  the  Jews. 
F.  Hardouin  will  have  the  Herodians  and 
Sadducees  to  have  been  the  same ;  nor  is  it  at 
all  improbable  that  the  Herodians  were  chiefly 
of  the  sect  of  the  Sadducees  ;  since  that  which 
is  called  by  St.  Mark  "the  leaven  of  Herod," 
is  by  St.  Matthew  styled  "  the  leaven  of  the 
Sadducees." 

2.  Dr.  Prideaux  is  of  opinion  that  they  de- 
rived their  name  from  Herod  the  Great,  and 
that  they  were  distinguished  from  the  other 
Jews  by  their  concurrence  with  Herod's 
scheme  of  subjecting  himself  and  his  domi- 
nions to  the  Romans,  and  likewise  by  comply- 
ing with  many  of  their  Heathen  usages  and 
customs.  In  their  zeal  for  the  Roman  autho- 
rity they  were  diametrically  opposite  to  the 
Pharisees,  who  esteemed  it  unlawful  to  submit 
or  pay  taxes  to  the  Roman  emperor;  an  opinion 
which  they  grounded  on  their  being  forbidden 
by  the  law  to  set  a  stranger  over  them,  who 
was  not  one  of  their  own  nation,  as  their  king. 
The  conjunction  of  the  Herodians,  therefore, 
with  the  Pharisees,  against  Christ,  is  a  memo- 
rable proof  of  the  keenness  of  their  resentment 
and  malice  against  him ;  especially  when  we 
consider  that  they  united  together  in  propos. 
ing  to  him  an  ensnaring  question,  on  a  subject 
which  was  the  ground  of  their  mutual  dissen- 
sion ;  namely,  whether  it  was  lawful  to  pay 
tributo  to  Garear.  And  provided  he  answered 
in  the  negative,  the  Herodians  would  accuse 
him  of  treason  against  the  state ;  and  should 
ho  reply  in  the  affirmative,  the  Pharisees  were 
as  ready  to  excite  the  people  against  him,  as 
an  enemy  of  their  civil  liberties  and  privileges. 
Herod  had  introduced  several  Heathen  idola- 
trous usages;  for,  as  Josephus  says,  he  built  a 
temple  to  Cesar,  neat  the  head  of  the  river 
Jordan  ;  he  erected  a  magnificent  theatre  at 
Jerusalem,  institujed  Pagan  games,  and  placed 


a  golden  eagle  over  the  gate  of  the  temple  of 
Jehovah  ;  and  he  furnished  the  temples,  which 
he  reared  in  several  places  out  of  Judea,  with 
images  for  idolatrous  worship,  in  order  to  in- 
gratiate himself  with  the  emperor  and  the  peo- 
ple of  Rome  ;  though  to  the  Jews  he  pretended 
that  he  did  it  against  his  will,  and  in  obedience 
to  the  imperial  command.  The  Herodians 
probably  complied  with,  acquiesced  in,  or  ap- 
proved these  idolatrous  usages.  This  symbo- 
lizing with  idolatry  upon  views  of  interest  and 
worldly  policy,  was  probably  that  leaven  of 
Herod,  against  which  our  Saviour  cautioned 
his  disciples. 

HERON,  ,-idjn,  Lev.  xi,  19 ;  Dent,  xiv,  18. 
This  word  has  been  variously  understood. 
Some  have  rendered  it  the  kite,  others  the 
woodcock,  others  the  curlieu,  some  the  pea- 
cock, others  the  parrot,  and  others  the  crane. 
The  root,  djn,  signifies  to  breathe  short  through 
the  nostrils,  to  snvff,  as  in  anger ;  hence  to  be 
angry  ;  and  it  is  supposed  that  the  word  is  suf- 
ficiently descriptive  of  the  heron,  fron\  its  very 
irritable  disposition.  Bochart,  however,  thinks 
it  the  mountain  falcon ;  the  samo  that  the 
Greeks  call  avoiraia,  mentioned  by  Homer  ;  and 
this  bears  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  Hebrew 
name. 

HESHBON,  a  celebrated  city  beyond  Jor- 
dan, twenty  miles  eastward  of  that  river,  ac- 
cording to  Eusebius.  It  was  given  to  the  tribe 
of  Reuben,  Josh,  xiii,  17.  It  was  probably 
made  over  to  Gad,  since  we  meet  with  it  among 
the  cities  which  were  given  to  the  Levites, 
Joshua  xxi,  39. 

HETERODOX,  formed  of  the  Greek 
ircpdSo^os,  a  compound  of  ercpos,  alter,  and 
S6%a,  opinion,  something  that  is  contrary  to 
the  faith  or  doctrine  established  in  the  true 
church.  Thus,  we  say,  a  heterodox  opinion,  x 
a  heterodox  divine,  &c.  The  word  stands  in 
opposition  to  orthodox. 

HETEROUSH,  HETEROUSIANS,  com- 
posed of  'ircpos,  and  ovciu,  substance,  a  sect  or 
branch  of  Arians,  the  followers  of  Aetius,  and 
from  him  denominated  Aetians.  They  were 
called  Heterousii,  because  they  held,  not  that 
the  Son  of  God  was  of  a  substance  like,  or 
similar  to,  that  of  the  Father,  which  was  the 
doctrine  of  another  branch  of  Arians,  thence 
called  Homoousians,  Homoousii ;  but  that  he 
was  of  another  substance  different  from  that' 
of  the  Father. 

HETH,  the  father  of  the  Hittites,  was  the 
eldest  son  of  Canaan,  Gen.  x,  15,  and  dwelt 
southward  of  the  promised  land,  probably 
about  Hebron.  Ephron,  who  was  an  inhabit- 
ant of  that  city,  was  of  the  race  of  Heth  ;  and 
in  the  time  of  Abraham  the  whole  city  were 
of  the  family  of  Heth. 

HEXAPLA,  formed  of  t£,  six,  and  <SirA6w, 
/  open,  or  unfold,  a  Bible  disposed  in  six 
columns,  containing  the  text,  and  divers 
versions  of  it,  compiled  and  published  by 
Origen,  with  a  view  of  securing  the  sacred 
text  from  future  corruptions,  and  to  correct 
those  that  had  been  already  introduced.  Eu- 
sebius relates  that  Origen  after  his  return  from 
Rome  under  Oaracalla,  applied  himself  to  learn. 


HEX 


455 


HEX 


Hebrew,  and  began  to  collect  the  several  ver- 
sions that  had  been  made  of  the  sacred  writ- 
ings, and  of  these  to  compose  his  Tetrapla, 
and  Hexapla :  others,  however,  will  not  allow 
him  to  have  begun  till  the  time  of  Alexander, 
after  he  had  retired  into  Palestine,  about  the 
year  231.  To  conceive  what  this  Hexapla 
was,  it  must  be  observed  that,  beside  the  trans- 
lation of  the  sacred  writings  called  the  Septu- 
agint,  made  under  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  above 
280  years  B.  C,  the  Scripture  had  been  since 
translated  into  Greek  by  other  interpreters. 
The  first  of  those  versions,  or,  reckoning  the 
Septuagint,  the  second,  was  that  of  Aquila,  a 
proselyte  Jew,  the  first  edition  of  which  he 
published  in  the  twelfth  year  of  the  Emperor 
Adrian,  or  about  A.  D.  128 ;  the  third  was 
that  of  Symmachus,  published  as  is  commonly 
supposed,  under  Marcus  Aurelius,  but,  as  some 
say,  under  Septimius  Severus,  about  the  year 
200  ;  the  fourth  was  that  of  Theodotion,  prior 
to  that  of  Symmachus,  under  Commodus,  or 
about  the  year  175  :  these  Greek  versions,  says 
Dr.  Kennicott,  were  made  by  the  Jews  from 
their  corrupted  copies  of  the  Hebrew,  and 
were  designed  to  stand  in  the  place  of  the 
LXX,  against  which  they  were  prejudiced, 
because  it  seemed  to  favour  the  Christians. 
The  fifth  was  found  at  Jericho,  in  the  reign 
of  Caracalla,  about  the  year  217  ;  and  the  sixth 
was  discovered  at  Nicopolis,  in  the  reign  of 
Alexander  Severus,  about  the  year  228  :  lastly, 
Origen  himself  recovered  part  of  a  soventh, 
containing  only  the  Psalms.  Now,  Origen, 
who  had  held  frequent  disputations  with  the 
Jews  in  Egypt  and  Palestine,  observing  that 
they  always  objected  against  those  passages 
of  Scripture  quoted  against  them,  and  appealed 
to  the  Hebrew  text,  the  better  to  vindicate 
those  passages  and  confound  the  Jews,  by 
showing  that  the  LXX  had  given  the  sense  of 
the  Hebrew,  or  rather,  to  show,  by  a  number 
of  different  versions,  what  the  real  sense  of 
the  Hebrew  was,  undertook  to  reduce  all  these 
several  versions  into  a  body,  along  with  the 
Hebrew  text,  so  as  they  might  be  easily  con- 
fronted, and  afford  a  mutual  light  to  each  other. 
He  made  the  Hebrew  text  his  standard ;  and, 
allowing  that  corruptions  might  have  happened, 
and  that  the  old  Hebrew  copies  might  and  did 
read  differently,  he  contented  himself  with 
marking  such  words  or  sentences  as  were  not 
in  his  Hebrew  text,  nor  the  later  Greek  ver- 
sions, and  to  add  such  words  or  sentences  as 
were  omitted  in  the  LXX,  prefixing  an  asterisk 
to  the  additions,  and  an  obelisk  to  the  others. 
In  order  to  this  ho  made  choice  of  eight 
columns  :  in  the  first  he  gave  the  Hebrew  text 
in  Hebrew  characters ;  in  the  second,  the  same 
text  in  Greek  characters:  the  rest  were  filled 
witli  the  several  versions  above  mentioned  ;  all 
the  columns  answering  verse  for  verse,  and 
phrase  for  phrase ;  and  in  the  Psalms  there 
was  a  ninth  column  for  the  seventh  version. 
This  work  Origen  called  EfoTrAa,  Hexapla,  that 
is,  sextuple,  or  a  work  of  six  columns,  as  only 
regarding  the  first  six  Greek  versions.  Indeed, 
St.  Epiphanius,  taking  in  likewise  the  two 
oolumns  of  the  text,  calls  the  work  Octapla, 


as  consisting  of  eight  columns.  This  cele- 
brated work,  which  Montfaucon  imagines  con- 
sisted of  fifty  large  volumes,  perished  long  ago, 
probably  with  the  library  at  Csssarea,  where  it 
was  preserved,  in  the  year  653 ;  though  seve- 
ral of  the  ancient  writers  have  preserved  us 
portions  of  it,  particularly  St.  Chrysostom  on 
the  Psalms,  Philoponus  in  his  Hexameron,  &c. 
Some  modern  writers  have  earnestly  endea- 
voured to  collect  fragments  of  the  Hexapla, 
Flaminius  Nobilius,  Drusius,  and  especially 
Montfaucon,  in  two  folio  volumes,  printed  at 
Paris  in  1713.  In  his  edition,  Montfaucon  has 
prefixed  prolegomena,  explaining  the  form  and 
detailing  the  history  of  the  Hexapla. 

The  object  of  Origen  being  to  correct  the 
differences  found  in  the  then  existing  copies 
of  the  Old  Testament,  he  carefully  noted  all 
the  alterations  which  he  discovered ;  and  for 
the  information  of  those  who  might  consult 
his  work,  he  made  use  of  the  following  marks  : 
1.  Where  any  passages  appeared  in  the  Septu- 
agint, that  were  not  found  in  the  Hebrew,  he 
designated  them  by  an  obelus  -f  with  two  bold 
points  !  annexed.  This  mark  was  also  used 
to  denote  words  not  extant  in  the  Hebrew,  but 
added  by  the  Septuagint  translators,  either  for 
the  sake  of  elegance,  or  for  the  purpose  of 
illustrating  the  sense.  2.  To  passages  wanting 
in  the  copies  of  the  Septuagint,  and  supplied 
by  himself  from  the  other  Greek  versions,  he 
prefixed  an  asterisk  $j£  with  two  bold  points  J 
also  annexed,  in  order  that  his  additions  might 
be  immediately  perceived.  These  supplement- 
ary passages,  we  are  informed  by  Jerom,  were 
for  the  most  part  taken  from  Theodotion's 
translation ;  not  unfrequently  from  that  of 
Aquila ;  sometimes,  though  rarely,  from  the 
version  of  Symmachus ;  and  sometimes  from 
two  or  three  together.  But,  in  every  case,  the 
initial  letter  of  each  translator's  name  was 
placed  immediately  after  the  asterisk,  to  indi. 
cate  the  source  whence  such  supplementary 
passage  was  taken.  And  in  lieu  of  the  very 
erroneous  Septuagint  version  of  Daniel,  Theo- 
dotion's translation  of  that  book  was  inserted 
entire.  3.  Farther  :  not  only  the  passages  want- 
ing in  the  Septuagint  were  supplied  by  Origen 
with  the  asterisks,  as  above  noticed,  but  also 
where  that  version  does  not  appear  accurately 
to  express  the  Hebrew  original,  having  noted 
the  former  reading  with  an  obelus  -f-,  he  added 
the  correct  rendering  from  one  of  the  other 
translators,  with  an  asterisk  subjoined.  Con- 
cerning the  shape  and  uses  of  the  lemniscus  and 
hypolemniscus,  two  other  marks  used  by  Origen, 
there  is  so  great  a  difference  of  opinion  among 
learned  men,  that  it  is  difficult  to  determine 
what  they  were.  Dr.  Owen,  after  Montfaucon, 
supposes  them  to  have  been  marks  of  better 
and  more  accurate  renderings.  These  several 
marks  of  distinction  have  been  carefully  ob- 
served, so  far  as  they  have  been  recovered 
from  various  quarters,  in  the  very  accurate 
edition  of  the  Septuagint  commenced  by  our 
learned  countryman,  Dr.  Holmes,  and  con- 
tinued by  his  able  successor,  the  Rev.  J.  Par- 
sons, B.  D. 

For  nearly  fifty  years  was  Origen's  stupend- 


II EZ 


456 


HIG 


ous  work  buried  in  a  corner  of  the  city  of 
Tyre,  probably  on  account  of  the  very  great 
expense  of  transcribing  forty  or  fifty  volumes, 
which  far  exceeded  the  means  of  private  indi- 
viduals ;  and  here,  perhaps,  it  might  have 
perished  in  oblivion,  if  Euscbius  and  Pamphi- 
lus had  not  discovered  it,  and  deposited  it  in 
the  library  of  Pamphilus  the  martyr  at  Cresa- 
rea,  where  Jerome  saw  it  about  the  middle  of 
the  fourth  century.  As  we  have  no  account 
whatever  of  Origeu's  autograph  after  this  time, 
it  is  most  probable  that  it  perished  in  the  year 
653,  on  the  capture  of  that  city  by  the  Arabs; 
and  a  few  imperfect  fragments,  collected  from 
manuscripts  of  the  Septuagint  and  the  catenae 
of  the  Greek  fathers,  are  all  that  now  remain 
of  a  work,  which,  in  the  present  improved  state 
of  sacred  literature,  would  most  eminently 
have  assisted  in  the  interpretation  and  criticism 
of  the  Old  Testament.  The  Syro-Estrangelo 
translation  of  Origen's  edition  of  the  Greek 
Septuagint  was  executed  in  the  former  part  of 
the  seventh  century ;  the  author  of  it  is  not 
known.  This  version  exactly  corresponds 
with  the  text  of  the  Septuagint,  especially  in 
those  passages  in  which  the  latter  differs  from 
the  Hebrew.  A  manuscript  of  this  translation 
is  in  the  Ambrosian  library  at  Milan  ;  it  con. 
tains  the  obelus  and  other  marks  of  Origen's 
Hexapla ;  and  a  subscription  at  the  end  states 
it  to  have  been  literally  translated  from  the 
Greek  copy,  corrected  by  Eusebius  himself, 
with  the  assistance  of  Pamphilus,  from  the 
books  of  Origen,  which  were  deposited  in  the 
library  at  Cansarca.  From  this  version  Nor- 
berg  edited  the  prophecies  of  Jeremiah  and 
Ezekiel  in  1787 ;  and  Bugati,  the  book  of 
Daniel,  1788. 

HEZEKIAH,  king  of  Judah,  was  the  son 
of  Ahaz,  and  born  in  the  year  of  the  world 
3251.  At  the  age  of  five-and-twenty  he  sue 
ceeded  his  father  in  the  government  of  the 
kingdom  of  Judah,  and  reigned  twenty-nine 
years  in  Jerusalem,  namely,  from  the  year  of 
the  world  3277  to  3306,  2  Kings  xviii,  1,  2 ; 
2  Chron.  xxix,  1.  The  reign  of  his  father 
Ahaz  had  been  most  unpropitions  for  his  sub- 
jects. A  war  had  raged  between  the  king- 
doms of  Israel  and  Judah,  in  which  Pekah, 
king  of  Israel,  overthrew  the  army  of  Ahaz, 
destroying  a  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  of 
his  men ;  after  which  he  carried  away  two 
hundred  thousand  women  and  children  as  cap- 
tives into  his  own  country  :  they  were,  how- 
ever, released  and  sent  home  again,  at  the  re- 
monstrance of  the  Prophet  Oded.  As  idolatry 
had  been  established  in  Jerusalem  and  through- 
out Judea,  by  the  command  of  Ahaz,  and  the 
service  of  the  temple  cither  intermitted,  or 
converted  into  an  idolatrous  worship,  the  first 
object  of  his  son  Hezekiah,  on  his  accession 
to  the  throne,  was  to  restore  the  legal  worship 
of  God,  both  in  Jerusalem  and  throughout  Ju- 
dea. He  cleansed  and  repaired  the  temple, 
and  held  a  solemn  passover.  He  improved  the 
city,  repaired  the  fortifications,  erected  maga- 
zines of  all  sorts,  and  built  a  new  aqueduct. 
In  the  fourth  year  of  his  reign,  Salmanezer, 
king  of  Assyria,  invaded  the  kingdom  of  Israel, 


took  Samaria,  and  carried  away  the  ten  tribes 
into  captivity,  replacing  them  by  different  peo- 
ple sent  from  his  own  country.  But  Hezekiah 
was  not  deterred  by  this  alarming  example 
from  refusing  to  pay  that  tribute  to  the  Assy- 
rians which  had  been  imposed  on  Ahaz  :  this 
brought  on  the  invasion  of  Sennacherib,  in 
the  fourteenth  year  of  the  reign  of  Hezekiah, 
of  which  we  have  a  very  particular  account  in 
the  writings  of  the  Prophet  Isaiah,  who  was 
then  living,  Isaiah  xxxvi. 

Immediately  after  the  termination  of  this 
war,  Hezekiah  "  was  sick  unto  death,"  owing, 
as  the  sacred  historian  strongly  intimates,  to 
his  heart  being  improperly  elevated  on  occa- 
sion of  this  miraculous  deliverance,  and  not 
sufficiently  acknowledging  the  hand  of  God  in 
it,  2  Kings  xx ;  Isaiah  xxxviii.  Isaiah  was 
sent  to  bid  him  set  his  house  in  order,  for  he 
should  die  and  not  live.  Hezekiah  had  instant 
recourse  to  God  by  prayer  and  supplications  for 
his  recovery ;  and  the  prophet  had  scarcely 
proceeded  out  of  the  threshold,  when  the  Lord 
commanded  him  to  return  to  Hezekiah,  and  to 
say  to  him,  "  Thus  saith  the  Lord,  I  have  heard 
thy  prayer,  and  I  have  seen  thy  tears :  I  will 
heal  thee  :  on  the  third  day  thou  shalt  go  up 
to  the  house  of  the  Lord,  and  I  will  add  unto 
thy  days  fifteen  years."  And  to  confirm  to 
him  the  certainty  of  all  these  tokens  of  the 
divine  regard,  the  shadow  of  the  sun  on  the 
dial  of  Ahaz,  at  his  request,  went  backward 
ten  degrees.  After  his  recovery,  he  composed 
an  ode  of  thanksgiving  to  the  God  of  all  his 
mercies,  which  the  Prophet  Isaiah  has  recorded 
in  his  writings,  Isaiah  xxxviii,  10,  11.  Yet, 
as  an  instance  of  human  fickleness  and  frailty, 
we  find  Hezekiah,  with  all  his  excellencies, 
again  forgetting  himself,  and  incurring  the 
divine  displeasure.  The  king  of  Babylon  hav- 
ing been  informed  of  his  sickness  and  recovery, 
sent  ambassadors  to  congratulate  him  on  his 
restoration  :  an  honour  with  which  the  heart 
of  Hezekiah  was  greatly  elated  ;  and,  to  testify 
his  gratitude,  he  made  a  pompous  display  to 
them  of  all  his  treasures,  his  spices,  and  his 
rich  vessels  ;  and  concealed  from  them  nothing 
that  was  in  his  palace.  In  all  this  the  pride 
of  Hezekiah  was  gratified  ;  and  to  humble  him, 
Isaiah  was  sent  to  declare  to  him  that  his  con- 
duct was  displeasing  to  God,  and  that  a  time 
should  come  when  all  the  treasures  of  which  he 
had  made  so  vain  a  display  should  be  removed 
to  Babylon,  and  even  his  sons  be  made  eunuchs 
to  serve  in  the  palace  of  the  king  of  Babylon. 
Hezekiah  bowed  submissively  to  the  will  of 
God,  and  acknowledged  the  divine  goodness 
toward  him,  in  ordaining  peace  and  truth  to 
continue  during  the  remainder  of  his  reign.  Ho 
accordingly  passed  the  latter  years  of  his  life  in 
tranquillity,  and  contributed  greatly  to  the  pros- 
perity of  his  people  and  kingdom.  He  died  in 
the  year  of  the  world  3306,  leaving  behind  him 
a  son,  Manasseh,  who  succeeded  him  in  the 
throne  :  a  son  every  way  unworthy  of  such  a 
lather. 

HIDDEKEL.     See  Eden. 

HIGH  PLACES.  The  prophets  reproach  the 
Israelites  for  nothing  with  more  zeal  than  for 


HIN 


457 


HIR 


worshipping  upon  the  high  places.  The  de- 
stroying of  these  high  places  is  a  commenda- 
tion given  only  to  few  princes  in  Scripture  ;  and 
many,  though  zealous  for  the  observance  of 
the  law,  had  not  courage  to  prevent  the  people 
from  sacrificing  upon  these  eminences.  Before 
the  temple  was  built,  the  high  places  were  not 
absolutely  contrary  to  the  law,  provided  God 
only  was  there  adored,  and  not  idols.  They 
seem  to  have  been  tolerated  under  the  judges  ; 
and  Samuel  offered  sacrifices  in  several  places 
where  the  ark  was  not  present.  Even  in  Da- 
vid's time  they  sacrificed  to  the  Lord  at  Shiloh, 
Jerusalem,  and  Gibeon.  But  after  the  temple 
was  built  at  Jerusalem,  and  the  ark  had  a  fixed 
settlement,  it  was  no  longer  allowed  to  sacri- 
fice out  of  Jerusalem.  The  high  places  were 
much  frequented  in  the  kingdom  of  Israel. 
The  people  sometimes  went  upon  those  mount- 
ains which  had  been  sanctified  by  the  presence 
of  patriarchs  and  prophets,  and  by  appearances 
of  God,  to  worship  the  true  God  there.  This 
worship  was  lawful,  except  as  to  its  being  ex- 
ercised where  the  Lord  had  not  chosen.  But 
they  frequently  adored  idols  upon  these  hills, 
and  committed  a  thousand  abominations  in 
groves,  and  caves,  and  tents  ;  and  hence  arose 
the  zeal  of  pious  kings  and  prophets  to  sup- 
press the  high  places.  Dr.  Prideaux  thinks  it 
probable  that  the  proscuchce,  open  courts,  built 
like  those  in  which  the  people  prayed  at  the 
tabernacle  and  the  temple,  wero  the  same  as 
those  called  high  places  in  the  Old  Testament. 
His  reason  is,  that  tho  proseuch<B  had  groves 
in  or  near  them,  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
high  places. 

HIN,  pn,  a  liquid  measure,  as  of  oil,  or  of 
wine,  Exodus  xxix,  40;  xxx,  24;  Lev.  xxiii. 
According  to  Josephus,  it  contained  two  Attic 
congii,  and  was  therefore  the  sixth  part  of  an 
ephah.  He  says  that  they  offered  with  an  ox 
half  a  hin  of  oil ;  in  English  measure,  six  pints, 
twenty-five  thousand  five  hundred  and  ninety- 
eight  solid  inches.  With  a  ram  they  offered 
the  third  part  of  a  hin,  or  three  pints,  ten 
thousand  four  hundred  and  sixty-nine  solid 
inches  :  with  a  lamb,  the  fourth  part  of  a  hin, 
or  two  pints,  fifteen  thousand  and  seventy-one 
eolid  inches. 

HIND,  n*K,  Gen.  xlix,  21 ;  2  Sam.  xxii,  34 ; 
Job  xxxix,  1  ;  Psalm  xviii,  33  ;  xxix,  9  ;  Prov. 
v,  19  ;  Cant,  ii,  7  ;  iii,  5  ;  Jer.  xiv,  5  ;  Hab. 
iii,  19  ;  the  mate  or  female  of  the  stag.  It  is 
a  lovely  creature,  and  of  an  elegant  shape.  It 
is  noted  for  its  swiftness  and  the  sureness  of 
its  step  as  it  jumps  among  the  rocks.  David 
and  Habakkuk  both  allude  to  this  character 
of  the  hind.  "The  Lord  niaketh  my  feet  like 
hinds'  feet,  and  causeth  me  to  stand  on  the 
high  places,"  Psalm  xviii,  33  ;  Hab.  iii,  19. 
The  circumstance  of  their  standing  on  the 
high  places  or  mountains  is  applied  to  these 
animals  by  Xenophon.  Our  translators  make 
Jacob,  prophesying  of  the  tribe  of  Naphtali, 
say,  "  Naphtali  is  a  hind  let  loose  :  he  giveth 
goodly  words,"  Gen.  xlix,  21.  There  is  a  diffi- 
culty and  incoherence  here  which  the  learned 
Bochart  removes  by  altering  a  little  the  punc- 
tuation of  the   original ;    and  it   then   reads, 


"Naphtali  is  a  spreading  tree,  shooting  forth 
beautiful  branches."  This,  indeed,  renders 
the  simile  uniform ;  but  another  critic  lias  re- 
marked that  "the  allusion  to  a  tree  seems  to 
be  purposely  reserved  by  the  venerable  patri- 
arch for  his  son  Joseph,  who  is  compared  to 
the  boughs  of  a  tree  ;  and  the  repetition  of  the 
idea  in  reference  to  Naphtali  is  every  way  un- 
likely. Beside,"  he  adds,  "  the  word  rendered 
'  let  loose,'  imports  an  active  motion,  not  like 
that  of  the  branches  of  a  tree,  which,  however 
freely  they  wave,  are  yet  attached  to  the  parent 
stock ;  but  an  emission,  a  dismission,  or  send- 
ing forth  to  a  distance  :  in  the  present  case,  a 
roaming,  roaming  at  liberty.  The  verb  '  he 
giveth'  may  denote  shooting  forth.  It  is  used 
of  production,  as  of  the  earth,  which  shoots 
forth,  yields,  its  increase,  Lev.  xxvi,  4.  The 
word  rendered  '  goodly'  signifies  noble,  grand, 
majestic ;  and  the  noun  translated  '  words' 
radically  signifies  divergences,  what  is  spread 
forth."  For  these  reasons  he  proposes  to  read 
the  passage,  "  Naphtali  is  a  deer  roaming  at 
liberty ;  he  shooteth  forth  spreading  branches," 
or  "  majestic  antlers."  Here  the  distinction  of 
imagery  is  preserved,  and  the  fecundity  of  the 
tribe  and  the  fertility  of  their  lot  intimated. 
In  our  version  of  Psalm  xxix,  9,  we  read,  "  The 
voice  of  the  Lord  maketh  the  hinds  to  calve, 
and  discovered!  the  forests."  Mr.  Merrick,  in 
an  ingenious  note  on  the  place,  attempts  to 
justify  the  rendering ;  but  Bishop  Lowth,  in 
his  "  Lectures  on  the  Sacred  Poetry  of  the 
Hebrews,"  observes  that  this  agrees  very  little 
with  the  rest  of  the  imagery,  either  in  nature 
or  dignity ;  and  that  he  does  not  feel  himself 
persuaded,  even  by  tho  reasonings  of  the  learn- 
ed Bochart  on  this  subject:  whereas  the  oak, 
struck  with  lightning,  admirably  agrees  with 
the  context.  Tho  Syriac  seems,  for  nV?^N,  hinds, 
to  have  read  nr^N,  oaks,  or  rather,  perhaps,  tere- 
binths. The  passage  may  be  thus  versified  : — 
"  Hark  !  his  voice  in  thunder  breaks, 
And  the  lofty  mountain  quakes; 
Mighty  trees  the  tempests  tear, 
And  lay  the  spreading  forests  bare  !" 
HINNOM,  Valley  of,  called  also  Tophet, 
and  by  the  Greeks  Gehenna,  a  small  valley  on 
the  south-east  of  Jerusalem,  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  Zion,  where  the  Canaanites,  and  after- 
ward the  Israelites,  sacrificed  their  children  to 
the  idol  Moloch,  by  making  them  "  pass 
through  the  fire,"  or  burning  them.  To  drown 
the  shrieks  of  the  victims  thus  inhumanly  sa- 
crificed, musical  instruments,  called  in  tiie 
Hebrew  tuph,  tympana  or  timbrels,  were  play- 
ed ;  whence  the  spot  derived  the  name  of- 
Tophet.  Ge  Hinnom,  or  "  The  Valley  of  Hin- 
nom,"  from  which  the  Greeks  framed  their 
Gehenna,  is  sometimes  used  in  Scripture  to 
denote  hell  or  hell  fire.     Seo  Hell. 

HIRAM,  king  of  Tyre,  and  son  of  Abibal, 
is  mentioned  by  profane  authors  as  distinguish- 
ed for  his  magnificence,  and  for  adorning  tin- 
city  of  Tyre.  When  David  was  acknowledged 
king  by  all  Israel,  Hiram  sent  ambassadors  wit  b 
artificers,  and  cedar,  to  build  his  palace.  Hi- 
ram also  sent  ambassadors  to  Solomon,  to  con- 
gratulate him  on  his  accession  to  the  crown 


I10L 


458 


HOL 


Solomon  desired  of  him  timber  and  stones  for 
building  the  temple,  with  labourers.  These 
Hiram  promised,  provided  Solomon  would 
furnish  him  with  eorn  and  oil.  The  two  princes 
lived  on  the  best  terms  with  each  other. 

HIRELING.  Moses  requires  that  the  hire- 
ling should  he  paid  as  soon  as  his  work  is 
over:  "The  wages  of  him  that  is  hired  shall 
not  abide  with  thee  all  night  unto  tho  morn- 
ing," Lev.  xix,  19.  A  hireling's  days  or  year 
is  a  kind  of  proverb,  signifying  a  full  year, 
without,  abating  any  tiling  of  it :  "His  days 
are  like  the  days  of  a  hireling,"  Job  vii,  1 ;  the 
days  of  man  are  like  those  of  a  hireling;  as 
nothing  is  deducted  from  them,  so  nothing, 
likewise  is  added  to  them.  And  again  :  "  Till 
he  shall  accomplish  as  a  hireling  his  day,"  Job 
xiv,  G  ;  to  the  timo  of  death,  which  he  waits 
for  as  the  hireling  for  the  end  of  the  day.  The 
following  passage  from  Morier's  Travels  in 
Persia,  illustrates  one  of  our  Lord's  parables  : 
"  The  most  conspicuous  building  in  Hama- 
dan  is  the  Mesjid  Jumah,  a  large  mosque  now 
falling  into  decay,  and  before  it  a  maidan  or 
square,  which  serves  as  a  market  place.  Here 
we  observed,  every  morning  before  the  sun 
rose,  that  a  numerous  band  of  peasants  were 
collected  with  spades  in  their  hands,  waiting, 
as  they  informed  us,  to  be  hired  for  the  day  to 
work  in  the  surrounding  fields.  This  custom, 
which  I  have  never  seen  in  any  other  part  of 
Asia,  forcibly  struck  me  as  a  most  happy  illus- 
tration of  our  Saviour's  parable  of  the  labour- 
ers in  the  vineyard  in  Matt,  xx ;  particularly 
when,  passing  by  the  same  place  late  in  the 
day,  we  still  found  others  standing  idle,  and 
remembered  his  words,  '  Why  stand  ye  here 
all  the  day  idle?'  as  most  applicable  to  their 
situation ;  for  in  putting  the  very  same  ques- 
tion to  them,  they  answered  us,  '  Because  no 
man  hath  hired  us.'" 

HITTITES,  the  descendants  of  Heth,  Gen. 
xv,  20. 

HIVITES,  a  people  descended  from  Ca- 
naan, Gen.  z,  17.  They  are  also  mentioned, 
Dent,  ii,  23.  The  inhabitants  of  Shechem, 
and  the  Gibconites,  were  Hivites,  Joshua  xi, 
19;  Gen.  xxxiv,  2.  Mr.  Bryant  supposes  the 
Hivites  to  be  the  same  as  the  Ophites,  or  an- 
cient worshippers  of  the  sun  under  the  figure 
of  a  serpent ;  which  was,  in  all  probability, 
the  deity  worshipped  at  Baal-IIermon. 

HOLY  GHOST,  the  third  person  in  the 
Trinity.  The  orthodox  doctrine  is,  that  as 
Christ  is  God  by  an  eternal  filiation,  so  the 
Spirit  is  God  by  procession  from  the  Father 
and  the  Son.  "  And  I  believe  in  the  Holy 
<iliost,"  says  the  Nicene  Creed,  "the  Lord 
and  (iiver  of  life,  who  proceedeth  from  the 
father  and  the  Son,  who,  with  the  Father  and 
the  S,.n  together,  is  worshipped  and  glorified." 
And  with  this  agrees  the  Athanaaian  Creed, 
"The  Holy  Ghost  is  of  the  Father  and  of  the 
Sen,  neither  made,  nor  created,  nor  begotten, 
but  proceeding."  In  the  Articles  of  the  Eng- 
lish church  it  is  thus  expressed:  "The  Holy 
Ghost,  proceeding  from  the  Father  and  the  Son, 
is  of  one  substance,  majesty,  and  glory  with 
the  Father  and  Ihe  Son,  very  and  eternal  God." 


The  Latin  church  introduced  the  term  spira- 
tion,  from  spiro,  "to  breathe,"  to  denote  the 
manner  of  this  procession :  on  which  Dr. 
Owen  remarks,  "As  the  vital  breath  of  a  man 
has  a  continual  emanation  from  him,  and  yet 
is  never  separated  utterly  from  his  person,  or 
forsaketh  him,  so  doth  the  Spirit  of  the  Father 
and  tho  Son  proceed  from  them  by  a  continual 
divine  emanation,  still  abiding  one  with  them." 
On  this  refined  view  little  can  be  said  which 
has  clear  Scriptural  authority ;  and  yet  the 
very  term  by  which  tho  Third  Person  in  the 
Trinity  is  designated,  Wind  or  Breath,  may, 
as  to  the  Third  Person,  be  designed,  like  the 
term  Son  applied  to  the  Second,  to  convey, 
though  imperfectly,  some  intimation  of  that 
manner  of  being  by  which  both  are  distin- 
guished from  each  other,  and  from  the  Father  ; 
and  it  was  a  remarkable  action  of  our  Lord, 
and  one  certainly  which  docs  not  discounte- 
nance this  idea,  that  when  ho  imparted  the 
Holy  Ghost  to  his  disciples,  "  He  breathed  on 
them,  and  saith  unto  them,  Receivo  ye  the 
Holy  Ghost,"  John  xx,  22. 

2.  But,  whatever  we  may  think  as  to  the 
doctrine  of  spiration,  the  procession  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  rests  on  more  direct  Scriptural  au- 
thority, and  is  thus  stated  by  Bishop  Pearson  : 
"  Now  this  procession  of  the  Spirit,  in  refer- 
ence to  the  Father,  is  delivered  expressly  in 
relation  to  the  Son,  and  is  contained  virtually 
in  the  Scriptures.  1.  It  is  expressly  said,  that 
the  Holy  Ghost  proceedeth  from  the  Father, 
as  our  Saviour  testifieth,  '  When  the  Comfort- 
er is  come,  whom  I  will  send  unto  you  from 
the  Father,  even  the  Spirit  of  truth,  which 
proceedeth  from  the  Father,  he  shall  testify  of 
me,'  John  xv,  26.  And  this  is  also  evident 
from  what  hath  been  already  asserted ;  for 
being  the  Father  and  the  Spirit  are  the  same 
God,  and,  being  so  the  same  in  the  unity  of 
the  nature  of  God,  are  yet  distinct  in  tho  per- 
sonality, one  of  them  must  have  the  same 
nature  from  the  other ;  and  because  the  Fa- 
ther hath  been  already  shown  to  have  it  from 
none,  it  followcth  that  the  Spirit  hath  it  from 
him.  2.  Though  it  be  not  expressly  spoken 
in  the  Scripture,  that  the  Holy  Ghost  proceed- 
eth from  the  Father  and  Son,  yet  the  substance 
of  the  same  truth  is  virtually  contained  there  ; 
because  those  very  expressions  which  are 
spoken  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in  relation  to  the 
Father,  for  that  reason,  because  he  proceedeth 
from  the  Father,  are  also  spoken  of  the  samo 
Spirit  in  relation  to  the  Son ;  and  therefore 
there  must  be  the  same  reason  presupposed  in 
reference  to  the  Son,  which  is  expressed  in 
reference  to  the  Father.  Because  the  Spirit 
proceedeth  from  the  Father,  therefore  it  is 
called  '  the  Spirit  of  God,'  and  '  the  Spirit  of 
the  Father.'  '  It  is  jtot  ye  that  speak,  but  the 
Spirit  of  your  Father  which  speaketh  in  you,' 
Matt,  x,  20.  For  by  the  language  of  tho 
Apostle,  '  the  Spirit  of  God'  is  the  Spirit  which 
is  of  God,  saying,  'The  things  of  God  know- 
eth  no  man,  but  the  Spirit  of  God.  And  we 
have  received  not  the  spirit  of  the  world,  but 
the  Spirit  which  is  of  God,'  1  Cor.  ii,  11,  12. 
Now  the  same  Spirit  is  also  called  '  the  Spirit 


HOL 


459 


IIOL 


of  the  Son :'  for  '  because  we  are  sons,  God 
hath  sent  forth  the  Spirit  of  his  Son  into  our 
hearts,'  Gal.  iv,  6.  'The  Spirit  of  Christ :' 
•  Now  if  any  man  have  not  the  Spirit  of 
Christ,  he  is  none  of  his,'  Romans  viii,  9 ; 
'  Even  the  Spirit  of  Christ  which  was  in  the 
prophets,'  1  Peter  i,  11.  'The  Spirit  of  Jesus 
Christ,'  as  the  Apostle  speaks  :  '  I  know  that 
this  shall  turn  to  my  salvation  through  your 
prayer,  and  the  supply  of  the  Spirit  of  Jesus 
Christ,'  Phil,  i,  19.  If  then  the  Holy  Ghost 
be  called  '  the  Spirit  of  the  Father,'  because 
he  proceedeth  from  the  Father,  it  followeth 
that,  being  called  also  '  the  Spirit  of  the  Son,' 
he  proceedeth  also  from  the  Son.  Again : 
because  the  Holy  Ghost  proceedeth  from  the 
Father,  he  is  therefore  sent  by  the  Father,  as 
from  him  who  hath,  by  the  original  communi- 
cation, a  right  of  mission;  as,  '  the  Comforter, 
which  is  the  Holy  Ghost,  whom  the  Father 
will  send,'  John  xiv,  26.  But  the  same  Spirit 
which  is  sent  by  the  Father,  is  also  sent  by 
the  Son,  as  he  saith,  '  When  the  Comforter  is 
come,  whom  I  will  send  unto  you.'  Therefore 
the  Son  hath  the  same  right  of  mission  with 
the  Father,  and  consequently  must  be  acknow- 
ledged to  have  communicated  the  same  essence. 
The  Father  is  never  sent  by  the  Son,  because 
he  received  not  the  Godhead  from  him ;  but 
the  Father  sendeth  the  Son,  because  he  com- 
municated the  Godhead  to  him :  in  the  same 
manner,  neither  the  Father  nor  the  Son  is 
ever  sent  by  the  Holy  Spirit ;  because  neither 
of  them  received  the  divine  nature  from  the 
Spirit :  but  both  the  Father  and  the  Son  send- 
eth the  Holy  Ghost,  because  the  divine  nature, 
common  to  the  Father  and  the  Son,  was  com- 
municated by  them  both  to  the  Holy  Ghost. 
As  therefore  the  Scriptures  declare  expressly, 
that  the  Spirit  proceedeth  from  the  Father ; 
so  do  they  also  virtually  teach,  that  he  pro- 
ceedeth from  the  Son." 

3.  Arius  regarded  the  Spirit  not  only  as  a 
creature,  but  as  created  by  Christ,  ncrtopa  ktis- 
ftaTo;,  the  creature  of  a  creature.  Some  time 
afterward,  his  personality  was  wholly  denied 
by  the  Arians,  and  he  was  considered  as  the 
exerted  energy  of  God.  This  appears  to  have 
been  the  notion  of  Socinus,  and,  with  occa- 
sional modifications,  has  been  adopted  by  his 
followers.  They  sometimes  regard  him  as  an 
attribute ;  and  at  others,  resolve  the  passages 
in  which  he  is  spoken  of  into  a  periphrasis,  or 
circumlocution,  for  God  himself;  or,  to  ex- 
press both  in  one,  into  a  figure  of  speech. 

4.  In  establishing  the  proper  personality  and 
deity  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  the  first  argument 
may  be  drawn  from  the  frequent  association, 
in  Scripture,  of  a  Person  under  that  appella- 
tion with  two  other  Persons,  one  of  whom, 
the  Father,  is  by  all  acknowledged  to  be 
divine  ;  and  the  ascription  to  each  of  them,  or 
to  the  three  in  union,  of  the  same  acts,  titles, 
and  authority,  with  worship,  of  the  same  kind, 
and,  for  any  distinction  that  is  made,  of  an 
equal  degree.  The  manifestation  of  the  ex- 
istence and  divinity  of  the  Holy  Spirit  may  be 
expected  in  the  law  and  the  prophels,  and  is, 
)n  fact,  to  be  traced  there  with  certainty.  The 


Spirit  is  represented  as  an  agent  in  creation, 
"moving  llpon  the  face  of  the  waters;"  and  it 
forms  no  objection  to  the  argument,  that  crea 
tion  is  ascribed  to  the  Father,  and  also  to  the 
Son,  but  is  a  great  confirmation  of  it.  That 
creation  should  be  effected  by  all  tin;  three 
Persons  of  the  Godhead,  though  acting  in  dif- 
ferent respects,  yet  so  that  each  should  be  a 
Creator,  and,  therefore,  both  a  Person  and  a 
divine  Person,  can  be  explained  only  by  then- 
unity  in  one  essence.  On  every  other  hypo- 
thesis this  Scriptural  fact  is  disallowed,  and 
therefore  no  other  hypothesis  can  be  true.  If 
the  Spirit  of  God  be  a  mere  influence,  then  he 
is  not  a  Creator,  distinct  from  the  Father  and 
the  Son,  because  he  is  not  a  Person ;  but  this 
is  refuted  both  by  the  passage  just  quoted,  and 
by  Psalm  xxxiii,  6:  "By  the  Word  of  the 
Lord  were  the  heavens  made  ;  and  all  the  host 
of  them  by  the  breath  (Heb.  Spirit)  of  his 
mouth."  This  is  farther  confirmed  by  Job 
xxxiii,  4  :  "  The  Spirit  of  God  hath  made  me, 
and  the  breath  of  the  Almighty  hath  given 
me  life  ;"  where  the  second  clause  is  obviously 
exegetic  of  the  former :  and  the  whole  text 
Iproves  that,  in  the  patriarchal  age,  the  follow- 
ers of  the  true  religion  ascribed  creation  to 
the  Spirit,  as  well  as  to  the  Father ;  and  that 
one  of  his  appellations  was,  "  the  Breath  of 
the  Almighty."  Did  such  passages  stand 
alone,  there  might,  indeed,  be  some  plausibility 
in  the  criticism  which  resolves  them  into  a 
personification;  but,  connected  as  they  are 
with  the  whole  body  of  evidence,  as  to  the 
concurring  doctrine  of  both  Testaments,  they 
are  inexpugnable.  Again:  If  the  personality 
of  the  Son  and  the  Spirit  be  allowed,  and  yet. 
it  is  contended  that  they  were  but  instruments 
in  creation,  through  whom  the  creative  power 
of  another  operated,  but  which  creative  power 
was  not  possessed  by  them  ;  on  this  hypothe- 
sis, too,  neither  the  Spirit  nor  the  Son  can  be 
said  to  create,  any  more  than  Moses  created 
the  serpent  into  which  his  rod  was  turned, 
and  the  Scriptures  are  again  contradicted. 
To  this  association  of  the  three  Persons  in 
creative  acts,  may  be  added  a  like  association 
in  acts  of  preservation,  which  has  been  well 
called  a  continued  creation,  and  by  that  term 
is  expressed  in  the  following  passage  :  "  These 
wait  all  upon  thee,  that  thou  mayest  give  them 
their  meat  in  due  season.  Thou  hidest  thy 
face,  they  are  troubled  ;  thou  takest  away  their 
breath,  they  die,  and  return  to  dust :  thou 
sendest  forth  thy  Spirit,  they  arc  created  ;  and 
thou  renewest  the  face  of  the  earth,"  Psalm 
civ,  27-30.  It  is  not  surely  here  meant,  that 
the  Spirit  by  which  the  generations  of  animals 
are  perpetuated,  is  wind;  and  if  lie  be  called 
an  attribute,  wisdom,  power,  or  both  united, 
where  do  we  read  of  such  attributes  being 
"sent,"  "sent  forth  from  God?"  The  person- 
ality of  the  Spirit  is  here  as  clearly  marked  as 
when  St.  Paul  speaks  of  God  "sending  forth 
the  Spirit  of  his  Son,"  and  when  our  Lord 
promises  to  "send"  the  Comforter  :  and  as  I  ho 
upholding  and  preserving  of  created  things 
s  ascribe^to  the  Father  and  the  Son,  so 
here    the^Bfe  ascribed,   also,    to    the    Spirit, 


HOL 


4G0 


HOL 


"  sent  fortli  from"  God  to  "  create  and  renew 
the  face  of  the  earth." 

5.  The  next  association  of  the  three  Persons 
we  find  in  the  inspiration  of  the  prophets  :  "God 
spake  unto  our  fathers  hy  the  prophets,"  says 
St.  Paul,  Ileh.  i,  1.  St.  Peter  declares  that 
these  "holy  men  of  God  spake  as  they  were 
moved  by  the  Holy  Ghost,"  2  Peter  i,  21 ;  and 
also  that  it  was  "  the  Spirit  of  Christ  which  was 
in  them,"  1  Peter  i,  11.  We  may  defy  any 
Socinian  to  interpret  these  three  passages  by 
making  the  Spirit  an  influence  or  attribute, 
and  thereby  reducing  the  term  Holy  Ghost 
into  a  figure  of  speech.  "God,"  in  the  first 
passage,  is,  unquestionably,  God  the  Father; 
and  the  "  holy  men  of  God,"  the  prophets, 
would  then,  according  to  this  view,  be  moved 
by  the  influence  of  the  Father ;  but  the  influence, 
according  to  the  third  passage,  which  was  the 
source  of  their  inspiration,  was  the  Spirit,  or  the 
influence  of  "  Christ."  Thus  the  passages  con- 
tradict each  other.  Allow  the  trinity  in  unity, 
and  you  have  no  difficulty  in  calling  the  Spirit, 
the  Spirit  of  the  Father,  and  the  Spirit  of  the 
Son,  or  the  Spirit  of  either ;  but  if  the  Spirit  be 
an  influence,  that  influence  cannot  be  the  influ- 
ence of  two  persons, — one  of  them  God,  and  the 
other  a  creature.  Even  if  they  allowed  thepre- 
existence  of  Christ,  with  Arians,  these  passages 
are  inexplicable  by  the  Socinians  ;  but,  denying 
his  preexistence,  they  have  no  subterfuge  but 
to  interpret,  "  the  Spirit  of  Christ,"  the  spirit 
which  prophesied  of  Christ,  which  is  a  purely 
gratuitous  paraphrase;  or  "the  spirit  of  an 
anointed  one,  or  -prophet ;"  that  is,  the  pro- 
phet's own  spirit,  which  is  just  as  gratuitous 
and  as  unsupported  by  any  parallel  as  the 
former.  If,  however,  the  Holy  Ghost  be  the 
Spirit  of  the  Father  and  of  the  Son,  united  in 
one  essence,  the  passages  are  easily  harmonized. 
In  conjunction  with  the  Father  and  the  Son, 
he  is  the  source  of  that  prophetic  inspiration 
under  which  the  prophets  spoke  and  acted. 
So  the  same  Spirit  which  raised  Christ  from 
the  dead,  is  said  by  St.  Peter  to  have  preached 
by  Noah  while  the  ark  was  preparing ; — in  al- 
lusion to  the  passage,  "My  Spirit  shall  not 
always  strive  (contend,  debate)  with  man." 
This,  we  may  observe,  affords  an  eminent, 
proof,  that  the  writers  of  the  New  Testament 
understood  the  phrase,  "the  Spirit  of  God,"  as 
it.  occurs  in  the  Old  Testament,  personally. 
For,  whatever  may  be  the  full  meaning  of  that 
difficult,  passage  in  St.  Peter,  Christ  is  clearly 
declared  to  have  preached  by  the  Spirit  in  the 
days  of  Noah  ;  that  is,  he,  by  the  Spirit,  in- 
spired Noah  to  preach.  If,  then,  the  Apostles 
understood  that  the  Holy  Ghost  was  a  Person, 
a  point  which  will  presently  be  established,  we 
have,  in  tin;  text  just  quoted  from  the  book  of 
Genesis,  ;i  key  to  the  meaning  of  those  texts 
in  the  Old  Testament  where  the  phrases,  "  My 
Spirit,"  "  t In-  Spirit  of  God,"  and  "the  Spirit 
of  the  Lord,"  occur;  and  inspired  authority  is 
thus  afforded  us  to  interpret  them  as  of  a  Per- 
son ;  and  if  of  a  Person,  the  very  effort  made 
by  Socinians  to  deny  his  personality,  itself, 
indicates  that  that  Person  must,  from  the  lofty 
titles  and  works  ascribed  to  him,  fljnevitably 


roni  t.l 


divine.  Such  phrases  occur  in  many  passages 
of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures ;  but,  in  the  follow- 
ing, the  Spirit  is  also  eminently  distinguished 
from  two  other  Persons  :  "And  now  the  Lord 
God,  and  his  Spirit,  hath  sent  me,"  Isaiah 
xlviii,  16 ;  or,  rendered  better,  "  hath  sent  me 
and  his  Spirit,"  both  terms  being  in  the  accu- 
sative case.  "  Seek  ye  out  of  the  book  of  the 
Lord,  and  read :  for  my  mouth  it  hath  com- 
manded, and  his  Spirit  it  hath  gathered  them," 
Isaiah  xxxiv,  16.  "  I  am  with  you,  saith  the 
Lord  of  Hosts,  according  to  the  word  that  I 
covenanted  with  you  when  ye  came  out  of 
Egypt,  so  my  Spirit  remaineth  among  you  : 
fear  ye  not.  For  thus  saith  the  Lord  of  Hosts, 
I  will  shake  all  nations,  and  the  Desire  of  all 
nations  shall  come,"  Hag.  ii,  4-7.  Here,  also, 
the  Spirit  of  the  Lord  is  seen  collocated  with 
the  Lord  of  Hosts  and  the  Desire  of  all  nations, 
who  is  the  Messiah. 

6.  Three  Persons,  and  three  only,  are  asso- 
ciated also,  both  in  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ment, as  objects  of  supreme  worship  ;  and  form 
the  one  "  name  "  in  which  the  religious  act  of 
solemn  benediction  is  performed,  and  to  which 
men  are  bound  by  solemn  baptismal  covenant. 
In  the  plural  form  of  the  name  of  God,  each 
received  equal  adoration.  This  threefold  per- 
sonality seems  to  have  given  rise  to  the  stand 
ing  form  of  triple  benediction  used  by  the 
Jewish  high  priest.  The  very  important  fact, 
that,  in  the  vision  of  Isaiah,  the  Lord  of  hosts, 
who  spake  unto  the  prophet,  is,  in  Acts  xxviii, 
25,  said  to  be  the  Holy  Ghost,  while  St.  John 
declares  that  the  glory  which  Isaiah  saw  was 
the  glory  of  Christ,  proves,  indisputabby,  that 
each  of  the  three  Persons  bears  this  august 
appellation ;  it  gives  also  the  reason  for  the 
threefold  repetition,  "  Holy,  holy,  holy  !"  and 
it  exhibits  the  prophet  and  the  very  seraphs 
in  deep  and  awful  adoration  before  the  Triune 
Lord  of  hosts.  Beth  the  prophet  and  the 
seraphim  were,  therefore,  worshippers  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  and  of  the  Son,  at  the  very  time 
and  by  the  very  acts  in  which  they  worshipped 
the  Father ;  which  proves  that,  as  the  threo 
Persons  received  equal  homage  in  a  case  which 
does  not  admit  of  the  evasion  of  pretended  su- 
perior and  inferior  worship,  they  are  equal  in 
majesty,  glory,  and  essence. 

7.  As  in  the  tabernacle  form  of  benediction, 
the  Triune  Jehovah  is  recognised  as  the  source 
of  all  grace  and  peace  to  his  creatures  ;  so  also 
we  have  the  apostolic  formula  :  "  The  grace^of 
our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  the  love  of  God, 
and  the  communion  of  the  Holy  Spirit  be  with 
you  all.  Amen."  Here  the  personality  of  tlie 
three  is  kept  distinct ;  and  the  prayer  is,  that 
Christians  may  have  a  common  participation 
of  the  Holy  Spirit,  that  is,  doubtless,  as  he  was 
promised  by  our  Lord  to  his  disciples,  as  a 
Comforter,  as  the  Source  of  light  and  spiritual 
life,  as  the  Author  of  regeneration.  Thus  the 
Spirit  is  acknowledged,  equally  with  the  Father 
and  the  Son,  to  be  the  Source  and  the  Giver 
of  the  highest  spiritual  blessings ;  while  this 
solemn  ministerial  benediction  is,  from  its 
specific  character,  to  bo  regarded  as  an  act  of 
prayer  to  each  of  the  three  Persons,  and  there- 


HOL 


461 


HOL 


fore  is  at  once,  an  acknowledgment  of  the  divi- 
nity and  personality  of  each.  The  same  remark 
applies  to  Revelation  i,  4,  5  :  "  Grace  be  unto 
you,  and  peace,  from  Him  which  was,  and 
which  is,  and  which  is  to  come ;  and  from  the 
seven  spirits  which  are  before  his  throne,"  (an 
emblematical  reference,  probably  to  the  golden 
branch  with  its  seven  lamps,)  "  and  from  Jesus 
Christ."  The  style  of  this  book  sufficiently 
accounts  for  the  Holy  Spirit  being  called  "the 
seven  spirits  ;"  but  no  created  spirit  or  company 
of  created  spirits  is  ever  spoken  of  under  that 
appellation :  and  the  place  assigned  to  the  seven 
spirits,  between  the  mention  of  the  Father  and 
the  Son,  indicates,  with  certainty,  that  one 
of  the  sacred  Three,  so  eminent,  and  so  ex- 
clusively eminent  in  both  dispensations,  is 
intended. 

8.  The  form  of  baptism  next  presents  itself 
with  demonstrative  evidence  on  the  two  points 
before  us,  the  personality  and  divinity  of  the 
Holy  Spirit.     It  is  the  form  of  covenant  by 
which  the  sacred  Three  become  our  one  or 
only  God,  and  we  become  his  people :    "  Go 
ye,  therefore,  and  teach  all  nations,  baptizing 
them  in  the  name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the 
Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost."     In  what  man- 
ner is  this  text  to  be  disposed  of,  if  the  person- 
ality of  the  Holy  Ghost  is  denied  ?   Is  the  form 
of  baptism  to  be  so  understood  as  to  imply  that 
baptism  is  in  the  name  of  one  God,  one  crea- 
ture, and  one  attribute  ?  The  grossness  of  this 
absurdity  refutes  it,  and  proves  that  here,  at 
least,  there  can  be  no  personification.     If  all 
the  Three,  therefore,  are  persons,  are  we  to 
have  baptism  in  the  name  of  one  God  and  two 
creatures  ?  This  would  be  too  near  an  approach 
to  idolatry,   or,  rather,   it  would   be  idolatry 
itself;    for,  considering  baptism  as  an  act  of 
dedication  to  God,  the  acceptance  of  God  as 
our  God,  on  our  part,  and  the  renunciation  of 
all  other  deities  and  all  other  religions,  what 
could  a  Heathen  convert  conceive  of  the  two 
creatures  so  distinguished  from  all  other  crea- 
tures in  heaven  and  in  earth,  and  so  associated 
with  God  himself  as  to  form  together  the  one 
name,  to  which,  by  that  act,  he  was  devoted, 
and  which  he  was  henceforward  to  profess  and' 
honour,    but    that   they  were  equally  divine, 
unless  special  care  were  taken  to  instruct  him 
that  but  one  of  the  Three  was  God,  and  the 
two  others  but  creatures?  But  of  this  care,  of 
this  cautionary  instruction,  though  so  obviously 
necessary  upon  this  theory,  no  single  instance 
can  be  given  in  all  the  writings  of  the  Apostles. 
9.  But  other  arguments  are  not  wanting  to 
prove  both  the  personality  and  the  divinity  of 
the  Holy  Spirit.     With  respect  to  the  former, 
(1.)  The  mode  of  his  subsistence  in  the  sacred 
Trinity  proves  his  personality.     lie  proceeds 
from   the   Father   and  the   Son,   and  cannot, 
therefore,  be  either.     To  say  that  an  attribute 
proceeds  and  comes  forth,  would  be  a  gross 
absurdity.      (2.)   Many  passages  of  Scripture 
are  wholly  unintelligible  and  even  absurd,  un- 
less the  Holy  Ghost  is  allowed  to  be  a  person. 
For  as  those  who  take  the  phrase  as  ascribing 
no  more  than  a  figurative  personality  to  an  at- 
tribute, make  that  attribute  to  be  the  enefgy  or 


power  of  God,  they  reduce  such  passages  as 
the  following  to  utter  unmcaningness :  "God 
anointed  Jesus  with  the  Holy  Ghost  and  with 
power ;"  that  is,  with  the  power  of  God  and 
with  power.  "  That  ye  may  abound  in  hope 
through  the  power  of  the  Holy  Ghost ;"  that 
is,  through  the  power  of  power.  "  In  demon- 
stration of  the  Spirit  and  of  power ;"  that  is, 
in  demonstration  of  power  and  of  power. 
(3.)  Personification  of  any  kind  is,  in  some 
passages  in  which  the  Holy  Ghost  is  spoken 
of,  impossible.  The  reality  which  this  figure 
of  speech  is  said  to  present  to  us,  is  either  some 
of  the  attributes  of  God,  or  else  the  doctrine 
of  the  Gospel.  Let  this  theory,  then,  be  tried 
upon  the  following  passages:  "He  shall  not 
speak  of  himself;  but  whatsoever  he  shall  hear, 
that  shall  he  speak."  What  attribute  of  God 
can  here  be  personified  ?  And  if  the  doctrine 
of  the  Gospel  be  arrayed  with  personal  attri- 
butes, where  is  there  an  instance  of  so  mon- 
strous a  prosopopoeia  as  this  passage  would 
exhibit  ? — the  doctrine  of  the  Gospel  not  speak- 
ing "  of  himself,"  but  speaking  "  whatsoever 
he  shall  hear  !" — "  The  Spirit  maketh  interces- 
sion for  us."  What  attribute  is  capable  of  in- 
terceding, or  how  can  the  doctrine  of  the 
Gospel  intercede  ?  Personification,  too,  is  the 
language  of  poetry,  and  takes  place  naturally 
only  in  excited  and  elevated  discourse ;  but  if 
the  Holy  Spirit  be  a  personification,  we  find  it 
in  the  ordinary  and  cool  strain  of  mere  narra- 
tion and  argumentative  discourse  in  the  New 
Testament,  and  in  the  most  incidental  conver- 
sations. "Have  ye  received  the  Holy  Ghost 
since  ye  believed  ?  We  have  not  so  much  as 
heard  whether  there  beany  Holy  Ghost."  How 
impossible  is  it  here  to  extort,  by  any  process 
whatever,  even  the  shadow  of  a  personification 
of  either  any  attribute  of  God,  or  of  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Gospel!  So  again  :  "The  Spirit 
said  unto  Philip,  Go  near,  and  join  thyself  to 
this  chariot."  Could  it  be  any  attribute  of  God 
which  said  this,  or  could  it  be  the  doctrine  of 
the  Gospel  ?  Finally,  that  the  Holy  Ghost  is 
a  person,  and  not  an  attribute,  is  proved  by 
the  use  of  masculine  pronouns  and  relatives  in 
the  Greek  of  the  New  Testament,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  neuter  noun  Tlvcvfui,  Spirit,  and 
also  by  many  distinct  personal  acts  being  as- 
cribed to  him,  as,  "to  come,"  "to  go,"  "to  be 
sent,"  "to  teach,"  "to  guide,"  "to  comfort," 
"to  make  intercession,"  "to  bear  witness," 
"  to  give  gifts,"  "  dividing  them  to  every  man 
as  he  will,"  "to  be  vexed,"  "grieved,"  and 
"  quenched."  These  cannot  be  applied  to  the 
mere  fiction  of  a  person,  and  they  therefore 
establish  the  Spirit's  true  personality. 

10.  Some  additional  arguments  to  those 
before  given  to  establish  the  divinity  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  may  also  be  adduced.  The  first  is 
taken  from  his  being  the  subject  of  blasphemy  : 
"The  blasphemy  against  the  Holy  Ghost  shall 
not  be  forgiven  unto  men,"  Malt,  xii,  31.  This 
blasphemy  consisted  in  ascribing  his  miracu- 
lous works  to  Satan  ;  and  that  he  is  capable  of 
being  blasphemed  proves  him  to  be  as  much  a 
person  as  the  Son  ;  and  it  proves  him  to  be 
divine,  because  it  shows  that  ho  may  be  sinned 


HOL 


462 


HOL 


against,  and  .so  .sinned  against  that  tin;  bias. 
phemer  shall  not  he  forgiven.  A  person  he 
must  be,  or  he  could  not  bo  blasphemed :  ;i 
divine  person  he  must  be,  to  constitute  this 
blasphemy  a  sin  against  him  in  the  propel 
sense,  and  of  so  malignant  a  kind  as  to  place 
it  beyond  the  reach  of  mercy.  He  is  called 
God:  "Why  hath  Satan  tilled  thine  heart  to 
lie  unto  the  Holy  Ghost  ?  Why  hast  thou  con- 
ceived this  in  thine  heart  ?  Thou  hast  not  lied 
unto  men,  but  unto  God,"  Acts  v,  3,  4.  Ana- 
nias is  t.iiil  tnJiave  lied  particularly  "  unto  the 
Holy  Ghost,"  Because  the  Apostles  were  under 
his  special  direction  in  establishing  the  tempo- 
rary regulation  among  Christians  that  they 
should  have  all  things  in  common  :  the  detec- 
tion of  the  crime  itself  was  a  demonstration 
of  the  divinity  of  the  Spirit,  because  it  showed 
his  omniscience,  his  knowledge  of  the  most 
secret  acts.  In  addition  to  the  proof  of  his 
divinity  thus  afforded  by  this  history,  he  is 
also  called  God :  "  Thou  hast  not  lied  unto 
men,  but  unto  God."  lie  is  also  called  the 
Lord  :  "  Now  the  Lord  is  that  Spirit,"  2  Cor. 
iii,  17.  He  is  eternal :  "  The  eternal  Spirit," 
Ileb.  ix,  14.  Omnipresence  is  ascribed  to  him: 
"  Your  body  is  the  temple  of  the  Holy  Ghost," 
1  Cor.  vi,  19.  "As  many  as  arc  led  by  the 
Spirit  of  God,  they  are  the  sons  of  God,"  Rom. 
viii,  14.  For,  as  all  true  Christians  are  his 
temples,  and  are  led  by  him,  he  must  bo  pre- 
sent to  them  at  all  times  and  in  all  places. 
He  is  omniscient:  "The  Spirit  scarcheth  all 
things,  yea,  the  deep  things  of  God,"  1  Cor. 
li,  10.  Here  the  Spirit  is  said  to  search  or 
know  "all  things"  absolutely;  and  then,  to 
make  this  more  emphatic,  that  he  knows  even 
"the  deep  things  of  God,"  things  hidden  from 
every  creature,  the  depths  of  his  essence,,  and 
the  secrets  of  his  counsels ;  for,  that  this  is 
intended,  appears  from  the  next  verse,  where 
he  is  said  to  know  "  the  things  of  God,"  as  the 
spirit  of  a  man  knows  the  things  of  a  man. 
Supreme  majesty  is  also  attributed  to  liim,  so 
that  to  "  lie"  to  him,  to  "  blaspheme"  him,  to 
"  vex"  him,  to  do  him  "despite,"  arc  sins,  and 
as  such  render  the  offender  liable  to  divine 
punishment.  How  impracticable  then  is  it  to 
interpret  the  phrase,  "  the  Holy  Ghost,"  as  a 
periphrasis  for  God  himself!  A  Spirit,  which 
is  the  Spirit  of  God,  which  is  so  often  distin- 
guished from  the  Father,  which  "sees"  and 
"  hears"  the  Father,  which  searches  "  the  deep 
things"  of  Gad,  which  is  "sent"  by  the  Father, 
which  "proceedeth"  from  him,  and  who  has 
ipecial  prayer  addressed  to  him  at  the  same 
tune  as  the  Father,  cannot,  though  "  one  with 
him,"  be  the  Father;  and  that  he  is  not  the 
Son  is  acknowledged  on  both  sides.  As  a  di- 
vine person,  our  regards  are  therefore  justly 
due  to  him  as  t  ho  object  of  worship  and  trust, 
of  prayer  and  blessing. 

II.  Various  are  the.  gracious  offices  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  in  the  work  of  our  redemption, 
lie  it  is  that  first  quickens  the  soul,  dead  in 
trespasses  and  sins,  to  spiritual  life;  it  is  by 
him  ue  ,ne  ■■  born  again,"  and  made  new  crea- 
tun  |  he  is  the  living  rool  of  all  the  Clrristian 
graces,  which  arc  thuicfure  called  "the  fruits" 


of  the  Spirit;  and  by  him  all  true  Christians 
are  aided  in  (lie  "  infirmities"  and  afflictions  of 
Ibis  present  life.  Eminently,  he  is  promised 
to  the  disciples  as  "the  Comforter,"  which  is 
more  fully  explained  by  St.  Paul  by  the  phrase 
"  the  Spirit  of  adoption  ;"  so  that  it  is  through 
him  that  we  receive  a  direct  inward  testimony 
to  our  personal  forgiveness  and  acceptance 
through  Christ,  and  are  filled  with  peace  and 
consolation.  This  doctrine,  so  essential  to  the 
solid  and  habitual  happiness  of  those  who  be- 
lieve in  Christ,  is  thus  clearly  explained  in 
a  sermon  on  that  subject  by  the  Rev.  John 
Wesley  : — 

"  (1.)  But  what  is  the  witness  of  the  Spirit  ? 
The  original  word,  fiaprvpia,  may  be  rendered 
either,  as  it  is  in  several  places,  the  witness,  or, 
less  ambiguously,  the  testimony,  or,  the  record: 
so  it  is  rendered  in  our  translation:  'This  is 
the  record,'  the  testimony,  the  sum  of  what 
God  testifies  in  all  the  inspired  writings,  '  that 
God  hath  given  unto  us  eternal  life,  and  this 
life  is  in  his  Son,'  1  John  v,  11.  The  testi- 
mony now  under  consideration  Is  given  by  the 
vSpirit  of  God  to  and  with  our  spirit.  He  is 
the  person  testifying.  What  he  testifies  to  us 
is,  '  that  we  are  the  children  of  God.'  The 
immediate  result  of  this  testimony  is,  'the 
fruit  of  the  Spirit;'  namely,  'love,  joy,  peace, 
long  suffering,  gentleness,  goodness.'  And 
without  these,  the  testimony  itself  cannot  con- 
tinue. For  it  is  inevitably  destroyed,  not  only 
by  the  commission  of  any  outward  sin,  or  the 
omission  of  known  duty,  but  by  giving  way  to 
any  inward  sin  :  in  a  word,  by  whatever  grieves 
the  Holy  Spirit  of  God.  (2.)  I  observed  many 
years  ago,  It  is  hard  to  find  words  in  the  lan- 
guage of  men  to  explain  the  deep  things  of 
God.  Indeed,  there  are  none  that  will  ade- 
quately express  what  the  Spirit  of  God  works 
in  his  children.  But,  perhaps,  one  might  say, 
(desiring  any  who  arc  taught  of  God  to  cor- 
rect, soften,  or  strengthen  the  expression,)  By 
the  '  testimony  of  the  Spirit,'  I  mean,  an  in- 
ward impression  on  the  soul,  whereby  the 
Spirit  of  God  immediately  and  directly  wit- 
nesses with  my  spirit,  that  I  .am  a  child  of 
God;  that  'Jesus  Christ  hath  loved  me,  and 
given  himself  for  me ;'  that  all  my  sins  are 
blotted  out,  and  I,  even  I,  am  reconciled  to 
God.  (3.)  After  twenty  years'  farther  con- 
sideration, I  see  no  cause  to  retract  any  part. 
of  this.  Neither  do  I  conceive  how  any  of 
these  expressions  may  be  altered,  so  as  to  make 
them  more  intelligible.  I  can  only  add,  that 
if  any  of  the  children  of  God  will  point  out  any 
other  expressions  which  are  more  clear,  or 
more  agreeable  to  the  word  of  God,  I  will 
readily  lay  these  aside.  (I.)  Meantime,  let  it 
be  observed,  I  do  not  mean  hereby,  that  the 
Spirit  of  God  testifies  this  by  any  outward 
voice ;  no,  nor  always  by  an  inward  voice, 
although  he  may  do  this  sometimes.  Neither 
do  I  suppose,  that  he  always  applies  to  the 
heart,  though  he  often  may,  one  or  more  texts 
of  Scripture.  Hut  he  so  works  upon  the  soul 
by  his  immediate  influence,  and  by  a  strong, 
though  inexplicable,  operation,  that  the  stormy 
•wind  and  troubled  waves  subside,  and  there  i* 


HOL 


463 


HOL 


a  sweet  calm  :  the  heart  resting  as  in  the  arms 
of  Jesus,  and  the  sinner  being  clearly  satisfied 
that  all  his  'iniquities  are  forgiven,  and  his  sins 
covered.'  (5.)  Now  what  is  the  matter  of  dis- 
pute concerning  this  ?  Not,  whether  there  be 
a  witness  or  testimony  of  the  Spirit.  Not, 
whether  the  Spirit  does  testify  with  our  spirit, 
that  we  are  the  children  of  God.  None  can 
deny  this,  without  flatly  contradicting  the 
Scriptures,  and  charging  a  lie  upon  the  God 
of  truth.  Therefore,  that  there  is  a  testimony 
of  the  Spirit,  is  acknowledged  by  all  parties. 
(6.)  Neither  is  it  questioned,  whether  there  is 
an  indirect  witness  or  testimony,  that  we  are 
the  children  of  God.  This  is  nearly,  if  not 
exactly,  the  same  with  '  the  testimony  of  a 
good  conscience  toward  God  ;'  and  is  the  result 
of  reason  or  reflection  on  what  we  feel  in  our 
own  souls.  Strictly  speaking,  it  is  a  conclu- 
sion drawn  partly  from  the  word  of  God,  and 
partly  from  our  own  experience.  The  word 
of  God  says,  Every  one  who  has  the  fruit  of 
the  Spirit  is  a  child  of  God.  Experience  or 
inward  consciousness  tells  me,  that  I  have  the 
fruit  of  the  Spirit ;  and  hence  I  rationally  con- 
clude, Therefore  I  am  a  child  of  God.  This 
is  likewise  allowed  on  all  hands,  and  so  is  no 
matter  of  controversy.  (7.)  Nor  do  we  assert, 
that  there  can  be  any  real  testimony  of  the 
Spirit,  without  the  fruit  of  the  Spirit.  We  as- 
sert, on  the  contrary,  that  the  fruit  of  the 
Spirit  immediately  springs  from  this  testi- 
mony ;  not  always  indeed  in  the  same  degree 
even  when  the  testimony  is  first  given ;  and 
much  less  afterward  :  neither  joy  nor  peace  is 
always  at  one  stay.  No,  nor  love  :  as  neither 
is  the  testimony  itself  always  equally  strong 
and  clear.  (8.)  But  the  point  in  question  is, 
whether  there  be  any  direct  testimony  of  the 
Spirit  at  all ;  whether  there  be  any  other  tes- 
timony of  the  Spirit,  than  that  which  arises 
from  a  consciousness  of  the  fruit.  I  believe 
there  is,  because  that  is  the  plain,  natural 
meaning  of  the  text,  'The  Spirit  itself  beareth 
witness  with  our  spirit,  that  we  are  the  chil- 
dren of  God.'  It  is  manifest  here  are  two  wit- 
nesses mentioned,  who  together  testify  the 
same  thing,  the  Spirit  of  God,  and  our  own 
spirit.  The  late  bishop  of  London,  in  his  ser- 
mon on  this  text,  seems  astonished  that  any 
one  can  doubt  of  this,  which  appears  upon  the 
very  face  of  the  words.  Now,  'the  testimony 
of  our  own  spirit,'  says  the  bishop,  '  is  one 
which  is  the  consciousness  of  our  own  sinceri- 
ty ;'  or,  to  express  the  same  thing  a  little  more 
clearly,  the  consciousness  of  the  fruit  of  the 
Spirit.  When  our  spirit  is  conscious  of  this, 
ol"  love,  joy,  peace,  long  suffering,  gentleness, 
goodness,  it  easily  infers  from  these  premises, 
that  we  are  the  children  of  God.  It  is  true, 
that  great  man  supposes  the  other  witness  to 
be  '  toe  consciousness  of  our  own  good  works.' 
This,  he  affirms,  is 'the  testimony  of  God's 
Spirit.'  But  this  is  included  in  the  testimony 
of  our  own  spirit :  yea,  and  in  sincerity,  even 
according  to  the  common  sense  of  the  word. 
So  the  Apostle:  'Our  rejoicing  is  this,  the 
testimony  of  our  conscience,  that  in  simplicity 
and  godly  sincerity  wo  have  our  conversation 


in  the  world  ;'  where  it  is  plain,  sincerity  refers 
to  our  words  and  actions,  at  least,  as  much  as 
to  our  inward  dispositions.  So  that  this  is  not 
another  witness,  but  the  very  same  that  ho 
mentioned  before :  the  consciousness  of  our 
good  works  being  only  one  branch  of  the  con- 
sciousness of  our  sincerity.  Consequently, 
here  is  only  one  witness  still.  If  therefore, 
the  text  speaks  of  two  witnesses,  one  of  these 
is  not  the  consciousness  of  our  good  works, 
neither  of  our  sincerity ;  all  this  being  mani- 
festly contained  in  '  the  testimony  of  our  spirit.' 
What,  then,  is  the  other  witness  ?  This  might 
easily  be  learned,  if  the  text  itself  were  not 
sufficiently  clear,  from  the  verse  immediately 
preceding :  '  Ye  have  received,  not  the  spirit 
of  bondage,  but  the  Spirit  of  adoption,  where- 
by we  cry,  Abba,  Father.'  It  follows,  '  The 
Spirit  itself  beareth  witness  with  our  spirit, 
that  we  are  the  children  of  God.'  This  is  far- 
ther explained  by  the  parallel  text,  Gal.  iv,  G : 
'  Because  ye  are  sons,  God  hath  sent  fortli  the 
Spirit  of  his  Son  into  your  hearts,  crying, 
Abba,  Father.'  Is  not  this  something  imme- 
diate and  direct,  not  the  result  of  reflection  or 
argumentation  ?  Does  not  this  Spirit  cry, 
'  Abba,  Father,'  in  our  hearts,  the  moment  it  is 
given  ?  antecedently  to  any  reflection  upon 
our  sincerity,  yea,  to  any  reasoning  what- 
soever ?  And  is  not  this  the  plain,  natural 
sense  of  the  words,  which  strikes  any  one  as 
soon  as  he  hears  them  ?  All  these  texts,  then, 
in  their  most  obvious  meaning,  describe  a  di- 
rect testimony  of  the  Spirit.  That  the  testi- 
mony of  the  Spirit  of  God,  must,  in  the  very 
nature  of  things,  be  antecedent  to  the  testi- 
mony of  our  own  spirit,  may  appear  from  this 
single  consideration :  We  must  be  holy  in 
heart  and  life,  before  we  can  be  conscious  that 
we  arc  so.  But  we  must  love  God  before  we 
can  be  holy  at  all,  this  being  the  root  of  all 
holiness.  Now,  we  cannot  love  God,  till  we 
know  he  loves  us  :  '  We  love  him,  because  he 
first  loved  us.'  And  we  cannot  know  his  love 
to  us,  till  his  Spirit  witnesses  it  to  our  spirit. 
Since,  therefore,  the  testimony  of  his  Spirit 
must  precede  the  love  of  God  and  all  holiness, 
of  consequence  it  must  precede  our  conscious- 
ness thereof." 

12.  The  precedence  of  the  direct  witness  of 
the  Spirit  of  God  to  the  indirect  witness  of  our 
own,  and  the  dependence  of  the  latter  upon 
the  former,  arc  also  clearly  stated  by  other 
divines  of  great  authority.  Calvin,  on  Romans 
viii,  16,  says,  "  St.  Paul  means  that  the  Spirit 
of  God  gives  such  a  testimony  to  us,  that  he 
being  our  guide  and  teacher,  our  spirit  con- 
cludes our  adoption  of  God  to  be  certain.  For 
our  own  mind,  of  itself,  independent  of  the 
preceding  testimony  of  tho  Spirit,  [nisi  prteuntc 
Spiritus  testimonio,]  could  not  produce  this 
persuasion  in  us.  For  while  the  Spirit  wit- 
nesses that  we  aro  the  sons  of  God,  he  at  the 
same  time  inspires  this  confidence  into  our 
minds,  that  we  are  bold  to  call  God  our  Fa- 
ther." On  the  same  passage  Dr.  John  Owen 
says,  "  The  Spirit  itself  beareth  witness  with 
our  spirits  that  we  are  the  sons  of  God ;  the 
witness  which  our  own  spirits  do  give  unto 


HON 


464 


HOP 


our  adoption  is  the  work  and  effect  of  tho  Holy 
Spirit  in  us ;  if  it  were  not,  it  would  be  false, 
and  not  confirmed  by  the  testimony  of  the  Spi- 
rit himself,  who  is  the  Spirit  of  truth.  '  And 
none  knoweth  the  things  of  God  but  the  Spirit 
of  God,'  1  Cor.  ii,  11.  If  he  declare  not  our 
sonship  in  us  and  to  us,  we  cannot  know  it. 
How  doth  he  then  bear  witness  to  our  spirits  ? 
What  is  tho  distinct  testimony  ?  It  must  be 
somo  such  act  of  his  as  evidenceth  itself  to  be 
from  him  immediately,  unto  them  that  are 
concerned  in  it,  that  is,  those  unto  whom  it 
is  given."  Poole  on  the  same  passage  remarks, 
"  The  Spirit  of  adoption  doth  not  only  excite 
us  to  call  upon  God  as  our  Father,  but  it  doth 
ascertain  and  assure  us,  as  before,  that  we  are 
his  children.  And  this  it  doth  not  by  an  outward 
voice,  as  God  the  Father  to  Jesus  Christ,  nor 
by  an  angel,  as  to  Daniel  and  the  Virgin  Mary, 
but  by  an  inward  and  secret  suggestion,  where- 
by he  raiscth  our  hearts  to  this  persuasion, 
that  God  is  our  Father,  and  we  are  his  children. 
This  is  not  the  testimony  of  the  graces  and 
operations  of  the  Spirit,  but  of  the  Spirit 
itself."  Bishop  Pearson,  in  his  elaborate  work 
on  the  Creed,  and  Dr.  Barrow,  in  his  Ser- 
mons, are  equally  explicit  in  stating  this  Scrip- 
tural doctrine. 

HOMOIOUSIANS,  a  branch  of  the  high 
Arians,  who  maintained  that  the  nature  of  the 
Son,  though  not  the  same,  was  similar  to  that 
of  the  Father. 

HOMOOUSIANS,  or  HOMOUSIASTS, 
was,  on  the  other  hand,  a  name  applied  to  the 
Athanasians,  who  held  the  Son  to  be  homou- 
sios,  or  consubstantial  with  the  Father,  that 
is,  of  the  same  nature  and  substance. 

HONEY,  ito-i.     It  is  probable,  that  it  was 
in  order  to  keep  the  Jews  at  a  distance  from 
the  customs  of  the  Heathen,  who  were  used 
to   offer   honey  in   their   sacrifices,   that  God 
forbade  it  to  be  offered  to  him,  that  is  to  say, 
burnt  upon  the  altar,   Lev.  ii,  11 ;  but  at  the 
samo  time  he  commanded  that  the  first-fruits 
of  it  should  be  presented.     These  first-fruits 
and   offerings  were  designed  for  the  support 
and  sustenance  of  the  priests,  and  were  not 
consumed  upon  the  altar.     In  hot  weather, 
I  he  honey  burst  the  comb,  and  ran  down  the 
hollow  trees  or  rocks,  where,  in  the  land  of 
Judca,   the  bees  deposited  great  store  of  it. 
This,  flowing  spontaneously,  was  the  best  and 
most  delicious,  as  it  was  quite  pure,  and  clear 
from  all  dregs  and  wax.     Tho  Israelites  called 
it  mjp,  wood  honeij.    It  is  therefore  improperly 
rendered  "  honeycomb,"  I  Sam.  xiv,  27;  Cant, 
v,  1 ;  in  both  which  places  it  means  the  honey 
Hint  baa  distilled  from  the  trees,  as  distinguish- 
ed from  the  domestic,  which  was  eaten  with 
the    comb.      Hasselquist  says,  that   between 
Acra  and   Nazareth,   great  numbers  of  wild 
bees  breed,  to  the  advantage  of  the  inhabitants  ; 
and  Maundrcll  observes  of  die  great  plain  near 
Jericho;  that  he   perceived   in   it,   in   many 
places,  ;i  smell  of  honey  and  wax  as  strong  as 
if  he  had  been  in  an  apiary.     Milk  and  honey 
were  tin-  Chief  dainties  of  the  earlier  ages,  and 
continue  to  be  so  of  the  Bedoween  Arabs  now. 
So  butter  and  honey  are  several  times  men- 


tioned  in  Scripture  as  among  the  most  delicious 
refreshments,  2  Sam.  xvii,  29 ;  Job  xx,  17 ; 
Cant,  iv,  11 ;  Isaiah  vii,  15.  Thus  Irby  and 
Mangles,  in  their  Travels,  relate,'"  They  gave 
us  some  honey  and  butter  together,  with  bread 
to  dip  in  it,  Narsah  desiring  one  of  his  men  to 
mix  the  two  ingredients  for  us,  as  we  were 
awkward  at  it.  The  Arab,  having  stirred  the 
mixture  up  well  with  his  fingers,  showed  his 
dexterity  at  consuming,  as  well  as  mixing, 
and  recompensed  himself  for  his  trouble  by 
eating  half  of  it."  The  wild  honey,  /u'Ai  aypiov, 
mentioned  to  have  been  a  part  of  the  food  of 
John  the  Baptist,  Matt,  iii,  4,  was  probably 
such  as  he  got  in  the  rocks  and  hollows  of 
trees.  Thus,  "  honey  out  of  the  stony  rock," 
Psalm  lxxxi,  16 ;  Deut.  xxxii,  13. 

HOPHNI.     See  Eli. 

HOPKINSIANS,  or  HOPKINSONIANS, 
so  called  from  the  Rev.  Samuel  Hopkins,  D.  D., 
pastor  of  the  first  Congregational  church  at 
Newport,  Rhode  Island,  North  America,  about 
A.  D.  1770.  Dr.  Hopkins,  in  his  sermons  and 
tracts,  made  several  additions  to  the  senti- 
ments previously  advanced  by  the  celebrated 
President  Edwards,  of  New- Jersey  College. 
The  following  is  a  summary  of  their  distin- 
guishing tenets : — 

1.  That  all  true  virtue  or  real  holiness  con- 
sists in  disinterested  benevolence.  The  object 
of  benevolence  is  universal  being,  including 
God,  and  all  intelligent  creatures.  It  wishes 
and  seeks  the  good  of  every  individual,  so  far 
as  is  consistent  with  the  greatest  good  of  the 
whole,  which  is  comprised  in  the  glory  of 
God,  and  the  perfection  and  happiness  of  his 
kingdom.  The  law  of  God  is  the  standard  of 
all  moral  rectitude  or  holiness.  This  is  re- 
duced into  lovo  to  God  and  to  our  neighbour  ; 
and  universal  good  will  comprehends  all  the 
love  to  God,  our  neighbour,  and  ourselves,  re- 
quired in  the  divine  law,  and  therefore  must 
be  tho  whole  of  holy  obedience.  Let  any  per- 
son reflect  on  what  are  the  particular  branches 
of  true  piety,  and  lie  will  find  that  disinterest- 
ed affection  is  the  distinguishing  characteristic 
of  each.  For  mstance,  all  which  distinguishes 
pious  fear  from  the  fear  of  the  wicked  consists 
in  love.  Holy  gratitude  is  nothing  but  good 
will  to  God  and  man,  ourselves  included,  ex- 
cited by  a  view  of  the  good  will  and  kindness 
ofGod.  Justice,  truth,  and  faithfulness,  are 
comprised  in  universal  benevolence.  So  arc 
temperance  and  chastity  ;  for  an  undue  indul- 
gence of  our  appetites  and  passions  is  contrary 
to  benevolence,  as  tending  to  hurt  ourselves  or 
others,  and  so  opposite  to  the  general  good, 
and  the  divine  command.  In  short,  all  virtue 
is  nothing  but  lovo  to  God  and  our  neighbour, 
made  perfect  in  all  its  genuine  exercises  and 
expressions. 

2.  That  all  sin  consists  in  selfishness.  By 
this  is  meant  an  interested  alfection,  by  which 
a  person  sets  himself  ap  as  tho  supreme  or 
only  object  of  regard  ;  and  nothing  is  lovely 
in  his  view,  unless  suited  to  promote  his  pri- 
vate interest.  This  self-love  is,  in  its  whole 
nature,  and  every  degree  of  it,  enmity  against 
God :  it  is  not  subject  to  the  law  of  God,  and 


HOP 


465 


HOP 


it  is  the  only  affection  that  can  oppose  it.  It 
is  the  foundation  of  all  spiritual  blindness,  and 
the  source  of  all  idolatry  and  false  religion. 
It  is  the  foundation  of  all  covetousness  and 
sensuality ;  of  all  falsehood,  injustice,  and 
oppression ;  as  it  excites  mankind,  by  undue 
methods,  to  invade  the  property  of  others. 
Self-love  produces  all  the  violent  passions, 
onvy,  wrath,  clamour,  and  evil  speaking ;  and 
every  thing  contrary  to  the  divine  law  is  briefly 
comprehended  in  this  fruitful  source  of  iniqui 
ty,  self-love. 

3.  That  there  are  no  promises  of  regene- 
rating grace  made  to  the  actions  of  the  unre- 
generate.  For  as  far  as  men  act  from  self- 
love,  they  act  from  a  bad  end  ;  for  those  who 
have  no  true  love  to  God  really  fulfil  no  duty 
when  they  attend  on  the  externals  of  religion. 
Also,  that  inability,  which  consists  in  disincli- 
nation, never  renders  any  thing  improper  to 
be  the  subject  of  a  command. 

4.  That  the  impotency  of  sinners,  with  re- 
spect to  believing  in  Christ,  is  not  natural,  but 
moral ;  for  it  is  a  plain  dictate  of  common 
sense,  that  natural  impossibility  excludes  all 
blame.  But  an  unwilling  mind  is  universally 
considered  as  a  crime,  and  not  as  an  excuse  ; 
and  is  the  very  thing  wherein  our  wickedness 
consists. — Also, 

5.  That  in  order  to  faith  in  Christ,  a  sinner 
must  approve  in  his  heart  of  the  divine  con- 
duct, even  though  God  should  cast  him  off  for 
ever ;  which,  however,  neither  implies  love  to 
misery,  nor  hatred  of  happiness.  But  as  a 
particle  of  water  is  small,  in  comparison  of  a 
generous  stream,  so  the  man  of  humility  feels 
small  before  the  great  family  of  his  fellow 
creatures.  He  values  his  soul;  but,  when  he 
compares  it  to  the  great  soul  of  mankind,  he 
almost  forgets  and  loses  sight  of  it :  for  the 
governing  principle  of  his  heart  is,  to  estimate 
things  according  to  their  worth.  When,  there- 
fore, he  indulges  an  humble  comparison  with 
his  Maker,  he  feels  lost  in  the  infinite  fulness 
and  brightness  of  divine  love,  as  a  ray  of  light 
is  lost  in  the  sun,  and  a  particle  of  water  in 
the  ocean.  It  inspires  him  with  the  most 
grateful  feelings  of  heart,  that  he  has  opportu- 
nity to  be  in  the  hand  of  God,  as  clay  in  the 
hand  of  the  potter  ;  and  as  he  considers  him- 
self in  this  humble  light,  he  submits  the  nature 
and  size  of  his  future  vessel  entirely  to  God. 
As  his  pride  is  lost  in  the  dust,  he  looks  up 
with  pleasure  toward  the  throne  of  God,  and 
rejoices,  with  all  his  heart,  in  the  rectitude  of 
the  divine  administration.  He  also  considers 
that,  if  the  law  be  good,  death  is  due  to  those 
who  have  broken  it  ;  and  "the  Judge  of  all 
the  earth  cannot  but  do  right,"  Gen.  xviii,  25. 
It  would  bring  everlasting  reproach  upon  his 
government  to  spare  us,  considered  merely  as 
in  ourselves.  When  this  is  felt  in  our  hearts, 
and  not  till  then,  we  shall  be  prepared  to  look 
to  the  free  grace  of  God,  through  Christ's 
redemption. 

6.  That  the  infinitely  wise  and  holy  God  lias 
exerted  his  omnipotent  power,  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  he  purposed  should  be  followed  with  the 
existence  and  entrance  of  moral  evil  in  the 

31 


system  ;  for  it  must  be  admitted,  on  all  hands, 
that  God  has  a  perfect  knowledge,  foresight, 
and  view  of  all  possible  existences  and  events. 
If  that  system  and  scene  of  operation,  in  which 
moral  evil  should  never  have  existence,  was- 
actually  preferred  in  the  divine  mind,  certainly 
the  Deity  is  infinitely  disappointed  in  the 
issue  of  his  own  operations.  Dr.  Hopkins 
maintains,  therefore,  that  "God  was  the  au- 
thor, origin,  and  positive  cause  of  Adam's  sin  :" 
yea,  "  that  he  is  the  origin  and  canse  of  moral 
evil,  as  really  as  he  is  of  the  existence  of  any 
thing  that  he  wills." 

7.  That  the  introduction  of  sin  is,  upon  the 
whole,  for  the  general  good.  For  the  wisdom 
and  power  of  the  Deity  are  displayed  in  car- 
rying on  designs  of  the  greatest  good :  and 
the  existence  of  moral  evil  has,  undoubtedly, 
occasioned  a  more  full,  perfect,  and  glorious 
discovery  of  the  infinite  perfections  of  the  di- 
vine nature,  than  could  otherwise  have  been 
made  to  the  view  of  creatures. 

8.  That  repentance  is  before  faith  in  Christ. 
By  this,  is  not  intended,  that  repentance  is 
before  a  speculative  conviction  of  the  being 
and  perfections  of  GQd,  and  of  the  person  and 
character  of  Christ;  but  only,  that  true  re- 
pentance is  previous  to  a  saving  faith  in  Christ, 
by  which  the  believer  is  united  to  Christ,  and 
entitled  to  the  benefits  of  his  mediation  and 
atonement.  So  Christ  commanded,  "Repent 
ye,  and  believe  the  Gospel ;"  and  Paul  preach- 
ed "repentance  toward  God,  and  faith  in  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ." 

9.  That  though  men  became'  sinners  by 
Adam,  according  to  a  divine  constitution,  yet 
they  were  and  are  accountable  for  no  sins  but 
personal:  for,  (1.)  Adam's  act,  in  eating  the 
forbidden  fruit,  was  not  the  act  of  his  posteri- 
ty; therefore  they  did  not  sin  at  the  same 
time  that  he  did.  (2.)  The  sinfulness  of  that 
act  could  not  be  transferred  to  them  after- 
ward ;  because  the  sinfulness  of  an  act  can 
no  more  be  transferred  from  one  person  to 
another,  than  an  act  itself.  (3.)  Therefore 
Adam's  act,  in  eating  the  forbidden  fruit,  was 
not  the  cause,  but  only  the  occasions  of  his 
posterity  being  sinners.  Adam  sinned,  and 
now  God  brings  his  posterity  into  the  world 
sinners. 

10.  That  though  believers  arc  justified 
through  Christ's  righteousness,  yet  his  right- 
eousness is  not  transferred  to  them.  For 
personal  righteousness  cannot  be  transferred 
from  one  person  to  another,  nor  personal  sin  ; 
otherwise  the  sinner  would  become  innocent, 
and  Christ  the  sinner.  The  Scripture,  there- 
fore, represents  believers  as  receiving  only  the 
benefits  of  Christ's  righteousness  in  justifica- 
tion, or  their  being  pardoned  and  accepted  for 
Christ's  righteousness'  sake ;  and  this  is  the 
proper  Scripture  notion  of  imputation.  Jona- 
than's righteousness  was  imputed  to  Mephi- 
bosheth,  when  David  showed  kindness  to  hint 
for  his  father  Jonathan's  sake,  2  Samuel  ix,  7. 

11.  The  Hopkinsians  warmly  advocate  the 
doctrine  of  the  divine  decrees,  not  only  par- 
ticular election,  but  also  reprobation ;  they 
hold  also  the  total  depravation  of  human  na- 


HOR 


466 


HOR 


ture,  the  special  influences  of  the  Spirit  of 
God  in  regeneration,  justification  by  faitli 
alone,  the  final  perseverance  of  the  saints,  and 
the  consistency  between  entire  freedom  and 
absolute  dependence ;  and  therefore  claim  it 
as  their  just  due,  since  the  world  will  make 
distinctions,  to  be  called  Hopkinsian  Calvin- 
ists.  Calvinists,  however,  have  demurred 
against  several  of  these  propositions,  and  a 
long  and  warm  controversy  was  occasioned 
by  them  in  the  United  States ;  to  a  few  points 
of  which  we  shall  advert. — (1.)  Selfishness,  as 
confining  our  affections  and  exertions  to  our- 
selves, is  confessedly  a  vice ;  but  that  self  is 
not  to  be  excluded  from  our  affections*  is  evi- 
dent even  from  the  terms  of  the  divine  law, — 
"  Thou  shalt  love  thy  neighbour  as  thyself." 
And  the  Scriptures  teach  us,  that  "  no  man 
hateth  his  own  flesh."  Such  a  "  disinterested 
benevolence,"  therefore,  as  implies  no  peculiar 
anxiety  for  our  personal  salvation  and  happi- 
ness, can  never  be  required  of  us.  A  good 
man  may  and  must  be  convinced,  that  God 
would  be  just  in  his  final  condemnation,  con- 
sidered out  of  Christ ;  but  it  is  impossible  to 
acquiesce  in  such  a  prospect ;  it  is  making 
holiness  to  consist  in  being  satisfied  with  re- 
maining for  ever  unholy,  which  is  as  impious 
as  it  is  contradictory ;  and  the  strong  and 
strange  things  which  some  Hopkinsonians 
have  said  on  this  subject,  can  only  be  account- 
ed for  from  the  love  of  paradox.  (2.)  The 
other  principal  point  on  which  Calvinists  dis- 
sent, is  the.  making  God  "  the  author  and 
efficient  cause  of  sin."  It  is  true  that  the 
Doctor  says  elsewhere,  that  "  in  causing  or 
originating  sin,  there  is  no  sin ;"  this,  how- 
ever, is  a  position  so  dangerous,  so  unsup- 
ported, and  so  contrary  to  the  common  sense 
of  mankind,  that  we  may  well  shrink  from  it; 
and  should  risk  no  speculation  that  can  impli- 
cate the  divine  character,  or  furnish  an  excuse 
for  sin.  "  Is  God  unrighteous  who  taketh 
vengeance?"  saith  the  Apostle.  "God  for- 
bid !  for  how  then  shall  God  judge  the  world  ?" 
Rom.  iii,  5,  6.  Those  who  feel  interested  in 
the  controversy,  may  be  fully  gratified  in  the 
"Contrast  between  Calvinism  and  Ilopkin- 
sianism,"  by  Ezra  Styles  Ely,  A.  M.,  (New- 
York,  1811,)  and  other  American  publications. 
In  this  country  the  controversy  is  but  little 
known;  but  we  may  remark  that  the  theory 
of  Hopkins  appears  to  be  an  attempt  to  unite 
some  points  of  mystic  theology  with  the  Cal- 
vinism commonly  received,  and  that  where  it 
differs  from  the  latter  system,  it  relieves  no 
difficulty. 

HOR.  This  mountain,  in  its  general  ac- 
ceptation, is  probably  the  same  with  Mount 
Seir,  Hor  being  the  name  by  which  that 
mountainous  tract  was  denominated  before  it 
was  exchanged  for  Seir.  But  one  particular 
mountain  of  Ibis  region  retained  the  name  of 
Hor  long  after;  as  it.  wis  ;t  mountain  of  this 
name,  "by  the  coast  of  the  land  of  Edom," 
that  Aaron  was  commanded  to  ascend,  in 
order  to  die  there,  Num.  x.\,  23.  Tins  mount' 
ain,  or  ;it  leaal  the  one  to  which  tradition 
assigns   the   tomb   of  Aaron,  was  visited  by 


Burckhardt;  from  whose  account  it  appears 
to  form  a  conspicuous  object  in  the  chain  of 
the  Djebel  Shera,  or  Mount  Seir,  rising  ab- 
ruptly from  the  valley  of  El  Araba,  or  desert 
of  Zin,  about  fifty  miles  north  of  Akaba,  or 
Ezion-Geber. 

HOREB,  a  mountain  in  Arabia  Petraea,  a 
part  of  which,  or  near  to  which,  was  Sinai. 
At  Horeb  God  appeared  to  Moses  in  the  burn- 
ing bush,  Exod.  iii,  1,  &c.  Hither  Elijah 
retired  to  avoid  the  persecution  of  Jezebel, 
1  Kings  xix,  8.  Sinai  and  Horeb  seem  to  be 
two  parts  of  the  same  mountain ;  hence  the 
law  is  sometimes  said  to  be  given  there. 

HORN.  By  horns  the  Hebrews  sometimes 
understood  an  eminence,  or  angle,  a  corner, 
or  a  rising.  By  horns  of  the  altar  of  burnt 
offerings,  many  understand  the  angles  of  that 
altar ;  but  there  were  also  horns,  or  eminences, 
at  the  corners  of  that  altar,  Exod.  xxvii,  2 ; 
xxx,  2.  Horn  also  signifies  glory,  brightness, 
rays.  God's  "  brightness  was  as  the  light,  he 
had  horns  coming  out  of  his  hand,"  Hab.  iii, 
4 ;  that  is,  refulgent  beams  issuing  from  the 
hollow  of  it.  As  the  ancients  frequently  used 
horns  to  hold  liquors,  vessels  containing  oil 
and  perfumes  are  often  called  horns,  whether 
made  of  horn  or  not.  "  Fill  thine  horn  with 
oil,"  says  the  Lord  to  Samuel,  "  and  anoint 
David,"  1  Sam.  xvi,  1.  Zadok  took  a  horn 
of  oil  out  of  the  tabernacle,  and  anointed  Solo- 
mon, 1  Kings  i,  39.  Job  called  one  of  his 
daughters  Kerenhappuch,  horn  of  antimony, 
or  horn  to  put  antimony  (stibium)  in,  which 
the  women  of  the  east  still  use  at  this  day, 
Job  xliii,  14.  The  principal  defence  and 
strength  of  horned  beasts  consist  in  their 
horns  ;  and  hence  the  Scripture  mentions  the 
horn  as  a  symbol  of  strength.  The  Lord 
exalted  the  horn  of  David,  the  horn  of  his 
people  ;  he  breaketh  the  horn  of  the  ungodly  ; 
he  cuttcth  off  the  horn  of  Moab ;  he  cutteth 
off"  the  horn  of  Israel ;  he  promiseth  to  make 
the  horn  of  Israel  to  bud  forth  ;  to  reestablish 
the  honour  of  it,  and  restore  its  former  vigour. 
Moses  compares  Joseph  to  a  young  bull,  and 
says  that  he  has  horns  like  those  of  a  unicorn. 
Kingdoms  and  great  powers  are  often  in 
Scripture  described  by  the  symbol  of  horns. 
In  Daniel  vii,  viii,  horns  represent  the  power 
of  the  Persians,  of  the  Greeks,  of  Syria,  of 
Egypt,  or  of  Pagan  and  Papal  Rome.  The 
prophet  represents  three  animals  as  having 
many  horns,  one  of  which  grew  from  the 
other.  This  emblem  is  a  natural  one,  since. 
in  the  cast  arc  rams  which  have  many  horns. 

HORNET,  njnsn,  Exod.  xxiii,  28;  Deut. 
vii,  20  ;  Joshua  xxiv,  12.  The  hornet,  in  na- 
tural history,  belongs  to  the  species  craho,  of 
the  genus  oespa  or  wasp.  It  is  a  most  vora- 
cious insect,  and  is  exceedingly  strong  for  its 
size,  which  is  generally  an  inch  in  length,  and 
sometimes  more.  In  each  of  the  instances 
where  this  creature  is  mentioned  in  Scripture, 
it  is  as  sent  among  the  enemies  of  the  Israel 
ites,  to  drive  them  out  of  the  land.  Some  ex- 
plain the  won',  metaphorically,  as  "  I  will  send 
my  terror  as  the  hornet,"  &c.  But  Bocharl 
contends  that  it  is  to  be  taken  in  its  proper 


HOR 


467 


HOR 


literal  meaning,  and  has  accumulated  exam- 
pies  of  several  other  people  having  been  chased 
from  their  habitations  by  insects  of  differ- 
ent kinds.  iElian  records  that  the  Phaselites, 
who  dwelt  about  the  mountains  of  Solyma, 
were  driven  out  of  their  country  by  wasps. 
As  these  people  were  Phenicians  or  Canaan, 
ites,  it  is  probable  that  the  event  to  which  he 
refers  is  the  same  as  took  place  in  the  days  of 
Joshua.  How  distressing  and  destructive  a 
multitude  of  these  fierce  and  severely  stinging 
insects  might  be,  any  person  may  conjecture. 
No  armour,  no  weapons  could  avail  against 
them.  A  few  thousands  of  them  would  be 
sufficient  to  overthrow  the  best  disciplined 
army  and  put  it  into  confusion  and  rout. 
From  Joshua  xxiv,  12,  we  find  that  two  kings 
of  the  Amorites  were  actually  driven  out  of 
the  land  by  these  hornets,  so  that  the  Israel, 
ites  were  not  obliged  to  use  either  sword  or 
bow  in  the  conquest.  One  of  these,  accord- 
ing to  the  Jewish  commentaries  of  R.  Nach- 
man,  was  the  nation  of  the  Girgashites,  who 
retired  into  Africa,  fearing  the  power  of  God. 
And  Procopius,  in  his  history  of  the  Vandals, 
mentions  an  ancient  inscription  in  Mauritania 
Tingitana,  stating,  that  the  inhabitants  had 
fled  thither  from  the  face  of  Joshua,  the  son 
of  Nun.  This  account  accords  with  Scrip, 
ture,  in  which,  though  the  Girgashites  are 
included  in  the  general  list  of  the  seven  de- 
voted nations  either  to  be  driven  out  or  de- 
stroyed by  the  Israelites,  Gen.  xv,  20,  21 ; 
Deut.  vii,  1 ;  Josh,  iii,  10;  xxiv,  11 ;  yet  they 
are  omitted  in  the  list  of  those  to  be  utterly 
destroyed,  Deut.  xx,  17 ;  and  among  whom, 
in  neglect  of  the  divine  decree,  the  Israelites 
lived  and  intermarried,  Judges  iii,  1-6.  That 
the  name  of  the  Girgashites,  however,  was 
not  extirpated,  we  may  collect  from  the  Ger- 
gesenes,  in  our  Saviour's  time,  inhabiting  the 
same  country,  Matt,  viii,  28.  Other  tribes  of 
the  Hivites,  Canaanites,  and  Hittites,  were 
also  expelled  by  the  hornet  gradually  ;  not  in 
one  year,  lest  the  land  should  become  deso- 
late, and  the  wild  beasts  multiply  to  the  pre- 
judice of  the  Israelites,  Exod.  xxiii,  28-30. 

The  "arms  of  Jove,"  to  which  Virgil  refers, 
(JEneid  viii,  355-358,)  in  describing  the  flight 
of  Saturn  from  the  east,  were  the  hornets 
sent  by  the  God  of  Israel,  Iahoh,  or  by  con- 
traction Io,  to  which  also  his  description  of 
the  Asilus  exactly  corresponds  : — 

PluTimus — volitans,  (cui  nomen  Asilo 
Romanum  est ;  olarpov,   Graii  vertere  vocanles,) 
Asper,  acerba  sonans,  quo  tola  exterrita  sylvis 
Diffugiunt  armenta,  Georg.  iii,  145. 

"  About  the  Atburnian  groves,  with  holly  green, 
Of  winged  insects  mighty  swarms  are  seen ; 
This  flying  plague,  to  mark  its  quality, 
CEsxaos  the  Grecians  call ;  asylus,  we: 
A  fierce  loud  buzzing  breeze ;  their  stings  draw  blood, 
And  drive  the  cattle  gadding  through  the  wood. 
Seized  with  unusual  pains,  they  loudly  cry." 

Dryden. 

Dr.  Hales  is  of  opinion,  that  the  Latin 
asilus  and  Greek  morpov,  were  probably  only 
different  pronunciations  of  the  same  oriental 
term,  n;nxn(  hatsiraah,  as  this  fly  is  called  by 


Moses  and  Joshua.  The  vindictive  power 
that  presided  over  this  dreadful  scourge  was 
worshipped  at  Ekron,  in  Palestine,  through 
fear,  the  reigning  motive  of  Pagan  superstition, 
under  the  title  of  Baal-zebub,  "master  or  lord 
of  the  hornet,"  whence  Beelzebub,  in  the  New 
Testament,  "  the  prince  of  demons,"  Matt, 
xii,  24.  Isaiah,  denouncing  a  wo  against 
Abyssinia,  describes  it  as  "the  land  of  the 
winged  cymbal,"  (tsaltsal  canaphim,)  Isaiah 
xviii,  1 ;  by  the  same  analogy  that  tsaltsal 
signifies  "a  locust,"  Deut.  xxviii,  42;  a  strc 
pera  voce  sic  dictum.  [So  called  from  its  strep- 
erous  sound.]  Bruce,  in  his  Travels  in  Abys. 
sinia,  has  given  an  accurate  description  of 
this  tremendous  fly,  which  in  Arabic  is  called 
zimb,  and  by  the  Abyssinians  tsaltsal-ya,  "  the 
cymbal  of  the  Lord,"  from  its  sonorous  buz- 
zing. And  in  his  Appendix  he  has  given  a 
drawing  of  it,  magnified,  for  distinctness' 
sake,  something  above  twice  the  natural  size  : 
after  which  he  observes,  "  He  has  no  sting, 
though  he  seems  to  me  to  be  rather  of  the  bee 
kind  ;  but  his  motion  is  more  rapid  and  sudden 
than  that  of  the  bee,  (volitans,)  and  resembles 
that  of  the  gad-fly  in  England.  There  is  some- 
thing particular  in  the  sound  or  buzzing  of 
this  insect ;  it  is  a  jarring  noise,  together  with 
a  humming,  (acerba  sonans,)  which  induces 
me  to  believe  it  proceeds,  in  part  at  least,  from 
a  vibration  made  with  the  three  hairs  at  his 
snout."  Bruce  does  not  cite  or  refer  to  Vir- 
gil's description,  though  his  account  furnishes 
the  most  critical  and  exact  explanation  of  it. 
Such  undesigned  coincidences  are  most  satis- 
factory and  convincing ;  they  show  that  the 
poet  and  the  naturalist  both  copied  from 
nature.  And  the  terror  impressed  by  this  in- 
sect on  all  the  cattle,  quo  tota  exterrita  sylvis- 
diffugiunt,  [affrighted  at  which  the  entire 
herds  flee  to  the  thickets,]  according  to  Virgil, 
is  thus  illustrated  by  Bruce :  "  As  soon  as 
this  plague  appears,  and  their  buzzing  is  heard, 
all  the  cattle  forsake  their  food,  and  run  wildly 
about  the  plain  till  they  die,  worn  out  with 
fatigue,  fright,  and  hunger.  No  remedy  re- 
mains but  to  leave  the  black  earth,  where  they 
breed,  and  hasten  down  to  the  sands  of  Atba- 
ra  ;  and  there  they  remain  while  the  periodical 
rains  last,  this  cruel  enemy  (asper)  never  dar- 
ing to  pursue  them  farther.  The  camel, 
emphatically  called  by  the  Arabs  the  ship  of 
the  desert,  though  his  size  is  immense  as  is 
his  strength,  and  his  body  covered  with  a 
thick  skin,  defended  with  strong  hair,  still  is 
not  able  to  sustain  the  violent  punctures  the 
fly  makes  with  his  pointed  proboscis.  He 
must  lose  no  time  in  removing  to  the  sands  of 
Atbara ;  for  when  once  attacked  by  this  fly, 
his  body,  head,  and  legs,  break  out  into  large 
bosses,  which  swell,  break,  and  putrefy,  to  the 
certain  destruction  of  the  creature.  I  have 
found  some  of  these  tubercles  upon  almost 
every  elephant  and  rhinoceros  that  I  have 
seen,  and  attribute  them  to  this  cause.  All 
the  inhabitants  of  the  sea  coast  are  obliged  to 
put  themselves  in  motion,  and  remove  to  the 
next  sand,  in  the  beginning  of  the  rainy  sea- 
son, to  prevent  all  their  stock  of  cattle  from. 


IIOR 


468 


HOS 


being  destroyed.  Nor  is  there  any  alternative, 
or  means  of  avoiding  this,  though  a  hostilo 
band  was  in  the  way,  capable  of  spoiling  them 
of  half  their  substance,  as  was  actually  the 
case  when  we  were  at  Sennaar.  Of  such  con- 
sequence is  the  weakest  instrument  in  the 
hand  of  Providence."  See  Flies  and  Beel- 
zebub. 

HORSE,  did.  Horses  were  very  rare  among 
the  Hebrews  in  the  early  ages.  The  patriarchs 
had  none  ;  and  after  the  departure  of  the  Israel- 
ites from  Egypt,  God  expressly  forbade  their 
ruler  to  procure  them  :  "  He  shall  not  multiply 
horses  to  himself,  nor  cause  the  people  to 
return  to  Egypt,  to  the  end  that  he  should 
multiply  horses :  forasmuch  as  the  Lord  hath 
said,  Ye  shall  henceforth  return  no  more  that 
way,"  Deut.  xvii,  16.  As  horses  appear  to 
have  been  generally  furnished  by  Egypt,  God 
prohibits  these,  1.  Lest  there  should  be  such 
commerce  with  Egypt  as  might  lead  to  idola- 
try. 2.  Lest  the  people  might  depend  on  a 
well  appointed  cavalry,  as  a  means  of  security, 
and  so  cease  from  trusting  in  the  promised  aid 
and  protection  of  Jehovah.  3.  That  they  might 
not  be  tempted  to  extend  their  dominion  by 
means  of  cavalry,  and  so  get  scattered  among 
the  surrounding  idolatrous  nations,  and  thus 
cease  in  process  of  time,  to  be  that  distinct 
and  separate  people  which  God  intended  they 
should  be,  and  without  which  the  prophecies 
relative  to  the  Messiah  could  not  be  known  to 
have  their  due  and  full  accomplishment.  In 
the  time  of  the  Judges  we  find  horses  and  war 
chariots  among  the  Canaanites,  but  still  the 
Israelites  had  none ;  and  hence  they  were 
generally  too  timid  to  venture  down  into  the 
plains,  confining  their  conquests  to  the  mount- 
ainous parts  of  the  country.  In  the  reign  of 
Saul,  it  would  appear,  that  horse  breeding  had 
not  yet  been  introduced  into  Arabia ;  for,  in 
a  war  with  some  of  the  Arabian  nations,  the 
Israelites  got  plunder  in  camels,  sheep,  and 
asses,  but  no  horses.  David's  enemies  brought 
against  him  a  strong  force  of  cavalry  into  the 
field ;  and  in  the  book  of  Psalms  the  horse 
commonly  appears  only  on  the  side  of  the 
enemies  of  the  people  of  God  ;  and  so  entirely 
unaccustomed  to  the  management  of  this  ani- 
mal had  the  Israelites  still  continued,  that, 
after  a  battle,  in  which  they  took  a  consider- 
able body  of  cavalry  prisoners,  2  Sam.  viii,  4, 
David  caused  most  of  the  horses  to  be  cut 
down,  because  he  did  not  know  what  use  to 
make  of  them.  Solomon  was  the  first  who 
established  a  cavalry  force.  Under  these  cir- 
cumstances, it  is  not  wonderful  that  the  Mo- 
saic law  should  take  no  notice  of  an  animal 
which  we  hold  in  such  high  estimation.  To 
Moses,  educated  as  he  was  in  Egypt,  and,  with 
his  people,  at  last  chased  out  by  Pharaoh's 
cavalry,  the  use  of  the  horse  for  war  and  for 
travelling  w;>s  well  known  ;  hut  as  it  was  his 
object  to  establish  a  nation  of  husbandmen, 
and  not  of  soldiers  for  the  conquest  of  foreign 
lands,  and  as  Palestine,  from  ils  situation,  re- 
quired not  the  defence  of  cavalry,  he  might 
very  well  decline  introducing  among  his  peo- 
plo    the    yet   unusual  art    of  horso   breeding. 


Solomon,  having  married  a  daughter  of  Pha- 
raoh, procured  a  breed  of  horses  from  Egypt ; 
and  so  greatly  did  he  multiply  them,  that  ho 
had  four  hundred  stables,  forty  thousand  stalls, 
and  twelve  thousand  horsemen,  1  Kings  iv,  26  ; 
2  Chron.  ix,  25.  It  seems  tint  the  Egyptian 
horses  were  in  high  repute,  and  were  much 
used  in  war.  When  the  Israelites  were  dis- 
posed to  place  too  implicit  confidence  in  the 
assistance  of  cavalry,  the  prophet  remonstrated 
in  these  terms  :  "  The  Egyptians  are  men,  and 
not  God ;  and  their  horses  are  flesh,  not 
spirit,"  Isaiah  xxxi,  3. 

HORSE-LEECH,  nplty',  from  a  root  which 
signifies  to  adhere,  stick  close,  or  hang  fast, 
Prov.  xxx,  15.  A  sort  of  worm  that  lives  in 
water,  of  a  black  or  brown  colour,  which  fat- 
tens upon  the  flesh,  and  does  not  quit  it  till  it  is 
entirely  full  of  blood.  Solomon  says,  "  The 
horse-leech  hath  two  daughters,  Give,  give." 
This  is  so  apt  an  emblem  of  an  insatiable  ra 
pacity  and  avarice,  that  it  has  been  generally 
used  by  different  writers  to  express  it.  Thus 
Plautus  makes  one  say,  speaking  of  the  deter- 
mination to  get  money,  "  I  will  turn  myself 
into  a  horse-leech,  and  suck  out  their  blood ;" 
and  Cicero,  in  one  of  his  letters  to  Atticus, 
calls  the  common  people  of  Rome  horse- 
leeches of  the  treasury.  Solomon,  having 
mentioned  those  that  devoured  the  property 
of  the  poor  as  the  worst  of  all  the  generations 
which  he  had  specified,  proceeds  to  state  the 
insatiable  cupidity  with  which  they  prosecuted 
their  schemes  of  rapine  and  plunder.  As  the 
horse-leech  had  two  daughters,  cruelty  and 
thirst  of  blood,  which  cannot  be  satisfied,  so 
the  oppressor  of  the  poor  has  two  dispositions, 
rapacity  and  avarice,  which  never  say  they 
have  enough,  but  continually  demand  addi- 
tional gratifications. 

HOSANNA,  "Save,  I  beseech  thee,"  or, 
"  Give  salvation,"  a  well  known  form  of  bless- 
ing, Matthew  xxi,  9,  15 ;  Mark  xi,  9,  10 ; 
John  xii,  13. 

HOSEA,  son  of  Beeri,  the  first  of  the  minor 
prophets.  He  is  generally  considered  as  a 
native  and  inhabitant  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel, 
and  is  supposed  to  have  begun  to  prophesy 
about  B.  C.  800.  He  exercised  his  office  sixty 
years  ;  but  it  is  not  known  at  what  periods 
his  different  prophecies  now  remaining  were 
delivered.  Most  of  them  are  directed  against 
the  people  of  Israel,  whom  he  reproves  and 
threatens  for  their  idolatry  and  wickedness, 
and  exhorts  to  repentance,  with  the  greatest 
earnestness,  as  the  only  means  of  averting  the 
evils  impending  over  their  country.  The 
principal  predictions  contained  in  this  book, 
are  the  captivity  and  dispersion  of  the  kingdom 
of  Israel  ;  the  deliverance  of  Judah  from  Sen- 
nacherib ;  the  present  state  of  the  Jews  ;  their 
future  restoration,  and  union  with  the  Gen- 
tiles in  the  kingdom,  of  the  Messiah;  the  call 
of  our  Saviour  out  of  Egypt,  and  his  resur- 
rection on  the  third  day.  The  style  of  Hosea 
is  peculiarly  obscure  ;  it  is  sententious,  con- 
cise, and  abrupt ;  the  transitions  of  persons 
are  sudden;  and  the  connexive  and  adversa. 
tive  particles   are  frequently   omitted.      The 


HOS 


469 


HOU 


prophecies  are  in  one  continued  series,  with- 
out any  distinction  as  to  the  times  when  they 
were  delivered,  or  the  different  subjects  to 
which  they  relate.  They  are  not  so  clear  and 
detailed,  as  the  predictions  of  those  prophets 
who  lived  in  succeeding  ages.  When,  how- 
ever, we  have  surmounted  these  difficulties, 
we  shall  see  abundant  reason  to  admire  the 
force  and  energy  with  which  this  prophet 
writes,  and  the  boldness  of  the  figures  and 
similitudes  which  he  uses. 

2.  Hosea,  or  Hoshea,  son  of  Elah,  was  the 
last  king  of  Israel.  Having  conspired  against 
Pekah,  son  of  Rcmaliah,  king  of  Israel,  he 
killed  him,  A.  M.  3265  ;  B.  C.  739.  However, 
the  elders  of  the  land  seem  to  have  taken  the 
government  into  their  hands  ;  for  Hoshea  was 
not  in  possession  of  the  kingdom  till  nine 
years  after,  2  Kings  xv,  30;  xvii,  1.  Hoshea 
did  evil  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord,  but  not  equal 
to  the  kings  of  Israel  who  preceded  him  ;  that 
is,  say  the  Jewish  doctors,  ho  did  not  restrain 
his  subjects  from  going  to  Jerusalem  to  wor- 
ship, if  they  would ;  whereas  the  kings  of 
Israel,  his  predecessors,  had  forbidden  it,  and 
had  placed  guards  on  the  road  to  prevent  it. 
Salmaneser,  king  of  Assyria,  being  informed 
that  Hoshea  meditated  a  revolt,  and  had  con- 
certed measures  with  So,  king  of  Egypt,  to 
shake  off  the  Assyrian  yoke,  marched  against 
him,  and  besieged  Samaria.  After  a  siege  of 
three  years,  in  the  ninth  year  of  Hoshea's 
reign,  the  city  was  taken,  and  was  reduced  to 
a  heap  of  ruins,  A.  M.  3282.  The  king  of 
Assyria  removed  the  Israelites  of  the  ten  tribes 
to  countries  beyond  the  Euphrates,  and  thus 
terminated  the  kingdom  of  the  ten  tribes. 

HOSPITALITY.  Instances  of  ancient 
hospitality  occur  frequently  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. So  in  the  case  of  Abraham,  Gen.  xviii, 
where  he  invites  the  angels  who  appeared  in 
tha  form  of  men  to  rest  and  refreshment, 
"And  he  stood  by  them  under  the  tree,  and 
they  did  eat."  "  Nothing  is  more  common  in 
India,"  says  Mr.  Ward,  "  than  to  see  travel- 
lers and  guests  eating  under  the  shade  of 
trees.  Even  feasts  are  never  held  in  houses. 
The  house  of  a  Hindoo  serves  for  the  purposes 
of  sleeping  and  cooking,  and  of  shutting  up 
the  women  ;  but  is  never  considered  as  a  sit- 
ting or  a  dining  room."  "  On  my  return  to 
the  boat,"  says  Belzony,  "  I  found  the  aga  and 
all  his  retinue  seated  on  a  mat,  under  a  clus- 
ter of  palm  trees,  close  to  the  water.  The 
sun  was  then  setting,  and  the  shades  of  the 
western  mountains  had  reached  across  the 
Nile,  and  covered  the  town.  It  is  at  this 
time  the  people  recreate  themselves  in  various 
scattered  groups,  drinking  coffee,  smoking 
their  pipes,  and  talking  of  camels,  horses, 
asses,  dhourra,  caravans,  or  boats."  "  The 
aga  having  prepared  a  dinner  for  me,"  says 
Mr.  Light,  "  invited  several  of  the  natives  to 
sit  down.  Water  was  brought  in  a  skin  by  an 
attendant,  to  wash  our  hands.  Two  fowls 
roasted  were  served  up  on  wheaten  cakes,  in 
a  wooden  bowl,  covered  with  a  small  mat,  and 
a  number  of  the  same  cakes  in  another :  in 
the  centre  of  these  were  liquid  butter,  and  pre- 


served  dates.  These  were  divided,  broken  up, 
and  mixed  together  by  some  of  the  party, 
while  others  pulled  the  fowls  to  pieces  :  which 
done,  the  party  began  to  eat  as  fast  as  they 
could  :  getting  up,  one  after  the  other,  as  soon 
as  their  hunger  was  satisfied."  "Hospitality 
to  travellers,"  says  Mr.  Forbes,  "  prevails 
throughout  Guzerat :  a  person  of  any  consider- 
ation passing  through  the  province  is  pre- 
sented, at  the  entrance  of  a  village,  with  fruit, 
milk,  butter,  fire  wood,  and  earthen  pots  for 
cookery ;  the  women  and  children  offer  him 
wreaths  of  flowers.  Small  bowers  are  con- 
structed on  convenient  spots,  at  a  distance 
from  a  well  or  lake,  where  a  person  is  main- 
tained by  the  nearest  villages,  to  take  care  of 
the  water  jars,  and  supply  all  travellers  gratis. 
There  are  particular  villages,  where  the  inha- 
bitants compel  all  travellers  to  accept  of  one 
day's  provisions :  whether  they  be  many  or 
few,  rich  or  poor,  European  or  native,  thev 
must  not  refuse  the  offered  bounty." 

"  So  when  angelic  forms  to  Syria  sent 
Sat  in  tlie  cedar  shade,  by  Abraham's  tent, 
A  spacious  bowl  the'  admiring  patriarch  fills 
With  dulcet  water  from  the  scanty  rills ; 
Sweet  fruits  and  kernels  gathers  from  his  hoard, 
With  milk  and  butter  piles  the  plenteous  board  ; 
While  on  the  heated  hearth  his  consort  bakes 
Fine  flour  well  kneaded  in  unleavened  cakes, 
The  guests  ethereal  quaff  the  lucid  flood, 
Smile  on  their  hosts,  and  taste  terrestrial  food  ; 
And  while  from  seraph  lips  sweet  converse  springs, 
They  lave  their  feet,  and  close  their  silver  wings." 

Darwin. 

HOURS.     See  Day. 

HOUSES.  The  following  description  of 
oriental  houses  will  serve  to  illustrate  several 
passages  of  Scripture.  From  the  gate  of  the 
porch,  one  is  conducted  into  a  quadrangular 
court,  which,  being  exposed  to  the  weather, 
is  paved  with  stone,  in  order  to  carry  off  the 
water  in  the  rainy  season.  The  principal 
design  of  this  quadrangle,  is  to  give  light  to 
the  house,  and  ac"mit  the  fresh  air  into  the 
apartments ;  it  is  also  the  place  where  the 
master  of  the  house  entertains  his  company, 
who  are  seldom  or  never  honoured  with  admis- 
sion into  the  inner  apartments.  This  open 
space  bears  a  striking  resemblance  to  the  im- 
pluvium,  or  cava  <zdium,  of  the  Romans,  which 
was  also  an  uncovered  area,  from  whence  the 
chambers  were  lighted.  For  the  accommoda- 
tion of  the  guests,  the  pavement  is  covered 
with  mats  or  carpets;  and  as  it  is  secured 
against  all  interruption  from  the  street,  is  well 
adapted  to  public  entertainments.  It  is  called, 
says  Dr.  Shaw,  the  middle  of  the  house,  and 
literally  answers  to  t&  picov  of  the  evangelist, 
into  which  the  man  afflicted  with  the  palsy 
was  let  down  through  the  ceiling,  with  his 
couch,  before  Jesus,  Luke  v,  19.  Hence,  he 
conjectures  that  our  Lord  was  at  this  time  in- 
structing the  people  in  the  court  of  one  of 
these  houses ;  and  it  is  by  no  means  improba- 
ble,  that  the  quadrangle  was  to  him  and  his 
Apostles  a  favourite  situation,  while  they  were 
engaged  in  disclosing  the  mysteries  of  redemp- 
tion. To  defend  the  company  from  the  scorch- 
ing sun-beams,  or  "  windy  storm  and  tempest," 


HOU 


470 


HOL 


a  veil  was  expanded  upon  ropes  from  one  side 
of  the  parapet  wall  to  the  other,  which  might 
be  unfolded  or  folded  at  pleasure.     The  court 
is  for  the  most  part  surrounded  with  a  cloister, 
over  which,  when  the  house  has  a  number  of 
stories,  a  gallery  is  erected  of  the  same  dimen- 
sions with  the  cloister,  having  a  balustrade,  or 
else  a  piece  of  carved  or  latticed  work,  going 
round  about,  to  prevent  people  from  falling 
from  it  irito  the  court.     The  doors  of  the  en- 
closure  round  the  house  are  made  very  small ; 
but  the  doors  of  the  houses  very  large,  for  the 
purpose  of  admitting  a  copious  stream  of  fresh 
air  into  their  apartments.  The  windows  which 
look  into  the  street  are  very  high  and  narrow, 
and  defended  by  lattice  work  ;  as  they  are  only 
intended  to  allow  the  cloistered  inmate  a  peep 
of  what  is  passing  without,  while  he  remains 
.concealed  behind  the  casement.    This  kind  of 
window  the  ancient  Hebrews  called  arubah, 
which  is  the  same  term  that  they  used  to  ex- 
press   those  small    openings   through    which 
pigeons  passed  into  the  cavities  of  the  rocks, 
or  into  those  buildings  which  were  raised  for 
their    reception.      Thus    the    prophet    asks : 
"  Who  are  these  that  fly  as  a  cloud,  and  as  the 
doves,  arvru-iN-1?^,  to  their  small  or  narrow 
windows."     The  word  is  derived  from  a  root 
which  signifies  to  lie  in  wait  for  the  prey  ;  and 
is  very  expressive  of  the  concealed  manner  in 
which  a  person  examines  through  that  kind 
of  window  an  external  object.    Irwin  describes 
the  windows  in  Upper  Egypt  as  having  the 
same  form  and  dimensions ;  and  says  expressly, 
that  one  of  the  windows  of  the  house  in  which 
they  lodged,  and  through  which  they  looked 
into  the  street,  more  resembled  a  pigeon  hole 
than  any  thing  else.     But  the  sacred  writers 
mention  another  kind  of  window,  which  was 
large  and  airy  ;    it  was  called  jiSn,  and  was 
large  enough  to  admit  a  person  of  mature  age 
being  cast  out  of  it;  a  punishment  which  that 
profligate  woman  Jezebel  suffered  by  the  com- 
mand of  Jehu,  the  authorized  extirminator  of 
her  family.     These  laige  windows  admit,  the 
light  and  the  bxeeze  into  spacious  apartments 
of  the  same  length  with  the  court,  but  which 
seldom  or    never  communicate  with  one  an- 
other.    In  the  houses  of  the  fashionable  and 
the  gay,  the  lower  part  of  the  walls  is  adorned 
with  rich  hangings  of  velvet  or  damask,  tinged 
with  the  liveliest  colours,  suspended  on  hooks, 
or  taken  down  at  pleasure.     A  correct  idea  of 
their  richness  and  splendour  may  be  formed 
from  the  description  which  the  inspired  writer 
has  given  of  the  hangings  in  the  royal  garden 
at    Shushan,  the  ancient    capital    of  Persia: 
"  Where  were  white,  green,  and  blue  hangings, 
fastened  with  cords  of  fine  linen  and  purple,  to 
silver  rings  and  pillars  of  marble,"  Esther  i,  6. 
The  upper  part  of  the  wails  is  adorned  with 
the  most  ingenious  wreathings  and  devices,  in 
stucco  and  fret-work.    The  ceiling  is  generally 
of  wainsc.ol,  painted    with  great  art,  or  else 
thrown  into  a  variety  of  pannels  with  gilded 
mouldings.     In  the  days  of  Jeremiah  the  pro- 
phet,  w  lieu  the  profusion  and   luxury  of  all 
ranks   in   Judea    were   at   their    height,   their 
chambers  were  ceiled  with  fragrant  and  costly 


wood,  and  painted  with  the  richest  colours. 
Of  this  extravagance  the  indignant  seer  loudlv 
complains:  "Wo  unto  him  that  earth,  I  will 
build  me  a  wide  house  and  large  chambers,  and 
cutteth  him  out  windows :  and  it  is  ceiled 
with  cedar,  and  painted  with  vermilion,"  Jer. 
xxii,  14.  The  floors  of  these  splendid  apart- 
ments were  laid  with  painted  tiles,  or  slabs  of 
the  most  beautiful  marble.  A  pavement  of 
this  kind  is  mentioned  in  the  book  of  Esther ; 
at  the  sumptuous  entertainment  which  Ahasu- 
erus  made  for  the  princes  and  nobles  of  his 
vast  empire,  "  the  beds,"  or  couches,  upon 
which  they  reclined,  "  were  of  gold  and  silver, 
upon  a  pavement  of  red  and  blue,  and  white 
and  black  marble."  Plaster  of  terrace  is  often 
used  for  the  same  purpose ;  and  the  floor  is 
always  covered  with  carpets,  which  are  for  the 
most  part  of  the  richest  materials.  Upon  these 
carpets,  a  range  of  narrow  beds,  or  mattresses, 
is  often  placed  along  the  sides  of  the  wall,  with 
velvet  or  damask  bolsters,  for  the  greater  ease 
and  convenience  of  the  company.  To  these 
luxurious  indulgences  the  prophets  occasion- 
ally seem  to  allude:  Ezekiel  was  commanded 
to  pronounce  a  "  wo  to  the  women  that  sew 
pillows  to  all  armholes,"  Ezek.  xiii,  18 ;  and 
Amos  denounces  the  judgments  of  his  God 
against  them  "  that  lie  upon  beds  of  ivory,  and 
stretch  themselves  upon  their  couches,  and 
eat  the  lambs  out  of  the  flock,  and  the  calves 
out  of  the  midst  of  the  stall,"  Amos  vi,  4.  At 
one  end  of  each  chamber  is  a  little  gallery, 
raised  three  or  four  feet  above  the  floor,  with 
a  balustrade  in  front,  to  which  they  go  up  by 
a  few  steps.  Here  they  place  their  beds ;  a 
situation  frequently  alluded  to  in  the  Holy 
Scriptures.  Thus  Jacob  addressed  his  nndu- 
tiful  son,  in  his  last  benediction  :  "  Thou  went- 
est  up  to  thy  father's  bed, — he  went  up  to  my 
couch,"  Gen.  xlix,  4.  The  allusion  is  again 
involved  in  the  declaration  of  Elijah  to  the 
king  of  Samaria  :  "  Now,  therefore,  thus  saith 
the  Lord,  Thou  shalt  not  come  down  from 
that  bed  on  which  thou  art  gone  up,  but  shalt 
surely  die,"  2  Kings  i,  4,  16.  And  the  Psalm- 
ist sware  unto  the  Lord,  and  vowed  unto  the 
mighty  God  of  Jacob,  "  Surely  I  will  not  come 
into  the  tabernacle  of  my  house,  nor  go  up 
into  my  bed,  until  I  find  out  a  place  for  the 
Lord,"  Psalm  exxxii,  3.  This  arrangement 
may  likewise  illustrate  the  circumstance  of 
Heyckiah's  "  turning  his  face  to  the  wall,  when 
he  prayed,"  that  the  greatness  of  his  sorrow, 
and  the  fervour  of  his  devotion,  might,  as 
much  as  possible,  be  concealed  from  his  at 
tendants,  2  Kings  ex. 

The  roof  is  always  flat,  and  often  composed 
of  branches  of  wood  laid  across  rude  beams  ; 
and,  to  defend  it  from  the  injuries  of  the  wea- 
ther, to  which  it  is  peculiarly  exposed  in  the 
rainy  season,  it  is  covered  with  a  strong  plas- 
ter of  terrace.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  wall 
breast-high,  which  forms  the  partition  with 
the  contiguous  houses,  and  prevents  one  from 
falling  into  the  street  on  the  one  side,  or  into 
the  court  on  the  other.  This  answers  to  the 
battlements  which  Moses  commanded  the  peo- 
ple of  Israel    to  make  for  the  roof  of  their 


HOU 


471 


IIUS 


houses,  for  the  same  reason.     "  When  thou 
buiidest  a  new  house,  then  thou  shalt  make  a 
battlement,  FipJjD,  for  thy  roof,  that  thou  bring 
not  blood  upon  thine  house,  if  any  man  fall 
from  thence,"  Deut.  xxii,  8.     Instead  of  the 
parapet  wall,  some  terraces  are  guarded,  like 
the  galleries,  with  balustrades  only,  or  latticed 
work.     Of  the  same  kind,  probably,  was  the 
lattice  or  net,  as  the  term  n33&>  seems  to  im- 
port, through  which  Ahaziah,  the  king  of  Sa- 
maria, fell  down  into  the  court,  2  Kings  i,  2. 
This  incident  proves  the  necessity  of  the  law 
which  was  graciously  dictated  from  Sinai,  and 
furnishes  a  beautiful  example  of  God's  pater- 
nal care  and  goodness ;  for  the  terrace  was  a 
place  where  many  offices  of  the  family  were 
performed,  and  business  of  no  little  import- 
ance was  occasionally  transacted.    Rahab  con- 
cealed the  spies  on  the  roof,  with  the  stalks  of 
flax  which  she  had  laid  in  order  to  dry,  Joshua 
ii,  6 ;  the  king  of  Israel,  according  to  the  cus- 
torn  of  his  country,  rose  from  his  bed,  and 
walked  upon  the  roof  of  his  house,  to  enjoy 
the  refreshing  breezes  of  the  evening,  2  Sam. 
xi,  2 ;  upon  the  top  of  the  house  the  prophet 
conversed  with  Saul,  about  the  gracious  designs 
of  God,  respecting  him  and  his  family,  1  Sam. 
jx,  25  ;  to  the  same  place  Peter  retired  to  offer 
up  his  devotions,  Acts  x,  9 ;  and  in  the  feast 
of  tabernacles,  under  the  government  of  Ne- 
hemiah,  booths  were  erected,  as  well  upon  the 
terraces  of  their  houses,  as  in  their  courts,  and 
in  the  streets  of  the  city,  Neh.  viii,  16.     In 
Judea,  the  inhabitants  sleep  upon  the  tops  of 
their  houses  during  the  heats  of  summer,  in 
arbours  made  of  the  branches  of  trees,  or  in 
tents  of  rushes.     When  Dr.  Pococke  was  at 
Tiberias,  in  Galilee,  he  was  entertained  by  the 
sheik's  steward,   and  with  his  company  sup- 
ped upon  the  top  of  the  house  for  coolness, 
according  to  their  custom,  and  lodged  there 
likewise,  in  a  sort  of  closet  of  about  eight  feet 
square,     formed    of    wicker-work,    plastered 
round  toward   the  bottom,  but    without  any 
door,  each  person  having  his  cell.      In  like 
manner,  the  Persians  take  refuge  during  the 
day  in  subterraneous  chambers,  and  pass  the 
night  on  the  flat  roofs  of  their  houses. 

The  expression,  "  to  dig  through  houses," 
occurs,  Job  xxiv,  16.  "  Thieves,"  says  Mr. 
Ward,  "  in  Bengal  very  frequently  dig  through 
the  mud  walls,  and  under  the  clay  floors  of 
houses,  and,  entering  unperceived,  pluir"1. 
them  while  the  inhabitants  are  asleep."  ,  ",l" 
Lord's  parable  of  the  foolish  man  ;/10  £ 
his  house  on  the  sand  derives  illr  ~™tlon ,  rom 
the  following  passages  in  Wa- s  "  VieW'  „and 
Belzoni's  "  Travels!"  "  TlPshermen  in  Be,n" 
gal  build  their  huts  in  &&?.  seas°n  on.  thf 
beds  of  sand,  from  ^lch  the  nver  has  retired. 
When  the  rains  set  in>  which  they  often  do 
very  sudde^V'  accompanied  by  violent  north- 
west winds,  the  water  pours  down  in  torrents 
from  t^e  mountains.  In  one  night  multitudes 
0f  these  huts  are  frequently  swept  away,  and 
tfte  place  where  they  stood  is  the  next  morn- 
ing undiscoverable."  "  It  so  happened,  that 
we  were  to  witness  one  of  the  greatest  calami- 
ties that  have  occurred  in  Egypt  in  the  recol- 


lection of  any  one  living.     The  Nile  rose  this 
season  three  feet  and  a  half  above  the  highest 
mark  left  by  the  former  inundation,  with  un- 
common rapidity,  and  carried  off  several  vil- 
lages, and  some  hundreds  of  their  inhabitants. 
I  never  saw  any  picture  that  could  give  a  more 
correct  idea  of  a  deluge  than  the  valley  of  the 
Nile  in  this  season.     The  Arabs  had  expected 
an  extraordinary  inundation  this  year,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  scarcity  of  water  the  preced- 
ing season  ;    but  they  did  not  apprehend  it 
would  rise  to  such  a  height.     They  generally 
erect  fences  of  earth  and  reeds  around  their 
villages,  to  keep  the  water  from  their  houses ; 
but  the  force  of  this  inundation  baffled  all  their 
efforts.     Their  cottages,  being  built  of  earth, 
could  not  stand  one  instant  against  the  cur- 
rent ;  and  no  sooner  did  the  water  reach  them, 
than  it  levelled  them  with  the  ground.     The 
rapid  stream  carried  off  all  that  was  before  it ; 
men,   women,    children,    cattle,    corn,    every 
thing  was  washed  away  in  an  instant,  and  left 
the  place  where  the  village  stood  without  any 
thing  to  indicate  that  there  had  ever  been  a 
house  on  the  spot." 

House    is   taken    for   family:    "The   Lord 
plagued  Pharaoh  and  his  house,"  Gen.  xii,  17. 
"  What  is  my  house,  that  thou  hast  brought 
me  hitherto  ?"  2  Sam.  vii,  18.     So  Joseph  was 
of  the  house  of  David,  Luke  i,  27 ;  ii,  4 ;  but 
more  especially  he  was  of  his  royal  lineage,  or 
family  ;  and,  as  we  conceive,  in  the  direct  line 
or  eldest  branch  of  the  family  ;  so  that  he  was 
next  of  kin  to  the  throne,  if  the  government 
had  still  continued  in  possession   of  the  d' 
scendants  of  David.     House  is  taken  for.rst 
dred :  it  is  a  Christian's  duty  to  proy$,  his 
for  those  of  his  own  house,  1  Tim 
family,  his  relatives.  ,ve  ages  of 

HUSBANDRY.  In  the  prig  the  keeping 
the  world,  agriculture,  as  Wjfloyment  among 
of  flocks,  was  a  principal.  iv,  2.  It  is  an  art 
men  Gen.  ii,  15  ;  hi,  1  prominent  source,  both 
which  has  ever  beentne  conveniences  of  life, 
of  the  necessaries  fat,ions,  especially  Babylon 
Those  states  ag^  made  the  cultivation  of  the 
and  Egypt,^ business,  arose  in  a  short  period 
soil  their  £nd  power.  To  these  communities 
t0  weahtioned,  which  excelled  in  this  parti- 
JUSV  all  the  others  of  antiquity,  may  be  added 
Sat  of  the  Hebrews,  who  learned  the  value  oi 
the  art  while  remaining  in  Egypt,  and  ever 
after  that  time  were  famous  for  their  industry 
St  he  cultivation  of  the  earth.  Moses,  bl- 
owing the  example  of  the  Egyptians,  made 
agriculture  the  basis  of  the  state.  He  accord- 
ingly apportioned  to  every  citizen  a  certain 
quantity  of  land,  and  gave  him  the  right  of 
St  J  himself,  and  of  transmitting  it  to  his 
eirs"  The  person  who  had  thus  come  into 
possession  could  not  alienate  the  property  tor 


any  longer  period  than  the  year  of  the  coming 
'  'ion  which  prevent! 

from  coming  l   to  possession 


jubilee  :  a  regulation  which  prevented  the  rich 
from  coming  into  possession  of  large  tracts  ot 
land,  and  then  leasing  them  out  in  small  par- 
cels to  the  poor:  a  practice  which  anciently 
prevailed,  and  does  to  this  day,  in  the  east. 
U  was  another  law  of  Moses,  that  the  vender 


HUS 


472 


HUT 


of  a  piece  of  land,  or  his  nearest  relative,  had 
a  right  to  redeem  the  land  sold,  whenever  they 
chose,  by  paying  the  amount  of  profits  up  to 
the  year  of  jubilee,  Ruth  iv,  4;  Jer.  xxxii,  7. 
Another  law  enacted  by  Moses  on  this  subject 
was,  that,  the  Hebrews,  as  was  the  case  among 
the  Egyptians  after  the  time  of  Joseph,  should 
pay  a  tax  of  two-tenths  of  their  income  unto 
God,  whose  servants  they  were  to  consider 
themselves  to  be,  and  whom  they  were  to  obey 
as  their  King  and  Lord,  Ley.  x.wii,  30;  Deut. 
xii,  17-19;  xiv,  22*29]  Gen.xxviii,  22.  The 
custom  of  marking  the  boundaries  of  lands  by 
stones,  although  it  prevailed  a  long  time  be- 
fore, Job  xxiv,  2,  wns  confirmed  and  perpetu- 
ated in  the  time  of  Moses  by  an  express  law ; 
and  a  curse  was  pronounced  against  him  who 
without  authority  removed  them.  These  regu- 
lations having  been  made  in  respect  to  the 
tenure,  incumbrances,  &,c,  of  landed  property, 
Joshua  divided  the  whole  country  which  he 
had  occupied,  first  among  the  respective  tribes, 
and  then  among  individual  Hebrews,  running 
it  out  with  the  aid  of  a  measuring  line,  Joshua 
xvii,  5,  14;  Amos  vii,  17  ;  Micah  ii,  5  ;  Psalm 
Ixxviii,  55  ;  Ezek.  xl,  '.i.  The  word  Van,  a  line, 
is  accordingly  used  by  a  figure  of  speech,  for 
the  heritage  itself,  Psalm  xvi,  6:  "The  lines 
have  fallen  to  me  in  pleasant  places,  yea  I  have 
a  goodly  heritage."  Though  Moses  was  the 
friend  of  the  agriculturist,  he  by  no  means  dis- 
couraged the  keeper  of  the  flock. 

The  occupation  of  the  husbandman  was  held 
in  honour,  not  only  for  the  profits  which  it 
brought,  but  from  the  circumstance  that  it  was 
imported  and  protected  by  the  fundamental 
for  pf  the  state.  All  who  were  not  set  apart 
Levite"ious  duties,  such  as  the  priests  and  the 
or  of  towhethir  inhabitants  of  the  country, 
laws,  ;tnd  \\'?d  cities,  were  considered  by  the 
rich  and  the  no  hi  fact,  agriculturists.  The 
of  the  soil,  did  njf-  's  true,  in  the  cultivation 
a  level  with  their  »elwavs  Put  themselves  on 
rich  or  so  noble  as  to  djs!  lmt  nonc  wcre  s0 
to  the  plough,  1  Sam.  yp  to  put  their  hand 
19 ;  2  Chron.  xxvi,  10.  T1?J  }  KinSs  xix. 
vites  were  indeed  engaged  iu"ies!s  :mcl  Le" 
ments,  yet  they  could  hot  wi1  hhold  17.  emPloV- 
from  an  occupation  which  supplied  tLhon°ur 
their  income.  The  esteem  in  which  ag?'ltn 
ture  was  held  diminished  as  luxury  increase!" 
but  it  never  wholly  came  to  an  end.  Even 
after  the  captivity,  when  many  of  the  Jews  had 
become  merchants  and  mechanics,  the  esteem 
and  honour  attached  to  this  occupation  still 
continued,  especially  under  the  dynasty  of  the 
Persians,  who  were  agriculturists  from  motives 
of  religion. 

The  soil  of  Palestine  is  very  fruitful,  if  the 
dews  and  vernal  and  autumnal  rains  are  not 
withheld.  The  country,  in  opposition  to  Egypt, 
is  eulogized  for  its  rains  in  Deut.  xi,  10.  The 
Hebrews,  notwithstanding  the  richness  of  the 
sod,  endeavoured  to  increase  its  fertility  in 
various  ways.  They  not  only  divested  it  of 
stones,  but  watered  it  by  means  of  canals, 
communicating  with  the  rivers  or  brooks  ;  and 
thereby  imparted  to  their  fields  the  richness  of 


gardens,  Psalm  i,  3 ;  lxv,   10  ;  Prov.  xxi,   1 ; 

Isa.  xxx,  25  ;  xxxii,  2,  20.  Springs,  therefore, 
fountains,  and  rivulets,  were  held  in  as  much 
honour  and  worth  by  husbandmen  as  by  shep- 
herds, Joshua  xv,  9  ;  Judges  i,  15  ;  and  we 
accordingly  find  that  the  land  of  Canaan  was 
extolled  lor  those  fountains  of  water  of  which 
Egypt  was  destitute.  The  soil  was  enriched, 
also,  in  addition  to  the  method  just  mentioned, 
by  means  of  ashes ;  to  which  the  straw,  the 
stubble,  the  husks,  the  brambles,  and  grass, 
that  overspread  the  hind  during  the  sabbatical 
year,  were  reduced  by  fire.  The  burning  over 
the  surface  of  the  land  had  also  another  good 
effect,  namely,  that  of  destroying  the  seeds  of 
the  noxious  herbs,  Isa.  vii,  23  ;  xxxii,  13 ;  Prov. 
xxiv,  31.  Finally,  the  soil  was  manured  with 
dung. 

The  Hebrew  word,  jjn,  wtiich  is  translated 
variously  by  the  English  words,  grain,  corn. 
&c,  is  of  general  signification,  and  compre- 
hends in  itself  different  kinds  of  grain  and 
pulse,  such  as  wheat,  millet,  spelt,  wall-barley, 
barley,  beans,  lentils,  meadow-cumin,  pepper- 
wort,  flax,  cotton  ;  to  these  may  be  added 
various  species  of  the  cucumber,  and  perhaps 
rice.  Rye  and  oats  do  not  grow  in  the  warmer 
climates;  but  their  place  is,  in  a  manner,  sup- 
plied by  barley.  Barley,  mixed  with  broken 
straw,  affords  the  fodder  for  beasts  of  burden, 
which  is  called  ^i.  Wheat,  nan,  which,  by 
way  of  eminence,  is  called  pn,  grew  in  Egypt 
in  the  time  of  Joseph,  as  it  now  does  in  Africa, 
on  several  branches  from  one  stalk,  each  one 
of  which  produced  an  ear,  Gen.  xli,  47.  This 
sort  of  wheat  does  not  flourish  in  Palestine  : 
the  wheat  of  Palestine  is  of  a  much  better  kind. 

HUSKS,  Kcpdnov,  Luke  xv,  16;  the  husks 
of  leguminous  plants,  so  named  from  their  re- 
semblance to  w'ptjf,  a  horn;  but  Bochart  thinks 
that  the  leepqrla  were  the  cerctonia,  the  husks 
or  fruit  of  the  enrol)  tree,  a  tree  very  common 
in  the  Levant.  We  learn  from  Columella,  that 
these  pods  afforded  food  for  swine  ;  and  the}' 
are  mentioned  as  what  the  prodigal  desired  to 
eat,  when  reduced  to  extreme  hunger. 

IIUTCHINSONIANS,  the  followers  of 
John  Hutchinson,  Esq.,  a  learned  and  respect- 
able layman,  who  was  born  at  Spennythorn, 
in  Yorkshire,  in  1674.  In  1724,  he  published 
the  first  part  of  that  curious  work,  "  Moses's 
Principia"  in  which  he  ridiculed  Dr.  Wood, 
j    ''.rd'.s  "Natural  History  of  the  Earth,"  and 

■  ailed  the  doctrine  of  cavitation  established 
1  m  Sir  AT  ,    =  .  D  .     .    .    „      T       . 

,    "aac  INewtons  "  frincirna.       In  the 
second  pai      r  ..  .  ■  ,/■     ,  .     ,-..-,» 

,  .   f  .     of  tins  work,  published  in  1/27, 

he  maintained,-  ....  l.     .,     At      .      .    ' 

.  ,,  ,  '  i  opposition  to  the  JNewtonian 
system,  that  a  pOT  .  fa  principie  0f  tho 
Scripture  I>  >do*oph  ^  ^  1^ 
in  nnated  hat  the  idea  u,  a  Trinit  is  to  be 
taken  from  the  grand  age*,  jQ  ^  natural 
system,  fire,  light,  and  spirit,  iu^,  thjs  tim„ 
he  continucc".  to  publish  a  volume  evcry  vea^ 
or  two  till  his  death  ;  and  a  correct  and  twint 
edition  of  his  works,  including  the  MSS.  Whjcn 
he  left  was  published  in  1748,  in  12  vols.  8vo. 
Mr.  Hutchinson  thought  that  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures  comprise  a  perfect  system  of  natu- 
ral  philosophy,  theology,   and  religion.      He 


HUT 


473 


HYM 


entertained  so  high  an  opinion  of  the  Hebrew 
language,  that  he  thought  the  Almighty  must 
have  employed  it  to  communicate  every  spe- 
cies of  knowledge,  human  and  divine  ;  and 
that,  accordingly,  every  species  of  knowledge 
is  to  be  found  in  the  Old  Testament.  Both  he 
and  his  followers  laid  a  great  stress  on  the  evi- 
dence of  Hebrew  etymology.  After  Origen, 
and  other  eminent  commentators^  he  asserted 
that  the  Scriptures  are  not  to  be  understood 
and  interpreted  in  a  literal  but  in  a  typical 
sense,  and  according  to  the  radical  import  of 
the  Hebrew  expressions ;  that  even  the  his- 
torical parts,  and  particularly  those  relating  to 
the  Jewish  ceremonies  and  Levitical  law,  are 
to  be  considered  in  this  light ;  and  he  also  as- 
serted that,  agreeably  to  this  mode  of  inter- 
pretation, the  Hebrew  Scriptures  would  be 
found  amply  to  testify  concerning  the  nature 
and  offices  of  Jesus  Christ.  His  plan  was  to 
find  natural  philosophy  in  the  Bible,  where 
hitherto  it  had  been  thought  no  such  thing 
was  to  be  met  with,  or  ever  intended.  His 
editors  tell  us,  he  found,  upon  examination, 
that  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  nowhere  ascribe 
motion  to  the  body  of  the  sun,  nor  fixedness 
to  the  earth ;  that  they  describe  the  created 
system  to  be  a  plenum  without  any  vacuum  at 
all,  and  reject  the  assistance  of  gravitation, 
attraction,  or  any  such  occult  qualities,  for 
performing  the  stated  operations  of  nature, 
which  are  carried  on  by  the  mechanism  of  the 
heavens,  in  their  threefold  condition  of  fire, 
light,  and  spirit,  or  air,  the  material  agents  set 
to  work  at  the  beginning  ;  that  the  heavens, 
thus  framed  by  almighty  Wisdom,  are  an  insti- 
tuted emblem  and  visible  substitute  of  Jehovah 
Aleim,  the  eternal  Three,  the  coequal  and  co- 
adorable  Trinity  in  Unity ;  that  the  unity  of 
substance  in  the  heavens  points  out  the  unity 
of  essence  and  the  distinction  of  conditions, 
the  personality  in  Deity,  without  confounding 
the  persons  or  dividing  the  substance  ;  and 
that,  from  their  being  made  emblems,  they  are 
called  in  Hebrew  shemim,  the  names,  repre- 
sentatives, or  substitutes,  expressing  by  their 
names  that  they  are  emblems,  and,  by  their 
conditions  or  offices,  what  it  is  they  are  em- 
blems of.  He  also  found  that  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures  have  some  capital  words,  which  he 
has  proved,  or  endeavoured  to  prove,  contain, 
in  their  radical  meaning,  the  greatest  and  most 
comfortable  truths.  Thus,  the  word  Elohim, 
which  we  call  God,  or,  as  he  reads  it,  Aleim, 
he  refers  to  the  oath  or  conditional  execration, 
by  which  the  eternal  covenant  of  grace  among 
the  persons  in  Jehovah  was  and  is  confirmed. 
The  word  berith,  which  our  translation  renders 
"  covenant,"  signifies,  "  he  or  that  which  puri- 
fies," and  so  the  Purifier  or  purification  for, 
not  icit/t,  man.  The  cherubim,  which  have 
been  thought  "  angels  placed  as  a  guard  to 
deter  Adam  from  breaking  into  Eden  again," 
he  explains  to  have  been  a  hieroglyphic  of 
divine  construction,  or  a  sacred  image,  to  de- 
scribe, as  far  as  figures  could  go,  the  Aleim  and 
man  taken  in,  or  humanity  united  to  deity. 
In  like  manner,  he  treats  several  other  words 
of  similar,  though  not  quite  so  solemn,  import. 


Hence  he  drew  this  conclusion,  "that  all  the 
rites  and  ceremonies  of  the  Jewish  dispensa- 
tion were  so  many  delineations  of  Christ,  in 
what  he  was  to  be,  to  do,  and  to  suffer ;  and 
that  the  early  Jews  knew  them  to  be  types  of 
his  actions  and  sufferings,  and,  by  performing 
them  as  such,  were  in  so  far  Christians,  both 
in  faith  and  practice."  His  followers  main- 
tain,  that  the  cherubim,  and  the  glory  around 
them,  with  the  divine  presence  in  them,  were 
not  only  emblematical  figures,  representing  the 
persons  of  the  ever  blessed  Trinity,  as  engaged 
in  covenant  for  the  redemption  of  man,  but 
also  that  they  were  intended  "to  keep  or  pre- 
serve the  way  of  the  tree  of  life,  to  show  man 
the  way  to  life  eternal,  and  keep  him  from 
losing  or  departing  from  it."  That  Melchize- 
dec  was  an  eminent  type  of  Christ,  there  can 
be  little  doubt ;  but  that  he  was  actually  the 
second  person  of  the  Trinity,  in  a  human  form, 
is  a  tenet  of  the  Hutchinsonians,  though  not 
entirely  peculiar  to  them.  Mr.  Hutchinson 
supposes  that  "the  air  exists  in  three  condi- 
tions, fire,  light,  and  spirit ;  the  two  latter  are 
the  finer  and  grosser  parts  of  the  air  in  motion  : 
from  the  earth  to  the  sun,  the  air  is  finer  and 
finer  till  it  becomes  pure  light  near  the  con- 
fines of  the  sun,  and  fire  in  the  orb  of  the  sun, 
or  solar  focus."  From  the  earth  toward  the 
circumference  of  this  system,  in  which  he 
includes  the  fixed  stars,  the' air  becomes  grosser 
and  grosser  till  it  becomes  stagnant,  in  which 
condition  it  is  at  the  utmost  verge  of  this  sys- 
tem ;  from  whence,  in  his  opinion,  the  ex- 
pression of"  outer  darkness,"  and  "blackness 
of  darkness,"  used  in  the  New  Testament, 
seems  to  be  taken.  These  are  some  of  the 
principal  outlines  of  this  author's  doctrines, 
which  have  been  patronized  by  several  eminent 
divines,  both  of  the  church  and  among  the 
Dissenters. 

2.  The  followers  of  Mr.  Hutchinson  have 
not  erected  themselves  into  a  sect  or  separate 
community.  Among  them  may  be  reckoned 
some  eminent  and  respectable  divines,  both  in 
England  and  Scotland;  but  their  numbers 
seem  at  present  to  be  rather  on  the  decrease. 
Of  those  who,  in  their  day,  were  ranked  in  the 
list  of  Hutchinsonians,  perhaps  the  most  emi- 
nent were  the  following :  Mr.  Julius  Bate,  and 
Mr.  Parkhurst,  the  lexicographers  ;  Mr.  Hoi- 
Iowa}',  author  of  "Originals,"  and  "Letter 
and  "Spirit ;"  Dr.  Hodges,  provost  of  Oriel 
College,  Oxford;  Mr.  Henry  Lee,  author  of 
"Sophron,  or  Nature's  Characteristics  of  the 
Truth  ;"  Dr.  Wetherell,  late  master  of  Uni- 
versity College,  Oxford  ;  Mr.  Romaine;  Bishop 
Home;  and  Air.  William  Jones,  the  bishop's 
learned  friend  and  biographer. 

HYMN,  a  song,  or  ode,  composed  in  honour 
of  God.  The  Jewish  hymns  were  accompanied 
with  trumpets,  drums,  and  cymbals,  to  assist 
the  voices  of  the  Levites  and  people.  The 
word  is  used  as  synonymous  with  canticle, 
song,  or  psalm,  which  the  Hebrews  scarcely 
distinguish,  having  no  particular  term  for  a 
hymn,  as  distinct  from  a  psalm  or  canticle. 
St.  Paul  requires  Christians  to  edify  one  an- 
other with  "psalms,  and  hymns,  and  spiritual 


HYP 


474 


HYP 


songs."  St.  Matthew  says,  that  Christ,  hav- 
ing supped,  sung  a  hymn,  and  went  out.  He 
recited  the  hymns  or  psalms  which  the  Jews 
were  used  to  sing  after  the  passover ;  which  they 
called  the  Halal;  that  is,  the  Hallelujah  Psalms. 

HYPERBOLE.  This  figure,  in  its  repre- 
sentation of  things  or  objects,  either  magnifies 
or  diminishes  them  beyond  or  below  their  pro- 
per limits  :  it  is  common  in  all  languages,  and 
is  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the  Scriptures. 
Thus,  things  which  are  lofty  are  said  to  reach 
up  to  heaven,  Deut.  i,  28  ;  ix,  1 ;  Psalm  cvii,*26. 
So  things  which  are  beyond  the  reach  or 
capacity  of  man  are  said  to  be  in  "  heaven," 
in  the  "  deep,"  or  "  beyond  the  sea,"  Deut.  xxx, 
12 ;  Rom.  x,  6,  7.  So  a  great  quantity  or 
number  is  commonly  expressed  by  the  "  sand 
of  the  sea,"  the  "dust  of  the  earth,"  and  the 
"stars  of  heaven,"  Genesis  xiii,  16;  xli,  49  ; 
Judges  vii,  12  ;  1  Sam.  xiii,  5  ;  1  Kings  iv,  29  ; 
2  Chron.  i,  9 ;  Jer.  xv,  8 ;  Heb.  xi,  12.  In 
like  manner  we  meet  with  "  smaller  than  grass- 
hoppers," Num.  xiii,  33,  to  denote  extreme 
diminutiveness  ;  "  swifter  than  eagles,"  2  Sam. 
i,  23,  to  intimate  extreme  celerity  ;  the  "  earth 
trembled,"  the  "mountains  melted,"  Judges 
v,  4,  5  ;  the  "earth  rent,"  1  Kings  i,  40.  "  I 
make  my  bed  to  swim  ;"  "  rivers  of  tears  run 
down  mine  eyes."  So  we  read  of  "  angels' 
food,"  Psalm  vi,  6 ;  cxix,  136 ;  lxxviii,  25 ; 
the  "face  of  an  angel,"  Acts  vi,  15;  and  the 
"  tongue  of  an  angel,"  1  Cor.  xiii,  1.  See  also 
Gal.  i,  8 ;  iv,  14.  We  read  "  sigh  with  the 
breaking  of  thy  loins,"  Ezek.  xxi,  6,  that  is, 
most  deeply.  So  we  read  that  "the  stones 
would  cry  out,"  and  "  they  shall  not  leave  in 
thee  one  stone  upon  another,"  Luke  xix,  40, 
44 ;  that  is,  there  shall  be  a  total  desolation. 

HYPOCRITE,  a  word  from  the  Greek, 
which  signifies  one  who  feigns  to  be  what  he  is 
not;  who  puts  on  a  masque  or  character,  like 
actors  in  tragedies  and  comedies.  It  is  gene- 
rally applied  to  those  who  assume  appearances 
of  a  virtue,  without  possessing  it  in  reality. 
Our  Saviour  accused  the  Pharisees  of  hypo- 
crisy. In  the  Old  Testament,  the  Hebrew 
word  caneph,  which  is  rendered  "  hypocrite," 
"  counterfeit,"  signifes  also  a  profane  wicked 
man,  a  man  polluted,  corrupted,  a  man  of  im- 
piety, a  deceiver.  It  was  ingeniously  said  by 
Basil,  that  the  hypocrite  did  not  put.  oft'  the 
old  man,  but.  put  the  new  man  upon  it. 

HYPOSTATIC AL  UNION;  the  union  of 
the  divine  and  human  natures  of  Christ  in  one 
person.  This  is  the  doctrine  generally  received 
in  the  church  of  Christ ;  but  there  have  been 
some  who  have  denied  this,  who  yet  acknow- 
ledge our  Lord's  divinity.  Nestorius,  who  had 
been  taught  to  distinguish  accurately  between 
the  divine  and  human  nature  of  Christ,  was 
offended  with  some  expressions  commonly 
used  by  Christians  in  the  beginning  of  the  fifth 
century,  which  seemed  to  destroy  that  distinc- 
tion, and  particularly  with  their  calling  the 
Virgin  Mary  Sc6tcko<;,  as  if  it  were  possible  for 
the  Godhead  to  bo  born.  His  zeal  provoked 
opposition  ;  in  the  eagerness  of  controversy 
lie  was  led  to  use  unguarded  expressions  ;  and 
he  was  condemned  by  the  third  of  the  general 


councils,  the  council  of  Ephesus,  in  the  year 
431.  It  is  a  matter  of  doubt  whether  the  opin- 
ions of  Nestorius,  if  he  had  been  allowed  by  his 
adversaries  fairly  to  explain  them,  would  have 
appeared  inconsistent  with  the  doctrine  esta- 
blished by  the  council  of  Ephesus,  that  Christ 
is  one  person,  in  whom  two  natures  were 
most  closely  united.  But  whatever  was  the 
extent  of  the  error  of  Nestorius,  from  him  is 
derived  that  system  concerning  the  incarna- 
tion of  Christ,  which  is  held  by  a  large  body 
of  Christians  in  Chaldea,  Assyria,  and  other 
regions  of  the  east,  and  which  is  known  in  the 
ecclesiastical  history  of  the  west  by  the  name 
of  the  Nestorian  heresy.  The  object  of  the 
Nestorians  is  to  avoid  every  appearance  of  as- 
cribing to  the  divinity  of  Christ  the  weakness 
of  humanity ;  and  therefore  they  distinguish 
between  Christ,  and  God  who  dwelt  in  Christ 
as  in  a  temple.  They  say,  that  from  the  mo- 
ment of  the  virgin's  conception,  there  com- 
menced an  intimate  and  indissoluble  union 
between  Christ  and  God,  that  these  two  per- 
sons presented  in  Jesus  Christ  one  zspdouirov,  or 
aspect,  but  that  the  union  between  them  is 
merely  a  union  of  will  and  affection,  such  in 
kind  as  that  which  subsists  between  two 
friends,  although  much  closer  in  degree.  Op- 
posite to  the  Nestorian  opinion  is  the  Euty- 
chian,  which  derives  its  name  from  Eutyches, 
an  abbot  of  Constantinople,  who,  about  the 
middle  of  the  fifth  century,  in  his  zeal  to  avoid 
the  errors  of  Nestorius,  was  carried  to  the 
other  extreme.  Those  who  did  not  hold  the 
Nestorian  opinions  had  been  accustomed  to 
speak  of  the  "one  incarnate  nature"  of  Christ. 
But  Eutyches  used  this  phrase  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  appear  to  teach  that  the  human 
nature  of  Christ  was  absorbed  in  the  divine, 
and  that  his  body  had  no  real  existence.  This 
opinion  was  condemned  in  the  year  451,  by  the 
council  of  Chalcedon,  the  fourth  general  coun- 
cil, which  declared,  as  the  faith  of  the  catholic 
church,  that  Christ  is  one  person  ;  that  in  this 
unity  of  person  there  are  two  natures,  the 
divine  and  the  human ;  and  that  there  is  no 
change,  or  mixture,  or  confusion  of  these  two 
natures,  but  that  each  retains  its  distinguish- 
ing properties.  The  decree  of  Chalcedon  was 
not  universally  submitted  to.  But  many  of 
the  successors  of  Eutyches,  wishing  to  avoid 
the  palpable  absurdity  which  was  ascribed  to 
him,  of  supposing  that  one  nature  was  absorb- 
ed by  another,  and  anxious  at  the  same  tune 
to  preserve  that  unity  which  the  Nestorians 
divided,  declared  their  faith  to  be,  that  in 
Christ  there  is  one  nature,  but  that  this  nature 
is  twofold  or  compounded.  From  this  tenet 
the  successors  of  Eutyches  derive  the  name  of 
Monophysites ;  and  from  Jacob  Baradseus, 
who  in  the  following  century  was  a  zealous 
and  successful  preacher  of  the  system  of  the 
Monophysites,  they  are  more  commonly  known 
by  the  name  of  Jacobites.  The  Monophysites, 
or  Jacobites,  are  found  chiefly  near  the  Eu- 
phrates and  Tigris  ;  they  are  much  less  nume- 
rous than  the  Nestorians ;  and,  although  they 
profess  to  have  corrected  the  errors  which 
were  supposed  to  adhere   to  the    Eutychian. 


ICO 


475 


IDD 


heresy,  they  may. he  considered  as  having 
formed  their  peculiar  opinions  upon  the  gene- 
ral principles  of  that  system.  The  Monothe- 
lites,  an  ancient  sect,  of  whom  a  remnant  is 
found  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Mount  Libanus, 
disclaim  any  connection  with  Eutyches,  and 
agree  with  the  Catholics  in  ascribing  two  na- 
tures to  Christ ;  but  they  have  received  their 
name  from  their  conceiving  that  Christ,  being 
one  person,  can  only  have  one  will :  whereas 
the  Catholics,  considering  both  natures  as  com- 
plete, think  it  essential  to  each  to  have  a  will, 
and  say  that  every  inconvenience  which  can 
be  supposed  to  arise  from  two  wills  in  one  per- 
son, is  removed  by  the  perfect  harmony  be- 
tween that  will  which  belongs  to  the  divine, 
and  that  which  belongs  to  the  human  nature 
of  Christ. 

HYSSOP,  aiiK,  Exod.  xii,  22 ;  Lev.  xiv,  4, 
6,  49,  51,  52;  Num.  xix,  6,  18;  1  Kings  iv, 
33;  Psalm  li,  7;  Matt,  xxvii,  48;  Mark  xv, 
36 ;  iiaauno?,  John  xix,  29 ;  Heb.  ix,  19.  It 
grows  plentifully  on  the  mountains  near  Jeru- 
salem. It  is  of  a  bitter  taste  ;  and,  from  being 
considered  as  possessing  detersive  and  cleans- 
ing qualities,  derived  probably  its  Hebrew 
name.  The  original  word  has  been  variously 
translated  ;  and  Celsius  has  devoted  forty-two 
pages  to  remove  difficulties,  occasioned  by  the 
discordant  opinions  of  the  Talmudical  writers, 
and  to  ascertain  the  plant  intended.  That  it 
is  the  hyssop  seems  most  probable  :  the  pas- 
sage in  Heb.  ix,  19,  sufficiently  identifies  it. 
Under  the  law,  it  was  commonly  used  in  puri- 
fications as  a  sprinkler.  When  the  children 
of  Israel  came  out  of  Egypt,  they  were  com- 
manded to  take  a  bunch  of  hyssop,  to  dip  it  in 
the  blood  of  the  paschal  lamb,  and  sprinkle  it 
on  the  lintel  and  the  two  side-posts  of  the 
door.  It  was  also  used  in  sprinkling  the  leper. 
The  hyssop  is  extremely  well  adapted  to  such 
purposes,  as  it  grows  in  bunches,  and  puts  out 
many  suckers  from  a  single  root. 

ICONIUM,  the  chief  city  of  Lycaonia,  in 
Asia  Minor.  An  assault  being  meditated  at 
the  place  by  the  unbelieving  Jews  and  Gen- 
tiles upon  the  Apostles  Paul  and  Barnabas, 
who,  by  preaching  in  the  synagogue,  had  con- 
verted many  Jews  and  Greeks,  they  fled  to 
Lystra ;  where  the  designs  of  their  enemies 
were  put  in  execution,  and  St.  Paul  miracu- 
lously escaped  with  his  life,  Acts  xiv.  The 
church  planted  at  this  place  by  St.  Paul  con- 
tinued to  flourish,  until,  by  the  persecutions  of 
the  Saracens,  and  afterward  of  the  Seljukian 
Turks,  who  made  it  the  capital  of  one  of  their 
sultanies,  it  was  nearly  extinguished.  But 
some  Christians  of  the  Greek  and  Armenian 
churches,  with  a  Greek  archbishop,  are  yet 
found  in  the  suburbs  of  this  city,  who  are  not 
permitted  to  reside  within  the  walls.  Iconium 
is  now  called  Cogni,  and  is  still  a  considerable 
city  ;  being  the  capital  of  the  extensive  pro- 
vince of  Caramania,  as  it  was  formerly  of  Ly- 
caonia, and  the  seat  of  a  Turkish  beglerberg, 
or  viceroy.  It  is  the  place  of  chief  strength 
and  importance  in  the  central  parts  of  Asiatic 
Turkey,  being  surrounded  by  a  strong  wall  of 


four  miles  in  circumference ;  but,  as  is  the 
case  with  most  eastern  cities,  much  of  the 
enclosed  space  is  waste.  It  is  situated  about 
a  hundred  and  twenty  miles  inland  from  the 
Mediterranean,  on  the  lake  Trogilis.  Mr. 
Kinneir  says,  Iconium,  the  capital  of  Lyca- 
onia, is  mentioned  by  Xenophon,  and  after- 
ward by  Cicero  and  Strabo ;  but  does  not 
appear  to  have  been  a  place  of  any  considera- 
tion until  after  the  taking  of  Nice  by  the  cru- 
saders in  1099,  when  the  Seljukian  sultans  of 
Roum  chose  it  as  their  residence.  These  sul- 
tans rebuilt  the  walls,  and  embellished  the 
city:  they  were,  however,  expelled  in  1189  by 
Frederic  Barbarossa,  who  took  it  by  assault ; 
but  after  his  death  they  reentered  their  capital, 
where  they  reigned  in  splendour  till  the  irrup- 
tion of  Tchengis  Khan,  and  his  grandson, 
Holukow,  who  broke  the  power  of  the  Selju- 
kians.  Iconium,  under  the  name  of  Cogni, 
or  Konia,  has  been  included  in  the  dominions 
of  the  grand  seignior  ever  since  the  time  of 
Bajazet,  who  finally  extirpated  the  Ameers  of 
Caramania.  The  modern  city  has  an  impos- 
ing appearance  from  the  number  and  size  of 
its  mosques,  colleges,  and  other  public  build- 
ings ;  but  these  stately  edifices  are  crumbling 
into  ruins,  while  the  houses  of  the  inhabitants 
consist  of  a  mixture  of  small  huts  built  of  sun- 
dried  bricks,  and  wretched  hovels  thatched 
with  reeds.  The  city,  according  to  the  same 
authority,  contains  about  eighty  thousand  in- 
habitants, principally  Turks,  with  only  a  small 
proportion  of  Christians.  It  is  represented  as 
enjoying  a  fine  climate,  and  pleasantly  situated 
among  gardens  and  meadows ;  while  it  is 
nearly  surrounded,  at  some  distance,  with 
mountains  which  rise  to  the  regions  of  per- 
petual snow.  It  was  formerly  the  capital  of 
an  extensive  government,  and  the  seat  of  a 
powerful  pasha,  who  maintained  a  military 
force  competent  to  the  preservation  of  peace 
and  order,  and  the  defence  of  his  territories. 
But  it  has  now  dwindled  into  insignificance, 
and  exhibits  upon  the  whole  a  mournful  scene 
of  desolation  and  decay. 

ICONOCLASTES,  image  breakers;  or 
Iconomachi,  image  opposers,  were  names 
given  to  those  who  rejected  the  use  of  images 
in  churches,  and,  on  certain  occasions,  vented 
their  zeal  in  destroying  them.  The  great  op- 
position to  images  began  under  Bardanes,  a 
Greek  emperor,  in  the  beginning  of  the  eighth 
century ;  and  was  revived  again,  a  few  years 
after,  under  Leo,  the  Isaurian,  who  issued  an 
edict  against  image  worship,  which  occasioned 
a  civil  war  in  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago, 
and  afterward  in  Italy  ;  the  Roman  pontiffs 
ami  (Jreek  councils  alternately  supporting  it. 
At  length  images  were  rejected  by  the  Greek 
church,  which  however  retains  pictures  in 
churches,  though  her  members  do  not  worship 
them  ;  but  the  Latin  church,  more  corrupt, 
not  only  retained  images,  but  made  them  the 
medium,  if  not  the  object,  of  their  worship, 
and  are  therefore  Iconoduli,  or  Iconolatra;, 
image  worshippers. 

IDDO,  a  prophet  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah, 
who  wrote    the    actions   of  Rehoboam's  and 


IDO 


476 


IDO 


Abijah'a  reigns,  2  Chron.  xii,  15.  It  seems  by 
2  Chron.  xiii,  22,  that  he  had  entitled  his 
work,  Midrascti,  or,  "Inquiries."  We  know 
nothing  particularly  concerning  the  life  of 
this  prophet.  It  is  probable  that  he  likewise 
wrote  some  prophecies  against  Jeroboam,  the 
son  of  Nebat,  2  Chron.  ix,  2'J,  wherein  part  of 
Solomon's  life  was  included.  .  Josephus,  and 
many  others  after  him,  are  of  opinion  that  it 
was  Iddo  who  was  sent  to  Jeroboam,  while  he 
was  at  Bethel,  and  was  there  dedicating  an 
altar  to  the  golden  calves  ;  and  that  it  was  he 
who  was  killed  by  a  lion,  1  Kings  xiii. 

IDOLATRY,  from  tl&w'Xo'KaTprfa,  composed 
of  el8oi,  image,  and  \arpcveiv,  to  serve,  the  wor- 
ship and  adoration  of  false  gods  ;  or  the  giving 
those  honours  to  creatures,  or  the  works  of 
man's  hands,  which  are  only  due  to  God. 
Several  have  written  of  the  origin  and  causes 
of  idolatry  :  among  the  rest,  Vossius,  Selden, 
Godwyn,  Tenison,  and  Faber;  but  it  is  still  a 
doubt  who  was  the  first  author  of  it.  It  is 
generally  allowed,  how7ever,  that  it  had  not  its 
beginning  till  after  the  deluge ;  and  many  are 
of  opinion,  that  Belus,  who  is  supposed  to  be 
the  same  with  Niinrod,  was  the  first  man  that 
was  deified.  But  whether  they  had  not  paid 
divine  honours  to  the  heavenly  bodies  before 
that  time,  cannot  be  determined  ;  our  acquaint- 
ance with  those  remote  times  being  extremely 
slender.  The  first  mention  we  find  made  of 
idolatry  is  where  Rachel  is  said  to  have  taken 
the  idols  of  her  father ;  for  though  the  mean- 
ing of  the  Hebrew  word  Oiain,  be  disputed, 
yet  it  is  pretty  evident  they  were  idols.  Laban 
calls  them  his  gods,  and  Jacob  calls  them 
strange  gods,  and  looks  on  them  as  abomina- 
tions. The  original  idolatry  by  image  wor- 
ship is  by  many  attributed  to  the  age  of  Eber, 
B.  C.  2247,  about  a  hundred  and  one  years 
after  the  deluge,  according  to  the  Hebrew 
chronology ;  four  hundred  and  one  years 
according  to  the  Samaritan  ;  and  five  hundred 
and  thirty-one  years  according  to  the  Septua- 
gint ;  though  most  of  the  fathers  place  it  no 
higher  than  that  of  Serug;  which  seems  to  be 
the  more  probable  opinion,  considering  that 
for  the  first  hundred  and  thirty-four  years  of 
Eber's  life  all  mankind  dwelt  in  a  body  toge- 
ther ;  during  which  time  it  is  not  reasonable 
to  suppose  that  idolatry  broke  in  upon  them ; 
then  some  time  must  be  allowed  after  the  dis- 
persion of  the  several  nations,  which  were  but 
small  at  the  beginning,  to  increase  and  settle 
themselves  ;  so  that  if  idolatry  was  introduced 
in  Eber's  time,  it  must  have  been  toward  the 
end  of  his  life,  and  could  not  well  have  pre- 
vailed so  universally,  and  with  that  obstinacy 
which  some  authors  have  imagined.  Terah, 
the  father  of  Abraham,  who  lived  at  Ur,  in 
Chaldea,  about  B.  C.  2000,  was  unquestionably 
an  idolater ;  for  he  is  expressly  said  in  Scrip- 
ture to  have  served  other  gods.  The  authors 
of  the  Universal  History  think,  that  the  origin 
and  progress  of  idolatry  are  plainly  pointed 
out  to  us  in  the  account  which  Moses  gives  of 
Laban's  and  Jacob's  parting,  Gen.  xxxi,  44, 
&c.  From  the  custom  once  introduced  of 
erecting  monuments  in  memory  of  any  solemn 


covenants,  the  transition  was  easy  into  the 
notion,  that  some  deity  took  its  residence  in 
them,  in  order  to  punish  the  first  aggressors ; 
and  this  might  be  soon  improved  by  an  igno. 
rant  and  degenerate  world,  till  not  only  birds, 
beasts,  stocks,  and  stones,  but  sun,  moon,  and 
stars,  were  called  into  the  same  office  ;  though 
used,  perhaps,  at  first,  by  the  designing  part 
of  mankind,  as  scare-crows,  to  overawe  the 
ignorant. 

Sanchoniathon,  who  wrote  his  "  Phenician 
Antiquities,"  apparently  with  a  view  to  apo- 
logize for  idolatry,  traces  its  origin  to  the 
descendants  of  Cain,  the  elder  branch,  who 
began  with  the  worship  of  the  sun,  and  after- 
ward added  a  variety  of  other  methods  of 
idolatrous  worship :  proceeding  to  deify  the 
several  parts  of  nature,  and  men  after  their 
death ;  and  even  to  consecrate  the  plants 
shooting  out  of  the  earth,  which  the  first  men 
judged  to  be  gods,  and  .worshipped  as  those 
that  sustained  the  lives  of  themselves  and  of 
their  posterity.  The  Chaldean  priests,  in  pro- 
cess of  time,  being  by  their  situation  early 
addicted  to  celestial  observations,  instead  of 
conceiving  as  they  ought  to  have;  done  con- 
cerning the  omnipotence  of  the  Creator  and 
Mover  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  fell  into  the 
impious  error  of  esteeming  them  as  gods,  and 
the  immediate  governors  of  the  world,  in  sub- 
ordination, however,  to  the  Deity,  who  was 
invisible  except  by  his  works,  and  the  effects 
of  his  power.  Concluding  that  God  created 
the  stars  and  great  luminaries  for  the  govern- 
ment of  the  world,  partakers  with  himself 
and  as  his  ministers,  they  thought  it  but  just 
and  natural  that  they  should  be  honoured  and 
extolled,  and  that  it  was  the  will  of  God  they 
should  be  magnified  and  worshipped.  Accord- 
ingly, they  erected  temples,  or  sacella,  to  the 
stars,  in  which  they  sacrificed  and  bowed 
down  before  them,  esteeming  them  as  a  kind 
of  mediators  between  God  and  man.  Impos- 
tors afterward  arose,  who  gave  out,  that  they 
had  received  express  orders  from  God  himself 
concerning  the  manner  in  which  particular 
heavenly  bodies  should  be  represented,  and 
the  nature  and  ceremonies  of  the  worship 
which  was  to  be  paid  them.  When  they  pro- 
ceeded to  worship  wood,  stone,  or  metal, 
formed  and  fashioned  by  their  own  hands,  they 
were  led  to  apprehend,  that  these  images  had 
been,  in  some  way  or  other,  animated  or  in- 
formed with  a  supernatural  power  by  super- 
natural means  ;  though  Dr.  Prideaux  imagines, 
that,  being  at  a  loss  to  know  how  to  address 
themselves  to  the  planets  when  they  were 
below  the  horizon,  and  invisible,  they  re- 
curred to  the  use  of  images.  But  it  will 
be  sufficient  to  suppose,  that  they  were  per- 
suaded that  each  star  or  planet  was  actuated 
by  an  intelligence ;  and  that  the  virtues  of 
the  heavenly  body  were  infused  into  the 
image  that  represented  it.  It  is  certain, 
that  the  sentient  nature  and  divinity  of  the 
sun,  moon,  and  stars,  was  strenuously  assert- 
ed by  the  philosophers,  particularly  by  Pytha- 
goras and  his  followers,  and  by  the  Stoics,  as 
well  as  believed  by  the  common  people,  and 


IDO 


477 


IDO 


was,  indeed,  the  very  foundation  of  the  Pagan 
idolatry.  The  heavenly  bodies  were  the  first 
deities  of  all  the  idolatrous  nations,  were 
esteemed  eternal,  sovereign,  and  supreme ; 
and  distinguished  by  the  title  of  the  natural 
gods.  Thus  we  find  that  the  primary  gods  of 
the  Heathens  in  general  were  Saturn,  Jupiter, 
Mars,  Apollo,  Mercury,  Venus,  and  Diana ; 
by  which  we  can  understand  no  other  than 
the  sun  and  moon,  and  the  five  greatest  lumi- 
naries next  to  these.  Plutarch  expressly  cen- 
sures the  Epicureans  for  asserting  that  the 
san  and  moon,  whom  all  men  worshipped, 
are  void  of  intelligence. 

Sanchoniathon  represents  the  most  ancient 
nations,  particularly  the  Phenicians  and  Egyp- 
tians, as  acknowledging  only  the  natural 
gods,  the  sun,  moon,  planets,  and  elements ; 
and  Plato  declares  it  as  his  opinion,  that 
the  first  Grecians  likewise  held  these  only  to 
be  gods,  as  many  of  the  barbarians  did  in  his 
time.  Beside  these  natural  gods,  the  Hea- 
thens believed  that  there  were  certain  spirits 
who  held  a  middle  rank  between  the  gods  and 
men  on  earth,  and  carried  on  all  intercourse 
between  them ;  conveying  the  addresses  of 
men  to  the  gods,  and  the  divine  benefits  to 
men.  These  spirits  were  called  demons. 
From  the  imaginary  office  ascribed  to  them, 
they  became  the  grand  objects  of  the  religious 
hopes  and  fears  of  the  Pagans,  of  immediate 
dependence  and  divine  worship.  In  the  most 
learned  nations,  they  did  not  so  properly  share, 
as  engross,  the  public  devotion.  To  these 
alone  sacrifices  were  offered,  while  the  celes- 
tial gods  were  worshipped  only  with  a  pure 
mind,  or  with  hymns  and  praises.  As  to  the 
nature  of  these  demons,  it  has  been  generally 
believed,  that  they  were  spirits  of  a  higher 
origin  than  the  human  race;  and,  in  support 
of  this  opinion,  it  has  been  alleged,  that  the 
supreme  deity  of  the  Pagans  is  called  the  great- 
est demon ;  that  demons  are  described  as  be- 
ings placed  between  the  gods  and  men ;  and 
that  demons  are  expressly  distinguished  from 
heroes,  who  were  the  departed  souls  of  men. 
Some,  however,  have  combatted  this  opinion, 
and  maintained,  on  the  contrary,  that  by  de- 
mons, such  as  were  the  more  immediate  ob- 
jects of  the  established  worship  among  the 
ancient  nations,  particularly  the  Egyptians, 
Greeks,  and  Romans,  we  are  to  understand  be- 
ings of  an  earthly  origin,  or  such  departed  hu- 
man souls  as  were  believed  to  become  demons. 
Although  the  Hindoo  inhabitants  of  the 
East  Indies  deny  the  charge  of  idolatry,  using 
the  same  description  of  arguments  as  are  so 
inconclusively  urged  by  superstitious  Europe- 
ans in  defence  of  image  worship,  it  is  still  evi- 
dent that  the  mass  of  the  Hindoos  are  addicted 
to  gross  idolatry.  The  gods  of  Rome  were 
even  less  numerous,  certainly  less  whimsical 
and  monstrous,  than  those  at  Benares.  In 
Moore's  Hindoo  Pantheon  are  given  exact  por- 
traits of  many  scores  of  deities  worshipped, 
with  appropriate  ceremonies,  and  under  vari- 
ous forms  and  names,  by  different  sects  of  that 
grossly  superstitious  race.  Some  of  these  por- 
traits are  of  images  colossal  to  a  degree  perhaps 


unequalled  by  any  existing  statues  ;  others  are 
exceedingly  diminutive.  Some  are  metallic 
casts,  and  some  apparently  extremely  ancient, 
which  exhibit  every  gradation  of  art  from  the 
rudest  imaginable  specimen,  up  to  a  very 
respectable  portion  of  skill,  so  as  to  approach 
to  elegance  of  form,  and  to  ease  and  expres- 
sion of  attitude. 

The  principal  causes  which  have  been  as- 
signed for  idolatry  are,  the  indelible  idea  which 
every  man  has  of  God,  and  the  evidence  which 
he  gives  of  it  to  himself;  an  inviolable  attach- 
ment to  the  senses,  and  a  habit  of  judging  and 
deciding  by  them,  and  them  only;  the  pride 
and  vanity  of  the  human  mind,  which  is  not 
satisfied  with  simple  truth,  but  mingles  and 
adulterates  it  with  fables  ;  men's  ignorance  of 
antiquity,  or  of  the  first  times,  and  the  first 
men,  of  whom  they  had  but  very  dark  and 
confused  knowledge  by  tradition,  they  having 
left  no  written  monuments,  or  books ;  the 
ignorance  and  change  of  languages  ;  the  style 
of  the  oriental  writings,  which  is  figurative 
and  poetical,  and  personifies  every  thing  ;  the 
scruples  and  fears  inspired  by  superstition ; 
the  flattery  and  fictions  of  poets ;  the  false 
relations  of  travellers ;  the  imaginations  of 
painters  and  sculptors  ;  a  smattering  of  phy- 
sics, that  is,  a  slight  acquaintance  with  natural 
bodies  and  appearances,  and  their  causes  ;  the 
establishment  of  colonies,  and  the  invention 
of  arts,  mistaken  by  barbarous  people ;  the 
artifices  of  priests;  the  pride  of  certain  men, 
who  affected  to  pass  for  gods ;  the  love  and 
gratitude  borne  by  the  people  to  certain  of 
their  great  men  and  benefactors;  and,  finally, 
the  historical  events  of  the  Scriptures  ill  un- 
derstood. "  One  great  spring  and  fountain 
of  all  idolatry,"  says  Sir  William  Jones,  "  was 
the  veneration  paid  by  men  to  the  sun,  or  vast 
body  of  fire,  which  '  looks  from  his  sole  do- 
minion like  the  god  of  this  world ;'  and  an- 
other, the  immoderate  respect  shown  to  the 
memory  of  powerful  or  virtuous  ancestors  and 
warriors,  of  whom  the  sun  and  the  moon  were 
wildly  supposed  to  be  the  parents."  But  the 
Scriptural  account  of  the  matter  refers  the 
whole  to  wilful  ignorance  and  a  corrupt  heart : 
"  They  did  not  like  to  retain  God  in  their 
knowledge."  To  this  may  be  added,  what 
indeed  proceeds  from  the  same  sources,  the 
disposition  to  convert,  religion  into  outward 
forms;  the  endeavour  to  render  it  more  im- 
pressive upon  the  imagination  through  the 
senses  ;  the  substitution  of  sentiment  for  real 
religious  principle  ;  and  the  license  which  this 
gave  to  inventions  of  men,  which  in  process 
of  time  became  complicated  and  monstrous. 
That  debasement  of  mind,  and  that  alienation 
of  the  heart  liom  God,  and  the  gross  immo. 
ralities  and  licentious  practices  which  have  ever 
accompanied  idolatry,  will  sufficiently  account 
for  the  severity  with  which  it  is  denounced, 
both  in  the  Obi  and  New  Testaments. 

The  veneration  which  the  Papists  pay  to 
the  Virgin  Mary,  and  other  saints  and  angels, 
and  to  the  bread  in  the  sacrament,  the  cross, 
relics,  and  images,  affords  ground  for  the  Pro- 
testants to  charge  them  with  being  idolaters, 


ILL 


478 


1MM 


though  they  deny  that  they  are  so.  It  is  evi- 
dent that  they  worship  these  persons  and 
things,  and  that  they  justify  the  worship,  but 
deny  the  idolatry  of  it,  by  distinguishing 
subordinate  from  supreme  worship.  This  dis- 
tinction is  justly  thought  by  Protestants  to  be 
futile  and  nugatory,  and  certainly  has  no  sup- 
port from  Holy  Writ. 

Under  the  government  of  Samuel,  Saul,  and 
David,  there  was  little  or  no  idolatry  in  Israel. 
Solomon  was  the  first  Hebrew  king,  who,  in 
complaisance  to  his  foreign  wives,  built  temples 
and  offered  incense  to  strange  gods.  Jeroboam, 
the  son  of  Nebat,  who  succeeded  him  in  the 
greater  part  of  his  dominions,  set  up  golden 
calves  at  Dan  and  Bethel.  Under  the  reign 
of  Ahab,  this  disorder  was  at  its  height,  occa- 
sioned by  Jezebel,  the  wife  of  Ahab,  who  did 
all  she  could  to  destroy  the  worship  of  the  true 
God,  by  driving  away  and  persecuting  his 
prophets.  God,  therefore,  incensed  at  the  sins 
and  idolatry  of  the  ten  tribes,  abandoned  those 
tribes  to  the  kings  of  Assyria  and  Chaldea, 
who  transplanted  them  beyond  the  Euphrates, 
from  whence  they  never  returned.  The  peo- 
ple of  Judah  were  no  less  corrupted.  The 
prophets  give  an  awful  description  of  their 
idolatrous  practices.  They  were  punished 
after  the  same  manner,  though  not  so  severely, 
as  the  ten  tribes ;  being  led  into  captivity 
several  times,  from  which  at  last  they  returned, 
and  were  settled  in  the  land  of  Judea,  after 
which  we  hear  no  more  of  their  idolatry.  They 
have  been,  indeed,  ever  since  that  period,  distin- 
guished lor  their  zeal  against  it.  See  Image. 
IDUMjEA  is  properly  the  Greek  name  for 
I  lie  land  of  Edorn,  which  lay  to  the  south  of 
Judea,  and  extended  from  the  Dead  Sea  to  the 
Elanitic  Gulf  of  the  Red  Sea,  where  were  the 
ports  of  Elath  and  Ezion-Gaber.  But  the  Idu- 
nifea  of  the  New  Testament  applies  only  to  a 
small  part  adjoining  Judea  on  the  south,  and 
including  even  a  portion  of  that  country ; 
which  was  taken  possession  of  by  the  Edom- 
Ite6,  or  Idumaeans,  while  the  land  lay  unoc- 
cupied during  the  Babylonish  captivity.  The 
capital  of  this  country  was  Hebron,  which  had 
formerly  been  the  metropolis  of  the  tribe  of 
Judah.  These  Iduimeans  were  so  reduced  by 
the  Maccabees,  that,  in  order  to  retain  their 
possessions,  they  consented  to  embrace  Juda- 
ism ;  and  their  territory  became  incorporated 
with  Judea;  although,  in  the  time  of  our  Sa- 
viour, it  still  retained  its  former  name  of 
Iduuuea,  Mark  iii,  8.  The  proper  Idumceane, 
or  those  who  remained  in  the  ancient  land  of 
Bdom,  became  in  process  of  time  mingled  with 
the  Ishmaelitcs  ;  (lie  two  people  thus  blended, 
being,  from  Nabaioth,  or  Nabath,  the  son  of 
lahmael,  termed  Nabathffians ;  under  which 
names  they  arc  frequently  mentioned  in  his- 
tory.     See  EdOM. 

1LLYRICUM,  a  province  lying  to  the  north 
and  north-west  of  Macedonia,  along  the  east- 
ern co;tst  of  I  he  Adriatic  Gulf,  or  Gulf  of  Ve- 
nice. It  was  distinguished  into  two  parts: 
Libuioia  t"  the  north,  where  is  now  Croatia, 
Mud  DalmeJia  to  the  south,  which  still  retains 
the  same  name,  and  to  which,  as  St.  Paul  in- 


forms Timothy,  Titus  went,  2  Tim.  iv,  10. 
St.  Paul  says,  that  he  preached  the  Gospel 
from  Jerusalem  round  about  to  Ulyricum, 
Rom.  xv,  19. 

IMAGE,  in  a  religious  sense,  is  an  artificial 
representation  of  some  person  or  thing  used  as 
an  object  of  adoration,  and  is  synonymous 
with  idol.  Nothing  can  be  more  clear,  full, 
and  distinct,  than  the  expressions  of  Scripture 
prohibiting  the  making  and  worship  of  images, 
Exod.  xx,  4,  5 ;  Deut.  xvi,  22.  No  sin  is  so 
strongly  and  repeatedly  condemned  in  the  Old 
Testament  as  that  of  idolatry,  to  which  tho 
Jews,  in  the  early  part  of  their  history,  were 
much  addicted,  and  for  which  they  were  con- 
stantly punished.  St.  Paul  was  greatly  af- 
fected, when  he  saw  that  the  city  of  Athens 
was  "  wholly  given  to  idolatry,"  Acts  xvii,  16  ; 
and  declared  to  the  Athenians,  that  they 
ought  not  "  to  think  that  the  Godhead  is  like 
unto  gold,  or  silver,  or  stone,  graven  by  art 
and  man's  device,"  Acts  xvii,  29.  He  con- 
demns those  who  "  changed  the  glory  of  the 
incorruptible  God  into  an  image  made  like 
unto  corruptible  man,  and  to  birds,  and  four- 
footed  beasts,  and  creeping  things,"  Romans 
i,  23. 

That  the  first  Christians  had  no  images,  is 
evident  from  this  circumstance, — that  they 
were  reproached  by  the  Heathens,  because 
they  did  not  use  them ;  and  we  find  almost 
every  ecclesiastical  writer  of  the  first  four  cen- 
turies arguing  against  the  Gentile  practice  of 
image  worship,  from  the  plain  declarations  of 
Scripture,  and  from  the  pure  and  spiritual  na- 
ture of  God.  The  introduction  of  images  into 
places  of  Christian  worship,  dates  its  origin 
soon  after  the  times  of  Constantine  the  Great ; 
but  the  earlier  Christians  reprobated  every 
species  of  image  worship  in  the  strongest  lan- 
guage. It  is  sometimes  pretended  by  the  Pa- 
pists, that  they  do  not  worship  the  images, 
but  God  through  the  medium  of  images ;  or, 
that  the  worship  which  they  pay  to  images  is 
inferior  to  that  which  they  pay  to  the  Deity 
himself.  These  distinctions  would  be  scarcely 
understood  by  the  common  people  ;  and  for- 
merly an  enlightened  Heathen  or  Jew  would 
probably  have  urged  the  same  thing.  The 
practice  is  in  direct  opposition  to  the  second 
commandment,  and  notwithstanding  every 
sophistical  palliation,  it  has  always  led  to  a 
transfer  of  human  trust  from  God  to  some, 
thing  else.  Hence  idolatry,  in  general,  is  con- 
demned in  Scripture;  and  all  use  of  images  in 
the  worship  of  God,  making  or  bowing  to  any 
likeness,  is  absolutely  forbidden.  See  Icono- 
clastes  and  Idolatry. 

IMMATERIALITY,  abstraction  from  mat- 
ter; or  what  we  understand  by  pure  spirit. 

IMMORTAL.  That  which  will  endure  to 
all  eternity,  as  having  in  itself  no  principle  of 
alteration  or  corruption.  God  is  absolutely 
immortal, — he  cannot  die.  Angels  are  im- 
mortal ;  but  God,  who  made  them,  can  termi- 
nate their  being.  Man  is  immortal  in  part, 
that  is,  in  Ins  spirit;  but  his  body  dies.  In- 
ferior creatures  are  not  immortal ;  they  die 
wholly.     Thus  the  principle  of  immortality  is 


INC 


479 


INC 


differently  communicated  according  to  the  will 
of  him  who  can  render  any  creature  immortal, 
by  prolonging  its  life  ;  who  can  confer  immor- 
tality on  the  body  of  man,  together  with  his 
soul ;  and  will  do  so  at  the  resurrection.  God 
only  is  absolutely  perfect,  and,  therefore,  ab- 
solutely immortal.     See  Soul. 

IMPOSITION  OF  HANDS.  An  eccle- 
siastical action,  by  which,  among  Episcopa- 
lians, a  bishop  lays  his  hands  on  the  head  of  a 
person,  in  ordination,  confirmation,  or  in  utter- 
ing a  blessing.  In  Presbyterian  churches,  the 
imposition  is  by  the  hands  of  the  presbytery. 
This  practice  is  also  frequently  observed  by 
the  Independents  and  others  at  their  ordina- 
tions, when  all  the  ministers  present  place 
their  hands  on  the  head  of  him  whom  they 
are  ordaining,  while  one  of  them  prays  for  a 
blessing  on  him  and  his  future  labours.  This 
they  retain  as  an  ancient  practice,  justified  by 
the  example  of  the  Apostles,  when  no  extraor- 
dinary gifts  were  conveyed.  However,  Chris- 
tians are  not  agreed  as  to  the  propriety  of  this 
ceremony ;  nor  do  they  all  consider  it  as  an 
essential  part  of  ordination. 

Imposition  of  hands  was  a  Jewish  ceremony, 
introduced,  not  by  any  divine  authority,  but 
by  custom  ;  it  being  the  practice  among  that 
people,  whenever  they  prayed  to  God  for  any 
person,  to  lay  their  hands  on  his  head.  Our 
Saviour  observed  the  same  custom,  both  when 
he  conferred  his  blessing  on  children,  and  when 
lie  cured  the  sick.  The  Apostles  likewise  laid 
hands  on  those  upon  whom  they  bestowed  the 
Holy  Ghost,  but  it  was  a  form  accompanied  by 
prayer,  through  which  only  the  blessing  was 
obtained.  And  the  Apostles  themselves  some- 
times underwent  the  imposition  of  hands 
afresh,  when  they  entered  upon  any  new  de- 
sign.  In  the  ancient  church,  imposition  of 
hands  was  practised  on  persons  when  they 
married ;  which  custom  the  Abyssinians  still 
observe.  But  this  ceremony  of  laying  on  of 
hands  is  now  restrained,  by  custom,  chiefly  to 
that  imposition  which  is  practised  at  the  ordi- 
nation of  ministers. 

[In  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  a 
bishop  is  constituted  by  the  election  of  the 
general  conference,  and  the  laying  on  of  the 
hands  of  three  bishops,  or  at  least  of  one  bishop 
and  two  elders  ;  unless  it  happen  that,  by  death 
or  otherwise,  there  be  no  bishop  remaining  in 
the  church  :  in  this  case,  the  general  confer- 
ence is  empowered  to  elect  a  bishop,  and  the 
elders,  or  any  three  of  them  appointed  by  the 
general  conference  for  that  purpose,  to  ordain 
him.  An  elder  is  constituted  by  the  election 
of  an  annual  conference,  and  the  laying  on  of 
the  hands  of  a  bishop  and  of  two  or  more  elders. 
A  deacon,  by  the  election  of  an  annual  con- 
ference, and  the  laying  on  of  the  hands  of  a 
bishop.] 

IMPUTED  RIGHTEOUSNESS.  See  Jus- 
tification. 

INCENSE.  Thus ;  so  called  by  the  dealers 
of  drugs  in  Egypt  from  thur,  or  thor,  the  name 
of  a  harbour  in  the  north  bay  of  the  Red  Sea, 
near  Mount  Sinai;  thereby  distinguishing  it 
from  the  gum  arabic,  which  is  brought  from 


Suez,  another  port  in  the  Red  Sea,  not  far 
from  Cairo.  It  differs  also  in  being  more  pel- 
lucid and  white.  It  burns  with  a  bright  and 
strong  flame,  not  easily  extinguished.  It  was 
used  in  the  temple  service  as  an  emblem  of 
prayer,  Psalm  cxli,  2  ;  Rev.  viii,  3,  4.  Authors 
give  it,  or  the  best  sort  of  it,  the  epithets  white, 
pure,  pellucid  ;  and  so  it  may  have  some  con- 
nection with  a  word,  derived  from  the  same 
root,  signifying  unstained,  clear,  and  so  ap- 
plied to  moral  whiteness  and  purity,  Psalm 
li,  7  ;  Dan.  xii,  10.  This  gum  is  said  to  distil 
from  incisions  made  in  the  tree  during  the  heat 
of  summer.  What  the  form  of  the  tree  is 
which  yields  it,  we  do  not  certainly  know. 
Pliny  one  while  says,  it  is  like  a  pear  tree ; 
another,  that  it  is  like  a  mastic  tree ;  then, 
that  it  is  like  the  laurel ;  and,  in  fine,  that  it 
is  a  kind  of  turpentine  tree.  It  has  been  said 
to  grow  only  in  the  country  of  the  Sabeans,  a 
people  in  Arabia  Felix  ;  and  Theophrastus  and 
Pliny  affirm  that  it  is  found  in  Arabia.  Dios- 
corides,  however,  mentions  an  Indian  as  well 
as  an  Arabian  frankincense.  At  the  present 
day  it  is  brought  from  the  East  Indies,  but  not 
of  so  good  a  quality  as  that  from  Arabia.  The 
"sweet  incense,"  mentioned  Exodus  xxx,  7, 
and  elsewhere,  was  a  compound  of  several 
drugs,  agreeably  to  the  direction  in  the  thirty- 
fourth  verse.  To  offer  incense  was  an  office 
peculiar  to  the  priests.  They  went  twice  a 
day  into  the  holy  place  ;  namely,  morning  and 
evening,  to  burn  incense  there.  Upon  the 
great  day  of  expiation,  the  high  priest  took 
incense,  or  perfume,  pounded  and  ready  for 
being  put  into  the  censer,  and  threw  it  upon 
the  fire,  the  moment  he  went  into  the  sanctu- 
ary. One  reason  of  this  was,  that  so  the  smoke 
which  rose  from  the  censer  might  prevent  his 
looking  with  too  much  curiosity  on  the  ark 
and  mercy-seat.  God  threatened  him  with 
death  upon  failing  to  perform  this  ceremony, 
Lev.  xvi,  13.  Generally  incense  is  to  be  con- 
sidered as  an  emblem  of  the  "prayers  of  the 
saints,"  and  is  so  used  by  the  sacred  writers. 

INCEST,  an  unlawful  conjunction  of  per- 
sons related  within  the  degrees  of  kindred  pro- 
hibited by  God.  In  the  beginning  of  the  world, 
and  again,  long  after  the  deluge,  marriages 
between  near  relations  were  allowed.  In  the 
time  of  Abraham  and  Isaac,  these  marriages 
were  permitted,  and  among  the  Persians  much 
later :  it  is  even  said  to  be  esteemed  neither 
criminal  nor  ignominious  among  the  remains 
of  the  old  Persians  at  this  day.  Some  authors 
believe  that  marriages  between  near  relations 
were  permitted,  or,  at  least,  tolerated,  till  the 
time  of  Moses,  who  first  prohibited  them  among 
the  Hebrews  ;  and  that  among  other  people 
they  were  allowed  even  after  him.  Others 
hold  the  contrary ;  but  it  is  hard  to  establish 
either  of  tlieso  opinions,  for  want  of  historical 
documents.  The  degrees  of  consanguinity 
within  which  marriage  was  prohibited  are 
stated  in  Lev.  xviii,  6—18.  Most  civilized  people 
have  looked  on  incests  as  abominable  crimes. 
St.  Paul,  speaking  of  the  incestuous  man  of 
Corinth,  says,  "  It  is  reported  commonly,  that 
there  is  fornication  among  you,  and  such  for- 


INC 


480 


IND 


nication  as  is  not  so  much  as  named  among 
the  Gentiles,  that  one  should  have  his  father's 
wife,"   1   Cor.   v,    1.       In    order    to    preserve 
chastity  in  families,  and  between  persons  of 
different  sexes,  brought  up  and  living  together 
in  a  state  of  unreserved  intimacy,  it  is  neces- 
sary, by  every  method  possible,  to  inculcate 
an    abhorrence    of  incestuous    conjunctions  ; 
which  abhorrence  can  only   lie  uphohlcn  by 
the  absolute  reprobation  ol'  all  commerce  of 
the  sexes  between  near  relations.     Upon  this 
principle,  the  marriage,  as  well  as  other  co- 
habitations, of  brothers  and  sisters,  of  lineal 
kindred,    and  of  all  who  usually  live  in  the 
same  family,  may  be  said  to  be  forbidden  by 
the  law  of  nature.     Restrictions  which  extend 
to  remoter  degrees  of  kindred  than  what  this 
reason   makes  it  necessary  to  prohibit  from 
intermarriage,  are  founded  in  the  authority  of 
the  positive  law  which  ordains  them,  and  can 
only  be  justified  by  their  tendency  to  diffuse 
wealth,   to   connect   families,    or  to   promote 
some  political  advantage.     The  Levitical  law, 
which  is  received  in  this  country,  and  from 
which  the  rule  of  the  Roman  law  differs  very 
little,   prohibits   marriages  between  relations 
within  three  degrees  of  kindred ;  computing 
the  generations,  not  from,  but  through,  the 
common  ancestor,  and  accounting  affinity  the 
tame  as  consanguinity.     The  issue,  however, 
of  such  marriages  are  not  bastardized,  unless 
the  parents  be  divorced  during  their  life  time. 
INCHANTMENTS.    The  law  of  God  con- 
demns inchantments  and  inchanters.    Several 
terms  are  used  in  Scripture  to  denote  inchant- 
ments :   1.  en1?,  which  signifies  to  mutter,    to 
xpeak  with  a  low  voice,  like  magicians  in  their 
evocations  and  magical  operations,  Psalm  lviii, 
6.     2.  D'O1?,  secrets,  whence  Moses  speaks  of 
the  inchantments  wrought  by  Pharaoh's  ma- 
gicians.    3.  f|B>3,  meaning  these  who  practise 
juggling,  legerdemain,  tricks,  and  witchery, 
deluding  people's  eyes  and  senses,  2  Chron. 
xxxiii,  6.      4.  -on,  which  signifies,  properly, 
to  bind,  assemble,  associate,  reunite :  this  occurs 
principally  among  those  who  charm  serpents, 
who  lame  them,  and  make  them  gentle  and 
sociable,  which  before  were  fierce,  dangerous, 
and  untractable,  Deut.  xviii,  11.      We   have 
examples  of  each  of  these  ways  of  inchanting. 
It  was  common  for  magicians,  sorcerers,  and 
inchanters,  to  speak  in  a  low  voice,  to  whisper: 
they  are  called  ventriloqui,  because  they  spake, 
as  one  would  suppose,  from  the  bottom  of  their 
stomachs.     They  affected  secrecy  and  myste- 
rious ways,  to   conceal  the  vanity,  folly,  or 
infamy  of  their  pernicious  art.      Their  pre- 
tended magic  often  consisted  in  cunning  tricks 
only,  in  sleight  of  hand,  or  some  natural  secrets, 
unknown  to  the  ignorant.     They  affected  ob- 
scurity and  night,  or  would  show  their  skill 
only  before  the  uninformed  or  mean  persons, 
and  feared  nothing  so   much   as   serious  ex- 
aminations, bread  day-light,  and  the  inspection 
of  the   intelligent.     Respecting  the  inchant- 
ments  practised  by  Phajaph'a  magicians,  (see 
Kxod.  \iii,  18,   19,)  in    order  to   imitate  the 
miracles   which   were  wrought  by  Moses,    it 
rnii6t  be  said  either  that  they  were  mere  illu- 


sions, whereby  they  imposed  on  the  specta- 
tors ;  or  that,  if  they  performed  such  miracles, 
and  produced  real  changes  of  their  rods,  and 
the  other  things  said  to  be  performed  by  them, 
it  must  have  been  by  a  supernatural  power 
which  God  had  permitted  Satan  to  give  them, 
but  the  farther  operation  of  which  he  after- 
ward thought  proper  to  prevent. 

INDEPENDENTS,    a    denomination    of 
Protestants  in  England  and  Holland,  originally 
called   Brownists.      They  derive    their  name 
from  their  maintaining  that  every  particular 
congregation  of  Christians  has,  accordingto  the 
New  Testament,  a  full  power  of  ecclesiastical 
jurisdiction  over  its  members,  independent  of 
the  authority  of  bishops,  synods,  presbyteries, 
or  any  other  ecclesiastical  assemblies.  This  de- 
nomination appeared  in  England  in  the  year 
1616.  John  Robinson,  a  Norfolk  divine,  who, 
being  banished  from  his  native  country  for  non- 
conformity, afterward  settled  at  Leyden,  was 
considered  as  their  founder  and  father.     He 
possessed  sincere  piety,  and  no  inconsiderable 
share  of  learning.     Perceiving  defects  in  the 
denomination  of  the  Brownists,  to  which  he 
belonged,  he  employed  his  zeal  and  diligence 
in  correcting  them  and  in  new  modelling  the 
society.    Though  the  Independents  considered 
their  own  form  of  ecclesiastical  government  as 
of  divine  institution,  and  as  originally  intro- 
duced by  the  authority  of  the  Apostles,  nay, 
by  the  Apostles  themselves ;  yet  they  did  not 
always  think  it  necessary  to  condemn  other 
denominations,  but  often  acknowledged  that 
true  religion  might  flourish  in  those  communi- 
ties  which   were    under    the  jurisdiction    of 
bishops,   or  the   government   of  presbyteries. 
They  approved,  also,  of  a  regular  and  educated 
ministry  ;  nor  is  any  person  among  them  now 
permitted  to  speak  in  public  before  he  has  sub- 
mitted to  a  proper  examination  of  his  capacity 
and  talents,  and  has  been  approved  of  by  the 
church  to  which  he  belonged.     Their  grounds 
of  separation  from  the  established  church  are 
different  from  those  of  other  puritans.     Many 
of  the  latter  objected  chiefly  to  certain  rites, 
ceremonies,  vestments,    or  forms,    or  to   the 
government  of  the    church  ;    while  yet  they 
were  disposed  to  arm  the  magistrate  in  sup- 
port of  the  truth,  and  regretted  and  complained 
that  they  could  not  on  these  accounts  conform 
to  it.     But  Robinson  and  his  companions  not 
only  rejected  the  appointments  of  the  church 
on  these   heads,   but  denied  its    authority  to 
enact  them ;    contending,    that   every   single 
congregation  of  Christians  was  a  church,  and 
independent  of  all  legislation,    save  that  of 
Christ;  standing  in  need  of  no  such  provision 
or  establishment  as  the  state  can  bestow,  and 
incapable  of  soliciting  or  receiving  it.     Hence 
they  sought  not  to   reform   the   church,  but 
chose  to  dissent  from  it.     They  admitted  there 
were  many  godly  men  in  its  communion,  and 
that  it  was  reformed  from  the  grossest  errors 
of  the  man  of  sin  ;  but  thought  it  still  wanted 
some  things    essential  to    a  true   church   of 
Christ;  in  particular,  a  power  of  choosing  ity 
own  ministers,  and  a  stricter  discipline  among 
J  its  members.     The  creed  of  the  Independents 


IND 


481 


INK 


is  uniformly  Calvinistic,  though  with  con- 
siderable  shades  of  difference ;  and  many  in 
Scotland  and  Ireland  have  symbolized  with 
the  Sandemaniaus,  or  the  Scottish  Baptist 
denominations.  The  Congregationalist  and 
Independent  have  been  generally  considered 
as  convertible  and  synonymous  :  many,  how- 
ever, in  the  present  day,  prefer  the  former 
appellation,  considering  it  desirable,  in  many 
cases,  to  unite,  for  mutual  advice  and  support, 
more  closely  than  the  term  independent  seems 
to  warrant. 

INDULGENCES.  In  the  primitive  church 
very  severe  penalties  were  inflicted  on  those 
who  had  been  guilty  of  any  sins,  whether  pub- 
lic or  private  ;  and,  in  particular,  they  were  for- 
bidden to  partake,  for  a  certain  time,  of  the 
sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  or  to  hold 
any  communion  with  the  church.  General 
rules  were  formed  upon  these  subjects  ;  but  as 
it  was  often  found  expedient  to  make  a  dis- 
crimination in  the  degrees  of  punishment,  ac- 
cording to  the  different  circumstances  of  the 
offenders,  and  especially  when  they  showed 
marks  of  contrition  and  repentance,  power 
was  given  to  bishops,  by  the  council  of  Nice, 
to  relax  or  remit  those  punishments  as  they 
should  see  reason.  Every  favour  of  this  kind 
was  called  an  indulgence  or  pardon.  After 
the  bishops  had  enjoyed  this  privilege  for  some 
centuries,  and  had  begun  to  abuse  it,  the  popes 
discovered  that  in  their  own  hands  it  might  be 
rendered  a  powerful  instrument  to  promote 
both  their  ambition  and  their  avarice.  They 
could  not  but  perceive  that  if  they  could  per- 
suade men  they  had  the  power  of  granting  par- 
don for  sin,  it  would  give  them  a.  complete 
influence  over  their  consciences  ;  and  if  they 
could  at  the  same  time  prevail  upon  them  to 
purchase  these  pardons  for  money,  it  must  add 
greatly  to  the  wealth  of  the  Roman  see.  In 
the  eleventh  century,  therefore,  when  the  do- 
minion of  the  popes  was  rising  to  its  zenith, 
and  their  power  was  almost  irresistible,  they 
took  to  themselves  the  exclusive  prerogative 
of  dispensing  indulgences,  which  they  carried 
to  a  most  unwarrantable  length.  Instead  of 
confining  them,  according  to  their  originial 
institution,  to  the  ordinary  purposes  of  eccle- 
siastical discipline,  they  extended  them  to  the 
punishment  of  the  wicked  in  the  world  to 
come  ;  instead  of  shortening  the  duration  of 
earthly  penance,  they  pretended  that  they 
could  deliver  men  from  the  pains  of  purgatory  ; 
instead  of  allowing  them  gratuitously,  and 
upon  just  grounds,  to  the  penitent  offender, 
they  sold  them  in  the  most  open  and  corrupt 
manner  to  the  profligate  and  abandoned,  who 
still  continued  in  their  vices.  They  did  not 
scruple  to  call  these  indulgences  a  plenary 
remission  of  all  sins,  past,  present,  and  future, 
and  to  offer  them  as  a  certain  and  immediate 
passport  from  the  troubles  of  this  world  to  the 
eternal  joys  of  heaven.  To  give  some  sort  of 
colour  and  support  to  this  infamous  traffic, 
they  confidently  asserted  that  the  superabund- 
ant merits  of  Christ,  and  of  his  faithful  serv- 
ants, formed  a  fund  of  which  the  pope  was 
the  sole  manager ;  and  that  he  could,  at  his 
■32 


own  discretion,  dispense  those  merits,  as  the 
eure  means  of  procuring  pardon  from  God,  in 
any  proportions,  for  any  species  of  wicked- 
ness, and  to  any  person  he  pleased.  The  bare 
statement  of  this  doctrine  is  a  sufficient  refu- 
tation of  it ;  and  it  is  scarcely  necessary  to 
add,  that  it  has  no  foundation  whatever  in 
Scripture.  It  is  an  arrogant  and  impious 
usurpation  of  a  power  which  belongs  to  God 
alone  ;  and  it  has  an  obvious  tendency  to  pro- 
mote licentiousness  and  sin  of  every  descrip- 
tion, by  holding  out  an  easy  and  certain  method 
of  absolution.  The  popes  derived  very  large 
sums  from  the  sale  of  these  indulgences ;  and 
it  is  well  known  that  the  gross  abuses  practised 
in  granting  them  were  among  the  immediate 
and  principal  causes  of  bringing  about  the  re- 
formation. They  continue  still  to  be  sold  at 
Rome,  and  are  to  be  purchased  by  any  who 
are  weak  enough  to  buy  them.  The  sums 
required  for  indulgences  were  first  published 
by  Anthony  Egane,  a  Franciscan  friar,  in 
1673 ;  and  the  original  pamphlet  was  republish- 
ed by  Baron  Maseres,  in  1809,  in  his  last 
volume  of  "  Occasional  Essays." 

INK.  The  ink  of  the  ancients  was  not  so 
fluid  as  ours.  Demosthenes  reproaches  JEa- 
chines  with  labouring  in  the  grinding  of  ink, 
as  painters  do  in  the  grinding  of  their  colours. 
The  substance  also  found  in  an  inkstand  at 
Herculaneum,  looks  like  a  thick  oil  or  paint, 
with  which  the  manuscripts  there  have  been 
written  in  a  relievo  visible  in  the  letters,  when 
you  hold  a  leaf  to  the  light  in  a  horizontal 
direction.  Such  vitriolic  ink  as  has  been  used 
on  the  old  parchment  manuscripts  would  have 
corroded  the  delicate  leaves  of  the  papyrus,  as 
it  has  done  the  skins  of  the  most  ancient 
manuscripts  of  Virgil  and  Terence,  in  the  Va- 
tican library ;  the  letters  are  sunk  into  the 
parchment,  and  some  have  eaten  quite  through 
it,  in  consequence  of  the  corrosive  acid  of  the 
vitriolic  ink,  with  which  they  were  written. 
The  inkhorn  is  also  mentioned  in  Scripture  : 
"  And  one  man  among  them  was  clothed  with 
linen,  with  a  writer's  inkhorn  by  his  side," 
Ezek.  ix,  2.  The  eastern  mode  and  apparatus 
for  writing  differs  so  materially  from  those 
with  which  we  are  conversant,  that  it  is  ne- 
cessary particularly  to  describe  them.  D'Ar- 
vieux  informs  us  that  "the  Arabs  of  the  de- 
sert, when  they  want  a  favour  of  their  emir, 
get  his  secretary  to  write  an  order  agreeable 
to  their  desire,  as  if  the  favour  were  granted  , 
this  they  carry  to  the  prince,  who,  after  having 
read  it,  sets  his  seal  to  it  with  ink,  if  he  grants 
it;  if  not,  he  returns  the  petitioner  his  paper 
torn,  and  dismisses  him.  These  papers  are 
without  date,  and  have  only  the  emir's  flourish 
or  cypher  at  the  bottom,  signifying  the  poor, 
the  abject  Mohammed,  son  of  Turabeye." 
Pococke  says,  that  "  they  make  the  impression 
of  their  name  with  their  seal,  generally  of  cor- 
nelian, which  they  wear  on  their  finger,  and 
which  is  blacked  when  they  have  occasion  to 
seal  with  it."  The  custom  of  placing  the  ink. 
horn  by  the  side,  Olearius  says,  continues  in 
the  east  to  this  day.  Dr.  Shaw  informs  us, 
that,  among  tho  Moors  in  Barbary,  "  the  hojas, 


INN 


482 


INS 


that  is,  the  writers  or  secretaries,  suspend  their 
inkhorns  in  their  girdles ;  a  custom  as  old  as 
the  Prophet  Ezekiel,  ix,  2."  And  in  a  note  he 
adds,  "that  part  of  these  inkhorns  (if  an  in- 
strument of  brass  may  bo  so  called)  which 
passes  between  the  girdle  and  tho  tunic,  and 
holds  their  pens,  is  long  and  flat ;  but  the  ves- 
sel for  the  ink  which  rests  upon  the  girdle  is 
square,  with  a  lid  to  clasp  over  it."  So  Mr. 
Hanway  :  "  Their  writers  carry  their  ink  and 
pens  about  them  in  a  case,  which  they  put 
under  their  sash." 

INN.  The  inns  or  caravanserais  of  the 
east,  in  which  travellers  are  accommodated, 
are  not  all  alike,  some  being  simply  places  of 
rest,  by  the  side  of  a  fountain,  if  possible,  and 
at  a  proper  distance  on  the  road.  Many  of 
these  places  are  nothing  more  than  naked 
walls ;  others  have  an  attendant,  who  subsists 
either  by  some  charitable  donation,  or  the  be- 
nevolence of  passengers  ;  others  are  more  con- 
siderable establishments,  where  families  reside, 
and  take  care  of  them,  and  furnish  the  neces- 
sary provisions.  "  Caravanserais,"  says  Camp- 
bell, "  were  originally  intended  for,  and  are  now 
pretty  generally  applied  to,  the  accommodation 
of  strangers  and  travellers,  though,  like  every 
other  good  institution,  sometimes  perverted  to 
the  purposes  of  private  emolument,  or  public 
job.  They  are  built  at  proper  distances  through 
the  roads  of  the  Turkish  dominions,  and  afford 
to  the  indigent  or  weary  traveller  an  asylum 
from  the  inclemency  of  the  weather,  are  in 
general  built  of  the  most  solid  and  durable 
materials,  have  commonly  one  story  above  the 
ground  floor,  the  lower  of  which  is  arched, 
and  serves  for  warehouses  to  store  goods,  for 
lodgings,  and  for  stables,  while  the  upper  is 
used  merely  for  lodgings ;  beside  which  they 
are  always  accommodated  with  a  fountain, 
and  have  cooks'  shops  and  other  conveniences 
to  supply  the  wants  of  lodgers.  In  Aleppo, 
the  caravanserais  are  almost  exclusively  occu- 
pied by  merchants,  to  whom  they  are,  like 
other  houses,  rented."  "  In  all  other  Turkish 
provinces,"  observes  Antes,  "particularly  those 
in  Asia,  which  are  often  thinly  inhabited, 
travelling  is  subject  to  numberless  inconve- 
niences, since  it  is  necessary  not  only  to  carry 
all  sorts  of  provisions  along  with  one,  but  even 
the  very  utensils  to  dress  them  in,  beside  a  tent 
for  shelter  at  night  and  in  bad  weather,  as  there 
are  no  inns,  except  here  and  there  a  caravan- 
serai, where  nothing  but  bare  rooms,  and  those 
often  very  bad,  and  infested  with  all  sorts  of 
vermin,  can  be  procured."  "  There  are  no 
inns  any  where,"  says  Volney,  "  but  the  cities, 
and  commonly  the  villages,  have  a  large  build- 
ing called  a  kan  or  kervanserai,  which  serves 
as  an  asylum  for  all  travellers.  These  houses 
of  reception  are  always  built  without  the  pre- 
cincts of  towns,  and  consist  of  four  wings  round 
a  square  court,  which  serves  by  way  of  enclosure 
for  the  beasts  of  burden.  Thc.lodgings  are  cells, 
where  you  find  nothing  but  bare  walls,  dust, 
and  sometimes  scorpions.  The  keeper  of  this 
kan  gives  the  traveller  the  key  and  a  mat,  and 
he  provides  himself  the  rest ;  he  must  there. 
fore  carry  with  him  hi*  bed,  his  kitchen  uten- 


sils,  and  even  his  provisions,  for  frequently  not 
even  bread  is  to  be  found  in  the  villages.  On 
this  account  the  orientals  contrive  their  equip- 
age in  the  most  simple  and  portable  form.  The 
baggage  of  a  man  who  wishes  to  be  completely 
provided,  consists  in  a  carpet,  a  mattress,  a 
blanket,  two  sauce  pans  with  lids  contained 
within  each  other,  two  dishes,  two  plates,  and 
a  coffee  pot,  all  of  copper,  well  tinned,  a  small 
wooden  box  for  salt  and  pepper,  a  round 
leathern  table,  which  he  suspends  from  the 
saddle  of  his  horse,  small  leathern  bottles  or 
bags  for  oil,  melted  butter,  water,  and  brandy, 
if  the  traveller  be  a  Christian,  a  tinder  box,  a 
cup  of  cocoa  nut,  some  rice,  dried  raisins, 
dates,  Cyprus  cheese,  and,  above  all,  coffee 
berries,  with  a  roaster  and  wooden  mortar  to 
pound  them."  The  Scriptures  use  two  words 
to  express  a  caravanserai,  in  both  instances 
translated  inn  :  "  There  was  no  room  for  them 
in  the  inn,"  KaraKvpaTi,  Luke  ii,  7 ;  the  place 
of  untying,  that  is,  of  beasts  for  rest.  "And 
brought  him  to  the  inn,"  zsavSoy^uov,  Luke  x, 
34,  whose  keeper  is  called  in  the  next  verse 
^savSa^tiii.  This  word  properly  signifies  "  a 
receptacle  open  to  all  comers."  "  The  serai 
or  principal  caravansary  at  Surat,"  observes 
Forbes,  "  was  much  neglected.  Most  of  the 
eastern  cities  contain  one,  at  least,  for  the  re- 
ception of  strangers ;  smaller  places,  called 
choultries,  are  erected  by  charitable  persons, 
or  munificent  princes,  in  forests,  plains,  and 
deserts,  for  the  accommodation  of  travellers. 
Near  them  is  generally  a  well,  and  a  cistern 
for  the  cattle  ;  a  brahmin,  or  fakeer,  often  re- 
sides there  to  furnish  the  pilgrim  with  food, 
and  the  few  necessaries  he  may  stand  in  need 
of.  In  the  deserts  of  Persia  and  Arabia,  these 
buildings  are  invaluable ;  in  those  pathless 
plains,  for  many  miles  together,  not  a  tree,  a 
bush,  nor  even  a  blade  of  grass,  is  to  be  seen  ; 
all  is  one  undulating  mass  of  sand,  like  waves 
on  the  trackless  ocean.  In  these  ruthless 
wastes,  where  no  rural  village  or  cheerful  ham- 
let, no  inn  or  house  of  refreshment,  is  to  be 
found,  how  noble  is  the  charity  that  rears  the 
hospitable  roof,  that  plants  the  shady  grove, 
and  conducts  the  refreshing  moisture  into  re- 
servoirs !" 

INSPIRATION,  the  conveying  of  certain 
extraordinary  and  supernatural  notices  or 
thoughts  into  the  soul ;  or  it  denotes  any  su- 
pernatural influence  of  God  upon  the  mind  of 
a  rational  creature,  whereby  he  is  formed  to  a 
degree  of  intellectual  improvement,  to  which 
he  could  not.  have  attained  in  his  present  cir- 
cumstances in  a  natural  way.  In  the  first 
aiid  highest  sense,  the  prophets,  evangelists, 
and  Apostles  are  said  to  have  spoken  and 
written  by  divine  inspiration.  This  inspira- 
tion  of  tho  Old  Testament  Scriptures  is  so 
expressly  attested  by  our  Lord  and  his  Apos- 
tles, that  among  those  who  receive  them  as  a 
divine  revelation  the  only  question  relates  to 
the  inspiration  of  the  New  Testament.  On 
this  subject  it  has  beon  well  observed  : — 

1.  That  the  inspiration  of  the  Apostles  ap- 
pears to  have  been  necessary  for  the  purposes 
of  their  mission  ;  and,  therefore,  if  We  admit 


INS 


483 


INS 


that  Jesus  came  from  God,  and  that  he  sent 
them  forth  to  make  disciples,  we  shall  acknow- 
ledge that  some  degree  of  inspiration  is  highly 
probable.  The  first  light  in  which  the  books 
of  the  New  Testament  lead  us  to  consider  the 
Apostles,  is,  as  the  historians  of  Jesus.  After 
having  been  his  companions  during  his  minis- 
try, they  came  fortli  to  bear  witness  of  him  ; 
and  as  the  benefit  of  his  religion  was  not  to 
be  confined  to  tho  age  in  which  he  or  they 
lived,  they  left  in  the  four  Gospels  a  record  of 
what  he  did  and  taught.  Two  of  the  four 
were  written  by  the  Apostles  Matthew  and 
John.  St.  Mark  and  St.  Luke,  whose  names 
are  prefixed  to  the  other  two,  were  probably 
of  the  seventy  whom  our  Lord  sent  out  in  his 
life  time  ;  and  we  learn  from  the  most  ancient 
Christian  historians,  that  the  Gospel  of  St. 
Mark  was  revised  by  St.  Peter,  and  the  Gos- 
pel of  St.  Luke  by  St.  Paul,  and  that  both 
were  afterward  approved  by  St.  John  ;  so  that 
all  the  four  may  be  considered  as  transmitted 
to  the  church  with  the  sanction  of  apostolical 
authority.  Now,  if  we  recollect  the  condi- 
tion of  the  Apostles,  and  the  nature  of  their 
history,  we  shall  perceive  that,  even  as  his- 
torians, they  stood  in  need  of  some  measure 
of  inspiration.  Plato  might  feel  himself  at 
liberty  to  feign  many  things  of  his  master 
Socrates,  because  it  mattered  little  to  the 
world  whether  the  instruction  that  was  con- 
veyed to  them  proceeded  from  the  one  phi- 
losopher or  from  the  other.  But  the  servants 
of  a  divine  teacher,  who  appeared  as  his 
witnesses,  and  professed  to  be  the  historians 
of  his  life,  were  bound  by  their  office  to  give 
a  true  record.  And  their  history  was  an  im. 
position  upon  the  world,  if  they  did  not  de- 
clare exactly  and  literally  what  they  had  seen 
and  heard.  This  was  an  office  which  required 
not  only  a  love  of  the  truth,  but  a  memory 
more  retentive  and  more  accurate  than  it  was 
possible  for  the  Apostles  to  possess.  To  relate, 
at  the  distance  of  twenty  years,  long  moral 
discourses,  which  were  not  originally  written, 
and  which  were  not  attended  with  any  strik- 
ing circumstances  that  might  imprint  them 
upon  the  mind ;  to  preserve  a  variety  of  para- 
bles, the  beauty  and  significancy  of  which 
depended  upon  particular  expressions ;  to  re- 
cord long  and  minute  prophecies,  where  the 
alteration  of  a  single  phrase  might  have  pro- 
duced an  inconsistency  between  the  event  and 
the  prediction  ;  and  to  give  a  particular  detail 
of  the  intercourse  which  Jesus  had  with  his 
friends  and  with  his  enemies ; — all  this  is  a 
work  so  very  much  above  the  capacity  of  un- 
learned men,  that,  had  they  attempted  to  exe- 
cute it  by  their  own  natural  powers,  they  must 
have  fallen  into  such  absurdities  and  contra- 
dictions as  would  have  betrayed  them  to  every 
discerning  eye.  It  was  therefore  highly  ex- 
pedient, and  even  necessary,  for  the  faith  of 
future  ages,  that,  beside  those  opportunities 
of  information  which  the  Apostles  enjoyed, 
and  that  tried  integrity  which  they  possessed, 
their  understanding  and  their  memory  should 
be  assisted  by  a  supernatural  influence,  which 
might  prevent  them  from  mistaking  the  mean- 


ing  of  what  they  had  heard,  which  might 
restrain  them  from  putting  into  the  mouth  of 
Jesus  any  words  which  he  did  not  utter,  or 
omitting  what  was  important,  and  which 
might  thus  give  us  perfect  security,  that  the 
Gospels  are  as  faithful  a  copy  as  if  Jesus  him. 
self  had  left  in  writing  those  sayings  and  those 
actions  which  he  wished  posterity  to  remem- 
ber. 

But  we  consider  the  Apostles  in  the  lowest 
view,  when  we  speak  of  them  as  barely  the 
historians  of  their  Master.  In  their  epistles 
they  assume  a  higher  character,  which  renders 
inspiration  still  more  necessary.  All  the 
benefit  which  they  derived  from  the  public 
and  the  private  instructions  of  Jesus  before 
his  death  had  not  so  far  opened  their  minds 
as  to  qualify  them  for  receiving  the  whole 
counsel  of  God.  And  he  who  knows  what  is 
in  man  declares  to  them,  the  night  on  which 
he  was  betrayed,  "  I  have  yet  many  things  to 
say  unto  you,  but  you  cannot  bear  them  now," 
John  xv,  12.  The  purpose  of  many  of  his 
parables,  the  full  meaning  even  of  some  of 
his  plain  discourses,  had  not  been  attained  by 
them.  They  had  marvelled  when  he  spake  to 
them  of  earthly  things.  But  many  heavenly 
things  of  his  kingdom  had  not  been  told  them  ; 
and  they  who  were  destined  to  carry  his  re- 
ligion to  the  ends  of  the  earth  themselves 
needed,  at  the  times  of  their  receiving  this 
commission,  that  some  one  should  instruct 
them  in  the  doctrine  of  Christ.  It  is  true  that, 
after  his  resurrection,  Jesus  opened  their  un- 
derstandings, and  explained  to  them  the  Scrip- 
tures ;  and  he  continued  upon  earth  forty  days, 
speaking  to  them  of  the  things  pertaining  to 
the  kingdom  of  God.  It  appears,  however, 
from  the  history  which  they  have  recorded  in 
the  book  of  Acts,  that  some  farther  teaching 
was  necessary  for  them,  Acts  i.  Immediately 
before  our  Lofd  ascended,  their  minds  being 
still  full  of  the  expectation  of  a  temporal 
kingdom,  they  say  unto  him,  "  Lord,  wilt  thou 
at  this  time  restore  the  kingdom  to  Israel  ?" 
It  was  not  till  some  time  after  they  received 
the  gift  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  that  they  under- 
stood that  the  Gospel  had  taken  away  the 
obligation  to  observe  the  ceremonies  of  the 
Mosaic  law ;  and  the  action  of  St.  Peter  in 
baptizing  Cornelius,  a  devout  Heathen,  gave 
offence  to  some  of  the  Apostles  and  brethren 
in  Judea  when  they  first  heard  it,  Acts  xi. 
Yet,  in  their  epistles,  we  find  just  notions  of 
the  spiritual  nature  of  the  religion  of  Jesus  as 
a  kingdom  of  righteousness,  the  subjects  of 
which  are  to  receive  remission  of  sins,  and 
sanctification  through  his  blood,  and  just  no- 
tions also  of  the  extent  of  this  religion  as  a 
dispensation  the  spiritual  blessings  of  which 
are  to  be  communicated  to  all,  in  every  land, 
who  receive  it  in  faith  and  love.  These  no- 
tions appear  to  us  to  be  the  explication  both 
of  the  ancient  predictions,  and  of  many  parti- 
cular expressions  that  occur  in  the  discourses 
of  our  Lord.  But  it  is  manifest  that  they  had 
not  been  acquired  by  the  Apostles  during  the 
teaching  of  Jesus.  They  are  so  adverse  to 
every  thing  which   men   educated  in  Jewish 


INS 


484 


INS 


prejudices  had  learned  and  had  hoped,  that 
they  could  not  be  the  fruit  of  their  own  reflec- 
tions; and  therefore  they  imply  the  teaching 
of  that  Spirit  who  gradually  impressed  them 
upon  the  mind,  guiding  the  Apostles  gently, 
as  they  were  able  to  follow  him,  into  all  the 
truth  connected  with  the  salvation  of  man- 
kind. As  inspiration  was  necessary  to  give 
the  minds  of  the  Apostles  possession  of  the 
system  that  is  unfolded  in  their  epistles,  so 
many  parts  of  that  system  are  removed  to  such 
a  distance  from  human  discoveries,  and  are 
liable  to  such  misapprehension,  that  unless  we 
suppose  a  continued  superintendence  of  the 
Spirit  by  whom  it  was  taught,  succeeding 
ages  would  not  have  a  sufficient  security  that 
those  who  were  employed  to  deliver  it  had 
not  been  guilty  of  gross  mistakes  in  some 
most  important  doctrines. 

Inspiration  will  appear  still  farther  neces- 
sary, when  we  recollect  that  the  writings  of 
the  Apostles  contain  several  predictions  of 
things  to  come.  St.  Paul  foretels,  in  his 
epistles,  the  corruptions  of  the  church  of 
Rome,  and  many  other  circumstances  which 
have  taken  place  in  the  history  of  the  Chris- 
tian church ;  and  the  Revelation  is  a  book  of 
prophecy,  of  which  part  has  been  already  ful- 
filled, while  the  rest  will  no  doubt  be  explain- 
ed by  the  events  which  are  to  arise  in  the 
course  of  Providence.  But  prophecy  is  a  kind 
of  writing  which  implies  the  highest  degree  of 
inspiration.  When  predictions,  like  those  in 
Scripture,  are  particular  and  complicated,  and 
the  events  are  so  remote  and  so  contingent  as 
to  be  out  of  the  reach  of  human  sagacity,  it 
is  plain  that  the  writers  of  the  predictions  do 
not  speak  according  to  the  measure  of  infor- 
mation which  they  had  acquired  by  natural 
means,  but  are  merely  the  instruments  through 
which  the  Almighty  communicates,  in  such 
measure  and  such  language  as  he  thinks  fit, 
that  knowledge  of  futurity  which  is  denied  to 
man.  And  although  the  full  meaning  of  their 
own  predictions  was  not  understood  by  them- 
selves, they  will  be  acknowledged  to  be  true 
prophets  when  the  fulfilment  comes  to  reflect 
light  upon  that  language,  which,  for  wise 
purposes,  was  made  dark  at  the  time  of  its 
being  put  into  their  mouth. 

Thus  the  nature  of  the  writings  of  the 
Apostles  suggests  the  necessity  of  their  hav- 
ing been  inspired.  They  could  not  be  accu- 
rate historians  of  the  life  of  Jesus  without 
divine  inspiration,  nor  safe  expounders  of  his 
doctrine,  nor  prophets  of  distant  events. 

2.  Inspiration  was  promised  by  our  Lord  to 
his  Apostles.  It  is  not  unfair  reasoning  to 
adduce  promises  contained  in  the  Scriptures 
themselves,  as  proofs  of  their  divine  inspira- 
tion. It  were,  indeed,  reasoning  in  a  circle, 
to  bring  the  testimony  of  the  Scriptures  in 
proof  of  the  divine  mission  of  Jesus.  But  that 
being  established  by  sufficient  evidence,  and 
the  books  of  the  New  Testament  having  been 
proved  to  be  the  authontic  genuine  records  of 
the  persons  whose  names  they  bear,  we  are 
warranted  to  argue,  from  the  declarations  con- 
tained b  thorn,  what  is  the  measure  of  inspi- 


ration which  Jesus  was  pleased  to  bestow 
upon  his  servants.  He  might  have  been  a 
divine  teacher,  and  they  might  have  been  his 
Apostles,  although  he  had  bestowed  none  at 
all.  But  his  character  gives  us  security  that 
they  possessed  all  that  he  promised.  We  read 
in  the  Gospels  that  Jesus  ordained  twelve  that 
they  should  be  with  him,  and  that  he  might 
send  them  forth  to  preach,  Mark  iii,  14.  And 
as  this  was  the  purpose  for  which  they  were 
first  called,  so  it  was  the  charge  left  them  at 
his  departure.  "  Go,"  said  he,  "  preach  the 
Gospel  to  every  creature  :  make  disciples  of 
all  nations,"  Mark  xvi,  16 ;  Matt,  xxviii,  19. 
His  constant  familiar  intercourse  with  them 
was 'intended  to  qualify  them  for  the  execution 
of  this  charge  ;  and  the  promises  made  to  them 
have  a  special  reference  to  the  office  in  which 
they  were  to  be  employed.  When  he  sent 
them,  during  his  life,  to  preach  in  the  cities 
of  Israel,  he  said,  "  But  when  they  deliver 
you  up,  take  no  thought  how  or  what  ye  shall 
speak  ;  for  it  shall  be  given  you  in  that  same 
hour  what  ye  shall  speak.  For  it  is  not  ye 
that  speak,  but  the  Spirit  of  your  Father  which 
speaketh  in  you,"  Matt,  x,  19,  20.  And  when 
he  spake  to  them  in  his  prophecy  of  the  de- 
struction of  Jerusalem,  of  the  persecution 
which  they  were  to  endure  after  his  death,  he 
repeats  the  same  promise  :  "  For  I  will  give 
you  a  mouth  and  wisdom,  which  all  your  ad- 
versaries shall  not  be  able  to  gainsay  nor 
resist,"  Luke  xxi,  15.  It  is  admitted  that  the 
words  in  both  these  passages  refer  properly  to 
that  assistance  which  the  inexperience  of  the 
Apostles  was  to  derive  from  the  suggestions 
of  the  Spirit,  when  they  should  be  called  to 
defend  their  conduct  and  their  cause  before 
the  tribunals  of  the  magistrates.  But  the  ful- 
filment of  this  promise  was  a  pledge,  both  to 
the  Apostles  and  to  the  world,  that  the  mea- 
sure of  inspiration  necessary  for  the  more  im- 
portant purpose  implied  in  their  commission 
would  not  be  withheld ;  and,  accordingly, 
when  that  purpose  came  to  be  unfolded  to  the 
Apostles,  the  promise  of  the  assistance  of  the 
Spirit  was  expressed  in  a  manner  which  ap- 
plies it  to  the  extent  of  their  commission.  In 
the  long  affectionate  discourse  recorded  by 
St.  John,  when  our  Lerd  took  a  solemn  fare- 
well of  the  disciples,  after  eating  the  last  pass- 
over  with  them,  he  said,  "  And  I  will  pray 
the  Father,  and  he  shall  give  you  another 
Comforter,  that  he  may  abide  with  you  for 
ever  ;  even  the  Spirit  of  truth,  whom  the  world 
cannot  receive,  because  it  seeth  him  not, 
neither  knoweth  him.  But  ye  know  him  ;  for 
he  dwelleth  with  you,  and  shall  be  in  you. 
The  Comforter,  which  is  the  Holy  Ghost, 
whom  the  Father  will  send  in  my  name,  he 
shall  teach  you  all  things,  and  bring  all  things 
to  your  remembrance,  whatsoever  I  have  said 
unto  you.  I  have  yet  many  things  to  say 
unto  you,  but  you  cannot  bear  them  now. 
Howbeit,  when  he,  the  Spirit  of  truth,  is  come, 
he  will  guide  you  into  all  truth ;  for  he  shall 
not  speak  of  himself,  but  whatsoever  he  shall 
hear  that  shall  he  speak  ;  and  he  will  show 
you  things  to  come,"  John   xiv,    16,    17,  26; 


INS 


485 


INS 


xvi,  12,  13.  Here  are  all  the  degrees  of  inspi- 
ration which  we  have  seen  to  be  necessary 
for  the  Apostles  :  the  Spirit  was  to  bring  to 
their  remembrance  what  they  had  heard ;  to 
guide  them  into  the  truth,  which  they  were 
not  then  able  to  bear ;  and  to  show  them 
things  to  come  ;  and  all  this  they  were  to  de- 
rive, not  from  occasional  illapses,  but  from 
the  perpetual  inhabitation  of  the  Spirit.  That 
this  inspiration  was  vouchsafed  to  them,  not 
for  their  own  sakes,  but  in  order  to  qualify 
them  for  the  successful  discharge  of  their 
office  as  the  messengers  of  Christ,  and  the  in- 
structers  of  mankind,  appears  from  several 
expressions  of  that  prayer  which  immediately 
follows  the  discourse  containing  the  promise 
of  inspiration  ;  particularly  from  these  words  : 
"  Neither  pray  I  for  these  alone,  but  for  them 
also  which  shall  believe  on  me  through  their 
word ;  that  they  all  may  be  one,  as  thou, 
Father,  art  in  me,  and  I  in  thee ;  that  they 
may  be  one  in  us  ;  that  the  world  may  believe 
that  thou  hast  sent  me,"  John  xvii,  20,  21.  In 
conformity  to  this  prayer,  so  becoming  him 
who  was  not  merely  the  friend  of  the  Apostles, 
but  the  light  of  the  world,  is  that  charge 
which  he  gives  them  immediately  before  his 
ascension :  "  Go  ye,  therefore,  and  teach  all 
nations,  baptizing  them  in  the  name  of  the 
Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy 
Ghost ;  teaching  them  to  observe  all  things 
whatsoever  I  have  commanded  you :  and,  lo, 
I  am  with  you  alway,  even  unto  the  end  of 
the  world,"  Matt,  xxviii,  19,  20 ;  I  am  with 
you  alway,  not  by  my  bodily  presence ;  for 
immediately  after  he  was  taken  out  of  their 
sight ;  but  I  am  with  you  by  the  Holy  Ghost, 
whom  I  am  to  send  upon  you  not  many  days 
hence,  and  who  is  to  abide  with  you  for  ever. 

The  promise  of  Jesus,  then,  implies,  accord- 
ing to  the  plain  construction  of  the  words, 
that  the  Apostles,  in  executing  their  commis- 
sion, were  not  to  be  left  wholly  to  their  natural 
powers,  but  were  to  be  assisted  by  that  illu- 
mination and  direction  of  the  Spirit  which  the 
nature  of  the  commission  required ;  and  we 
may  learn  the  sense  which  our  Lord  had  of 
the  importance  and  effect  of  this  promise  from 
one  circumstance,  that  he  never  makes  any 
distinction  between  his  own  words  and  those 
of  his  Apostles,  but  places  the  doctrines  and 
commandments  which  they  were  to  deliver 
upon  a  footing  with  those  which  he  had 
spoken :  "  He  that  heareth  you,  heareth  me  ; 
and  he  that  despiseth  you,  despiseth  me ;  and 
he  that  despiseth  me,  despiseth  him  that  sent 
me,"  Luke  x,  16.  These  words  plainly  imply 
that  Christians  have  no  warrant  to  pay  less 
regard  to  any  thing  contained  in  the  epistles 
than  to  that  which  is  contained  in  the  Gos- 
pels ;  and  teach  us  that  every  doctrine  and 
precept  clearly  delivered  by  the  Apostles 
comes  to  the  Christian  world  with  the  same 
stamp  of  the  divine  authority  as  the  words 
of  Jesus,  who  spake  in  the  name  of  him  that 
sent  him. 

The  Author  of  our  religion  having  thus 
made  the  faith  of  the  Christian  world  to  hang 
upon  the  teaching  of  the  Apostles,  gave  the 


most  signal  manifestation  of  the  fulfilment  of 
that  promise  which  was  to  qualify  them  for 
their  office,  by  the  miraculous  gifts  with  which 
they  were  endowed  on  the  day  of  pentecost, 
and  by  the  abundance  of  those  gifts  which 
the  imposition  of  their  hands  was  to  diffuse 
through  the  church.  One  of  the  twelve,  in- 
deed, whose  labours  in  preaching  the  Gospel 
were  the  most  abundant  and  the  most  exten- 
sive, was  not  present  at  this  manifestation  ; 
for  St.  Paul  was  not  called  to  be  an  Apostle 
till  after  the  day  of  pentecost.  But  it  is  very 
remarkable  that  the  manner  of  his  being  called 
was  expressly  calculated  to  supply  this  defi- 
ciency. As  he  journeyed  to  Damascus,  about 
noon,  to  bring  the  Christians  who  were  there 
bound  to  Jerusalem,  there  shone  from  heaven 
a  great  light  round  about  him.  And  he  heard 
a  voice,  saying,  "  I  am  Jesus  whom  thou  per- 
secutest.  And  I  have  appeared  unto  thee  for 
this  purpose,  to  make  thee  a  minister  and  a 
witness  both  of  these  things  which  thou  hast 
seen,  and  of  those  things  in  the  which  I  will 
appear  unto  thee  ;  and  now  I  send  thee  to  the 
Gentiles  to  open  their  eyes,"  Acts  xxvi,  12-18. 
In  reference  to  this  manner  of  his  being  called, 
St.  Paul  generally  inscribes  his  epistles  with 
these  words :  "  Paul,  an  Apostle  of  Jesus  Christ, 
by  the  will"  or  "by  the  commandment  of 
God ;"  and  he  explains  very  fully  what  he 
meant  by  the  use  of  this  expression,  in  the  be- 
ginning of  his  Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  where 
he  gives  an  account  of  his  conversion  :  "  Paul, 
an  Apostle,  not  of  men,  neither  by  man,  but 
by  Jesus  Christ,  and  God  the  Father,  who 
raised  him  from  the  dead.  I  neither  received 
the  Gospel  of  man,  neither  was  I  taught  it, 
but  by  the  revelation  of  Jesus  Christ.  When 
it  pleased  God,  who  separated  me  from  my 
mother's  womb,  and  called  me  by  his  grace,  to 
reveal  his  Son  in  me,  that  I  might  preach  him 
among  the  Heathen  :  immediately  I  conferred 
not  with  flesh  and  blood,  neither  went  I  up  to 
Jerusalem  to  them  which  were  Apostles  before 
me ;  but  I  went  into  Arabia,"  Gal.  i,  1, 12, 15-17. 
All  that  we  said  of  the  necessity  of  inspiration, 
and  of  the  import  of  the  promise  which  Jesus 
made  to  the  other  Apostles,  receives  very 
great  confirmation  from  this  history  of  St. 
Paul,  who,  being  called  to  be  an  Apostle  after 
the  ascension  of  Jesus,  received  the  Gospel  by 
immediate  revelation  from  heaven,  and  wa6 
thus  put  upon  a  footing  with  the  rest,  both  as 
to  his  designation,  which  did  not  proceed  from 
the  choice  of  man,  and  as  to  his  qualifications, 
which  were  imparted,  not  by  human  instruc- 
tion, but  by  the  teaching  of  the  Author  of 
Christianity.  The  Lord  Jesus  who  appeared 
to  him  might  furnish  St.  Paul  with  the  same 
advantages  which  the  other  Apostles  had  de- 
rived from  his  presence  on  earth,  and  might 
givo  him  the  same  assurance  of  the  inhabita- 
tion of  the  Spirit  that  the  promises,  which  we 
have  been  considering,  had  imparted  to  those. 
3.  Inspiration  was  claimed  by  the  Apostles  ; 
and  their  claim  may  be  considered  as  the  in- 
terpretation of  the  promise  of  their  Master. 
We  shall  not  find  the  claim  to  inspiration  for- 
mally advanced  in  the  Gospels.  This  omission 


INS 


486 


INS 


has  sometimes  been  stated  by  those  superficial 
critics,  whose  prejudices  serve  to  account  for 
their  haste,  as  an  objection  against  the  exist- 
ence of  inspiration.  But  if  you  attend  to  the 
reason  of  the  omission,  you  will  perceive  that 
it  is  only  an  instance  of  that  delicate  propriety 
which  pervades  all  the  New  Testament.  The 
Gospels  are  the  record  of  the  great  facts  which 
vouch  the  truth  of  Christianity.  These  facts 
are  to  be  received  upon  the  testimony  of  men 
who  had  been  eye-witnesses  of  them.  The 
foundation  of  Christian  faith  being  laid  in  an 
assent  to  these  facts,  it  would  have  been  pre- 
posterous to  have  introduced  in  support  of 
them  that  influence  of  the  Spirit  which  pre- 
served  the  minds  of  the  Apostles  from  error. 
For  there  can  be  no  proof  of  the  inspiration 
of  the  Apostles,  unless  the  truth  of  the  facts 
be  previously  admitted.  The  Apostles,  there- 
fore, bring  forward  the  evidence  of  Christi- 
anity in  its  natural  order,  wher  they  speak  in 
the  Gospels  as  the  companions  and  eye-wit. 
nesses  of  Jesus,  claiming  that  credit  which  is 
due  to  honest  men  who  had  the  best  opportu- 
nities of  knowing  what  they  declared.  This 
is  the  language  of  St.  John:  "Many  other 
signs  did  Jesus  in  the  presence  of  his  disci- 
ples. But  these  are  written  that  ye  may  be- 
lieve ;  and  this  is  the  disciple  which  testifieth 
these  things,"  John  xx,  30,  31 ;  xxi,  24.  The 
Evangelist  Luke  appears  to  speak  differently 
in  the  introduction  to  his  Gospel,  Luke  i,  1-4 ; 
and  opposite  opinions  have  been  entertained 
respecting  the  information  conveyed  by  that 
introduction. 

There  is  a  difference  of  opinion,  first,  with 
regard  to  the  time  when  St.  Luke  wrote  his 
Gospel.  It  appears  to  some  to  be  expressly 
intimated  that  he  wrote  after  St.  Matthew  and 
St.  Mark,  because  he  speaks  of  other  Gospels 
then  in  circulation  ;  and  it  is  generally  under- 
stood that  St.  John  wrote  his  after  the  other 
three.  But  the  manner  in  which  St.  Luke 
speaks  of  these  other  Gospels  does  not  seem  to 
apply  to  those  of  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Mark. 
He  calls  them  many,  which  implies  that  they 
were  more  than  two,  and  which  would  con- 
found these  two  canonical  Gospels  with  im- 
perfect accounts  of  our  Lord's  life,  which  we 
know  from  ancient  writers  were  early  circu- 
lated, but  were  rejected  after  the  four  Gospels 
were  published.  It  is  hardly  conceivable  that 
St.  Luke  would  have  alluded  to  the  two  Gos- 
pels of  St.  Matthew  and  St,  Mark  without 
distinguishing  them  from  other  very  inferior 
productions ;  and  therefore  it  is  probable  that 
when  he  used  this  mode  of  expression,  no  ac- 
counts of  our  Lord's  life  were  then  in  exist- 
ence but  those  inferior  productions.  There 
appears,  also,  to  very  sound  critics,  to  be  in- 
ternal evidence  that  St.  Luke  wrote  first.  He 
is  much  more  particular  than  the  other  evan- 
gelists in  his  report  of  our  Lord's  birth,  and 
of  the  meetings  with  his  Apostles  after  his 
resurrection.  They  might  think  it  unne- 
cessary to  introduce  the  same  particulars 
into  their  Gospels  after  St.  Luke.  But  if 
they  wrote  before  him,  the  want  of  these 
particulars  gives   to  their  Gospels  an  appear- 


ance of  imperfection  which  we  cannot  easily 
explain. 

The  other  point  suggested  by  this  introduc- 
tion, upon  which  there  has  been  a  difference 
of  opinion,  is,  whether  St.  Luke,  who  was  not 
an  Apostle,  wrote  his  Gospel  from  personal 
knowledge,  attained  by  his  being  a  companion 
of  Jesus,  or  from  the  information  of  others. 
Our  translation  certainly  favours  the  last  opin- 
ion ;  and  it  is  the  more  general  opinion,  de- 
fended by  very  able  critics.  Dr.  Randolph,  in 
the  first  volume  of  his  works,  which  contains 
a  history  of  our  Saviour's  life,  supports  the  first 
opinion,  and  suggests  a  punctuation  of  the 
verses,  and  an  interpretation  of  one  word,  ac- 
cording to  which  that  opinion  may  be  defended. 
Read  the  second  and  third  verses  in  connec- 
tion :  Ku0cif  zzapiSoaav  t'lfiiv  ol  an-'  ap^rji  avrtjirrai  nal 
tirr^plrai  yivojitvoi  tov  Xoyou  "E.So^c  Kaijioi,  xzapaxo- 
XovdrjKOTt    avuidtv   zzuaiv  aKpiGws  Ka8c(rjg   coi    ypuijjai, 

Kpdn^t  ez6<pi\e,  **  Even  as  they  who  were  eye- 
witnesses and  ministers  of  the  word  from  the 
beginning  delivered  them  to  us,  it  seemed  good 
to  me  also,  having  accurately  traced,"  &c. 
By  lij&v  is  understood  the  Christian  world,  who 
had  received  information,  both  oral  and  writ- 
ten, from  those  that  had  been  avTonrat  km  Inripi- 
rai,  "eye-witnesses  and  ministers."  Kai/iol 
means  St.  Luke,  who  proposed  to  follow  the 
example  of  those  alrd-nrai  in  writing  what  he 
knew ;  and  he  describes  his  own  knowledge 
by  the  word  zzapaKo\ov8rix6Ti,  which  is  more  pre- 
cise than  the  circumlocution,  by  which  it  is 
translated,  "  having  had  understanding  of  all 
things."  Perfect  understanding  may  be  derived 
from  various  sources  ;  but  zzapaKo\ovBin>  properly 
means,  "I  go  along  with  as  a  companion,  and 
derive  knowledge  from  my  own  observation." 
And  it  is  remarkable  that  the  word  is  used  in 
this  very  sense  by  the  Jewish  historian,  Jose- 
phus,  who  published  his  history  not  many  years 
after  St.  Luke  wrote,  and  who,  in  his  intro- 
duction, represents  himself  as  worthy  of  credit, 
because  he  had  not  merely  inquired  of  those 

who    knew,    but    zSaprjKoXovOrjKdTa    rot;    yty6voaiv, 

which  he  explains  by  this  expression :  Uo\\S>v 
fiiv  avTovpyb;  tzpa^iw,  and  to  state  in  the  third 
verse  that  he,  isAtij-uiv  6'  airditTtis  yevd/tcvo;,  an 
actor  in  mam/  things,  and  an  eye-witness  of 
most.  If  this  interpretation  is  not  approved 
of,  then,  according  to  the  sense  of  those  verses 
which  is  most  commonly  adopted,  St.  Luke 
will  be  understood  to  give  in  the  second  verse 
an  account  of  that  ground  upon  which  the 
knowledge  of  the  Christian  world  with  regard 
to  these  things  rested,  the  reports  of  the  "  eye- 
witnesses and  ministers,"  having  collected  and 
collated  these  reports,  and  employed  the  most 
careful  and  minute  investigation,  he  had  re- 
solved to  write  an  account  of  the  life  of  Jesus. 
Here  he  does  not  claim  inspiration  :  he  does 
not  even  say  that  he  was  an  eye-witness.  But 
he  says  that,  having,  like  others,  heard  the 
report  of  eye-witnesses,  he  had  accurately 
examined  the  truth  of  what  they  said,  and  pre- 
sented to  the  Christian  world  the  fruit  of  bis 
researches. 

The  foundation  is  still  the  same  as  in  St. 
John's  Gospel,  the  report  of  those  in  whoee 


INS 


487 


INS 


presence  Jesus  did  and  said  what  is  recorded. 
To  this  report  is  added,  (1.)  The  investigation 
of  St.  Luke,  a  contemporary  of  the  Apostles, 
the  companion  of  St.  Paul  in  a  great  part  of 
his  journeyings,  and  honoured  by  him  with 
this  title,  "Luke,  the  beloved  physician,"  Col. 
iv,  14.  (2.)  The  approbation  of  St.  Paul,  who 
is  said,  by  the  earliest  Christian  writers,  to 
have  revised  this  Gospel  written  by  his  com- 
panion, so  that  it  came  abroad  with  apostoli- 
cal authority.  (3.)  The  universal  consent  of 
the  Christian  church,  which,  although  jealous 
of  the  books  that  were  then  published,  and  re- 
jecting many  that  claimed  the  sanction  of  the 
Apostles,  has  uniformly,  from  the  earliest  times, 
put  the  Gospel  of  St.  Luke  upon  a  footing  with 
those  of  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Mark  :  a  clear 
demonstration  that  they  who  had  access  to  the 
best  information  knew  that  it  had  been  revised 
by  an  Apostle. 

As,  then,  the  authors  of  the  Gospels  appear 
under  the  character  of  eye-witnesses,  attesting 
what  they  had  seen,  there  would  have  been  an 
impropriety  in  their  resting  the  evidence  of  the 
essential  facts  of  Christianity  upon  inspiration. 
But  after  the  respect  which  their  character 
and  their  conduct  procured  to  their  testimony, 
and  the  visible  confirmation  which  it  received 
from  heaven,  had  established  the  faith  of  a 
part  of  the  world,  a  belief  of  their  inspiration 
became  necessary.  They  might  have  been 
credible  witnesses  of  facts,  although  they  had 
not  been  distinguished  from  other  men.  But 
they  were  not  qualified  to  execute  the  office  of 
Apostles  without  being  inspired.  And  there- 
fore, as  soon  as  the  circumstances  of  the 
church  required  the  execution  of  that  office, 
the  claim  which  had  been  conveyed  to  them  by 
the  promise  of  their  Master,  and  which  is  im- 
plied in  the  apostolical  character,  appeal's  in 
their  writings.  They  instantly  exercised  the 
authority  derived  to  them  from  Jesus,  by  plant- 
ing ministers  in  the  cities  where  they  had 
preached  the  Gospel,  by  setting  every  thing 
pertaining  to  these  Christian  societies  in  order, 
by  controlling  the  exercise  of  those  miraculous 
gifts  which  they  had  imparted,  and  by  cor- 
recting the  abuses  which  happened  even  in 
their  time.  But  they  demanded  from  all  who 
had  received  the  faith  of  Christ  submission  to 
the  doctrines  and  commandments  of  his  Apos- 
tles, as  the  inspired  messengers  of  Heaven. 
"  But  God  hath  revealed  it,"  not  them,  as  our 
translators  have  supplied  the  accusative,  "  re- 
vealed the  wisdom  of  God,  the  dispensation  of 
the  Gospel  unto  us  by  his  Spirit ;  for  the  Spi- 
rit searcheth  all  things,  yea,  the  deep  things 
of  God.  Now  we  have  received  not  the  spirit 
of  the  world,  but  the  Spirit  which  is  of  God  ; 
that  we  might  know  the  things  which  are  freely 
given  us  of  God ;  which  things,  also,  we  speak, 
not  in  the  words  which  man's  wisdom  teacheth, 
but  which  the  Holy  Ghost  teacheth,"  1  Cor.  ii, 
10,  12,  13.  "  If  any  man  think  himself  to  be 
a  prophet,  or  spiritual,  let  him  acknowledge 
that  the  things  that  I  write  unto  you  are  the 
commandments  of  the  Lord,"  1  Cor.  xiv,  37  ; 
that  is,  Let  no  eminence  of  spiritual  gifts  be  I 
set  up  in  opposition  to  the   authority   of  the  | 


Apostles,  or  as  implying  any  dispensation  from 
submitting  to  it.  "  For  this  cause,  also,  thank 
we  God  without  ceasing,  because  when  ye  re- 
ceived  the  word  of  God  which  ye  heard  of  us, 
ye  received  it  not  as  the  word  of  men,  but,  as 
it  is  in  truth,  the  word  of  God,"  1  Thess.  ii,  13. 
St.  Peter,  speaking  of  the  epistles  of  St.  Paul, 
says,  "  Even  as  our  beloved  brother  Paul,  also, 
according  to  the  wisdom  given  unto  him,  hath 
written  unto  you,"  2  Peter  iii,  15.  And  St. 
John  makes  the  same  claim  of  inspiration  for 
the  other  Apostles,  as  well  as  for  himself:  "  We 
are  of  God  :  he  that  knoweth  God,  heareth  us  : 
he  that  is  not  of  God,  heareth  not  us," 
1  John  iv,  6. 

The  claim  to  inspiration  is  clearly  made  by 
the  Apostles  in  those  passages  where  they  place 
their  own  writings  upon  the  same  footing  with 
the  books  of  the  Old  Testament ;  for  St.  Paul, 
speaking  of  the  upa.  ypdnjiara,  "  Holy  Scriptures," 
a  common  expression  among  the  Jews,  in 
which  Timothy  had  been  instructed  from  his 
childhood,  says,  "  All  Scripture  is  given  by 
inspiration  of  God,"  2  Tim.  iii,  16.  St.  Peter, 
speaking  of  the  ancient  prophets,  says,  "  The 
Spirit  of  Christ  was  in  them,"  1  Peter  i,  11; 
and,  "The  prophecy  came  not  in  old  time  by 
the  will  of  man  ;  but  holy  men  of  God  spake  as 
they  were  moved  by  the  Holy  Ghost,"  2  Peter 
i,.  21.  And  the  quotations  of  our  Lord  and 
his  Apostles  from  the  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment are  often  introduced  with  an  expression 
in  which  their  inspiration  is  directly  asserted  : 
"  Well  spake  the  Holy  Ghost  by  Esaias  ;"  "  By 
the  mouth  of  thy  servant  David  thou  hast  said," 
&c,  Acts  i,  16;  iv,  25;  xxviii,  25.  But  with 
this  uniform  testimony  to  that  inspiration  of 
the  Jewish  Scriptures,  which  was  universally 
believed  among  that  people,  we  are  to  conjoin 
this  circumstance,  that  St.  Paul  and  St.  Peter 
in  different  places  rank  their  own  writings  with 
the  books  of  the  Old  Testament.  St.  Paul 
commands  that  his  epistles  should  be  read  in 
the  churches,  where  none  but  those  books 
which  the  Jews  believed  to  be  inspired  were 
ever  read,  Col.  iv,  16.  He  says  that  Christians 
"  are  built  upon  the  foundatian  of  the  Apostles 
and  prophets,"  iiri  ™  9c/ic\lio  tZv  clt!0^6\u3v  Kal  zspo- 
<pr)Twv,  Eph.  ii,  20 :  a  conjunction  which  would 
have  been  highly  improper,  if  the  former  had 
not  been  inspired  as  well  as  the  latter ;  and  St. 
Peter  charges  the  Christians  to  "be  mindful 
of  the  words  which  were  spoken  before  by  the 
holy  prophets,  and  of  the  commandment  of  us 
the  Apostles,"  2  Peter  iii,  2.  The  nature  of 
the  book  of  Revelation  led  the  Apostle  John  to 
assert  most  directly  his  personal  inspiration ; 
for  he  says  that  "  Jesus  sent  and  signified  by 
his  angel  to  his  servant  John  the  things  that 
were  to  come  to  pass ;"  and  that  the  divine 
Person,  like  the  Son  of  man,  who  appeared  to 
him  when  he  was  in  the  Spirit,  commanded 
him  to  write  in  a  book  what  he  saw.  And  in 
one  of  the  visions  there  recorded,  when  the 
dispensation  of  the  Gospel  was  presented  to 
St.  John  under  the  figure  of  a  great  city,  the 
New  Jerusalem,  descending  out  of  heaven, 
there  is  one  part  of  the  image  which  is  a  beau- 
tiful expression  of  that  authority  in  settling  the 


INS 


488 


INS 


form  of  the  Christian  church,  and  teaching  ar- 
ticles of  faith,  which  the  Apostles  derived  from 
their  inspiration  :  "The  wall  of  the  city  had 
twelve  foundations,  and  in  them  the  names  of 
the  twelve  Apostles  of  the  Lamb,"  Rev.  i,  1, 
10-19 ;  xxi,  14. 

These  are  only  a  few  of  the  many  passages 
to  the  same  purpose  which  occur  in  reading 
the  New  Testament.  But  it  is  manifest,  even 
from  them,  that  the  manner  in  which  the 
Apostles  speak  of  their  own  writings  is  calcu- 
lated to  mislead  every  candid  reader,  unless 
they  really  wrote  under  the  direction  of  the 
Spirit  of  God.  So  gross  and  daring  an  impos. 
ture  is  absolutely  inconsistent  not  only  with 
their  whole  character,  but  also  with  those  gifts 
of  the  Holy  Ghost  of  which  there  is  unques- 
tionable evidence  that  they  were  possessed  ; 
and  which,  being  the  natural  vouchers  of  the 
assertion  made  by  them  concerning  their  own 
writings,  cannot  be  supposed,  upon  the  princi- 
ples of  sound  theism,  to  have  been  imparted  for 
a  long  course  of  years  to  persons  who  con- 
tinued during  all  that  time  asserting  such  a 
falsehood,  and  appealing  to  those  gifts  for  the 
truth  of  what  they  said. 

4.  The  claim  of  the  Apostles  derives  much 
confirmation  from  the  reception  which  it  met 
with  among  the  Christians  of  their  days.  It 
appears  from  an  expression  of  St.  Peter,  that 
at  the  time  when  lie  wrote  his  second  epistle, 
the  epistles  of  St.  Paul  were  classed  with  "the 
other  Scriptures,"  the  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment ;  that  is,  were  accounted  inspired  writ- 
ings, 2  Peter  iii,  16.  It  is  well  known  to  those 
who  are  versed  in  the  early  history  of  the 
church,  with  what  care  the  first  Christians  dis- 
criminated between  the  apostolical  writings 
and  the  compositions  of  other  authors  however 
much  distinguished  by  their  piety,  and  with 
what  reverence  they  received  those  books 
which  were  known  by  their  inscription,  by  the 
place  from  which  they  proceeded,  or  the  man- 
ner in  which  they  were  circulated,  to  be  the 
work  of  an  Apostle.  In  Lardner's  "Credibility 
of  the  Gospel  History,"  will  be  found  the  most 
particular  information  upon  this  subject ;  and 
it  will  be  perceived  that  the  whole  history  of 
the  supposititious  writings  which  appeared  in 
early  times,  conspires  in  attesting  the  venera- 
tion in  which  the  authority  of  the  Apostles  was 
held  by  the  Christian  chinch.  We  learn  from 
Justin  Martyr,  that,  before  the  middle  of  the 
second  century,  "  the  memoirs  of  the  Apostles, 
and  the  compositions  of  the  prophets,"  were 
read  together  in  the  Christian  assemblies.  We 
know,  that  from  the  earliest  tunes,  the  church 
has  submitted  to  the  writings  of  the  Apostles 
as  the  infallible  standard  of  faith  and  practice  ; 
and  wo  find  the  ground  of  this  peculiar  respect 
expressed  by  the  first  Christian  writers  as  well 
as  by  their  successors,  who  speak  of  the  writ- 
ings of  the  Apostles  as  "divine  writings  from 
the  inspiration  of  the  Holy  Ghost." 

To  this  general  argument  we  may  add  that 
right  views  on  the  subject  of  the  inspiration  of 
the  sacred  writers  are  also  necessary,  because 
even  some  Christian  writers  have  spoken  ob- 
scurely and   unsatisfactorily  on   the   subject, 


dividing  inspiration  into  different  kinds,  and 
assigning  each  to  different  portions  of  the  holy 
volume.  By  inspiration  we  are  to  understand, 
that  the  sacred  writers  composed  their  works 
under  so  plenary  and  immediate  an  influence  of 
the  Holy  Spirit,  that  God  may  be  said  to  speak 
by  those  writers  to  man,  and  not  merely  that 
they  spoke  to  men  in  the  name  of  God,  and  by 
his  authority  ;  and  there  is  a  considerable  differ- 
ence between  the  two  propositions.  Each  sup- 
poses an  authentic  revelation  from  God ;  but 
the  former  view  secures  the  Scriptures  from  all 
error  both  as  to  the  suhjecls  spoken,  and  the 
manner  of  expressing  them.  This,  too,  is  the 
doctrine  taught  in  the  Scriptures  themselves, 
which  declare  not  only  that  the  prophets  and 
Apostles  spake  in  the  name  of  God,  but  that 
God  spake  by  them  as  his  instruments.  "  The 
Holy  Ghost  by  the  mouth  of  David  spake." 
"  Well  spake  the  Holy  Ghost  by  Esaias  the 
prophet."  "  The  prophecy  came  not  of  old 
time,  by  the  will  of  man  ;  but  holy  men  of 
God  spake  as  they  were  moved  by  the  Holy 
Ghost."  For  this  reason,  not  only  that  the 
matter  contained  in  the  book  of  "  the  Law, 
the  Prophets,  and  the  Psalms,"  (the  usual 
phrase  by  which  the  Jews  designated  the  whole 
Old  Testament,)  was  true  ;  but  that  the  books 
were  written  under  divine  inspiration,  they  are 
called  collectively  by  our  Lord  and  by  his 
Apostles,  "  The  Scriptures"  in  contradistinc- 
tion to  all  other  writings ; — a  term  which  the 
Apostle  Peter,  as  stated  above,  applies  also 
to  the  writings  of  St.  Paul,  and  which  therefore 
verifies  them  as  standing  on  the  same  level  with 
the  books  of  the  Old  Testament  as  to  their  in- 
spiration :  "  Even  as  our  beloved  brother  Paul 
also,  according  to  the  wisdom  given  unto  him, 
hath  written  unto  you  :  as  also  in  all  his  epis- 
tles, speaking  of  these  things,  in  which  are 
some  things  hard  to  be  understood,  which  they 
that  are  unlearned  and  unstable  wrest,  as  they 
do  also  the  other  Scriptures,  unto  their  own 
destruction."  The  Apostles  also,  as  we  have 
seen,  expressly  claim  an  inspiration,  not  only 
as  to  the  subjects  on  which  they  wrote,  but  as 
to  the  words  in  which  they  expressed  them- 
selves. Farther,  our  Lord  promised  to  them 
the  Holy  Spirit  "to  guide  them  into  all  truth  ;" 
and  that  he  was  not  to  fulfil  his  office  by  sug- 
gesting thoughts  only,  but  words,  is  clear  from 
Christ's  discourse  with  them  on  the  subject  of 
the  persecutions  they  were  to  endure  for  "  his 
name's  sake :"  "  And  when  they  bring  you  into 
the  synagogues,  and  unto  magistrates  and 
powers,  take  ye  no  thought  how  or  what  thing 
ye  shall  answer,  or  what  ye  shall  say ;  for  the 
Holy  Ghost  shall  teach  you  in  the  same  hour 
what  ye  ought  to  say;  for  it  is  not  ye  that 
speak;  but  the  Spirit  of  your  Father  which 
speaketh  in  you."  This  inspiration  of  words 
is  also  asserted  by  St.  Paul  as  to  himself  and 
his  brethren,  when  he  says  to  the  Corinthians, 
"  Which  things  also  we  speak,  not  in  the  words 
which  man's  wisdom  teacheth ;  but  which  the 
Holy  Ghost  teacheth."  Thus  we  find  that  the 
claim  which  the  sacred  writers  make  on  this 
subject  is,  that  they  were  in  truth  what  they 
have  bee«  aptly  called,  "  the  penmen  of  the 


INS 


489 


INS 


Holy  Ghost ;"  and  that  the  words  in  which 
they  clothed  "the  wisdom  given  unto  them" 
were  words  "  taught"  by  the  Holy  Spirit. 

But  it  may  be  asked,  How  are  we  to  account 
for  that  difference  of  style  which  is  observable 
in  each  ?  that  manner,  too,  so  natural  to  each, 
and  so  distinct  in  all  ?  with  those  reasonings, 
recollections  of  memory,  and  other  indications 
of  the  working  of  the  mind  of  each  writer  in 
its  own  character  and  temperament  ?  Some 
persons,  indeed,  observing  this,  have  concluded 
their  style  and  manner  to  be  entirely  human, 
while  their  thoughts  were  either  wholly  di- 
vine, or  so  superintended  by  the  Holy  Ghost 
as  to  have  been  adopted  by  him,  and  therefore, 
although  sometimes  natural,  to  be  of  equal 
authority  as  if  they  had  been  exclusively  of 
divine  suggestion.  This,  indeed,  would  be 
sufficient  to  oblige  our  implicit  credence  to 
their  writings,  as  being  from  God ;  but  it  falls 
below  the  force  of  the  passages  above  cited, 
and  which  attribute  to  a  divine  agency  their 
words  also.  The  matter  may  be  rightly  con- 
ceived by  considering,  that  an  inspiration  of 
words  took  place  either  by  suggesting  those 
most  fit  to  express  the  thoughts,  or  by  over- 
ruling the  selection  of  such  words  from  the 
common  as  if  they  had  been  exclusively  of 
divine  suggestion.  This,  indeed,  would  be 
sufficient  to  oblige  our  implicit  credence  to 
their  writings,  as  being  from  God ;  but  it  falls 
below  the  force  of  the  passages  above  cited, 
and  which  attribute  to  a  divine  agency  the 
store  acquired  by,  and  laid  up  in,  the  mind  of 
each  writer,  which  is  quite  compatible  with 
the  fact,  that  a  peculiarity  and  appropriateness 
of  manner  might  still  be  left  to  them  sepa- 
rately. To  suppose  that  an  inspiration  of 
terms,  as  well  as  thoughts,  could  not  take 
place  without  producing  one  uniform  style  and 
manner,  is  to  suppose  that  the  minds  of  the 
writers  would  thus  become  entirely  passive 
under  the  influence  of  the  Holy  Spirit ;  whereas 
it  is  easily  conceivable  that  the  verbiage,  style, 
and  manner  of  each,  was  not  so  much  displaced, 
as  elevated,  enriched,  and  controlled  by  the 
Holy  Spirit ;  and  that  there  was  a  previous 
fitness,  in  all  these  respects,  in  all  the  sacred 
penmen,  for  which  they  were  chosen  to  be 
the  instruments  under  the  aid  and  direction  of 
the  Holy  Ghost,  of  writing  such  portions  of 
the  general  revelation  as  the  wisdom  of  God 
assigned  to  each  of  them.  On  the  other 
hand,  while  it  is  so  conceivable  that  the 
words  and  manner  of  each  might  be  appro- 
priated to  his  own  design  by  the  inspiration 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,  it  by  no  means  follows 
that  both  were  not  greatly  altered,  as  well  as 
controlled,  although  they  still  retained  a  gene- 
ral similarity  to  the  uninfluenced  style  and 
manner  of  each,  and  still  presented  a  charac- 
teristic variety.  As  none  of  their  writings  on 
ordinary  occasions,  and  when  uninspired,  have 
come  down  to  us,  we  cannot  judge  of  the  de- 
gree of  this  difference ;  and  therefore  no  one 
can  with  any  just  reason  affirm  that  their  writ- 
ings are  "the  word  of  God  as  to  the  doctrine, 
but  the  word  of  man  as  to  the  channel  of  con- 
veyance."    Certain  it  is,  that  a  vast  difference 


may  be  remarked  between  the  writings  of  the 
Apostles,  and  those  of  the  most  eminent  la- 
thers of  the  times  nearest  to  them;  and  that 
not  only  as  to  precision  and  strength  of 
thought,  but  also  as  to  language.  This  cir- 
cumstance is  at  least  strongly  presumptive, 
that  although  the  style  of  inspired  men  was 
not  stripped  of  the  characteristic  peculiarity 
of  the  writers,  it  was  greatly  exalted  and 
influenced. 

But  the  same  force  of  inspiration,  so  to 
speak,  was  not  probably  exerted  upon  each  of 
the  sacred  writers,  or  upon  the  same  writer 
throughout  his  writings,  whatever  might  be 
its  subject.  There  is  no  necessity  that  we 
should  so  state  the  case,  in  order  to  maintain 
what  is  essential  to  our  faith, — the  plenary 
inspiration  of  each  of  the  sacred  writers.  In 
miracles  there  was  no  needless  application  of 
divine  power.  Traditional  history  and  written 
chronicles,  facts  of  known  occurrence,  and 
opinions  which  were  received  by  all,  are  often 
inserted  or  referred  to  by  the  sacred  writers. 
There  needed  no  miraculous  operation  upon  the 
memory  to  recall  what  the  memory  was  fur- 
nished with,  or  to  reveal  a  fact  which  the 
writers  previously  and  perfectly  knew :  but 
their  plenary  inspiration  consisted  in  this,  that 
they  were  kept  from  all  lapses  of  memory,  or 
inadequate  conceptions,  even  on  these  sub- 
jects ;  and  on  all  others  the  degree  of  commu- 
nication and  influence,  both  as  to  doctrine, 
facts,  and  the  terms  in  which  they  were  to  bo 
recorded  for  the  edification  of  the  church,  was 
proportioned  to  the  necessity  of  the  case,  but 
so  that  the  whole  was  authenticated  or  dictated 
by  the  Holy  Spirit  with  so  full  an  influence, 
that  it  became  truth  without  mixture  of  error, 
expressed  in  such  terms  as  he  himself  ruled  or 
suggested.  This,  then,  seems  the  true  notion 
of  plenary  inspiration,  that  for  the  revelation, 
insertion,  and  adequate  enunciation  of  truth, 
it  was  full  and  complete. 

The  principal  objections  to  this  view  of  the 
inspiration  of  words  are  well  answered  by  Dr. 
Woods,  an  American  divine,  in  a  recent  pub- 
lication, from  which,  as  the  subject  has  been 
lately  debated  in  this  country,  the  following 
extracts  will  be  acceptable,  although  there  is 
in  them  a  repetition  of  some  of  the  preceding 
observations : — 

"  One  argument  which  has  been  urged 
against  the  supposition  that  divine  inspiration 
had  a  respect  to  language,  is,  that  the  language 
employed  by  the  inspired  writers  exhibits  no 
marks  of  a  divine  interference,  but  is  perfectly- 
conformed  to  the  genius  and  taste  of  the 
writers.  The  fact  here  alleged  is  admitted. 
But  how  does  it  support  the  opinion  of  those 
who  allege  it  ?  Is  it  not  evident,  that  God 
may  exercise  a  perfect  superintendency  over 
inspired  writers  as  to  the  language  they  shall 
use,  and  yet  that  each  one  of  them  shall 
write  in  his  own  style,  and  in  all  respects  ac- 
cording to  his  own  taste  ?  May  not  God  give 
such  aid  to  his  servants,  that,  while  using 
their  own  style,  they  will  certainly  be  secured 
against  all  mistakes,  and  exhibit  the  truth  with 
perfect  propriety  ?     It  is  unquestionable,  that 


INS 


490 


INS 


Isaiah,  and  St.  Paul,  and  St.  John  might  be 
under  the  entire  direction  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
even  as  to  language,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
that  each  one  of  them  might  write  in  his  own 
manner  ;  and  that  the  peculiar  manner  of  each 
might  be  adopted  to  answer  an  important  end  ; 
and  that  the  variety  of  style,  thus  introduced 
into  the  sacred  volume,  might  be  suited  to  ex- 
cite a  livelier  interest  in  the  minds  of  men, 
and  to  secure  to  them  a  far  greater  amount  of 
good,  than  could  ever  have  been  derived  from 
any  one  mode  of  writing.  The  great  variety 
existing  among  men  as  to  their  natural  talents, 
and  their  peculiar  manner  of  thinking  and  writ- 
ing may,  in  this  way,  be  turned  to  account  in 
the  work  of  revelation,  as  well  as  in  the  con- 
cerns of  common  life.  Now,  is  it  not  clearly 
a  matter  of  fact,  that  God  has  made  use  of  this 
variety,  and  given  the  Holy  Spirit  to  men,  dif- 
fering widely  from  each  other  in  regard  to 
natural  endowments,  and  knowledge,  and 
style,  and  employed  them,  with  all  their  various 
gifts,  as  agents  in  writing  the  Holy  Scriptures  ? 
And  what  colour  of  reason  can  we  have  to 
suppose,  that  the  language  which  they  used 
was  less  under  the  divine  direction  on  account 
of  this  variety,  than  if  it  had  been  perfectly 
uniform  throughout  ? 

"To  prove  that  divine  inspiration  had  no 
respect  to  the  language  of  the  sacred  writers, 
it  is  farther  alleged,  that  even  the  same  doc- 
trine is  taught  and  the  same  event  described 
in  a  different  manner  by  different  writers.   This 
fact  I  also  admit.     But  how  does  it  prove  that 
inspiration  had  no  respect  to  language  ?     Is 
not  the  variety  alleged  a  manifest  advantage, 
as  to  the  impression  which  is  likely  to  be  made 
upon  the  minds   of  men  ?    Is  not  testimony, 
which  is  substantially  the  same,  always  con- 
sidered as  entitled  to  higher  credit,  when  it  is 
given  by  different  witnesses  in  different  lan- 
guage, and  in  a  different  order  ?    And  is  it  not 
perfectly  reasonable  to  suppose,  that,  in  mak- 
ing a  revelation,  God  would  have  respect  to 
the  common  principles  of  human  nature  and 
human  society,  and  would  exert  his  influence 
and  control  over  inspired  men  in  such  a  man- 
ner, that,  by  exhibiting  the  same  doctrines  and 
facts  in   different  ways,  they  should  make   a 
more    salutary  impression,   and  should  more 
effectually  compass  the  great  ends  of  a  revela- 
tion ?    All  I  have  to  advance  on  this  part  of 
the  subject  may  be  summed  up   in  these  two 
positions:  1.  The  variety  of  manner  apparent 
among  different  inspired  writers,  even  when 
treating  of  the  same  subjects,  is  far  better  suit- 
ed to  promote  the  object  of  divine  revelation, 
than  a  perfect  uniformity.     2.  It  is  agreeable 
to  our  worthiest  conceptions  of  God  and  his 
administration,  that  he  should  make  use  of  the 
best  means  for  the  accomplishment  of  his  de- 
signs ;  and,  of  course,  that  he  should  impart 
the  gift  of  inspiration  to  men  of  different  tastes 
and   habits   as  to  language,  and  should   lead 
them,  while  writing  the  Scriptures,  to  oxhibit 
all  the  variety  of  manner  naturally  arising  from 
the  diversified  character  of  their  minds. 

"  But  there  is  another  argument,  perhaps 
the  most  plausible  of  all,  against  supposing  that 


inspiration  had  any  respect  to  language ;  which 
is,  that  the  supposition  of  a  divine  influence  in 
this  respect  is  wholly  unnecessary ;   that  the 
sacred  writers,  having  the  requisite  informa- 
tion in  regard  to  the  subjects  on  which  they 
were  to  write,   might,  so  far  as  language  is 
concerned,  be  left  entirely  to  their  own  judg- 
ment and  fidelity.     But  this  view  of  the  sub- 
ject is  not  satisfactory.    For  whatever  may  be 
said  as  to  the  judgment  and  fidelity  of  those 
who  wrote  the  Scriptures,  there  is  one  import- 
ant circumstance  which  cannot  be  accounted 
for,  without  supposing  them  to  have  enjoyed 
a  guidance   above  that  of  their  own  minds ; 
namely,   that  they  were   infallibly   preserved 
from  every  mistake  or  impropriety  in  the  man- 
ner of  writing.     If  we  should  admit  that  the 
divine  superintendence  and  guidance  afforded 
to  the  inspired  writers  had  no  relation  at,  all  to 
the  manner   in    which  they  exhibited  either 
doctrines  or  facts ;    how  easily  might  we  be 
disturbed   with  doubts,  in  regard  to  the  pro- 
priety of  some  of  their  representations  ?     We 
should  most  certainly  consider  them  as  liable 
to    all    the    inadvertencies    and   mistakes,    to 
which  uninspired  men  are  commonly  liable ; 
and  we  should  think  ourselves  perfectly  justi- 
fied in  undertaking  to  charge  them  with  real 
errors  and  faults  as  to  style,  and  to  show  how 
their  language  might  have  been  improved ;  and, 
in  short,  to  treat  their  writings  just  as  we  treat 
the    writings    of    Shakspeare    and    Addison. 
'  Here,'  we  might  say,  '  Paul  was  unfortunate 
in  the  choice  of  words  ;  and  here  his  language 
does  not  express  the  ideas  which  he  must  have 
intended  to  convey.'     '  Here  the  style  of  St. 
John  was  inadvertent ;  and  here  it  was  faulty  : 
and  here  it  would  have  been  more  agreeable  to 
the  nature  of  the  subject,  and  would  have  more 
accurately  expressed  the  truth,   had   it  been 
altered  thus.'     If  the  language  of  the  sacred 
writers  did  not  in  any  way  come  under  the 
inspection  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  if  they  were 
left,  just  as  other  writers  are,  to  their  own 
unaided  faculties    in    regard   to    every   thing 
which   pertained  to  the   manner   of  writing ; 
then,  evidently,  we  might  use  the  same  free- 
dom  in   animadverting   upon    their    style,   as 
upon    the   style  of  other    writers.     But    who 
could  treat  the  volume  of  inspiration  in  this 
manner,    without   impiety    and    profaneness  ? 
And  rather  than  make  any  approach  to  this, 
who   would  not  choose  to  go  to  an  excess,  if 
there  could  be  an  excess,  in  reverence  for  the 
word  of  God? 

"  On  this  subject,  far  be  it  from  me  to  in- 
dulge a  curiosity  which  would  pry  into  things 
not  intended  for  human  intelligence.  And  far 
be  it  from  me  to  expend  zeal  in  supporting 
opinions  not  warranted  by  the  word  of  God. 
But  this  one  point  I  think  it  specially  import- 
ant to  maintain  ;  namely,  that  the  sacred  writ- 
ers had  such  direction  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  that 
they  were  secured  against  all  liability  to  error, 
and  enabled  to  write  just  what  God  pleased ; 
so  that  what  they  wrote  is,  in  truth,  the  word 
of  God,  and  can  never  be  subject  to  any  charge 
of  mistake  either  as  to  matter  or  form.  Whe- 
ther this  perfect  correctness  and  propriety  as  to 


INS 


491 


INS 


language  resulted  from  the  divine  guidance 
directly  or  indirectly,  is  a  question  of  no  par- 
ticular consequence.  If  the  Spirit  of  God 
directs  the  minds  of  inspired  men,  and  gives 
them  just  conceptions  relative  to  the  subjects 
on  which  they  are  to  write  ;  and  if  he  consti- 
tutes and  maintains  a  connection,  true  and 
invariable,  between  their  conceptions  and  the 
language  they  employ  to  express  them,  the  lan- 
guage must,  in  this  way,  be  as  infallible,  and 
as  worthy  of  God,  as  though  it  were  dictated 
directly  by  the  Holy  Spirit.  But  to  assert  that 
the  sacred  writers  used  such  language  as  they 
chose,  or  such  as  was  natural  to  them,  without 
any  special  divine  superintendence,  and  that, 
m  respect  to  style,  they  are  to  be  regarded  in 
the  same  light,  and  equally  liable  to  mistakes, 
as  other  writers,  is  plainly  contrary  to  the 
representations  which  they  themselves  make, 
and  is  suited  to  diminish  our  confidence  in 
the  word  of  God.  For  how  could  we  have 
entire  confidence  in  the  representations  of 
Scripture,  if,  after  God  had  instructed  the 
minds  of  the  sacred  writers  in  the  truth  to  be 
communicated,  he  gave  them  up  to  all  the  in- 
advertencies and  errors  to  which  human  nature 
in  general  is  exposed,  and  took  no  effectual 
care  that  their  manner  of  writing  should  be 
according  to  his  will  ? 

"Let  us  then  briefly  examine  the  subject, 
as  it  is  presented  in  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and 
see  whether  we  find  sufficient  reason  to  affirm 
that  inspiration  had  no  relation  whatever  to 
language.  1.  The  Apostles  were  the  subjects 
of  such  a  divine  inspiration  as  enabled  them 
to  speak  '  with  other  tongues  :'  here  inspira- 
tion related  directly  to  language.  2.  It  is  the 
opinion  of  most  writers,  that,  in  some  instan- 
ces, inspired  men  had  not  in  their  own  minds 
a  clear  understanding  of  the  things  which 
they  spake  or  wrote.  One  instance  of  this, 
commonly  referred  to,  is  the  case  of  Daniel, 
who  heard  and  repeated  what  the  angel  said, 
though  he  did  not  understand  it,  Dan.  xii,  7-9. 
This  has  also  been  thought  to  be  in  some 
measure  the  case  with  the  prophets  referred  to, 
1  Peter  i,  10-12.  And  is  there  not  reason  to 
think  this  may  have  been  the  case  with  many  of 
the  prophetic  representations  contained  in  the 
Psalms,  and  many  of  the  symbolical  rites  of 
the  Mosaic  institute  ?  Various  matters  are 
found  in  the  Old  Testament,  which  were  not 
intended  so  much  for  the  benefit  of  the  writ- 
ers, or  their  contemporaries,  as  for  the  benefit 
of  future  ages.  And  this  might  have  been  a 
sufficient  reason  why  they  should  be  left  with- 
out a  clear  understanding  of  the  things  which 
they  wrote.  In  such  cases,  if  the  opinion 
above  stated  is  correct,  inspired  men  were  led 
to  make  use  of  expressions,  the  meaning  of 
which  they  did  not  fully  understand.  And, 
according  to  this  view,  it  would  seem  that  the 
teaching  of  the  Spirit  which  they  enjoyed, 
must  have  related  rather  to  the  words  than  to 
the  sense.  3.  Those  who  deny  that  the  divine 
influence  afforded  to  the  sacred  writers  had 
any  respect  to  language,  can  find  no  support 
in  the  texts  which  most  directly  relate  to  the 
subject   of  inspiration.     And    it    is   surely  in 


such  texts,  if  any  where,  that  we  should  sup. 
pose  they  would  find  support.  The  passage, 
2  Peter  i,  21,  is  a  remarkable  one.  It  asserts 
that  '  holy  men  of  God  spake  as  they  were 
moved  by  the  Holy  Ghost.'  There  is  surely 
nothing  here  which  limits  the  divine  influence 
to  the  conceptions  of  their  minds.  They  were 
moved  by  the  Holy  Ghost  to  speak  or  write. 
'  All  Scripture  is  divinely  inspired,'  2  Tim. 
iii,  16.  Does  this  text  afford  any  proof  that 
the  divine  influence  granted  to  the  inspired 
penmen  was  confined  to  their  inward  concep- 
tions, and  had  no  respect  whatever  to  the 
manner  in  which  they  expressed  their  concep- 
tions ?  What  is  Scripture,  ?  Is  it  divine  truth 
conceived  in  the  mind,  or  divine  truth  written  ? 
In  Heb.  i,  1,  it  is  said  that  '  God  spake  to  the 
fathers  by  the  prophets.'  Does  this  afford  any 
proof  that  the  divine  guidance  which  the  pro- 
phets enjoyed  related  exclusively  to  the  con- 
ceptions of  their  own  minds,  and  had  no 
respect  to  the  manner  in  which  they  commu- 
nicated those  conceptions?  Must  we  not 
rather  think  the  meaning  to  be,  that  God 
influenced  the  prophets  to  utter  or  make 
known  important  truths?  And  how  could 
they  do  this,  except  by  the  use  of  proper 
words  ? 

"  I  have  argued  in  favour  of  the  inspiration 
of  the  Apostles,  from  their  commission.  They 
were  sent  by  Christ  to  teach  the  truths  of 
religion  in  his  stead.  It  was  an  arduous  work  ; 
and  in  the  execution  of  it  they  needed  and 
enjoyed  much  divine  assistance.  But  forming 
right  conceptions  of  Christianity  in  their  own 
minds,  was  not  the  great  work  assigned  to  tho 
Apostles.  If  the  divine  assistance  reached 
only  to  this,  it  reached  only  to  that  which 
concerned  them  as  private  men,  and  which 
they  might  have  possessed  though  they  had 
never  been  commissioned  to  teach  others.  As 
Apostles,  they  were  to  preach  the  Gospel  to 
all  who  could  be  brought  to  hear  it,  and  to 
make  a  record  of  divine  truth  for  the  benefit 
of  future  ages.  Now  is  it  at  all  reasonable  to 
suppose,  that  the  divine  assistance  afforded 
them  had  no  respect  to  their  main  business, 
and  that,  in  the  momentous  and  difficult  work 
of  communicating  the  truths  of  religion,  either 
orally  or  by  writing,  they  were  left  to  them- 
selves, and  so  exposed  to  all  the  errors  and 
inadvertencies  of  uninspired  men  ?  But  our 
reasoning  does  not  stop  here.  For  that  divine 
assistance  which  we  might  reasonably  suppose 
would  have  been  granted  to  the  Apostles  in 
the  wprk  of  teaching  divine  truth,  is  the  very 
thing  which  Christ  promised  them  in  the  texts 
before  cited.  I  shall  refer  only  to  Matt. 
x,  19,  20,  'When  they  shall  deliver  you  up, 
take  no  thought  how  or  what  ye  shall  speak  ; 
for  it  shall  be  given  you  in  the  same  hour  what 
ye  shall  speak.  For  it  is  not  ye  that  speak, 
but  the  Spirit  of  your  Father  that  speaketh  in 
you.'  This  promise,  as  Knapp  understands 
it,  implies,  that  divine  assistance  should  extend 
not  only  to  what  they  should  say,  but  to  the 
manner  in  which  they  should  say  it.  It  is 
not,  however,  to  be  understood  as  implying, 
that  the  Apostles  were  not  rational  and  volun. 


INT 


492 


ISA 


tary  agents  in  the  discharge  of  their  office. 
But  it  implies  that,  in  consequence  of  the  in- 
fluence of  the  Spirit  to  be  exercised  over  them, 
they  should  say  what  God  would  have  them  to 
say,  without  any  liability  to  mistake,  either  as 
to  matter  or  manner.  From  the  above-cited 
promise,  taken  in  connection  with  the  instan- 
ces of  its  accomplishment  which  are  recorded 
in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  it  becomes  evident 
that  God  may  exert  his  highest  influence  upon 
his  servants,  so  as  completely  to  guide  them 
in  thought  and  in  utterance,  in  regard  to  sub- 
jects which  lie  chiefly  within  the  province  of 
their  natural  faculties.  For  in  those  speeches 
of  the  Apostles  which  are  left  on  record,  we 
find  that  most  of  the  things  which  they  de- 
clared, were  things  which,  for  aught  that 
appears,  they  might  have  known,  and  might 
have  expressed  to  others,  in  the  natural  exer- 
cise of  their  own  faculties.  This  principle 
being  admitted,  and  kept  steadily  in  view,  will 
relieve  us  of  many  difficulties  in  regard  to  the 
doctrine  of  inspiration.  The  passage,  1  Cor. 
ii,  12,  13,  already  cited  as  proof  of  the  inspi- 
ration of  the  Apostles,  is  very  far  from  favour- 
ing the  opinion  that  inspiration  had  no  respect 
whatever  to  their  language,  or  that  it  related 
exclusively  to  their  thoughts.  '  Which  things 
we  speak,  not  in  the  words  which  man's  wis- 
dom teacheth,  but  which  the  Holy  Ghost 
teacheth.'  The  Apostle  avoided  the  style 
and  the  manner  of  teaching  which  prevailed 
among  the  wise  men  of  Greece,  and  made 
use  of  a  style  which  corresponded  with  the 
nature  of  his  subject,  and  the  end  he  had  in 
view.  And  this,  he  tells  us,  he  did,  under 
the  guidance  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  His  lan- 
guage, or  manner  of  teaching,  was  the  thing 
to  which  the  divine  influence  imparted  to 
him  particularly  referred.  Storr  and  Flatt 
give  the  following  interpretation  of  this  text : 
Paul,  they  say,  asserts  that  the  doctrines  of 
Christianity  were  revealed  to  him  by  the 
almighty  agency  of  God  himself;  and,  finally, 
that  the  inspiration  of  the  divine  Spirit  ex- 
tended even  to  his  words,  and  to  all  his  exhibi- 
tions of  revealed  truths.  They  add,  that  St. 
Paul  clearly  distinguishes  between  the  doctrine 
itself,  and  the  manner  in  which  it  is  commu- 
nicated." 

INTERMEDIATE  STATE.  Beside  ques- 
tions concerning  the  nature  of  the  happiness 
of  heaven,  there  have  also  arisen  questions 
concerning  the  state  of  the  soul  in  the  interval 
between  death  and  the  general  resurrection. 
If  we  believe,  with  Dr.  Priestley,  that  the  soul 
is  not  a  substance  distinct  from  the  body,  we 
must  believe  with  him  that  the  whole  of  the 
human  machine  is  at  rest  after  death,  till  it  be 
restored  to  its  functions  at  the  last  day ;  but  if 
we  are  convinced  of  the  immateriality  of  the 
soul,  we  shall  uot  think  it  so  entirely  dependent 
in  all  its  operations  upon  its  present  com- 
panion, but  that  it  may  exist  and  act  in  an 
unembodied  state.  And  if  once  we  are  satis- 
fied that  a  state  of  separate  existence  is  pos- 
sible, we  shall  easily  attach  credit  to  the 
interpretation  commonly  given  of  the  various 
expressions  in  Scripture,  which  intimate  that 


the  souls  of  good  men  are  admitted  to  the 
presence  of  God  immediately  after  death, 
although  we  soon  find  that  a  bound  is  set  to 
our  speculations  concerning  the  nature  of  this 
intermediate  state.  But  when  we  leave  phi- 
losophical probability,  and  come  to  the  doctrine 
of  Scripture,  the  only  ground  of  certainty  on 
all  such  subjects,  a  great  number  of  passages 
are  so  explicit,  that  no  ingenuity  of  interpre- 
tation has  been  sufficient  to  weaken  their 
evidence  on  this  point.  One  branch  of  the 
opinions  that  have  been  held  concerning  an 
intermediate  state  is  the  Popish  doctrine  of 
purgatory  ;  a  doctrine  which  appears  upon  the 
slightest  inspection  of  the  texts  that  have  been 
adduced  in  support  of  it  to  derive  no  evidence 
from  Scripture  ;  which  originated  in  the  error 
of  the  church  of  Rome  in  assigning  to  personal 
suffering  a  place  in  the  justification  of  a  sin- 
ner; and  which  is  completely  overturned  by 
the  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith,  and  by 
the  general  strain  of  Scripture,  which  repre- 
sents this  life  as  a  state  of  probation,  upon  our 
conduct  during  which  our  everlasting  condi- 
tion depends.  The  holy  Lazarus  is  carried  by 
angels  into  Abraham's  bosom ;  and  the  rich 
and  careless  sinner  lifts  up  his  eyes  in  hell, 
and  is  separated  from  the  place  of  bliss  by  an 
impassable  gulf.  This  at  once  disproves  the 
doctrine  of  purgatory,  and  demonstrates  an 
intermediate  conscious  state  of  happiness  and 
misery. 

IRON,  *7n3  ;  occurs  first  in  Gen.  iv,  22,  and 
afterward  frequently ;  and  the  Chaldee  *?nD, 
in  Dan.  ii,  33,  41,  and  elsewhere  often  in  that 
book ;  oitirjpos,  Rev.  xviii,  12,  and  the  adjectives, 
Acts  xii,  10 ;  Rev.  ii,  27 ;  ix,  9 ;  xii,  5 ;  xix, 
15 ;  a  well  known  and  very  serviceable  metal. 
The  knowledge  of  working  it  was  very  ancient, 
as  appears  from  Genesis  iv,  22.  We  do  not, 
however,  find  that  Moses  made  use  of  iron  in 
the  fabric  of  the  tabernacle  in  the  wilderness, 
or  Solomon  in  any  part  of  the  temple  at  Jeru- 
salem. Yet,  from  the  manner  in  which  the 
Jewish  legislator  speaks  of  iron,  the  metal,  it 
appears,  must  have  been  in  use  in  Egypt  before 
his  time.  He  celebrates  the  great  hardness  of 
it,  Lev.  xxvi,  19 ;  Dent,  xxviii,  23,  48 ;  takes 
notice  that  the  bedstead  of  Og,  king  of  Bashan, 
was  of  iron,  Deut.  iii,  11 ;  he  speaks  of  mines 
of  iron,  Deut.  viii,  9 ;  and  he  compares  the 
severity  of  the  servitude  of  the  Israelites  in 
Egypt  to  the  heat  of  a  furnace  for  melting 
iron,  Deut.  iv,  20.  We  find,  also,  that  swords, 
Num.  xxxv,  16,  axes,  Deut.  xix,  5,  and  tools 
for  cutting  stones,  Deut.  xxvii,  5,  were  made 
of  iron.  By  the  "  northern  iron,"  Jer.  xv,  12, 
we  may  probably  understand  the  hardened 
iron,  called  in  Greek  jpfXtA/f,  from  the  Chalybes, 
a  people  bordering  on  the  Euxine  sea,  and 
consequently  lying  on  the  north  of  Judea,  by 
whom  the  art  of  tempering  steel  is  said  to 
have  been  discovered.  Strabo  speaks  of  this 
people  by  the  name  of  Chalybes,  but  after- 
ward Chalda;i ;  and  mentions  their  iron  mines. 
These,  however,  were  a  different  people  from 
the  Chaldeans,  who  were  united  with  the 
Babylonians. 

ISAAC,  the  son  of  Abraham  and  Sarah, 


ISA 


493 


ISA 


was  born  in  the  year  of  the  world  2108.  His 
name,  which  signifies  laughter,  was  given  him 
by  his  mother,  because  when  it  was  told  her 
by  an  angel  that  she  should  have  a  son,  and 
that  at  a  time  of  life  when,  according  to  the 
course  of  nature,  she  was  past  child-bearing, 
she  privately  laughed,  Gen.  xviii,  10-12.  And 
when  the  child  was  born  she  said,  "  God  hath 
made  me  to  laugh,  so  that  all  that  hear  will 
laugh  with  me,"  Gen.  xxi,  6.  The  life  of 
Isaac,  for  the  first  seventy-five  years  of  it,  is 
wo  blended  with  that  of  his  illustrious  father, 
that  the  principal  incidents  of  it  have  been 
already  noticed  under  the  article  Abraham. 
His  birth  was  attended  with  some  extraordi- 
nary circumstances :  it  was  the  subject  of 
various  promises  and  prophecies  ;  an  event 
most  ardently  desired  by  his  parents,  and  yet 
purposely  delayed  by  Divine  Providence  till 
they  were  both  advanced  in  years,  no  doubt 
for  the  trial  of  their  faith,  and  that  Isaac  might 
more  evidently  appear  to  be  the  gift  of  God, 
and  "  the  child  of  promise."  At  an  early 
period  of  life  he  was  the  object  of  the  profane 
contempt  of  Ishmael,  the  son  of  the  bond 
woman,  by  whom  he  was  persecuted ;  and  as 
in  the  circumstances  attending  his  birth  there 
was  something  typical  of  the  birth  of  Abra- 
ham's greater  Son,  the  Messiah,  the  promised 
Seed ;  so,  in  the  latter  instance,  we  contem- 
plate in  him  a  resemblance  of  real  Christians, 
who,  as  Isaac  was,  are  "the  children  of  pro- 
mise," invested  in  all  the  immunities  and 
blessings  of  the  new  covenant ;  but,  as  then, 
"  he  that  was  born  after  the  flesh  persecuted 
him  that  was  born  after  the  Spirit,  even  so  it 
is  now,"  Gal.  iv,  29. 

When  Isaac  had  arrived  at  a  state  of  man- 
hood, he  was  required  to  give  a  signal  proof  of 
his  entire  devotedness  to  God.  Abraham  was 
commanded  to  offer  up  his  beloved  son  in 
sacrifice,  Genesis  xxii,  1.  This  remarkable 
transaction,  so  far  as  Abraham  was  con- 
cerned in  it,  has  already  been  considered  un- 
der the  article  Abraham.  But,  if  from  this  trial 
of  the  faith  of  the  parent  we  turn  our  atten- 
tion to  the  conduct  of  Isaac,  the  victim  des- 
tined for  the  slaughter,  we  behold  an  example 
of  faith  and  of  dutiful  obedience  equally  con- 
spicuous with  that  of  his  honoured  parent. 
Isaac  submitted,  as  it  should  seem,  without, 
resistance,  to  be  bound  and  laid  on  the  altar, 
exposing  his  body  to  the  knife  that  was  lilted 
up  to  destroy  him.  How  strikingly  calculated 
is  this  remarkable  history  to  direct  our  thoughts 
to  a  more  exalted  personage,  whom  Isaac  pre- 
figured ;  and  to  a  more  astonishing  transaction 
represented  by  that  on  Mount  Moriah !  Be- 
hold Jesus  Christ,  that  Seed  of  Abraham,  in 
whom  all  the  families  of  the  earth  were  to  be 
blessed,  voluntarily  going  forth,  in  obedience 
to  the  command  of  his  heavenly  Father,  and 
laying  down  his  life,  as  a  sacrifice  for  the  sins 
of  the  world. 

In  the  progress  of  Isaac's  history,  we  find 
him,  in  the  time  of  his  greatest  activity  and 
vigour,  a  man  of  retired  habits  and  of  remark- 
able calmness  of  mind.  He  appears  to  have 
been    affectionately   attached    to    his    mother 


Sarah,  and,  even  at  the  age  of  forty,  was  not 
insusceptible  of  great. sorrow  on  occasion  of 
her  death.     But  he  allows  his  father  to  choose 
for  him  a  suitable  partner  in  life  ;  and  Rebekah 
was  selected  from  among  his  own  kindred,  in 
preference  to  the  daughters  of  Canaan,  in  the 
midst  of  whom  he  dwelt.    In  a  few  years  after- 
ward, he  who  had  mourned  for  his  mother, 
was  called  to  weep  over  his  father's  grave ; 
and  in  that  last  act  of  filial  duty,  it  is  pleasing 
to  find  the  two  rival  brothers,  Isaac  and  Ish- 
mael, meeting  together  for  the  interment  of 
Abraham.      The    occasion,  indeed,  was  well 
calculated  to  allay  all  existing  jealousies  and 
contentions,  and  cause  every  family  broil  to 
cease,  Gen.  xxv,  9.     After  the  death  of  Abra- 
ham, "  God  blessed  his  son  Isaac  ;"  but,  though 
the  latter  had  now  been  married  twenty  years, 
Rebekah  was  childless.     "  Isaac  entreated  tho 
Lord  for  his  wife,  because  she  was  barren  ;  and 
the  Lord  was  entreated  of  him,  and  Rebekah 
his  wife  conceived,"  Gen.  xxv,  21.     God  also 
promised  to   multiply   Isaac's    seed,    and   his 
promise   was   fulfilled.      Two    children    were 
born  to  him  at  one  time,  concerning  whom 
the  divine  purpose  was  declared  to  the  mother, 
and  no  doubt  to  the  father  also,   that   "  the 
elder  should  serve  the  younger."     A  famine 
which  came  upon  the  country  in  the  days  of 
Isaac,  obliged  him  to  remove  his  family  and 
flocks  and  retire  to  Gerar,  in  the  country  of 
the  Philistines,  of  which  Abimelech  was  at  that 
time  king.  The  possessions  of  Isaac  multiplied 
so  prodigiously,   that  the   inhabitants   of  tho 
country   became    envious    of  him,   and  even 
Abimelech,  to  preserve   peace   among  them, 
was  under  the  necessity  of  requesting  him  to 
retire,  because  he  was  become  too  powerful. 
He    accordingly  withdrew7,    and   pitched  his 
tent  in  the  valley  of  Gerar,  where  he  digged 
new   wells,    and,    after    a   time,    returned  to 
Beersheba,    where    he    fixed    his    habitation, 
Genesis  xxvi,  1-23.     Here  the  Lord  appeared 
to  him,    and  renewed  to   him    the    covenant 
which  he  had  made  with  Abraham,  promising 
to  be  his  God,  and  to  make  him  a  blessing  to 
others.      Abimelech   now   sought   his   friend- 
ship, and,  to  form  an  alliance  with  him,  paid 
him  a  visit ;  on  which  occasion  Isaac  displayed 
his  magnificence  by  a    sumptuous  entertain- 
ment, A.  M.  2240. 

When  he  was  a  hundred  and  thirty-seven 
years  of  age,  and  his  sight  had  so  failed  him 
that  he  could  not  distinguish  one  of  his  sons 
from  the  other,  Jacob  craftily  obtained  from 
him  the  blessing  of  primogeniture.  Yet  Isaac 
survived  many  years  after  this,  to  him,  dis- 
tressing occurrence.  He  sent  Jacob  into 
Mesopotamia,  there  to  take  a  wife  of  his  own 
family,  Genesis  xxviii,  1,  2,  and  to  prevent  his 
marrying  among  the  Canaanites  as  his  brother 
Esau  had  done.  And  when  Jacob  returned, 
after  a  lapse  of  twenty  years,  Isaac  was  still 
living,  and  continued  to  live  twenty-three  years 
longer.  He  then  died  at  the  ago  of  a  hundred 
and  eighty  years,  and  was  buried  with  Abra- 
ham by  his  sons  Esau  and  Jacob,  Gen.  xxxv, 
See  Esau  and  Jacob. 

ISAIAH.  Though  fifth  in  tho  order  of  time. 


ISA 


494 


ISA 


the  writings  of  the  Prophet  Isaiah  are  placed 
first  in  order  of  the  prophetical  books,  princi- 
pally on  account  of  the  sublimity  and  import- 
ance of  his  predictions,  and  partly  also  because 
the  book  which  bears  his  name  is  larger  than 
all  the  twelve  minor  prophets  put  together. 
Concerning  his  family  and  descent,  nothing 
certain  has  been  recorded,  except  what  he  him- 
self tells  us,  Isaiah,  i,  1,  namely,  that  he  was 
the  son  of  Amos,  and  discharged  tho  prophetic 
office  "  in  the  days  of  Uzziah,  Jotham,  Ahaz, 
and  Hezekiah,  kings  of  Judah,"  who  success- 
ively nourished  between  A.  M.  3194  and  3305. 
There  is  a  current  tradition  that  he  was  of 
the  blood  royal ;  and  some  writers  have  af- 
firmed that  his  father  Amoz  or  Amos  was  the 
son  of  Joash,  and  consequently  brother  of 
Uzziah,  king  of  Judah.  Jeroin,  on  the  au- 
thority of  some  rabbinical  writers,  says,  that 
the  prophet  gave  his  daughter  in  marriage  to 
Manasseh,  king  of  Judah  ;  but  this  opinion  is 
scarcely  credible,  because  Manasseh  did  not 
commence  his  reign  until  about  sixty  years 
after  Isaiah  had  begun  to  discharge  his  pro- 
phetic functions.  He  must,  indeed,  have  ex- 
ercised the  office  of  a  prophet  during  a  long 
period  of  time,  if  he  lived  to  the  reign  of 
Manasseh  ;  for  the  lowest  computation,  begin- 
ning from  the  year  in  which  Uzziah  died,  when 
he  is  by  some  supposed  to  have  received  his 
first  appointment  to  that  office,  brings  it  to 
sixty-one  years.  But  the  tradition  of  the  Jews, 
which  has  been  adopted  by  most  Christian 
commentators,  that  he  was  put  to  death  by 
Manasseh,  is  very  uncertain  ;  and  Aben  Ezra, 
one  of  the  most  celebrated  Jewish  writers,  is 
rather  of  opinion  that  he  died  before  Heze- 
kiah ;  which  Bishop  Lowth  thinks  most  pro- 
bable. It  is,  however,  certain,  that  he  lived 
at  least  to  the  fifteenth  or  sixteenth  year  of 
Hezekiah ;  which  makes  the  least  possible 
term  of  the  duration  of  his  prophetic  office  to 
be  about  forty-eight  years.  The  name  of 
Isaiah,  as  Vitringa  has  remarked  after  several 
preceding  commentators,  is  in  some  measure 
descriptive  of  his  high  character,  since  it  sig- 
nifies the  salvation  of  Jehovah;  and  was  given 
with  singular  propriety  to  him,  who  foretold 
the  advent  of  the  Messiah,  through  whom 
"all  flesh  shall  see  the  salvation  of  God,"  Isa. 
xl,  5 ;  Luko  iii,  6 ;  Acts  iv,  12.  Isaiah  was 
contemporary  with  the  Prophets  Amos,  Hosea, 
Joel,  and  Micah. 

Isaiah  is  uniformly  spoken  of  in  the  Scrip- 
tures as  a  prophet  of  the  highest  dignity  : 
Bishop  Lowth  calls  him  the  prince  of  all  the 
prophets,  and  pronounces  the  whole  of  his 
book  to  be  poetical,  with  the  exception  of  a 
few  detached  passages.  It  is  remarkable,  that 
his  wife  is  styled  a  prophetess  in  Isaiah  viii,  3  ; 
whence  the  rabbinical  writers  have  concluded 
that  she  possessed  the  spirit  of  prophecy  :  but 
it  is  very  probable  that  the  prophets'  wives 
were  called  prophetesses,  as  the  priests'  wives 
wire  termed  priestesses,  only  from  the  quality 
of  their  husbands.  Although  nothing  farther 
is  recorded  in  the  Scriptures  concerning  the 
wife  of  Isawili,  we  find  two  of  his  sons  men- 
tioned   in    his   prophecy,  who  were  types  or 


figurative  pledges ;  and  their  names  and  ac- 
tions were  intended  to  awaken  a  religious 
attention  in  the  persons  whom  they  were  com- 
missioned to  address  and  to  instruct.  Tims, 
Shear-jashub  signifies,  "a  remnant  shall  re- 
turn," and  showed  that  the  captives  who  should 
be  carried  to  Babylon  should  return  thence 
after  a  certain  time,  Isaiah  vii,  3 ;  and  Maher- 
shalal-hash-baz,  which  denotes,  "  make  speed 
(or  rtai  swiftly)  to  the  spoil,"  implied  that  the 
kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Syria  would  in  a  short 
time  be  ravaged,  Isaiah  viii,  1,  3.  Beside  the 
volume  of  prophecies,  which  we  are  now  to 
consider,  it  appears  from  2  Chron.  xxvi,  22, 
that  Isaiah  wrote  an  account  of  "  the  acts  or 
Uzziah,"  king  of  Judah :  this  has  perished 
with  some  other  writings  of  the  prophets, 
which,  as  probably  not  written  by  inspiration, 
were  never  admitted  into  the  canon  of  Scrip- 
ture. There  are  also  two  apocryphal  books 
ascribed  to  him,  namely,  The  Ascension  ot 
Isaiah,  and  The  Apocalypse  of  Isaiah ;  but 
these  are  evidently  forgeries  of  a  later  date, 
and  the  Apocalypse  h?s  long  since  perished. 

The  scope  of  Isaiah's  predictions  is  three- 
fold, namely,  1.  To  detect,  reprove,  aggravate, 
and  condemn,  the  sins  of  the  Jewish  people 
especially,  and  also  the  iniquities  of -the  ten 
tribes  of  Israel,  and  the  abominations  of  many 
Gentile  nations  and  countries;  denouncing 
the  severest  judgments  against  all  sorts  and 
degrees  of  persons,  whether  Jews  or  Gentiles. 
2.  To  invite  persons  of  every  rank  and  con- 
dition, both  Jews  and  Gentiles,  to  repentance 
and  reformation,  by  numerous  promises  ot 
pardon  and  mercy.  It  is  worthy  of  remark, 
that  no  such  promises  are  intermingled  with 
the  denunciations  of  divine  vengeance  against 
Babylon,  although  they  occur  in  the  threaten- 
ings  against  every  other  people.  3.  To  com- 
fort all  the  truly  pious,  in  the  midst  of  all  tho 
calamities  and  judgments  denounced  against 
the  wicked,  with  prophetic  promises  of  the 
true  Messiah,  which  seem  almost  to  anticipate 
the  Gospel  history,  so  clearly  do  the)'  foreshow 
the  divine  character  of  Christ. 

Isaiah  has,  with  singular  proprietv,  been 
denominated  the  evangelical  prophet,  on  ac- 
count of  the  number  and  variety  of  his  pro- 
phecies concerning  the  advent  and  character, 
the  ministry  and  preaching,  tiie  sufferings  and 
death,  and  the  extensive  permanent  kingdom, 
of  the  Messiah.  So  explicit  and  determinate 
are  his  predictions,  as  well  as  so  numerous, 
that  he  seems  to  speak  rather  of  things  past 
than  of  events  yet  future;  and  he  may  rather 
be  called  an  evangelist  than  a  prophet.  No 
one,  indeed,  can  be  at  a  loss  in  applying  them 
to  the  mission  and  character  of  Jesus  Christ, 
and  to  the  events  which  are  cited  in  his  his- 
tory by  the  writers  of  the  New  Testament. 
This  prophet,  says  Bishop  Lowth,  abounds  in 
such  transcend'  ml  excellencies,  that  he  may 
be  properly  said  to  afford  the  most  perfect 
model  of  prophetic  poetry.  He  is  at  once  ele- 
gant and  sublime,  forcible  and  ornamented  ; 
he  unites  energy  with  copiousness,  and  dignity 
with  variety.  In  his  sentiments  thero  is  un- 
common elevation  and  majesty  ;  in  hie  imagery, 


ISA 


495 


ISC 


the  utmost  propriety,  elegance,  dignity,  and 
diversity  ;  in  his  language,  uncommon  beauty 
and  energy  ;  and,  notwithstanding  the  obscu- 
rity of  his  subjects,  a  surprising  degree  of 
clearness  and  simplicity.  To  these  we  may 
add,  that  there  is  such  sweetness  in  the  poet- 
ical  composition  of  his  sentences,  whether  it 
proceed  from  art  or  genius,  that,  if  the  Hebrew 
poetry  at  present  is  possessed  of  any  remains 
of  its  native  grace  and  harmony,  we  shall 
chiefly  find  them  in  the  writings  of  Isaiah :  so 
that  the  saying  of  Ezekiel  may  most  justly  be 
applied  to  this  prophet : — 

"Thou  art  the  confirmed  exemplar  of  measures, 
Full  of  wisdom,  and  perfect  in  beauty." 

Ezekiel  xxviii,  12. 

Isaiah  also  greatly  excels  in  all  the  graces  of 
method,  order,  connection,  and  arrangement: 
though  in  asserting  this  we  must  not  forget 
the  nature  of  the  prophetic  impulse,  which 
bears  away  the  mind  with  irresistible  violence, 
and  frequently  in  rapid  transitions  from  near 
to  remote  objects,  from  human  to  divine.  We 
must  likewise  be  careful  in  remarking  the 
limits  of  particular  predictions,  since,  as  they 
are  now  extant,  they  are  often  improperly 
connected,  without  any  marks  of  discrimina- 
tion ;  which  injudicious  arrangement,  on  some 
occasions,  creates  almost  insuperable  diffi- 
culties. 

Bishop  Lowth  has  selected  the  thirty-fourth 
and  thirty-fifth  chapters  of  this  prophet,  as  a 
specimen  of  the  poetic  style  in  which  Isaiah 
delivers  his  predictions,  and  has  illustrated  at 
some  length  the  various  beauties  which  emi- 
nently distinguish  the  simple,  regular,  and 
perfect  poem  contained  in  those  chapters. 
But  the  grandest  specimen  of  his  poetry  is 
presented  in  the  fourteenth  chapter,  which  is 
one  of  the  most  sublime  odes  occurring  in  the 
Bible,  and  contains  the  noblest  personifica- 
tions to  be  found  in  the  records  of  poetry. 
The  prophet,  after  predicting  the  liberation  of 
the  Jews  from  their  severe  captivity  in  Baby- 
lon, and  their  restoration  to  their  own  country, 
verses  1-3,  introduces  a  chorus  of  them,  ex- 
pressing their  surprise  and  astonishment  at 
the  sudden  downfall  of  Babylon,  and  the 
great  reverse  of  fortune  that  had  befallen  the 
tyrant,  who,  like  his  predecessors,  had  op- 
pressed his  own,  and  harassed  the  neighbour- 
ing kingdoms.  These  oppressed  kingdoms, 
or  their  rulers,  are  represented  under  the  im- 
age of  the  fir  trees  and  the  cedars  of  Libanus, 
which  is  frequently  used  to  express  any  thing 
in  the  political  or  religious  world  that  is  su- 
pereminently great  and  majestic :  the  whole 
earth  shouts  for  joy;  the  cedars  of  Libanus 
utter  a  severe  taunt  over  the  fallen  tyrant, 
and  boast  their  security  now  he  is  no  more, 
verses  4-8.  This  is  followed,  verse  9,  by  one 
of  the  boldest  and  most  animated  personifica- 
tions of  hades,  or  the  regions  of  the  dead,  that 
was  fver  executed  in  poetry.  Hades  excites 
his  inhabitants,  the  shades  of  princes,  and  the 
departed  spirits  of  monarchs.  These  illustri- 
ous shades  rise  at  once  from  their  couches  as 
from   their   thrones ;   and,    advancing  to  the 


entrance  of  the  cavern  to  meet  the  king  of 
Babylon,  they  insult  and  deride  him  on  being 
reduced  to  the  same  low  Btate  of  impotence 
and  dissolution  with  themselves,  verses  10,  11. 
The  Jews  now  resume  the  speech,  verse  12 ; 
they  address  the  king  of  Babylon  as  the  morn- 
ing star  fallen  from  heaven,  as  the  first  in 
splendour  and  dignity,  in  the  political  world 
fallen  from  his  high  state  :  they  introduce  him 
as  uttering  the  most  extravagant  vaunts  of 
his  power  and  ambitious  designs  in  his  former 
glory ;  these  are  strongly  contrasted,  in  the 
close,  with  his  present  low  and  abject  condi- 
tion, verses  13-15.  Immediately  follows  a 
different  scene,  and  a  most  happy  image,  to 
diversify  the  same  subject,  and  give  it  a  new 
turn  and  additional  force.  Certain  persons 
are  introduced,  who  light  upon  the  corpse  of 
the  king  of  Babylon,  cast  out  and  lying  naked 
upon  the  bare  ground,  among  the  common 
slain,  just  after  the  taking  of  the  city,  covered 
with  wounds,  and  so  disfigured,  that  it  is 
some  time  before  they  know  him.  They 
accost  him  with  the  severest  taunts,  and  bit- 
terly reproach  him  with  his  destructive  ambi- 
tion, and  his  cruel  usage  of  the  conquered ; 
which  have  deservedly  brought  upon  him  this 
ignominious  treatment,  so  different  from  what 
those  of  his  high  rank  usually  meet  with,  and 
which  shall  cover  his  posterity  with  disgrace, 
verses  16-20.  To  complete  the  whole,  God 
is  introduced,  declaring  the  fate  of  Babylon  ; 
the  utter  extirpation  of  th?  royal  family,  and 
the  total  desolation  of  the  city  ;  the  deliver- 
ance of  his  people,  and  the  destruction  of  their 
enemies ;  confirming  the  irreversible  decree 
by  the  awful  sanction  of  his  oath,  verses  21- 
27.  How  forcible,  says  Bishop  Louth,  is  this 
imagery,  how  diversified,  how  sublime !  How 
elevated  the  diction,  the  figures,  the  senti- 
ments !  The  Jewish  nation,  the  cedars  of 
Lebanon,  the  ghosts  of  departed  kings,  the 
Babylonish  monarch,  the  travellers  who  find 
his  corpse,  and  last  of  all  Jehovah  himself, 
are  the  characters  which  support  this  beauti- 
ful lyric  drama.  One  continued  action  is 
kept  up,  or  rather,  a  series  of  interesting  ac- 
tions  are  connected  together  in  an  incompara- 
ble whole  :  this,  indeed,  is  the  principal  and  dis- 
tinguished excellence  of  the  sublimer  ode,  and 
is  displayed  in  its  utmost  perfection  in  this 
poem  of  Isaiah,  which  may  be  considered  as 
one  of  the  most  ancient,  and  certainly  one  of 
the  most  finished,  specimens  of  that  species 
of  composition  which  has  been  transmitted  to 
us.  The  personifications  here  are  frequent, 
yet  not  confused;  bold,  yet  not  improbable; 
a  free,  elevated,  and  truly  divine  spirit  per- 
vades the  whole  ;  nor  is  there  any  thing  want- 
ing  in  this  ode  to  defeat  its  claim  to  the 
character  of  perfect  pathos  and  sublimity. 
There  is  not  a  single  instance  in  the  whole 
compass  of  Greek  and  Roman  poetry  which, 
in  every  excellence  of  composition,  can  bo 
said  to  equal  or  even  to  approach  it. 

ISCARIOT,  the  name  of  that  disciple  who 
betrayed  our  Saviour.  He  was  so  called, 
probably,  as  belonging  to  Karioth,  or  Cerioth ; 
that  is,  a  man  of  Kerioth,  Matt,  x,  4. 


IiSH 


496 


IVO 


ISHBOSHETH,  a  son  of  King  Saul,  and 
Ins  successor  in  the  throne.  He  was  acknow- 
ledged king  by  a  part  of  the  tribes  of  Israel, 
A.  M.  2949,  while  David  reigned  at  Hebron, 
over  the  tribe  of  Judah,  2  Bam.  ii,  8,  9,  &c ; 
iii.  He  reigned  two  years  in  peace,  but  the 
remaining  eight  years  were  spent  in  perpetual 
wars  between  his  troops  and  those  of  David, 
till  in  the  end  he  perished,  and  with  him  ended 
the  royal  dignity  of  the  house  of  Saul. 

ISHMAELITES,  the  descendants  of  Ish- 
mael,  the  son  of  Abraham  by  Ha«-ar,  his 
Egyptian  bond-maid.  Ishmael  was  born  B.  C. 
1910,  and  his  name,  founded  on  a  circumstance 
which  afforded  relief  to  his  mother,  when  she 
was  wandering  from  her  master's  house  toward 
Egypt,  her  native  country,  is  derived  from  the 
Hebrew  b>Mpoi»,  formed  of  yu&,  to  hear,  and  *?N, 
God,  and  denoting,  "the  Lord  hath  hearkened." 
The  heavenly  messenger  who  appeared  to  Ha- 
gar  in  the  wilderness,  and  instructed  her  by 
what  name  to  call  her  future  son,  predicted 
also  that  he  and  his  posterity  would  prove 
fierce  and  warlike,  engaged  in  repeated  hos- 
tilities, and  yet  able  to  maintain  their  inde- 
pendence. Hagar,  deriving  encouragement 
from  this  circumstance,  returned  to  the  house 
of  Abraham,  and  was  soon  delivered  of  her 
promised  son.  The  father  regarded  Ishmael 
as  the  heir  of  his  wealth,  till  Sarah  had  the 
promise  of  her  son  Isaac.  After  the  birth  of 
Isaac,  Abraham  was  persuaded  by  his  wife  to 
dismiss  Hagar  and  her  son  ;  and  the  patriarch 
probably  provided  for  their  subsistence  in  some 
distant  situation,  where  they  could  not  en- 
croach on  the  patrimony  of  Isaac.  Having 
wandered  for  some  time  in  the  wilderness  of 
Beersheba,  they  proceeded  farther  to  the  wil- 
derness of  Paran,  which  bordered  on  Arabia ; 
and  here  Ishmael  arrived  at  maturity,  and 
became  an  expert  archer,  or  a  hunter  and  war- 
rior. In  process  of  time  his  mother  procured 
for  him  a  wife  out  of  Egypt,  by  whom  he  had 
twelve  sons,  who  eventually  established  them- 
selves as  the  heads  of  so  many  distinct  Ara- 
bian tribes.  Accordingly,  the  descendants  of 
Ishmael  are  mentioned  in  history  under  the 
general  name  of  Arabians  and  Ishmaelites. 
Of  Ishmael's  personal  history,  we  merely  learn 
from  the  sacred  writings,  that  he  joined  with 
his  brother  Isaac  in  paying  the  last  tribute  of 
respect  to  the  remains  of  their  father ;  and 
that  he  died  at  the  age  of  a  hundred  and  thirty- 
seven  years,  B.  C.  1773,  Gen.  xxv,  9,  18.  His 
descendants,  according  to  the  Scripture  ac- 
count, spread  themselves  "  from  Havilah  to 
Shur,  that  is,  before  Egypt,  as  thou  goest  to- 
ward Assyria."  From  this  brief  statement, 
we  may  conjecture  how  far  their  territory 
extended ;  for  Havilah,  according  to  the  ge- 
nerality of  writers,  was  situated  near  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  and  Shur, 
on  the  isthmus  which  separates  Arabia  from 
Egypt,  now  called  the  Isthmus  of  Suez.  From 
thence  we  may  well  imagine,  that  they  spread 
themselves  on  both  sides  so  far  as  to  have 
taken  possession  of  the  greatest  part  of  Ara- 
bia ;  and,  indeed,  Josephus  does  not  scruple  to 


style  their  progenitor  the  founder  of  the  Ara- 
bian nation.     See  Arabia. 

ISHTOB,  a  country  situated  at  the  northern 
extremity  of  the  mountains  of  Gilead,  toward 
Mount  Libanus,  2  Sam.  x,  6.     See  Tob. 

ISRAEL,  a  prince  of  God,  or  prevailing, 
or  wrestling  with  God.  This  is  the  name 
which  the  angel  gave  Jacob,  after  having 
wrestled  with  him  all  night  at  Mahanaim,  or 
Peniel,  Genesis  xxxii,  1,  2,  28,  29,  30;  Hosea 
xii,  4.  By  the  name  of  Israel  is  sometimes 
understood  the  person  of  Jacob,  sometimes  the 
whole  people  of  Israel,  the  whole  race  of  Ja- 
cob ;  sometimes  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  or  ten 
tribes,  distinct  from  the  kingdom  of  Judah ; 
and  finally,  the  spiritual  Israel,  the  true  church 
of  God. 

ISRAELITES,  the  descendants  of  Israel, 
who  were  first  called  Hebrews  by  reason  of 
Abraham,  who  came  from  the  other  side  of 
the  Euphrates  ;  and  afterward  Israelites,  from 
Israel,  the  father  of  the  twelve  tribes ;  and, 
lastly,  Jews,  particularly  after  their  return 
from  the  captivity  of  Babylon ;  because  the 
tribe  of  Judah  was  then  much  stronger  and 
more  numerous  than  the  other  tribes,  and 
foreigners  had  scarcely  any  knowledge  but  of 
this  tribe.     See  Jews. 

ISSACHAR,  the  fifth  son  of  Jacob  and 
Leah,  Gen.  xxx,  14-18.  He  had  four  sons, 
Tola,  Pliovali,  Job,  and  Shimron.  We  know 
nothing  particular  of  his  life.  The  tribe  of 
Issachar  had  its  portion  in  one  of  the  best 
parts  of  the  land  of  Canaan,  along  the  great 
plain  or  valley  of  Jezreel,  with  the  half  tribe 
of  Manasseh  to  the  south,  that  of  Zebulun  to 
the  north,  the  Mediterranean  to  the  west,  and 
Jordan,  with  the  extremity  of  the  sea  of  Tibe- 
rias, to  the  east. 

ITHAMAR,  Aaron's  fourth  son,  Exod. 
vi,  23.  There  is  no  probability  that  he  ever 
exercised  the  high  priesthood.  He  and  his 
sons  continued  in  the  rank  of  simple  priests, 
till  this  dignity  came  into  his  family  in  the 
person  of  Eli. 

ITURJEA,  so  called  from  Itur,  or  .letur, 
one  of  the  sons  of  Ishmael,  who  settled  in  it, 
but  whose  posterity  were  either  driven  out  or 
subdued  by  the  Amoritcs  ;  when  it  is  supposed 
to  have  formed  a  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Ba- 
shan,  and  subsequently  of  the  half  tribe  of 
Manasseh  east  of  Jordan;  but  as  it  was  situ- 
ated beyond  the  southern  spur  of  Mount  Her- 
mon,  called  the  Djebel  Heish,  this  is  doubtful. 
It  lay  on  the  north-eastern  side  of  the  land  of 
Israel,  between  it  and  the  territory  of  Damas- 
cus, or  Sj'ria  ;  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  the 
same  country  at  present  known  by  the  name 
of  Djedour,  on  the  east  of  the  Djebel  Heish, 
between  Damascus  and  the  lake  of  Tiberias. 
The  Iturssans  being  subdued  by  Aristobulus, 
the  high  priest  and  governor  of  the  Jews, 
B.  C.  106,  were  forced  by  him  to  embrace  the 
Jewish  religion  ;  and  were  at  the  same  time 
incorporated  into  the  state.  Philip,  one  of  the 
sons  of  Herod  the  Great,  was  tetrarch,  or 
governor,  of  this  country  when  John  the 
Baptist  commenced  his  ministry. 


IVO 


497 


JAC 


IVORY,  aorutp ;  from  jc,  a  tooth,  and 
oon,  elephants;  t\c(pdvTivos,  Rev.  xviii,  12. 
The  first  time  that  ivory  is  mentioned  in 
Scripture  is  in  the  reign  of  Solomon.  If  the 
forty-fifth  Psalm  was  written  before  the  Can- 
ticles, and  before  Solomon  had  constructed  his 
royal  and  magnificent  throne,  then  that  con- 
tains the  first  mention  of  this  commodity.  It 
is  spoken  of  as  used  in  decorating  those  boxes 
of  perfume,  whose  odours  were  employed  to 
exhilarate  the  king's  spirits.  It  is  probable 
that  Solomon,  wlio  traded  to  India,  first 
brought  thence  elephants  and  ivory  to  Judea. 
"  For  the  king  had  at  sea  a  navy  of  Tharshish, 
with  the  navy  of  Hiram  :  once  in  three  years 
came  the  navy  of  Tharshish,  bringing  gold 
and  silver,  and  ivory,"  1  Kings  x,  22  ;  2  Ohron. 
ix,  21.  It  seems  that  Solomon  had  a  throne 
decorated  with  ivory,  and  inlaid  with  gold; 
the  beauty  of  these  materials  relieving  the 
splendour,  and  heightening  the  lustre  of  each 
other,  1  Kings  x,  18.  Cabinets  and  wardrobes 
were  ornamented  with  ivory,  by  what  is  called 
marquetry,  Psalm  xlv,  8. 

Quale  per  artem 
Inclusum  buxo  aut  Oilcia  tercbintho 

Lucet  ebur.  Virgil. 

"So  shines  a  gem,  illustrious  to  behold, 
On  some  fair  virgin's  neck,  enchased  in  gold: 
So  the  surrounding  ebon's  darker  hue 
Improves  the  polish'd  ivory  to  the  view." 

Pitt. 
These  were  named  "houses  of  ivory,"  pro- 
bably because  made  in  the  form  of  a  house,  or 
palace ;  as  the  silver  van  of  Diana,  mentioned 
Acts  xix,  24,  were  in  the  form  of  her  temple 
at  Ephesus  ;  and  as  we  have  now  ivory  models 
of  the  Chinese  pagodas,  or  temples.  In  this 
sense  we  may  understand  what  is  said  of  the 
ivory  house  which  Ahab  made,  1  Kings 
xxii,  39 ;  for  the  Hebrew  word  translated 
"  house  is  used,"  as  Pr.  Taylor  well  observes, 
for  "  a  place,  or  case,  wherein  any  thing  lieth, 
is  contained,  or  laid  up."  Ezekiel  gives  the 
name  of  house  to  chests  of  rich  apparel, 
Ezek.  xxvii,  24.  Dr.  Durell,  in  his  note  on 
Psalm  xlv,  8,  quotes  places  from  Homer  and 
Euripides,  where  the  same  appropriation  is 
made.  Hesiod  makes  the  same.  As  to  dwell- 
ing houses,  the  most,  1  think,  we  can  suppose 
in  regard  to  them  is,  that  they  might  have  or- 
naments of  ivory,  as  they  sometimes  have  of 
gold,  silver,  or  other  precious  materials,  in 
such  abundance  as  to  derive  an  appellation 
from  the  article  of  their  decoration ;  as  the 
Emperor  Nero's  palace,  mentioned  by  Sueto- 
nius, was  named  aurea,  or  "  golden,"  because 
lita  auro,  "  overlaid  with  gold."  This  method 
of  ornamental  buildings,  or  apartments,  was 
very  ancient  among  the  Greeks.  Homer  men- 
tions ivory  as  employed  in  the  palace  of  Me. 
nelaus  at  Lacedamion  : — 

XaX/coC  T£  stponriv,  Kaiiiifiara  rj^ijevTa 
Xpvaou  r',  >A£/crps  re,  Kal  apytipu,  ^  &'  fXitpavros. 
Odyss.  iv,  72. 
"  Above,  beneath,  around  the  palace,  shines 
The  sumless  treasure  of  exhausted  mines; 
The  spoils  of  elephants  the  roof  inlay, 
And  studded  amber  darts  a  golden  ray." 
Bacchylides,  cited  rv  Athenwus,  says,  that,  I 
33 


in  the  island  of  Ceos,  one  of  the  Cyclades,  the 
houses  of  the  great  men  "  glister  with  gold 
and  ivory." 

JABBOK,  a  small  river  which  falls  into  the 
Jordan  below  the  sea  of  Tiberias.  IN  ear  this 
brook  the  angel  wrestled  with  Jacob,  Gen. 
xxxii,  22.  Mr.  Buckingham  thus  describes  it : 
"  The  banks  of  this  stream  are  so  thickly 
wooded  with  oleander  and  plane  trees,  wild 
olives,  and  wild  almonds  in  blossom,  with 
many  flowers,  the  names  of  which  were  un- 
known to  us ;  with  tall  and  waving  reeds,  at 
least  fifteen  feet  in  height ;  that  we  could  not 
perceive  the  water  through  them  from  above, 
though  the  presence  of  these  luxuriant  borders 
marked  the  winding  of  its  course,  and  the 
murmur  of  its  flow,  echoing  through  its  long 
deep  channel,  was  to  be  heard  distinctly  from 
afar.  On  this  side  of  the  stream,  at  the  spot 
where  we  forded  it,  was  a  piece  of  wall,  solidly 
built  upon  the  inclined  slope,  constructed  in  a 
uniform  manner,  though  of  small  stones,  and 
apparently  finished  at  the  end  toward  the 
river,  so  that  it  never  could  have  been  carried 
across,  as  we  at  first  supposed,  either  for  a 
bridge,  or  to  close  the  pass.  This  was  called 
by  the  Arabs  '  Shugl  beni  Israel,'  or  the  work 
of  the  sons  of  Israel ;  but  they  knew  of  no 
other  traditions  regarding  it.  The  river,  where 
we  crossed  it  at  this  point,  was  not  more  than 
ten  yards  wide,  but  it  was  deeper  than  the  Jor- 
dan, and  nearly  as  rapid  ;  so  that  we  had  some 
difficulty  in  fording  it.  As  it  ran  in  a  rocky 
bed,  its  waters  were  clear,  and  wc  found  their 
taste  agreeable." 

JABESH,  or  JABESH-GILEAD.the  name 
of  a  city  in  the  half  tribe  of  Manassch,  east  of 
Jordan.  Naash,  king  of  the  Ammonites,  be- 
sieged it,  1  Sam.  xi,  1,  &.c.  The  inhabitants 
were  friendly  to  Saul  and  his  family,  1  Sam. 
xxxi,  11,  12. 

JACHIN,  the  name  of  a  pillar  in  Solomon's 
temple,  1  Kings  vii,  21.     See  Boaz. 

JACOB,  the  son  of  Isaac  and  Rebekah.  He 
was  the  younger  brother  of  Esau,  and  a  twin. 
It  was  observed,  that  at  his  birth  he  held  his 
brother  Esau's  heel,  and  for  this  reason  was 
called  Jacob,  Gen.  xxv,  26,  which  signifies 
"  he  supplanted."  Jacob  was  of  a  meek  and 
peaceable  temper,  and  loved  a  quiet  pas- 
toral life ;  whereas  Esau  was  of  a  fierce  and 
turbulent,  nature,  and  was  fond  of  hunting. 
Isaac  had  a  particular  fondness  for  Esau  ;  but 
Rebekah  was  more  attached  to  Jacob.  The 
manner  in  which  Jacob  purchased  his  brother's 
birthright  for  a  mess  of  pottage,  and  supplanted 
him  by  obtaining  Isaac's  blessing,  is  already 
referred  to  in  the  article  Esau. 

The  events  of  the  interesting  and  chequered 
life  of  Jacob  are  so  plainly  and  consecutively 
narrated  by  Moses,  that  they  are  familiar  to 
all;  but  upon  some  of  them  a  few  remark* 
may  be  useful.  As  to  the  purchase  of  the 
birthright,  Jacob  appears  to  have  been  inno- 
cent  so  far  as  any  guile  on  his  part  or  real 
necessity  from  hunger  on  the  part  of  Esau  is 
involved  in  the  question  ;  but  his  obtaining  the 
ratification   of  this  by  the  blessing  of  Isaac, 


JAC 


498 


JAC 


though  agreeable,  indeed,  to  the  purpose  of 
God,  that  the  elder  should  serve  the  younger, 
was    blamable    as    to    the    means    employed. 
The  remarks  of  Dr.  Hales  on  this  transaction 
implicate  Isaac  also : — Thirty-seven  years  alter, 
when  Jacob  was  seventy-seven  years  old,  ac- 
cording to  Abulfaragi,   and  Isaac  a  hundred 
and  thirty-seven,  when  he  was  old,  and  his 
sight  had  failed,  and  he  expected  soon  to  die, 
his  partiality  for  Esau  led  him  to  attempt  to 
set  aside  the  oracle,  and  the  cession  of  Esau's 
birthright  to  Jacob,  by  conferring  on  him  the 
blessing  of  Abraham,  in  reward  for  bringing 
him  savoury  venison  to  eat,  before  his  death. 
In  this  design,  however,  he  was  disappointed 
by  the  artifice  of  Rebekah,  who  dressed  her 
favourite  Jacob  in  his  brother's  clothes,  and 
made  him  personate  Esau,  and  thereby  surrep- 
titiously obtained  for  him  the  blessing  :  "  Let 
people  serve  thee,  and  nations  bow  down  to 
thee  :    be  lord  over  thy  brethren,  and  let  thy 
mother's  sons  bow  down  to  thee  :  cursed  be 
every  one  that  curscth  thee,  and  blessed  be  he 
that  blesseth  thee,"  Gen.  xxvii,  1-29.      It  is 
remarkable  that,  notwithstanding  the  agitation 
of  Isaac,  when  "he  trembled  very  exceeding- 
ly," at  the  detection  of  the  fraud,  he  did  not 
attempt  to  rescind  the  blessing,  nor  transfer  it 
to  Esau  ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  confirmed  it  on 
Jacob  :  "  Yea,  and  he  shall  be  blessed."     His 
wishes  were  overruled  and  controlled  by  that 
higher  power  which  he  vainly  endeavoured  to 
counteract ;  and  that  he  spoke  as  the  Spirit 
gave  him  utterance,  appears  from  his  predic- 
tion respecting  Esau's  family  :  "  And  it  shall 
come  to  pass,  when  thou  shalt  have  the  do- 
minion,   that  thou  shalt  break  thy  brother's 
yoke    from    ofF  thy   neck,"    Gen.   xxvii,   40  ; 
which  was  fulfilled  in  the  days  of  Jehorain, 
king  of  Judah,  when  the   Edomites  revolted 
from  under  the  dominion  of  Judah,  and  made 
themselves  a  king   unto  this  day,"  2  Chron. 
xxi,  8-10. 

According  to  this  view,  all  the  parties  were 
more  or  less  culpable  :  Isaac,  for  endeavouring 
to  set  aside  the  oracle  which  had  been  pro- 
nounced in  favour  of  his  younger  son  ;  but  of 
which  he  might  have  an  obscure  conception  ; 
Esau,  for  wishing  to  deprive  his  brother  of  the 
blessing  which  he  had  himself  relinquished  ; 
and  Rebekah  and  Jacob,  for  securing  it  by 
fraudulent  means,  not  trusting  wholly  in  the 
Lord.  That  their  principal  object,  however, 
was  the  spiritual  part  of  the  blessing,  and  not 
the  temporal,  was  shown  by  the  event.  P'or 
Jacob  afterward  reverenced  Csau  as  his  elder 
brother,  and  insisted  on  Esau's  accepting  a 
present  from  his  hand  in  token  of  submission, 
Gen.  xxxiii,  3-15.  Esau  also  appears  to  have 
possessed  himself  of  his  father's  property  dur- 
ing Jacob's  long  exile.  But  though  the  inten- 
tion of  Rebekah  and  Jacob  might  have  been 
free  from  worldly  or  mercenary  motives,  they 
ought  not  to  have  done  evil  that  good  might 
come.  And  they  were  both  severely  punished 
in  this  lifo  for  their  fraud,  which  destroyed  the 
peace  of  the  family,  and  planted  a  mortal  en- 
mity in  the  breast  of  Esau  against  his  brother : 
"  Ie  he    not  rightly   named   Jacob?"    a   sup. 


planter;    "for  he  hath  supplanted  me  these 
two  times  :  he  took  away  my  birthright,  and 
lo,  now  he  hath  taken  away  my  blessing.  The 
days  of  mourning  for  my  father  are  at  hand ; 
then  will  I  slay  my  brother  Jacob,"  Gen.  xxvii, 
36-41.      And  there  can  be  little  doubt  of  his 
intention   of  executing  his   threat,    when  he 
came  to  meet  him  on  his  return,  with  such  an 
armed  force  as  strongly  alarmed  Jacob's  fears, 
had  not  God  changed  the  spirit  of  Esau  into 
mildness,  so  that  "  he  ran  to  meet  Jacob,  and 
fell  on  his  neck,  and  they  wept,"  Gen.  xxxiii,  4. 
Rebekah,  also,  was  deprived  of  the  society  of 
her  darling  son,  whom  "  she  sent  away  for  ono 
year,"  as  she  fondly  imagined,  "  until  his  bro- 
ther's fury  should  turn  away,"  Genesis  xxvii, 
42-4  I  ;  but  whom  she  saw  no  more  ;  for  she 
died  during  his  long  exile   of  twenty  years, 
though  Isaac  survived,  Gen.  xxxv,  27.     Thus 
was  "  she  pierced  through  with  many  sorrows." 
Jacob,  also,  had  abundant  reason  to  say,  "  Few 
and  evil  have  been  the  days  of  the  years  of 
my  pilgrimage,"  Gen.  xlvii,  9.    Though  he  had 
the  consolation  of  having  the  blessing  of  Abra- 
ham voluntarily  renewed  to  him  by  his  father, 
before  he  was  forced  to  fly  from  his  brother's 
fury,  Gen.  xxviii,  1-4,  and  had  the  satisfaction 
of  obeying  his  parents  in  going  to  Padan-aram, 
or  Charran,  in  quest  of  a  wife  of  his  own  kin- 
dred, Gen.  xxviii,  7 ;  yet  he  set  out  on  a  long 
and  perilous  journey  of  six  hundred  miles  and 
upward,  through  barren  and  inhospitable  re- 
gions, unattended  and  unprovided,  like  a  pil- 
grim, indeed,  with  only  his  stafl*  in  his  hand, 
Gen.  xxxii,  10.    And  though  he  was  supported 
with  the  assurance  of  the  divine  protection, 
and  the  renewal  of  the  blessing  of  Abraham 
by  God  himself,  in  his   remarkable  vision  at 
Bethel,  and  solemnly  devoted  himself  to  his 
service,  wishing   only  for  food  and  raiment, 
and  vowing  to  profess  the  worship  of  God,  and 
pay  tithe  unto  him  should  he  return  back  in 
peace,  Gen.  xxviii,  10-22  ;  yet  he  was  forced 
to  engage  in  a  tedious  and  thankless  servitude 
of  seven  years,  at  first  for  Rachel,  with  Laban, 
who  retaliated  upon  him  the  imposition  he  had 
practised  on  his  own  father ;  and  substituted 
Leah,  whom  he  hated,  for  Rachel,  whom  ho 
loved ;   and  thereby  compelled  him  to   serve 
seven  years   more  ;    and   changed  his  wages 
several   times  during  the   remainder   of  his 
whole  servitude  of  twenty  years  ;  in  the  course 
of  which,  as  he  pathetically  complained,  "the 
drought  consumed  him  by  day,  and  the  frost 
by   night,    and   the    sleep    departed    from   his 
eyes,"  in  watching  Laban's  flocks,  Gen.  x.wi, 
40  ;  and  at  last  he  was  forced  to  steal  away, 
and   was   only   protected   from   Laban's   ven- 
geance, as  afterward  from  Esau's,   by  divine 
interposition.       Add    to    these    his    domestic 
troubles  and  misfortunes;  the  impatience  of 
his  favourite  wife,  "  Give  me  children,  or  I 
die ;"    her  death  in  bearing  her   second  son, 
Benjamin;  the  rape  of  his  daughter  Dinah; 
the  perfidy  and  cruelty  of  her  brothers,  Simeon 
and    Levi,    to    the    Shecheinites ;    the  misbe- 
haviour of  Reuben  ;    the   supposed  death  of 
Joseph,    his    favourite    and    most    deserving 
son  : — these  were,   all  together,   sufficient  to 


JAC 


499 


JAC 


have  brought  down  his  gray  hairs  with  sor- 
row to  the  grave,  had  he  not  been  divinely 
supported  and  encouraged  throughout  the 
whole  of  his  pilgrimage.  For  the  circumstan- 
ces which  led  Jacob  into  Egypt,  see  Joseph. 

When  Jacob,  at  the  invitation  of  Joseph, 
went  down  to  Egypt,  Joseph  introduced  his 
father  to  his  royal  master ;  and  the  patriarch, 
in  his  priestly  character,  blessed  Pharaoh,  and 
supplicated  the  divine  favour  for  the  king. 
The  venerable  appearance  and  the  pious  de- 
meanour of  Jacob  led  the  monarch  to  inquire 
his  years  ;  to  which  he  replied,  "  The  days  of 
the  years  of  my  pilgrimage  are  a  hundred  and 
thirty  years :  few  and  evil  have  the  days  of 
the  years  of  my  life  been  ;  and  1  have  not 
attained  unto  the  days  of  the  year;;  of  the  life 
of  my  fathers  in  the  days  of  their  pilgrimage." 
This  answer  of  the  patriarch  was  not  the  lan- 
guage of  discontent,  but  the  solemn  reflection 
of  a  man  who  had  experienced  a  large  share 
of  trouble,  and  who  knew  that  the  whole  of 
human  life  is  indeed  but  "  a  vain  show," 
Genesis  xlvii,  1-10.  Jacob  spent  the  remain- 
der of  his  days  in  tranquillity  and  prosperity, 
enjoying  the  society  of  his  beloved  child 
seventeen  years.  The  close  of  his  life  was  a 
happy  calm,  after  a  stormy  voyage.  The 
patriarch,  perceiving  that  his  dissolution  was 
near,  sent  for  Joseph,  and  bound  him  by  a 
solemn  promise  to  bury  him  with  his  fathers 
in  Canaan.  Shortly  after  this,  Jacob  was  taken 
ill,  and  it  being  reported  to  Joseph,  he  hastened 
to  the  bedside  of  his  father,  taking  with  him 
his  two  sons,  Manasseh  and  Ephraim.  On 
hearing  that  his  son  was  come,  Jacob  exerted 
all  his  strength,  and  sat  up  in  his  bed  to  re- 
ceive him,  and  to  impart  that  blessing  which, 
in  the  spirit  of  prophecy,  he  was  commissioned 
to  bequeath.  He  next  blessed  the  infant  chil- 
dren of  Joseph  ;  but,  as  he  placed  his  hands 
upon  their  heads,  he  crossed  them,  putting  his 
right  upon  Ephraim  the  younger,  and  his  left 
upon  Manasseh  the  elder.  Joseph  wished  to 
correct  the  mistake  of  his  father,  but  Jacob 
persisted,  being  guided  by  a  divine  impulse  ; 
and  he  gave  to  each  of  the  lads  a  portion'  in 
Israel,  at  the  same  time  declaring  that  the 
younger  should  be  greater  than  the  elder,  Gen. 
xlviii,  22.  When  this  interview  was  ended, 
Jacob  caused  all  his  sons  to  assemble  round  his 
dying  bed,  that  he  might  inform  them  what 
would  befall  them  in  the  last  days,  Gen.  xlix,  1, 
2.  Of  all  the  predictions  which  he  pronounced 
with  his  expiring  breath,  the  most  remarkable 
and  the  most  interesting  is  that  relating  to 
Judah  :  "  The  sceptre  shall  not  depart  from 
Judah,  nor  a  lawgiver  from  between  his  feet, 
until  Shiloh  come  ;  and  unto  him  shall  the 
gathering  of  the  people  be,"  Gen.  xlix,  10. 
One  grand  personage  was  in  the  mind  of  the 
patriarch,  as  it  had  been  in  the  contemplation 
of  his  predecessors,  even  the  illustrious  De- 
liverer who  should  arise  in  after  ages  to  redeem 
his  people,  and  bring  salvation  to  the  human 
race.  The  promised  Seed  was  the  constant 
object  of  faithful  expectation  ;  and  all  the 
patriarchal  ordinances,  institutions,  and  pre- 
dictions, had  an  allusion,  positive  or  incidental, 


to  the  Messiah.  Hitherto  the  promise  was 
confined  generally  to  Abraham,  Isaac,  and 
Jacob,  that  from  them  the  glorious  blessing 
should  arise  ;  but  now,  under  the  divine  direc- 
tion, the  dying  patriarch  foretels  in  what  tribe, 
and  at  what  period,  the  great  Restorer  shall 
come.  The  sovereign  authority  was  to  con- 
tinue in  the  possession  of  Judah,  till  from  that 
tribe  Shiloh  should  appear,  and  then  the  royalty 
must  cease.  This  was  fulfilled ;  for  the  tribe 
of  Judah  possessed  legislative  power  till  the 
time  of  Christ,  and  from  that  period  the  Jewish 
people  have  neither  had  dominion  nor  priest- 
hood. Jesus  Christ,  therefore,  must  either  be 
the  true  Shiloh,  or  the  prophecy  has  failed ; 
for  the  Jews  cannot  prove  that  they  have  had 
any  thing  like  temporal  power  since  his  cruci- 
fixion. When  they  were  so  clamorous  for  the 
execution  of  Jesus,  and  Pilate  told  them  to 
take  the  law  into  their  own  hands,  they  shrunk 
fearfully  from  the  proposal,  and  acknowledged 
their  slavish  state  by  saying,  "  It  is  not  lawful 
for  us  to  put  any  man  to  death,"  John  xviii, 
31.  Here,  then,  we  have  a  glorious  proof  of 
the  veracity  of  Scripture,  and  an  incontestiblo 
evidence  of  the  truth  of  our  religion. 

When  Jacob  had  finished  blessing  his  sons, 
he  charged  them  to  bury  him  in  the  cave  of 
Machpelah,  with  Abraham  and  Isaac,  and, 
"  gathering  his  feet  into  the  bed,  he  yielded 
up  the  ghost,  and  was  gathered  unto  his  peo- 
ple," Gen.  xlix,  33.  Joseph,  having  closed  the 
eyes  of  his  father,  and  wept  over  him,  com- 
manded the  physicians  to  embalm  the  body. 
After  a  general  mourning  of  seventy  days,  he 
solicited  the  king's  permission  to  go  with  the 
remains  of  Jacob  into  Canaan,  to  which  Pha- 
raoh consented ;  and  with  Joseph  went  up  all 
the  state  officers  and  principal  nobility  of 
Egypt,  so  that  when  they  came  to  the  place 
of  interment,  the  Canaanites  were  astonished, 
and  said,  "  This  is  a  grievous  mourning  to  the 
Egyptians,"  Gen.  1,  1-11. 

JACOBITES,  a  denomination  of  eastern 
Christians,  who  first  made  their  appearance  in 
the  fifth  century,  and  were  called  Monophy- 
sites.  Jacob  Albardai,  or  Baradasus,  who 
flourished  about  A.  D.  530,  restored  the  sect, 
then  almost  expiring,  to  its  former  vigour, 
and  modelled  it  anew;  and  hence  from  him 
they  obtained  the  name  of  Jacobites.  See- 
Hypostatical  Union. 

JACOB'S  WELL,  or  fountain,  a  well  near 
Shechem,  at  which  our  Saviour  converged 
with  the  woman  of  Samaria,  John  iv,  12. 
Jacob  dwelt  near  this  place,  before  hrs  sons 
slew  the  inhabitants  of  Shechem.  If  any 
thing,  says  Dr.  E.  D.  Clarke,  connected  with 
the  remembrance  of  past  ages  be  calculated  to 
awaken  local  enthusiasm,  the  land  around  this 
city  is  preeminently  entitled  to  consideration. 
The  sacred  story  of  events  transacted  in  the 
fields  of  SichemyGeri.  xxxvii,  from  our  earliest 
years,  is  remembered  with  delight ;  but  with 
the  territory  before  our  eyes,  where  those 
events  took  place,  and  in  the  view  of  objects 
existing  as  they  were  described  above  three 
thousand  years  ago,  the  grateful  impression 
kindles  into  ecstacy.     Along  the  valley  may 


JAC 


500 


JAM 


still  be  seen,  as  in  the  days  of  Reuben  and 
Judah,  "  a  company  of  Ishmaelites  coming 
from  Gilead,  with  their  camels  bearing  spicery, 
and  balm,  and  myrrh,"  who  would  gladly  pur- 
chase another  Joseph  of  his  brethren,  and  con- 
vey him  as  a  slave  to  some  Potiphar  in  Egypt. 
Upon  the  hills  around,  flocks  and  herds  are 
6een  feeding  as  of  old  ;  nor  in  the  simple  garb 
of  the  shepherds  of  Samaria,  at  this  day,  is 
there  any  thing  repugnant  to  the  notions  we 
may  entertain  of  the  appearance  formerly  pre- 
sented by  the  sons  of  Jacob.  In  the  time  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  Sichem,  or  Napolose,  as 
it  is  now  called,  was  considered  us  the  capital 
of  Samaria.  Its  inhabitants  were  called  Sa- 
maritans, not  merely  as  people  of  Samaria, 
but  as  a  sect  at  variance  with  the  Jews ;  and 
they  have  continued  to  maintain  their  peculiar 
tenets  to  this  day.  The  inhabitants,  accord- 
ing to  Procopius,  were  much  favoured  by  the 
Emperor  Justinian,  who  restored  their  sanctu- 
aries, and  added  largely  to  the  edifices  of  the 
city.  The  principal  object  of  veneration  among 
them  is  Jacob's  well,  over  which  a  church  was 
formerly  erected.  This  is  situated  at  a  small 
distance  from  the  town  in  the  road  to  Jerusa- 
lem, and  has  been  visited  by  pilgrims  of  all 
ages,  but  particularly  since  the  Christian  era, 
as  the  place  where  Christ  revealed  himself  to 
the  woman  of  Samaria.  The  spot  is  so  dis- 
tinctly marked  by  the  evangelist,  John  iv,  and 
so  little  liable  to  uncertainty  from  the  circum- 
stance of  the  well  itself,  and  the  features  of  the 
country,  that,  if  no  tradition  existed  to  identify 
it,  the  site  of  it  could  scarcely  be  mistaken. 
Perhaps  no  Christian  scholar  ever  read  the 
fourth  chapter  of  St.  John's  Gospel  attentively, 
without  being  struck  with  the  numerous  inter- 
nal evidences  of  truth  which  crowd  upon  the 
mind  in  its  perusal.  Within  so  small  a  com- 
pass, it  is  impossible  to  find  in  other  writings 
so  many  sources  of  reflection  and  of  interest. 
Independently  of  its  importance  as  a  theo- 
logical document,  it  concentrates  so  much 
information,  that  a  volume  might  be  filled 
with  the  illustration  it  reflects  upon  the  his- 
tory of  the  Jews,  and  upon  the  geography  of 
their  country.  All  that  can  be  gathered  from 
Josephus  on  these  subjects  seems  to  be  as  a 
comment  to  illustrate  this  chapter.  The  jour- 
ney of  our  Lord  from  Judea  into  Galilee;  the 
cause  of  it ;  his  passage  through  the  territory 
of  Samaria ;  his  approach  to  the  metropolis  of 
that  country ;  its  name ;  his  arrival  at  the 
Amorite  field,  which  terminates  the  narrow 
valley  of  Sichem  ;  the  ancient  custom  of  halt- 
ing at  3  well ;  the  female  employment  of  draw- 
ing water ;  the  disciples  sent  into  the  city  for 
food,  by  which  its  situation  out  of  the  town  is 
so  obviously  implied;  the  question  of  the  wo- 
man referring  to  existing  prejudices  which 
separated  the  Jews  from  the  Samaritans;  the 
depth  of  the  well;  the  oriental  allusion  con- 
tained in  the  expression,  "living  water;"  the 
history  of  the  well,  and  the  customs  illustrated 
by  it;  the  worship  upon  Mount  Gerizim  : — 
all  these  occur  within  the  space  of  twenty 
verses;  and  if  to  these  be  added  that  remark- 
able circumstance  mentioned  in  the  fifty-first 


verse  of  the  chapter,  where  it  is  stated  that 
"  as  he  was  now  going  down,  his  servants  met 
him,"  his  whole  route  from  Cana  being  a  con- 
tinual descent  toward  Capernaum,  we  may 
consider  it  as  a  record,  signally  confirmed  in 
its  veracity  by  circumstances  which  remain  in 
indelible  character,  to  give  them  evidence,  to 
this  day. 

JAH,  one  of  the  names  of  God,  which  we 
meet  with  in  the  composition  of  many  Hebrew 
words;  as,  Adonijah,  Allelujah,  Malachiah; 
that  is,  "  My  Lord,"  "  Praise  the  Lord,"  "The 
Lord  is  my  King." 

J  AIR,  of  the  family  of  Manasseh.  He  pos- 
sessed a  large  canton  beyond  Jordan  ;  the 
whole  country  of  Argob,  as  far  as  the  borders 
of  Geshur  and  Maachathi,  Judges  x,  3.  He 
succeeded  Tola  in  the  judicature  or  government 
of  the  Israelites,  and  was  himself  succeeded  by 
Jephthah.  His  government  continued  twenty- 
two  years ;  from  A.  M.  2795  to  2817.  Jair 
had  thirty  sons,  who  rode  on  asses,  and  were 
lords  or  governors  of  thirty  towns,  called 
Havoth-jair.  He  was  buried  at  Camon  beyond 
Jordan. 

JAMES,  'idKOiflo;,  of  the  same  import  as 
Jacob.  James,  surnamed  the  greater  or,  the 
elder,  to  distinguish  him  from  James  the 
younger,  was  brother  to  John  the  evangelist, 
and  son  to  Zebedee  and  Salome,  Matt,  iv,  21. 
He  was  of  Bethsaida,  in  Galilee,  and  left  all 
to  follow  Christ.  Salome  requested  our  Sa- 
viour, that  her  two  sons,  James  and  John, 
might  sit  at  his  right  hand,  when  he  should 
be  in  possession  of  his  kingdom.  Our  Saviour 
answered,  that,  it  belonged  to  his  heavenly  Fa- 
ther alone  to  dispose  of  these  places  of  honour, 
Matt,  xx,  21.  Before  their  vocation,  James 
and  John  followed  the  trade  of  fishermen  with 
their  father  Zebedee ;  and  they  did  not  quit 
their  profession  till  our  Saviour  called  them, 
Mark  i,  18,  19.  They  were  witnesses  of  our 
Lord's  transfiguration,  Matt,  xvii,  2.  When 
certain  Samaritans  refused  to  admit  Jesus 
Christ,  James  and  John  wished  for  fire  from 
heaven  to  consume  them,  Luke  ix,  54 ;  and 
foi*  this  reason,  it  is  thought,  the  name  of 
Boanerges,  or  sons  of  thunder,  was  given  them. 
Some  days  after  the  resurrection  of  our  Sa- 
viour, James  and  John  went  to  fish  in  the  sea 
of  Tiberias,  where  they  saw  Jesus.  They  were 
present  at  the  ascension  of  our  Lord.  St.  James 
is  said  to  have  preached  to  all  the  dispersed 
tribes  of  Israel  ;  but  for  this  there  is  only 
report.  {lis  martyrdom  is  related,  Acts  xii, 
1,  2,  about  A.  D.  42,  or  44,  for  the  date  is  not 
well  ascertained.  Herod  Agrippa,  king  of  the 
Jews,  and  grandson  of  Herod  the  Great,  caused 
him  to  be  seized  and  executed  at  Jerusalem. 
Clemens  Alexandrinus  informs  us,  that,  he 
who  brought.  St.  James  before  the  judges  was 
so  much  affected" with  his  constancy  in  con- 
fessing Jesus  Christ,  that  he  also  declared  him- 
self a  Christian,  and  was  condemned,  as  well 
as  the  Apostle,  to  be  beheaded. 

James  the  less,  surnamed  the  brother  of 
our  Lord,  Gal.  i,  19,  was  the  son  of  Cleopbas. 
otherwise  called  Alpheus,  and  Mary,  sister  to 
the    blessed    virgin  ;    consequently,    he    wa* 


JAM 


501 


JAM 


cousin-german  to  Jesus  Christ.  He  was  sur- 
named  the  Just,  on  account  of  the  admirable 
holiness  and  purity  of  his  life.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  a  priest,  and  to  have  observed  the 
laws  of  the  Nazarites  from  his  birth.  Our 
Saviour  appeared  to  James  the  less,  eight 
days  after  his  resurrection,  1  Cor.  xv,  7.  He 
was  at  Jerusalem,  and  was  considered  as  a 
pillar  of  the  church,  when  St.  Paul  first  came 
thither  after  his  conversion,  Gal.  i,  19,  A.  D. 
37.  In  the  council  of  Jerusalem,  held  in  the 
year  51,  St.  James  gave  his  vote  last ;  and  the 
result  of  the  council  was  principally  formed 
from  what  St.  James  said,  who,  though  he 
observed  the  ceremonies  of  the  law,  and  was 
careful  that  others  should  observe  them,  was 
of  opinion,  that  such  a  yoke  was  not  to  be 
imposed  on  the  faithful  converted  from  among 
the  Heathens,  Acts  xv,  13,  &c. 

James  the  less  was  a  person  of  great  pru- 
dence and  discretion,  and  was  highly  esteemed 
by  the  Apostles  and  other  Christians.  Such, 
indeed,  was  his  general  reputation  for  piety 
and  virtue,  that,  as  we  learn  from  Origen, 
Eusebius,  and  Jerom,  Joscphus  thought,  and 
declared  it  to  be  the  common  opinion,  that  the 
sufferings  of  the  Jews,  and  the  destruction  of 
their  city  and  temple,  were  owing  to  the  anger 
of  God,  excited  by  the  murder  of  James.  This 
must  be  considered  as  a  strong  and  remarkable 
testimony  to  Ihe  character  of  this  Apostle,  as 
it  is  given  by  a  person  who  did  not  believe 
that.  Jesus  was  the  Christ.  The  passages  of 
Josephus,  referred  to  by  those  fathers  upon 
this  subject,  are  not  found  in  his  works  now 
extant. 

James,  General  Epistle  of.  Clement  of 
Rome  and  Hermas  allude  to  this  epistle ;  and 
it  is  quoted  by  Origen,  Eusebius,  Athanasius, 
Jerom,  Chrysostom,  Augustine,  and  many 
other  fathers.  But  though  the  antiquity  of  this 
epistle  had  been  always  undisputed,  some  few 
formerly  doubted  its  rightto  be  admitted  into  the 
canon.  Eusebius  says,  that  in  his  time  it  was 
generally,  though  not  universally,  received  as 
canonical ;  and  publicly  read  in  most,  but  not 
in  all,  churches  ;  and  fistius  affirms,  that  after 
the  fourth  century,  no  church  or  ecclesiastical 
writer  is  found  who  ever  doubted  its  authen- 
ticity ;  but  that,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  included 
in  all  subsequent  catalogues  of  canonical  Scrip- 
ture, whether  published  by  councils,  churches, 
or  individuals.  It  has,  indeed,  been  the  uni- 
form tradition  of  the  church,  that  this  epistle 
was  written  by  Jamee  the  Just ;  but  it  was 
not  universally  admitted  till  after  the  fourth, 
century,  that  James  the  Just  was  the  same 
person  as  James  the  less,  one  of  the  twelve 
Apostles ;  that  point  being  ascertained,  the 
canonical  authority  of  this  epistle  was  no 
longer  doubted.  It  is  evident  that  this  epistle 
could  not  have  been  written  by  James  the 
elder,  for  he  was  beheaded  by  Herod  Agrippa 
in  the  year  44,  and  the  errors  and  vices  re- 
proved in  this  epistle  show  it  to  be  of  a  much 
later  date  ;  and  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  is 
also  here  spoken  of  as  being  very  near  at  hand, 
James  v,  8,  9.  It  has  always  been  considered 
as  a  circumstance  verv  much  in  favour  of  this 


epistle,  that  it  is  found  in  the  Syriac  version, 
which  was  made  as  early  as  the  end  of  the 
first  century,  and  for  the  particular  use  of 
converted  Jews, — the  very  description  of  per- 
sons to  whom  it  was  originally  addressed. 
Hence  we  infer,  that  it  was  from  the  first  ac- 
knowledged by  those  for  whose  instruction  it 
was  intended;  and  "I  think,"  says  Dr.  Dod- 
dridge, "  it  can  hardly  be  doubted  but  they 
were  better  judges  of  the  question  of  its  au- 
thenticity than  the  Gentiles,  to  whom  it  was  not 
written  ;  among  whom,  therefore,  it  was  not 
likely  to  be  propagated  so  early  ;  and  who  at 
first  might  be  prejudiced  against  it,  because  it 
was  inscribed  to  the  Jews." 

The  immediate  design  of  this  epistle  was  to 
animate  the  Jewish  Christians  to  support  with 
fortitude  and  patience  any  sufferings  to  which 
they  might  be  exposed,  and  to  enforce  the 
genuine  doctrine  and  practice  of  the  Gospel, 
in  opposition  to  the  errors  and  vices  which 
then  prevailed  among  them.  St.  James  begins 
by  showing  the  benefits  of  trials  and  afflic- 
tions, and  by  assuring  the  Jewish  Christians 
that  God  would  listen  to  their  sincere  prayers 
for  assistance  and  support;  he  reminds  them 
of  their  being  the  distinguished  objects  of 
divine  favour,  and  exhorts  them  to  practical 
religion  ;  to  a  just  and  impartial  regard  for 
the  poor,  and  to  a  uniform  obedience  to  all  the 
commands  of  God,  without  any  distinction  or 
exception  ;  ho  shows  the  inefficacy  of  faith 
without  works,  that  is,  unless  followed  by 
moral  duties ;  he  inculcates  the  necessity  of  a 
strict  government  of  the  tongue,  and  cautions 
them  against  censoriousness,  strife,  malevo- 
lence, pride,  indulgence  of  their  sensual  pas- 
sions, and  rash  judgment ;  he  denounces 
threats  against  those  who  make  an  improper 
use  of  riches ;  he  intimates  the  approach- 
ing destruction  of  Jerusalem  ;  and  concludes 
with  exhortations  to  patience,  devotion,  and  a 
solicitous  concern  for  the  salvation  of  others. 
This  epistle  is  written  with  great  perspicuity 
and  energy,  and  it  contains  an  excellent  sum- 
mary of  those  practical  duties  and  moral  virtues 
which  are  required  of  Christians.  Although 
the  author  wrote  to  the  Jews  dispersed  through- 
out the  world,  yet  the  state  of  his  native  land 
passed  more  immediately  before  his  eyes.  Its 
final  overthrow  was  approaching  ;  and  oppres- 
sions, factions,  and  violent  scenes  troubled  all 
ranks,  and  involved  some  professing  Chris- 
tians in  suffering,  others  in  guilt. 

JANNES  and  JAMBRES,  or,  as  Pliny  calls 
them,  Jamne  and  Jotape,  two  magicians,  who 
resisted  Moses  in  Egypt,  2  Tim.  iii,  8.  He 
speaks,  likewise,  of  the  faction  or  sect  of  ma- 
o-icians,  of  which,  he  says,  Moses,  Jannes,  and 
Jocabel,  or  Jopata,  were  heads.  By  this  last 
word  he  meant  probably  the  patriarch  Joseph, 
win. in  the  Egyptians  considered  as  one  of 
their  most  celebrated  sages.  The  Mussulmans 
have  several  particulars  to  the  same  purpose. 
The  paraphrast  Jonathan  says  they  were  the 
sons  of  Balaam,  who  accompanied  him  to 
Balak,  king  of  Moab.  They  are  called  by 
several  names  in  several  translations ;  by  the 
Septuagint,  <pa^aKo\,  poisoners,  and  Inaoi&o},  en- 


JAN 


502 


JAP 


chanters;  by  Sulpitiua  Severn.",  Chaldaans, 
that  is,  astrologera ;  by  others,  sapient.es  and 
malefici,  wise  men,  that  is,  so  esteemed  among 
the  Egyptians,  philosophers,  and  witches. 
Artapanus  tells  us,  Hint  Pharaoh  sent  for 
magicians  from  Upper  Egypt  to  oppose  Moses. 
Ambrosiaster,  or  Hilary,  the  deacon,  says 
they  were  brothers.  He  cites  a  book  entitled 
"Jannes  and  Mambres,"  which  is  likewise- 
quoted  by  Origen,  and  ranked  as  apocryphal 
by  Pope  Gelasius.  Some  of  the  Hebrews  call 
them  Janes  and  Jambres  ;  others,  Jochana  and 
Mamre,  or  Jonas  and  Jombros.  Jerom  trans- 
lates their  names  Johannes  and  Mambres;  and 
there  is  a  tradition,  they  say,  in  the  Talmud, 
that  Juhanni  and  Mamre,  chief  of  Pharaoh's 
physicians,  said  to  Moses,  "  Thou  bringest 
straw  into  Egypt  where  abundance  of  corn 
grew ;"  that  is,  to  bring  your  magical  arts 
hither  is  to  as  much  purpose  as  to  bring  water 
to  the  Nile.  Some  say  their  names  are  the 
same  as  John  and  Ambrose.  Some  will  have 
it  that,  they  fled  away  with  their  father  ;  others, 
that  they  were  drowned  in  the  Red  Sea  with 
the  Egyptians  ;  others,  that  they  were  killed 
by  Phinehas  in  the  war  against  the  Midianites. 
Numenius,  cited  by  Aristobulus,  says  that 
Jannes  and  Jambres  were  sacred  scribes  of 
the  Egyptians,  who  excelled  in  magic  at  the 
time  when  the  Jews  wore  driven  out  of  Egypt. 
See  Plagues  of  Egypt. 

JANSENISTS,  a  denomination  of  Roman 
Catholics  in  France,  which  was  formed  in  the 
year  1640.  They  follow  the  opinions  of  Jan- 
senius,  bishop  of  Ypres,  from  whose  writings 
the  following  propositions  are  said  to  have 
been  extracted  : — 1.  That  there  are  divine  pre- 
cepts which  good  men,  notwithstanding  their 
desire  to  observe  them,  are,  nevertheless,  ab- 
solutely unable  to  obey ;  nor  has  God  given 
them  that,  measure  of  grace  which  is  essentially 
necessary  to  render  them  capable  of  such  obe- 
dience. 2.  That  no  person,  in  this  corrupt 
(state  of  nature,  can  resist  the  influence  of 
divine  grace,  when  it  operates  upon  the  mind. 
3.  That,  in  order  to  render  human  actions 
meritorious,  it  is  not  requisite  that  they  be  ex- 
empt from  necessity  ;  but  that  they  be  free  from 
constraint.  4.  That  the  Semi-Pelagians  err 
greatly,  in  maintaining  that  the  human  will  is 
endowed  with  the  power  of  either  receiving  or 
resisting  the  aids  and  influences  of  preventing 
grace.  5.  That  whoever  affirms  that  Jesus 
Christ  made  expiation,  by  his  sufferings  and 
death,  for  the  sins  of  all  mankind,  is  a  Semi- 
Pelagian.  Of  these  propositions,  Pope  Inno- 
cent X.  condemned  the  first  four  as  heretical, 
and  the  last  as  rash  and  impious.  But  he  did 
this  without  asserting  that  these  were  the  doc- 
trines of  Jansenius,  or  even  naming  him; 
which  did  not  satisfy  his  adversaries,  nor 
silence  him.  The  next  pope,  however,  Alex- 
ander VII.  was  more  particular,  and  detenu  hied 
the  said  propositions  to  be  the  doctrines  of 
Jansenius  ;  which  excited  no  small  trouble  in 
the  Gallican  church. 

This  denomination  was  also  distinguished 
from  many  of  the  Roman  Catholics,  by  their 
maintaining  that  the  Holy  Scriptures  and  pub- 


lic liturgies  should  be  given  to  the  people  in 
their  mother  tongue ;  and  they  consider  it  as 
a  matter  of  importance  to  inculcate  upon  all 
Christians,  that  true  piety  does  not  consist  in 
the  performance  of  external  devotions,  but  in 
inward  holiness  and  divine  love. 

As  to  Jansenius,  it  must  be  confessed  that 
he  was  more  diligent  in  the  search  of  truth, 
than  courageous  in  its  defence.  It  is  said  that 
he  read  through  the  whole  of  St.  Augustine's 
works  ten,  and  some  parts  thirty,  times.  From 
these  he  made  a  number  of  excerpta,  [extracts,] 
which  he  collected  in  his  book  called  "  Augus- 
tinus."  This  he  had  not  the  courage  to  pub- 
lish ;  but  it  was  printed  after  his  death,  and 
from  it  his  enemies,  the  Jesuits,  extracted  the 
propositions  above  named  ;  but  the  correctness 
and  fidelity  of  their  extracts  may  be  justly 
questioned.  Jansenius  himself,  undoubtedly, 
held  the  opinions  of  Calvin  on  unconditional 
election,  though  he  seems  to  have  been  reserved 
in  avowing  them. 

The  Jansenists  of  Port  Royal  may  be  de- 
nominated the  evangelical  party  of  the  Catholic 
church  :  among  their  number  were  the  famous 
Father  Quesnel,  Pierre  Nicole,  Pascal,  De 
Sacy,  Duguct,  and  Arnauld  ;  the  last  of  whom 
is  styled  by  Boileau,  "  the  most  learned  mor- 
tal that  ever  lived."  They  consecrated  all 
their  great  powers  to  the  service  of  the  cross  ; 
and  for  their  attachment  to  the  grand  article 
of  the  Protestant  reformation, — -justification 
by  faith,  with  other  capital  doctrines,  they  suf- 
fered the  loss  of  all  things.  The  Jesuits,  their 
implacable  enemies,  never  ceased  until  they 
prevailed  upon  their  sovereign,  Louis  XIV.  to 
destroy  the  abbey  of  Port  Royal,  and  banish 
its  inhabitants.  It  must  be  confessed,  how- 
ever, that  all  the  Jansenists  were  not  like  the 
eminent  men  whom  we  have  just  mentioned ; 
and  even  these  were  tinged  with  enthusiasm 
and  superstition.  Some  of  them  even  pre- 
tended to  work  miracles,  by  which  their  cause 
was  greatly  injured. 

JAPHETH,  the  son  of  Noah,  who  is  com- 
monly named  the  third  in  order  of  Noah's 
sons,  was  born  in  the  five  hundredth  year  of 
that  patriarch,  Genesis  v,  32 ;  but  Moses, 
Genesis  x,  21,  says  expressly  he  was  the  oldest 
of  Noah's  sons,  according  to  our  translation, 
and  those  of  the  Septuagint  and  Symmachus. 
Abraham  was  named  the  first  of  Terah's  sons, 
"not  from  primogeniture,  but  from  preemi- 
nence," as  the  father  of  the  faithful,  and  the 
illustrious  ancestor  of  the  Israelites,  and  of 
the  Jews,  whose  "  seed  was  Christ,"  according 
to  the  flesh ;  with  whose  history  the  Old  Tes- 
t  anient  properly  commences  :  "  Now  these  are 
the  generations  of  Terah,"  &c,  Gen.  xi,  27  ; 
all  the  preceding  parts  of  Genesis  being  only 
introductory  to  this.  By  the  same  analogy, 
Shorn,  the  second  son  of  Noah,  is  placed  first 
of  His  three  sons,  Gen.  v,  32,  and  Japheth, 
"the  eldest,"  last.  Compare  Gen.  x,  21; 
xi,  20.  Thus  Isaac  is  put  before  Ishmael, 
though  fourteen  years  younger,  1  Chron.  i,  28. 
And  Solomon,  the  eldest,  is  reckoned  the  last 
of  Bathsheba's  children,  1  Chron.  iii,  5. 

Japheth    signifies    enlargement;    and    how 


JAP 


503 


JED 


wonderfully  did  Providence  enlarge  the  bound- 
aries of  Japheth  !  His  posterity  diverged  east- 
ward and  westward ;  from  the  original  set- 
tlement in  Armenia,  through  the  whole  extent 
of  Asia,  north  of  the  great  range  of  Taurus, 
distinguished  by  the  general  names  of  Tartary 
and  Siberia,  as  far  as  the  Eastern  Ocean  :  and 
in  process  of  time,  by  an  easy  passage  across 
Behring's  straits,  the  entire  continent  of 
America ;  and  they  spread  in  the  opposite  di- 
rection, throughout  the  whole  of  Europe,  to 
the  Atlantic  Ocean ;  thus  literally  encom- 
passing the  earth,  within  the  precincts  of  the 
northern  temperate  zone.  While  the  enter- 
prising and  warlike  genius  of  this  hardy  hunter 
race  frequently  led  them  to  encroach  on  the 
settlements,  and  to  dwell  in  "  the  tents  of 
Shem,"  whose  pastoral  occupations  rendered 
them  more  inactive,  peaceable,  and  unwarlike  ; 
as  when  the  Scythians  invaded  Media,  and 
overran  western  Asia  southwards,  as  far  as 
Egypt,  in  the  days  of  Cyaxares  ;  and  when  the 
Greeks,  and  afterward  the  Romans,  subdued 
the  Assyrians,  Medes,  and  Persians,  in  the 
east,  and  the  Scythians  and  Jews  in  the  south, 
as  foretold  by  the  Assyrian  Prophet  Balaam : 

"  And  ships  shall  come  from  the  coast  of  Chittim, 
And  shall  alTlictthe  Assyrians,  and  afflict  the  Hebrews; 
But  he  [the  invader]  shall  perish  himself  at  last." 
Numb,  xxiv,  24. 
And  by  Moses :  "  And  the   Lord  shall  bring 
thee  [the  Jews]  into  Egypt  [or  bondage]  again 
with  ships,"  &c,  Deut.  xxviii,  28.      And  by 
Daniel :  "  For  the  ships  of  Chittim  shall  come 
against  him"  [Antiochus,  king  of  Syria,]  Dan. 
xi,  30. 

In  these  passages  Chittim  denotes  the 
southern  coasts  of  Europe,  bordering  on  the 
Mediterranean  Sea,  called  the  "  isles  of  the 
Gentiles,"  Gen.  x,  5.  And,  in  later  times, 
the  Tartars  in  the  east  have  repeatedly  invaded 
and  subdued  the  Hindoos  and  Chinese ;  while 
the  warlike  and  enterprising  genius  of  the 
British  isles  has  spread  their  colonies,  their 
arms,  their  arts,  and  their  language,  and,  in 
some  measure,  their  religion,  from  the  rising 
to  the  setting  sun. 

The  sons  of  Japheth  were  Gomer,  Magog, 
Madai,  Javan,  Tubal,  Meshech,  and  Tiras. 
The  Scripture  says,  that  they  peopled  the  isles 
of  the  Gentiles,  and  settled  in  different  coun- 
tries, each  according  to  his  language,  family, 
and  people,  Genesis  x,  5.  It  is  supposed  that 
Gomer  peopled  Galatia,  and  that  from  him  the 
Cimmerians,  or  Cimbrians,  and  also  the  Phry- 
gians, derived  their  origin ;  that  Magog  was 
the  father  of  the  Scythians,  and  Tartars,  or 
Tatars  ;  that  Madai  was  the  progenitor  of  the 
Medes,  though  some  make  him  the  founder 
of  a  people  in  Macedonia,  called  Macdi ;  that 
from  Javan  sprung  the  Ionians  and  Greeks ; 
that  Tubal  was  the  father  of  the  Iberians,  and 
that  at  least  a  part  of  Spain  was  peopled  by 
him  and  his  descendants ;  that  Meshech  was 
the  founder  of  the  Cappadocians,  from  whom 
proceeded  the  Muscovites,  or  Russians ;  and 
that  from  Tiras  the  Thracians  derived  their 
origin.  Japheth  was  known,  by  profane  au- 
thors, under  the  name  of  Japetus.     The  poets 


make  him  father  of  heaven  and  earth.  The 
Greeks  believed  that  Japheth  was  the  father 
of  their  race,  and  acknowledged  nothing  more 
ancient  than  him. 

JAR,  the  Hebrew  month  which  answers  to 
our  April.  It  consisted  but  of  twenty-nine 
days. 

JASPER,  now,  Exod.  xxviii,  20 ;  xxxix,  13  ; 
and  Ezek.  xxviii,  13 ;  laoins,  Rev.  iv,  3,  and 
xxi,  11,  18,  19.  The  Greek  and  Latin  name, 
jasj)is,  as  well  as  the  English  jasper,  is 
plainly  derived  from  the  Hebrew,  and  leaves 
little  room  to  doubt  what  species  of  gem  is 
meant  by  the  original  word.  The  jasper  is 
usually  defined,  a  hard  stone,  of  a  bright, 
beautiful,  green  colour ;  sometimes  clouded 
with  white,  and  spotted  with  red  or  yellow. 

JAVAN,  or  ION,  (for  the  Hebrew  word, 
differently  pointed,  forms  both  names,)  was 
the  fourth  son  of  Japheth,  and  the  father  of 
all  those  nations  which  were  included  under 
the  name  of  Grecians,  or  Ionians,  as  they  were 
invariably  called  in  the  east.  Javan  had  four 
sons,  by  whom  the  different  portions  of  Greece 
Proper  were  peopled  :  Elisha,  Tharsis,  Chit- 
tim,  and  Dodanim.  Elisha,  Eliza,  or  Ellas, 
as  it  is  written  in  the  Chaldee,  and  from  whom 
the  Greeks  took  the  name  of  "EXA/fit?,  settled 
in  the  Peloponnesus ;  where,  in  the  Elysian 
fields  and  the  river  Ilissus,  his  name  is  still 
preserved.  Tharsis  settled  in  Achaia  ;  Chit- 
tim, in  Macedonia ;  and  Dodanim,  in  Thes- 
saly  and  Epirus ;  where  the  city  of  Dodona 
gives  ample  proof  of  the  origin  of  its  name. 
But  the  Greeks  did  not  remain  pure  Javanim. 
It  appears  from  history  that,  at  a  very  early 
age,  they  were  invaded  and  subjugated  by  the 
Pelasgi,  a  Cuthite  race  from  the  east,  and  by 
colonies  of  Phenicians  and  Egyptians  from 
the  south :  so  that  the  Greeks,  so  famous  in 
history,  were  a  compound  of  all  these  people. 
The  aboriginal  Greeks  were  called  Jaones,  or 
Jonim ;  from  which  similarity  of  sound,  the 
Jonim  and  the  Javanim,  although  belonging 
to  two  essentially  different  families,  have  been 
confounded  together.  Javan  is  the  name 
used  in  the  Old  Testament  for  Greece  and  the 
Greeks.     See  Division  of  the  Earth. 

JEALOUSY,  Waters  of.     See  Adulterv. 

JEBUS,  the  son  of  Canaan,  Gen.  x,  16,  and 
father  of  the  people  of  Palestine  called  Jebu- 
sites.  Their  dwelling  was  in  Jerusalem  and 
round  about,  in  the  mountains.  This  people 
were  very  warlike,  and  held  Jerusalem  till 
David's  time,  Josh,  xv,  65 ;  2  Sam.  v,  6,  &c. 

JEDUTHUN,  a  Levite  of  Merari's  family, 
and  one  of  the  four  great  masters  of  music, 
belonging  to  the  temple,  1  Chron.  xvi,  38,  41, 
42 ;  xv,  17 ;  Psalm  lxxxix,  title.  He  is  the 
same  as  Ethan.  Some  of  the  Psalms  are  said 
to  have  been  composed  by  him ;  such  as  the 
eighty-ninth,  thirty-ninth,  sixty-second,  seven- 
ty.seventh ;  all  of  which  go  under  his  name. 
Some  believo,  that  David,  having  composed 
these  Psalms,  gave  them  to  Jeduthun  and  his 
company  to  sing ;  and  that  this  is  the  reason 
of  their  going  by  this  name.  But  there  are 
some  Psalms  which  have  the  name  of  Jedu- 
thun, that  seem  to  have  been  composed  either 


JEH 


504 


JEH 


during  the  captivity,  or  after  it ;  and  conse- 
quently the  name  of  Jeduthtm  prefixed  to 
them,  can  signify  nothing  else,  but  that  some 
of  his  descendants,  and  of  Jeduthun's  class, 
composed  thrin  long  after  the  death  of  the 
famous  Jcduthun,  one  of  their  ancestors. 

JEHOAHAZ,  otherwise  SHALLUM,  the 
son  of  Josiah,  king  of  Judah,  Jer.  .\.\ii,  11. 
Josiah  having  been  wounded  mortally  by 
Necho,  king  of  Egypt,  and  dying  of  his 
wounds  at  Megiddo,  Jehoahaz  was  made  king 
in  his  room,  tliough  he  was  not  Josiah's  eldest 
6on,  2  Kings  xxiii,  30,  31,  32.  He  was  in  all 
probability  thought  titter  than  any  of  his 
brethren  to  make  head  against  the  king  of 
Egypt.  He  was  twenty-three  years  old  when 
he  began  to  reign,  and  he  reigned  about  three 
months  only  in  Jerusalem,  in  the  year  of  the 
world  3395.  King  Nccho,  at  his  return  from 
the  expedition  against  Carehemish,  provoked 
at  the  people  of  Judah  for  having  placed  this 
prince  upon  the  throne  without  his  consent, 
sent  for  him  to  Rib  Jab,  in  Syria,  divested  hun 
of  the  kingdom,  loaded  him  with  chains,  and 
sent  hire  into  Egypt,  where  lie  died,  Jer.  xxii, 
11,  12.  Jehoiakim,  or  Eliakim  his  brother, 
was  made  king  in  his  room. 

JEHOIACHIN,  otherwise  called  Coniah, 
Jer.  xxii,  21,  and  Jeconiah,  1  Chron.  iii,  17, 
the  son  of  Jehoiakim,  king  of  Judah,  and 
grandson  of  Josiah.  He  ascended  the  throne, 
and  reigned  only  three  months.  It  seems  he 
was  born  about  the  time  of  the  first  Babylonish 
captivity,  A.  M.  3398,  when  Jehoiakim,  or 
Eliakim,  his  Father,  was  carried  to  Babylon. 
Jehoiakim  returned  from  Babylon,  and  reigned 
till  A.  M.  3405,  when  he  was  killed  by  the 
Chaldeans,  in  the  eleventh  year  of  his  reign  ; 
and  was  succeeded  by  this  Jehoiachin,  who 
reigned  alone  three  months  and  ten  days ; 
but  he  reigned  about  ten  years  in  conjunction 
with  his  father.  Thus  2  Kings  xxiv,  8,  is  re- 
conciled with  2  Chron.  xxxvi,  9.  In  the 
former  of  these  passages,  he  is  said  to  have 
been  eighteen  when  he  began  to  reign,  and  in 
Chronicles  only  eight  ;  that  is,  he  was  only 
eight  when  he  began  to  reign  with  his  father, 
and  eighteen  when  he  began  to  reign  alone. 
He  was  a  bad  man,  and  did  evil  in  the  sight 
of  the  Lord,  Jer.  xxii,  24.  The  time  of  his 
death  is  uncertain;  and  the  words  of  the  Pro- 
phet Jeremiah,  xxii,  30,  are  not  to  be  taken 
in  the  strictest  sense;  since  ho  was  the  father 
of  Salathiel  and  others,  1  Chron.  iii,  17,  18; 
Matt,  i,  12. 

JEHOIAKIM,  or  ELIAKIM,  the  brother 
and  successor  of  Jehoahaz,  king  of  Judah, 
was  advanced  to  the  throne  by  Fharaoh-Necho, 
•f  Egypt,  A.  \1.  3895,2  Kings  xxiii,  34. 
He  reigned  eleven  years  in  Jerusalem,  and 
did  evil  in  the  sight  ofthe  Lord.  When  Jeru- 
salem was  taken  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  this 
prince  was  also  taken  and  put  to  death,  and 
hie  body  thrown  into  the  common  sewer,  ac- 
cording to  the  prediction  of  Jeremiah,  xxii, 
18,  19. 

JEHOSHAPHAT,  king  of  Judah,  son  of 
Asa,  king  of  Judah,  and  Azabah,  daughter  of 
Shilhi,    ascended   the    throne    at    the  age  of| 


thirty-five,  and  reigned  twenty-five  years.  He 
had  the  advantage  over  Baasha,  king  of  Israel ; 
and  he  placed  good  garrisons  in  the  cities  of 
Judah  and  of  Ephraim,  which  had  been  con- 
quered by  his  father.  God  was  with  him,  be- 
lie was  faithful.  He  demolished  the 
high  places  and  groves.  In  the  third  year  of 
his  reign  he  sent  some  of  his  officers,  with 
priests  and  Levites,  through  all  the  parts  of 
Judah,  with  the  book  of  the  law,  to  instruct 
the  people.  God  blessed  the  zeal  of  this  prince, 
who  was  feared  by  all  his  neighbours.  The 
Philistines  and  Arabians  were  tributaries  to 
him.  He  built  several  houses  in  Judah  in  the 
form  of  towers,  and  fortified  several  cities. 
He  generally  kept  an  army  of  eleven  hundred 
thousand  men,  without  reckoning  the  troops 
in  his  strong  holds.  This  number  seems  pro- 
digious for  so  email  a  state  as  that  of  Judah; 
but,  probably,  these  troops  were  only  an  en- 
rolled militia. 

The  Scripture  reproaches  Jehoshaphat  for 
his  alliance  with  Ahab,  king  of  Israel,  1  Kings 
xx ;  2  Chronicles  xviii.  Some  time  after,  he 
went  to  visit  Ahab  in  Samaria ;  and  Ahab 
invited  him  to  march  with  him  against  Ra- 
moth-Gilead.  Jehoshaphat  consented,  but  first 
asked  for  an  opinion  from  a  prophet  ofthe 
Lord.  Afterward,  he  went  into  the  battle  in 
his  robe,  and  the  enemy  supposed  him  to  be 
Ahab  ;  but  he  crying  out,  they  discovered  their 
mistake,  and  Jehoshaphat  returned  in  peace 
to  Jerusalem.  The  Prophet  Jehu  reproved 
him  for  assisting  Ahab,  2  Chron.  xix,  1,  2,  3, 
&c.  Jehoshaphat  repaired  this  fault  by  the 
good  regulations,  and  the  good  order,  which 
he  established  in  his  dominions,  both  as  to 
civil  and  religious  affairs,  by  appointing  ho- 
nest and  able  judges,  by  regulating  the  disci- 
pline of  the  priests  and  Levites,  and  by  en- 
joining them  to  perform  their  duty  with  punc- 
tuality. After  this,  in  the  year  3108,  the 
Moabites,  Ammonites,  and  other  nations  of 
Arabia  Petraya,  declared  war  against  Jeho- 
shaphat, 2  Chron.  xx,  1,  2,  3,  &c.  They 
advanced  to  Hazaron-Tamar,  otherwise  En- 
gedi.  Jehoshaphat  went  with  his  people  to 
the  temple,  and  put  up  prayers  to  God.  Jaha- 
ziel,  the  son  of  Zechariah,  by  the  Spirit  of 
the  Lord,  encouraged  the  king,  and  promised 
that  the  next  day  he  should  obtain  a  victory 
without  fighting.  Accordingly,  these  people 
being  assembled  the  next,  day  against  Judah, 
quarrelled,  and  killed  one  another  ;  and  Jeho- 
shaphat and  his  army  had  only  to  gather  their 
spoils.  This  prince  continued  to  walk  in  the 
ways  of  the  Lord  ;  yet  he  did  not  destroy  the 
high  places,  and  the  hearts  of  the  people 
were  not  entirely  directed  to  the  God  of  their 
fathers.  Jehoshaphat  died  after  a  reign  of 
twenty-five  years,  and  was  buried  in  the  royal 
sepulchre ;  and  his  son,  Jehoram  reigned  in 
his  stead. 

2.  Jehoshaphat,  Valley  of.  This  valley  is 
a  deep  and  narrow  glen,  which  runs  from 
north  to  south,  between  the  Mount  of  Olives 
and  Mount  Moriah ;  the  brook  Cedron  flow, 
ing  through  the  middle  of  it,  which  is  dry  the 
greatest  part  of  the  year,  but  has  a  current  of 


JEH 


505 


JEH 


a  red  colour,  after  storms,  or  in  rainy  seasons. 
The  Prophet  Joel,  iii,  2,  12,  says,  "  The  Lord 
will  gather  all  nations  in  the  valley  of Jeho- 
shaphat,  and  will  plead  with  them  there." 
Abenezra  is  of  opinion,  that  this  valley  is  the 
place  where  King  Jehoshaphat  obtained  a  sig. 
nal  victory  over  the  Moabites,  Ammonites, 
and  Meonians  of  Arabia  Petrasa,  2  Chron.  xx, 
1,  &C,  toward  the  Dead  Sea,  beyond  the 
wilderness  of  Tekoah,  which  after  that  event 
was  called  the  valley  of  blessing,  verse  26. 
Others  think  it  lies  jt.ween  the  walls  of  Jeru- 
salem and  the  Mount  of  Olives.  Cyril,  of 
Alexandria,  on  Joel  iii,  says  that  this  valley  is 
but  a  few  furlongs  distant  from  Jerusalem. 
Lastly,  some  maintain  that  the  ancient  He- 
brews had  named  no  particular  place  the  valley 
of  Jehoshaphat ;  but  that  Joel  intended  gene- 
rally the  place  where  God  would  judge  the 
nations,  and  will  appear  at  the  last  judgment 
in  the  brightness  of  his  majesty.  Jehoshaphat, 
in  Hebrew,  signifies  "the  judgment  of  God." 
It  is  very  probable  that  the  valley  of  Jehosha- 
phat, that  is,  of  God's  judgment,  is  symbolical, 
as  well  as  the  valley  of  slaughter,  in  the  same 
chapter.  From  this  passage,  however,  the 
Jews  and  many  Christians  have  been  of  opin- 
ion, that  the  last  judgment  will  be  solemnized 
in  the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat. 

JEHOVAH,  nin\  the  proper  and  incommu- 
nicable name  of  the  Divine  Essence.  That 
this  divine  name,  Jehovah,  was  well  known 
to  the  Heathens,  there  can  be  no  doubt. 
Sanchoniathon  writes  Jebo;  Diodorus,  the 
Sicilian,  Macrobius,  St.  Clemens  Alexandri- 
nus,  St.  Jerom,  and  Origen,  pronounce  Jao; 
Epiphanius,  Theodoret,  and  the  Samaritans, 
Jabe,  Jane.  We  likewise  find  in  the  ancients, 
Jahoh,  Java,  Javu,  Jaod.  The  Moors  call 
their  god  Jaba,  whom  some  believe  to  be  the 
same  as  Jehovah.  The  Latins,  in  all  proba- 
bility, took  their  Javis,  or  Jovis  Pater,  from 
Jehovah. 

The  Jews,  after  their  captivity  in  Babylon, 
out  of  an  excessive  and  superstitious  respect 
for  this  name,  left  off  to  pronounce  it,  and 
thus  lost  the  true  pronunciation.  The  Sep- 
tuagint  generally  renders  it  Kvptos,  "  the  Lord." 
Origen,  St.  Jerom,  and  Eusebius,  testify  that 
in  their  time  the  Jews  left  the  name  of  Jeho- 
vah written  in  their  copies  in  Samaritan  cha- 
racters, instead  of  writing  it  in  the  common 
Chaldee  or  Hebrew  characters  ;  which  shows 
their  veneration  for  this  holy  name  :  and  the 
fear  they  were  under,  lest  strangers,  who 
were  not  unacquainted  with  the  Chaldee  let- 
ters and  language,  should  discover  and  misap- 
ply it.  The  Jews  call  this  name  of  God  the 
Tetragrammaton,  or  the  name  with  four  let- 
ters. It  would  be  waste  of  time  and  patience 
to  repeat  all  that  has  been  said  on  this  incom- 
municable name  :  it  may  not  be  amiss,  how- 
ever, to  remind  the  reader,  1.  That  although 
it  signifies  the  state  of  being,  yet  it  forms  no 
verb.  2.  It  never  assumes  a  plural  form. 
3.  It  does  not  admit  an  article,  or  take  an 
affix.  4.  Neither  is  it  placed  in  a  state  of 
construction  with  other  words ;  though  other 
words   may  be    in   construction  with   it.     It 


seems  to  be  a  compound  of  n\  the  essence, 
and  run,  existing;  that  is,  always  existing; 
whence  the  word  eternal  appears  to  express 
its  import ;  or,  as  it  is  well  rendered,  "  He 
who  is,  and  who  was,  and  who  is  to  come," 
Rev.  i,  4;  xi,  17;  that  is,  eternal,  as  the 
schoolmen  speak,  both  a  parte,  ante,  and  a 
parte  post.  Compare  John  viii,  58.  It  is 
usually  marked  by  an  abbreviation,  i,  in  Jew- 
ish books,  where  it  must  be  alluded  to.  It  is 
also  abbreviated  in  the  term  n->,  Jah,  which, 
the  reader  will  observe,  enters  into  the  forma- 
tion of  many  Hebrew  appellations.  See  Jah. 
JEHU,  the  son  of  Jehoshaphat,  and  grandson 
of  Nimshi,  captain  of  the  troops  of  Joram  the 
king  of  Israel,  was  appointed  by  God  to  reign 
over  Israel,  and  to  avenge  the  sins  committed 
by  the  house  of  Ahab,  1  Kings  xix,  16.  The 
Prophet  Elisha  received  a  commission  to 
anoint  him  ;  but  the  order  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  executed  until  more  than  twenty 
years  afterward,  and  then  it  was  done  by  one 
of  the  sons  of  the  prophets,  2  Kings  ix,  1-3. 
Jehu  was  then  at  the  siege  of  Ramoth-Gilead, 
commanding  the  army  of  Joram,  the  king  of 
Israel,  when  a  young  prophet  appeared,  who 
took  him  aside  from  the  officers  of  the  army, 
in  the  midst  of  whom  he  was  sitting,  and,  when 
alone  in  a  chamber,  poured  oil  on  his  head, 
and  said  to  him,  "  Thus  saith  the  Lord,  I  have 
anointed  thee  king  over  Israel ;  thou  shalt  smite 
the  house  of  Ahab,  and  avenge  the  blood  of 
the  prophets  which  hath  been  shed  by  Jezebel. 
For  the  whole  house  of  Ahab  shall  perish,  and 
I  will  make  it  as  that  of  Jeroboam,  the  son  of 
Nebat,  and  that  of  Baasha,  the  son  of  Ahijah. 
Jezebel  shall  be  eaten  by  the  dogs  in  the  fields 
of  Jezreel,  and  there  shall  be  none  to  bury 
her,"  2  Kings  ix,  1-10.  No  sooner  had  the 
prophet  delivered  his  message,  than,  to  avoid 
being  known,  he  instantly  withdrew  ;  and 
Jehu,  returning  to  the  company  of  his  brother 
officers,  was  by  them  interrogated  respecting 
what  had  taken  place.  He  informed  them  that 
a  prophet  had  been  sent  from  God  to  anoint 
him  to  the  kingly  office ;  on  which  they  all 
rose  up,  and  each  taking  his  cloak,  they  made 
a  kind  of  throne  for  Jehu,  and  then  sounding 
the  trumpets,  cried  out,  "Jehu  is  lung."  Jo- 
ram, who  at  that  time  reigned  over  the  king- 
dopi  of  Israel,  was  then  at  Jezreel  in  a  state 
of~indisposition,  having  been  wounded  at  the 
siege  of  Rarnoth-Gilead.  Jehu,  intending  to 
surprise  him,  immediately  gave  orders  that  no 
one  should  be  permitted  to  depart  out  of  the 
city  of  Ramotli,  and  himself  set  off  for  Jezreel. 
As  he  approached  that  city,  a  centinel  gave 
notice  that  he  saw  a  troop  coming  in  great 
haste;  on  which  Joram  despatched  art  officer 
to  discover  who  it  was;  but  Jehu,  without 
giving  the  latter  any  answer,  ordered  him  to 
follow  in  his  rear.  Joram  sent  a  second,  and 
Jehu  laid  upon  him  the  same  command.  Find- 
ing that  neither  of  them  returned,  Joram  him- 
self, accompanied  by  Ahaziah,  king  of  Judah, 
proceeded  in  his  chariot  toward  Jehu,  whom 
they  met  in  the  field  of  Naboth  the  Jezreelite. 
Joram  inquired,  "  Is  it  peace,  Jehu  ?"  To 
which  the  latter  replied,  "  How  can  there  be 


J  EH 


506 


JEP 


peace  so  long  as  the  whoredoms  of  thy  mother 
Jezebel,  and  her  witchcrafts,  are  so  many  ?" 
Joram  instantly  took  the  alarm,  and,  turning 
to  Ahaziah,  said,  "  We  are  betrayed."  At  the 
same  time  Jehu  drew  his  bow,  and  smote  Jo- 
ram  between  his  shoulders,  so  that  the  arrow 
pierced  his  heart,  and  he  died  in  his  chariot. 
Jehu  then  gave  orders  that  his  body  should  be 
cast  out  into  the  field  of  Naboth  the  Jezreelite, 
thus  fulfilling  the  prediction  of  the.  Prophet 
Elijah,  2  Kings  ix,  11-26. 

Jehu  next  proceeded  to  Jezreel,  where  Jeze- 
bel herself  at  that  time  resided.  As  he  rode 
through  the  streets  of  the  city,  Jezebel,  who 
was  standing  at  her  window  and  looking  at  him, 
exclaimed,  "Can  he  who  has  killed  his  master 
hope  for  peace  ?"  Jehu,  lifting  up  his  head 
and  seeing  her,  commanded  her  servants  in- 
stantly to  throw  her  out  at  the  window  ;  which 
they  did,  and  she  was  immediately  trampled  to 
death  under  the  horses'  feet  as  they  traversed 
the  city.  To  complete  her  destiny,  and  fulfil 
the  threatenings  of  Elijah,  the  dogs  came  and 
devoured  her  corpse;  so  that  when  Jehu  sent 
to  have  her  buried,  her  bones  only  were  found, 
2  Kings  ix,  27-37.  After  this,  Jehu  sent  to 
inform  the  inhabitants  of  Samaria,  who  had 
the  bringing  up  of  Ahab's  seventy  children, 
that  they  might  select  which  of  them  they 
thought  proper  to  place  upon  the  throne  of 
Israel.  But  overwhelmed  with  fear,  they  re- 
plied that  they  were  Jehu's  servants,  and 
would  in  all  things  obey  him.  He  then  com- 
manded them  to  put  to  death  all  the  king's 
children,  and  send  their  heads  to  him  ;  which 
was  accordingly  done  on  the  following  day. 
Jehu  also  caused  to  be  put  to  death  all  Ahab's 
relatives  and  friends,  the  officers  of  his  court, 
and  the  priests  whom  he  had  entertained  at 
Jezreel;  2  Kings  x,  1-11.  After  this,  Jehu  pro- 
ceeded to  Samaria,  and  on  his  way  thither  met 
the  friends  of  Ahaziah,  king  of  Judah,  who  were 
going  to  Jezreel  to  salute  the  children  of  Ahab's 
family,  with  the  death  of  whom  they  were  as 
3'et  unacquainted.  The}'  were  forty-two  in 
number ;  but  Jehu  gave  orders  to  have  them 
apprehended  and  put  to  death.  Soon  after 
this,  he  met  witli  Jonathan,  the  son  of  Rechab; 
and  taking  him  up  into  his  chariot,  "Come  with 
me,"  said  he,  "and  see  my  zeal  for  the  Lord." 
And  when  he  was  come  to  Samaria  he  extir- 
pated every  remaining  branch  of  Ahab's  family, 
without  sparing  an  individual.  Then  conven- 
ing the  people  of  Samaria,  he  said,  "  Ahab  paid 
some  honours  to  Baal,  but  I  will  pay  him 
greater.  Send  now  and  gather  together  all 
the  ministers,  priests,  and  prophets  of  Baal." 
When  they  were  all  assembled  in  Baal's  tem- 
ple, Jehu  commanded  to  give  each  of  them  a 
particular  habit,  to  distinguish  them ;  at  the 
same  time  directing  that  no  stranger  should 
mingle  with  them  ;  and  then  ordered  his  peo- 
ple to  put  them  all  to  the  sword,  not  sparing 
one  of  them ;  the  image  of  Baal  was  also  pulled 
down,  broken  to  pieces,  and  burned,  the  temple 
itself  destroyed,  and  the  place  where  it  stood 
reduced  to  a  dunghill,  2  Kings  x,  12-28. 

Such  were  the  sanguinary  exploits  of  Jehu 
toward  the  idolatrous  house  of  Ahab ;  but  he 


acted  agreeably  to  divine  direction,  and  the 
Lord  in  these  instances  so  far  approved  his 
conduct,  as  to  promise  him  that  his  children 
should  sit  upon  the  throne  of  Israel  to  the 
fourth  generation.  Yet,  though  Jehu  had 
been  the  instrument  in  the  hand  of  God  for 
taking  vengeance  on  the  profane  house  of 
Ahab,  we  find  him  accused  in  Scripture  of  not 
entirely  forsaking  the  sins  of  Jeroboam,  the 
son  of  Nebat,  who  made  Israel  to  sin  in  wor- 
shipping the  golden  calves,  2  Kings  x,  29,  31. 
It  appears  also  that,  in  executing  the  divine 
indignation  on  the  wicked  house  of  Ahab,  he 
was  actuated  more  by  the  spirit  of  ambition 
and  animosity  than  the  fear  of  God,  or  a  regard 
to  the  purity  of  his  worship.  And  thus  it  is 
that  God,  in  the  course  of  his  providence, 
makes  use  of  tyrants  and  wicked  men,  as  his 
instruments  to  execute  his  righteous  judgments 
in  the  earth.  After  a  reign  of  eight-and-twenty 
years  over  Israel,  Jehu  died,  and  was  succeed- 
ed by  his  son,  Jehoahaz  ;  but  his  reign  was 
embittered  by  the  war  which  Hazael,  king  of 
Syria,  long  waged  against  him,  2  Kings  x, 
32-36.  His  four  descendants,  who  succeeded 
him  in  the  throne,  were  Jehoahaz,  Joash,  Jero- 
boam II.  and  Zechariah. 

JEPHTHAH,  one  of  the  judges  of  Israel, 
was  the  son  of  Gilead  by  a  concubine,  Judges 
xi,  1,  2.  His  father  having  several  other  chil- 
dren by  his  lawful  wife,  they  conspired  to  expel 
Jephthah  from  among  them,  insisting  that  he 
who  was  the  son  of  a  strange  woman  should 
have  no  part  of  the  inheritance  with  them. 
Like  Ishmael,  therefore,  he  withdrew,  and 
took  up  his  residence  beyond  Jordan,  in  the 
land  of  Tob,  where  he  appears  to  have  become 
the  chief  of  a  banditti,  or  marauding  party, 
who  probably  lived  by  plunder,  Judges  xi,  3. 
In  process  of  time,  a  war  broke  out  between 
the  Ammonites  and  the  children  of  Israel  who 
inhabited  the  country  beyond  Jordan  ;  and  the 
latter,  finding  their  want  of  an  intrepid  and 
skilful  leader,  applied  to  Jephthah  to  take  the 
command  of  them.  He  at  first  reproached  them 
with  the  injustice  they  had  done  him,  in  ban- 
ishing him  from  his  father's  house ;  but  he  at 
length  yielded  to  their  importunity,  on  an 
agreement  that,  should  he  be  successful  in 
the  war  against  the  Ammonites,  the  Israelites 
should  acknowledge  him  for  their  chief,  Judges 
xi,  4-11. 

As  soon  as  Jephthah  was  invested  with  the 
command  of  the  Israelites  he  sent  a  deputation 
to  the  Ammonites,  demanding  to  know  on 
what  principle  the  latter  had  taken  up  arms 
against  them.  They  answered  that  it  was  to 
recover  the  territory  which  the  former  had 
taken  from  them  on  their  first  coming  out  of 
Egypt.  Jephthah  replied  that  they  had  made 
no  conquests  in  that  quarter  but  from  the 
Amorites  ;  adding,  "  If  you  think  you  have 
a  right  to  all  that  Chemosh,  your  god,  hath 
given  you,  why  should  not  we  possess  all  that 
the  Lord  our  God  hath  conferred  on  us  by 
right  of  conquest  ?"  Jephthah's  reasoning 
availed  nothing  with  the  Ammonites  ;  and  as 
the  latter  persisted  in  waging  war,  the  former 
collected  his  troops  together  and  put  himself 


JEP 


507 


JEP 


at  their  head.  The  Spirit  of  the  Lord  is  said 
to  have  now  come  upon  Jephthah  ;  by  which 
we  are  here  to  understand,  that  the  Lord  en- 
dowed him  with  a  spirit  of  valour  and  forti- 
tude, adequate  to  the  exigence  of  the  situation 
in  which  he  was  placed,  animating  him  with 
courage  for  the  battle,  and  especially  inspired 
him  with  unshaken  confidence  in  the  God  of 
the  armies  of  Israel,  Judges  xi,  17 ;  Heb.  xi, 
32  ;  1  Sam.  xi,  6  ;  Num.  xxiv,  2.  Jephthah  at 
this  time  made  a  vow  to  the  Lord  that  if  he 
delivered  the  Ammonites  into  his  hand,  what- 
ever came  forth  out  of  the  doors  of  his  house 
to  meet  him  when  he  returned  should  be  the 
Lord's  ;  it  is  also  added  in  our  English  ver- 
sion, "  and  I  will  offer  it  up  for  a  burnt-offer- 
ing,"  Judges  xi,  31.  The  battle  terminated 
auspiciously  for  Jephthah ;  the  Ammonites 
were  defeated,  and  the  Israelites  ravaged  their 
country.  But  on  returning  toward  his  own 
house,  his  daughter,  an  only  child,  came  out 
to  meet  her  father  with  timbrels  and  dances, 
accompanied  by  a  chorus  of  virgins,  to  cele- 
brate his  victory.  On  seeing  her,  Jephthah 
rent  his  clothes,  and  said,  "  Alas,  my  daughter  ! 
thou  hast  brought  me  very  low ;  for  I  have 
opened  my  mouth  to  the  Lord,  and  cannot  go 
back."  His  daughter  intimated  her  readiness 
to  accede  to  any  vow  he  might  have  made  in 
which  she  was  personally  interested  ;  only 
claiming  a  respite  of  two  months,  during  which 
she  might  go  up  to  the  mountains  and  bewail 
her  virginity  with  her  companions.  Jephthah 
yielded  to  this  request,  and  at  the  end  of  two 
months,  according  to  the  opinion  of  many,  her 
father  offered  her  up  in  sacrifice,  as  a  burnt- 
oft'ering  to  the  Lord,  Judges  xi,  3-1-39.  It  is, 
however,  scarcely  necessary  to  mention,  that 
almost  from  the  days  of  Jephthah  to  the  pre- 
sent time,  it  has  been  a  subject  of  warm  contest 
among  the  critics  and  commentators,  whether 
the  judge  of  Israel  really  sacrificed  his  daughter, 
or  only  devoted  her  to  a  state  of  celibacy. 
Among  those  who  contend  for  the  former 
opinion,  may  be  particularly  mentioned  the 
very  learned  Professor  Michaelis,  who  insists 
most  peremptorily  that  the  words,  "  did  with 
her  as  he  had  vowed,"  cannot  mean  any  thing 
else  but  that  her  father  put  her  to  death,  and 
burned  her  body  as  a  burnt-offering.  On  this 
point,  however,  the  remarks  of  Dr.  Hales  are 
of  great  weight : — When  Jephthah  went  forth 
to  battle  against  the  Ammonites  "  he  vowed  a 
vow  unto  the  Lord,  and  said,  If  thou  wilt 
surely  give  the  children  of  Aminon  into  my 
hand,  then  it  shall  be,  that  whatsoever  cometh 
out  of  the  doors  of  my  house  to  meet  me,  when 
I  return  in  peace  from  the  children  of  Amnion, 
shall  either  be  the  Lord's,  or  I  will  offer  it  up 
[for]  a  burnt-offering,"  Judges  xi,  30,  31.  Ac- 
cording to  this  rendering  of  the  two  conjunc- 
tions, l,  in  the  last  clause,  either,  w,  which  is 
justified  by  the  Hebrew  idiom,  the  paucity  of 
connecting  particles  in  that  language  making 
it  necessary  that  this  conjunction  should  often 
be  understood  disjunctively,  the  vow  consisted 
of  two  parts,  1.  That  what  person  soever  met 
him  should  be  the  Lord's,  or  be  dedicated  to 
his  service.     2.  That  what  beast  soever  met 


him,  if  clean,  should  be  offered  up  for  a  burnt, 
offering  unto  the  Lord.  This  rendering,  and 
this  interpretation,  is  warranted  by  the  Leviti- 
cal  law  about  vows.  The  -nj,  or  vow  in  gene- 
ral, included  either  persons,  beasts,  or  things, 
dedicated  to  the  Lord  for  pious  uses ;  which, 
if  it  was  a  simple  vow,  was  redeemable  at  cer 
tain  prices,  if  the  person  repented  of  his  vow, 
and  wished  to  commute  it  for  money,  accord- 
ing to  the  age  and  sex  of  the  person,  Lev. 
xxvii,  1-8.  This  was  a  wise  regulation  to 
remedy  rash  vows.  But  if  the  vow  was  accom- 
panied with  ain,  devotement,  it  was  irredeem- 
able, as  in  the  following  cases :  "  Notwith- 
standing, no  devotement  which  a  man  shall 
devote  unto  the  Lord,  [either]  of  man,  or  of 
beast,  or  of  land  of  his  own  property,  shall  be 
sold  or  redeemed.  Every  thing  devoted  is 
most  holy  unto  the  Lord,"  Lev.  xxvii,  28. 
Here  the  three  vans  in  the  original  should  ne- 
cessarily be  rendered  disjunctively,  or,  as  the 
last  actually  is  in  our  public  translation,  be. 
cause  there  are  three  distinct  subjects  of  de- 
votement, to  be  applied  to  distinct  uses ;  the 
man,  to  be  dedicated  to  the  service  of  the  Lord, 
as  Samuel  by  his  mother,  Hannah,  1  Sam.  i, 
11;  the  cattle,  if  clean,  such  as  oxen,  sheep, 
goats,  turtle  doves,  or  pigeons,  to  be  sacrificed  ; 
and  if  unclean,  as  camels,  horses,  asses,  to  be 
employed  for  carrying  burdens  in  the  service  of 
the  tabernacle  or  temple ;  and  the  lands,  to  be 
sacred  property.  This  law,  therefore,  expressly 
applied,  in  its  first  branch,  to  Jephthah's  case, 
who  had  devoted  his  daughter  to  the  Lord,  or 
opened  his  mouth  unto  the  Lord,  and  there- 
fore could  not  go  back ;  as  he  declared  in  his 
grief  at  seeing  his  daughter,  and  his  only  child, 
coming  to  meet  him  with  timbrels  and  dances. 
She  was,  therefore,  necessarily  devoted,  but 
with  her  own  consent,  to  perpetual  virginity, 
in  the  service  of  the  tabernacle,  Judges  xi, 
36,  37.  And  such  service  was  customary  ;  for 
in  the  division  of  the  spoils  taken  in  the  first 
Midianitc  war,  of  the  whole  number  of  cap- 
tive virgins,  "  the  Lord's  tribute  was  thirty- 
two  persons,"  Num.  xxxi,  35-40.  This  in- 
stance appears  to  be  decisive  of  the  nature  of 
her  devotement.  Her  father's  extreme  grief 
on  this  occasion,  and  her  requisition  of  a  re- 
spite of  two  months  to  bewail  her  virginity, 
are  both  perfectly  natural :  having  no  other 
issue,  he  could  only  look  forward  to  the  ex- 
tinction of  his  name  or  family  ;  and  a  state  of 
celibacy,  which  is  reproachful  among  women 
every  where,  was  peculiarly  so  among  the 
Israelites ;  and  was  therefore  no  ordinary 
sacrifice  on  her  part,  who,  though  she  gene- 
rously gave  up,  could  not  but  regret  the  loss 
of  becoming  "  a  mother  in  Israel."  "  And  he 
did  with  her  according  to  his  vow  which  he  had 
vowed,  and  she  knew  no  man,"  or  remained  a 
virgin  all  her  life,  Judges  xi,  34-49.  There 
was  also  another  case  of  devotement  which 
was  irredeemable,  and  follows  the  former : 
"  No  one  devoted,  who  shall  be  devoted  of 
man,  shall  be  redeemed,  but  shall  surely  be 
put  to  death,"  Levit.  xxvii,  29.  This  case 
differs  materially  from  the  former:  1.  It  is 
confined  to  personR  devoted,  omitting  beasts 


JEP 


508 


JER 


and  lands.  2.  It  does  not  relate  to  private 
property,  as  in  the  foregoing.  3.  The  subject 
of  it  was  to  be  utterly  destroyed,  instead  of 
being  "  most  holy  unto  the  Lord."  This  law, 
therefore,  related  to  aliens  or  public  enemies 
devoted  to  destruction,  either  by  God,  by  the 
people,  or  by  the  magistrate.  Of  all  these  we 
have  instances  in  the  Scriptures  :  1.  The 
Amalekites  and  Oanaanites  were  devoted  by 
God  himself.  Saul,  therefore,  was  guilty  of  a 
breach  of  this  law  for  sparing  Agag,  the  king 
of  the  Amalekites,  as  Samuel  reproached  him, 
1  Sam.  xv,  23  :  and  "  Samuel  hewed  Agag  in 
pieces  before  the  Lord,"  not  as  a  sacrifice,  ac- 
cording to  Voltaire,  but  as  a  criminal,  "  whose 
sword  had  made  many  women  childless."  By 
this  law  the  Midianite  women,  who  had  been 
spared  in  battle,  were  slain,  Num.  xxxi,  14-17. 

2.  In  Mount  Hor,  when  the  Israelites  were 
attacked  by  Arad,  king  of  the  southern  Ca- 
naanites,  who  took  some  of  them  prisoners, 
they  vowed  a  vow  unto  the  Lord,  that  they 
would  utterly  destroy  these  Canaanites,  and 
their  cities,  if  the  Lord  should  deliver  them 
into  their  hand ;  which  the  Lord  ratified. 
Whence  the  place  was  called  Hhormah,  be- 
cause the  vow  was  accompanied  by  cherem, 
or  devotement  to  destruction,  Num.  xxi,  1-3. 
And  the  vow  was  accomplished,  Judges  i,  17. 

3.  In  the  Philistine  war,  Saul  adjured  the  peo- 
ple, and  cursed  any  one  that  should  taste  food 
until  the  evening.  His  own  son,  Jonathan, 
inadvertently  ate  a  honey  comb,  not  knowing 
of  his  father's  oath,  for  which  Saul  sentenced 
him  to  die.  But  the  people  interposed,  and 
rescued  him,  for  his  public  services  ;  thus  as- 
suming the  power  of  dispensing,  in  their  col- 
lective capacity,  with  an  unreasonable  oath, 
1  Sam.  xiv,  24-45.  This  latter  case,  therefore, 
is  utterly  irrelative  to  Jephthah's  vow,  which 
did  not  regard  a  foreign  enemy,  or  a  domestic 
transgressor,  devoted  to  destruction,  but,  on 
the  contrary,  was  a  vow  of  thanksgiving,  and 
therefore  properly  came  under  the  former  case. 
And  that  Jephthah  could  not  possibly  have 
sacrificed  his  daughter,  according  to  the  vul- 
gar opinion,  founded  on  incorrect  translation, 
may  appear  from  the  following  considerations  : 

1.  The  sacrifice  of  children  to  Moloch  was  an 
abomination  to  the  Lord,  of  which  in  number, 
less  passages,  he  expresses  his  detestation  ; 
and  it  was  prohibited  by  an  express  law,  un- 
der pain  of  death,  as  "  a  defilement  of  God's 
sanctuary,  and  a  profanation  of  his  holy  name," 
Levit.  xx,  2,  3.  Such  a  sacrifice,  therefore, 
unto  the  Lord  himself,  must  be  a  still  higher 
abomination.  And  there  is  no  precedent  of 
any  such  under  the  law,  in  the  Old  Testament. 

2.  The  case  of  Isaac  before  the  law,  is  irrele- 
vant;  for  Isaac  was  not  sacrificed;  and  it 
was  only  proposed  for  a  trial  of  Abraham's 
•faith.  3.  No  father,  mereiy  by  his  own  an- 
•thority,  could  put  an  offending,  much  less  an 
innocent,  child  to  death*  upon  any  account, 
without  the  sentence  of  the  magistrates,  Deut. 
xxi,  18-21,  and  the  consent  of  the  people,  as 
in  Jonathan's  case.  4.  The  Mischna,  or  tra- 
ditional law  of  the  Jews,  is  pointedly  against 
it :  "  If  a  Jew  should  devote  his  son  or  daugh- 


ter, his  man  or  maid  servant,  who  are  Hebrews, 
the  devotement  would  be  void ;  because  no 
man  can  devote  what  is  not  his  own,  or  of 
whose  life  he  has  not  the  absolute  disposal." 

These  arguments  appear  to  be  decisive 
•against  the  sacrifice  ;  and  that  Jephthah  could 
not  even  have  devoted  his  daughter  to  celibacy 
against  her  will,  is  evident  from  the  history, 
and  from  the  high  estimation  in  which  she 
was  always  held  by  the  daughters  of  Israel, 
for  her  filial  duty,  and  her  hapless  fate,  which 
they  celebrated  by  a  regular  anniversary  com- 
memoration four  days  in  the  year,  Judges 
xi,  40.  We  may,  however,  remark,  that,  if  it 
could  be  more  clearly  established  that  Jeph- 
thah actually  immolated  his  daughter,  there  is 
not  the  least  evidence  that  his  conduct  was 
sanctioned  by  God.  Jephthah  was  manifestly 
a  superstitious  and  ill-instructed  man,  and, 
like  Samson,  an  instrument  of  God's  power, 
rather  than  an  example  of  his  grace. 

JEREMIAH.  The  Prophet  Jeremiah  was 
of  the  sacerdotal  race,  being,  as  he  records 
himself,  one  of  the  priests  that  dwelt  at  Ana- 
thoth,  in  the  land  of  Benjamin,  a  city  appro- 
priated out  of  that  tribe  to  the  use  of  the 
priests,  the  sons  of  Aaron,  Joshua  xxi,  18,  and 
situate,  as  we  learn  from  St.  Jerom,  about 
three  miles  north  of  Jerusalem.  Some  have 
supposed  his  father  to  have  been  that  Hilkah, 
the  high  priest,  by  whom  the  book  of  the  law 
was  found  in  the  temple  in  the  reign  of  Josiah  : 
but  for  this  there  is  no  better  ground  than  his 
having  borne  the  same  name,  which  was  no 
uncommon  one  among  the  Jews ;  whereas, 
had  he  been  in  reality  the  high  priest,  he 
would  doubtless  have  been  mentioned  by  that 
distinguishing  title,  and  not  put  upon  a  level 
with  priests  of  an  ordinary  and  inferior  class. 
Jeremiah  appears  to  have  been  very  young 
when  he  was  called  to  the  exercise  of  the  pro- 
phetical office,  from  which  he  modestly  en- 
deavoured to  excuse  himself  by  pleading  his 
youth  and  incapacity ;  but  being  overruled  by 
the  divine  authority,  lie  set  himself  to  discharge 
the  duties  of  his  function  with  unremitted  dili- 
gence and  fidelity  during  a  period  of  at  least 
forty-two  years,  reckoned  from  the  thirteenth 
year  of  Josiah's  reign.  In  the  course  of  his 
ministry  he  met  with  great  difficulties  and 
opposition  from  his  countrymen  of  all  degrees, 
whose  persecution  and  ill  usage  sometimes 
wrought  so  far  upon  his  mind,  as  to  draw  from 
him  expressions,  in  the  bitterness  of  his  soul, 
which  many  have  thought  hard  to  reconcile 
with  his  religious  principles  ;  but  which,  when 
duly  considered,  may  be  found  to  demand  our 
pity  for  his  unremitted  sufferings,  rather  than 
our  censure  for  any  want  of  piety  and  reve- 
rence toward  God.  He  was,  in  truth,  a  man 
of  unblemished  piety  and  conscientious  in- 
tegrity; a  warm  lover  of  his  country,  whose 
misery  he  pathetically  deplores ;  and  so  af- 
fectionately attached  to  his  countrymen,  not- 
withstanding their  injurious  treatment  of  him, 
that  he  chose  rather  to  abide  with  them,  and 
undergo  ail  hardships  in  their  company,  than 
separately  to  enjoy  a  state  of  ease  and  plenty, 
which   the   favour   of  the   king  of  Babylon 


JER 


509 


JER 


would  have  secured  to  him.  At  length,  after 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  being  carried 
with  the  remnant  of  the  Jews  into  Egypt, 
whither  they  had  resolved  to  retire,  though 
contrary  to  his  advice,  upon  the  murder  of 
Gedaliah,  whom  the  Chaldeans  had  left  gover- 
nor in  Judea,  he  there  continued  warmly  to 
remonstrate  against  their  idolatrous  practices, 
foretelling  the  consequences  that  would  inevi- 
tably follow.  But  his  freedom  and  zeal  are  said 
to  have  cost  him  his  life  ;  for  the  Jews  at  Tah- 
panhes,  according  to  tradition,  took  such  of- 
fence at  him  that  they  stoned  him  to  death. 
This  account  of  the  manner  of  his  end,  though 
not  absolutely  certain,  is  at  least  very  probable, 
considering  the  temper  and  disposition  of  the 
parties  concerned.  Their  wickedness,  how- 
ever, did  not  long  pass  without  its  reward ; 
for,  in  a  few  years  after,  they  were  miserably 
destroyed  by  the  Babylonian  armies  which 
invaded  Egypt  according  to  the  prophet's  pre- 
diction, Jer.  xliv,  27,  28. 

The  idolatrous  apostasy,  and  other  criminal 
enormities   of  the   people   of  Judah,  and  the 
severe  judgments  which  God  was  prepared  to 
inflict  upon  them,  but  not  without  a  distant 
prospect  of  future  restoration  and  deliverance, 
are  the  principal  subject  matters  of  the  prophe- 
cies of  Jeremiah;  excepting  only  the  forty-fifth 
chapter,  which  relates  personally  to  Baruch, 
and  the  six  succeeding  chapters,  which  respect 
the  fortunes  of  some  particular  Heathen  na- 
tions.    It  is  observable,  however,  that  though 
many  of  these  prophecies  have  their  particular 
dates  annexed  to  them,  and  other  dates  may 
be    tolerably   well    conjectured    from    certain 
internal  marks  and  circumstances,  there  ap- 
pears much  disorder  in  the  arrangement.,  not 
easy  to  be  accounted  for  on  any  principle  of 
regular  design,  but  probably  the  result  of  some 
accident   or   other,   which    has  disturbed   the 
original  order.     The  best  arrangement  of  the 
chapters   appears  to  be  according  to  the  list 
which  will  be  subjoined  ;  the  different  reigns 
in  which  the  prophecies  were  delivered  were 
most  probably   as   follows :    The   first  twelve 
chapters  seem  to  contain  all  the  prophecies 
delivered  in  the  reign  of  the  good  King  Josiah. 
During  the  short  reign  of  Shallum,  or  Jehoa- 
haz,    his    second    son,    who    succeeded    him, 
Jeremiah  does  not  appear  to  have   had   any 
revelation.  Jehoiakim,  the  eldest  son  of  Josiah, 
succeeded.     The  prophecies  of  this  reign  are 
continued  on  from  the  thirteenth  to  the  twen- 
tieth chapter  inclusively ;  to  which  we  must,  add 
the  twenty-second,  twenty-third,  twenty-fifth, 
twenty-sixth,  thirty-fifth,  and  thirty-sixth  chap- 
ters, together  with  the  forty-fifth,  forty-sixth, 
forty-seventh,  and    most    probably  the  forty- 
eighth,  and  as  far  as  the  thirty-fourth  verse  of 
the  forty-ninth  chapter.     Jeconiah,  the  son  of 
Jehoiakim,  succeeded.  We  read  of  no  prophecy 
that  Jeremiah  actually  delivered  in  this  king's 
reign  ;  but  the  fate  of  Jeconiah,  his  being  car- 
ried into  captivity,    and  continuing  an  exile 
till  the  time  of  his  death,  were  foretold  early 
in  his  father's  reign,  as  may  be  particularly 
seen  in  the  twenty-second  chapter.     The  last 
king  of  Judah  was  Zedekiah,  the  youngest  son 


of  Josiah.  The  prophecies  delivered  in  his 
reign  are  contained  in  the  twenty-first  and 
twenty-fourth  chapters,  the  twenty-seventh 
to  the  thirty-fourth,  and  the  thirty-seventh  to 
the  thirty-ninth  inclusively,  together  with  the 
last  six  verses  of  the  forty-ninth  chapter,  and 
the  fiftieth  and  fifty-first  chapters  concerning 
the  fall  of  Babylon.  The  siege  of  Jerusalem, 
in  the  reign  of  Zedekiah,  and  the  capture  of 
the  city,  are  circumstantially  related  in  the 
fifty-second  chapter ;  and  a  particular  account 
of  the  subsequent  transactions  is  given  in  the 
fortieth  to  the  forty-fourth  inclusively.  The 
arrangement  of  the  chapters,  alluded  to  above, 
is  here  subjoined  :  i— XX,  xxii,  xxiii,  xxv,  xxvi, 
xxxv,  xxxvi,  xlv,  xxiv,  xxix-xxxi,  xxvii, 
xxviii,  xxi,  xxxiv,  xxxvii,  xxxii,  xxxiii,  xxxviii, 
xxxix,  from  the  fifteenth  to  the  eighteenth 
verse,  xxxix,  from  the  first  to  the  fourteenth 
verse,  xl-xliv,  xlvi,  and  so  on. 

The  prophecies  of  Jeremiah,  of  which  tho 
circumstantial  accomplishment  is  often  speci- 
fied in  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  are  of  a 
very  distinguished  and    illustrious  character. 
He  foretold  the  fate  of  Zedekiah,  Jer.  xxxiv, 
2-5 ;  2  Chron.  xxxvi,  11-21 ;  2  Kings  xxv,  5  ; 
Jer.    lii,    11 ;    the    Babylonish    captivity,    the 
precise  time  of  its  duration,  and  the  return  of 
the  Jews.     He  describes  the  destruction   of 
Babylon,  and  the  downfall  of  many  nations, 
Jer.  xxv,  12 ;  ix,  26 ;  xxv,  19-25  ;  x'lii,  10-18 ; 
xlvi,  and  the  following  chapters,  in  predictions, 
of  which  the  gradual  and  successive  comple- 
tion kept  up  the  confidence  of  the  Jews  for  tho 
accomplishment  of  those  prophecies,  which  he 
delivered  relative  to  the  Messiah  and  his  period, 
Jer.  xxiii,  5,  b' ;  xxx,  9  ;  xxxi,  15  ;  xxxii,  14-18  ; 
xxxiii,  9-26.     He  foreshowed  the  miraculous 
conception  of  Christ,  Jer.  xxxi,  22,  the  virtue 
of  his  atonement,  the  spiritual  character  of 
his  covenant,  and  the  inward  efficacy  of  his 
laws,  Jer.  xxxi,  31-36 ;  xxxiii,  8.     Jeremiah, 
contemplating    those    calamities    which    im- 
pended over  his  country,  represented,  in  tho 
most  descriptive  terms,  and   under  the  most 
impressive    images,  the  destruction    that   the- 
invading  enemy  should  produce.  He  bewailed, 
in  pathetic  expostulation,  the  shameless  adul- 
teries which  had  provoked  the  Almighty,  after 
long  forbearance,  to  threaten  Judah  with  in- 
evitable  punishment,    at  the    time    that   false 
prophets  deluded  the  nation  with  the  promises 
of  "assured  peace,"  and  when  the  people,  in 
impious  contempt  of  "the  Lord's  word,"  defied 
its    accomplishment.     Jeremiah    intermingles 
with  his  prophecies  some  historical  relations 
relative  to  his  own  conduct,  and  to  the  com- 
pletion  of  those    predictions    which    he    had 
delivered.     The   reputation   of  Jeremiah  had 
spread  among  foreign   nations,  and   his  pro- 
phecies were  deservedly  celebrated   in   other 
countries.     Many  Heathen  writers  also  have 
undesignedly  borne  testimony  to  the  truth  and 
accuracy  of  his  prophetic  and    historical  de- 
scriptions. 

As  to  the  style  of  Jeremiah,  says  Bishop 
Lowth,  this  prophet  is  by  no  means  wanting 
either  in  elegance  or  sublimity,  although, 
generally  speaking,  inferior  to  Isaiah  in  both 


JER 


510 


JER 


His  thoughts,  indeed,  are  somewhat  less  ele- 
vuted,  and  he  is  commonly  more  large  and 
diffuse  in  his  sentences  ;  but  the  reason  of  this 
may  be,  that  he  is  mostly  taken  up  with  the 
gentler  passions  of  grief  and  pity,  for  the 
expression  of  which  he  has  a  peculiar  talent. 
This  is  most  evident  in  the  Lamentations, 
where  those  passions  altogether  predominate  ; 
but  it  is  often  visible  also  m  his  prophecies,  in 
the  former  part  of  the  book  more  especially, 
which  is  principally  poetical ;  the  middle  parts 
are  chiefly  historical ;  but  the  last  part,  con- 
sisting of  six  chapters,  is  entirely  poetical,  and 
contains  several  oracles  distinctly  marked,  in 
which  this  prophet  falls  very  little  short  of  the 
lofty  style  of  Isaiah.  But  of  the  whole  book 
of  Jeremiah  it  is  hardly  the  one  half  which  I 
look  upon  as  poetical. 

Jeremiah  survived  to  behold  the  sad  ac- 
complishment of  all  his  darkest  predictions. 
He  witnessed  all  the  horrors  of  the  famine, 
and,  when  that  had  done  its  work,  the  triumph 
of  the  enemy.  He  saw  the  strong  holds  of 
the  city  cast  down,  the  palace  of  Solomon, 
the  temple  of  God,  with  all  its  courts,  its  roofs 
of  cedar  and  of  gold,  levelled  to  the  earth,  or 
committed  to  the  flames ;  the  sacred  vessels, 
the  ark  of  the  covenant  itself,  with  the  cheru- 
bim, pillaged  by  profane  hands.  What  were 
the  feelings  of  a  patriotic  and  religious  Jew  at 
this  tremendous  crisis,  he  has  left  on  record  in 
his  unrivalled  elegies.  Never  did  city  suffer 
a  more  miserable  fate,  never  was  ruined  city 
lamented  in  language  so  exquisitely  pathetic. 
Jerusalem  is,  as  it  were,  personified,  and  be- 
wailed with  the  passionate  sorrow  of  private 
and  domestic  attachment ;  while  the  more 
general  pictures  of  the  famine,  the  common 
misery  of  every  rank,  and  age,  and  sex,  all  the 
desolation,  the  carnage,  the  violation,  the 
dragging  away  into  captivity,  the  remembrance 
of  former  glories,  of  the  gorgeous  ceremonies 
and  the  glad  festivals,  the  awful  sense  of  the 
divine  wrath  heightening  the  present  calami- 
ties, are  successively  drawn  with  all  the  life 
and  reality  of  an  eye-witness.  They  combine 
the  truth  of  history  with  the  deepest  pathos 
of  poetry. 

JERICHO  was  a  city  of  Benjamin,  about 
seven  leagues  from  Jerusalem,  and  two  from 
the  Jordan,  Joshua  xviii,  21.  Moses  calls  it 
the  city  of  palm  trees,  Deut.  xxxiv,  3,  because 
of  palm  trees  growing  in  the  plain  of  Jericho. 
Josephus  says,  that  in  the  territory  of  this  city 
were  not  only  many  palm  trees,  but  also  the 
balsam  tree.  The  valley  of  Jericho  was  wa- 
tered by  a  rivulet  which  had  been  formerly 
ealt  and  bitter,  but  was  sweetened  by  the  Pro- 
phet  Elisha,  2  Kings  ii,  19.  Jericho  was  the 
first  city  in  Canaan  taken  by  Joshua,  ii,  1,  2, 
&c.  He  sent  thither  spies,  who  were  received 
by  Rahab,  lodged  in  her  house,  and  preserved 
from  the  king  of  Jericho.  Joshua  received 
orders  to  besiege  Jericho,  soon  after  his  pas- 
sage over  Jordan,  Joshua  vi,  1-3,  &e.  God 
commanded  the  Hebrews  to  march  round  the 
city  once  a  day  for  seven  days  together.  The 
soldier6  marched  first,  probably  out  of  the 
»each  of  the  enemies'  arrows,  and  after  them 


the  priests,  the  ark,  &c.  On  the  seventh  day, 
they  marched  seven  times  round  the  city  ;  and 
at  the  seventh,  while  the  trumpets  were  sound- 
ing, and  all  the  people  shouting,  the  walls  fell 
down.  The  rabbins  say,  that  the  first  dav  was 
our  Sunday,  and  the  seventh  the  Sabbath  day. 
During  the  first  six  days,  the  people  continued 
in  profound  silence  ;  but  on  the  seventh  Joshua 
commanded  thein  to  shout.  Accordingly  they 
all  exerted  their  voices,  and  the  walls  being 
overthrown,  they  entered  the  city,  every  man 
in  the  place  opposite  to  him.  Jericho  being 
devoted  by  God,  they  set  fire  to  the  city,  and 
consecrated  all  the  gold,  silver,  and  brass. 
Then  Joshua  said,  "  Cursed  be  the  man  before 
the  Lord  who  shall  rebuild  Jericho."  About 
five  hundred  and  thirty  years  after  this,  Hiel, 
of  Bethel,  undertook  to  rebuild  it ;  but  he  lost 
his  eldest  son,  Abirain,  at  laying  the  founda- 
tions, and  his  youngest  son,  Segub,  when  he 
hung  up  the  gates.  However,  we  are  not  to 
imagine  that  there  was  no  city  of  Jericho  till 
the  time  of  Hiel.  There  was  a  city  of  palm 
trees,  probably  the  same  as  Jericho,  under  the 
Judges,  Judges  iii,  13.  David's  ainbassadors, 
who  had  been  insulted  by  the  Ammonites, 
resided  at  Jericho  till  their  beards  were  grown, 
2  Sam.  x,  4.  There  was,  therefore,  a  city  of 
Jericho  which  stood  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  original  Jericho.  These  two  places  are 
distinguished  by  Josephus.  After  Hiel  of  Be- 
thel had  rebuilt  old  Jericho,  no  one  scrupled 
to  dwell  there.  Our  Saviour  wrought  miracles 
at  Jericho. 

According  to  Pococke,  the  mountains  to 
which  the  absurd  name  of  Quarantania  has 
been  arbitrarily  given,  are  the  highest  in  all 
Judea  ;  and  he  is  probably  correct ;  they  form 
part  of  a  chain  extending  from  Scythopofis 
into  Idumea.  The  fountain  of  Elisha  he  states 
to  be  a  soft  water,  rather  warm  ;  he  found  in 
it  some  small  shell  fish  of  the  turbinated  kind. 
Close  by  the  ruined  aqueduct  are  the  remains 
of  a  fine  paved  way,  with  a  fallen  column, 
supposed  to  be  a  Roman  milestone.  The  bills 
nearest  to  Jerusalem  consist,  according  to 
Hasselquist,  of  a  very  hard  limestone  ;  and 
different  sorts  of  plants  are  found  on  them,  in 
particular  the  myrtle,  the  carob  tree,  and  the 
turpentine  tree ;  but  farther  toward  Jericho 
tbey  are  bare  and  barren,  the  hard  limestone 
giving  way  to  a  looser  kind,  sometimes  white 
and  sometimes  grayish,  with  interjacent  layers 
of  a  reddish  micaceous  stone,  saxum  pvrinn 
micaceitm.  The  vales,  though  now  bare  and  un- 
cultivated, and  full  of  pebbles,  contain  good 
red  mould,  which  would  amply  reward  the  hus- 
bandman's toil.  Nothing  can  be  more  savago 
than  the  present  aspect  of  these  wild  and 
gloomy  solitudes,  through  which  runs  the  very 
road  where  is  laid  the  scone  of  that  exquisite 
parable,  the  good  Samaritan,  and  from  (hat. 
time  to  the  present,  it  has  been  the  haunt  of 
the  most  desperate  bandits,  being  one  of  the 
most  dangerous  in  Palestine.  Sometimes  the 
track  leads  along  the  edges  of  cliffs  and  preci- 
pices, which  threaten  destruction  on  the 
slightest  false  step ;  at  other  times  it  winds 
through  craggy  passes,  overshadowed  by  pro- 


JER 


511 


JER 


jecting  or  perpendicular  rocks.  At  one  place 
the  road  has  been  cut  through  the  very  apex 
of  a  hill,  the  rocks  overhanging  it  on  either 
side.  Here,  in  1820,  an  English  traveller,  Sir 
Frederick  Henniker,  was  attacked  by  the 
Arabs  with  fire-arms,  who  stripped  him  naked, 
and  left  him  severely  wounded  :  "  It  was  past 
mid-day,  and  burning  hot,"  says  Sir  Frederick  ; 
"  I  bled  profusely ;  and  two  vultures,  whose 
business  it  is  to  consume  corpses,  were  hover, 
ing  over  me.  I  should  scarcely  have  had 
strength  to  resist,  had  they  chosen  to  attack 
me." 

The  modern  village  of  Jericho  is  described 
by  Mr.  Buckingham  as  a  settlement  of  about 
fifty  dwellings,  all  very  mean  in  their  appear- 
ance, and  fenced  in  front  with  thorny  bushes, 
while  a  barrier  of  the  same  kind,  the  most 
effectual  that  could  be  raised  against  mounted 
Arabs,  encircles  the  town.  A  fine  brook  flows 
by  it,  which  empties  itself  into  the  Jordan ;  the 
nearest  point  of  that  river  is  about  three  miles 
distant.  The  grounds  in  the  immediate  vicinity 
of  the  village,  being  fertilized  by  this  stream, 
bear  crops  of  dourra,  Indian  corn,  rice,  and 
onions.  The  population  is  entirely  Moham- 
medan, and  is  governed  by  a  sheikh  :  their 
habits  are  those  of  Bedouins,  and  robbery  and 
plunder  form  their  chief  and  "most  gainful  oc- 
cupation. The  whole  of  the  road  from  Jeru- 
salem to  the  Jordan,  is  held  to  be  the  most 
dangerous  in  Palestine ;  and  indeed,  in  this 
portion  of  it,  the  very  aspect  of  the  scenery  is 
sufficient,  on  the  one  hand,  to  tempt  to  robbery 
and  murder,  and,  on  the  other,  to  occasion  a 
dread  of  it  in  those  who  pass  that  way.  One 
must  be  amid  these  wild  and  gloomy  solitudes, 
surrounded  by  an  armed  band,  and  feel  the 
impatience  of  the  traveller  who  rushes  on  to 
catch  a  new  view  at  every  pass  and  turn ;  one 
must  be  alarmed  at  the  very  tramp  of  the  horses' 
hoofs  rebounding  through  the  caverned  rocks, 
and  at  the  savage  shouts  of  the  footmen, 
scarcely  less  loud  than  the  echoing  thunder 
produced  by  the  discharge  of  their  pieces  in  the 
valleys ;  one  must  witness  all  this  upon  the 
spot,  before  the  full  force  and  beauty  of  the 
admirable  story  of  the  good  Samaritan  can  be 
perceived.  Here,  pillage,  wounds,  and  death 
would  be  accompanied  with  double  terror,  from 
the  frightful  aspect  of  every  thing  around. 
Here,  the  unfeeling  act  of  passing  by  a  fellow 
creature  in  distress,  as  the  priest  and  Levite 
are  said  to  have  done,  strikes  one  with  horror, 
as  an  act  almost  more  than  inhuman.  And 
here,  too,  the  compassion  of  the  good  Samari- 
tan is  doubly  virtuous,  from  the  purity  of  the 
motive  which  must  have  led  to  it,  in  a  spot 
where  no  eyes  were  fixed  on  him  to  draw  forth 
the  performance  of  any  duty,  and  from  the 
bravery  which  was  necessary  to  admit  of  a 
man's  exposing  himself,  by  such  delay,  to  the 
risk  of  a  similar  fate  to  that  from  which  he  was 
endeavouring  to  rescue  his  fellow  creature. 

JEROBOAM,  the  son  of  Nebat  and  Zeruah, 
was  born  at  Zereda,  in  the  tribe  of  Ephraim, 
1  Kings  xi,  26.  He  is  the  subject  of  frequent 
mention  in  Scripture,  as  having  been  the  cause 
of  the  ten  tribes  revolting  from  the  dominion 


of  Rehoboam,  and  also  of  his  having  "  made 
Israel  to  sin,"  by  instituting  the  idolatrous  wor- 
ship of  the  golden  calves  at  Dan  and  Bethel, 
1  Kings  xii,  26-33.  He  seems  to  have  been  a 
bold,  unprincipled,  and  enterprising  man,  with 
much  of  the  address  of  a  deep  politician  about 
him  ;  qualities  which  probably  pointed  him  out 
to  King  Solomon  as  a  proper  person  to  be  en- 
trusted with  the  obnoxious  commission  of 
levying  certain  taxes  throughout  the  tribes  of 
Ephraim  and  Manasseh.  On  a  certain  day, 
as  Jeroboam  was  going  out  of  Jerusalem  into 
the  country,  having  a  new  cloak  wrapped  about 
his  shoulders,  the  Prophet  Ahijah  met  him 
in  a  field  where  they  were  alone,  and  seizing 
the  cloak  of  Jeroboam,  he  cut  it  into  twelve 
pieces,  and  then  addressing  him,  said,  "  Take 
ten  of  them  to  thyself;  for  thus  saith  the  Lord, 
I  will  divide  and  rend  the  kingdom  of  Solomon, 
and  will  give  ten  tribes  to  thee.  If,  therefore, 
thou  obeyest  my  word  and  walkest  in  my  ways 
as  David  my  servant  has  done,  I  will  be  with 
thee,  and  will  establish  thy  house  for  ever,  and 
put  thee  in  possession  of  the  kingdom  of  Is 
rael,"  1  Kings  xi,  14-39.  Whether  it  were  that 
the  promises  thus  made  by  Ahijah  prompted 
Jeroboam  to  aim  at  taking  their  accomplish- 
ment into  his  'own  hands,  and,  with  a  view  to 
that,  began  to  solicit  the  subjects  of  Solomon 
to  revolt ;  or  whether  the  bare  information  of 
what  had  passed  between  the  prophet  and 
Jeroboam,  excited  his  fear  and  jealousy,  it 
appears  evident  that  the  aged  monarch  took 
the  alarm,  and  attempted  to  apprehend  Jero- 
boam, who,  getting  notice  of  what  was  in- 
tended him,  made  a  precipitate  retreat  into 
Egypt,  where  he  remained  till  the  death  of 
Solomon.  He  then  returned,  and  found  that 
Rehoboam,  who  had  succeeded  his  father 
Solomon  in  the  throne  of  David,  had  already 
excited  the  disgust  often  of  the  tribes  by  some 
arbitrary  proceedings,  in  consequence  of  which 
they  had  withdrawn  their  allegiance  from  the 
new  monarch.  These  tribes  no  sooner  heard 
of  his  return  than  they  invited  him  to  appear 
among  them  in  a  general  assembly,  in  which 
they  elected  him  to  be  king  over  Israel.  Jero- 
boam fixed  his  residence  at  Shechem,  and  there 
fortified  himself;  he  also  rebuilt  Penuel,  a  city 
beyond  Jordan,  putting  it  into  a  state  of  de- 
fence, in  order  to  keep  the  tribes  quiet  which 
were  on  that  side  Jordan,  1  Kings  xii,  1-25. 

But  Jeroboam  soon  forgot  the  duty  which 
he  owed  to  God,  who  had  given  him  the  king- 
dom ;  and  thought  of  nothing  but  how  to  main- 
tain himself  in  the  possession  of  it,  though  he 
discarded  the  worship  of  the  true  God.  The 
first  suggestion  of  his  unbelieving  heart  was, 
that  if  the  tribes  over  whom  he  reigned  were 
to  go  up  to  Jerusalem  to  sacrifice  and  keep  the 
annual  festivals,  they  would  be  under  continual 
temptations  to  return  to  the  house  of  David. 
To  counteract  this,  he  caused  two  golden 
calves  to  be  made  as  objects  of  religious  wor- 
ship, one  of  which  he  placed  at  Dan,  and  the 
other  at  Bethel,  the  two  extremities  of  his 
dominions ;  and  caused  a  proclamation  to  be 
made  throughout  all  his  territories,  that  in 
future  none  of  his  subjects  should  go  up  to 


JER 


512 


JER 


Jerusalem  to  worship ;  and,  directing  them  to 
the  two  calves  which  had  been  recently  erect- 
ed, he  cried  out,  "Behold  thy  gods,  O  Israel, 
which  brought  thee  up  out  of  Egypt !"  He 
also  caused  idolatrous  temples  to  be  built,  and 
priests  to  be  ordained  of  the  lowest  of  the  peo- 
ple, who  were  neither  of  the  family  of  Aaron 
nor  of  the  tribe  of  Levi,  1  Kings  xii,  26-33. 
Having  appointed  a  solemn  public  festival  to 
be  observed  on  the  fifteenth  day  of  the  eighth 
month,  in  order  to  dedicate  li is  new  altar  and 
consecrate  his  golden  calves,  he  assembled  the 
people  at  Bethel,  and  himself  went  up  to  the 
altar  for  the  purpose  of  ottering  incense  and 
sacrifices.  At  that  instant  a  prophet,  who  had 
come,  divinely  directed,  from  Judah  to  Bethel, 
accosted  Jeroboam,  and  said,  "  O  altar,  altar, 
thus  saith  the  Lord,  A  child  shall  be  born  to 
the  house  of  David,  Josiah  by  name  ;  and  upon 
thee  shall  he  sacrifice  the  priests  of  the  high 
places  who  now  burn  incense  upon  thee  :  he 
shall  burn  men's  bones  upon  thee."  To  con- 
firm the  truth  of  this  threatening,  the  prophet 
also  added  a  sign,  namely,  that  the  altar  should 
immediately  be  rent  asunder,  and  the  ashes  and 
every  tiling  upon  it  poured  upon  the  earth. 
Jeroboam,  incensed  at  this  interference  of  the 
prophet,  stretched  out  his  hand  and  com- 
manded him  to  be  seized  ;  but  the  hand  which 
he  had  stretched  out  was  instantly  paralyzed, 
and  he  was  unable  to  draw  it  back  again.  The 
altar,  too,  was  broken,  and  the  ashes  upon  it 
fell  to  the  ground  according  to  the  prediction 
of  the  prophet.  Jeroboam  now  solicited  his 
prayers  that  his  Viand  might  be  restored  to  him. 
The  man  of  God  interposed  his  supplication  to 
Heaven,  and  the  king's  hand  was  restored  to 
him  sound  as  before.  Jeroboam  then  entreated 
him  that  he  would  accompany  him  to  his  own 
house,  and  accept  a  reward  ;  but  he  answered, 
"Though  thou  shouldst  give  me  the  half  of 
thine  house,  I  would  not  go  with  thee,  nor 
will  I  taste  any  thing  in  this  place,  for  the 
Lord  hath  expressly  forbidden  me  to  do  so." 
1  Kings  xiii,  1-10.  But  notwithstanding  this 
manifest  indication  of  the  displeasure  of  Hea- 
ven, it  failed  of  recovering  Jeroboam  from  his 
impious  procedure.  He  continued  to  encou- 
rage his  subjects  in  idolatry,  by  appointing 
priests  of  the  high  places,  and  engaging  them 
in  such  worship  as  was  contrary  to  the  divine 
law.  This  was  the  sin  of  Jeroboam's  family, 
and  it  was  the  cause  of  its  utter  extirpation. 
Some  time  after  his  accession  to  the  throne  of 
Israel,  his  favourite  son  Abijah  fell  sick,  and, 
to  relieve  his  parental  solicitude,  Jeroboam 
instructed  his  wife  to  disguise  herself,  and  in 
that  state  to  go  and  consult  the  Prophet  Ahijah 
concerning  his  recovery.  This  was  the 
prophet  who  had  foretold  to  Jeroboam  that  he 
should  be  king  of  Israel.  He  was  now  blind 
through  old  age ;  but  the  prophet  was  warned 
of  her  approach,  and,  before  she  entered  his 
threshold,  be  called  her  by  name,  told  her  that 
her  son  should  die,  and  then,  in  appalling 
term6,  denounced  the  impending  ruin  of  Jero- 
boam's whole  family,  which  shortly  after  came 
to  pass.  After  a  reign  of  two-and-twenty 
years,   Jeroboam   died,   and   Nadab,   his  son, 


succeeded  to  the  crown,  1  Kings  xiii,  33,  34 
xiv,  1-20. 

2.  Jeroboam,  the  second  of  that  name,  was 
the  son  of  Jehoash,  king  of  Israel.  He  sue 
ceeded  to  his  father's  royal  dignity,  A.  M.  3179, 
and  reigned  forty-one  years.  Though  much 
addicted  to  the  idolatrous  practices  of  the  son 
of  Nebat,  yet  the  Lord  was  pleased  so  far  to 
prosper  his  reign,  that  by  his  means,  accord- 
ing to  the  predictions  of  the  Prophet  Jonah, 
the  kingdom  of  the  ten  tribes  was  restored 
from  a  state  of  great  decay,  into  which  it  had 
fallen,  and  was  even  raised  to  a  pitch  of  ex- 
traordinary splendour.  The  Prophets  Amos 
and  Hosea,  as  well  as  Jonah,  lived  during  this 
reign. 

JERUSALEM,  formerly  called  Jebus,  or 
Salem,  Joshua  xviii,  28 ;  Heb.  vii,  2,  the  capi- 
tal of  Judea,  situated  partly  in  the  tribe  of 
Benjamin,  and  partly  in  that  of  Judah.  It  was 
not  completely  reduced  by  the  Israelites  till 
the  reign  of  David,  2  Sam.  v,  6-9.  As  Jeru- 
Balera  was  the  centre  of  the  true  worship, 
Psalm  exxii,  4,  and  the  place  where  God  did 
in  a  peculiar  manner  dwell,  first  in  the  taber- 
nacle, 2  Sam.  vi,  7,  12  ;  1  Chron.  xv,  1 ;  xvi,  1  ; 
Psalm  exxxii,  13;  exxxv,  2,  and  afterward  in 
the  temple,  1  Kings  vi,  13 ;  so  it  is  used  figu- 
ratively to  denote  the  church,  or  the  celestial 
society,  to  which  all  that  believe,  both  Jews 
and  Gentiles,  are  come,  and  in  which  they  are 
initiated,  Gal.  iv,  26 ;  Heb.  xii,  22 ;  Rev.  iii, 
12;  xxi,  2,  10.  Jerusalem  was  situated  in  a 
stony  and  barren  soil,  and  was  about  sixty 
furlongs  in  length,  according  to  Strabo.  The 
territory  and  places  adjacent  were  well  watered, 
having  the  fountains  of  Gihon  and  Siloam,  and 
the  brook  Kidron,  at  the  foot  of  its  walls  ;  and, 
beside  these,  there  were  the  waters  of  Ethan, 
which  Pilate  had  conveyed  through  aqueducts 
into  the  city.  The  ancient  city  of  Jerusalem, 
or  Jebus,  which  David  took  from  the  Jebu- 
sites,  was  not  very  large.  It  was  seated  upon 
a  mountain  southward  of  the  temple.  The 
opposite  mountain,  situated  to  the  north,  is 
Sion,  where  David  built  a  new  city,  which  he 
called  the  city  of  David,  wherein  was  the 
royal  palace,  and  the  temple  of  the  Lord. 
The  temple  was  built  upon  Mount  Moriah, 
which  was  one  of  the  little  hills  belonging  to 
Mount  Sion. 

Through  the  reigns  of  David  and  Solomon, 
Jerusalem  was  the  metropolis  of  the  whole 
Jewish  kingdom,  and  continued  to  increase  in 
wealth  and  splendour.  It  was  resorted  to  at 
the  festivals  by  the  whole  population  of  the 
country  ;  and  the  power  and  commercial  spirit 
of  Solomon,  improving  the  advantages  acquired 
by  his  father  David,  centred  in  it  most  of  the 
eastern  trade,  both  by  sea,  through  the  ports 
of  Elath  and  Ezion-Geber,  and  over  land,  by 
the  way  of  Tadmor  or  Palmyra.  Or,  at  least, 
though  Jerusalem  might  not  have  been  made 
a  depot  of  merchandise,  the  quantity  of  pre- 
cious metals  flowing  into  it  by  direct  importa- 
tion, and  by  duties  imposed  on  goods  passing 
to  the  ports  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  in  other 
directions,  was  unbounded.  Some  idea  of  the 
prodigious  wealth  of  Jerusalem  at  this  t.im«» 


JER 


513 


JER 


may  be  formed  by  stating,  that  the  quantity  of 
gold  left  by  David  for  the  use  of  the  temple 
amounted  to  £21,600,000  sterling,  beside 
.£3,150,000  in  silver ;  and  Solomon  obtained 
£3,240,000  in  gold  by  one  voyage  to  Ophir, 
while  silver  was  so  abundant,  "  that  it  was  not 
any  thing  accounted  of."  These  were  the  days 
of  Jerusalem's  glory.  Universal  peace,  un- 
measured wealth,  the  wisdom  and  clemency 
of  the  prince,  and  the  worship  of  the  true  God, 
marked  Jerusalem,  above  every  city,  as  enjoy- 
ing the  presence  and  the  especial  favour  of  the 
Almighty.  But  these  days  were  not  to  last 
long  :  intestine  divisions  and  foreign  wars, 
wicked  and  tyrannical  princes,  and,  last  of  all, 
the  crime  most  offensive  to  Heaven,  and  the 
one  least  to  be  expected  among  so  favoured  a 
people,  led  to  a  series  of  calamities,  through 
the  long  period  of  nine  hundred  years,  with 
which  no  other  city  or  nation  can  furnish  a 
parallel.  After  the  death  of  Solomon,  ten  of 
the  twelve  tribes  revolted  from  his  successor 
Rehoboam,  and,  under  Jeroboam,  the  son  of 
Nebat,  established  a  separate  kingdom  :  so  that 
Jerusalem,  no  longer  the  capital  of  the  whole 
empire,  and  its  temple  frequented  only  by  the 
tribes  of  Judah  and  Benjamin,  must  have  ex. 
perienced  a  mournful  declension.  Four  years 
after  this,  the  city  and  temple  were  taken  and 
plundered  by  Shishak,  king  of  Egypt,  1  Kings 
xiv,  26,  27 ;  2  Chron.  xii,  2-9.  One  hundred 
and  forty-five  years  after,  under  Amaziah,  they 
sustained  the  same  fate  from  Joash,  king  of 
Israel,  2  Kings  xiv ;  2  Chron.  xxv.  One  hun- 
dred and  sixty  years  from  this  period,  the  city 
was  again  taken,  by  Esarhaddon,  king  of 
Assyria ;  and  Manasseh,  the  king,  carried  a 
prisoner  to  Babylon,  2  Chron.  xxxiii.  Within 
the  space  of  sixty-six  years  more  it  was  taken 
by  Pharaoh-Necho,  king  of  Egypt,  whom  Jo- 
siah,  king  of  Judah,  had  opposed  in  his  expedi- 
tion to  Carchemish ;  and  who,  in  consequence, 
was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Megiddo,  and  his  son 
Eliakim  placed  on  the  throne  in  his  stead  by 
Necho,  who  changed  his  name  to  Jehoiakim, 
and  imposed  a  heavy  tribute  upon  him,  having 
sent  his  elder  brother,  Jehoahaz,  who  had  been 
proclaimed  king  at  Jerusalem,  a  prisoner  to 
Egypt,  where  he  died,  2  Kings  xxiii ;  2  Chron. 
xxxv.  Jerusalem  was  three  times  besieged 
and  taken  by  Nebuchadnezzar,,  king  of  Baby- 
lon, within  a  very  few  years.  The  first,  in 
the  reign  of  the  last  mentioned  king,  Jehoia- 
kim, who  was  sent  a  prisoner  to  Babylon,  and 
the  vessels  of  the  temple  transported  to  the 
same  city,  2  Chron.  xxxvi.  The  second,  in 
that  of  his  son  Jehoiachin  ;  when  all  the  trea- 
sures of  the  palace  and  the  temple,  and  the 
remainder  of  the  vessels  of  the  latter  which 
had  been  hidden  or  spared  in  the  first  capture, 
were  carried  away  or  destroyed,  and  the  best 
of  the  inhabitants,  with  the  king,  led  into 
captivity,  2  Kings  xxiv  ;  2  Chron.  xxxvi.  And 
the  third,  in  the  reign  of  Zedekiah,  the  suc- 
cessor of  Jehoiachin  ;  in  whose  ninth  year  the 
most  formidable  siege  which  this  ill  fated  city 
ever  sustained,  except  that  of  Titus,  was  com- 
menced. It  continued  two  years ;  during  a 
great  part  of  which  the  inhabitants  suffered 
34 


all  the  horrors  of  famine  :  when,  on  the  ninth 
day  of  the  fourth  month,  in  the  eleventh  year 
of  Zedekiah,  which  answers  to  July  in  the  year 
B.  C.  588,  the  garrison,  with  the  king,  endea- 
voured to  make  their  escape  from  the  city,  but 
were  pursued  and  defeated  by  the  Chaldeans 
in  the  plains  of  Jericho ;  Zedekiah  taken 
prisoner  ;  his  sons  killed  before  his  face  at 
Riblah,  whither  he  was  taken  to  the  king  of 
Babylon ;  and  he  himself,  after  his  eyes  were 
put  out,  was  bound  with  fetters  of  brass,  and 
carried  prisoner  to  Babylon,  where  he  died  : 
thus  fulfilling  the  prophecy  of  Ezekiel,  which 
declared  that  he  should  be  carried  to  Babylon, 
but  should  not  see  the  place,  though  he  should 
die  there,  Ezekiel  xii,  13.  In  the  following 
month,  the  Chaldean  army,  under  their  gene- 
ral, Nebuzaradan,  entered  the  city,  took  away 
every  thing  that  was  valuable,  and  then  burned 
and  utterly  destroyed  it,  with  its  temple  and 
walls,  and  left  the  whole  razed  to  the  ground. 
The  entire  population  of  the  city  and  country, 
with  the  exception  of  a  few  husbandmen,  were 
then  carried  captive  to  Babylon. 

During  seventy  years,  the  city  and  temple 
lay  in  ruins :  when  those  Jews  who  chose  to 
take  immediate  advantage  of  the  proclamation 
of  Cyrus,  under  the  conduct  of  Zerubbabel,  re- 
turned to  Jerusalem,  and  began  to  build  the 
temple  ;  all  the  vessels  of  gold  and  silver  be- 
longing to  which,  that  had  been^taken  away 
by  Nebuchadnezzar,  being  restored- by>Cyrus. 
Their  work,  however,  did  not  proceed  far 
without  opposition ;  for  in  the  reign  of  Cam- 
byses,  the  son  of  Cyrus,  who  in  Scripture  is 
called  Ahasuerus,  the  Samaritans  presented  a 
petition  to  that  monarch  to  put  a  stop  to  the 
building,  -Ezra  iv,  G.  Cambyses  appears  to 
have  been  too  busily  engaged  in  his  Egyptian 
expedition  to  pay  any  attention  to  this  malicious 
request.  His  successor,  Smerdis,  the  Magian, 
however,  who  in  Scripture  is  called  Artaxerxes, 
to  whom  a  similar  petition  was  sent,  repre. 
senting  the  Jews  as  a  factious  and  dangerous 
people,  listened  to  it,  and,  in  the  true  spirit  of 
a  usurper,  issued  a  decree  putting  a  stop  to 
the  farther  building  of  the  temple,  Ezra  iv,  7, 
&c ;  which,  in  consequence,  remained  in  an 
unfinished  state  till  the  second  year,  according 
to  the  Jewish,  and  third,  according  to  the 
Babylonian  and  Persian  account,  of  Darius 
Hystaspes,  who  is  called  simply  Darius  in 
Scripture.  To  him  also  a  representation 
hostile  to  the  Jews  was  made  by  their  invete- 
rate enemies,  the  Samaritans  ;  but  this  noble 
prince  refused  to  listen  to  it,  and  having 
searched  the  rolls  of  the  kingdom,  and  found 
in  the  palace  at  Acmetha  the  decree  of  Cyrus, 
issued  a  similar  one,  which  reached  Jerusalem 
in  the  subsequent  year,  and  even  ordered  these 
very  Samaritans  to  assist  the  Jews  in  their 
work ;  so  that  it  was  completed  in  the  sixth 
year  of  the  same  reign,  Ezra  iv,  24 ;  v  ;  vi, 
1-15.  But  the  city  and  walls  remained  in  a 
ruinous  condition  until  the  twentieth  year  of 
Artaxerxes,  the  Artaxerxes  Longimanus  of 
profane  history  ;  by  whom  Nehemiah  was  sent 
to  Jerusalem,  with  a  power  granted  to  him  to 
rebuild  them.     Accordingly,  under  the. direc- 


JER 


514 


JER 


tion  of  this  zealous  servant  of  God,  the  walls 
were  speedily  raised,  but  not  without  the  ac- 
customed opposition  on  the  part  of  the  Sama- 
ritans ;  who,  despairing  of  the  success  of  an 
application  to  the  court  of  Persia,  openly  at- 
tacked the  Jews  with  arms.  But  the  building, 
notwithstanding,  went  steadily  on  ;  the  men 
working  with  an  implement  of  work  in  one 
hand,  and  a  weapon  of  war  in  the  other;  and 
the  wall,  with  incredible  labour,  was  finished 
in  fifty-two  days,  in  the  year  B.  C.  415  ;  after 
whirh,  the  city  itself  was  gradually  rebuilt, 
Neh.  ii,  iv,  vi.  From  this  time  Jerusalem  re- 
mained attached  to  the  Persian  empire,  but 
under  the  local  jurisdiction  of  the  high  priests, 
until  the  subversion  of  that  empire  by  Alexan- 
der, fourteen  years  after.     See  Alexander. 

At  the  death  of  Alexander,  and  the  parti- 
tion of  his  empire  by  his  generals,  Jerusalem, 
with  Judea,  fell  to  the  kings  of  Syria.  But  in 
the  frequent  wars  which  followed  between  the 
kings  of  Syria  and  those  of  Egypt,  called  by 
Daniel,  the  kings  of  the  north  and  south,  it 
belonged  sometimes  to  one  and  sometimes  to 
tho  other, — an  unsettled  and  unhappy  state, 
highly  favourable  to  disorder  and  corruption, — 
the  high  priesthood  was  openly  sold  to  the 
highest  bidder ;  and  numbers  of  the  Jews  de- 
serted their  religion  for  the  idolatries  of  the 
Greeks.  At  length,  in  the  year  B.  C.  170, 
Antiochus  Epiphanes,  king  of  Syria,  enraged 
at  hearing  that  the  Jews  had  rejoiced  at  a  false 
report  of  his  death,  plundered  Jerusalem,  and 
killed  eighty  thousand  men.  Not  more  than 
two  years  afterward,  this  cruel  tyrant,  who 
had  seized  every  opportunity  to  exercise  his 
barbarity  on  the  Jews,  sent  Apollonius  with 
an  army  to  Jerusalem  ;  who  pulled  down  the 
walls,  grievously  oppressed  the  people,  and 
built  a  citadel  on  a  rock  adjoining  the  temple, 
which  commanded  that  building,  and  had  the 
effect  of  completely  overawing  the  seditious. 
Having  thus  reduced  this  unfortunate  city 
into  entire  submission,  and  rendered  resist- 
ance useless,  the  next  step  of  Antiochus  was 
to  abolish  the  Jewish  religion  altogether,  by 
publishing  an  edict  which  commanded  all  the 
people  of  his  dominions  to  conform  to  the  re. 
ligron  of  the  Greeks  :  in  consequence  of  which, 
the  service  of  the  temple  ceased,  and  a  statue 
of  Jupiter  Olympus  was  set  up  on  the  altar. 
But  this  extremity  of  ignominy  and  oppression 
led,  as  might  have  been  expected,  to  rebellion  ; 
and  those  Jews  who  still  held  their  insulted 
religion  in  reverence,  fled  to  the  mountains, 
with  Mattathias  and  Judas  Maccabeus  ;  the  lat- 
ter of  whom,  after  the  deatli  of  Mattathias,  who 
with  his  followers  and  successors,  are  known 
by  the  name  of  Maccabees,  waged  successful 
War  with  the  Syrians;  defeated  Apollonius, 
Nicanor,  and  Lysias,  generals  of  Antiochus; 
obtained  possession  of  Jerusalem,  purified  the 
temple,  and  restored  the  service,  after  three 
years'  defilement  by  the  Gentile  idolatries. 

From  this  time,  during  several  succeeding 
Maecabean  rulers,  who  were  at  once  high 
priests  and  sovereigns  of  the  Jews,  hut  with- 
out the  title  of  king,  Jerusalem  was  able  to 
preserve  itself  from  Syrian  violence.     It  was, 


however,  twice  besieged,  first  by  Antiochus 
Eupator,  in  the  year  163,  and  afterward  by 
Antiochus  Sidetes,  in  the  year  B.  C.  134.  But 
the  Jews  had  caused  themselves  to  be  suffi- 
ciently respected  to  obtain  conditions  of  peace 
on  both  occasions,  and  to  save  their  city  ;  till, 
at  length,  Hyrcanus,  in  the  year  130  B.  C., 
shook  off  the  Syrian  yoke,  and  reigned,  after 
this  event,  twenty. one  years  in  independence 
and  prosperity.  His  successor,  Judas,  made 
an  important  change  in  the  Jewish  govern- 
ment, by  taking  the  title  of  king,  which  dig- 
nity was  enjoyed  by  his  successors  forty-seven 
years,  when  a  dispute  having  arisen  between 
Hyrcanus  II.  and  his  brother  Aristobulus,  and 
the  latter  having  overcome  the  former,  and 
made  himself  king,  was,  in  his  turn,  conquer- 
ed by  the  Romans  under  Pompey,  by  whom 
the  city  and  temple  were  taken,  Aristobulus 
made  prisoner,  and  Hyrcanus  created  high 
priest  and  prince  of  the  Jews,  but  without  the 
title  of  king.  By  this  event  Judea  was  re- 
duced to  the  condition  of  a  Roman  province, 
in  the  year  63  B.  C.  Nor  did  Jerusalem  long 
after  enjoy  the  dignity  of  a  metropolis,  that 
honour  being  transferred  to  Caasarea.  Julius 
Caesar,  having  defeated  Pompey,  continued 
Hyrcanus  in  the  high  priesthood,  but  bestow- 
ed the  government  of  Judea  upon  Antipater, 
an  Idumaean  by  birth,  but  a  Jewish  proselyte, 
and  father  of  Herod  the  Great.  For  the  siege 
and  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Romans, 
see  Jews. 

Jerusalem  lay  in  ruins  about  forty-seven 
years,  when  the  Emperor  jEHus  Adrian  began 
to  build  it  anew,  and  erected  a  Heathen  tem- 
ple, which  ho  dedicated  to  Jupiter  Capitolinus. 
The  city  was  finished  in  the  twentieth  year  of 
his  reign,  and  called,  after  its  founder,  iEIia,. 
or  YElia  Capitolina,  from  the  Heathen  deity 
who  presided  over  it.  In  this  state  Jerusalem 
continued,  under  the  name  of  jElia,  and  in- 
habited more  by  Christians  and  Pagans  than 
by  Jews,  till  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Constan- 
tinc,  styled  the  Great ;  who,  about  the  year 
323,  having  made  Christianity  the  religion  of 
I  ho  empire,  began  to  improve  it,  adorned  it 
with  many  new  edifices  and  churches,  and  re- 
stored its  ancient  name.  About  thirty-five 
years  afterward,  Julian,  named  the  Apostate, 
not  from  any  love  he  bore  the  Jews,  but  out 
of  hatred  to  the  Christians,  whose  faith  he 
had  abjured,  and  with  the  avowed  design  of 
defeating  the  prophecies,  which  had  declared 
that  the  temple  should  not  be  rebuilt,  wrote  to 
the  Jews,  inviting  them  to  their  city,  and  pro- 
mising to  restore  their  temple  and  nation. 
He  accordingly  employed  great  numbers  of 
workmen  to  clear  the  foundations;  but  balls 
of  tire  bursting  from  the  earth,  soon  put  a  stop 
to  their  proceeding.  This  miraculous  inter- 
position of  Providence  is  attested  by  many 
credible  witnesses  and  historians ;  and,  in 
particular,  by  Ammianus  Marcellinus,  a  Hea- 
then, and  friend  of  Julian;  Zemuch  David,  a 
Jew;  Nazianzen,  Chrysostom,  Ambrose  Ruf- 
finus,  Theodoret,  Sozcmen,  and  Socrates, 
who  wrote  his  account  within  fifty  years  after 
the  transaction,  and  while  many  eye-witnesses 


JER 


515 


JER 


of  it  were  still  living.  So  stubborn,  indeed, 
is  the  proof  of  this  miracle,  that  even  Gib- 
bon,  who  strives  to  invalidate  it,  is  obliged  to 
acknowledge  the  general  fact. 

Jerusalem  continued  in  nearly  the  same 
condition  till  the  beginning  of  the  seventh 
century,  when  it  was  taken  and  plundered  by 
the  celebrated  Chosroes,  king  of  Persia,  by 
whom  many  thousands  of  the  Christian  inha- 
bitants were  killed,  or  sold  for  slaves.  The 
Persians,  however,  did  not  hold  it  long,  as 
they  were  soon  after  entirely  defeated  by  the 
Emperor  Heraclius,  who  rescued  Jerusalem, 
and  restored  it,  not  to  the  unhappy  Jews,  who 
were  forbidden  to  come  within  three  miles  of 
it.  but  to  the  Christians.  A  worse  calamity 
was,  however,  speedily  to  befall  this  ill  fated 
city.  The  Mohammedan  imposture  arose 
about  this  time  ;  and  the  fanatics  who  had 
adopted  its  creed  carried  their  arms  and  their 
religion  with  unprecedented  rapidity  over  the 
greater  part  of  the  east.  The  Caliph  Omar,  the 
third  from  Mohammed,  invested  the  city, 
which,  after  once  more  suffering  the  horrors  of 
a  protracted  siege,  surrendered  on  terms  of  ca- 
pitulation in  the  year  637  ;  and  has  ever  since, 
with  the  exception  of  the  short  period  that  it 
was  occupied  by  the  crusaders,  been  trodden 
under  foot  by  the  followers  of  the  false  pro- 
phet. 

2.  The  accounts  of  modern  Jerusalem  by 
travellers  are  very  numerous.  Mr.  Conder, 
in  his  "  Palestine,"  has  abridged  them  with 
judgment ;  and  we  give  the  following  extract : 
The  approach  to  Jerusalem  from  Jaffa  is  not 
the  direction  in  which  to  see  the  city  to  the 
best  effect.  Dr.  E.  D.  Clarke  entered  it  by 
the  Damascus  gate  :  and  he  describes  the  view 
of  Jerusalem,  when  first  descried  from  the 
summit  of  a  hill,  at  about  an  hour's  distance, 
as  most  impressive.  He  confesses,  at  the 
same  time,  that  there  is  no  other  point  of  view 
in  which  it  is  seen  to  so  much  advantage.  In 
the  celebrated  prospect  from  the  Mount  of 
Olives,  the  city  lies  too  low,  is  too  near  the 
eye,  and  has  too  much  the  character  of  a  bird's 
eye  view,  with  the  formality  of  a  topographi- 
cal plan.  "  We  had  not  been  prepared,"  says 
this  lively  traveller,  "  for  the  grandeur  of  the 
spectacle  which  the  city  alone  exhibited.  In- 
stead of  a  wretched  and  ruined  town,  by  some 
described  as  the  desolated  remnant  of  Jerusa- 
lem, we  beheld,  as  it  were,  a  flourishing  and 
stately  metropolis,  presenting  a  magnificent  as- 
semblage of  domes,  towers,  palaces,  churches, 
and  monasteries ;  all  of  which,  glittering 
in  the  sun's  rays,  shone  with  inconceivable 
splendour.  As  we  drew  nearer,  our  whole 
attention  was  engrossed  by  its  noble  and 
interesting  appearance.  The  lofty  hills  sur- 
rounding it  give  the  city  itself  an  appearance 
of  elevation  less  than  it  really  has."  Dr. 
Clarke  was  fortunate  in  catching  tbis  first, 
view  of  Jerusalem  under  the  illusion  of  a  bril7 
liant  evening  sunshine  ;  but  his  description  i-< 
decidedly  overcharged.  M.  Chateaubriand, 
Mr.  Buckingham,  Mr.  Brown,  Mr.  Jol-liffe,  Sir 
F.  Henniker,  and  almost  every  other -modern 
traveller,  confirm  the  representation  of  Dr. 


Richardson.     Mr.    Buckingham    says,    "  The 
appearance  of  this  celebrated  city,  independent 
of  the   feelings  and  recollections  which   the 
approach  to   it  cannot   fail   to   awaken,    was 
greatly  inferior  to  rny  expectations,  and  had 
certainly  nothing  of  grandeur  or  beauty,  of 
stateliness  or  magnificence,  about  it.     It  ap- 
peared   like   a  walled    town   of  the  third  or 
fourth  class,  having  neither  towers,  nor  domes, 
nor  minarets  within  it,  in  sufficient  numbers 
to  give  even  a  character  to  its  impressions  on 
the  beholder ;    but  showing  chiefly  large  flat- 
roofed  buildings  of  the  most  unornainented 
kind,  seated  amid  rugged  hills,  on  a  stony  and 
forbidding    soil,    with    scarcely  a  picturesque 
object  in  the  whole  compass  of  the  surround- 
ing   view."      Chateaubriand's    description    is 
very  striking  and  graphical.     After  citing  the 
language  of  the  Prophet  Jeremiah,  in  his  la- 
mentations on  the  desolation  of  the  ancient 
city,  as  accurately  portraying  its  present  state, 
Lam.  i,  1-6 ;   ii,   1-9,  15,  he  thus  proceeds : 
"  When  seen  from  the  Mount  of  Olives,  on 
the  other  side  of  the  Valley  of  Jehoshaphat, 
Jerusalem  presents  an  inclined  plane,  descend- 
ing from  west  to  east.     An    embattled  wall, 
fortified  with  towers,  and  a  Gothic  castle,  en- 
compasses the  city  all  round ;  excluding,  how- 
ever, part  of  Mount  Zion,  which  it  formerly 
enclosed.     In  the  western  quarter,  and  in  the 
centre  of  the  city,  the  houses  stand  very  close  ; 
but,    in    the    eastern    part,    along    the    brook 
Kedron,  you  perceive  vacant  spaces  ;    among 
the   rest,   that  which   surrounds  the   mosque 
erected  on  the  ruins  of  the  temple,  and  the 
nearly  deserted  spot  where  once  stood  the  cas- 
tle of  Antonia  and  the  second  palace  of  Herod. 
The    houses  of  Jerusalem  are  heavy    square 
masses,  very  low,  without  chimneys  or  win- 
dows :  they  have  flat  terraces  or  domes  on  the 
top,  and  look  like  prisons  or  sepulchres.    The 
whole  would  appear  to  the  eye  one  uninter- 
rupted level,  did  not  the  steeples  of  the  church- 
es, the  minarets  of  Ihe  mosques,  the  summits 
of  a  few  cypresses,  and  the  clumps  of  nopals, 
break  the  uniformity  of  the  plan.     On  behold- 
ing these  stone  buildings,  encompassed _  by  a 
stony  country,  you  are  ready  to  inquire  if  they 
are  not  the  confused  monuments  of  a  cemetry 
in  the  midst  of  a  desert.     Enter  the  city,  but 
nothing  will  you  there  find  to  make  amends 
for  the  dulness  of  its  exterior.    You  lose  your- 
self among  narrow,  unpaved  streets,  here  going 
up  hill,  there  down,  from  the  inequality  of  the 
ground  ;    and  you  walk  among  clouds  of  dust 
or  loose  stones.    Canvas  stretched  from  house 
to  house  increases  the  gloom  of  this  labyrinth. 
Bazaars,  roofed  over,  and  fraught   with  infec- 
tion, completely  exclude  the  light   from  the 
desolate    city.      A    few    paltry   shops    expose 
nothing  but  wretchedness  to  view  ;    and  even 
these  are  frequently  shut,  from  apprehension 
of  the  passage  of  a"cadi.     Not  a  creature  is  to- 
be  seen  in  the  streets,  not  a  creature  at  the 
gatejj  except  now  and  then  a  peasant  gliding 
through  the  gloom,  concealing  under. his  gait. 
merits  the  fruits  of  irforfeboor,  lest  he  should 
be  robbed  of  his  hard  earnings  by  the  rapacioua 
|  soldier.     Aside,  in  a  corner,  the  Arab  butcher 


JER 


516 


JER 


is  slaughtering  some  animal,  suspended  by  the 
legs  from  a  wall  in  ruins :  from  his  haggard 
and  ferocious  look,  and  his  bloody  hands,  you 
would  suppose  that  he  had  been  cutting  the 
throat  of  a  fellow  creature,  rather  than  killing 
a  lamb.  The  only  noise  heard  from  time  to 
time  in  the  city  is  the  galloping  of  the  steed 
of  the  desert :  it  is  the  janissary  who  brings 
the  head  of  the  Bedouin,  or  who  returns  from 
plundering  the  unhappy  Fellah.  Amid  this 
extraordinary  desolation,  you  must  pause  a 
moment  to  contemplate  two  circumstances 
still  more  extraordinary.  Among  the  ruins  of 
Jerusalem,  two  classes  of  independent  people 
find  in  their  religion  sufficient  fortitude  to 
enable  them  to  surmount  such  complicated 
horrors  and  wretchedness.  Here  reside  com- 
munities of  Christian  monks,  whom  nothing 
can  compel  to  forsake  the  tomb  of  Christ ; 
neither  plunder,  nor  personal  ill  treatment,  nor 
menaces  of  death  itself.  Night  and  day  they 
chant  their  hymns  around  the  holy  sepulchre. 
Driven  by  the  cudgel  and  the  sabre,  women, 
children,  flocks,  and  herds,  seek  refuge  in  the 
cloisters  of  these  recluses.  What  prevents 
the  armed  oppressor  from  pursuing  his  prey, 
and  overthrowing  such  feeble  ramparts  ?  The 
charity  of  the  monks  :  they  deprive  themselves 
of  the  last  resources  of  life  to  ransom  their 
suppliants.  Cast  your  eyes  between  the  tem- 
ple and  Mount  Zion ;  behold  another  petty 
tribe  cut  off  from  the  rest  of  the  inhabitants  of 
this  city.  The  particular  objects  of  every 
species  of  degradation,  these  people  bow  their 
heads  without  murmuring ;  they  endure  every 
kind  of  insult  without  demanding  justice ; 
they  sink  beneath  repeated  blows  without  sigh- 
ing ;  if  their  head  be  required,  they  present  it 
to  the  scimitar.  On  the  death  of  any  member 
of  this  proscribed  community,  his  companion 
goes  at  night,  and  inters  him  by  stealth  in  the 
Valley  of  Jehoshaphat,  in  the  shadow  of  Solo- 
mon's temple.  Enter  the  abodes  of  these  peo- 
ple, you  will  find  them,  amid  the  most  abject 
wretchedness,  instructing  their  children  to  read 
a  mysterious  book,  which  they  in  their  turn 
will  teach  their  offspring  to  read.  What  they 
did  five  thousand  years  ago,  these  people  still 
continue  to  do.  Seventeen  times  have  they 
witnessed  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  yet 
nothing  can  discourage  them,  nothing  can 
prevent  them  from  turning  their  faces  toward 
Sion.  To  see  the  Jews  scattered  over  the 
whole  world,  according  to  the  word  of  God, 
must  doubtless  excite  surprise.  But  to  be 
struck  with  supernatural  astonishment,  you 
must  view  them  at  Jerusalem  ;  you  must  be- 
hold these  rightful  masters  of  Judea  living  as 
slaves  and  strangers  in  their  own  country ; 
you  must  behold  them  expecting,  under  all  op- 
pressions, a  lung  who  is  to  deliver  them. 
Crushed  by  the  cross  that  condemns  them, 
skulking  near  the  temple,  of  which  not  one 
6tone  is  left  upon  another,  they  continue  in 
their  deplorable  infatuation.  The  Persians, 
the  Greeks,  the  Romans,  are  swept  from  trite 
earth  ;  and  a  petty  tribe,  whose  origin  pre- 
ceded that  of  those  great  nations,  st.il!  exists 
unmixed  among  the  ruins  of  its  native  land." 


To  the  same  effect  are  the  remarks  of  Dr. 
Richardson  :  "  In  passing  up  to  the  synagogue, 
I  was  particularly  struck  with  the  mean  and 
wretched  appearance  of  the  houses  on  both 
sides  of  the  streets,  as  well  as  with  the  poverty 
of  their  inhabitants.  The  sight  of  a  poor  Jew 
in  Jerusalem  has  in  it  something  peculiarly 
affecting.  The  heart  of  this  wonderful  people, 
in  whatever  clime  they  roam,  still  turns  to  it 
as  the  city  of  their  promised  rest.  They  take 
pleasure  in  her  ruins,  and  would  kiss  the  very 
dust  for  her  sake.  Jerusalem  is  the  centre 
around  which  the  exiled  sons  of  Judah  build, 
in  imagination,  the  mansions  of  their  future 
greatness.  In  whatever  part  of  the  world  he 
may  live,  the  heart's  desire  of  a  Jew  is  to  be 
buried  in  Jerusalem.  Thither  they  return  from 
Spain  and  Portugal,  from  Egypt  and  Barbary, 
and  other  countries  among  which  they  have 
been  scattered  :  and  when,  after  all  their  long- 
ings, and  all  their  struggles  up  the  steeps  of 
life,  we  see  them  poor,  and  blind,  and  naked, 
in  the  streets  of  their  once  happy  Zion,  he 
must  have  a  cold  heart  that  can  remain  un- 
touched by  their  sufferings,  without  uttering  a 
prayer  that  God  would  have  mercy  on  the 
darkness  of  Judah ;  and  that  the  Day  Star  of 
Bethlehem  might  arise  in  their  hearts." 

"Jerusalem,"  remarks  Sir  Frederick  Hen- 
niker,  "is  called,  even  by  Mohammedans,  the 
Blessed  City  {El  Gootz,  El  Koudes.)  The 
streets  of  it  are  narrow  and  deserted,  the  houses 
dirty  and  ragged,  the  shops  few  and  forsaken  ; 
and  throughout  the  whole  there  is  not  one 
symptom  of  either  commerce,  comfort,  or  hap- 
piness. The  best  view  of  it  is  from  the  Mount 
of  Olives :  it  commands  the  exact  shape  and 
nearly  every  particular ;  namely,  the  church 
of  the  holy  sepulchre,  the  Armenian  convent, 
the  mosque  of  Omar,  St.  Stephen's  gate,  the 
round-topped  houses,  and  the  barren  vacancies 
of  the  city.  Without  the  walls  are  a  Turkish 
burial  ground,  the  tomb  of  David,  a  small  grove 
near  the  tombs  of  the  kings,  and  all  the  rest  is 
a  surface  of  rock,  on  which  are  a  few  numbered 
trees.  The  mosque  of  Omar  is  the  St.  Peter's 
of  Turkey,  and  the  respective  saints  aso  held 
respectively  by  their  own  faithful  in  equal 
veneration.  The  building  itself  has  a  light 
pagoda  appearance ;  the  garden  in  which  it 
stands  occupies  a  considerable  part  of  the  cityr 
and,  contrasted  with  the  surrounding  desert, 
is  beautiful.  The  burial  place  of  the  Jews  is 
over  the  valley  of  Kedron,  and  the  fees  for 
breaking  the  soil  afford  a  considerable  revenue 
to  the  governor.  The  burial  place  of  the  Turks 
is  under  the  walls,  near  St.  Stephen's  gate. 
From  the  opposite  side  of  the  valley,  I  was 
witness  to  tho  ceremony  of  parading  a  corpse 
round  the  mosque  of  Omar,  and  then  bringing 
it  forth  for  burial.  I  hastened  to  the  grave, 
but.  was  soon  driven  away  :  as  far  as  my  on  dit 
tells  mo,  it  would  have  been  worth  seeing. 
The  grave  is  strown  with  red  earth,  supposed 
to  be  of  the  Ager  Damascenus  of  which  Adam, 
was  made  ;  by  the  side  of  the  corpse  is  placed 
a  stick,  and  the  priest  tells  him  that  the  devil 
will  tempt  him  to  become  a  Christian,  but 
that  he  must  make  good  use  of  his  stick  ;  that 


JER 


517 


JER 


his  trial  will  last  three  days,  and  that  he  will 
then  find  himself  in  a  mansion  of  glory,"  &c. 
The  Jerusalem  of  sacred  history  is,  in  fact, 
no  more.  Not  a  vestige  remains  of  the  capital 
of  David  and  Solomon ;  not  a  monument  of 
Jewish  times  is  standing.  The  very  course 
of  the  walls  is  changed,  and  the  boundaries  of 
the  ancient  city  are  become  doubtful.  The 
monks  pretend  to  sho\v  the  sites  of  the  sacred 
places ;  but  neither  Calvary,  nor  the  holy  se- 
pulchre, mftch  less  the  DolorousWay,  the  house 
of  Caiaphas,  &.c,  have  the  slightest  pretensions 
to  even  a  probable  identity  with  the  real  places 
to  which  the  tradition  refers.  Dr.  E.  D.  Clarke 
has  the  merit  of  being  the  first  modern  travel- 
ler who  ventured  to  speak  of  the  preposterous 
legends  and  clumsy  forgeries  of  the  priests  with 
the  contempt  which  they  merit.  "  To  men 
interested  in  tracing,  within  its  walls,  antiqui- 
ties referred  to  by  the  documents  of  sacred  his- 
tory, no  spectacle,"  remarks  the  learned  tra- 
veller, "  can  be  more  mortifying  than  the  city 
in  its  present  state.  The  mistaken  piety  of 
the  early  Christians,  in  attempting  to  preserve, 
has  either  confused  or  annihilated  the  memo- 
rials it  was  anxious  to  render  conspicuous. 
Viewing  the  havoc  thus  made,  it  may  now  be 
regretted  that  the  Holy  Land  was  ever  rescued 
from  the  dominion  of  Saracens,  who  were  far 
less  barbarous  than  their  conquerors.  The 
absurdity,  for  example,  of  hewing  the  rocks  of 
Judea  into  shrines  and  chapels,  and  of  disguis- 
ing the  face  of  nature  with  painted  domes  and 
guilded  marble  coverings,  by  way  of  com- 
memorating the  scenes  of  our  Saviour's  life 
and  death,  is  so  evident  and  so  lamentable, 
that  even  Sandys,  with  all  his  credulity,  could 
not  avoid  a  happy  application  of  the  reproof 
conveyed  by  the  Roman  satirist  against  a  simi- 
lar violation  of  the  Egerian  fountain."  Dr. 
Richardson  remarks,  "  It  is  a  tantalizing  cir- 
cumstance for  the  traveller  who  wishes  to  re- 
cognise in  his  walks  the  site  of  particular 
buildings,  or  the  scenes  of  memorable  events, 
that  the  greater  part  of  the  objects  mentioned 
in  the  description  both  of  the  inspired  and  the 
Jewish  historian,  are  entirely  removed,  and 
razed  from  their  foundation,  without  leaving 
a  single  trace  or  name  behind  to  point  out 
where  they  stood.  Not  an  ancient  tower,  or 
gate,  or  wall,  or  hardly  even  a  stone,  remains. 
The  foundations  are  not  only  broken  up,  but 
every  fragment  of  which  they  were  composed 
is  swept  away,  and  the  spectator  looks  upon 
the  bare  rock  with  hardly  a  sprinkling  of 
earth  to  point  out  her  gardens  of  pleasure,  or 
groves  of  idolatrous  devotion.  And  when  we 
consider  the  palaces,  and  towers,  and  walls 
about  Jerusalem,  and  that  the  stones  of  which 
some  of  them  were  constructed  were  thirty 
feet  long,  fifteen  feet  broad,  and  seven  and  a 
half  feet  thick,  we  are  not  more  astonished  at 
the  strength,  and  skill,  and  perseverance,  by 
which  they  were  constructed,  than  shocked  by 
the  relentless  and  brutal  hostility  by  which 
they  were  shattered  and  overthrown,  and 
utterly  removed  from  our  sight.  A  few  gar- 
dens still  remain  on  the  sloping  base  of  Mount 
Zion,  watered  from  the  pool  of  Siloam ;  the 


gardens  of  Gethsemane  are  still  in  a  sort  of 
ruined  cultivation  ;  the  fences  are  broken  down, 
and  the  olive  trees  decaying,  as  if  the  hand 
that  dressed  and  fed  them  were  withdrawn  ; 
the  Mount  of  Olives  still  retains  a  languishing 
verdure,  and  nourishes  a  few  of  those  trees 
from  which  it  derives  its  name ;  but  all  round 
about  Jerusalem  the  general  aspect  is  blighted 
and  barren ;  the  grass  is  withered ;  the  bare 
rock  looks  through  the  scanty  sward  ;  and  the 
grain  itself,  like  the  staring  progeny  of  famine, 
seems  in  doubt  whether  to  come  to  maturity, 
or  die  in  the  ear.  The  vine  that  was  brought 
from  Egypt  is  cut  off  from  the  midst  of  the 
land ;  the  vineyards  are  wasted ;  the  hedges 
are  taken  away  ;  and  the  graves  of  the  ancient 
dead  are  open  and  tenantless." 

3.  On  the  accomplishment  of  prophecy  in 
the  condition  in  which  this  celebrated  city  has 
lain  for  ages,  Keith  well  remarks : — It  formed 
the  theme  of  prophecy  from  the  death  bed  of 
Jacob  ;  and,  as  the  seat  of  the  government  of 
the  children  of  Judah,  the  sceptre  departed  not 
from  it  till  the  Messiah  appeared,  on  the  expi- 
ration of  seventeen  hundred  years  after  the 
death  of  the  patriarch,  and  till  the  period  of 
its  desolation,  prophesied  of  by  Daniel,  had 
arrived.  It  was  to  be  trodden  down  of  the 
Gentiles,  till  the  time  of  the  Gentiles  should 
be  fulfilled.  The  time  of  the  Gentiles  is  not 
yet  fulfilled,  and  Jerusalem  is  still  trodden 
down  of  the  Gentiles.  The  Jews  have  often 
attempted  to  recover  it :  no  distance  of  space 
or  of  time  can  separate  it  from  their  affections  : 
they  perform  their  devotions  with  their  faces 
toward  it,  as  if  it  were  the  object  of  their  wor- 
ship as  well  as  of  their  love  ;  and,  although 
their  desire  to  return  be  so  strong,  indelible, 
and  innate,  that  every  Jew,  in  every  genera- 
tion, counts  himself  an  exile,  yet  they  have 
never  been  able  to  rebuild  their  temple,  nor  to 
recover  Jerusalem  from  the  hands  of  the  Gen- 
tiles. But  greater  power  than  that  of  a  pro- 
scribed and  exiled  race  has  been  added  to  their 
own,  in  attempting  to  frustrate  the  counsel 
that  professed  to  be  of  God.  Julian,  the  em- 
peror of  the  Romans,  not  only  permitted  but 
invited  the  Jews  to  rebuild  Jerusalem  and  their 
temple ;  and  promised  to  reestablish  them  in 
their  paternal  city.  By  that  single  act,  more 
than  by  all  his  writings,  he  might  have  destroy- 
ed the  credibility  of  the  Gospel,  and  restored 
his  beloved  but  deserted  Paganism.  The  zeal 
of  the  Jews  was  equal  to  his  own  ;  and  the 
work  was  begun  by  laying  again  the  founda- 
tions of  the  temple.  It  was  never  accomplished, 
and  the  prophecy  stands  fulfilled.  But  even 
if  the  attempt  of  Julian  had  never  been  made, 
the  truth  of  the  prophecy  itself  is  unassailable. 
The  Jews  have  never  been  reinstated  in  Judea. 
Jerusalem  has  ever  been  trodden  down  of  the 
Gentiles.  The  edict  of  Adrian  was  renewed 
by  the  successors  of  Julian  ;  and  no  Jews  could 
approacli  unto  Jerusalem  but  by  bribery  or  by 
stealth.  It  was  a  spot  unlawful  for  them  to 
touch.  In  the  crusades,  all  the  power  of 
Europe  was  employed  to  rescue  Jerusalem 
from  the  Heathens,  but  equally  in  vain.  It 
has  been  trodden  down   for   nearly  eighteen 


JE3 


518 


JES 


centuries  by  its  successive  masters ;  by  Romans, 
Grecians,  Persians,  Saracens,  Mamelukes, 
Turks,  Christians,  and  again  by  the  worst  of 
rulers,  the  Arabs  and  the  Turks.  And  could 
any  thing  be  more  improbable  to  have  happen- 
ed, or  more  impossible  to  have  been  fot 
by  man,  than  that  any  people  should  be  banish- 
ed from  their  own  capital  and  country,  and 
remain  expelled  and  expatriated  for  nearly 
eighteen  hundred  years  ?  Did  the  same  fate 
ever  befall  any  nation,  though  no  prophecy  ex- 
isted respecting  it?  Is  there  any  doctrine  in 
Scripture  so  hard  to  be  believed  as  was  this 
single  fact  at  the  period  of  its  prediction  ?  And 
even  with  the  example  of  the  Jews  before  us, 
is  it  likely,  or  is  it  credible,  or  who  can  foretel, 
that  the  present  inhabitants  of  any  country 
upon  earth  shall  be  banished  into  all  nations, 
retain  their  distinctive  character,  meet  with  an 
unparalleled  fate,  continue  a  people,  without  a 
government  and  without  a  country,  and  remain 
for  an  indefinite  period,  exceeding  seventeen 
hundred  years,  til!  the  fulfilment  of  a  pre- 
scribed event  which  has  yet  to  be  accomplished? 
Must  not  the  knowledge  of  such  truths  be  de- 
rived from  that  prescience  alone  which  scans 
alike  the  will  and  the  ways  of  mortals,  the  ac- 
tions of  future  nations,  and  the  history  of  the 
latest  generations  ? 

JESHURUN,  a  name  given  to  the  collective 
political  body  of  Israelites.  Some  derive  the 
word  from  -\z>\  just  or  righteous,  and  so  make 
it  to  signify  a  righteous  people.  Montanus 
renders  it  rectituao,  and  so  does  the  Sama- 
ritan version.  But  it  seems  a  considerable 
objection  against  this  sense,  that  Israel  is  call- 
ed Jeshurun  at  the  very  time  that  they  are  up- 
braided with  their  sins  and  their  rebellion : 
"Jeshurun  waxed  fat,  and  kicked,"  &c,  Dent, 
xxxii,  15.  It  is  replied,  Jeshurun  is  the  dimi- 
nutive of  rflpi,  (for  nomen  auctum  in  fine  est 
nomen  diminutivttm,)  and  so  imports,  that 
though,  in  general  and  on  the  whole,  they 
were  a  righteous  people,  yet  they  were  not 
without  great  fimlts.  Perhaps  Cocccius  has 
given  as  probable  an  interpretation  as  any. 
He  derives  the  word  from  iw,  which  signifies 
to  see,  behold,  or  discover :  from  whence,  in  the 
future  tense,  plural,  comes  nil's  which,  witli 
the  addition  of  nun  paragogicvm,  makes  Jeshu- 
run; that  is,  ••tin-  people  who  had  the  vision 
of  God.''  This  makes  the  name  of  Jeshurun 
lobe  properly  applied  to  Israel,  u<<\  only  when 
Moses  is  called  their  king,  but  when  thej  are 
upbraided  with  their  rebellion  against.  God; 
since  the  peculiar  manifestation  which  God 
had  made  of  himself  to  them  was  a  great 
ation  of  their  ingratitude  and  rebellion. 

JESSE.    See  David  and  Ruth. 

JESUITS,  di'  the  society  of  Jesus,  one  of 
the  most  celebrated  monastic  orders  of  the 
Romish  church,  was  founded  in  the  year  1540, 
by  Ignatius  Loyola.  Forsaking  the  military 
for  the  ecclesiastical  profession,  he  engaged 
himself  in  the  wildest  and  most  extravagant 
adventure-:,  as  tie-  blight  ofthe  hlcssed  virgin. 
After  performing  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy 
Land,  and  pursuing  ;i  multitude  of  visionary 
schemes,  he  returned  to  prosecute  his  theolo- 


gical studies  in  the  universities  of  Spain,  when 
he  was  about  thirty-three  years  of  age.  He 
next  went  to  Paris,  where  he  collected  a  small 
number  of  associates  ;  and,  prompted  by  his 
fanatical  spirit,  or  the  love  of  distinction,  be- 
gan to  conceive  the  establishment  of  a  new 
religious  order.  He  produced  a  plan  of  its 
constitution  and  laws,  which  he  affirmed  to 
have  been  suggested  by  the  immediate  inspira- 
tion of  Heaven,  and  applied  to  the  Roman  pon- 
tiff, Paul  III.  for  the  sanction  of  hft  authority 
to  confirm  the  institution.  At  a  time  when 
the  papal  authority  had  received  so  severe  a 
shock  from  the  progress  of  the  Reformation, 
and  was  still  exposed  to  the  most  powerful 
attacks  in  every  quarter,  this  was  an  offer  too 
tempting  to  be  resisted.  The  reigning  pontiff, 
though  naturally  cautious,  and  though  scarcely 
capable,  without  the  spirit  of  prophecy,  of  fore- 
seeing all  the  advantages  to  be  derived  from 
the  services  of  this  nascent  order,  yet  clearly 
perceiving  tl*e  benefit  of  multiplying  the  num- 
ber of  his  devoted  servants,  instantly  confirm- 
ed by  his  bull  the  institution  of  the  Jesuits, 
granted  the  most  ample  privileges  to  the  mem- 
bers of  the  society,  and  appointed  Loyola  to 
be  the  first  general  ofthe  order. 

2.  The  simple  and  primary  object  of  the 
society,  says  a  writer  in  the  Edinburgh  En- 
cyclopfedia,  was  to  establish  a  spiritual  domi- 
nion over  the  minds  of  men,  of  which  the  pope 
should  appear  as  the  ostensible  head,  while  the 
real  power  should  reside  with  themselves.  To 
accomplish  this  object,  the  whole  constitution 
and  policy  of  the  order  were  singularly  adapt- 
ed, and  exhibited  various  peculiarities  which 
distinguished  it  from  all  other  monastic  orders. 
The  immediate  design  of  every  other  religious 
society  was  to  separate  its  members  from  the 
world  ;  that  of  the  Jesuits,  to  render  them 
masters  ofthe  world.  The  inmate  ofthe  con- 
vent devoted  himself  to  work  out  his  own  sal- 
vation by  extraordinary  acts  of  devotion  and 
self-denial ;  the  follower  of  Loyola  considered 
himself  as  plunging  into  all  the  bustle  of  secu- 
lar affairs,  to  maintain  the  interests  of  the 
Romish  church.  The  monk  was  a  retired 
devotee  of  heaven  ;  the  Jesuit  a  chosen  soldier 
ofthe  pope.  That  the  members  ofthe  new 
order  might  have  full  leisure  for  this  active 
service,  they  were  exempted  from  the  usual 
functions  of  other  monks.  They  were  not 
required  to  spend  their  time  in  the  long  cere- 
monial offices  and  numberless  mummeries  of 
the  Romish  worship.  The}-  attended  no  pro- 
cessions, and  practised  no  austerities.  They 
neither  chanted  nor  prayed.  "They  cannot 
sing,"  said  their  enemies  ;  "  for  birds  of  prey 
never  do."  They  were  sent  forth  to  watch 
every  transaction  of  the  world  which  might 
appear  to  affect  the  interests  of  religion,  and 
were  especially  enjoined  to  study  the  disposi- 
tions and  cultivate  the  friendship  of  persons  in 
the  higher  ranks.  Nothing  could  be  imagined 
more  open  and  liberal  than  the  external  aspect 
ofthe  institution,  yet  nothing  could  be  moro 
strict  nnd  secret  than  its  internal  organization. 
Loyola,  influenced,  perhaps,  by  the  notions  of 
implicit  obedience  which  ho  had  derived  from 


JES 


519 


JES 


his  military  profession,  resolved  that  the  go- 
vernment of  the  Jesuits  should  be  absolutely 
monarchical.  A  general,  chosen  for  life  by 
deputies  from  the  several  provinces,  possessed 
supreme  and  independent  power,  extending  to 
every  person,  and  applying  to  every  case. 
Every  member  of  the  order,  the  instant  that 
he  entered  its  pale,  surrendered  all  freedom  of 
thought  and  action ;  and  every  personal  feel- 
ing was  superseded  by  the  interests  of  that 
body  to  which  he  had  attached  himself.  He 
went  wherever  he  was  ordered  ;  he  performed 
whatever  he  was  commanded ;  he  suffered 
whatever  he  was  enjoined  ;  he  became  a  mere 
passive  instrument  incapable  of  resistance. 
The  gradation  of  ranks  was  only  a  gradation 
in  slavery ;  and  so  perfect  a  despotism  over  a 
large  body  of  men,  dispersed  over  the  face  of 
the  earth,  was  never  before  realized. 

The  maxims  of  policy  adopted  by  this  cele- 
brated society  were,  like  its  constitution,  re- 
markable for  their  union  of  laxity  and  rigour. 
Nothing  could  divert  them  from  their  original 
object ;  and  no  means  were  ever  scrupled 
which  promised  to  aid  its  accomplishment. 
They  were  in  no  degree  shackled  by  prejudice, 
superstition,  or  real  religion.  Expediency,  in 
its  most  simple  and  licentious  form,  was  the 
basis  of  their  morals,  and  their  principles  and 
practices  were  uniformly  accommodated  to  the 
circumstances  in  which  they  were  placed ;  and 
even  their  bigotry,  obdurate  as  it  was,  never 
appears  to  have  interfered  with  their  interests. 
The  paramount  and  characteristic  principle  of 
the  order,  from  which  none  of  its  members 
ever  swerved,  was  simply  this,  that  its  interests 
were  to  be  promoted  by  all  possible  means,  at 
all  possible  expense.  In  order  to  acquire  more 
easily  an  ascendancy  over  persons  of  rank  and 
power,  they  propagated  a  system  of  the  most 
relaxed  morality,  which  accommodated  itself 
to  the  passions  of  men,  justified  their  vices, 
tolerated  their  imperfections,  and  authorized 
almost  every  action  which  the  most  audacious 
or  crafty  politician  would  wish  to  perpetrate. 
To  persons  of  stricter  principles  they  studied 
to  recommend  themselves  by  the  purity  of  their 
lives,  and  sometimes  by  the  austerity  of  their 
doctrines.  While  sufficiently  compliant  in 
the  treatment  of  immoral  practices,  they  were 
generally  rigidly  severe  in  exacting  a  strict 
orthodoxy  in  opinions.  "  They  are  a  sort  of 
people,"  said  the  Abbd  Boileau,  "who  lengthen 
the  creed  and  shorten  the  decalogue."  They 
adopted  the  same  spirit  of  accommodation  in 
their  missionary  undertakings ;  and  their 
Christianity,  chamelionlike,  readily  assumed 
the  colour  of  every  religion  where  it  happened 
to  be  introduced.  They  freely  permitted  their 
converts  to  retain  a  full  proportion  of  the  old 
superstitions,  and  suppressed,  without  hesita- 
tion, any  point  in  the  new  faith  which  was 
likely  to  bear  hard  on  their  prejudices  or  pro- 
pensities. They  proceeded  to  still  greater 
lengths  ;  and,  beside  suppressing  the  truths  of 
revelation,  devised  the  most  absurd  falsehoods, 
to  be  used  for  attracting  disciples,  or  even  to 
be  taught  as  parts  of  Christianity.  One  of 
them  in  India  produced  a  pedigree  to  prove 


his  own  descent  from  Brama ;  and  another  in 
America  assured  a  native  chief  that  Christ  had 
been  a  valiant  and  victorious  warrior,  who,  in 
the  space  of  three  years,  had  scalped  an  in- 
credible number  of  men,  women,  and  children. 
It  was,  in  fact,  their  own  authority,  not  the 
authority  of  true  religion,  which  they  wished 
to  establish  ;  and  Christianity  was  generally  as 
little  known,  when  they  quitted  the  foreign 
scenes  of  their  labours  as  when  they  entered 
them. 

These  detestable  objects  and  principles, 
however,  were  long  an  impenetrable  secret : 
and  the  professed  intention  of  the  new  order 
was  to  promote,  with  unequalled  and  unfettered 
zeal,  the  salvation  of  mankind.  Its  progress, 
nevertheless,  was  at  first  remarkably  slow. 
Charles  V.,  who  is  supposed,  with  his  usual 
sagacity,  to  have  discerned  its  dangerous  ten- 
dency, rather  checked  than  encouraged  its 
advancement ;  and  the  universities  of  France 
resisted  its  introduction  into  that  kingdom. 
Thus,  roused  by  obstacles,  and  obliged  to 
find  resources  within  themselves,  the  Jesuits 
brought  all  their  talents  and  devices  into  ac- 
tion. They  applied  themselves  to  every  useful 
function  and  curious  art ;  and  neither  neglect- 
ed nor  despised  any  mode,  however  humble, 
of  gaining  employment  or  reputation.  The 
satirist's  description  of  the  Greeks  in  Rome 
has  been  aptly  chosen  to  describe  their  inde 
fatigable  and  universal  industry  : — 
Grammaticus,  rhetor,  geometres,  piclor,  aliptes, 
Augur,  schamobates,  medicus,  magus ;  omnia  nor  it 
Graculus.  Juvenal,  lib.  iii,  76. 

"  A  Protean  tribe,  one  knows  not  what  to  call, 
Which  shifts  to  every  form,  and  shines  in  all : 
Grammarian,  painter,  augnr,  rhetorician, 
Rope-dancer,  conjuror,  fiddler,  and  physician, — 
All  trades  his  own,  your  hungry  Greekling  counts." 

Giffobd. 
They  laboured  with  the  greatest  assiduity  to 
qualify  themselves  as  the  instructers  of  youth  ; 
and  succeeded,  at  length,  in  supplanting  their 
opponents  in  every  Catholic  kingdom.  They 
aimed,  in  the  next  place,  to  become  the  spirit- 
ual directors  of  the  higher  ranks ;  and  soon 
established  themselves  in  most  of  the  courts 
which  were  attached  to  the  papal  faith,  not 
only  as  the  confessors,  but  frequently  also  as 
the  guides  and  ministers,  of  superstitious 
princes.  The  governors  of  the  society  pur- 
suing one  uniform  system  with  unwearied 
perseverance,  became  entirely  successful ;  and, 
in  the  space  of  half  a  century,  had  in  a  won- 
derful degree  extended  the  reputation,  the 
number,  and  influence  of  the  order.  When 
Loyola,  in  1540,  petitioned  the  pope  to  author- 
ize the  institution  of  the  Jesuits,  he  had  only 
ten  disciples  ;  but  in  1608  the  number  amount- 
ed to  10,581.  Before  the  expiration  of  the 
sixteenth  century  they  had  obtained  the  chief 
direction  of  the  education  of  youth  in  every 
Catholic  country  in  Europe,  and  had  become 
the  confessors  of  almost  all  its  noblest  mon- 
archs.  In  spite  of  their  vow  of  poverty,  their 
wealth  increased  with  their  power ;  and  they 
soon  rivalled,  in  the  extent  and  value  of  tbeir 
possessions,  the  most  opulent  monastic  fra- 
ternities.    About  the  beginning  of  the  seven- 


JES 


520 


JES 


cccnth  century,  they  obtained  from  the  court 
of  Madrid  the  grant  of  the  large  and  fertile 
province  of  Paraguay,  which  stretches  across 
the  southern  continent  of  America,  from  the 
mountains  of  Potosi  to  the  banks  of  the  river 
La  Plata  ;  and,  after  every  deduction  which 
can  reasonably  be  made  from  their  own  ac- 
counts of  their  establishment,  enough  will 
remain  to  excite  the  astonishment  and  ap- 
plause of  mankind.  They  found  the  inhabit- 
ants in  the  first  stage  of  society,  ignorant  of 
the  arts  of  life,  and  unacquainted  with  the 
first  principles  of  subordination.  They  applied 
themselves  to  instruct  and  civilize  these  savage 
tribes.  They  commenced  their  labours  by  col- 
lecting about  fifty  families  of  wandering  In- 
dians, whom  they  converted  and  settled  in  a 
small  township.  They  taught  them  to  build 
houses,  to  cultivate  the  ground,  and  to  rear 
tame  animals  ;  trained  them  to  arts  and  manu- 
factures, and  brought  them  to  relish  the  bless- 
ings of  security  and  order.  By  a  wise  and 
humane  policy,  they  gradually  attracted  new 
subjects  and  converts ;  till  at  last  they  formed 
a  powerful  and  well  organized  state  of  three 
hundred  thousand  families. 

Though  the  power  of  the  Jesuits  had  become 
so  extensive,  and  though  their  interests  gene- 
rally prospered  during  a  period  of  more  than 
two  centuries,  their  progress  was  by  no  means 
uninterrupted;  and,  by  their  own  misconduct, 
they  soon  excited  the  most  formidable  coun- 
teractions. Scarcely  had  they  effected  their 
establishment  in  France,  in  defiance  of  the 
parliaments  and  universities,  when  their  ex- 
istence was  endangered  by  the  fanaticism  of 
their  own  members.  John  Chastel,  one  of 
their  pupils,  made  an  attempt  upon  the  life  of 
Henry  IV. ;  and  Father  Guiscard,  another  of 
the  order,  was  convicted  of  composing  writ- 
ings favourable  to  regicide.  The  parliaments 
eeized  the  moment  of  their  disgrace,  and  pro- 
cured their  banishment  from  every  part  of  the 
kingdom,  except  the  provinces  of  Bourdeaux 
and  Toulouse.  From  these  rallying  points, 
they  speedily  extended  their  intrigues  in  every 
quarter,  and  in  a  few  years  obtained  their  re- 
establishment.  Even  Henry,  either  dreading 
their  power,  or  pleased  with  the  exculpation 
of  his  licentious  habits,  which  he  found  in  their 
flexible  system  of  morality,  became  their  pa- 
tron, and  selected  one  of  their  number  as  his 
confessor.  They  were  favoured  by  Louis  XIII. 
and  his  minister  Richelieu,  on  account  of  their 
literary  exertions  ;  but  it  was  in  the  succeeding 
reign  of  Louis  XIV.  that  they  reached  the 
summit  of  their  prosperity.  The  Fathers  La 
Chaise  and  Le  Teltier  were  successively  con- 
fessors to  the  king  ;  and  did  not  fail  to  employ 
their  influence  for  the  interest  of  their  order  : 
but  the  latter  carried  on  his  projects  with  so 
blind  and  fiery  a  zeal,  that  one  of  the  Jesuits 
is  reported  to  have  said  of  him,  "  He  drives  at 
such  a  rate,  that  he  will  overturn  us  all."  The 
Janscnists  were  peculiarly  the  objects  of  his 
machinations,  and  he  rested  not  till  he  had 
accomplished  the  destruction  of  their  cele- 
brated college  and  convent  at  Port  Royal. 
Before  the   fall,    however,   of  this  honoured 


seminary,  a  shaft  from  its  bow  had  reached 
the  heart  of  its  proud  oppressor.  The  "  Pro- 
vincial  Letters  of  Pascal"  had  been  published, 
in  which  the  quibbling  morality  and  unin- 
telligible metaphysics  of  the  Jesuits  were  ex- 
posed in  a  strain  of  inimitable  humour,  and  a 
style  of  unrivalled  elegance.  The  impression 
which  they  produced  was  wide  and  deep,  and 
gradually  sapped  the  foundation  of  public 
opinion,  on  which  the  power  of  the  order  had 
hitherto  rested.  Under  the  regency  of  the 
duke  of  Orleans,  the  Jesuits,  and  all  theological 
personages  and  principles  were  disregarded 
with  atheistical  superciliousness ;  but  under 
Louis  XV.  they  partly  recovered  their  influ- 
ence at  court,  which,  even  under  Cardinal 
Fleury,  they  retained  in  a  considerable  degree. 
But  they  soon  revived  the  odium  of  the  public 
by  their  intolerant  treatment  of  the-Jansenists, 
and  probably  accelerated  their  ruin  by  refusing, 
from  political  rather  than  religious  scruples,  to 
undertake  the  spiritual  guidance  of  Madame 
de  la  Pampadour,  as  well  as  by  imprudently 
attacking  the  authors  of  the  "  Encyclopedic" 
Voltaire  directed  against  them  all  the  powers 
of  his  ridicule,  and  finished  the  piece  which 
Pascal  had  sketched.  Their  power  was  brought 
to  a  very  low  ebb,  when  the  war  of  1756  broke 
out,  which  occasioned  the  famous  law-suit  that 
led  to  their  final  overthrow. 

In  the  mean  time  the  king  of  Portugal  was 
assassinated  ,-  and  Carvalho,  the  minister,  who 
detested  the  Jesuits,  found  means  to  load 
them  with  the  odium  of  the  crime.  Malagrida, 
and  a  few  more  of  these  fathers,  were  charged 
with  advising  and  absolving  the  assassins ; 
and,  having  been  found  guilty,  were  con- 
demned to  the  stake.  The  rest  were  banished 
with  every  brand  of  infamy,  and  were  treated 
with  the  most  iniquitous  cruelty.  They  were 
persecuted  without  discrimination,  robbed  of 
their  property  without  pity,  and  embarked  for 
Italy  without  previous  preparation  ;  so  that, 
no  provision  having  been  made  for  their  re- 
ception, they  were  literally  left  to  perish  with 
hunger  in  their  vessels.  These  incidents  pre- 
pared the  way  for  a  similar  catastrophe  in 
France.  In  March,  1762,  the  French  court 
received  intelligence  of  the  capture  of  Mar- 
tinico  by  the  British  ;  and,  dreading  a  storm 
of  public  indignation,  resolved  to  divert  the 
exasperated  feelings  of  the  nation,  by  yielding 
the  Jesuits  to  their  impending  fate.  On  the 
sixth  of  August,  1762,  their  institute  was  con- 
demned by  the  parliament,  as  contrary  to  the 
laws  of  the  state,  to  the  obedience  due  to  the 
sovereign,  and  to  the  welfare  of  the  kingdom. 
The  order  was  dissolved,  and  their  effects 
alienated.  But  in  certain  quarters,  where  the 
provincial  parliaments  had  not  decided  against 
them,  Jesuits  still  subsisted  ;  and  a  royal  edict 
was  afterward  promulgated,  which  formally 
abolished  the  society  in  France,  but  permitted 
its  members  to  reside  within  the  kingdom  un. 
der  certain  restrictions. 

In  Spain,  where  they  conceived  their  esta- 
blishment to  be  perfectly  secure,  they  expe- 
rienced an  overthrow  equally  complete,  and 
much  more  unexpected.     The  necessary  mea. 


JES 


521 


JES 


sures  were  concerted  under  the  direction  of 
De  Choiseul,  by  the  Marquis  D'Ossun,  the 
French  ambassador  at  Madrid,  with  Charles 
III.,  king  of  Spain,  and  his  prime  minister, 
the  Count  D'Aranda.  The  execution  of  their 
purposes  was  as  sudden  as  their  plans  had 
been  secret.  At  midnight,  March  31st,  1767, 
large  bodies  of  military  surrounded  the  six 
colleges  of  the  Jesuits  in  Madrid,  forced  the 
gates,  secured  the  bells,  collected  the  fathers 
in  the  refectory,  and  read  to  them  the  king's 
order  for  their  instant  transportation.  They 
were  immediately  put  into  carriages  previously 
placed  at  proper  stations  ;  and  were  on  their 
way  to  Carthagena  before  the  inhabitants  of 
the  city  had  any  intelligence  of  the  transac- 
tion. Three  days  afterward,  the  same  mea- 
sures were  adopted  with  regard  to  every  other 
college  of  the  order  in  the  kingdom  ;  and,  ships 
having  been  provided  at  the  different  sea  ports, 
they  were  all  embarked  for  the  ecclesiastical 
states  in  Italy.  All  their  property  was  con- 
fiscated, and  a  small  pension  assigned  to  each 
individual  as  long  as  he  should  reside  in  a 
place  appointed,  and  satisfy  the  Spanish  court 
as  to  his  peaceable  demeanour.  All  corres- 
pondence with  the  Jesuits  was  prohibited, 
and  the  strictest  silence  on  the  subject  of  their 
expulsion  was  enjoined  under  penalties  of  high 
treason.  A  similar  seizure  and  deportation 
took  place  in  the  Indies,  and  an  immense  pro- 
perty was  acquired  by  the  government.  Many 
crimes  and  plots  were  laid  to  the  charge  of 
the  order ;  but  whatever  may  have  been  their 
demerit,  the  punishment  was  too  summary  to 
admit  of  justification  ;  and  many  innocent  in- 
dividuals were  subjected  to  sufferings  beyond 
the  deserts  even  of  the  guilty.  Pope  Clement 
III.  prohibited  their  landing  in  his  dominions  ; 
and,  after  enduring  extreme  miseries  in  crowd- 
ed transports,  the  survivors,  to  the  number  of 
two  thousand  three  hundred,  were  put  ashore 
on  Corsica.  The  example  of  the  king  of  Spain 
was  immediately  followed  by  Ferdinand  VI. 
of  Naples,  and  soon  after  by  the  prince  of 
Parma.  They  had  been  expelled  from  Eng- 
land in  1604;  from  Venice  in  1606;  and  from 
Portugal  in  1759,  upon  the  charge  of  having 
instigated  the  families  of  Tavora  and  D'Aveiro 
to  assassinate  King  Joseph  I.  Frederick  the 
Great,  of  Prussia,  was  the  only  monarch  who 
ehowed  a  disposition  to  afford  them  protection  ; 
but  in  1773  the  order  was  entirely  suppressed 
by  Pope  Clement  XIV.,  who  is  supposed  to 
have  fallen  a  victim  to  their  vengeance.  In 
1801  the  society  was  restored  in  Russia  by  the 
Emperor  Paul ;  and  in  1804,  by  King  Ferdi- 
nand, in  Sardinia.  In  August,  1814,  a  bull 
was  issued  by  Pope  Pius  VII.,  restoring  the 
order  to  all  their  former  privileges,  and  calling 
upon  all  Catholic  princes  to  afford  them  pro- 
tection and  encouragement.  This  act  of  their 
revival  is  expressed  in  all  the  solemnity  of 
papal  authority ;  and  even  affirmed  to  be 
above  the  recall  or  revision  of  any  judge,  with 
whatever  power  he  may  be  clothed ;  but  to 
every  enlightened  mind  it  cannot  fail  to  appear 
as  a  measure  altogether  incapable  of  justifica- 
tion, from  any  thing  either  in  the  history  of 


Jesuitism,  or  in  the  character  of  the  present 
times. 

3.  It  would  be  in  vain  to  deny  that  many 
considerable  advantages  were  derived  by  man- 
kind from  the  labours  of  the  Jesuits.  Their 
ardour  in  the  study  of  ancient  literature,  and 
their  labours  in  the  instruction  of  youth, 
greatly  contributed  to  the  progress  of  polite 
learning.  They  have  produced  a  greater 
number  of  ingenious  authors  than  all  the 
other  religious  fraternities  taken  together ; 
and  though  there  never  was  known  among 
their  order  one  person  who  could  be  said  to 
possess  an  enlarged  philosophical  mind,  tliey 
can  boast  of  many  eminent  masters  in  the 
separate  branches  of  science,  many  distinguish- 
ed mathematicians,  antiquarians,  critics,  and 
even  some  orators  of  high  reputation.  They 
were  in  general,  also,  as  individuals,  superior 
in  decency,  and  even  purity  of  manners,  to 
any  other  class  of  regular  clergy  in  the  church 
of  Rome.  But  all  these  benefits  by  no  means 
counterbalanced  the  pernicious  effects  of  their 
influence  and  intrigues  on  the  best  interests 
of  society. 

The  essential  principles  of  the  institution, 
namely,  that  their  order  is  to  be  maintained  at 
the  expense  of  the  society  at  large,  and  that 
the  end  sanctifies  the  means,  are  utterly  in- 
compatible with  the  welfare  of  any  community 
of  men.  Their  system  of  lax  and  pliant  mo- 
rality, justifying  every  vice,  and  authorizing 
every  atrocity,  has  left  deep  and  lasting  ra- 
vages on  the  face  of  the  moral  world.  Their 
zeal  to  extend  the  jurisdiction  of  the  court  of 
Rome  over  every  civil  government,  gave  cur- 
rency to  tenets  respecting  the  duty  of  oppos- 
ing princes  who  were  hostile  to  the  Catholic 
faith,  which  shook  the  basis  of  all  political 
allegiance,  and  loosened  the  obligations  of 
every  human  law.  Their  indefatigable  indus- 
try, and  countless  artifices  in  resisting  the 
progress  of  reformed  religion,  perpetuated  the 
most  pernicious  errors  of  Popery,  and  post- 
poned the  triumph  of  tolerant  and  Christian 
principles.  Whence,  then,  it  may  well  be 
asked,  whence  the  recent  restoration  ?  What 
long  latent  proof  has  been  discovered  of  the 
excellence,  or  even  the  expedience,  of  such  an 
institution  ?  The  sentence  of  their  abolition 
was  passed  by  the  senates,  and  monarchs,  and 
statesmen,  and  divines,  of  all  religions,  and  of 
almost  every  civilized  country  in  the  world. 
Almost  every  land  has  been  stained  and  torn 
by  their  crimes;  and  almost  every  land  bears 
on  its  public  records  the  most  solemn  protests 
against  their  existence. 

JESUS  CHRIST,  the  Son  of  God,  the 
Messiah,  and  Saviour  of  the  world,  the  first 
and  principal  object  of  the  prophecies,  pro- 
figured  and  promised  in  the  Old  Testament, 
expected  and  desired  by  the  patriarchs ;  the 
hope  of  the  Gentiles ;  the  glory,  salvation, 
and  consolation  of  Christians.  The  name 
Jesus,  or,  as  the  Hebrews  pronounce  it,  jjusnrv, 
Jehoshua,  or  Joshua,  'irjaoOs,  signifies,  he  who 
shall  save.  No  one  ever  bore  this  name  with 
so  much  justice,  nor  so  perfectly  fulfilled  the 
signification  of  it,  as  Jesus  Christ,  who  saves 


JES 


522 


JES 


even  from  ein  and  hell,  and  hath  merited  hea- 
ven for  us  by  the  price  of  his  blood.  It  is  not 
necessary  here  to  narrate  the  history  of  our 
Saviour's  life,  whioh  can  no  where  be  read 
with  advantage  except  in  the  writings  of  the 
four  evangelists ;  but  there  are  several  gene- 
ral views  which  require  to  be  noticed  under 
this  article. 

1.  Jesus  of  Nazareth  was  the  Christ  or 
Messiah  promised  under  the  Old  Testament. 
That  he  professed  himself  to  be  that  Messiah 
to  whom  all  the  prophets  gave  witness,  and 
who  was,  in  fact,  at  the  time  of  his  appearing, 
expected  by  the  Jews  ;  and  that  he  was  re- 
ceived under  that  character  by  his  disciples, 
and  by  all  Christians  ever  since,  is  certain. 
And  if  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures  afford 
sufficiently  definite  marks  by  which  the  long 
announced  Christ  should  be  infallibly  known 
at  his  advent,  and  these  presignations  are 
found  realized  in  our  Lord,  then  is  the  truth 
of  his  pretensions  established.  From  the 
books  of  the  Old  Testament  we  learn  that  the 
Messiah  was  to  authenticate  his  claim  by 
miracles;  and  in  those  predictions  respecting 
him,  so  many  circumstances  are  recorded,  that 
they  could  meet  only  in  one  person ;  and  so, 
if  they  are  accomplished  in  him,  they  leave  no 
room  for  doubt,  as  far  as  the  evidence  of  pro- 
phecy is  deemed  conclusive.  As  to  miracles, 
we  refer  to  that  article  ;  here  only  observing, 
that  if  the  miraculous  works  wrought  by 
Christ  were  really  done,  they  prove  his  mis- 
sion, because,  from  their  nature,  and  having 
been  wrought  to  confirm  his  claim  to  be  the 
Messiah,  they  necessarily  imply  a  divine  attes- 
tation. With  respect  to  prophecy,  the  princi- 
ples under  which  its  evidence  must  be  regarded 
as  conclusive  will  be  given  under  that  head ; 
and  here  therefore  it  will  only  be  necessary  to 
6how  the  completion  of  the  prophecies  of  the 
sacred  books  of  the  Jews  relative  to  the  Mes- 
siah in  one  person,  and  that  person  the  founder 
of  the  Christian  religion. 

The  time  of  the  Messiah's  appearance  in 
the  world,  as  predicted  in  the  Old  Testament, 
is  defined,  savs  Keith,  by  a  Dumber  of  concur- 
ring circumstances,  which  fix  it  to  the  very 
date  of  the  advent  of  Christ.  The  last  bless- 
ing of  Jacob  to  his  sons,  when  lie  commanded 
them  to  gather  themselves  together  that  he 
might  tell  them  what  should  befall  them  in  the 
last  days,  contains  this  prediction  concerning 
.Tudah :  "The  sceptre  shall  not  depart  from 
Judah,  nor  a  lawgiver  from  between  his  feet, 
until  Shiloh  come;  and  unto  him  shall  1  he 
gathering  of  the  people  be,"  Gen.  xlix,  10. 
The  date  fixed  by  this  prophecy  for  the  com- 
ing of  Shiloh,  or  the  Saviour,  was  not  to  ex- 
ceed the  time  during  which  the  descendants 
of  Judah  were  to  continue  a  united  people, 
while  a  king  should  reign  among  them,  while 
they  should  be  governed  by  their  own  laws, 
and  while  their  judges  should  be  from  among 
their  brethren.  The  prophecy  of  Malachi 
adds  another  standard  for  measuring  the 
time:  "Behold,  I  send  my  messenger,  and  he 
shall    prepare    the  way  before    me ;    and    the 


his  temple,  even  the  messenger  of  the  cove- 
nant, whom  ye  delight  in  :   behold,    he  shall 
come,  saith  the  Lord  of  Hosts,"  Mai.  hi,  1. 
No  words  can  be  more  expressive  of  the  com- 
ing   of  the    promised   Messiah ;   and  they  as 
clearly  imply  his    appearance   in   the  second 
temple  before  it  should  be  destroyed.     In  re- 
gard to  the  advent  of  the  Messiah  before  the 
destruction  of  the  second  temple,  the  words  of 
Haggai  are  remarkably  explicit :  "  The  desire 
of  all  nations  shall  come,  and  I  will  fill  this 
house  with    glory,    saith   the  Lord  of  Hosts. 
The  glory  of  this  latter  house  shall  be  greater 
than   of  the  former,  and  in  this  place  will  I 
give  peace,"  Hag.  ii,  7.  The  Saviour  was  thus 
to  appear,  according  to  the  prophecies  of  the 
Old  Testament,  during  the  time  of  the  con- 
tinuance of  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  previous  to 
the  demolition  of  the  temple,  and  immediately 
subsequent  to  the  next  prophet.     But  the  time 
is  rendered  yet  more  definite.     In  the  prophe- 
cies of  Daniel,  the  kingdom  of  the  Messiah  is 
not  only  foretold  as  commencing  in  the  time 
of  the   fourth  monarchy,   or  Roman  empire, 
but  the  express  number  of  years  that  were  to 
precede    his    coming    are    plainly   intimated : 
"  Seventy  weeks    are    determined   upon   thy 
people,  and  upon  thy  holy  city,  to  finish  the 
transgression,  and  to  make  an  end  of  sin,  and 
to   make    reconciliation    for  iniquity,  and  to 
bring  in  everlasting  righteousness,  and  to  seal 
up  the  vision  and  prophecy,  and  to  anoint  the 
Most    Holy.      Know,    therefore,    and   under- 
stand, that  from  the  going  forth  of  the  com- 
mandment to  restore  and  to  build  Jerusalem, 
unto  Messiah  the  Prince,  shall  be  seven  weeks 
and  threescore  and  two  weeks,"  Dan.  ix,  24, 
25.    Computation  by  weeks  of  years  was  com- 
mon among  the  Jews,  and  every  seventh  was 
the    sabbatical    year ;    seventy   weeks,    thus 
amounted  to  four  hundred  and  ninety  years. 
In  these  words    the  prophet  marks  the  very 
time,  and  uses  the  very  name  of  Messiah,  the 
Prince  ;  so  entirely  is  all  ambiguity  done  away. 
The   plainest  inference  may  be  drawn  from 
these   prophecies.      All   of  them,    while,   in 
every  respect,  they  presuppose  the  most  per- 
fect knowledge  of  futurity;  while  they  were 
uii([uestionably  delivered  and  publicly  known 
for  ages  previous  to  the  time  to  which  they 
referred;    and    while    they  refer    to    different 
contingent  and    unconnected  events,  utterly 
undeterminable  and  inconceivable  by  all  hu- 
man sagacity;  accord  in  perfect  unison  to  a 
single  precise  period  wheue  all  their  different 
lines  terminal e  at  once, — the  very  fulness  of 
time    when    Jesus    appeared.      A    king   then 
reigned  over  the  Jews  in  their  own  land  ;  they 
were    governed  by  their  own  laws ;    and  the 
council  of  their  nation  exercised  its  authority 
and    power.     Before    that    period,    the    other 
tribes  were    extinct    or   dispersed  among  the 
nations.     Judah  alone  remained,  and  the  last 
sceptre  in  Israel  had  not  then  departed  from 
it.     Every  stone  of  the  temple  was  then  un- 
moved ;  it  was  the  admiration  of  the  Romans, 
and  might  have  stood  for  ages.    But  in  a  short 
space,  all  these  concurring  testimonies  to  the 


Lord,  whom  ye  seek,  shall  come  suddenly  to  I  time   of  the   advent    of  the    Messiah  passed 


JES 


523 


JES 


away.  During  the  very  year,  the  twelfth  of 
his  age,  in  which  Christ  first  publicly  appear- 
ed in  the  temple,  Archelaus  the  king  was  de- 
throned and  banished  ;  Coponius  was  appointed 
procurator  ;  and  the  kingdom  of  Judea,  the 
last  remnant  of  the  greatness  of  Israel,  was 
debased  into  a  part  of  the  province  of  Syria. 
The  sceptre  was  smitten  from  the  tribe  of 
Judah  ;  the  crown  fell  from  their  heads  ;  their 
glory  departed  ;  and,  soon  after  the  death  of 
Christ,  of  their  temple  one  stone  was  not  left 
upon  another ;  their  commonwealth  itself  be- 
came as  complete  a  ruin,  and  was  broken  in 
pieces  ;  and  they  have  ever  since  been  scatter- 
ed throughout  the  world,  a  name  but  not  a 
nation.  After  the  lapse  of  nearly  four  hun- 
dred years  posterior  to  the  time  of  Malachi, 
another  prophet  appeared  who  was  the  herald 
of  the  Messiah.  And  the  testimony  of  Jose- 
phus  confirms  the  account  given  in  Scripture 
of  John  the  Baptist.  Every  mark  that  denoted 
the  time  of  the  coining  of  the  Messiah  was 
erased  soon  after  the  crucifixion  of  Christ, 
and  could  never  afterward  be  renewed.  And 
with  respect  to  the  prophecies  of  Daniel,  it  is 
remarkable,  at  this  remote  period,  how  little 
discrepancy  of  opinion  has  existed  among  the 
most  learned  men,  as  to  the  space  from  the 
time  of  the  passing  out  of  the  edict  to  rebuild 
Jerusalem,  after  the  Babylonish  captivity,  to 
the  commencement  of  the  Christian  era,  and 
the  subsequent  events  foretold  in  the  prophecy. 
The  predictions  contained  in  the  Old  Tes- 
tament respecting  both  the  family  out  of  which 
the  Messiah  was  to  arise,  and  the  place  of  his 
birth,  are  almost  as  circumstantial,  and  are 
equally  applicable  to  Christ,  as  those  which 
refer  to  the  time  of  his  appearance.  He  was 
to  he  an  Israelite,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  of  the 
family  of  David,  and  of  the  town  of  Betide- 
hem.  That  all  these  predictions  were  fulfilled 
in  Jesus  Christ ;  that  he  was  of  that  country, 
tribe,  and  family,  of  the  house  and  lineage  of 
David,  and  born  in  Bethlehem,  we  have  the 
fullest  evidence  in  the  testimony  of  all  the 
evangelists ;  in  two  distinct  accounts  of  the 
genealogies,  by  natural  and  legal  succession, 
which,  according  to  the  custom  of  the  Jews, 
were  carefully  preserved  ;  in  the  acquiescence 
of  the  enemies  of  Christ  in  the  truth  of  the 
fact,  against  which  there  is  not  a  single  sur- 
mise in  history  ;  and  in  the  appeal  made  by 
some  of  the  earliest.  Christian  writers  to  the 
unquestionable  testimony  of  the  records  of  the 
census,  taken  at  the  very  time  of  our  Saviour's 
birth  by  order  of  Ca;sar.  Here,  indeed,  it  is 
impossible  not  to  be  struck  with  the  exact  fill- 
filment  of  prophecies  which  are  apparently 
contradictory  and  irreconcilable,  and  with  the 
manner  in  which  they  were  providentially  ac- 
complished. The  spot  of  Christ's  nativity  was 
distant  from  the  place  of  the  abode  of  his  pa- 
rents, and  the  region  in  which  he  began  bis 
ministry  was  remote  from  the  place  of  his 
birth  ;  and  another  prophecy  respecting  him 
was  in  this  manner  verified  :  "  In  the  land  of 
Zebulun  and  Naphtali,  by  the  way  of  the  sea 
beyond  Jordan,  in  Galilee  of  the  nations,  tin; 
people  that  walked  in  darkness   have  seen  a 


great  light ;  they  that  dwell  in  the  land  of  the 
shadow  of  death,  upon  them  hath  the  light 
shined,"  Isaiah  ix,  1,  2 ;  Matt,  iv,  16.  Thus, 
the  time  at  which  the  predicted  Messiah  was 
to  appear  ;  the  nation,  the  tribe,  and  the  family 
from  which  he  was  to  be  descended ;  and  the 
place  of  his  birth, — no  populous  city,  but  of 
itself  an  inconsiderable  place, — were  all  clear- 
ly foretold  ;  and  as  clearly  refer  to  Jesus  Christ ; 
and  all  meet  their  completion  in  him. 

But  the  facts  of  his  life,  and  the  features  of 
his  character,  are  also  drawn  with  a  precision 
that  cannot  be  misunderstood.  The  obscurity, 
the  meanness,  and  the  poverty  of  his  external 
condition  are  thus  represented :  "  He  shall 
grow  up  before  the  Lord  like  a  tender  plant, 
and  as  a  root  out  of  a  dry  ground  :  he  hath  no 
form  or  comeliness  ;  and  when  we  shall  see 
him,  there  is  no  beauty  that  we  should  desire 
him.  Thus  saith  the  Lord  to  him  whom  man 
despiseth,  to  him  whom  the  nation  abhorreth, 
to  a  servant  of  rulers,  Kings  shall  see  and 
arise,  princes  also  shall  worship,"  Isaiah  liii, 
2 ;  xlix,  7.  That  such  was  the  condition  in 
which  Christ  appeared,  the  whole  history  of 
his  life  abundantly  testifies.  And  the  Jews, 
looking  in  the  pride  of  their  hearts  for  an 
earthly  king,  disregarded  these  prophecies 
concerning  him,  were  deceived  by  their  tradi- 
tions, and  found  only  a  stone  of  stumbling, 
where,  if  they  had  searched  their  Scriptures 
aright,  they  would  have  discovered  an  evidence 
of  the  Messiah.  "  Is  not  this  the  carpenter's 
son  ?  Is  not  this  the  son  of  Mary  ?  said  they 
and  they  were  offended  at  him."  His  riding 
in  humble  triumph  into  Jerusalem  ;  his  being 
betrayed  for  thirty  pieces  of  silver,  and 
scourged,  and  buffeted,  and  spit  upon  ;  the 
piercing  of  bis  hands  and  of  his  feet ;  the  last 
offered  draught  of  vinegar  and  gall ;  the  part- 
ing of  his  raiment,  and  casting  lots  upon  his 
vesture  ;  the  manner  of  his  death  and  of  his 
burial,  and  his  rising  again  without  seeing  cor- 
ruption, were  all  expressly  predicted,  and  all 
these  predictions  were  literally  fulfilled,  Zech. 
ix,  9;  xi,  12;  Isaiah  1,  t! ;  Psalm  xxii,  16; 
Ixix,  21  ;  xxii,  18  ;  Isaiah  liii,  lJ  ;  Psalm  xvi,  10. 
If  all  these  prophecies  admit  of  any  applica- 
tion to  the  events  of  the  life  of  any  individual, 
it  can  only  be  to  that  of  the  Author  of  Chris- 
tianil  y.  And  what  other  religion  can  produce 
a  single  fact  which  was  actually  foretold  of  its 
founder  ? 

The  death  of  Christ  was  as  unparalleled  as  hjs 
life;  and  the  prophecies  are  as  minutely  descrip- 
tive of  his  sufferings  as  of  bis  virtues.  Not  only 
did  the  paschal  lamb,  which  was  to  be  killed 
every  year  in  all  the  families  of  Israel,  which 
was  to  be  taken  out  of  the  flock,  to  be  without 
blemish,  t<>  be  eaten  with  bitter  herbs,  to  have 
its  blood  sprinkled,  and  to  be  kept  whole  that 
not  a  bone  of  it  should  be  broken  ;  not  only 
did  the  offering  up  of  Isaac,  and  the  lifting  up 
of  the  brazen  serpent  in  the  wilderness,  by 
looking  upon  which  the  people  were  healed, 
and  many  ritual  observances  of  the  Jews,  pre- 
figure the  manner  of  Christ's  death,  and  the 
sacrifice  which  was  to  be  made  for  sin  ;  but 
many  express  declarations  abound  in  the  pro- 


JES 


524 


JES 


phecies,  that  Christ  was  indeed  to  suffer.  But 
Isaiah,  who  desoribes,  with  eloquence  worthy 
of  a  prophet,  the  glories  of  the  kingdom  that 
was  to  come,  characterizes,  with  the  accuracy 
of  a  historian,  the  humiliation,  the  trials,  and 
the  agonies  which  were  to  preeede  the  triumphs 
of  the  Redeemer  of  a  world  ;  and  the  history  of 
Christ  forms,  to  the  very  letter,  the  commen- 
tary and  the  completion  of  his  every  predic- 
tion. In  a  single  passage,  Isaiah  lii,  13,  &c ; 
liii,  the  connection  of  which  is  uninterrupted, 
its  antiquity  indisputable,  and  its  application 
obvious,  the  sufferings  of  the  servant  of  God 
(who  under  that  same  denomination,  is  pre- 
viously described  as  he  who  was  to  be  the  light 
of  the  Gentiles,  the  salvation  of  God  to  the 
ends  of  the  earth,  and  the  elect  of  God  in 
whom  his  soul  delighted,  Isa.  xlii,  10  ;  xlix,  6) 
are  so  minutely  foretold,  that  no  illustration 
is  requisite  to  show  that  they  testify  of  Jesus. 
The  whole  of  this  prophecy  thus  refers  to  the 
Messiah.  It  describes  both  his  debasement 
and  his  dignity  ;  his  rejection  by  the  Jews  ;  his 
humility,  his  affliction,  and  his  agony ;  his 
magnanimity  and  his  charity ;  how  his  words 
were  disbelieved ;  how  his  state  was  lowly  ; 
how  his  sorrow  was  severe;  how  he  opened 
not  his  mouth  but  to  make  intercession  for  the 
transgressors.  In  diametrical  opposition  to 
ever}'  dispensation  of  Providence  which  is  regis- 
tered in  the  records  of  the  Jews,  it  represents 
6potless  innocence  suffering  by  the  appoint- 
ment of  Heaven  ;  death  as  the  issue  of  perfect 
obedience  ;  God's  righteous  servant  as  forsaken 
of  him  ;  and  one  who  was  perfectly  immaculate 
bearing  the  chastisement  of  many  guilty; 
sprinkling  many  nations  from  their  iniquitj', 
by  virtue  of  his  sacrifice  ;  justifying  many  by 
his  knowledge ;  and  dividing  a  portion  with 
the  great  and  the  spoil  with  the  strong,  be- 
cause he  hath  poured  out  his  soul  in  death. 
This  prophecy,  therefore,  simply  as  a  pedic- 
tion  prior  to  the  event,  renders  the  very  unbe- 
lief of  the  Jews  an  evidence  against  them, 
converts  the  scandal  of  the  cross  into  an  argu- 
ment in  favour  of  Christianity,  and  presents 
us  with  an  epitome  of  the  truth,  a  miniature 
of  the  Gospel  in  some  of  its  most  striking  fea- 
tures. The  simple  exposition  of  it  sufficed  at 
once  for  the  conversion  of  the  eunuch  of 
Ethiopia.  To  these  prophecies  may,  in  fact, 
be  added  all  those  which  relate  to  his  spiritual 
kingdom,  or  the  circumstances  of  the  promul- 
gation, the  opposition,  and  the  triumphs  of  his 
religion  ;  the  accomplishment  of  which  equally 
proves  the  divine  mission  of  its  Au*hor,  and 
points  him  out  as  that  great  personage  with 
whom  they  stand  inseparably  connected. 

2.  But  if  Jesus  of  Nazareth  was  the  Messiah, 
in  that  character  his  Deity  also  is  necessarily 
involved,  because  the  Messiah  is  surrounded 
with  attributes  of  divinity  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment;  and  our  Lord  himself  as  certainly  lays 
claim  to  those  attributes  as  to  the  office  of 
"the  Christ."  Without  referring  here  to  the 
Scriptural  doctrine  of  a  Trinity  of  divine  Per- 
sons in  the  unity  of  the  Godhead,  (see  Trinity,) 
it  is  sufficient  now  to  show  that  both  in  the 
Old  and  New  Testament  Scriptures,  the  Mes- 


siah is  contemplated  as  a  divine  Person.  In 
the  very  first  promise  of  redemption,  his  su- 
periority to  that  great  and  malignant  spirit  who 
destroyed  the  innocence  of  man,  and  blighted 
the  fair  creation  of  God,  is  unquestionably 
implied  ;  while  the  Angel  of  the  Divine  Pre- 
sence, the  Angel  of  the  Covenant,  who  appears 
so  prominent  in  the  patriarchal  times,  and  the 
early  periods  of  Jewish  history,  and  was  un- 
derstood by  the  early  Jews  as  the  future  Mes- 
siah, is  seen  at  once  as  a  being  distinct  from 
Jehovah  and  yet  Jehovah  himself;  bearing 
that  incommunicable  name ;  and  performing 
acts,  and  possessing  qualities  of  unquestionable 
divinity.  As  the  "  Redeemer"  of  Job,  he  is 
the  object  of  his  trust  and  hope,  and  is  said 
to  be  then  a  "  living  Redeemer ;"  to  see  whom 
at  the  last  was  to  "  see  God."  As  "  Shiloh," 
in  the  prophecy  of  Jacob,  he  is  represented  as 
having  an  indefinitely  extensive  reign  over 
"the  people"  gathered  to  him;  and  in  all 
subsequent  predictions  respecting  this  reign 
of  Christ,  it  is  represented  so  vast,  so  perfect, 
so  influential  upon  the  very  thoughts,  pur- 
poses, and  affections  of  men,  that  no  mere 
creature  can  be  reasonably  supposed  capable 
of  exercising  it.  Of  the  second  Psalm,  so 
manifestly  appropriated  to  the  Messiah,  it 
has  been  justly  said,  that  the  high  titles  and 
honours  ascribed  in  this  Psalm  to  the  extra- 
ordinary person  who  is  the  chief  subject  of  it, 
far  transcend  any  thing  that  is  ascribed  in 
Scripture  to  any  mere  creature.  But  if  the 
Psalm  be  inquired  into  more  narrowly,  and 
compared  with  parallel  prophecies ;  if  it  be 
duly  considered,  that  not  only  is  the  extraor- 
dinary person  here  spoken  of  called,  "  the  Son 
of  God,"  but  that  title  is  so  ascribed  to  him  as 
to  imply,  that  it  belongs  to  him  in  a  manner 
that  is  absolutely  singular,  and  peculiar  to 
himself,  seeing  he  is  said  to  be  begotten  of 
God,  verse  7,  and  is  called,  by  way  of  emi- 
nence, "the  Son,"  verse  12;  that  the  danger 
of  provoking  him  to  anger  is  spoken  of  in  so 
very  different  a  manner  from  what  the  Scrip- 
ture uses  in  speaking  of  the  anger  of  any  mere 
creature,  "  Kiss  the  Son,  lest  he  be  angry,  and 
ye  perish  from  the  way  when  his  wrath  is  kin- 
dled but  a  little  ;"  that  when  the  kings  and 
judges  of  the  earth  are  commanded  to  serve 
God  with  fear,  they  are  at  the  same  time  com- 
manded to  kiss  the  Son,  which  in  those  times 
and  places  was  frequently  an  expression  of 
adoration ;  and,  particularly,  that,  whereas 
other  Scriptures  contain  awful  and  just  threat- 
enings  against  those  who  trust  in  any  mere 
man,  the  Psalmist  nevertheless  expressly  calls 
them  blessed  who  trust  in  the  Son  here  spoken 
of; — all  these  things  taken  together  make  up 
a  character  of  unequivocal  divinity  :  and,  on 
the  other  hand,  when  it  is  said,  that  God  would 
set  this  his  Son  as  his  King  on  his  holy  hill  of 
Zion,  verse  6,  this,  and  various  other  expres- 
sions in  this  Psalm,  contain  characters  of  that 
subordination  which  is  appropriate  to  that 
divine  Person  who  was  to  be  incarnate,  and 
engage  in  a  work  assigned  to  him  by  the 
Father.  The  former  part  of  the  forty-fifth 
Psalm  is  by  the  inspired  authority  of  St.  Paul 


JES 


525 


JES 


applied  to  the  Christ,  who  is  addressed  in  these 
lofty  words,  "  Thy  throne,  O  God,  is  for  ever 
and  ever ;  a  sceptre  of  righteousness  is  the 
sceptre  of  thy  kingdom."  In  the  same  manner 
Psalm  cii,  25-29,  is  applied  to  Christ  by  the 
same  authority,  and  there  he  is  represented  as 
the  Creator  of  all  things,  changing  his  crea- 
tions as  a  vesture,  and  yet  himself  continuing 
the  same  unchanged  being  amidst  all  the  mu 
tations  of  the  universe.  In  Psalm  ex,  David 
says,  "Jehovah  said  unto  my  Lord,  (Adonai, 
Sit  thou  upon  my  right  hand  until  I  make 
thine  enemies  thy  footstool."  And  in  Isaiah 
vi,  the  same  Adonai  is  seen  by  the  prophet 
"  seated  upon  a  throne,  high  and  lifted  up," 
receiving  the  adoration  of  seraphs,  and  bear- 
ing the  title,  "Jehovah,  Lord  of  Hosts,"  of 
which  passage  St.  John  makes  a  direct  appli- 
cation to  Christ.  Isaiah  predicts  his  birth  of 
a  virgin,  under  the  title  of  "  Immanuel,  God 
with  us."  The  same  prophet  gives  to  this 
wonderful  child  the  style  of  "  the  Mighty 
God,"  "  the  Everlasting  Father,"  and  the 
"  Prince  of  Peace  ;"  so  that,  as  Dr.  Pye  Smith 
justly  observes,  "  if  there  be  any  dependence 
on  words,  the  Messiah  is  here  drawn  in  the 
opposite  characters  of  humanity  and  Deity, — 
the  nativity  and  frailty  of  a  mortal  child,  and 
the  incommunicable  attributes  of  the  omni- 
present and  eternal  God."  Twice  is  he  called 
by  Jeremiah,  "Jehovah  our  righteousness." 
Daniel  terms  him  the  "Ancient  of  Days,"  or 
"  The  Immortal ;"  and  Micah  declares,  in  a 
passage  which  the  council  of  the  Jews,  as- 
sembled by  Herod,  applied  to  the  Messiah, 
that  he  who  was  to  be  born  in  Bethlehem  was 
"even  he  whose  comings  forth  are  from  eter- 
nity, from  the  days  of  the  everlasting  period." 
Thus  the  prophetic  testimony  describes  him, 
as  entitled  to  the  appellation  of  "  Wonderful," 
since  he  should  be,  in  a  sense  peculiar  to  him- 
self, the  Son  of  God,  Psalm  ii,  7;  Isaiah  ix,  6 ; 
as  existing  and  acting  during  the  patriarchal 
and  the  Jewish  ages,  and  even  from  eternity, 
Psalm  xl,  7-9 ;  Micah  v,  2 ;  as  the  guardian 
and  protector  of  his  people,  Isaiah  xl,  9-11 ; 
as  the  proper  object  of  the  various  affections 
of  piety,  of  devotional  confidence  for  obtaining 
the  most  important  blessings,  and  of  religious 
homage  from  angels  and  men,  Psalm  ii,  12 ; 
xcvii,  7;  and,  finally,  declares  him  to  be  the 
eternal  and  immutable  Being,  the  Creator,  God, 
the  Mighty  God,  Adonai,  Elohim,  Jehovah. 

In  perfect  accordance  with  these  views, 
does  our  Saviour  speak  of  himself.  He  asserts 
his  preexistence,  as  having  "come  down  from 
heaven  ;"  and  as  existing  "  before  Abraham  ;" 
and  as  being  "  in  heaven  "  while  yet  before  the 
eyes  of  his  disciples  on  earth.  In  the  same 
peculiar  manner  does  he  apply  the  term  "  Son 
of  God"  to  himself,  and  that  with  so  manifest 
an  intention  to  assume  it  in  the  sense  of  di- 
vinity, that  the  Jews  attempted  on  that  account 
to  stone  him  as  a  blasphemer.  The  whole 
force  of  the  argument  by  which  he  silenced 
the  Pharisees  when  he  asked  how  the  Messiah, 
who  was  to  be  the  Son  of  David,  could  be 
David's  Lord,  in  reference  to  the  passage  in 
the   Psalms    before  quoted,  arose  out  of  the 


doctrine  of  the  Messiah's  divinity ;  and  when 
he  claims  that  all  men  should  honour  him  as 
they  honour  the  Father,  and  asserts  that  as 
the  Father  hath  life  in  himself,  so  he  has  given 
to  the  Son  to  have  life  in  himself,  that  he 
"  quickeneth  whom  he  will,"  that  "  where  two 
or  three  meet  in  his  name  he  is  in  the  midst 
of  them,"  and  would  be  with  his  disciples  "  to 
the  end  of  the  world ;"  who  does  not  see  that 
the  Jews  concluded  right,  when  they  said  that 
he  made  himself  "  equal  with  God," — an  im- 
pression which  he  took  no  pains  to  remove, 
although  his  own  moral  character  bound  him 
to  do  so,  had  he  not  intended  to  confirm  that 
conclusion.  So  numerous  are  the  passages  in 
which  divine  titles,  acts,  and  qualities,  are  as- 
cribed to  Christ,  in  the  apostolical  epistles, 
and  so  unbroken  is  the  stream  of  testimony 
from  the  apostolic  age,  that  the  Deity  of  their 
Saviour  was  the  undoubted  and  universal  faith 
of  his  inspired  followers,  and  of  those  who 
immediately  succeeded  them,  that  it  is  not 
necessary  to  quote  proofs.  The  whole  argu- 
ment is  this  :  If  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures 
represent  the  Messiah  as  a  divine  Person  ;  the 
proofs  which  demonstrate  Jesus  to  be  the 
Messiah,  demonstrate  him  also  by  farther  and 
necessary  consequence  to  be  divine.  Yet, 
though  there  is  a  union  of  natures  in  Christ, 
there  is  no  mixture  or  confusion  of  their  pro- 
perties :  his  humanity  is  not  changed  into  his 
Deity,  nor  his  Deity  absorbed  by  his  humanity ; 
but  the  two  natures  are  distinct  in  one  Person. 
How  this  union  exists,  is  above  our  compre- 
hension ;  and,  indeed,  if  we  cannot  explain 
how  our  bodies  and  souls  are  united,  it  is  not 
to  be  supposed  that  we  can  comprehend  the 
mystery  of  "  God  manifest  in  the  flesh."  So 
truly  does  Christ  bear  the  name  given  to  him 
in  prophecy, — "  Wonderful." 

3.  The  doctrine  of  the  Deity  of  Christ  de. 
rives  farther  confirmation  from  the  consider- 
ation, that  in  no  sound  sense  can  the  Scrip- 
tures of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  be 
interpreted  so  as  to  make  their  very  different 
and  often  apparently  contradictory  statements 
respecting  him  harmonize.  How,  for  instance, 
is  it  that  he  is  arrayed  in  the  attributes  of  di- 
vinity, and  yet  is  capable  of  being  raised  to  a 
kingdom  and  glory  ? — that  he  is  addressed, 
"  Thy  throne,  O  God,  is  for  ever  and  ever," 
and  yet  that  it  should  follow  "  God,  even  thy 
God,  hath  anointed  thee  with  the  oil  of  glad- 
ness above  thy  fellows  ?" — that  he  should  be- 
God,  and  yet,  by  a  human  birth,  "  God  with 
us  ?" — that  he  should,  say,  "  I  and  my  Father 
are  one,"  and,  "  My  Father  is  greater  than 
I  ?" — that  he  is  supreme,  and  yet  a  servant  ? — 
that  he  is  equal  and  yet  subordinate  ? — that  he, 
a  man,  should  require  and  receive  worship  and) 
trust  ? — that  lie  should  be  greater  than  angels, 
and  yet  "made  lower  than  the  angels  ?" — that 
he  should  be  "  made  flesh,"  and  yet  be  the 
Creator  of  all  things? — that  he  should  raise 
himself  from  the  dead,  and  yet  be  raised  by 
the  power  of  the  Father  ?  These  and  many 
other  declarations  respecting  him,  all  accord 
with  the  orthodox  view  of  his  person  ;  and  are 
intelligible  so  far  as  they  state  the  facts  re- 


JES 


526 


JES 


ppecting  him  ;  but  are  wholly  beyond  the  power 
of  interpretation  into  any  rational  meaning  on 
any  theory  which  denies  to  him  a  real  hu- 
manity on  the  one  hand,  or  a  real  and  personal 
divinity  on  the  other.  So  powerfully,  in  fact, 
has  this  been  felt,  that,  in  order  to  evade  the 
force  of  the  testimony  of  Scripture,  the  most 
licentious  criticisms  have  been  resorted  to  by 
the  deniers  of  his  divinity;  such  as  would 
not  certainly  have  been  tolerated  by  scholars 
in  the  case  of  an  attempt  to  interpret  any  other 
ancient  writing. 

4.  Being,  therefore,  not  only  "  a  teacher 
sent  from  God,"  but  the  divine  Son  of  God 
himself,  it  might  be  truly  said  by  his  wonder- 
ing hearers,  "  Never  man  spake  like  this  man." 
On  our  Lord's  character  as  a  teacher,  there- 
fore, many  striking  and  just  remarks  have 
been  made  by  different  writers,  not  excepting 
some  infidels  themselves,  who,  in  this  respect, 
have  been  carried  into  admiration  by  the  over- 
whelming force  of  evidence.  This  article, 
however,  shall  not  be  indebted  to  a  desecrated 
source  for  an  estimate  of  the  character  of  his 
teaching,  and  shall  rather  be  concluded  with 
the  following  admirable  remarks  of  a  Christian 
prelate : — 

"  When  our  Lord  is  considered  as  a  teacher, 
we  find  him  delivering  the  justest  and  most 
sublime  truths  with  respect  to  the  divine  na- 
ture, the  duties  of  mankind,  and  a  future  state 
of  existence  ;  agreeable  in  every  particular  to 
reason,  and  to  the  wisest  maxims  of  the  wisest 
philosophers:  without  any  mixture  of  that 
alloy  which  so  often  debased  their  most  per- 
fect production ;  and  excellently  adapted  to 
mankind  in  general,  by  suggesting  circum- 
stances and  particular  images  on  the  most 
awful  and  interesting  subjects.  We  find  him 
filling,  and,  as  it  were,  overpowering  our 
minds  with  the  grandest  ideas  of  his  own  na- 
ture ;  representing  himself  as  appointed  by 
his  father  to  be  our  Instructor,  our  Redeemer, 
our  Judge,  and  our  King;  and  showing  that 
he  lived  and  died  for  the  most  benevolent  and 
important  purposes  conceivable.  He  does  not 
labour  to  support  the  greatest  and  most  mag. 
nificent  of  all  characters ;  but  it  is  perfectly 
easy  and  natural  to  him.  He  miakes  no  dis- 
play of  the  high  and  heavenly  truths  which  he 
utters ;  but  speaks  of  them  with  a  graceful 
and  wonderful  simplicity  and  majesty.  Super- 
natural truths  are  as  familiar  to  his  mind,  as 
the  common  a. fairs  of  life  are  to  other  men. 
He  revives  the  moral  law,  carries  it  to  perfec- 
tion, and  enforces  it  by  peculiar  and  animal  ing 
motives:  but  he  enjoins  nothing  new  beside 
praying  in  his  name,  mutual  love  among  his 
disciples,  as  such,  and  the  observance  of  two 
simple  and  significant  positive  laws  which 
serve  to  promote  the  practice  of  the  moral 
law.  All  his  precepts,  when  rightly  explained, 
are  reasonable  in  themselves  and  useful  in 
their  tendency  :  and  their  compass  is  very 
great,  considering  that  he  was  an  occasional 
teacher,  and  not  a  systematical  one.  If  from 
the  matter  of  his  instructions  we  pass  on  to 
the  manner  in  which  they  were  delivered,  we 
find  our  Lord  usually  speaking  as  an  authori- 


tative teacher  ;  though  occasionally  limiting 
his  precepts,  and  sometimes  assigning  the 
reasons  of  them.  lie  presupposes  the  original 
law  of  God,  and  addresses  men  as  rational 
creatures.  From  the  grandeur  of  his  mind, 
and  the  magnitude  of  his  subjects,  he  is  often, 
sublime  ;  and  the  beauties  interspersed  through. 
out  his  discourses  are  equally  natural  and 
striking.  He  is  remarkable  for  an  easy  and 
graceful  manner  of  introducing  the  best  les- 
sons from  incidental  objects  and  occasions. 
The  human  heart  is  naked  and  open  to  him ; 
and  he  addresses  the  thoughts  of  men,  as 
others  do  the  emotions  of  their  countenance 
or  their  bodily  actions.  Difficult  situations, 
and  sudden  questions  of  the  most  artful  and 
ensnaring  kind,  serve  only  to  display  his  su- 
perior wisdom,  and  to  confound  and  astonish 
all  his  adversaries.  Instead  of  showing  his 
boundless  knowledge  on  every  occasion,  he 
checks  and  restrains  it,  and  prefers  utility  to 
the  glare  of  ostentation.  He  teaches  directly 
and  obliquely,  plainly  and  covertly,  as  wisdom 
points  out  occasions.  Pie  knows  the  inmost 
character,  every  prejudice  and  every  feeling  of 
his  hearers  ;  and,  accordingly,  uses  parables  to 
conceal  or  to  enforce  his  lessons :  and  he 
powerfully  impresses  them  by  the  significant 
language  of  actions.  He  gives  proofs  of  his 
mission  from  above,  by  his  knowledge  of  the 
heart,  by  a  chain  of  prophecies,  and  by  a 
variety  of  mighty  works. 

"He  sets  an  example  of  the  most  perfect 
piety  to  God,  and  of  the  most  extensive  be- 
nevolence and  the  most  tender  compassion  to 
men.  He  does  not  merely  exhibit  a  life  of 
strict  justice,  but  of  overflowing  benignity. 
His  temperance  has  not  the  dark  shades  of 
austerity ;  liis  meekness  does  not  degenerate 
into  apathy.  His  humility  is  signal,  amidst  a 
splendour  of  qualities  more  than  human.  His 
fortitude  is  eminent  and  exemplary,  in  endur- 
ing the  most  formidable  external  evils  and  the 
sharpest  actual  Bufferings :  his  patience  is  in- 
vincible  ;  his  resignation  entire  and  absolute. 
Truth  and  sincerity  shine  throughout  his 
whole  conduct.  Though  of  heavenly  descent, 
he  shows  obedience  and  affection  to  his  earthly 
parents.  He  approves,  loves,  and  attaches- 
himself  to  amiable  qualities  in  the  human  race. 
He  respects  authority,  religious  and  civil ;  and 
he  evidences  his  regard  for  his  country  by 
promoting  its  most  essential  good  in  a  painful 
ministry  dedicated  to  its  service,  by  deploring 
unities,  and  by  laying  down  his  life  for 
its  benefit.  Every  one  of  his  eminent  virtues 
is  regulated  by  consummate  prudence  ;  and  he 
both  wins  the  love  of  bis  friends,  and  extorts 
the  approbation  and  wonder  of  his  enemies. 
Never  was  ;i  character  at  the  same  time  so 
commanding  and  natural,  so  resplendent  and 
pleasing,  so  amiable  and  venerable.  There  is 
a  peculiar  contrast  in  it  between  an  awful 
greatness,  dignity,  and  majesty,  and  the  most 
conciliating  loveliness,  tenderness,  and  soft- 
ness. He  now  converses  with  prophets,  law- 
givers, and  angels  ;  and  the  next  instant  he 
meekly  endures  the  dulness  of  his  disciples, 
and  the  blasphemies  and  rage  of  the  multitude. 


JES 


627 


JEW 


He  now  calls  himself  greater  than  Solomon, 
one  who  can  command  legions  of  angels,  the 
Giver  of  life  to  whomsoever  he  pleaseth,  the 
Son  of  God  who  shall  sit  on  his  glorious 
throne  to  judge  the  world.  At  other  times  we 
find  him  embracing  young  children,  not  lifting 
up  his  voice  in  the  streets,  not  breaking  the 
bruised  reed,  nor  quenching  the  smoking  flax ; 
calling  his  disciples,  not  servants,  but  friends 
and  brethren,  and  comforting  them  with  an 
exuberant  and  parental  affection.  Let  us  pause 
an  instant,  and  fill  our  minds  with  the  idea  of 
one  who  knew  all  things  heavenly  and  earthly, 
searched  and  laid  open  the  inmost  recesses  of 
the  heart,  rectified  every  prejudice,  and  remov- 
ed every  mistake,  of  a  moral  and  religious 
kind,  by  a  word  exercised  a  sovereignty  over 
all  nature,  penetrated  the  hidden  events  of 
futurity,  gave  promises  of  admission  into  a 
happy  immortality,  had  the  keys  of  life  and 
death,  claimed  a  union  with  the  Father ;  and 
yet  was  pious,  mild,  gentle,  humble,  affable, 
social,  benevolent,  friendly,  affectionate.  Such 
a  character  is  fairer  than  the  morning  star. 
Each  separate  virtue  is  made  stronger  by 
opposition  and  contrast ;  and  the  union  of  so 
many  virtues  forms  a  brightness  which  fitly 
represents  the  glory  of  that  God  '.  who  inhabit- 
eth  light  inaccessible.'  Such  a  character  must 
have  been  a  real  one.  There  is  something  so 
extraordinary,  so  perfect,  and  so  godlike  in  it, 
that  it  could  not  have  been  thus  supported 
throughout  by  the  utmost  stretch  of  human 
art,  much  less  by  men  confessedly  unlearned 
and  obscure."  We  may  add,  that  such  a 
character  must  also  have  been  divine.  His 
virtues  are  human  in  their  class  and  kind,  so 
that  he  was  our  "  example ;"  but  they  were 
sustained  and  heightened  by  that  divinity 
which  was  impersonated  in  him,  and  from 
which  they  derived  their  intense  and  full  per- 
fection. 

5.  A  great  deal  has  been  written  concerning 
the  form,  beauty,  and  stature  of  Jesus  Christ. 
Some  have  asserted,  that  he  was  in  person  the 
noblest  of  all  the  sons  of  men.  Others  have 
maintained,  that  there  was  no  beauty  nor  any 
graces  in  his  outward  appearance.  The  fathers 
have  not  expressed  themselves  on  this  matter 
in  a  uniform  manner.  St.  Jerom  believes  that 
the  lustre  and  majesty  which  shone  about  our 
Saviour's  face  were  capable  of  winning  all 
hearts  :  it  was  this  that  drew  the  generality  of 
his  Apostles  with  so  much  ease  to  him  ;  it 
was  this  majesty  which  struck  those  down 
who  came  to  seize  him  in  the  olive  garden. 
St.  Bernard  and  St.  Chrysostom  contend  in 
like  manner  for  the  beauty  of  Jesus  Christ's 
person ;  but  the  most  ancient  fathers  have 
acknowledged,  that  he  was  not  at  all  hand- 
some. Homo  indecorus  et  passibilis,  says  Ire- 
nffius.  Celsus  objected  to  the  Christians,  that 
Jesus  Christ,  as  a  man,  was  little,  and  ill 
made,  which  Origen  acknowledged  in  his 
answer  to  have  been  written  of  him.  Clemens 
Alexandrinus  owns,  in  several  places,  that  the 
person  of  Jesus  Christ  was  not  beautiful,  as 
does  also  Cyril  of  Alexandria.  Tertullian 
fays  plainly,  vtiltu  et  aspectu  inglvrius ;  that 


his  outward  form  had  nothing  that  could 
attract  consideration  and  respect.  St.  Austin 
confesses,  that  Jesus  Christ,  as  a  man,  was 
without  beauty  and  the  advantage  of  person  ; 
and  the  generality  of  the  ancients,  as  Euse- 
bius,  Basil,  Theodoret,  Ambrose,  Isidore,  &c, 
explain  the  passage  in  the  Psalms,  "  Thou  art 
fairer  than  the  children  of  men,"  as  relating 
to  the  beauty  of  Jesus  Christ  according  to  his 
divinity.  This  difference  in  opinion  shows 
that  no  certain  tradition  was  handed  down  on 
this  subject.  The  truth  probably  is,  that  all 
which  was  majestic  and  attractive  in  the  per- 
son of  our  Lord,  was  in  the  expression  of  the 
countenance,  the  full  influence  of  which  was 
displayed  chiefly  in  his  confidential  intercourse- 
with  his  disciples ;  while  his  general  appear- 
ance presented  no  striking  peculiarity  to  the 
common  observer. 

JEWS,  the  appropriate  denomination  of  the 
descendants  of  Judah,  which  soon  included 
under  it  the  Benjamites,  who  joined  them- 
selves  to  the  tribe  of  Judah,  on  the  revolt  of 
the  other  ten  tribes  from  the  house  of  David. 
After  the  Babylonish  captivity,  when  many 
individuals  of  these  ten  tribes  returned  with 
the  men  of  Judah  and  Benjamin  to  rebuild 
Jerusalem,  the  term  Jews  included  them  also, 
or  rather  was  then  extended  to  all  the  descend- 
ants of  Israel  who  retained  the  Jewish  reli- 
gion, whether  they  belonged  to  the  two  or  to 
the  ten  tribes,  whether  they  returned  into 
Judea  or  not.  Hence,  not  only  all  the  Israel- 
ites of  future  times  have  been  called  Jews, 
but  all  the  descendants  of  Jacob,  from  the 
earliest  times,  are  frequently  so  called  by  us 
at  present,  and  we  speak  even  of  their  original 
dispensation  as  the  Jewish  dispensation.  The 
history  of  this  singular  people  is  recorded  in 
the  sacred  books  of  the  Old  Testament ;  and 
in  place  of  epitomizing  the  accounts  of  tho 
sacred  writers,  it  will  be  more  useful  to  fill  up 
the  chasm  between  the  close  of  the  historical 
books  there  contained,  and  the  coming  of  our 
Lord. 

When  the  kingdom  of  Judah  had  been 
seventy  years  in  captivity,  and  the  period  of 
their  affliction  was  completed,  Cyrus,  (B.  C. 
536,)  under  whom  were  united  the  kingdoms 
of  Persia,  Media,  and  Babylon,  issued  a  de- 
cree, permitting  all  the  Jews  to  return  to  their 
own  land,  and  to  rebuild  their  temple  at  Jeru- 
salem. This  decree  had  been  expressly  fore- 
told by  the  Prophet  Isaiah,  who  spoke  of 
Cyrus  by  name,  above  a  hundred  years  before 
his  birth,  as  the  deliverer  of  God's  chosen 
people  from  their  predicted  captivity.  Though 
the  decree  issued  by  Cyrus  was  general,  a 
part  only  of  the  nation  took  advantage  of  it. 
The  number  of  persons  who  returned  at  this 
time  was  forty-two  thousand  three  hundred 
and  sixty,  and  seven  thousand  three  hundred 
and  thirty-seven  servants.  They  were  con- 
ducted by  Zerubbabel  and  Joshua.  Zerubba- 
bel,  frequently  called  in  Scripture  Shashbaz- 
y.ar,  was  the  grandson  of  Jeconias,  and  conse- 
quently descended  from  David.  He  was  called 
"the  prince  of  Judah,"  and  was  appointed 
their   governor   by  Cyrus,   and  with   his   per. 


JEW 


528 


JEW 


mission  carried  back  a  part  of  the  gold  and 
silver  vessels  which  Nebuchadnezzar  had  taken 
out  the  temple  of  Jerusalem.     The  rest  of  the 
treasures  of  the  temple  were  carried  thither 
afterward  by  Ezra.     Joshua  was  the   son  of 
Josedec,    the    high   priest,    and   grandson    of 
Seraiah,  who  was  high  priest  when  the  temple 
was    destroyed.       Darius,    the    successor    of 
Cyrus,    confirmed    this   decree,  and  favoured 
the  reestablishment  of  the  people.     But  it  was 
in  the  reign  of  Artaxerxes  Longimanus,  called 
in  Scripture  Ahasuerus,  that  Ezra    obtained 
his  commission,    and  was  made   governor  of 
the  Jews  in  their   own  land,  which   govern- 
ment he  held  thirteen  years  :  then  Nehemiah 
was    appointed  with  fresh    powers,    probably 
through    the    interest  of  Queen  Esther ;  and 
Ezra  applied  himself  solely  to  correcting  the 
canon    of  the   Scriptures,  and  restoring  and 
providing  for  the  continuance  of  the  worship 
of  God  in  its  original  purity.     The  first  care 
of  the  Jews,  after  their  arrival  in  Judea,  was 
to  build  an  altar  for  burnt-offerings  to  ,God : 
they  then    collected   materials  for  rebuilding 
the   temple ;   and   all   necessary  preparations 
being  made,  in  the  beginning  of  the  second 
year  after  their  return  under  Zerubbabel,  they 
began    to   build  it  upon  the  old  foundations. 
The  Samaritans,  affirming  that  they  worship- 
ped the  God  of  Israel,  offered  to  assist  the 
Jews  ;  but  their  assistance  being  refused,  they 
did    all  in  their  power  to   impede  the  work ; 
and  hence  originated  that  enmity  which  ever 
after  subsisted  between  the  Jews  and  Sama- 
ritans.    The  temple,  after  a  variety  of  obstruc- 
tions and  delays,  was  finished  and  dedicated, 
in  the  seventh  year  of  King  Darius,  B.  C.  515, 
and  twenty  years  after  it  was  begun.  Though 
this  second  temple,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called, 
the    temple    of  Zerubbabel,  who  was  at  that 
time  governor  of  the  Jews,  was  of  the  same 
6ize  aod  dimensions  as  the  first,  or  Solomon's 
temple,  yet  it  was  very  inferior  to  it  in  splen- 
dour and   magnificence ;  and  the   ark   of  the 
covenant,  the  Shechinah,  the  holy  fire  upon 
the  altar,  the  Urim  and  Thummim,  and  the 
spirit  of  prophecy,  were  all  wanting  to  this 
temple  of  the  remnant  of  the  people.     At  the 
feast  of  the  dedication,  offerings  were  made 
for  the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel,  which  seems 
to  indicate  that  some  of  all  the  tribes  returned 
from  captivity ;  but  by  far  the  greater  number 
were  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  and  therefore  from 
this  period  the  Israelites  were  generally  called 
Juda;i    or    Jews,    and    their    country   Judea. 
Man)r,  at  their  own  desire,  remained  in  those 
provinces  where  they  had  been  placed  by  the 
kings  of  Assyria  and  Babylon.     The    settle- 
ment of  the  people,   "  after  their  old  estfate," 
according  to  the  word  of  the  Lord,  together 
with  the  arrangement  of  all  civil  and  ecclesi- 
astical matters,  and  the  building  of  the  walls 
of  Jerusalem,   were  completed    by  Ezra    and 
Nehemiah.     But  we  soon  after  find  Malachi, 
the  last  of  the  prophets  under  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, reproving  both  priests  and  people  very 
severely,  not  for  idolatry,  but  for  their  scan- 
dalous lives  and  gross  corruptions. 

The  Scriptural  history  ends  at  this  period, 


B.  C.  430  ;  and  we  must  have  recourse  to  un. 
inspired  writings,  principally  to  the  books  of 
the  Maccabees,  and  to  Josephus,  for  the  re- 
maining particulars  of  the  Jewish  history,  to 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Romans. 
Judea  continued  subject  to  the  kings  of  Persia 
about  two  hundred  years ;  but  it  does  not  ap- 
pear that  it  had  a  separate  governor  after  Ne- 
hemiah. From  his  time  it  was  included  in  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  governor  of  Syria,  and  under 
him  the  high  priest  had  the  chief  authority. 
When  Alexander  the  Great  was  preparing  to 
besiege  Tyre,  he  sent  to  Jaddua,  the  high 
priest  at  Jerusalem,  to  supply  him  with  that 
quantity  of  provisions  which  he  was  accus- 
tomed to  send  to  Persia.  Jaddua  refused,  upon 
the  ground  of  his  oath  of  fidelity  to  the  king 
of  Persia.  This  refusal  irritated  Alexander ; 
and  when  he  had  taken  Tyre,  he  marched 
toward  Jerusalem  to  revenge  himself  upon  the 
Jews.  Jaddua  had  notice  of  his  approach,  and, 
by  the  direction  of  God,  went  out  of  the  city 
to  meet  him,  dressed  in  his  pontifical  robes, 
and  attended  by  the  Levites  in  white  garments. 
Alexander,  visibly  struck  with  this  solemn 
appearance,  immediately  laid  aside  his  hostile 
intentions,  advanced  toward  the  high  priest, 
embraced  him,  and  paid  adoration  to  the  name 
of  God,  which  was  inscribed  upon  the  frontlet 
of  his  mitre  :  he  afterward  went  into  the  city 
with  the  high  priest,  and  offered  sacrifices  in 
the  temple  to  the  God  of  the  Jews.  This  sud- 
den change  in  the  disposition  of  Alexander 
excited  no  small  astonishment  among  his  fol- 
lowers ;  and  when  his  favourite  Parmenio  in- 
quired of  him  the  cause,  he  answered,  that  it 
was  occasioned  by  the  recollection  of  a  re- 
markable dream  he  had  in  Macedonia,  in 
which  a  person,  dressed  precisely  like  the 
Jewish  high  priest,  had  encouraged  him  to 
undertake  the  conquest  of  Persia,  and  had 
promised  him  success :  he  therefore  adored 
the  name  of  that  God  by  whose  direction  he 
believed  he  acted,  and  showed  kindness  to  his 
people.  It  is  also  said,  that  while  he  was  at 
Jerusalem  the  prophecies  of  Daniel  were  point- 
ed out  to  him,  which  foretold  that  "the  king 
of  Grecia"  should  conquer  Persia,  Dan.  viii, 
21.  Before  he  left  Jerusalem  he  granted  the 
Jews  the  same  free  enjoyment  of  their  laws 
and  their  religion,  and  exemption  from  tribute 
every  sabbatical  year,  which  they  had  been 
allowed  by  the  kings  of  Persia ;  and  when  he 
built  Alexandria,  he  placed  a  great  number  of 
Jews  there,  and  granted  them  many  favours 
and  immunities.  Whether  any  Jews  settled 
in  Europe  so  early  as  while  the  nation  was 
subject  to  the  Macedonian  empire,  is  not 
known  ;  but  it  is  believed  that  they  began  to 
Hellenize  about  this  time.  The  Greek  tongue 
became  more  conunon  among  them,  and  Gre- 
cian manners  and  opinions  were  soon  intro- 
duced.    See  Alexander. 

At  the  death  of  Alexander,  (B.  C.  323,)  in 
the  division  of  his  empire  among  his  generals, 
Judea  fell  to  the  share  of  Laomedon.  But 
Ptolemy  Soter,  son  of  Lagus,  king  of  Egypt, 
soon  after  made  himself  master  of  it  by  a 
stratagem  :  he  entered  Jerusalem  on  a  Sabbath 


JEW 


529 


JEW 


day,  under  pretence  of  offering  sacrifice,  and 
took  possession  of  the  city  without  resistance 
from  the  Jews,  who  did  not  on  this  occasion 
dare  to  transgress  their  law  by  fighting  on  a 
Sabbath  day.  Ptolemy  carried  many  thou- 
sands captive  into  Egypt,  both  Jews  and  Sa- 
maritans, and  settled  them  there  :  he  afterward 
treated  them  with  kindness,  on  account  of  their 
acknowledged  fidelity  to  their  engagements, 
particularly  in  their  conduct  toward  Darius, 
king  of  Persia ;  and  he  granted  their  equal 
privileges  with  the  Macedonians  themselves 
at  Alexandria.  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  is  said 
to  have  given  the  Jews  who  were  captives  in 
Egypt  their  liberty,  to  the  number  of  a  hundred 
and  twenty  thousand.  He  commanded  the 
Jewish  Scriptures  to  be  translated  into  the 
Greek  language,  which  translation  is  called 
the  Septuagint.  (See  Alexandria.)  After  the 
Jewish  nation  had  been  tributary  to  the  kings 
of  Egypt  for  about  a  hundred  years,  it  became 
subject  to  the  kings  of  Syria.  They  divided 
the  land,  which  now  began  to  be  called  Pales- 
tine, into  five  provinces,  three  of  which  were 
on  the  west  side  of  the  Jordan,  namely,  Gali- 
lee, Samaria,  and  Judea,  and  two  on  the  east 
tide,  namely,  Trachonitis  and  Feraja  ;  but  they 
suffered  them  to  be  governed  by  their  own 
laws,  under  the  high  priest  and  council  of  the 
nation.  Seleucus  Nicanor  gave  them  the  right 
of  citizens  in  the  cities  which  he  built  in  Asia 
Minor  and  Ccelo-Syria,  and  even  in  Antioch, 
his  capital,  with  privileges,  which  they  con- 
tinued to  enjoy  under  the  Romans.  Antiochus 
the  Great  granted  considerable  favours  and 
immunities  to  the  city  of  Jerusalem ;  and,  to 
secure  Lydia  and  Phrygia,  he  established  colo- 
nies of  Jews  in  those  provinces.  .  In  the  series 
of  wars  which  took  place  between  the  kings  of 
Syria  and  Egj^pt,  Judea,  being  situated  between 
those  two  countries,  was,  in  a  greater  or  less 
degree,  affected  by  all  the  revolutions  which 
they  experienced,  and  was  frequently  the  scene 
of  bloody  and  destructive  battles.  The  evils 
to  which  the  Jews  were  exposed  from  these 
foreign  powers  were  considerably  aggravated 
by  the  corruption  and  misconduct  of  their  own 
high  priests,  and  other  persons  of  distinction 
among  them.  To  this  corruption  and  miscon- 
duct, and  to  the  increasing  wickedness  of  the 
people,  their  sufferings  ought  indeed  to  be 
attributed,  according  to  the  express  declara- 
tions of  God  by  the  mouth  of  his  prophets.  It 
is  certain  that  about  this  time  a  considerable 
part  of  the  nation  was  become  much  attached 
to  Grecian  manners  and  customs,  though  they 
continued  perfectly  free  from  the  sin  of  idola- 
try. Near  Jerusalem  places  were  appropriated 
to  gymnastic  exercises ;  and  the  people  were 
led  by  Jason,  who  had  obtained  the  high  priest- 
hood from  Antiochus  Epiphanes  by  the  most 
dishonourable  means,  to  neglect  the  temple 
worship,  and  the  observance  of  the  law,  in  a  far 
greater  degree  than  at  any  period  since  their 
return  from  the  captivity.  It  pleased  God  to 
punish  them  for  this  defection,  by  the  hand  of  the 
very  person  whom  they  particularly  sought  to 
please.  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  irritated  at  hav- 
ing been  prevented  by  the  Jews  from  entering' 
35 


the  holy  place  when  he  visited  the  temple, 
soon  after  made  a  popular  commotion  the  pre- 
tence  for  the  exercise  of  tyranny  :  he  took  the 
city,  (B.  C.  170,)  plundered  the  temple,  and 
slew  or  enslaved  great  numbers  of  the  inhabit- 
ants, with  every  circumstance  of  profanation 
and  of  cruelty  which  can  be  conceived.  For 
three  years  and  a  half,  the  time  predicted  by 
Daniel,  the  daily  sacrifice  was  taken  away,  the 
temple  defiled  and  partly  destroyed,  the  ob- 
servance of  the  law  prohibited  under  the  most 
severe  penalties,  every  copy  burned  which  the 
agents  of  the  tyrant  could  procure,  and  the 
people  required  to  sacrifice  to  idols,  under  pain 
of  the  most,  agonizing  death.  Numerous  as 
were  the  apostates,  (for  the  previous  corruption 
of  manners  had  but  ill  prepared  the  nation  for 
such  a  trial,)  a  remnant  continued  faithful ; 
and  the  complicated  miseries  which  the  people 
endured  under  this  cruel  yoke  excited  a  general 
impatience.  At  length  the  moment  of  deliver- 
ance arrived.  Mattathias,  a  priest,  (B.  C.  167,) 
eminent  for  his  piety  and  resolution,  and  the 
father  of  five  sons,  equally  zealous  for  their 
religion,  encouraged  the  people  by  his  example 
and  exhortations,  "to  stand  up  for  the  law;" 
and  having  soon  collected  an  army  of  six  thou- 
sand men,  he  eagerly  undertook  to  free  Judea 
from  the  oppression  and  persecution  of  the 
Syrians,  and  to  restore  the  worship  of  the  God 
of  Israel ;  but  being  very  old  when  he  engaged 
in  this  important  and  arduous  work,  he  did  not 
live  to  see  its  completion.  At  his  death,  his 
son,  Judas  Maccabams,  succeeded  to  the  com- 
mand of  the  army;  and  having  defeated  the 
Syrians  in  several  engagements,  he  drove  them 
out  of  Judea,  and  established  his  own  authority 
in  the  country.  His  first  care  was  to  repair  and 
purify  the  temple  for  the  restoration  of  divine 
worship  ;  and,  to  preserve  the  memory  of  this 
event,  the  Jews  ordained  a  feast  of  eight  days, 
called  the  feast  of  the  dedication,  to  be  yearly 
observed.  Judas  Maccabams  was  slain  in  battle, 
and  his  brother  Jonathan  succeeded  him  in  the 
government.  He  was  also  made  high  priest, 
and  from  that  time  the  Maccaba-an  princes 
continued  to  be  high  priests.  Judas  Macca- 
basus  and  his  brothers  were  so  successful,  by 
their  valour  and  conduct,  in  asserting  the 
liberty  of  their  country,  that  in  a  fe.w  years 
they  not  only  recovered  its  independence,  but 
regained  almost  all  the  possessions  of  the 
twelve  tribes,  destroying  at  the  same  time  the 
temple  on  Mount  Grrizim,  in  Samaria.  But 
they  and  their  successors  were  almost  always 
engaged  in  wars,  in  which,  though  generally 
victorious,  they  won-  sometimes  defeated,  ana 
their  country  for  a  short  time  oppressed.  Aris-. 
tobulus  was  the  first  of  the  Maccabees  who 
assumed  the  name  of  king.  About  forty-two 
years  after,  a  contest  arismjr  between  the  two 
brothers,  Hyrcanus  and  Aristobulus,  the  sons 
of  Alexander  Jaddreus,  relative  to  the  succes- 
sion of  the  crown,  both  parties  applied  to  the 
Romans  for  their  support  and  assistance. 
Scaurus,  tho  Roman  general,  suffered  himself 
to  be  bribed  by  Aristobulus,  and  placed  him 
on  the  throne.  Not  long  after,  Pompey  re- 
turned from  the  east  into  Syria,  and  both  the 


JEW 


530 


JEW 


brothers  applied  to  him  for  his  protection,  and 
pleaded  their  cause  before  him,  (B.  0.  63.) 
Pompey  considered  this  as  a  favourable  oppor- 
tunity for  reducing  Palestine  under  the  power 
of  the  Romans,  to  which  the  neighbouring 
nations  had  already  submitted  ;  and  therefore, 
without  deciding  the  points  in  dispute  between 
the  two  brothers,  he  marched  his  army  into 
Judca,  and,  after  some  pretended  negociation 
with  Aristobulus  and  his  party,  besieged  and 
took  possession  of  Jerusalem.  He  appointed 
Hyreanus  high  priest,  but  would  not  allow 
him  to  take  the  title  of  king:  lie  gave  him, 
however,  the  specious  name  of  prince,  with 
very  limited  authority.  Pompey  did  not  take 
away  the  holy  utensils  or  treasures  of  the 
temple,  but  he  made  Judea  subject  and  tribu- 
tary to  the  Romans ;  and  Crassus,  about  nine 
years  after,  plundered  the  temple  of  every  thing 
valuable  belonging  to  it.  Julius  Caesar  con- 
firmed Hyreanus  in  the  pontificate,  and  grant- 
ed fresh  privileges  to  the  Jews  ;  but  about  four 
years  after  the  death  of  Julius  Caesar,  Antigo- 
nus,  the  son  of  Aristobulus,  with  the  assistance 
of  the  Parthians,  while  the  empire  of  Rome 
was  in  an  unsettled  state,  deposed  his  uncle 
Hyreanus,  (B.  C.  41,)  seized  the  government, 
and  assumed  the  title  of  king. 

Herod,  by  birth  an  Idumean,  but  of  the 
Jewish  religion,  whose  father,  Antipater,  as 
well  as  himself,  had  enjoyed  considerable  posts 
of  honour  and  trust  under  Hyreanus,  immedi- 
ately set  out  for  Rome,  and  prevailed  upon 
the  senate,  through  the  interest  of  Antony 
and  Augustus,  to  appoint  him  king  of  Judea. 
Armed  with  this  authority,  he  returned,  and 
began  hostilities  against  Antig-onus.  About 
three  years  after,  he  took  Jerusalem,  and  put  an 
end  to  the  government  of  the  Maccabees  or  As- 
monfeans,  after  it  had  lasted  nearly  a  hundred 
and  thirty  years.  Antigonus  was  sent  prisoner 
to  Rome,  and  was  there  put  to  death  by  Anto- 
ny. Herod  married  Mariamne,  who  lived  to 
be  the  only  representative  of  the  Asmonaean 
family,  and  afterward  caused  her  to  be  publicly 
executed  from  motives  of  unfounded  jealousy. 
Herod  considerably  enlarged  the  kingdom  of 
Judea,  but  it  continued  tributary  to  the  Ro- 
mans ;  he  greatly  depressed  the  civil  power  of 
the  high  priesthood,  and  changed  it  from  be- 
ing hereditary  and  for  life  to  an  office  granted 
and  held  at  the  pleasure  of  the  monarch  ;  and 
this  sacred  office  was  now  often  given  to  those 
who  paid  the  highest  price  for  it,  without  any 
regard  to  merit :  he  was  an  inexorable,  cruel 
tyrant  to  his  people,  and  even  to  his  children, 
three  of  whom  he  put  to  death  ;  a  slave  to  his 
pteqioas,  and  indifferent  by  what  means  he 
gratified  his  ambition  ;  but  to  preserve  the  Jews 
in  subjection,  and  to  erect  a  lasting  monument 
to  his  own  name,  he  repaired  the  temple  of 
Jerusalem  at  a  vast  expense,  and  added  greatly 
to  its  magnificence. 

At  this  time  there  was  a  confident  expecta- 
tion of  the  Messiah  among  the  Jews;  and 
indeed,  a  general  idea  prevailed  among  the 
Heathen,  also,  that  some  extraordinary  con- 
queror or  deliverer  would  soon  appear  in  Ju- 
In  the  thirty-sixth  year  of  the  reign  of 


Herod,  while  Augustus  was  emperor  of  Rome, 
the  Saviour  of  mankind  was  born  of  the  virgin 
Mary,  of  the  lineage  of  David,  in  the  city  of 
Bethlehem  of  Judea,  according  to  the  word 
of  prophecy.  Herod,  misled  by  the  opinion, 
which  was  then  common  among  the  Jews, 
that  the  Messiah  was  to  appear  as  the  tempo- 
ral prince,  and  judging  from  the  inquiries  of 
the  wise  men  of  the  east,  that  the  child  was 
actually  born,  sent  to  Bethlehem,  and  ordered 
that  all  the  children  of  two  years  old  and  un- 
der should  be  put  to  death,  with  the  hope  of 
destroying  one  whom  he  considered  as  the  rival 
of  himself,  or  at  least  of  his  family.  He  was 
soon  after  smitten  wTith  a  most  loathsome  and 
tormenting  disease,  and  died,  a  signal  example 
of  divine  justice,  about  a  year  and  a  quarter 
after  the  birth  of  our  Saviour,  and  in  the  thirty- 
seventh  year  of  his  reign,  computing  from  the 
time  he  was  declared  king  by  the  Romans. 
See  Herod. 

Herod  made  his  will  not  long  before  his 
death,  but  left  the  final  disposal  of  his  domi- 
nions to  Augustus.  The  emperor  ratified  this 
will  in  all  its  material  points,  and  suffered  the 
countries  over  which  Herod  had  reigned  to  be 
divided  among  his  three  sons.  Archelaus  suc- 
ceeded to  the  largest  share,  namely,  to  Judea 
Propria,  Samaria,  and  Idumea.  Herod  Anti- 
pas,  called  Herod  the  Tetrarch,  who  afterward 
beheaded  John  the  Baptist,  succeeded  to  Gali- 
lee and  Perfea ;  and  Philip,  to  Trachonitis, 
and  to  the  neighbouring  region  of  Iturea.  The 
sons  of  Herod  the  Great  were  not  suffered  to 
take  the  title  of  king :  they  were  only  called 
ethnarchs  or  tetrarchs.  Beside  the  countries 
already  mentioned,  Abilene,  which  had  belong- 
ed to  Herod  during  the  latter  part  of  his  life, 
and  of  which  Lysanias  is  mentioned  in  Luke 
hi,  1,  as  tetrarch,  and  some  cities  were  given 
to  Salome,  the  sister  of  Herod  the  Great, 
(A.  D.  7.)  Archelaus  acted  with  great  cruelty 
and  injustice  ;  and  in  the  tenth  year  of  his 
government,  upon  a  regular  complaint  being 
made  against  him  by  the  Jews,  Augustus  ba- 
nished him  to  Vienne,  in  Gaul,  where  he  died. 

After  the  banishment  of  Archelaus,  Augus- 
tus sent  Publius  Sulpitius  Quirinus,  who,  ac- 
cording to  the  Greek  way  of  writing  that 
name,  is  by  St.  Luke  called  Cyrenius,  presi- 
dent of  Syria,  to  reduce  the  countries  over 
which  Archelaus  had  reigned,  to  the  form  of 
a  Roman  province  ;  and  appointed  Coponius,  a 
Roman  of  the  equestrian  order,  to  be  governor, 
under  the  title  of  procurator  of  Judea,  but  sub- 
ordinate to  the  president  of  Syria.  The  power 
of  life  and  death  was  now  taken  out  of  the  hands 
of  the  Jews,  and  taxes  were  from  this  time 
paid  immediately  1o  the  Roman  emperor.  Jus- 
tice was  administered  in  the  name  and  by  the 
laws  of  Rome  ;  though  in  what  concerned  their 
religion,  their  own  laws,  and  the  power  of  the 
high  priest,  and  sanhedrim,  or  great  council, 
were  continued  to  them  ;  and  they  were  allow- 
ed to  examine  witnesses,  and  exercise  an  infe- 
rior jurisdiction  in  other  causes,  subject  to  tho 
control  of  the  Romans,  to  whom  their  tetrarchs 
or  kings  were  also  subject ;  and  it  may  be  re- 
marked that,  at  this  very  period  of  time,  our 


JEW 


531 


JEW 


Saviour,  who  was  now  in  the  twelfth  year  of 
his  age,  being  at  Jerusalem  with  Joseph  and 
Mary  upon  occasion  of  the  passover,  appeared 
first  in  the  temple  in  his  prophetic  office,  and 
in  the  business  of  his  Father,  on  which  he  was 
sent,  sitting  among  the  doctors  of  the  temple, 
and  declaring  the  truth  of  God  to  them.  After 
Coponius,  Ambivius,  Annius  Rufus,  Valerius 
Gratus,  and  Pontius  Pilate,  were  successively 
procurators;  and  this  was  the  species  of  go- 
vernment to  which  Judea  and  Samaria  were 
subject  during  the  ministry  of  our  Saviour. 
Herod  Antipas  was  still  tetrarch  of  Galilee, 
and  it  was  he  to  whom  our  Saviour  was  sent 
by  Pontius  Pilate.  Lardner  is  of  opinion  that 
there  was  no  procurator  in  Judea  after  Pontius 
Pilate,  who  was  removed  A.  D.  36,  but  that 
it  was  governed  for  a  few  years  by  the  prer 
6idents  of  Syria,  who  occasionly  sent  officers 
into  Judea.  Philip  continued  tetrarch  of  Tra- 
chonitis  thirty-seven  years,  and  died  in  the 
twentieth  year  of  the  reign  of  Tiberius.  Cali- 
gula gave  his  tetrarchy  to  Agrippa,  the  grand- 
son of  Herod  the  Great,  with  the  title  of  king  ; 
and  afterward  he  added  the  tetrarchy  of  He- 
rod Antipas,  whom  he  deposed  and  banished 
after,  he  had  been  tetrarch  forty-three  years. 
The  Emperor  Claudius  gave  him  Judea,  Sa- 
maria, the  southern  parts  of  Idumea,  and 
Abilene ;  and  thus  at  last  the  dominions  of 
Herod  Agrippa  became  nearly  the  same  as 
those  of  his  grandfather,  Herod  the  Great.  It 
was  this  Agrippa,  called  also  Herod  Agrippa, 
and  by  St.  Luke  Herod  only,  who  put  to  death 
James,  the  brother  of  John,  and  imprisoned 
Peter.  He  died  in  the  seventh  year  of  his 
reign,  and  left  a  son  called  also  Agrippa,  then 
seventeen  years  old ;  and  Claudius,  thinking 
him  too  young  to  govern  his  father's  extensive 
dominions,  made  Cuspus  Fadus  governor  of 
Judea.  Fadus  was  soon  succeeded  by  Tibe- 
rius, and  he  was  followed  by  Alexander  Cuma- 
nus,  Felix,  and  Festus;  but  Claudius  after- 
ward gave  Trachonitis  and  Abilene  to  Agrippa, 
and  JNero  added  a  part  of  Galilee  and  some 
other  cities.  It  was  this  younger  Agrippa, 
who  was  also  called  king,  before  whom  Paul 
pleaded  at  Csesarea,  which  was  at  that  time 
the  place  of  residence  of  the  governor  of  Ju- 
dea. Several  of  the  Roman  governors  severely 
oppressed  and  persecuted  the  Jews ;  and  at 
length,  in  the  reign  of  Nero,  and  in  the  go- 
vernment of  Floras,  who  had  treated  them  with 
greater  cruelty  than  any  of  his  predecessors, 
they  openly  revolted  from  the  Romans.  Then 
began  the  Jewish  war,  which  was  terminated, 
after  an  obstinate  defence  arid  unparalleled 
sufferings  on  the  part  of  the  Jews,  by  the  total 
destruction  of  the  city  and  temple  of  Jerusa- 
lem, by  the  overthrow  of  their  civil  and  reli- 
gious polity,  and  the  reduction  of  the  people  to 
a  state  of  the  most  abject  slavery;  for  though, 
in  the  reign  of  Adrian,  numbers  of  them  col- 
lected together,  in  different  parts  of  Judea,  it  is 
to  be  observed,  they  were  then  considered  and 
treated  as  rebellious  slaves ;  and  these  com- 
motions were  made  a  pretence  for  the  general 
slaughter  of  those  who  were  taken,  and  tended 
to  complete  the  work  of  their  dispersion  into 


all  countries  under  heaven.  Since  that  tune 
the  Jews  have  no  where  subsisted  as  a  nation. 

2.  Jews,  Modern.  The  Jews  divide  the 
books  of  the  Old  Testament  into  three  classes  : 
the  law,  the  prophets,  and  the  hagiographa, 
or  holy  writings.  They  have  counted  not  only 
the  large  and  small  sections,  the  verses  and 
the  words,  but  even  the  letters  in  some  of  the 
books  ;  and  they  have  likewise  reckoned  which 
is  the  middle  letter  of  the  Pentateuch,  which 
is  the  middle  clause  of  each  book,  and  how  often 
each  letter  of  the  alphabet  occurs  in  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures.  Beside  the  Scriptures,  the  Jews 
pay  great  attention  to  the  Targums,  or  ChaMee 
paraphrases  of  them.  It  seems  probable  that 
these  were  written  either  during  the  Babylonish 
captivity,  or  immediately  afterward,  when  the 
Jews  had  forgotten  their  own  language,  and 
acquired  the  Chaldee  of  the  Targums,  at  pre- 
sent received  by  the  Jews.  The  most  ancient 
are  that  of  Onkelos  on  the  law,  and  that  of 
Jonathan  Ben  Uzziel  on  the  prophets :  the 
former  is  supposed  to  be  of  greater  antiquity 
than  the  latter,  and  it  approaches,  in  simplicity 
and  purity  of  style,  to  the  Chaldee  of  Daniel 
and  Ezra.  The  Targum  on  the  prophets  is 
believed  to  have  been  written  before  the  birth 
of  Christ ;  and,  though  inferior  in  respect  of 
style  to  the  Targum  of  Onkelos,  is  much  supe- 
rior to  any  other  Targum. 

The  Jews  also  regard  with  great  veneration, 
what  is  called  the  Talmud.  This  work  con- 
sists of  two  parts  :  the  Mishna,  which  signi- 
fies a  second  law ;  and  the  Gemara,  which 
means  either  a  supplement  or  a  commentary. 
The  Jews  suppose  that  God  first  dictated  the 
text  of  the  law  to  Moses,  which  he  commanded 
to  be  put  in  writing,  and  which  exists  in  the 
Pentateuch,  and  then  gave  him  an  explication 
of  every  thing  comprehended  in  it,  which  he 
ordered  to  be  committed  to  memory.  Hence 
the  former  is  called  the  written,  and  the  latter 
the  oral,  law.  These  two  laws  were  recited  by 
Moses  to  Aaron  four  times,  to  his  sons  three 
times,  to  the  seventy  elders  twice,  and  to  the 
rest  of  the  people  once  :  after  this,  the  repeti- 
tion was  renewed  by  Aaron,  his  two  sons,  and 
the  seventy  elders.  The  last  month  of  Mo- 
ses's life  was  spent,  according  to  the  Jews,  in 
repeating  and  explaining  the  law  to  the  people, 
and  especially  to  Joshua,  his  successor.  A 
prophet  might  suspend  any  law,  or  authorize 
the  violation  of  any  precept,  except  those 
against  idolatry.  If  there  Was  any  difference 
of  opinion  respecting  the  meaning  of  any  law 
or  precept,  it  was  dete"**nined  by  the  majority. 
When  Joshua  di(*d,  an  tne  interpretations  he 
had  received  from  Moses,  as  well  as  those  made 
in  his  time,  were  transmitted  to  the  elders: 
they  conveyed  thorn  to  the  prophets,  and  by 
one  prophet  they  were  delivered  to  another. 
This  law  was  only  oral  till  the  days  of  Rabbi 
Jehuda,  who,  perceiving  that  the  students  of 
the  law  were  gradually  decreasing,  and  that  the 
Jews  were  dispersed  over  the  face  of  the  earth, 
collected  all  the  traditions,  arranged  them 
under  distinct  heads,  and  formed  them  into 
a  methodical  code  of  traditional  law  ;  thus  the 
Mishna  was  formed.    It  is  written  in  a  concise 


JEW 


532 


JEW 


style,  chiefly  in  the  form  of  aphorisms,  which 
admit  of  a  variety  of  interpretations.  On  this 
account,  a  Gemara  or  commentary  was  writ- 
ten by  a  president  of  a  school  in  Palestine, 
which,  together  with  the  Mishna,  forms  the 
Jerusalem  Talmud.  The  Jews  in  (Jhaldea, 
however,  not  being  satisfied  with  this  Gemara, 
one  of  their  rabbies  compiled  another  ;  which, 
together  with  the  Mishna,  forms  the  Babylo- 
nian Talmud. 

One  of  the  principal  branches  of  modern 
Judaism  is  the  cabala,  the  study  of  which  is 
regarded  as  the  suhlimest  of  all  sciences.  By 
the  cabala,  the  Jews  moan  those  mystical  inter- 
pretations of  the  Scripture,  and  metaphysical 
speculations  concerning  the  Deity,  angels,  &c, 
which  they  regard  as  having  been  handed  down 
by  a  secret  tradition  from  the  earliest  ages.  In 
the  eleventh  century,  the  famous  Rabbi  Mai- 
monides  drew  up  a  summary  of  the  doctrines 
of  Judaism,  which  every  Jew  is  required  to 
believe,  on  pain  of  excommunication  in  this 
world,  and  condemnation  in  the  next.  This 
summary  consists  of  thirteen  articles,  which  he 
calls  foundations  or  roots  of  the  faith.  The 
articles  are  as  follows :  1.  That  God  is  the 
Creator  and  active  Supporter  of  all  things. 
2.  That  God  is  one,  and  eternally  unchange- 
able. 3.  That  God  is  incorporeal,  and  can- 
no.  have  any  material  properties.  4.  That 
God  must  eternally  exist.  5.  That  God 
alone  is  to  be  worshipped.  6.  That  whatever 
is  taught  by  the  prophets  is  true.  7.  That 
Moses  is  the  head  and  father  of  all  contempo- 
rary doctors,  and  of  all  those  who  lived  before 
or  shall  live  after  him.  8.  That  the  law  was 
given  by  Moses.  9.  That  the  law  shall  always 
exist,  and  never  be  altered.  10.  That  God 
knows  all  the  thoughts  and  actions  of  men. 
11.  That  God  will  reward  the  observance,  and 
punish  the  breach,  of  the  laws.  12.  That  the 
Messiali  is  to  come,  though  he  tarry  a  long 
time.  13.  That  there  shall  be  a  resurrection 
of  the  dead,  when  God  shall  think  fit. 

The  Jewish  religion  is,  perhaps,  more  a  reli- 
gion of  minute  and  trifling  rites  and  ceremonies 
than  even  the  Catholic  religion.  The  minutest 
circumstances  in  dressing  and  undressing, 
washing  and  wiping  the  face  and  hands,  and 
other  necessary  actions  of  common  and  daily 
life,  are  enjoined  by  the  rabbies  to  be  performed 
exactly  according  to  the  prescribed  regulations. 
Their  prayers  also  are  numerous,  and  some  of 
them  relate  to  the  most  trirling  circumstances. 
Those  esteemed  the  most  solemn  and  import- 
ant are  called  Shemoneh  Ear  eh,  or  the  eighteen 
prayers,  though  they  actuaWy  consist  of  nine- 
teen, the  last  having  been  added  against  here- 
tics and  apostates.  They  are  enjoined  to  be 
said  by  all  Jews  above  the  age  of  thirteen, 
wherever  they  may  be,  three  times  a  day. 
The  members  of  the  synagogue  are  required 
to  repeat  at  least  a  hundred  benedictions  every 
day.  A  son  who  survives  bis  father  is  enjoined 
to  attend  the  nocturnal  service  in  the  syna- 
gogue every  evening  for  a  year,  and  to  repeat 
the  Kodesh,  in  order  that  his  father  may  be 
delivered  from  hell.  This  service  may  be  sus- 
pended by  any  person  going  up  to  the  desk  and 


closing  the  book.  This  is  not  unfrequently 
done  in  case  of  quarrels  ;  and  the  prayers  can- 
not be  renewed  till  a  reconciliation  takes  place. 

Nothing  is  to  be  undertaken  on  Friday  which 
cannot  be  finished  before  the  evening.  In  the 
afternoon  they  wash  and  clean  themselves, 
trim  their  hair,  and  pare  their  nails.  Every 
Jew,  of  whatever  rank,  must  assist  in  the  pre- 
paration for  the  Sabbath.  Two  loaves,  baked 
on  the  Friday,  are  set  on  a  table.  This  is 
done  in  memory  of  the  manna,  of  which  a 
double  portion  fell  on  the  sixth  day  of  the 
week.  The  table  remains  spread  all  the  Sab- 
bath. Before  the  sun  is  set  the  candles  are  to 
be  lighted ;  one,  at  least,  with  seven  wicks,  in 
allusion  to  the  number  of  days  in  a  week,  is  to 
be  lighted  in  each  house.  The  Talmudical 
directions  respecting  the  wicks  and  oil  form 
part  of  the  Sabbath  evening  service  ;  they  are 
most  ridiculously  and  childishly  minute.  The 
lesson  appointed  for  the  Sabbath  is  divided  into 
seven  parts,  and  read  to  seven  persons  at  the 
altar.  The  first  called  up  to  hear  it  is  a  de- 
scendant of  Aaron,  the  second  of  Levi,  the 
third  an  Israelite  of  any  tribe  ;  the  same  order 
is  then  repeated  :  the  seventh  may  be  of  any 
tribe.  The  portion  read  from  the  law  is  fol- 
lowed by  a  portion  from  the  prophets.  There 
are  three  services ;  morning,  afternoon,  and 
evening. 

Of  the  festivals  of  the  Jews  we  can  mention 
only  a  few,  and  those  merely  in  a  cursory  man- 
ner. The  principal  are  those  of  the  new  moon, 
of  the  passover,  of  pentccost,  of  the  new  year, 
the  fast  of  atonement,  and  the  feast  of  taber- 
nacles. That  the  festival  of  the  new  moon 
might  be  celebrated  as  nearly  as  possible  on 
the  day  of  the  moon's  conjunction  with  the 
sun,  most  of  the  months  contain  alternately 
twenty-nine  and  thirty  days  ;  and  the  feast  of 
the  new  moon  is  held  on  the  first,  or  on  the  first 
and  second  days  of  the  month.  The  women 
are  not  allowed  to  work  :  the  men  may.  Good 
eating  and  drinking  particularly  distinguish 
this  festival.  The  feast  of  the  passover  com- 
mences on  the  fifteenth  day  of  the  month 
Nisan,  and  continues  among  Jews  who  live  in 
or  near  Jerusalem  seven  days,  and  elsewhere 
eight  days.  The  Sabbath  preceding  is  called 
the  great  Sabbath,  and  is  kept  with  most  scru- 
pulous strictness.  The  mode  and  materials 
for  making  the  unleavened  cakes  for  the  pass- 
over  are  most  minutely  described  by  the  rab- 
bies, as  well  as  all  the  cremonies  of  this  feast. 
It.  is  customary  for  every  Jew  to  honour  it  by 
an  exhibition  of  the  most  sumptuous  furniture 
he  can  afford.  The  table  for  the  feast  is  covered 
with  a  clean  linen  cloth,  on  which  are  placed 
several  dishes:  on  one  is  the  shank  bone  of  a 
shoulder  of  lamb  or  kid,  and  an  egg;  on  an- 
other, three  cakes*  wrapped  in  two  napkins;  on 
a  third,  somo  lettuce,  parsley,  celery,  or  other 
herbs  :  these  are  their  bitter  herbs.  Near  the 
salad  is  a  cruet  of  vinegar,  and  some  salt  and 
water.  There  is  also  a  dish  representing  the 
bricks  which  their  forefathers  were  required  to 
make  in  Egypt  :  this  is  composed  of  apples, 
almonds,  nuts,  and  figs,  formed  into  a  paste, 
dressed  in  wine  ami  cinnamon.     The  first  two 


JEW 


533 


JEW 


days,  and  the  last  two,  are  kept  with  particu- 
lar solemnity  and  strictness.  Contracts  of 
marriage  may  be  made,  but  no  marriage  is  to 
be  solemnized  during  tliis  festival.  The  feast 
of  pentecost,  on  the  sixth  day  of  the  month 
Sivan,  continues  two  days,  and  is  kept  with 
the  same  strictness  as  the  first  two  days  of  the 
passover.  It  is  a  received  opinion  of  the  Jews, 
that  the  world  was  created  on  the  day  of  their 
new  year  ;  and  they  therefore  celebrate  the 
festival  of  the  new  year  by  a  discontinuance 
of  all  labour,  and  by  repeated  services  in  the 
synagogue.  The  fast  of  atonement  is  on  the 
tenth  day  of  Tisri :  the  first  ten  days  of  the 
month  are  called  days  of  penitence  during 
which  the  Jews  believe  that  God  examines  the 
actions  of  mankind ;  but  he  defers  passing 
sentence  till  the  tenth.  On  the  eve  of  the  fast, 
a  ceremony,  evidently  designed  as  a  substitute 
for  their  ancient  sacrifices,  is  performed.  This 
consists  in  killing  a  cock  with  great  formality. 
The  cocks  must  on  no  account  be  red :  white 
is  the  preferable  colour.  Before  the  fast  be- 
gins, they  endeavour  to  settle  all  their  disputes. 
I«  the  afternoon  they  make  a  hearty  meal,  to 
prepare  for  the  fast,  which  is  of  the  most  rigid 
kind.  The  feast  of  tabernacles  commences  on 
the  fifteenth  of  Tisri,  and  is  kept  nine  days. 
Every  Jew  who  has  a  court  or  garden  is  re- 
quired to  erect  a  tabernacle  on  this  occasion  ; 
respecting  the  materials  and  erection  of  which 
the  rabbies  have  given  special  directions.  The 
eighth  and  ninth  are  high  days,  particularly 
the  last,  which  is  called  the  day  of  the  rejoic- 
ing of  the  land. 

Such  are  the  opinions,  traditions,  rites,  and 
ceremonies  of  the  great  majority  of  the  modern 
Jews;  but,  beside  these,  there  is  a  small  sect 
denominated  Caraites,  that  is,  textualists, — 
persons  attached  to  the  text  of  the  Scriptures. 
They  reside  chiefly  in  the  Crimea,  Lithuania, 
and  Persia  ;  and  at  Damascus,  Constantinople, 
and  Cairo  :  their  whole  number  is  very  incon- 
siderable. They  agree  with  other  Jews  in 
denying  the  advent  of  the  Messiah.  The 
principal  difference  between  them  consists  in 
their  adherence  to  the  letter  of  the  Scripture, 
and  in  the  rejection  of  all  paraphrases  and 
interpretations  of  the  rabbies.  They  also 
differ  from  the  rabbies  in  various  particulars 
respecting  the  feasts  of  the  passover,  pente- 
cost, and  tabernacles.  They  observe  the  Sab- 
bath with  far  greater  strictness.  They  extend 
the  degrees  of  affinity  within  which  marriage 
is  prohibited ;  but  they  are  more  strict  in  mat- 
ters of  divorce. 

3.  Jews,  Calamities  of  the.  AH  history 
cannot  furnish  us  with  a  parallel  to  the  ca- 
lamities and  miseries  of  the  Jews  :  rapine  and 
murder,  famine  and  pestilence  within,  fire  and 
sword,  and  all  the  terrors  of  war  without. 
Our  Saviour  wept  at  the  foresight  of  these 
calamities ;  and  it  is  almost  impossible  for 
persons  of  any  humanity  to  read  the  account 
without  being  affected.  The  predictions 
concerning  them  were  remarkable,  and  the 
calamities  that  came  upon  them  were  the 
greatest  the  world  ever  saw.  See  Deut.  xxviii, 
xxix  ;    Matt.  xxiv.     Now,  what  heinous   sin 


was  it  that  could  be  the  cause  of  such  heavy 
judgments  ?  Can  any  other  be  assigned  than 
that  which  the  Scripture  assigns  ?  "  They 
both  killed  the  Lord  Jesus  and  their  own  pro- 
phets, and  persecuted  the  Apostles,"  1  These. 
ii,  15  ;  and  so  filled  up  their  sins,  and  wrath 
came  upon  them  to  the  utmost.  It  is  hardly 
possible  to  consider  the  nature  and  extent  of 
their  sufferings,  and  not  conclude  their  own 
imprecation  to  be  singularly  fulfilled  upon 
them  :  "  His  blood  be  on  us,  and  on  our  chil- 
dren," Matt,  xxvii,  25.  At  Casarea  twenty 
thousand  of  the  Jews  were  killed  by  the  Syrians 
in  their  mutual  broils.  At  Damascus,  ten  thou- 
sand unarmed  Jews  were  killed  ;  and  at  Beth- 
shan,  the  Heathen  inhabitants  caused  their 
Jewish  neighbours  to  assist  them  against  their 
brethren,  and  then  murdered  thirteen  thousand 
of  these  inhabitants.  At  Alexandria,  the  Jews 
murdered  multitudes  of  the  Heathens,  and 
were  murdered,  in  their  turn,  to  about  sixty 
thousand.  The  Romans,  under  Vespasian, 
invaded  the  country,  and  took  the  cities  of 
Galilee,  Chorazin,  Bethsaida,  Capernaum,  &c, 
where  Christ  had  been  especially  rejected,  and 
murdered  numbers  of  the  inhabitants.  At 
Jerusalem  the  scene  was  most  wretched  of  all. 
At  the  passover,  when  there  might  have  been 
two  or  three  millions  of  people  in  the  city,  the 
Romans  surrounded  it  with  troops,  trenches, 
and  walls,  that  none  might  escape.  The 
three  different  factions  within  murdered  one 
another.  Titus  did  all  in  his  power  to  per- 
suade them  to  an  advantageous  surrender,  but 
they  scorned  every  proposal.  The  multitudes 
of  unburied  carcasses  corrupted  the  air,  and 
produced  a  pestilence.  The  people  fed  on 
one  another  ;  and  even  ladies,  it  is  said,  boiled 
their  suckling  infants,  and  ate  them.  After  a 
siege  of  six  months,  the  city  was  taken.  They 
murdered  almost  every  Jew  they  met  with. 
Titus  was  bent  to  save  the  temple,  but  could 
not :  six  thousand  Jews  who  had  taken  shelter 
in  it  were  all  burned  or  murdered.  The  out- 
cries of  the  Jews,  when  they  saw  it,  were  most 
dreadful :  the  whole  city,  except  three  towers, 
and  a  small  part  of  the  wall,  was  razed  to  the 
ground,  and  the  foundations  of  the  temple  and 
other  places  were  ploughed  up.  Soon  after 
the  forts  of  Herodian  and  Machaeron  were 
taken,  the  garrison  of  Massada  murdered 
themselves  rather  than  surrender.  At  Jeru- 
salem alone,  it  is  said,  one  million  one  hun- 
dred thousand  perished  by  sword,  famine,  and 
pestilence.  In  other  places,  we  hear  of  two 
hundred  and  fifty  thousand  that  were  cut  oft", 
beside  vast  numbers  sent  into  Egypt,  to  labour 
as  slaves.  About  fifty  years  after,  the  Jews 
murdered  about  five  hundred  thousand  of  the 
Roman  subjects,  for  which  they  were  severely 
punished  by  Trajan.  About  A.  D.  130,  one 
Barcocaba  pretended  that  he  was  the  Messiah, 
and  raised  a  Jewish  army  of  two  hundred  thou- 
sand, who  murdered  all  the  Heathens  and 
Christians  that  came  in  their  way  ;  but  he  was 
defeated  by  Adrian's  forces.  In  this  war,  it  is 
said,  about  six  hundred  thousand  Jews  were 
slain,  or  perished  by  famine  and  pestilence. 
Adrian  built  a  city  on   Mount  Calvary,  and 


JKW 


534 


JEW 


erected  a  marble  statue  of  a  swine  over  the 
gate  that  led  to  Bethlehem.  No  Jew  was 
allowed  to  enter  the  city,  or  to  look  to  it  at  a 
distance,  under  pain  of  death.  In  A.  D.  360, 
the  Jews,  encouraged  by  Julian,  Constantino's 
nephew,  and  now  emperor,  wishing  to  give 
Jesus  the  lie,  began  to  rebuild  their  city  and 
temple;  but  a  terrible  earthquake,  and  flames 
of  lire  issuing  from  the  earth,  killed  the  work- 
men, and  scattered  their  materials.  And  after 
the  deatli  of  Julian,  the  edict  of  Adrian  being 
revived  against  them,  and  Roman  guards  pro- 
hibiting their  approach,  till  tbe  seventh  cen- 
tury thov  durst  not  bo  much  as  creep  over  the 
rubbish  to  bewail  the  destruction  of  the  city, 
without  bribing  the  guards.  In  the  third,  fourth, 
and  fifth  centuries  they  were  many  of  them 
furiously  harassed  and  murdered.  In  the  sixth 
century,  twenty  thousand  of  them  were  slain, 
and  as  many  taken  and  sold  for  slaves.  They 
were  severely  punished,  A.  D.  602,  for  their 
horrible  massacre  of  the  Christians  at  Antioch. 
In  Spain,  A.  D.  700,  they  were  ordered  to  be 
enslaved.  In  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries 
they  were  greatly  derided  and  abused  ;  in  some 
places  they  were  made  to  wear  leathern  girdles, 
and  ride  without  stirrups  upon  asses  and  mules. 
In  France  and  Spain  they  were  much  insulted. 
In  the  tenth,  eleventh,  and  twelfth  centuries, 
their  miseries  rather  increased ;  and  they  were 
greatly  persecuted  in  Egypt.  Beside  what 
they  suffered  in  the  east  by  the  Turkish  and 
sacred  war,  it  is  shocking  to  think  what  mul- 
titudes of  them  the  eight  crusades  murdered 
in  Germany,  Hungary,  Lesser  Asia,  and  else- 
where. In  France  multitudes  were  burned. 
In  England,  A.  D.  1020,  they  were  banished; 
and  at  the  coronation  of  Richard  I.  the  mob 
fell  upon  them,  and  murdered  a  great  many  of 
them.  About  one  thousand  five  hundred  of 
them  were  burned  in  the  palace  in  the  city  of 
York,  which  they  themselves  set  fire  to,  after 
killing  their  wives  and  children.  In  the  thir- 
teenth and  fourteenth  centuries,  their  condi- 
tion was  no  better.  In  Egypt,  Canaan,  and 
Syria,  the  crusaders  still  harassed  them.  Pro- 
voked with  their  mad  running  after  pretended 
Messiahs,  Califf  Nasser  scarce  loft  any  of  them 
alive  in  his  dominions  of  Mesopotamia.  In 
Persia,  the  Tartars  murdered  them  in  multi- 
tudes. In  Spain,  Ferdinand  persecuted  them 
furiously.  About  1349,  the  terrible  massacre 
of  them  at  Toledo  forced  many  of  them  to 
murder  themselves,  or  change  their  religion. 
About  1253,  many  were  murdered  in,  and 
others  banished  from,  France,  but  in  1275, 
recalled.  The  crusades  of  the  fanatic  shep- 
herds, A.  D.  1320  and  1330,  who  wasted  the 
6outh  of  France,  massacred  them  ;  beside  fif- 
teen thousand  of  them  that  were  murdered  on 
another  occasion.  They  were  finaily  banished 
from  France,  A.  D.  1358 ;  since  which,  few 
of  them  have  entered  that  country.  King 
Edward  expelled  them  from  England,  A.  D. 
12(,)1,  to  the  number  of  a  hundred  and  sixty 
thousand.  In  the  fifteenth,  sixteenth,  and 
seventeenth  centuries,  their  misery  continued. 
In  Persia  they  have  been  terribly  used;  from 
1663  to  1666,  the  murder  of  them  was  so  uni- 


versal, that  but  a  few  escaped  to  Turkey.  In 
Portugal  and  Spain  they  have  been  miserably 
treated.  About  1492,  six  or  eight  hundred 
thousand  of  them  were  banished  from  Spain. 
Some  were  drowned  in  their  passage  to  Africa; 
some  perished  by  hard  usage ;  and  many  of 
their  carcasses  lay  in  the  fields  till  wild  beasts 
devoured  them.  In  Germany,  they  have  en- 
dured many  hardships.  They  have  been 
banished  from  Bohemia,  Bavaria,  Cologne, 
Nuremberg,  Augsburg,  and  Vienna ;  they  have 
been  terribly  massacred  in  Moravia,  and  plun- 
dered in  Bonn  and  Bamberg.  Except  in  Por- 
tugal and  Spain,  their  present  condition  is 
generally  tolerable. 

4.  Jews,  Preservation  of  the.  The  pre- 
servation of  the  Jews,  says  Basnage,  in  the 
midst  of  the  miseries  which  they  have  under- 
gone during  one  thousand  eight  hundred  years, 
is  the  greatest  prodigy  that  can  be  imagined. 
As  most  religions  depend  on  temporal  pros- 
perity, they  triumph  under  the  protection  of 
a  conqueror;  they  languish  and  sink  with 
sinking  monarchies.  Paganism,  which  once 
covered  the  earth,  is,  in  the  civilized  world, 
extinct.  The  Christian  church  was  consi- 
derably diminished  by  the  persecutions  to 
which  it  was  exposed ;  nor  was  it  easy  to 
repair  the  wastes  made  in  it  by  those  acts  of 
violence.  But  here  we  behold  a  people  hated 
and  persecuted  for  one  thousand  eight  hundred 
years,  and  yet  sustaining  itself,  and  widely 
extended.  Kings  have  often  employed  the 
severity  of  edicts  and  the  hand  of  executioners 
to  ruin  it.  The  seditious  multitudes,  by  mur- 
ders and  massacres,  have  committed  outrages 
against  it  still  more  violent  and  tragical. 
Princes  and  people,  Pagans,  Mohammedans, 
Christians,  disagreeing  in  so  many  things, 
have  united  in  the  design  of  exterminating  it, 
and  have  not  been  able  to  succeed.  The  bush 
of  Moses,  surrounded  with  flames,  ever  burns, 
and  is  not  consumed.  The  Jews  have  been 
expelled,  in  different  times,  from  every  part  of 
the  world,  which  hath  only  served  to  spread 
them  in  all  regions.  From  age  to  age  they  have 
been  exposed  to  misery  and  persecution  ;  yet 
still  they  subsist,  in  spite  of  the  ignominy  and 
the  hatred  which  hath  pursued  them  in  all 
places,  while  the  greatest  monarchies  are  fallen, 
and  nothing  remains  of  them  beside  the  name. 
The  judgments  which  God  hath  exercised 
upon  this  people  are  terrible,  extending  to  the 
men,  the  religion,  and  the  very  land  in  which 
they  dwelt.  The  ceremonies  essential  to  their 
religion  can  no  more  be  observed  :  the  ritual 
law,  which  cast  a  splendour  on  the  national 
worship,  and  struck  the  Pagans  so  much  that 
they  sent  their  presents  and  their  victims  to 
Jerusalem,  is  absolutely  fallen ;  for  they  have 
no  temple,  no  altar,  no  sacrifices.  Their  land 
itself  seems  to  lie  under  a  never-ceasing  curse. 
Pagans,  Christians,  Mohammedans,  in  a  word, 
almost  all  nations  have,  by  turns,  seized  and 
held  Jerusalem.  To  the  Jews  only  hath  God 
refused  the  possession  of  this  small  tract  of 
ground,  bo  supremely  necessary  for  them, 
since,  as  Jews,  they  ought  to  worship  on 
Mount  Zion.    In  all  this  there  is  no  exaggera 


JEZ 


535 


JOA 


tion  :  we  are  only  pointing  out  known  facts  ; 
and  far  from  having  the  least  design  to  raise 
an  odium  against  the  nation  from  its  miseries, 
we  conclude  that  it  ought  to  be  looked  upon 
as  one  of  those   prodigies  which  we  admire 
without    comprehending;    since,    in    spite    of 
evils  so  durable,  and  a  patience  so  long  exer- 
cised, it  is  preserved  by  a  particular  providence. 
The  Jew   ought  to  be  weary  of  expecting  a 
Messiah,  who  so  unkindly  disappoints  his  vain 
hopes ;    and  the  Christian  ought  to  have  his 
attention  and  his  regard  excited  toward  men 
whom  God  preserves,  for  so  great  a  length  of 
time  under  calamities  which  would  have  been 
the  total  ruin  of  any  other  people.    The  whole 
is  a  standing  proof  of  the  truth  of  the  word  of 
God ;  as  it  so  signally,  and  beyond  all  contra- 
diction, fulfils,  even  to  particulars  wonderfully 
minute,  its  ancient  and  numerous  predictions. 
The  long  protracted  existence  of  the  Jews 
as  a  separate  people,  is  not  only  a  standing 
evidence  of  the  truth  of  the  Bible,  but  is  of 
that  kind  which  defies  hesitation,  imitation, 
or  parallel.     Were  this  people  totally  extinct, 
some  might  affect  to  say,  that  they  never  had 
existed  ;  or,  that  if  they  had  existed,  they  never 
practised  such  rites  as  were  imputed  to  them  ; 
or,  that  they  were  not  a  numerous  people,  but 
merely  a  small  tribe  of  ignorant  and  unsettled 
Arabs.     The  care  with  which  the  Jews  pre- 
serve their  sacred  books,  and  the  conformity 
of  those  preserved  in  the  east  with  those  of 
the  west,  as  lately  attested,  is  a  satisfactory 
argument   in    favour   of  the   genuineness   of 
both  ;  and  farther,  the  dispersion  of  the  nation 
has  proved  the  security  of  these  documents ; 
as  it  has  not  been  in  the  power  of  any  one 
enemy,  however  potent,  to  destroy  the  entire 
series,  or  to  consign  the  whole  to  oblivion. 

JEZEBEL,  daughter  of  Ethbaal,  king  of 
the  Zidonians,  and  wife  of  Ahab,  king  of 
Israel,  1  Kings  xvi,  31.  This  princess  intro- 
duced into  the  kingdom  of  Samaria  the  public 
worship  of  Baal,  Astarte,  and  other  Phenician 
deities,  which  the  Lord  had  expressly  forbid- 
den ;  and  with  this  impious  worship,  a  general 
prevalence  of  those  abominations  which  had 
formerly  incensed  God  against  the  Canaanites, 
to  their  utter  extirpation.  Jezebel  was  so 
zealous,  that  she  fed  at  her  own  table  four 
hundred  prophets  belonging  to  the  goddess 
Astarte  ;  and  her  husband  Ahab,  in  like  man- 
ner, kept  four  hundred  of  Baal's  prophets,  as 
ministers  of  his  false  gods.  The  name  of 
Jezebel  is  used  proverbially,  Rev.  ii,  20.  See 
Jehu. 

JEZREEL,  a  royal  city  of  the  kings  of 
Israel,  who  sometimes  resided  here  as  well  as 
at  Samaria.  Ahab,  in  particular,  is  known  to 
have  made  this  his  residence  ;  near  to  whose 
palace  was  the  vineyard  of  the  unfortunate 
Naboth.  The  name  of  Jezreel  was  by  the 
Greeks  moulded  into  that  of  Esdraela  ;  which 
is  described  by  Eusebius  and  Jerom,  in  the 
fourth  century,  as  a  considerable  town.  In 
like  manner,  the  valley  of  Jezreel  obtained  the 
name  of  the  valley  or  plain  of  Esdraelon ; 
which  is  still  described  as  very  fertile,  and 
much   frequented   by   the  Arabs    for   its    fine 


pasturage.  This  is  the  largest,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  most  fertile,  plain  in  the  land  of 
Canaan  ;  and  is  called,  by  way  of  eminence, 
the  Great  Plain.  It  may  be  estimated  at  thirty 
miles  in  length,  and  twenty  in  breadth.  The 
river  Kishon  flows  through  it.  See  Esdra- 
elon. 

JOAB  was  the  son  of  Zeruiah,  David's  sis- 
ter, and  brother  to  Abishai  and  Asahel.  He 
was  one  of  the  most  valiant  soldiers  and  great- 
est generals  in  David's  time ;  but  he  was  also 
cruel,  revengeful,  and  imperious.  He  per- 
formed great  services  for  David,  to  whose 
interests  he  was  always  firm,  and  was  com- 
mander-in-chief of  his  troops,  when  David 
was  king  of  Judah  only.  His  history  is  re- 
lated in  the  second  book  of  Samuel  and  the 
first  book  of  Kings.  See  David,  Abner,  and 
Amasa. 

JOANNA,  the  wife  of  Chuza,  Herod's 
steward,  was  one  of  those  women  who,  having 
been  cured  by  our  Saviour,  followed  him  as 
disciples,  and  ministered  to  his  necessities, 
Luke  viii,  3. 

JOASH,  son  of  Ahaziah,  king  of  Judah. 
When  the  impious  Athaliah  undertook  to 
extinguish  the  race  of  the  kings  of  Judah,  that 
she  might  seize  the  crown  herself,  she  ordered 
all  the  princes,  her  grandchildren,  to  be  mur- 
dered. But  Jehosheba,  the  sister  of  Ahaziah, 
and  wife  to  the  High  Priest  Jehoiada,  rescued 
young  Joash,  then  a  child,  from  the  cruelty 
of  Athaliah,  and  lodged  him  in  the  temple 
with  his  nurse.  Here  he  abode  six  years.  In 
the  seventh  year  Jehoiada  procured  him  to  be 
acknowledged  king,  and  so  well  concerted  his 
plan,  that  young  Joash  was  placed  on  the 
throne,  and  saluted  king  in  the  temple,  before 
the  queen  was  informed  of  it.  She  was  killed 
without  the  temple,  2  Kings  xi,  1,  &c.  Joash 
received  the  diadem,  together  with  the  book 
of  the  law,  from  the  hands  of  Jehoiada,  the 
high  priest,  who,  in  the  young  king's  name, 
made  a  covenant  between  the  Lord,  the  king, 
and  the  people,  for  their  future  fidelity  to  God. 
He  also  obliged  the  people  to  take  an  oath 
of  fidelity  to  the  king.  Joash  was  only  seven 
years  old  when  he  began  to  reign,  and  he 
reigned  forty  years  at  Jerusalem.  His  mother's 
name  was  Zibiah  of  Beersheba.  He  governed 
with  justice  and  piety,  so  long  as  he  was 
guided  by  the  High  Priest  Jehoiada.  Yet  he 
did  not  abolish  the  high  places. 

Jehoiada,  during  the  king's  minority,  had 
issued  orders  for  collecting  voluntary  offerings 
to  the  holy  place,  with  the  design  of  repairing 
the  temple  ;  but  his  orders  were  ill  executed  till 
the  twentieth  year  of  Joash.  Then  this  prince 
directed  chests  to  be  placed  at  the  entrance  of 
the  temple,  and  an  account  to  be  given  him 
of  what  money  was  received  from  them,  that 
it  might  be  faithfully  employed  in  repairing 
the  house  of  God.  Jehoiada  dying  at  the  age 
of  a  hundred  and  thirty  years,  Joash  was  mis- 
led by  the  evil  counsel  of  his  courtiers,  who 
had  before  been  restrained  by  the  high  priest's 
authority.  They  began  to  forsake  the  temple 
of  the  Lord,  and  to  worship  idols,  and  groves 
consecrated  to  idols.     Then  the  Spirit  of  the 


JOB 


536 


JOB 


Lord  coming  upon  the  Higli  Priest  Zechariah, 
son  of  Jehoiada,  lie  reproved  the  people ;  but 
they  who  heard  him  stoned  him,  according  to 
orders  from  their  king.  It  was  not  long  be- 
fore God  inflicted  on  Joash  the  just  punish- 
men!  of  his  ingratitude  to  Jehoiada,  whose 
son  he  had  so  lately  murdered.  Hazael,  king 
of  .Syria,  besieged  Gath,  which  belonged  to 
Judah  ;  and  having  taken  it  he  marched  against 
Jerusalem.  Joash,  to  redeem  himself  from  the 
difficulties  of  a  siege,  and  from  the  danger  of 
being  plundered,  took  what  money  he  could 
find  in  the  temple,  which  had  been  consecrated 
by  Ahaziah  his  father,  Jehoram  his  grand- 
father, and  himself,  and  gave  the  whole  to 
Hazael.  It  is  believed  by  some,  that  the  next 
year  the  Syrian  army  marched  again  into 
Judah;  but  Hazael  was  not  there  in  person. 
The  Syrians  made  great  havoc,  defeated  the 
troops  of  Joash,  entered  Jerusalem,  slew  the 
princes  of  Judah,  and  sent  a  great  booty  to 
the  king  of  Syria  at  Damascus.  They  treated 
Joash  himself  with  great  ignominy,  and  left 
him  extremely  ill.  His  servants  then  revolted 
against  him,  and  killed  him  in  his  bed,  by 
which  the  blood  of  Zechariah  the  high  priest 
was  avenged.  He  was  buried  in  Jerusalem, 
but  not  in  the  royal  sepulchre.  Amaziah  his 
son  succeeded  him. 

JOB,  a  patriarch  celebrated  for  his  patience, 
and    the  constancy   of  his   piety  and  virtue. 
That.  Job   was   a  real,   and   not  a  fictitious, 
character,  may   be  inferred  from  the   manner 
in  which  he  is  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures. 
Thus,    the    Prophet   Ezekiel   speaks   of  him : 
"Though  Ihese  three  men,  Noah,  Daniel,  and 
Job,  were  in  it,  they  should  deliver  but  their 
own   souls   by    their   righteousness,   saith   the 
Lord  God,"  Ezek.  xiv,  14.     Now  since  Noah 
and  Daniel   were  unquestionably  real  charac- 
ters,   we    must    conclude    the    same    of  Job. 
"  Behold,"  says  the  Apostle  James,  "  we  count 
them  happy  v  Inch  endure  :    ye  have  heard  of 
the  patience  of  Job,  and  have  seen  the  end  of 
the  Lord,  that  the  Lord  is  very  pitiful,  and 
of  tender  mercy,"  James  v,  11.     It  is  scarcely 
to  be  believed  that  a  divinely  inspired  Apostle 
would  refer  to  an  imaginary  character  as  an 
example  of  patience,  or  iii  proof  of  the  mercy 
of  God.     But,    beside    the    authority    of  the 
inspired  writers,  we  have  the  strongest  inter- 
nal evidence,  from  the  book  itself,  that  Job 
was  a  real  person  ;    for  it  expressly  specifies 
the  names  of  persons,  places,  facts,  and  other 
circumstances  usually  related  in  true  histories. 
Thus,    we    have    the    name,    country,    piety, 
wealth,    &.c,    of  Job   described,    Job    i ;    the 
names,  number,  and  acts  of  his  children  are 
mentioned;    the  conduct   of  his   wife  is   re- 
corded as  a  fact,  ii ;   his  friends,  their  names, 
countries,  and  discourses  with  him  in  his  af- 
flictions an-  minutely  delineated,  Job  ii,  11,  &c. 
Farther  :    no  reasonable  doubt  can  be  enter- 
tained  respecting  the   real  existence  of  Job, 
when   we   consider  that  it   is  proved  by  the 
concurrent  testimony  of  all  eastern  tradition  : 
he  is  mentioned  by  the  author  of  the  book  of 
Tobit,  who  lived  during  the  Assyrian  captivity ; 
he  is  also  repeatedly  mentioned  by  Arabian 


writers  as  a  real  character.  The  whole  of  his 
history,  with  many  fabulous  additions,  was 
known  among  the  Syrians  and  Chaldeans ; 
and  many  of  the  noblest  families  among  the 
Arabs  are  distinguished  by  his  name,  and  boast 
of  being  descended  from  him. 

Since,  then,  says  Home,  the  book  of  Job 
contains  the  history  of  a  real  character,  the 
next  point   is  the  age   in   which  he  lived,  a 
question  concerning  which  there  is  as  great 
a  diversity  of  opinion,  as  upon  any  other  sub- 
ject connected  with  this  venerable  monument 
of  sacred  antiquity.     One  thing,  however,  is 
generally  admitted  with  respect  to  the  age  of 
the  book  of  Job,  namely,  its  remote  antiquity. 
Even  those  who  contend  for  the  later  produc- 
tion of  the  book  of  Job  are  compelled  to  ac- 
quiesce in  this  particular.     Grotius  thinks  the 
events  of  the  history  are  such  as  cannot  be 
placed  later  than  the  sojourning  of  the  Israel- 
ites in  the  wilderness.     Bishop  Warburton,  in 
like  manner,  admits  them  to  bear  the  marks 
of  high  antiquity ;    and    Michaelis  confesses 
the  manners  to  be  perfectly  Abrahamic,  that 
is,  such  as  were  common  to  all  the  seed  of 
Abraham,  Israelites,  Ishmaelites,  and  Idume- 
ans.     The  following  are  the  principal  circum- 
stances from   which  the  age  of  Job  may  be 
collected  and  ascertained  : — 1.    The  Usserian 
or   Bible   chronology  dates    the    trial    of  Job 
about  the  year  1520  before  the  Christian  era, 
twenty-nine  years  before  the  departure  of  the 
Israelites  from  Egypt ;  and  that  the  book  was 
composed  before  that  event,  is  evident  from 
its  total  silence  respecting  the  miracles  which 
accompanied  the  exode ;  such  as  the  passage 
of  the  Red  Sea,  the  destruction  of  the  Egyp- 
tians, the  manna  in  the  desert,  &c  ;  all  of  which 
happened  in  the  vicinity  of  Job's  country,  and 
were  so  apposite  in  the  debate  concerning  the 
ways  of  Providence  that    some  notice  could 
not  but  have  been  taken  of  them,  if  they  had 
been  coeval  with  the  poem  of  Job.    2.  That  it 
was  composed  before  Abraham's  migration  to 
Canaan,  may  also  be  inferred  from  its  silence 
respecting  the  destruction  of  Sodom  and  Go- 
morrah, and  the  other  cities  of  the  plain,  which 
were  still  nearer  to  Idumea,  where  the  scene 
is  laid.     3.  The  length  of  Job's  life  places  him 
in  the  patriarchal  times.    He  survived  his  trial 
one  hundred  and  forty  years,  Job  xhi,  16,  and 
was  probably  not  younger  at  that  time ;    for 
we  read  that  his  seven  sons  were  all  grown  up, 
and  had   been  settled  in  their  own  houses  for 
a  considerable  time,  Job  i,  4,  5.     He  speaks  of 
the  sins  of  his  youth,  Job  xiii,  2G,  and  of  the 
prosperity  of  his  youth  ;    and  yet  Eliphaz  ad- 
dresses him  as  a  novice  :    "  With  us  are  both 
the  gray-headed  and  very  aged  men,  much  elder 
than  thy  father,"  Job  xv,  10.     4.  That  he  did 
not  live  at  an  earlier  period,  may  be  collected 
from  an  incidental  observation  of  Bildad,  who 
refers  Job  to  their  forefathers  for  instruction 
in  wisdom  : — 
"Inquire,  1  pray  thec,  of  the  former  age, 
Anil  prepare  thyself  to  die  search  of  their  fathers:" 
assigning  as  a  reason  the  comparative  short- 
ness of  human  life,  and  consequent  ignorance 
of  the  present  generation  ! — 


JOB  537 


JOB 


"  For  we  are  but  of  yesterday,  and  know  nothing  ; 
Because  our  days  upon  earth  are  a  shadow." 

Job  viii,  8,  9. 

But  the  fathers  of  the  former  age,  or  grand, 
fathers  of  the  present,  were  the  contempora- 
ries of  Peleg  and  Joktan,  in  the  fifth  genera- 
tion after  the  deluge  ;  and  they  might  easily 
have  learned  wisdom  from  the  fountain  head 
by  conversing  with  Shem,  or  perhaps  with 
Noah  himself;  whereas,  in  the  seventh  gene- 
ration, the  standard  of  human  life  was  reduced 
to  about  two  hundred  years,  which  was  a 
shadow  compared  with  the  longevity  of  Noah 
and  his  sons.  5.  The  general  air  of  antiquity 
which  pervades  the  manners  recorded  in  the 
poem,  is  a  farther  evidence  of  its  remote  date. 
The  manners  and  customs,  indeed,  critically 
correspond  with  that  early  period.  Thus,  Job 
speaks  of  the  most  ancient  kind  of  writing,  by 
sculpture,  Job  xix,  24 ;  his  riches  also  are 
reckoned  by  his  cattle,  Job  xlii,  12.  Farther  : 
Job  acted  as  high  priest  in  his  family,  accord- 
ing to  the  patriarchal  usage,  Gen.  viii,  20  ;  for 
the  institution  of  an  established  priesthood 
does  not  appear  to  have  taken  place  any  where 
until  the  time  of  Abraham.  Melchizedec,  king 
of  Salem,  was  a  priest  of  the  primitive  order, 
Gen.  xiv,  18 ;  such  also  was  Jetliro,  the  father- 
in-law  of  Moses,  in  the  vicinity  of  Idumea, 
Exod.  xviii,  12.  The  first  regular  priesthood 
was  probably  instituted  in  Egypt,  where  Joseph 
was  married  to  the  daughter  of  the  priest  of 
On,  Gen.  xli,  45.  6.  The  slavish  homage  of 
prostration  to  princes  and  great  men,  which 
prevailed  in  Egypt,  Persia,  and  the  east  in 
general,  and  which  still  subsists  there,  was 
unknown  in  Arabia  at  that  tune.  Though 
Job  was  one  of  the  greatest  men  of  all  the  east, 
we  do  not  find  any  such  adoration  paid  to  him 
by  his  contemporaries,  in  the  zenith  of  his 
prosperity,  among  the  marks  of  respect  so 
minutely  described  in  the  twenty-ninth  chap- 
ter :  "  When  the  young  men  saw  him,  they  hid 
themselves,"  (rather,  shrunk  back,  through 
respect  or  rustic  bashfulness,)  "  the  aged  arose 
and  stood  up"  in  his  presence,  (more  correctly, 
ranged  themselves  about  him,)  "  the  princes  re- 
frained from  talking,  and  laid  their  hand  upon 
their  mouth ;  the  nobles  held  their  peace," 
and  were  all  attention  while  he  spoke.  All 
this  was  highly  respectful,  indeed,  but  still  it 
was  manly,  and  showed  no  cringing  or  servile 
adulation.  With  this  description  correspond 
the  manners  and  conduct  of  the  genuine  Arabs 
of  the  present  day,  a  majostic  race,  who  were 
never  conquered,  and  who  have  retained  their 
primitive  customs,  features,  and  character, 
with  scarcely  any  alteration.  7.  The  allusion 
made  by  Job  to  that  species  of  idolatry  alone, 
which  by  general  consent  is  admitted  to  have 
been  the  most  ancient,  namely,  Zabianism,  or 
the  u  orship  of  the  sun  and  moon,  and  also  to 
the  exertion  of  the  judicial  authority  against 
it,  Job  xxxi,  26-28,  is  an  additional  and  most 
complete  proof  of  the  high  antiquity  of  tho 
poem,  as  well  as  a  decisive  mark  of  the  patri- 
archal age.  8.  A  farther  evidence  of  the  re- 
mote antiquity  of  this  book  is  the  language  of 
Job  and  his  friends  ;  who,  being  all  Idumeans, 


or  at  least  Arabians  of  the  adjacent  country, 
yet  conversed  in  Hebrew.  This  carries  us  up 
to  an  age  so  early  as  that  in  which  all  the  pos- 
terity of  Abraham,  Israelites,  Idumeans,  and 
Arabians,  yet  continued  to  speak  one  common 
language,  and  had  not  branched  into  different 
dialects. 

The  country  in  which  the  scene  of  this  poem 
is  laid,  is  stated,  Job  i,  1,  to  be  the  land  of 
Uz,  which  by  some  geographers  has  been 
placed  in  Sandy,  and  by  others  in  Stony, 
Arabia.  Bochart  strenuously  advocated  the 
former  opinion,  in  which  he  has  been  power- 
fully supported  by  Spanheim,  Calmet,  Carpzov, 
Heidegger,  and  some  later  writers  ;  Michaelis 
and  Ilgen  place  the  scene  in  the  valley  of  Da- 
mascus ;  but  Bishops  Lowth  and  Magee,  Dr. 
Hales,  Dr.  Good,  and  some  later  critics  and 
philologers,  have  shown  that  the  scene  is  laid 
in  Idumea.  In  effect,  nothing  is  clearer  than 
that  the  history  of  an  inhabitant  of  Idumea  is 
the  subject  of  the  poem  which  bears  the  name 
of  Job,  and  that  all  the  persons  introduced 
into  it  were  Idumeans,  dwelling  in  Idumea,  in 
other  words,  Edomite  Arabs.  These  charac- 
ters are,  Job  himself,  of  the  land  of  Uz  ;  Eli- 
phaz,  of  Teman,  a  district  of  as  much  repute 
as  Uz,  and  which,  it  appears  from  the  joint 
testimony  of  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  Amos,  and 
Obadiah,  Jer.  xlix,  7,  20;  Ezek.  xxv,  13; 
Amos  i,  11,  12 ;  Obadiah  8,  9,  formed  a  prin- 
cipal part  of  Idumea  ;  Bildad,  of  Shuah,  who 
is  always  mentioned  in  conjunction  with  Sheba 
and  Dedan,  the  first  of  whom  was  probably 
named  after  one  of  theibrotliers  of  Joktan  or 
Kahtan,  and  the  two  last  from  two  of  his  sons, 
all  of  them  being  uniformly  placed  in  the  vi- 
cinity of  Idumea,  Gen.  xxv,  2,  3  ;  Jer.  xlix,  8  ; 
Zophar  of  Naama,  a  city  importing  pleasant- 
ness, which  is  also  stated  fey  Joshua,  xv,  21 , 
41,  to  have  been  situate  in  Idumea,  and  to 
have  lain  in  a  southern  direction  toward  its 
coast,  on  the  shores  of  the  Red  Sea  ;  and 
Elihu,  of  Buz,  which,  as  the  name  of  a  place, 
occurs  only  once  in  Sacred  Writ,  Jer.  xxv,  23, 
but  is  there  mentioned  in  conjunction  with 
Teman  and  Dedan ;  and  hence  necessarily, 
like  them,  a  border  city  upon  Uz  or  Idumea. 
Allowing  this  chorography  to  be  correct,  (and 
such,  upon  a  fair  review  of  facts,  we  may  con- 
clude it  to  be,)  there  is  no  difficulty  in  conceiv- 
ing that  hordes  of  nomadic  Chaldeans  as  well 
as  Sabeans,  a  people  addicted  to  rapine,  and 
roving  about  at  immense  distances  for  the  sake 
of  plunder,  should  have  occasionally  infested 
the  defenceless  country  of  Idumea,  and  roved 
from  the  Euphrates  even  to  Egypt. 

The  different  parts  of  the  book  of  Job  are 
so  closely  connected  together,  that  they  can- 
not be  detached  from  each  other.  The  exor 
dium  prepares  the  reader  for  what  follows, 
supplies  us  witli  the  necessary  notices  con- 
cerning Job  and  his  friends,  unfolds  the  scope, 
and  places  the  calamities  full  in  our  view  as 
an  object  of  attention.  The  epilogue,  or  con- 
clusion, again,  has  reference  to  the  exordium, 
and  relates  the  happy  termination  of  Job's 
trials  ;  the  dialogues  which  intervene  flow  in 
regular  order.  Now,  if  any  of  these  parts  were 


JOB 


538 


JOH 


to  be  taken  away,  the  poem  would  be  ex- 
tremely defective.  Without  the  prologue  the 
reader  would  be  utterly  ignorant  who  Job  was, 
who  were  his  friends,  and  the  cause  of  his 
being  so  grievously  afflicted.  Without  the 
discourse  of  Elihu,  Job  xxxii-xxxvii,  thero 
would  be  a  sudden  and  abrupt  transition  from 
the  last  words  of  Job  to  the  address  of  God, 
for  which  Elihu's  discourse  prepares  the  reader. 
And  without  the  epilogue,  or  conclusion,  we 
should  remain  in  ignorance  of  the  subsequent 
condition  of  Job.  Hence  it  is  evident,  that 
the  poem  is  the  composition  of  a  single  author  ; 
but  who  that  was,  is  a  question  concerning 
which  the  learned  are  very  much  divided  in 
their  sentiments.  Elihu,  Job,  Moses,  .Solo- 
mon, Isaiah,  an  anonymous  writer  in  the  reign 
of  Manasseh,  Ezekiel,  and  Ezra,  have  all  been 
contended  for.  The  arguments  already  ad- 
duced respecting  the  age  of  Job,  prove  that  it 
could  not  be  either  of  the  latter  persons.  Dr. 
Lightfoot,  from  an  erroneous  version  of  Job 
xxxii,  16,  17,  has  conjectured  that  it  is  the 
production  of  Elihu  ;  but  the  correct  render- 
ing of  that  passage  refutes  this  notion.  Ilgen 
ascribes  it  probably  to  a  descendant  of  Elihu. 
Another  and  more  generally  received  opinion 
attributes  this  book  to  Moses  ;  this  conjecture 
is  founded  on  some  apparent  striking  coinci- 
dences of  sentiment,  as  well  as  from  some 
marks  of  later  date  which  are  supposed  to  be 
discoverable  in  it.  But,  independently  of  the 
characters  of  antiquity  already  referred  to,  and 
which  place  the  book  of  Job  very  many  cen- 
turies before  the  time  of  Moses,  the  total  ab- 
sence of  every  the  slightest  allusion  to  the 
manners,  customs,  ceremonies,  or  history  of 
the  Israelites,  is  a  direct  evidence  that  the  great 
legislator  of  the  Hebrews  was  not,  and  could 
not  have  been,  the  author.  To  which  may  be 
added,  thai,  the  style  of  Job,  as  Bishop  Lowth 
has  remarked,  is  materially  different  from  the 
poetical  style  of  Moses ;  for  it  is  much  more 
compact,  concise,  or  condensed,  more  accurate 
in  the  poetical  conformation  of  the  sentences  ; 
as  may  be  observed  also  in  the  prophecies  of 
Balaam  the  Mesopotamian,  a  foreigner,  in- 
deed, with  respect  to  the  Israelites,  but  not 
unacquainted  either  with  their  language,  or 
with  the  worship  of  the  true  God.  Upon  the 
whole,  then,  we  have  sufficient  ground  to  con- 
clude that  this  book  was  not  the  production 
of  Moses,  but  of  some  earlier  age.  Bishop 
Lowth  favours  the  opinion  of  Schultens, 
Peters,  and  others,  which  is  adopted  by  Bishop 
Tomline  and  Dr.  Hales,  who  suppose  Job  him- 
self, or  some  contemporary,  to  have  been  the 
author  of  this  poem  ;  and  there  seems  to  be 
no  good  reason  for  supposing  that  it  was  not 
written  by  Job  himself.  It  appears,  indeed, 
highly  probable  that  Job  was  the  writer  of  his 
own  story,  of  whose  inspiration  we  have  the 
clearest  evidence  in  the  forty-second  chapter 
of  this  book,  in  which  he  thus  addresses  the 
Almighty :  "  I  have  heard  of  thee  by  the  hear- 
ing of  the  ear,  but  now  mine  eye  seeth  thee." 
It  is  plain  that  in  this  passage  some  privilege 
is  intended  which  he  never  had  enjoyed  before, 
and  which  he  calls  the  sight  of  God. 


The  book  of  Job  contains  the  history  of  Job, 
a  man  equally  distinguished  for  purity  and  up 
Tightness  of  character,  and  for  honours,  wealth, 
and  domestic  felicity,  whom  God  permitted, 
for  the  trial  of  his  faith,  to  be  suddenly  de- 
prived of  all  his  numerous  blessings,  and  to  be 
at  once  plunged  into  the  deepest  affliction,  and 
most  accumulated  distress.  It  gives  an  ac- 
count of  his  eminent  piety,  patience,  and  re- 
signation under  the  pressure  of  these  severe 
calamities,  and  of  his  subsequent  elevation  to 
a  degree  of  prosperity  and  happiness,  still 
greater  than  that  which  he  had  before  enjoyed. 
How  long  the  sufferings  of  Job  continued,  we 
are  not  informed ;  but  it  is  said,  that  after  God 
turned  his  captivity,  and  blessed  him  a  second 
time,  he  lived  one  hundred  and  forty  years, 
Job  xlii,  16.  Its  style  is  in  many  parts  pecu- 
liarly sublime  ;  and  it  is  not  only  adorned  with 
poetical  embellishments,  but  most  learned  men 
consider  it  as  written  in  metre.  Through  the 
whole  work  we  discover  religious  instruction 
shining  forth  amidst  the  venerable  simplicity 
of  ancient  manners.  It  every  where  abounds 
with  the  noblest  sentiments  of  piety,  uttered 
with  the  spirit  of  inspired  conviction.  It  is  a 
work  unrivalled  for  the  magnificence  of  its 
language,  and  for  the  beautiful  and  sublime 
images  which  it  presents.  In  the  wonderful 
speech  of  the  Deity,  Job  xxxviii,  xxxix,  every 
line  delineates  his  attributes,  every  sentence 
opens  a  picture  of  some  grand  object  in  crea- 
tion, characterized  by  its  most  striking  fea- 
tures. Add  to  this,  that  its  prophetic  parts 
reflect  much  light  on  the  economy  of  God's 
moral  government ;  and  every  admirer  of 
sacred  antiquity,  every  inquirer  after  religious 
instruction,  will  seriously  rejoice  that  the 
enraptured  sentence  of  Job,  xix,  23,  is  realized 
to  a  more  effectual  and  unforeseen  accomplish- 
ment ;  that  while  the  memorable  records  of 
antiquity  have  mouldered  from  the  rock,  the 
prophetic  assurance  and  sentiments  of  Job  are 
graven  in  Scriptures  that  no  time  shall  alter, 
no  changes  shall  efface. 

JOEL,  the  second  of  the  twelve  lesser  pro- 
phets. It  is  impossible  to  ascertain  the  age  in 
which  he  lived,  but  it  seems  most  probable 
that  he  was  contemporary  with  Hosea.  No 
particulars  of  his  life  or  death  are  certainly 
known.  His  prophecies  are  confined  to  the 
kingdom  of  Judah.  He  inveighs  against  the 
sins  and  impieties  of  the  people,  and  threatens 
them  with  divine  vengeance ;  he  exhorts  to 
repentance,  fasting,  and  prayer  ;  and  promises 
the  favour  of  God  to  those  who  should  be 
obedient.  The  principal  predictions  contained 
in  this  book  are  the  Chaldean  invasion,  under 
the  figurative  representation  of  locusts ;  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus  ;  the  bless- 
ings of  the  Gospel  dispensation  ;  the  conver- 
sion and  restoration  of  the  Jews  to  their  own 
land  ;  the  overthrow  of  the  enemies  of  God  ; 
and  the  glorious  state  of  the  Christian  church 
in  the  end  of  the  world.  The  style  of  Joel  is 
perspicuous  and  elegant,  and  his  descriptions 
are  remarkably  animated  and  poetical. 

JOHN  THE  BAPTIST,  the  forerunner  of 
the  Messiah,  was  the  son  of  Zechariah  and 


JOH 


539 


JOH 


Elizabeth,  and  was  born  about  six  months 
before  our  Saviour.  His  birth  was  foretold  by 
an  angel,  sent  purposely  to  deliver  this  joyful 
message,  when  his  mother  Elizabeth  was  bar- 
ren, and  both  his  parents  far  advanced  in 
years.  The  same  divine  messenger  foretold 
that  he  should  be  great  in  the  sight  of  the 
Lord  ;  that  he  should  be  filled  with  the  Holy 
Spirit  from  his  mother's  womb  ;  that  he  should 
prepare  the  way  of  the  Lord  by  turning  many 
of  the  Jews  to  the  knowledge  of  God ;  and 
that  he  should  be  the  greatest  of  all  the.  pro- 
phets, Luke  i,  5-15.  Of  the  early  part  of  the 
Baptist's  life  we  have  but  little  information. 
It  is  only  observed  that  "he  grew  and  waxed 
strong  in  spirit,  and  was  in  the  deserts  till  the 
day  of  his  showing  unto  Israel,"  Luke  i,  80. 
Though  consecrated  from  the  womb  to  the 
ministerial  office,  John  did  not  enter  upon  it 
in  the  heat  of  youth,  but  after  several  years 
spent  in  solitude  and  a  course  of  self-denial. 

The  prophetical  descriptions  of  the  Baptist 
in  the  Old  Testament  are  various  and  striking. 
That  by  Isaiah  is  :  "  The  voice  of  him  that 
crieth  in  the  wilderness,  Prepare  ye  the  way 
of  the  Lord,  make  straight  in  the  desert  a  high 
way  for  our  God,"  Isaiah  xl,  3.  Malachi  has 
the  following  prediction  :  "  Behold,  I  will  send 
you  Elijah  the  prophet  before  the  coming  of 
the  great  and  dreadful  day  of  the  Lord.  And 
he  shall  turn  the  hearts  of  the  fathers  to  the 
children,  and  the  hearts  of  the  children  to  the 
fathers,  lest  I  come  and  smite  the  earth  with  a 
curse,"  Mai.  iv,  5.  That  this  was  meant  of 
the  Baptist,  we  have  the  testimony  of  our  Lord 
himself,  who  declared,  "  For  all  the  prophets 
and  the  law  prophesied  until  John.  And  if 
ye  will  receive  it,  this  is  Elias  who  was  to 
come,"  Matt,  xi,  14.  The  appearance  and 
manners  of  the  Baptist,  when  he  first  came  out 
into  the  world,  excited  general  attention.  His 
clothing  was  of  camel's  hair,  bound  round  him 
with  a  leathern  girdle,  and  his  food  consisted 
of  locusts  and  wild  honey,  Matt,  iii,  4.  The 
message  which  he  declared  was  authoritative  : 
"  Repent  ye,  for  the  kingdom  of  heaven  is  at 
hand  ;"  and  the  impression  produced  by  his 
faithful  reproofs  and  admonitions  was  power- 
ful and  extensive,  and  in  a  great  number  of 
instances  lasting.  Most  of  the  first  followers 
of  our  Lord  appear  to  have  been  awakened  to 
seriousness  and  religious  inquiry  by  John's 
ministry.  His  character  was  so  eminent, 
that  many  of  the  Jews  thought  him  to  be  the 
Messiah ;  but  he  plainly  declared  that  he  was 
not  that  honoured  person.  Nevertheless,  he 
was  at  first  unacquainted  with  the  person  of 
Jesus  Christ ;  only  the  Holy  Ghost  had  told 
him  that  he  on  whom  he  should  see  the  Holy 
Spirit  descend  and  rest  was  the  Messiah. 
When  Jesus  Christ  presented  himself  to  receive 
baptism  from  him,  this  sign  was  vouchsafed ; 
and  from  that  time  he  bore  his  testimony  to 
Jesus,  as  the  Christ. 

Herod  Antipas,  having  married  his  brother 
Philip's  wife  while  Philip  was  still  living,  occa- 
sioned great  scandal.  John  the  Baptist,  with 
his  usual  liberty  and  vigour,  reproved  Herod 
So  his  face  ;  and  told  him  that  it  was  not  law- 


ful for  him  to  have  his  brother's  wife,  while 
his  brother  was  yet  alive.  Herod,  incensed  at 
this  freedom,  ordered  him  into  custody,  in  the 
castle  of  Machcerus  ;  and  he  was  ultimately 
put  to  death.  (See  Antipas.)  Thus  fell  this 
honoured  prophet,  a  martyr  to  ministerial  faith- 
fulness. Other  prophets  testified  of  Christ ;  he 
pointed  to  him  as  already  come.  Others  saw 
him  afar  off;  he  beheld  the  advancing  glories 
of  his  ministry  eclipsing  his  own,  and  rejoiced 
to  "decrease"  while  his  Master  "increased." 
His  ministry  stands  as  a  type  of  the  true  cha- 
racter of  evangelical  repentance  :  it  goes  before 
Christ  and  prepares  his  way;  it  is  humbling, 
but  not  despairing  ;  for  it  points  to  "  the  Lamb 
of  God  which  taketh  away  the  sins  of  the 
world." 

The  Jews  had  such  an  opinion  of  this  pro- 
phet's sanctity,  that  they  ascribed  the  over- 
throw of  Herod's  army,  which  he  had  sent 
against  his  father-in-law,  Aretas,  to  the  just 
judgment  of  God  for  putting  John  the  Baptist 
to  death.  The  death  of  John  the  Baptist  hap- 
pened, as  is  believed,  about  the  end  of  the 
thirty-first  year  of  the  vulgar  era,  or  in  the 
beginning  of  the  thirty-second. 

The  baptism  of  John  was  much  more  perfect 
than  that  of  the  Jews,  but  less  perfect  than 
that  of  Jesus  Christ.    "  It  was,"  says  St.  Chry- 
sostom,  "as  it  were,  a  bridge,  which,  from  the 
baptism  of  the  Jews,  made  a  way  to  that  of 
our  Saviour,  and  was  more  exalted  than  the 
first,  but  inferior  to  the  second.     That  of  St. 
John  promised  what  that  of  Jesus  Christ  exe- 
cuted.      Notwithstanding    St.  John    did    not 
enjoin  his  disciples  to  continue  the  baptism  of 
repentance,  which  was  of  his  institution,  after 
his  death,  because,  after  the  manifestation  of 
the  Messiah,  and  the  establishment  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  it  became  of  no  use ;   yet  there  were 
many  of  his  followers  who  still  administered 
it,  and  several  years  after  the  death  and  resur- 
rection  of  Jesus  Christ,  did  not  so  much  as 
know  that  there  was  any  other  baptism  than 
that  of  John.     Of  this  number  was  Apollos,  a 
learned  and  zealous  man,  who  was  of  Alexan- 
dria, and  came  to  Ephesus  twenty  years  after 
the  resurrection  of  our  Saviour,  Acts  xviii,  25. 
And  when  St.  Paul  came  after  Apollos  to  the 
same  city,  there  were   still    many  Ephesians 
who  had  received  no  other  baptism,  and  were 
not  yet  informed  that  the  Holy  Ghost  was  re- 
ceived by  baptism  in  the  name  of  Jesus  Christ, 
Acts  xix,  1.     The  Jews  are  said  by  the  Apos- 
tle Paul  to  have  been  "  baptized  unto  Moses," 
at  the  time  when  they  followed  him  through 
the  Red  Sea,  as  the  servant  of  God  sent  to  be 
their  leader.     Those  who  went  out  to  John 
"were  baptized  unto  John's  baptism  ;"  that  is, 
into  the  expectation  of  the  person  whom  John 
announced,  and  into  repentance  of  those  sins 
which  John  condemned.    Christians  are  "bap- 
tized into  the  name  of  the  Father,  the  Son,  and 
the  Holy  Ghost,"  because  in  this  expression  is 
implied  that  whole  system  of  truth  which  the 
disciples  of  Christ  believe;  into  the  name  of 
the  Father,  the  one  true  and  living  God  whom 
Christians  profess  to  serve;  of  the  Son,  that 
divine  person  revealed  in  the  New  Testament 


JOH 


540 


JOH 


whom  the  Father  sent  to  be  the  Saviour  of  the 
world ;  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  the  divine  person 
also  revealed  there  as  the  Comforter,  the  Sanc- 
tifier,  and  the  Guide  of  Christians. 

John  the  Evangelist  was  a  native  of  Beth- 
saida,  in  Galilee,  son  of  Zebedee  and  Salome, 
by  profession  a  fisherman.  Some  have  thought 
that  he  was  a  disciple  of  John  the  Baptist  be- 
fore he  attended  Jesus  Christ.  He  was  brother 
to  James  the  greater.  It  is  believed  that  St. 
John  was  the  youngest  of  the  Apostles.  Til- 
lemont  is  of  opinion  that  he  was  twenty-five 
or  twenty-six  years  of  age  when  he  began  to 
follow  Jesus.  Our  Saviour  had  a  particular 
friendship  for  him  ;  and  he  describes  himself 
by  the  name  of  "  that  disciple  whom  Jesus 
loved."  St.  John  was  one  of  the  four  Apos- 
tles to  whom  our  Lord  delivered  his  predictions 
relative  to  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  and 
the  approaching  calamities  of  the  Jewish  na- 
tion, Mark  xiii,  3.  St.  Peter,  St.  James,  and  St. 
John  were  chosen  to  accompany  our  Saviour 
on  several  occasions,  when  the  other  Apostles 
were  not  permitted  to  be  present.  When 
Christ  restored  the  daughter  of  Jairus  to  life, 
Mark  v,  37  ;  Luke  vhi,  51 ;  when  he  was  trans- 
figured on  the  mount,  Matt,  xvii,  1,  2 ;  Mark 
ix,  2 ;  Luke  ix,  28  ;  and  when  he  endured  his 
agony  in  the  garden,  Matt,  xxvi,  36,  37  ;  Mark 
xiv,  32,  33  ;  St.  Peter,  St.  James,  and  St.  John 
were  his  only  attendants.  That  St.  John  was 
treated  by  Christ  with  greater  familiarity  than 
the  other  Apostles,  is  evident  from  St.  Peter 
desiring  him  to  ask  Christ  who  should  betray 
him,  when  he  himself  did  not  dare  to  propose 
the  question,  John  xiii,  24.  He  seems  to  have 
been  the  only.  Apostle  present  at  the  cruci- 
fixion, and  to  him  Jesus,  just  as  he  was  expir- 
ing upon  the  cross,  gave  the  strongest  proof 
of  his  confidence  and  regard,  by  consigning  to 
him  the  care  of  his  mother,  John  xix,  2b',  27. 
As  St.  John  had  been  witness  to  the  death  of 
our  Saviour,  by  seeing  the  blood  and  water 
issue  from  his  side,  which  a  soldier  had  pierced, 
John  xix,  34,  35,  so  he  was  one  of  the  first 
made  acquainted  with  his  resurrection.  With- 
out any  hesitation,  he  believed  this  great  event, 
though  "  as  yet  he  knew  not  the  Scripture,  that 
Christ  was  to  rise  from  the  dead,"  John  xx,  9. 
He  was  also  one  of  those  to  whom  our  Saviour 
appeared  at  the  sea  of  Galilee ;  and  he  was  after- 
ward, with  the  other  ten  Apostles,  a  witness  of 
his  ascension  into  heaven,  Mark  xvi,  19  ;  Luke 
xxiv,  51.  St.  John  continued  to  preach  the 
Gospel  for  some  time  at  Jerusalem  :  he  was 
imprisoned  by  the  sanhedrim,  first  wTith  Peter 
only,  Acts  iv,  1,  &c,  and  afterward  with  the 
other  Apostles,  Acts  v,  17,  18.  Some  time 
after  this  second  release,  he  and  St.  Peter  were 
sent  by  the  other  Apostles  to  the  Samaritans, 
whom  Philip  the  deacon  had  converted  to  the 
Gospel,  that  through  them  they  might  receive 
the  Holy  Ghost,  Acts  viii,  14,  15.  St.  John 
informs  us,  in  his  Revelations,  that  he  was 
banished  to  Patmos,  an  island  in  the  JEgean 
Sea,  Rev.  i,  9. 

This  banishment  of  the  Apostle  to  the  isle 
of  Patmos  is  mentioned  by  many  of  the  early 
ecclesiastical   writers ;    all   of  whom,   except 


Epiphanius  in  the  fourth  century,  agree  in  at 
tributing  it  to  Domitian.  Epiphanuis  says  that 
John  was  banished  by  command  of  Claudius  ; 
but  this  deserves  the  less  credit,  because  there 
was  no  persecution  of  the  Christians  in  the 
time  of  that  emperor,  and  his  edicts  against 
the  Jews  did  not  extend  to  the  provinces.  Sir 
Isaac  Newton  was  of  opinion  that  John  was 
banished  to  Patmos  in  the  time  of  Nero ;  but 
even  the  authority  of  this  great  man  is  not  of 
sufficient  weight  against  the  unanimous  voice 
of  antiquity.  Dr.  Lardner  has  examined  and 
answered  his  arguments  with  equal  candour 
and  learning.  It  is  not  known  at  what  time 
John  went  into  Asia  Minor.  Lardner  thought 
that  it  was  about  the  year  66.  It  is  certain 
that  he  lived  in  Asia  Minor  the  latter  part  of 
his  life,  and  principally  at  Ephesus.  He  plant- 
ed churches  at  Smyrna,  Pergamos,  and  many 
other  places  ;  and  by  his  activity  and  success 
in  propagating  the  Gospel,  he  is  supposed  to 
have  incurred  the  displeasure  of  Domitian, 
who  banished  him  to  Patmos  at  the  end  of  his 
reign.  He  himself  tells  us  that  he  "  was  in  the 
isle  that  is  called  Patmos,  for  the  word  of  God, 
and  for  the  testimony  of  Jesus  Christ ;"  and 
Irenasus,  speaking  of  the  vision  which  he  had 
there,  says,  "  It  is  not  very  long  ago  that  it 
was  seen,  being  but  a  little  before  our  time,  at 
the  latter  end  of  Domitian's  reign."  On  the 
succession  of  Nerva  to  the  empire  in  the  year 
96,  John  returned  to  Ephesus,  where  he  died 
at  an  advanced  age,  in  the  third  year  of  Tra- 
jan's reign,  A.  D.  100.  An  opinion  has  pre- 
vailed, that  he  was,  by  order  of  Domitian, 
thrown  into  a  caldron  of  boiling  oil  at  Rome, 
and  came  out  unhurt ;  but  this  account  rests 
almost  entirely  on  the  authority  of  Tertullian, 
and  seems  to  deserve  little  credit. 

2.  The  genuineness  of  St.  John's  Gospel  has 
always  been  unanimously  admitted  by  the 
Christian  church.  It  is  universally  agreed 
that  St.  John  published  his  Gospel  in  Asia ; 
and  that,  when  he  wrote  it,  he  had  seen  the 
other  three  Gospels.  It  is,  therefore,  not  only 
valuable  in  itself,  but  also  a  tacit  confirmation 
of  the  other  three  ;  with  none  of  which  it  dis- 
agrees in  any  material  point.  The  time  of  its 
publication  is  placed  by  some  rather  before, 
and  by  others  considerably  after,  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem.  If  we  accede  to  the  opinion 
of  those  who  contend  for  the  year  97,  this 
late  date,  exclusive  of  the  authorities  which 
support  it,  seems  favoured  by  the  contents  and 
design  of  the  Gospel  itself.  The  immediate 
design  of  St.  John  in  writing  his  Gospel,  as  we 
are  assured  by  Irenieus,  Jerom,  and  others,  was 
to  refute  the  Cerinthians,  Ebionites,  and  other 
heretics,  whose  tenets,  though  they  branched 
out  into  a  variety  of  subjects,  all  originated 
from  erroneous  opinions  concerning  the  person 
of  Christ,  and  the  creation  of  the  world.  These 
points  had  been  scarcely  touched  upon  by  the 
other  evangelists ;  though  they  had  faithfully 
recorded  all  the  leading  facts  of  our  Saviour's 
life,  and  his  admirable  precepts  for  the  regula- 
tion of  our  conduct.  St.  John,  therefore,  un- 
dertook, perhaps  at  the  request  of  the  true 
believers  in  Asia,  to  write  what  Clement  of 


JOH 


541 


JOH 


Alexandria  called  a  spiritual  Gospel ;  and,  ac- 
cordingly, we  find  in  it  more  of  doctrine,  and 
less  of  historical  narrative,  than  in  any  of  the 
others.  It  is  also  to  be  remembered,  that  this 
book,  which  contains  so  much  additional  infor- 
mation relative  to  the  doctrines  of  Christianity, 
and  which  may  be  considered  as  a  standard  of 
faith  for  all  ages,  was  written  by  that  Apostle 
who  is  known  to  have  enjoyed,  in  a  greater 
degree  than  the  rest,  the  affection  and  confi- 
dence of  the  divine  Author  of  our  religion  ; 
and  to  whom  \tfas  given  a  special  revelation 
concerning  the  state  of  the  Christian  church 
in  all  succeeding  generations. 

We  have  three  epistles  by  this  Apostle. 
Some  critics  have  thought  that  all  these  epis- 
tles were  written  during  St.  John's  exile  in 
Patmos  ;  the  first,  to  the  Ephesian  church ; 
the  others  to  individuals ;  and  that  they  were 
sent  along  with  the  Gospel,  which  the  Apostle 
is  supposed  also  to  have  written  in  Patmos. 
Thus  Hug  observes,  in  his  "Introduction:" 
If  St.  John  sent  his  Gospel  to  the  continent, 
an  epistle  to  the  community  was  requisite, 
commending  and  dedicating  it  to  them.  Other 
evangelists,  who  deposited  their  works  in  the 
place  of  their  residence,  personally  superin- 
tended them,  and  delivered  them  personally ; 
consequently  they  did  not  require  a  written 
document  to  accompany  them.  An  epistle 
was  therefore  requisite,  and,  as  we  have  abund- 
antly proved  the  first  of  John's  epistles  to  be 
inseparable  from  the  Gospel,  its  contents  de- 
monstrate it  to  be  an  accompanying  writing, 
and  a  dedication  of  the  Gospel.  It  went  con- 
sequently to  Ephesus.  We  can  particularly 
corroborate  this  by  the  following  observation  : 
John,  in  the  Apocalypse,  has  individually  dis- 
tinguished each  of  the  Christian  communities, 
which  lay  the  nearest  within  his  circle  and  his 
superintendence,  by  criteria,  taken  from  their 
faults  or  their  virtues.  The  church  at  Ephe- 
sus he  there  describes  by  the  following  traits  : 
It  was  thronged  with  men  who  arrogated  to 
themselves  the  ministry  and  apostolical  autho- 
rity, and  were  impostors,  xpcvieif.  But  in  par- 
ticular he  feelingly  reproaches  it  because  its 

"  first  love  was  cooled,"  TV1  ayditr]ii  dov   r»ji>  ttpii- 

rr/v  JuprjKas.  The  circumstance  of  impostors 
and  false  teachers  happens  in  more  churches. 
But  decreasing  love  is  an  exclusive  criterion 
and  failing,  which  the  Apostle  reprimands  in 
no  other  community.  According  to  his  judg- 
ment, want  of  love  was  the  characteristic  fault 
of  the  Ephesians  :  but  this  epistle  is  from  be- 
ginning to  the  end  occupied  with  admonitions 
to  love,  with  recommendations  of  its  value, 
with  corrections  of  those  who  are  guilty  of  this 
fault,  1  John  ii,  5,  9-11,  15  ;  iii,  1,  11,  12, 
14-18,  23  ;  iv,  7-10,  12,  16-21 ;  v,  1-3.  Must 
not  we  therefore  declare,  if  we  compare  the 
opinion  of  the  Apostle  respecting  the  Ephe- 
sians with  this  epistle,  that,  from  its  peculiar 
tenor,  it  is  not  so  strikingly  adapted  to  any 
community  in  the  first  instance  as  to  this  ? 

The  second  epistle  is  directed  to  a  female, 
who  is  not  named,  but.  only  designated  by  the 
honourable  mention,  iK\cKrfi  Kvpia,  "  the  elect 
lady."     The  two  chief  positions,  which    are 


discussed  in  the  first  epistle,  constitute  the 
contents  of  this  brief  address.  He  again 
alludes  to  the  words  of  our  Saviour,  "  A  new 
commandment,"  &c,  as  in  I  John  ii,  7,  and 
recommends  love,  which  is  manifested  by 
observance  of  the  commandments.  After  this 
he  warns  her  against  false  teachers,  who  deny 
that  Jesus  entered  into  the  world  as  the  Christ, 
or  Messiah,  and  forbids  an  intercourse  with 
them.  At  the  end,  he  hopes  soon  to  see  her 
himself,  and  complains  of  the  want  of  writing 
materials.  The  whole  is  a  short  syllabus  of 
the  first  epistle,  or  it  is  the  first  in  a  renewed 
form.  The  words  also  are  the  same.  It  is 
still  full  of  the  former  epistle :  nor  are  they 
separated  from  each  other  as  to  time.  The 
female  appears  before  his  mind  in  the  circum- 
stances and  dangers  of  the  society,  in  instruct- 
ing and  admonishing  which  he  had  just  been 
employed.  If  we  may  judge  from  local  cir- 
cumstances, she  also  lived  at  Ephesus.  But 
as  for  the  author,  his  residence  was  in  none  of 
the  Ionian  or  Asiatic  cities,  where  the  want 
of  writing  materials  is  not  conceivable :  he 
was  still  therefore  in  the  place  of  his  exile. 
The  other  circumstances  noticed  in  it,  are 
probably  the  following:  The  sons  of  the  iK^ikrfi 
Kvpia  had  visited  John,  2  John  4.  The  sister 
of  this  matron  wishing  to  show  to  him  an 
equal  respect  and  sympathy  in  his  fate,  sent 
her  sons  likewise  to  visit  the  Apostle.  While 
the  latter  were  with  the  Apostle,  there  was 
an  opportunity  of  sending  to  the  continent, 

2  John  13,  namely,  of  despatching  the  two 
epistles  and  the  Gospel. 

The  third  epistle  is  written  to  Caius.  The 
author  consoles  himself  with  the  hope,  as  in 
the    former   epistle,   of  soon  coming  himself, 

3  John  14.  He  still  experiences  the  same 
want  of  writing  materials,  3  John  13.  Con- 
sequently, he  was  still  living  in  the  same 
miserable  place  :  also,  if  we  may  judge  from 
his  hopes,  the  time  was  not  very  different. 
The  residence  of  Caius  is  determined  by  the 
following  criteria:  The  most,  general  of  them 
is  the  danger  of  being  misled  by  false  teachers, 
3  John  3,  1.  That  which  leads  us  nearer  to 
the  point,  is  the  circumstance  of  John  some- 
times sending  messages  thither,  and  receiving 
accounts  from  thence,  3  John  5-8,  that  he 
supposes  his  opinions  to  be  so  well  known  and 
acknowledged  in  this  society,  that  he  could 
appeal  to  them,  as  Judges  respecting  them, 
3  John  12,  and  that,  finally,  he  had  many 
particular  friends  among  them,  3  John  15. 
The  whole  of  this  is  applicable  to  a  consider- 
able place,  where  the  Apostle  had  resided  for 
a  long  time;  and  in  the  second  epoch  of  his 
life,  it  is  particularly  applicable  to  Ephesus. 
He  had  lately  written  to  the  community,  of 
which  Caius  was  a  member,  iypnxpa  t%  fKufyiaia, 
"  I  wrote  to  the  church,"  3  John  9.  If  this  is 
to  be  referred  to  the  first  epistle,  (for  we  are 
not  aware  of  any  other  to  a  community,)  then 
certainly  Ephesus  is  the  place  to  which  the 
third  epistle  was  also  directed,  and  was  the 
place  where  Caius  resided.  From  hence,  the 
res*  .outruns  its  own  explanation.  John  had 
sent  his  first  epistle  thither  ;  it  was  the  accom- 


JOP 


542 


JOR 


panying  writing  to  the  Gospel,  and  with  it  he 
also  sent  the  Gospel.  Who  was  better  qualified 
to  promulgate  the  Gospel  among  the  believers 
than  Caius,  especially  if  it  was  to  be  published 
at  Ephesus  ? 

The  above  view  is  ingenious,  and  in  its 
leading  parts  satisfactory ;  but  the  argument 
from  the  Apostle's  supposed  want  of  "writing 
materials"  is  founded  upon  a  very  forced  con- 
struction of  the  texts.  There  seems,  however, 
no  reason  to  doubt  of  the  close  connection, 
in  point  of  time,  between  the  epistles  and  the 
Gospel ;  and,  that  being  remembered,  the  train 
of  thought  in  the  mind  of  the  Apostle  suffi- 
ciently explains  the  peculiar  character  of  the 
latter. 

JONAH,  son  of  Amittai,  the  fifth  of  the 
minor  prophets,  was  born  at  Gath-hepher,  in 
Galilee.  He  is  generally  considered  as  the 
most  ancient  of  the  prophets,  and  is  supposed 
to  have  lived  B.  C.  840.  The  book  of  Jonah 
is  chiefly  narrative.  He  relates  that  he  was 
commanded  by  God  to  go  to  Nineveh,  and 
preach  against  the  inhabitants  of  that  capital 
of  the  Assyrian  empire  ;  that,  through  fear  of 
executing  this  commission,  he  set  sail  for 
Tarshish ;  and  that,  in  his  voyage  thither,  a 
tempest  arising,  he  was  cast  by  the  mariners 
into  the  sea,  and  swallowed  by  a  large  fish  ;  that, 
while  he  was  in  the  belly  of  this  fish,  he  prayed 
to  God,  and  was,  after  three  days  and  three 
nights,  delivered  out  of  it  alive ;  that  he  then 
received  a  second  command  to  go  and  preach 
against  Nineveh,  which  he  obeyed ;  that,  upon 
his  threatening  the  destruction  of  the  city 
within  forty  days,  the  king  and  people  pro- 
claimed a  fast,  and  repented  of  their  sins; 
and  that,  upon  this  repentance,  God  suspended 
the  sentence  which  he  had  ordered  to  be  pro- 
nounced in  his  name.  Upon  their  repentance, 
God  deferred  the  execution  of  his  judgment 
till  the  increase  of  their  iniquities  made  them 
ripe  for  destruction,  about  a  hundred  and  fifty 
years  afterward.  The  last  chapter  gives  an 
account  of  the  murmuring  of  Jonah  at  this 
instance  of  divine  mercy,  and  of  the  gentle 
and  condescending  manner  in  which  it  pleased 
God  to  reprove  the  prophet  for  his  unjust 
complaint.  The  style  of  Jonah  is  simple  and 
perspicuous ;  and  his  prayer,  in  the  second 
chapter,  is  strongly  descriptive  of  the  feelings 
of  a  pious  mind  under  a  severe  trial  of  faith. 
Our  Saviour  mentions  Jonah  in  the  Gospel, 
Matt,  xii,  41 ;  Luke  xi,  32.  See  Nineveh  and 
Gourd. 

JONATHAN,  the  son  of  Saul,  a  prince  of 
an  excellent  disposition,  and  in  all  varieties  of 
fortune  a  sincere  and  steady  friend  to  David. 
Jonathan  gave  signal  proofs  of  courage  and 
conduct  upon  all  occasions  that  offered,  during 
thfl  wars  between  his  lather  and  the  Philistines. 
The  death  of  Jonathan  was  lamented  by 
David,  in  one  of  the  noblest  and  most  pathetic 
odes  ever  uttered  by  genius  consecrated  by 
pious  friendship.  Sou  i  Sam.  xiii,  16,  &c ; 
xiv,  1,  2,  &c. 

JOPPA,  called  also  Japho  in  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, which  is  stil!  preserved  in  its  modern 
name  of  Jaffa  or  Yafah,  a  sea  port  of  Pales- 


tine, situated  on  an  eminence  in  a  Bandy  soil, 
about  seventy  miles  north-west  of  Jerusalem. 
Joppa  was  anciently  the  port  to  Jerusalem. 
Here  all  the  materials  sent  from  Tyre  for  the 
building  of  Solomon's  temple  were  brought 
and  landed :  it  was,  indeed,  the  only  port  in 
Judea,  though  rocky  and  dangerous.  It  pos- 
sesses still,  in  times  of  peace,  a  considerable 
commerce  witli  the  places  in  its  vicinity  ;  and 
is  well  inhabited,  chiefly  by  Arabs.  This  was 
the  place  of  landing  of  the  western  pilgrims  ; 
and  here  the  promised  pardons  commenced. 
Here  St.  Peter  raised  Dorcas  from  the  dead, 
and  resided  many  days  in  the  house  of  one 
Simon,  a  tanner,  Acts  ix,  36-43 ;  and  it  was 
from  this  place  that  the  Prophet  Jonah  em- 
barked for  Tarshish. 

JORAM,  the  son  and  successor  of  Ahab, 
king  of  Israel.     See  Jehu. 

JORDAN,  the  largest  and  mo6t  celebrated 
stream  in  Palestine.  It  is  much  larger,  accord- 
ing to  Dr.  Shaw,  than  all  the  brooks  and 
streams  of  the  Holy  Land  united  together ; 
and,  excepting  the  Nile,  is  by  far  the  most 
considerable  river  either  of  the  coast  of  Syria 
or  of  Barbary.  He  computed  it  to  be  about 
thirty  yards  broad,  and  found  it  nine  feet  deep 
at  the  brink.  This  river,  which  divides  the 
country  into  two  unequal  parts,  has  been 
commonly  said  to  issue  from  two  fountains, 
or  to  be  formed  by  the  junction  of  two  rivulets, 
the  Jor  and  the  Dan ;  but  the  assertion  seems 
to  be  totally  destitute  of  any  solid  foundation. 
The  Jewish  historian,  Josephus,  on  the  con- 
trary, places  its  source  at  Phiala,  a  fountain 
which  rises  about  fifteen  miles  from  Caesarea 
Philippi,  a  little  on  the  right  hand,  and  not 
much  out  of  the  way  to  Trachonitis.  It  is 
called  Phiala,  or  the  Vial,  from  its  round 
figure  ;  its  water  is  always  of  the  same  depth, 
the  bason  being  brimful,  without  either  shrink- 
ing or  overflowing.  From  Thiala  to  Panion, 
which  was  long  considered  as  the  real  source 
of  the  Jordan,  the  river  flows  under  ground. 
The  secret  of  its  subterraneous  course  was 
first  discovered  by  Philip,  the  tctrarch  of  Tra- 
chonitis, who  cast  straws  into  the  fountain  of 
Phiala,  which  came  out  again  at  Panion. 
Leaving  the  cave  of  Panion,  it  crosses  the 
bogs  and  fens  of  the  lake  Semichonitis ;  and 
after  a  course  of  fifteen  miles,  passes  under 
the  city  of  Julias,  the  ancient  Bethsaida ; 
then  expands  into  a  beautiful  sheet  of  water, 
named  the  lake  of  Gennesareth ;  and,  after 
flowing  a  long  way  through  the  desert,  empties 
itself  into  the  lake  Asphaltites,  or  the  Dead 
Sea.  As  the  cave  Panion  lies  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  Lebanon,  in  the  northern  extremity  of 
Canaan,  and  the  lake  Asphaltites  extends  to 
the  southern  extremity,  the  river  Jordan  pur- 
sues its  course  through  the  whole  extent  of 
the  country  from  north  to  south.  It  is  evi- 
dent, also,  from  the  history  of  Josephus,  that 
a- wilderness  or  desert  of  considerable  extent 
stretched  along  the  river  Jordan  in  the  times 
of  the  New  Testament ;  which  was  undoubt- 
edly the  wilderness  mentioned  by  the  evan- 
gelists, where  John  the  Baptist,  came  preaching 
and  baptizing.     The  Jordan  has  a  considerable 


JOR 


543 


JOR 


depth  i  if  water.  Chateaubriand  makes  it  six 
or  seven  feet  deep  close  at  the  shore,  and 
about  fifty  paces  in  breadth  a  considerable  dis- 
tance from  its  entrance  into  the  Dead  Sea. 
According  to  the  computation  of  Volney,  it  is 
hardly  sixty  paces  wide  at  the  mouth  ;  but  the 
author  of  "  Letters  from  Palestine"  states,  that 
the  stream  when  it  enters  the  lake  Asphaltites, 
is  deep  and  rapid,  rolling  a  considerable 
volume  of  waters  ;  the  width  appears  from  two 
to  three  hundred  feet,  and  the  current  is  so 
violent,  that  a  Greek  servant  belonging  to  the 
author,  who  attempted  to  cross  it,  though 
strong,  active,  and  an  excellent  swimmer, 
found  the  undertaking  impracticable.  It  may 
be  said  to  have  two  banks,  of  which  the 
inner  marks  the  ordinary  height  of  the 
stream ;  and  the  outer,  its  ancient  elevation 
during  the  rainy  season,  or  the  melting  of 
the  snows  on  the  summits  of  Lebanon.  In 
the  days  of  Joshua,  and,  it  is  probable,  for 
many  ages  after  his  time,  the  harvest  was 
one  of  the  seasons  when  the  Jordan  over- 
flowed  his  banks.  This  fact  is  distinctly 
recorded  by  the  sacred  historian :  "  And  as 
they  that  bare  the  ark  were  come  unto  Jor- 
dan, and  the  feet  of  the  priests  that  bare  the 
ark  were  dipped  in  the  brim  of  the  water;  for 
Jordan  overfloweth  all  his  banks  all  the  time 
of  harvest,"  Joshua  iii,  15.  This  happens  in 
the  first  month  of  the  Jewish  year,  which  cor- 
responds with  March,  1  Chronicles  xii,  15. 
But  in  modern  times,  whether  the  rapidity  of 
the  current  has  worn  the  channel  deeper  than 
formerly,  or  whether  its  waters  have  taken 
some  other  direction,  the  river  seems  to  have 
forgotten  his  ancient  greatness.  When  Maun- 
drell  visited  Jordan  on  the  thirtieth  of  March, 
the  proper  time  for  these  inundations,  he  could 
discern  no  sign  or  probability  of  such  over- 
flowing ;  nay,  so  far  was  it  from  overflowing, 
that  it  ran,  says  our  author,  at  least  two  yards 
below  the  brink  of  its  channel.  After  having 
descended  the  outer  bank,  he  went  about  a 
furlong  upon  the  level  strand,  before  he  came 
to  the  immediate  bank  of  the  river.  This  inner 
bank  was  so  thickly  covered  with  bushes  and 
trees,  among  which  he  observed  the  tamarisk, 
the  willow,  and  the  oleander,  that  he  could 
see  no  water  till  he  had  made  his  way  through 
them.  In  this  en-tangled  thicket,  so  conve- 
niently planted  near  the  cooling  stream,  and 
remote  from  the  habitations  of  men,  several 
kinds  of  wild  beasts  were  accustomed  to  repose, 
till  the  swelling  of  the  river  drove  them  from 
their  retreats.  This  circumstance  gave  occa- 
sion to  that  beautiful  allusion  of  the  prophet: 
"  He  shall  come  up  like  a  lion,  from  the  swell- 
ing of  Jordan,  against  the  habitation  of  the 
strong,"  Jer.  xlix,  19.  The  figure  is  highly 
poetical  and  striking.  It  is  not  easy  to  present 
a  more  terrible  image  to  the  mind,  than  a  lion 
roused  from  his  den  by  the  roar  of  the  swell- 
ing river,  and  chafed  and  irritated  by  its  rapid 
and  successive  encroachments  on  his  chosen 
haunts,  till,  forced  to  quit  his  last  retreat,  he 
ascends  to  the  higher  grounds  and  the  open 
country,  and  turns  the  fierceness  of  his  rage 
against  the  helpless  sheep  cots,  or  the  unsus- 


pecting villages.  A  destroyer  equally  fierce, 
and  cruel,  and  irresistible,  the  devoted  Edom- 
ites  were  to  find  in  Nebuchadnezzar  and  his 
armies. 

The  water  of  the  river  at  the  time  of  Maun- 
drell's  visit  was  very  turbid,  and  too  rapid  to 
allow  a  swimmer  to  stem  its  course.  Its  breadth 
might  be  about  twenty  yards  ;  and  in  depth,  it 
far  exceeded  his  height.  The  rapidity  and 
depth  of  the  river,  which  are  admitted  by  every 
traveller,  although  the  volume  of  water  seems 
now  to  be  much  diminished,  illustrate  those 
parts  of  Scripture  which  mention  the  fords 
and  passages  of  Jordan.  It  no  longer,  indeed, 
rolls  down  into  the  Salt  Sea  so  majestic  a  stream 
as  in  the  days  of  Joshua ;  yet  its  ordinary  depth 
is  still  about  ten  or  twelve  feet,  so  that  it  can- 
not even  at  present  be  passed  but  at  certain 
places.  Of  this  well  known  circumstance, 
the  men  of  Gilead  took  advantage  in  the  civil 
war,  which  they  were  compelled  to  wage  with 
their  brethren  :  "  The  Gileadites  took  the  pas- 
sages of  Jordan  before  the  Ephraimites  : — then 
the}'  took  him,  and  slew  him  at  the  passages 
of  Jordan,"  Judg.  xii,  6.  The  people  of  Israel, 
under  the  command  of  Ehud  availed  them- 
selves of  the  same  advantage  in  the  war  with 
Moab  :  "  And  they  went  down  after  him,  and 
took  the  fords  of  Jordan  toward  Moab,  and 
suffered  not  a  man  to  pass  over,"  Judg.  iii,  28. 
But  although  the  state  of  this  river  in  modern 
times  completely  justifies  the  incidental  re- 
marks of  the  sacred  writers,  it  is  evident  that 
Maundrell  was  disconcerted  by  the  shallow- 
ness of  the  stream,  at  the  time  of  the  year 
when  he  expected  to  see  it  overflowing  all  its 
banks  ;  and  his  embarrassment  seems  to  have 
increased  when  he  contemplated  the  double 
margin  within  which  it  flowed.  This  dirfi- 
culty,  which  has  perhaps  occurred  to  some 
others,  may  be  explained  by  a  remark  which 
Dr.  Pococke  has  made  on  the  river  Euphrates  : 
The  bed  of  the  Euphrates,  says  that  writer, 
was  measured  by  some  English  gentlemen  at 
Beer,  and  found  to  be  six  hundred  and  thirty 
yards  broad  ;  but  the  river  only  two  hundred 
and  fourteen  yards  over  ;  then  they  thought  it 
to  be  nine  or  ten  feet  deep  in  the  middle ;  and 
were  informed  that  it  sometimes  rises  twelve 
feet  perpendicularly.  He  observed  that  it  had 
an  inner  and  outer  bank  ;  but  says,  it  rarely 
overflows  the  inner  bank ;  that  when  it  does, 
they  sow  water  mellons  and  other  fruits  of 
that  kind,  as  soon  as  the  water  retires,  and 
have  a  great  produce.  From  this  passage, 
Mr.  Harmer  argues  :  "  Might  not  the  over- 
flowings of  the  Jordan  be  like  those  of  the 
Euphrates,  not  annual,  but  much  more  rare  ?" 
The  difficulty,  therefore,  will  be  completely 
removed,  by  supposing,  that  it  does  not,  like 
the  Nile,  overflow  every  year,  as  some  authors, 
by  mistake,  had  supposed,  but,  like  the  Eu- 
phrates, only  in  some  particular  years  ;  but 
when  it  does  it  is  in  the  time  of  harvest.  If 
it.  did  not  in  ancient  times  annually  .  vcrflow 
its  banks,  the  majesty  of  God  in  dividing  its 
waters  to  make  way  for  Joshua  and  the  armies 
of  Israel,  was  certainly  the  more  striking  to 
the  Canaanites  ;  who,  when  they  looked  upon 


JOS 


544 


JOS 


themselves  as  defended  in  an  extraordinary 
manner  by  the  casual  swelling  of  the  river,  its 
breadth  and  rapidity  being  both  so  extremely 
increased,  yet,  found  it  in  these  circumstances 
part  asunder,  and  leave  a  way  on  dry  land  for 
the  people  of  Jehovah.  The  common  recep- 
tacle into  which  the  Jordan  empties  his  waters, 
is  the  lake  Asphaltites,  from  whence  they  are 
continually  drained  oft'  by  evaporation.  Some 
writers,  unable  to  find  a  discharge  for  the  large 
body  of  water  which  is  continually  rushing 
into  the  lake,  have  been  inclined  to  suspect 
it  had  some  communication  with  the  Mediter- 
ranean ;  but,  beside  that  we  know  of  no  such 
gulf,  it  has  been  demonstrated  by  accurate  cal- 
culations, that  evaporation  is  more  than  suffi- 
cient to  carry  oft'  the  waters  of  the  river.  It  is, 
in  fact,  very  considerable,  and  frequently  be- 
comes sensible  to  the  eye,  by  the  fogs  with 
which  the  lake  is  covered  at  the  rising  of  the 
sun,  and  which  are  afterward  dispersed  by  the 
heat. 

JOSEPH,  son  of  Jacob  and  Rachel,  and 
brother  to  Benjamin,  Gen.  xxx,  22,  24.  The 
history  of  Joseph  is  so  fully  and  consecutively 
given  by  Moses,  that  it  is  not  necessary  to 
abridge  so  familiar  an  account.  In  place  of 
this,  the  following  beautiful  argument  by  Mr. 
Blunt  for  the  veracity  of  the  account  drawn 
from  the  identity  of  Joseph's  character,  will  be 
read  with  pleasure : — I  have  already  found  an 
argument  for  the  veracity  of  Moses  in  the 
identity  of  Jacob's  character,  I  now  find  an- 
other in  the  identity  of  that  of  Joseph.  There 
is  one  quality,  as  it  has  been  often  observed, 
though  with  a  different  view  from  mine,  which 
runs  like  a  thread  through  his  whole  history, 
his  affection  for  his  father.  Israel  loved  him, 
we  read,  more  than  all  his  children ;  he  was 
the  child  of  his  age  ;  his  mother  died  while  he 
was  yet  young,  and  a  double  care  of  him  con- 
sequently devolved  upon  his  surviving  parent. 
He  made  him  a  coat  of  many  colours  ;  he  kept 
him  at  home  when  his  other  sons  were  sent 
to  feed  the  flocks.  When  the  bloody  garment 
was  brought  in,  Jacob  in  his  affection  for  him, 
— that  same  affection  which,  on  a  subsequent 
occasion,  when  it  was  told  him  that  after  all 
Joseph  was  alive,  made  him  as  slow  to  believe 
the  good  tidings  as  he  was  now  quick  to  ap- 
prehend the  sad ;  in  this  his  affection  for  him, 
I  say,  Jacob  at  once  concluded  the  worst,  and 
"he  rent  his  clothes  and  put  sackcloth  upon 
his  loins,  and  mourned  for  his  son  many  days, 
and  all  his  daughters  rose  up  to  comfort  him ; 
but  he  refused  to  be  comforted,  and  he  said, 
For  I  will  go  down  into  the  grave  unto  my 
son  mourning." 

Now,  what  were  the  feelings  in  Joseph  which 
responded  to  these?  When  the  sons  of  Jacob 
went  down  to  Egypt,  and  Joseph  knew  them, 
though  they  knew  not  him';  for  they,  it  may 
be  remarked,  were  of  an  age  not.  to  be  greatly 
changed  by  the  lapse  of  years,  and  were  still 
sustaining  the  character  in  whicli  Joseph  had 
always  seen  them  ;  while  he  himself  had  mean- 
while grown  out  of  the  stripling  into  the  man, 
and  from  a  shepherd  boy  was  become  the  ruler 
of  a  kingdom;  when  his  biethren  thus  came 


before  him,  his  question  was,  "  Is  your  father 
yet  alive  ?"  Gen.  xliii,  7.  They  went  down  a 
second  time,  and  again  the  question  was,  "  Is 
your  father  well,  the  old  man  of  whom  ye 
spake,  is  he  yet  alive  ?"  More  he  could  not 
venture  to  ask,  while  he  was  yet  in  his  dis- 
guise. By  a  stratagem  he  now  detains  Ben- 
jamin, leaving  the  others,  if  they  would,  to  go 
their  way.  But  Judah  came  near  unto  him, 
and  entreated  him  for  his  brother,  telling  him 
how  that  he  had  been  surety  to  his  father  to 
bring  him  back ;  how  that,  his  father  was  an 
old  man,  and  that  this  was  the  child  of  his  old 
age,  and  that  he  loved  him  ;  how  it  would 
come  to  pass  that  if  he  should  not  see  the  lad 
with  him  he  would  die,  and  his  gray  hairs  be 
brought  with  sorrow  to  the  grave  ;  for  "  how 
shall  I  go  to  my  father,  and  the  lad  be  not  with 
me,  lest,  peradventure,  I  see  the  evil  that  shall 
come  on  my  father  ?"  Here,  without  knowing 
it,  he  had  struck  the  string  that  was  the  ten- 
derest  of  all.  Joseph's  firmness  forsook  him 
at  this  repeated  mention  of  his  father,  and  in 
terms  so  touching  :  he  could  not  refrain  him- 
self any  longer  ;  and,  causing  every  man  to  go 
out,  he  made  himself  known  to  his  brethren. 
Then,  even  in  the  paroxysm  which  came  on 
him,  (for  he  wept  aloud,  so  that  the  Egyp- 
tians heard,)  still  his  first  words  uttered  from 
the  fulness  of  his  heart  were,  "  Doth  my  father 
yet  live  ?"  He  now  bids  them  hasten  and  bring 
the  old  man  down,  bearing  to  him  tokens  of 
his  love  and  tidings  of  his  glory.  He  goes'to 
meet  him  ;  he  presents  himself  unto  him,  and 
falls  on  his  neck,  and  weeps  on  his  neck  a 
good  while  ;  he  provides  for  him  and  his  house- 
hold out  of  the  fat  of  the  land;  he  sets  him 
before  Pharaoh.  By  and  by  he  hears  that  he 
is  sick,  and  hastens  to  visit  him  ;  he  receives 
his  blessing  ;  watches  his  death  bed  ;  embalms 
his  body ;  mourns  for  him  threescore  and  ten 
days;  and  then  carries  him,  as  he  had  desired, 
into  Canaan  to  bury  him,  taking  with  him,  as 
an  escort  to  do  him  honour,  "  all  the  elders  of 
Israel,  and  all  the  servants  of  Pharaoh,  and 
all  his  house,  and  the  house  of  his  brethren, 
chariots,  and  horsemen,  a  very  great  com- 
pany." How  natural  was  it  now  for  his  bre- 
thren to  think  that  the  tie  by  which  alone  they 
could  imagine  Joseph  to  be  held  to  them  was 
dissolved,  that  any  respect  .he  might  have  felt 
or  feigned  for  them  must  have  been  buried  in 
the  cave  of  Machpelah,  and  that  he  would  now 
requite  to  them  the  evil  they  had  done  !  "  And 
they  sent  a  messenger  unto  Joseph,  saying, 
Thy  father  did  command  before  he  died,  say- 
ing, So  shall  ye  sny  unto  Joseph,  Forgive,  1 
pray  thee  now,  the  trespass  of  thy  brethren, 
and  their  sin:  for  they  did  unto  thee  evil." 
And  then  they  add  of  themselves,  as  if  well 
aware  of  the  surest  road  to  their  brother's 
heart,  "Forgive,  we  pray  thee,  the  trespass 
of  the  servants  of  the  God  of  thy  father."  In 
every  thing  the  father's  name  is  still  put  fore- 
most :  it  is  his  memory  which  they  count  upon 
as  their  shield  and  buckler. 

It  is  not  the  singular  beauty  of  these  scenes, 
or  the  moral  lesson  they  teach,  excellent  as  it 
is,  with  which  I  am  now  concerned,  but  simply 


JOS 


545 


JOS 


the  perfect  artless  consistency  which  prevails 
through  them  all.  It  is  not  the  constancy  with 
which  the  son's  strong  affection  for  his  father 
had  lived  through  an  interval  of  twenty  years' 
absence,  and,  what  is  more,  through  the  tempta- 
tion of  sudden  promotion  to  the  highest  estate  ; 
— it  is  not  the  noble-minded  frankness  with 
which  he  still  acknowledges  his  kindred,  and 
makes  a  way  for  them,  "shepherds"  as  they 
were,  to  the  throne  of  Pharaoh  himself; — it 
is  not  the  simplicity  and  singleness  of  heart 
which  allow  him  to  give  all  the  first-born  of 
Egypt,  men  over  whom  he  bore  absolute  rule, 
an  opportunity  of  observing  his  own  compa- 
ratively humble  origin,  by  leading  them  in 
attendance  upon  his  father's  corpse  to  the 
valleys  of  Canaan  and  the  modest  cradle  of 
his  race ; — it  is  not,  in  a  word,  the  grace,  but 
the  identity',  of  Joseph's  character,  the  light  in 
which  it  is  exhibited  by  himself,  and  the  light 
in  which  it  is  regarded  by  his  brethren,  to 
which  I  now  point  as  stamping  it  with  marks 
of  reality  not  to  be  gainsayed. 

Some  writers  have  considered  Joseph  as  a 
type  of  Christ ;  and  it  requires  not  much  inge- 
nuity to  find  out  some  resemblances,  as  his 
being  hated  by  his  brethren,  sold  for  money, 
plunged  into  deep  affliction,  and  then  raised 
to  power  and  honour,  &c ;  but  as  we  have  no 
intimation  in  any  part  of  Scripture  that  Joseph 
was  constituted  a  figure  of  our  Lord,  and  that 
this  was  one  design  of  recording  his  history  at 
length,  all  such  applications  want  authority, 
and  cannot  safely  be  indulged.  The  account 
seems  rather  to  have  been  left  for  its  moral 
uses,  and  that  it  should  afford,  by  its  inimita- 
ble simplicity  and  truth  to  nature,  a  point  of 
irresistible  internal  evidence  of  the  truth  of  the 
Mosaic  narrative. 

2.  Joseph,  the  husband  of  Mary,  and  reputed 
father  of  Jesus,  was  the  son  of  Jacob,  and  grand- 
son of  Matthan,  Matt,  i,  15,  16.  The  place  of 
his  stated  residence  was  Nazareth,  particularly 
after  the  time  of  his  marriage.  We  learn  from 
the  evangelists  that  he  followed  the  occupa- 
tion of  a  carpenter,  Matt,  xiii,  55  ;  and  that  he 
was  a  just  man,  or  one  of  those  pious  Israel- 
ites who  looked  for  the  coming  of  the  Messiah, 
Matt,  i,  19.  It  is  probable  that  Joseph  died 
before  Christ  entered  upon  his  public  ministry  ; 
for  upon  any  other  supposition  we  are  at  a  loss 
to  account  for  the  reason  why  Mary,  the  mo- 
ther of  Jesus,  is  frequently  montioned  in  the 
evangelic  narrative,  while  no  allusion  is  made 
to  Joseph ;  and,  above  all,  why  the  dying  Sa- 
viour should  recommend  his  mother  to  the 
care  of  the  beloved  disciple  John,  if  her  hus- 
band had  been  then  living,  John  xix,  25-27. 

3.  Joseph  of  Arimathea,  a  Jewish  senator, 
and  a  believer  in  the  divine  mission  of  Jesus 
Christ,  John  xix,  38.  St.  Luke  calls  him  a 
counsellor,  and  also  informs  us  that  he  was  a 
good  and  just  man,  who  did  not  give  his  con- 
sent to  the  crucifixion  of  Christ,  Luke  xxiii, 
50,  51.  And  though  he  was  unable  to  restrain 
the  sanhedrim  from  their  wicked  purposes,  he 
went  to  Pilate  by  night,  and  solicited  from  him 
the  body  of  Jesus.  Having  caused  it  to  be 
taken  down  from  the  cross,  he  wrapped  it  in 

36 


linen,  and  laid  it  in  his  own  sepulchre,  which, 
being  a  rich  man,  he  appears  to  have  recently 
purchased,  and  then  closed  the  entrance  with 
a  stone  cut  purposely  to  fit  it,  Matt,  xxvii, 
57-60  ;  John  xix,  38-42. 

JOSHUA,  the  son  of  Nun.  He  was  of  the 
tribe  of  Ephraim,  and  born  A.  M.  2460.  He 
devoted  himself  to  the  service  of  Moses,  and 
in  Scripture  he  is  commonly  called  the  serv- 
ant of  Moses,  Exodus  xxiv,  13;  xxxiii,  11; 
Deuteronomy  i,  38,  &-c.  His  first  name  was 
Hosea,  or  Oshea;  Hoseah  signifying  saviour ; 
Jehoshua,  the  salvation  of  God,  or  he  will 
save.  The  first  opportunity  which  Joshua 
had  to  signalize  his  valour  was  in  the  war 
made  by  the  divine  command  against  the 
Amalekites,  Exodus  xvii,  9,  10.  He  defeated 
and  routed  their  whole  army.  When  Moses 
ascended  Mount  Sinai  to  receive  the  law  of 
the  Lord,  and  remained  there  forty  days  and 
forty  nights  without  eating  or  drinking,  Joshua 
remained  with  him,  though,  in  all  probability, 
not  in  the  same  place,  nor  with  the  same  ab- 
stinence, Exod.  xxiv,  13 ;  xxxii,  17.  Joshua 
was  "filled  with  the  spirit  of  wisdom,"  quali- 
fying him  for  the  arduous  and  important  sta- 
tion of  governing  Israel,  to  which  he  was  call- 
ed by  the  special  command  of  God,  Num.  xxvii, 
18-20 ;  Deut.  xxxi,  7,  14 ;  xxxiv,  9 ;  Joshua 
i,  5.  His  piety,  courage,  and  disinterested  in- 
tegrity are  conspicuous  throughout  his  whole 
history  ;  and,  exclusive  of  the  inspiration  which 
enlightened  his  mind  and  writings,  he  derived 
divine  information,  sometimes  by  immediate 
revelation  from  God,  Joshua  iii,  7  ;  v,  13-15  ; 
at  others  from  the  sanctuary,  through  the  me- 
dium of  Eleazar,  the  high  priest,  the  son  of 
Aaron,  who,  having  on  the  breast  plate,  pre- 
sented himself  before  the  mercy  seat  on  which 
the  Shechinah,  or  visible  symbol  of  the  divine 
presence,  rested,  and  there  consulted  Jehovah 
by  the  Urim  and  Thummim,  to  which  an  an- 
swer was  returned  by  an  audible  voice. 

Joshua  succeeded  Moses  in  the  government 
of  Israel  about  the  year  of  the  world  2553,  and 
died  at  Timnath-serah  in  the  hundred  and  tenth 
year  of  his  age,  A.  M.  2578.  He  was  about 
the  age  of  eighty-four  when  he  received  the 
divine  command  to  pass  over  Jordan,  and  take 
possession  of  the  promised  land,  Joshua  i,  1,2. 
Having  accomplished  that  arduous  enterprise, 
and  settled  the  chosen  tribes  in  the  peaceable 
possession  of  their  inheritance,  he  retired  to 
Shechem,  or,  according  to  some  Greek  copies, 
to  Shiloh  ;  where  he  assembled  the  elders  of 
Israel,  the  heads  of  families,  the  judges  and 
other  officers ;  and,  presenting  themselves 
before  God,  he  recapitulated  the  conduct  of 
Divine  Providence  toward  them,  from  the  days 
of  Abraham  to  that  moment ;  recounted  the 
miraculous  and  gracious  dispensations  of  God 
toward  their  fathers  and  themselves ;  reminded 
them,  of  their  present  enviable  lot,  and  con- 
cluded his  solemn  address  with  an  exhortation 
in  these  emphatic  words :  "  Now,  therefore, 
fear  the  Lord,  and  serve  him  in  sincerity  and 
truth ;  and  put  away  the  gods  which  your 
fathers  served  on  the  other  side  of  the  flood,  and 
in  Egypt ;  and  serve  ye  the  Lord,"  Joshua  xxiv. 


JOS 


546 


JUB 


The  book  of  Joshua"  continues  the  sacred 
history  from  the  period  of  the  death  of  Moses 
to  that  of  the  death  of  Joshua  and  of  Eleazar  ; 
a  space  of  about  thirty  years.  It  contains  an 
account  of  the  conquest  and  division  of  the 
land  of  Canaan,  the  renewal  of  the  covenant 
with  the  Israelites,  and  the  death  of  Joshua. 
There  are  two  passages  in  this  book  which 
show  that  it  was  written  by  a  person  contem- 
porary with  the  events  it  records.  In  the  first 
verse  of  the  fifth  chapter,  the  author  speaks  of 
himself  as  being  one  of  those  who  had  passed 
into  Canaan  :  "And  it  came  to  pass  when  all 
the  kings  of  the  Amorites,  which  were  on  the 
side  of  Jordan  westward,  and  all  the  kings  of  the 
Canaanitcs,  which  were  by  the  sea,  heard  that 
the  Lord  had  dried  up  the  waters  of  Jordan 
from  before  the  children  of  Israel,  until  we 
were  passed  over,  that  their  heart  melted." 
And  from  the  twenty-fifth  verse  of  the  follow- 
ing chapter,  it  appears  that  the  book  was  writ- 
ten before  the  death  of  Rahab:  "And  Joshua 
saved  Rahab  the  harlot  alive,  and  her  father's 
household,  and  all  that  she  had  ;  and  she  dwell- 
eth  in  Israel  even  unto  this  day ;  because  she 
hid  the  messengers  which  Joshua  sent  to  spy 
out  Jericho."  Though  there  is  not  a  perfect 
agreement  among  the  learned  concerning  the 
author  of  this  book,  yet  by  far  the  most  gene- 
ral opinion  is,  that  it  was  written  by  Joshua 
himself;  and,  indeed,  in  the  last  chapter  it  is 
said  that  "Joshua  wrote  these  words  in  the  book 
of  the  law  of  God  ;"  which  expression  seems 
to  imply  that  he  subjoined  this  history  to  that 
written  by  Moses.  The  last  five  verses,  giving 
an  account  of  the  death  of  Joshua,  were  added 
by  one  of  his  successors  ;  probably  by  Eleazar, 
Phinehas,  or  Samuel. 

JOSIAH,  king  of  Judah,  deserves  particular 
mention  on  account  of  his  wisdom  and  piety, 
and  some  memorable  events  that  occurred  in 
the  course  of  his  reign.  He  succeeded  to  the 
throne,  upon  the  assassination  of  his  father 
Amon,  at  the  age  of  eight  years,  B.  C.  G40  ; 
and  at  a  period  when  idolatry  and  wickedness, 
encouraged  by  his  father's  profligate  example, 
very  generally  prevailed.  Josiah,  who  mani- 
fested the  influence  of  pious  and  virtuous  prin- 
ciples at  a  very  early  age,  began,  in  his  six- 
teenth year,  to  project  the  reformation  of  the 
kingdom,  and  to  adopt  means  for  restoring  the 
worship  of  the  true  God.  At  the  age  of  twenty 
years  he  vigorously  pursued  the  execution  of 
the  plans  which  he  had  meditated.  He  began 
with  abolishing  idolatry,  first  at  Jerusalem, 
and  then  through  different  parts  of  the  king- 
dom ;  destroying  the  altars  which  had  been 
erected,  and  the  idols  which  had  been  the  ob- 
jects of  veneration  and  worship.  He  then  pro- 
ceeded, in  his  twenty-sixth  year,  to  a  complete 
restoration  of  the  worship  of  God,  and  the 
regular  service  of  the  temple.  While  he  was 
prosecuting  this  pious  work,  and  repairing  the 
temple,  which  had  been  long  neglected,  and 
which  had  sunk  into  a  state  of  dilapidation,  the 
book  of  the  law,  which  had  been  concealed  in 
the  temple,  was  happily  discovered.  This  was, 
probably,  a  copy  of  the  the  Penlateuch,  which 
had  been   lodged  there  for  security  by  some 


pious  priest  in  the  reign  of  Ahaz  or  Manasseh. 
Josiah,  desirous  of  averting  from  himself  and 
the  kingdom  threatened  judgments,  determin- 
ed to  adhere  to  the  directions  of  the  law,  in 
the  business  of  reformation  which  he  had  un- 
dertaken ;  and  to  observe  the  festivals  enjoin- 
ed by  Moses,  which  had  been  shamefully 
neglected.  With  this  view  he  assembled  all  the 
elders  of  the  people  in  the  temple  at  Jerusalem  ; 
and,  having  ascended  the  throne,  read  the 
book  of  the  Mosaic  law,  and  then  entered  into 
a  solemn  covenant  to  observe  the  statutes  and 
ordinances  which  it  enjoined.  To  this  cove- 
nant the  whole  assembly  testified  their  consent. 
The  ark  was  restored  to  its  proper  place ;  the 
temple  was  purified  ;  idolatrous  utensils  were 
removed,  and  those  appropriate  to  the  worship 
of  God  substituted  in  their  room.  After  these 
preparations,  the  passover  was  observed  with 
singular  zeal  and  magnificence.  This  took 
place  in  the  eighteenth  year  of  Josiah's  reign  : 
but,  in  pursuing  his  laudable  plans  of  reforma- 
tion, he  was  resisted  by  the  inveterate  habits 
of  the  Israelites;  so  that  his  zealous  and  per- 
severing efforts  were  ineffectual.  Their  dege- 
neracy was  so  invincible,  that  the  almighty 
Sovereign  was  provoked  to  inflict  upon  them 
those  calamities  which  were  denounced  by  the 
Prophet  Zephaniah.  In  the  thirty-second  year  of 
Josiah's  reign,  Pharaoh-Necho,  king  of  Egypt, 
advanced  with  his  army  against  Carchemish,. 
a  city  situated  on  the  river  Euphrates.  He  was 
opposed  by  the  king  of  Judah  ;  so  that  a  bloody 
battle  ensued  at  Megiddo,  in  which  Josiah 
received  a  mortal  wound,  which  terminated  in 
his  death,  after  he  had  been  conveyed  to  Jeru- 
salem, in  the  thirty-ninth  year  of  his  reign, 
B.  C.  609.  His  death  was  greatly  lamented  by 
all  his  subjects ;  and  an  elegy  was  written  on 
the  occasion  by  the  Prophet  Jeremiah,  which 
is  not  now  extant,  2  Kings  xxii,  xxiii ;  2  Chro- 
nicles xxxiv,  xxxv. 

JUBAL,  a  son  of  Lamech,  the  inventor  of 
musical  instruments,  Gen.  iv,  21. 

JUBILEE,  among  the  Jews,  denotes  every 
fiftieth  year ;  being  that  following  the  revolu- 
tion of  seven  weeks  of  years  ;  at  which  time 
all  the  slaves  were  made  free,  and  all  lands 
reverted  to  their  ancient  owners.  The  jubilees 
were  not  regarded  after  the  Babylonish  capti- 
vity. The  political  design  of  the  law  of  the 
jubilee  was  to  prevent  the  too  great  oppression 
of  the  poor,  as  well  as  their  being  liable  to  per- 
petual slavery.  By  this  means  the  rich  were 
prevented  from  accumulating  lands  for  perpe- 
tuity, and  a  kind  of  equality  was  preserved 
through  all  the  families  of  Israel.  The  dis- 
tinction of  tribes  was  also  preserved,  in  respect 
both  to  their  families  and  possessions;  that 
they  might  be  able,  when  there  was  occasion, 
on  the  jubilee  year,  to  prove  their  right  to  the 
inheritance  of  their  ancestors.  Thus,  also,  it 
would  be  known  with  certainty  of  what  tribe 
or  family  the  Messiah  sprung.  It  served,  also, 
like  the  Olympiads  of  the  Greeks,  and  the 
Lustra  of  the  Romans,  for  the  readier  com- 
putation of  time.  The  jubilee  has  also  been 
supposed  to  be  typical  of  the  Gospel  state  and 
dispensation,  described  by  Isaiah  lxi,  1,  2,  in 


JUD 


547 


JUD 


reference  to  this  period,  as  "the  acceptable 
year  of  the  Lord." 

The  word  jubilee,  in  a  more  modern  sense, 
denotes  a  grand  church  solemnity  or  ceremony 
celebrated  at  Rome,  in  which  the  pope  grants 
a  plenary  indulgence  to  all  sinners  ;  at  least,  to 
as  many  as  visit  the  churches  of  St.  Peter  and 
St.  Paul  at  Rome.  The  jubilee  was  first  es- 
tablished by  Boniface  VII.,  in  1300,  which  was 
only  to  return  every  hundred  years ;  but  the 
first  celebration  brought  in  such  store  of 
wealth,  that  Clement  VI.,  in  1343,  reduced  it 
to  the  period  of  fifty  years.  Urban  VI.,  in 
1389,  appointed  it  to  be  held  every  thirty-five 
years,  that  being  the  age  of  our  Saviour ;  and 
Paul  II.  and  Sixtus  iV.,  in  1475,  brought  it 
down  to  every  twenty-five,  that  every  person 
might  have  the  benefit  of  it  once  in  his  life. 
Boniface  IX.  granted  the  privilege  of  holding 
jubilees  to  several  princes  and  monasteries ; 
for  instance,  to  the  monks  of  Canterbury,  who 
had  a  jubilee  every  fifty  years  ;  when  people 
flocked  from  all  parts  to  visit  the  tomb  of 
Thomas-a  Becket.  Afterward,  jubilees  became 
more  frequent :  there  is  generally  one  at  the 
inauguration  of  a  new  pope ;  and  he  grants 
them  as  often  as  the  church  or  himself  have 
occasion  for  them.  To  be  entitled  to  the 
privileges  of  the  jubilee,  the  bull  enjoins  fast- 
ing, alms,  and  prayers.  It  gives  the  priests  a 
full  power  to  absolve  in  all  cases  even  those 
otherwise  reserved  to  the  pope ;  to  make  com- 
mutations of  vows,  &c ;  in  which  it  differs 
from  a  plenary  indulgence.  During  the  time 
of  jubilee,  all  other  indulgences  are  suspended. 

JUDAH,  the  son  of  Jacob  and  Leah,  who 
was  born  in  Mesopotamia,  Genesis  xxix,  35. 
It  was  he  who  advised  his  brethren  to  sell 
Joseph  to  the  Ishmaelite  merchants,  rather 
than  stain  their  hands  with  his  blood,  Gen. 
xxxvii,  26.  There  is  little  said  of  his  life,  and 
the  little  that  is  recorded  does  not  raise  him 
high  in  our  estimation.  In  the  last  prophetic 
blessing  pronounced  on  him  by  his  father  Ja- 
cob, Gen.  xlix,  8,  9,  there  is  a  promise  of  the 
regal  power ;  and  that  it  should  not  depart 
from  his  family  before  the  coming  of  the  Mes- 
siah. The  whole  southern  part  of  Palestine 
fell  to  Judah's  lot ;  but  the  tribes  of  Simeon 
and  Dan  possessed  many  cities  which  at  first 
were  given  to  Judah.  This  tribe  was  so  nu- 
merous, that  at  the  departure  out  of  Egypt  it 
contained  seventy-four  thousand  six  hundred 
men  capable  of  bearing  arms,  Num.  i,  26,  27. 
The  crown  passed  from  the  tribe  of  Benjamin, 
of  which  Saul  and  his  sons  were,  to  that  of 
Judah,  which  was  David's  tribe,  and  the  tribe 
of  the  kings,  his  successors,  until  the  Baby- 
lonish captivity. 

JUDAISM,  the  religious  doctrines  and  rites 
of  the  Jews,  the  descendants  of  Abraham. 
With  Abraham  Judaism  may  be  said,  in  some 
sense,  to  have  begun  ;  but  it  was  not  till  the 
promulgation  of  the  law  upon  Mount  Sinai, 
that  the  Jewish  economy  was  established,  and 
that  to  his  posterity  was  committed  a  dispen- 
sation which  was  to  distinguish  them  ever 
after  from  every  other  people  on  earth.  The 
Mosaic  dispensation  consisted  of  three  parts ;  | 


the  religious  faith  and  worship  of  the  Jews, 
their  civil  polity,  and  precepts  for  the  regula- 
tion of  their  moral  conduct.  Their  civil 
government,  as  well  as  their  sacred  polity,  was 
of  divine  institution;  and,  on  :l1  I  important 
occasions,  their  public  affairs  were  conducted 
by  the  Deity  himself,  or  by  persons  bearing 
his  commission.  The  laws  of  the  Jews,  reli- 
gious and  moral,  civil,  political,  and  ritual, 
that  is,  a  complete  system  of  pure  Judaism, 
are  contained  in  the  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, and  chiefly  in  the  five  books  of  Moses. 
See  Government  of  the  Hebrews. 

The  religion  of  the  ancestors  of  the  Jews, 
before  the  time  of  Moses,  consisted  in  the 
worship  of  the  one  living  and  true  God,  under 
whose  immediate  direction  they  were ;  in  the 
hope  of  a  Redeemer  ;  in  a  firm  reliance  on  his 
promises  under  all  difficulties  and  dangers ; 
and  in  a  thankful  acknowledgment  for  all  his 
blessings  and  deliverances.  In  that  early  age, 
we  read  of  altars,  pillars,  and  monuments 
raised,  and  sacrifices  offered  to  God.  They 
used  circumcision  as  a  seal  of  the  covenant 
which  God  had  made  with  Abraham.  As  to 
the  mode  and  circumstances  of  divine  worship, 
they  were  much  at  liberty  till  the  time  of  Mo- 
ses ;  but  that  legislator,  by  the  direction  and 
appointment  of  G°d  himself,  prescribed  an 
instituted  form  of  religion,  and  regulated  cere- 
monies, feasts,  days,  priests,  and  sacrifices, 
with  the  utmost  exactness.  The  rites  and  ob- 
servances of  their  religion  under  the  law  were 
numerous,  and  its  sanctions  severe.  Notwith- 
standing God's  prophets,  and  oracles,  and  ordi- 
nances, and  the  symbol  of  his  presence,  were 
among  them,  the  Jews  were  ever  very  prone 
to  idolatry,  till  the  Babylonish  furnace  served 
to  purify  them  from  that  corruption.  Atler 
their  seventy  years'  captivity,  many  among 
them  gave  too  much  place  to  the  Greek  idola- 
tries, but  as  a  nation  they  were  never  again 
guilty  of  the  crime.  Their  religious  worship 
and  character  in  our  Saviour's  time  had  be- 
come formal  and  superstitious ;  and  such  it 
still  continues  to  be,  in  a  greater  or  loss  degree, 
at  the  present  day.  Ancient  Judaism,  compared 
with  all  religions  except  the  Christian,  was  dis- 
tinguished for  its  superior  purity  and  spiritu- 
ality ;  and  the  whole  Mosaic  ritual  was  of  a 
typical  nature.     See  Jews. 

JUDAIZING  CHRISTIANS.  Concerning 
the  divine  origin  of  the  religion  of  Moses,  there 
was  among  the  Jews  no  diversity  of  sentiment, 
and  they  not  unnaturally  drew  the  conclusion, 
that,  as  it  had  proceeded  from  God,  it  must  be 
of  perpetual  obligation.  They  were  indeed  fully 
aware,  that  another  communication  from  hea- 
ven was  to  be  made  to  mankind,  and  that  this 
was  to  be  announced  by  a  messenger  more  dis- 
tinguished than  even  the  lawgiver  whom  they 
revered  ;  but  they  had  satisfied  themselves,  that 
the  great  design  of  the  Messiah's  mission  would 
be  to  rescue  them  from  the  oppression  of  a 
foreign  yoke,  and  to  lay  in  Jerusalem  •  the 
foundation  of  universal  empire.  For  accom. 
plrshing  these  purposes,  it  was  requisite  .that 
their  Messiah  should  be  invested  with  temporal 
power ;   and  in  this  idea,  which  so  many  cir- 


JUD 


548 


JUD 


cumstances  in  their  history  tended  to  endear 
to  them,  they  were  confirmed  by  those  pas- 
sages in  the  books  of  their  prophets  which 
described  him  as  destined  to  sit  on  the  throne 
of  David,  to  sway  a  righteous  sceptre,  and  to 
establish  an  everlasting  kingdom.  When, 
accordingly,  Christ  appeared  in  the  humblest 
condition  of  life,  and  when,  after  the  com- 
mencement of  his  ministry,  he  declared,  that 
the  hopes  of  empire  which  his  countrymen  had 
long  cherished  were  fallacious,  the  predictions 
on  which  they  had  been  rested  suggesting, 
when  combined  with  other  predictions,  a  very 
different  view  of  the  designs  of  the  Almighty, 
they  were  filled  with  indignation,  and  the 
greater  part  of  them,  although  they  saw  the 
miracles  which  Jesus  wrought,  and  heard  those 
appeals  to  their  own  Scriptures  which,  how- 
ever eager  to  do  so,  they  found  themselves 
unable  to  confute,  rejected  his  pretensions  on 
account  of  the  meanness  of  his  situation,  and 
reprobated  him  as  a  deceiver  of  the  people. 

There  was,  however,  a  considerable  number 
who  could  not  adopt  this  conclusion,  and  who, 
satisfied  that  the  mighty  works  which  he  per- 
formed fully  established  the  reality  of  the  divine 
commission  to  which  he  laid  claim,  relin- 
quished their  prejudices  respecting  a  temporal 
sovereignty,  and  embraced  his  doctrine  as  the 
revealed  will  of  God.  But,  notwithstanding 
this,  they  do  not  seem  to  have  formed  the  most 
distant  conception  that  there  was  any  thing  in 
that  doctrine  to  set  aside  the  system  which 
had  been  transmitted  to  them  by  their  fathers. 
They  regarded  the  two  dispensations  as  form- 
ing one  whole ;  and  believed  that  the  rites 
which  had  distinguished  from  the  rest  of  man- 
kind those  who  belonged  to  the  commonwealth 
of  Israel,  would  in  the  same  manner  mark  the 
disciples  of  the  Messiah's  kingdom.  Agreeably 
to  this,  as  they  conceived,  they  saw  that  Jesus 
conformed  to  their  ceremonial  institutions,  he 
frequented  the  temple,  he  purified  it  from 
abuses  by  which  it  had  been  profaned,  and 
they  interpreted,  in  the  sense  most  in  harmony 
with  their  favourite  notions,  the  declaration 
which  he  had  publicly  made,  that  he  came  not 
to  destroy  the  law  but  to  fulfil  it.  Even  the 
apostles  who  had  constantly  attended  him, 
who  had  listened  not  merely  to  his  public  dis- 
courses, but  to  the  interpretation  of  them, 
which,  in  tender  condescension  to  their  weak- 
ness, he  often  in  private  gave,  were  so  tho- 
roughly established  in  this  opinion  that  it 
required  a  peculiar  revelation  to  bo  made  to 
him  before  Peter  would  open  the  kingdom  of 
God  to  a  Gentile.  It  cannot,  therefore,  be 
matter  of  surprise  that  the  sentiment  prevailed 
among  the  whole  of  the  Jews  who  had  been 
converted  to  Christianity  ;  or  that  even  after 
it  was  opposed  by  the  declaration  of  the  Apos- 
tles as  individuals,  and  by  their  solemn  deter- 
mination, when  assembled  to  decide  with 
respeqt  to  it,  that  the  law  was  not  binding 
upon  Gentile  converts,  they  should  still  have 
adhered  to  it,  when  from  not  having  a  written 
record  of  faith  (hoy  might*,  have  imagined, 
either  that  the  representation  of  the  apostolic 
decision  was  erroneous,  or  that  the  sanction 


which  it  gave  to  their  own  adherence  to  their 
ceremonies  virtually  confirmed  the  doctrine 
which  they  felt  such  aversion  to  relinquish. 
They  accordingly  displayed  much  zeal  in  sup- 
port of  the  Mosaical  economy,  represented  the 
strict  observance  of  what  it  required  as  essen. 
tial  for  justification,  and  looked  with  a  kind  of 
abhorrence  upon  that  large  proportion  of  be- 
lievers who  paid  to  this  no  respect,  and  who 
even  did  not  hesitate  to  condemn  it  as  sub- 
versive of  the  fundamental  principle  of  the 
Gospel  dispensation.  A  great  part  of  the  epis- 
tles of  St.  Paul  is  directed  against  the  Judaizing 
teachers  who  inculcated  the  original  tenet  of 
their  brethren.  The  Apostle  earnestly  presses 
upon  the  churches,  that  by  the  works  of  the 
law  we  cannot  be  justified,  that  circumcision 
is  of  no  avail,  that  by  grace  we  are  saved,  and 
that  Christ  hath  redeemed  us  by  his  blood. 
He,  indeed,  uniformly  represents  the  idea 
which  he  opposed  as  inconsistent  with  Chris- 
tianity, as  an  idea  which  could  not  be  held 
without  detracting  from  what  our  Saviour  has 
done  to  accomplish  our  redemption.  What 
effect  his  writings  produced  upon  the  Jewish 
believers,  cannot  be  accurately  ascertained ; 
but  it  is  quite  certain  that  a  very  large  propor- 
tion of  them  adhered  to  their  ritual  observances 
either  as  national,  or  as  instrumental  in  ob- 
taining the  divine  favour;  and  this  survived 
the  destruction  of  the  temple  and  of  Jerusa- 
lem,— events  which  might  have  been  expected 
to  convince  every  one  of  the  temporary  nature 
of  the  Mosaical  economy. 

But  after  Adrian,  by  again  directing  the 
Roman  arms  against  the  Jews,  blasted  the 
hopes  which  had  been  fondly  cherished,  that 
their  city  would  be  rebuilt,  and  their  temple 
opened  with  greater  splendour  than  before,  a 
vast  number  of  them,  either  from  being  con- 
vinced by  what  they  had  seen,  or  from  their 
eagerness  to  gain  admission  into  the  city  which 
the  emperor  had  erected,  but  from  which  he 
had  ordered  that  all  who  persisted  in  Judaism 
should  be  excluded,  for  the  first  time  embraced 
the  religion  of  Christ ;  and  many,  who  had 
previously  done  so,  abandoning  the  Jewish 
ritual,  acquiesced  fully  in  the  representation 
of  the  faith  given  by  St.  Paul,  choosing  as 
theif  bishop  a  Gentile  convert.  There  were, 
however,  not  a  few  who  remained  steadfast 
in  Iheir  principles,  who  were  now  consequently 
separated  from  the  great  body  of  their  believ- 
ing countrymen,  and  who  retained  the  appel- 
lation of  Nazarenes,  which  had  probably  been 
given  to  the  whole  of  the  Jewish  Christians. 
This  remnant  soon  split  into  two  parties. 
The  one  party,  although  they  held  that  the 
law  of  Moses  was  obligatory  upon  the  de- 
scendants of  the  house  of  Israel,  did  not  extend 
it  to  those  who  had  never  been  of  the  family 
of  Abraham  ;  they  revered  Jesus  as  being  more 
than  man,  and  in  fact  approached  so  near  to 
the  prevailing  sentiments  of  the  church,  that, 
notwithstanding  their  peculiar  sentiments  in 
relation  to  the  Mosaical  law,  they  were  not 
ranked  by  the  earliest  writers  among  heretics. 
The  other  party,  who  were  called  Ebionites, 
either  from  Ebion,  the  name,  it  is  alleged,  of 


JUD 


549 


JUD 


their  leader,  from  their  poverty,  or  from  the 
low  notions  which  they  entertained  of  Christ, 
for  all  these  reasons  have  been  specified,  show- 
ing sufficiently  that  the  matter  is  really  uncer- 
tain,— maintained  the  originaf  tenet  that  their 
law  was  binding  upon  all  men,  and  that  with- 
out observing  what  it  required  it  was  impossi- 
ble  to  bo  justified.     As   this    was    in    direct 
opposition    to  the  declarations    of  St.   Paul, 
instead  of  submitting  to  apostolic  authority 
they  set  it  at  defiance,  rejecting  his  epistles, 
and  branding  him  as  an  enemy  to  the  truth. 
They   disregarded   even    the   Gospels   which 
were  received  by  the  generality  of  Christians, 
and  used  a  gospel  of  their  own  which  they  had 
so  modelled  as  to  support  the  tenets  to  which 
they  were  attached.    One  of  these  tenets,  one 
which,  indeed,  naturally  followed  from  their 
conceptions  of  the  Gospel  dispensation,  was, 
that  its  author  was  merely  a  man  raised  solely 
by  the  commission  with  which  he  had  been 
honoured  above  the  rest  of  his  fellow  creatures. 
JUDAS  ISCARIOT,  or,  as  he  is  usually 
called,  the  traitor,  and  betrayer  of  our  Lord. 
"The  treachery  of  Judas  Iscariot,"  says  Dr. 
Hales,  "  his  remorse,  and  suicide,  are  occur- 
rences altogether  so   strange   and  extraordi- 
nary, that  the  motives  by  which  he  was  actu- 
ated require  to  be  developed,  as  far  as  may  be 
done,  where  the  evangelists  are,   in  a  great 
measure,   silent  concerning  them,    from    the 
circumstances  of  the  history  itself,  and  from 
the   feelings    of  human    nature.      Judas,  the 
leading  trait  in  whose    character  was  covet- 
ousness,  was  probably  induced  to  follow  Jesus 
at  first  with  a  view  to  the  riches,  honours,  and 
other  temporal  advantages,  which  he,  in  com- 
mon with  the   rest,    expected  the    Messiah's 
friends  would  enjoy.     The  astonishing  mira- 
cles he  saw  him  perform  left  no  room  to  doubt 
of  the  reality  of  his  Master's  pretensions,  who 
had,  indeed,  himself  in  private   actually  ac- 
cepted the  title  from  his  Apostles  ;  and  Judas 
must  have  been  much  disappointed  when  Jesus 
repeatedly  refused  the  proffered  royalty  from 
the  people  in   Galilee,    after  the   miracle   of 
feeding  the  five  thousand,  and  again  after  his 
public  procession  to  Jerusalem.      He   might 
naturally  have  grown  impatient  under  the  de- 
lay, and  dissatisfied  also  with  Jesus  for  openly 
discouraging  all  ambitious  views  among  his 
disciples ;  and,  therefore,  he  might  have  de- 
vised the  scheme  of  delivering  him  up  to  the 
sanhedrim,   or  groat  council  of  the  nation, 
(composed  of  the  chief  priests,  scribes,  and 
elders,)  in  order  to  compel  him  to  avow  him- 
self openly  as  the  Messiah  before  them ;  and 
to  work  such  miracles,  or  to  give  them  the 
sign  which  they  so  often  required,  as  would 
convince  and  induce  them  to  elect  him  in  due 
form,  and  by  that  means  enable  him  to  reward 
his  followers.  Even  the  rebukes  of  Jesus  for  his 
covetousness,  and  the  detection  of  his  treach- 
erous scheme,  although  they  unquestionably 
offended  Judas,  might  only  serve  to  stimulate 
him   to   the    speedier  execution    of  his  plot, 
during  the   feast  of  the  passover,  while  the 
great  concourse   of  the  Jews,  from  all  parts 
assembled,  might  powerfully  support  the  san- 


hedrim and  their  Messiah  against  the  Romans. 
The  success  of  this  measure,  though  against 
his  Master's  will,  would  bo  likely  to  procure 
him  pardon,  and  even  to  recommend  him  to 
favour  afterward.  Such  might  have  been  the 
plausible  suggestions  by  which  Satan  tempted 
him  to  the  commission  of  this  crime.  But 
when  Judas,  who  attended  the  whole  trial,  saw 
that  it  turned  out  quite  contrary  to  his  expec- 
tations, that  Jesus  was  capitally  convicted  by 
the  council,  as  a  false  Christ  and  false  prophet, 
notwithstanding  he  had  openly  avowed  him- 
self; and  that  he  wrought  no  miracle,  either 
for  their  conviction  or  for  his  own  deliverance, 
as  Judas  well  knew  he  could,  even  from  the 
circumstance  of  healing  Malchus,  after  he  was 
apprehended ;  when  he  farther  reflected,  like 
Peter,  on  his  Master's  merciful  forewarnings 
of  his  treachery,  and  mild  and  gentle  rebuke 
at  the  commission  of  it ;  he  was  seized  with 
remorse,  and  offered  to  return  the  paltry  bribe 
of  thirty  pieces  of  silver  to  the  chief  priests 
and  ciders  instantly  on  the  spot,  saying,  '  I 
sinned  in  delivering  up  innocent  blood  ;'  and 
expected  that  on  this  they  would  have  desisted 
from  the  prosecution.  But  they  were  obsti- 
nate, and  not  only  would  not  relent,  but  threw 
the  whole  load  of  guilt  upon  him,  refusing  to 
take  their  own  share  ;  for  they  said,  'What  is 
that  to  us  ?  see  thou  to  that ;'  thus,  according 
to  the  aphorism,  loving  the  treason,  but  hating 
the  traitor,  after  he  had  served  their  wicked 
turn.  Stung  to  the  quick  at  their  refusal  to 
take  back  the  money,  while  they  condemned 
himself,  he  went  to  the  temple,  cast  down  the 
whole  sum  in  the  treasury,  or  place  for  receiv- 
ing the  offerings  of  the  people  ;  and,  after  he 
had  thus  returned  the  wages  of  iniquity,  he 
retired  to  some  lonely  place,  not  far,  perhaps, 
from  the  scene  of  Peter's  repentance ;  and,  in 
the  frenzy  of  despair,  and  at  the  instigation  of 
the  devil,  hanged  himself;  crowning  with 
suicide  the  murder  of  his  Master  and  his 
friend ;  rejecting  his  compassionate  Saviour, 
and  plunging  his  own  soul  into  perdition  ! 
In  another  place  it  is  said  that,  '  falling  head- 
long, he  burst  asunder,  and  all  his  bowels  gushed 
out,'  Acts  i,  18.  Both  these  accounts  might 
be  true :  he  might  first  have  hanged  himself 
from  some  tree  on  the  edge  of  a  precipice  ; 
and,  the  rope  or  branch  breaking,  he  might  be 
dashed  to  pieces  by  the  fall." 

The  above  view  of  the  case  of  Judas  endea- 
vours ingeniously  to  account  for  his  conduct 
by  supposing  him  influenced  by  the  motive  of 
compelling  our  Lord  to  declaro  himself,  and 
assume  the  Messiahship  in  its  earthly  glory. 
It  will,  however,  be  recollected,  that  the  only 
key  which  the  evangelic  narrative  aflbrds,  is, 
Judas's  covetousness ;  which  passion  was,  in 
him,  a  growing  one.  It  was  this  which  de- 
stroyed whatever  of  honest  intention  he  might 
at  first  have  in  following  Jesus  ;  and  when 
fully  under  its  influence  he  would  be  blinded 
by  it  to  all  but  the  glittering  object  of  the  re- 
ward of  iniquity.  In  such  a  mind  there  could 
be  no  true  faith,  and  no  love  ;  what  wonder, 
then,  when  avarice  was  in  him  a  ruling  and 
unrestrained  passion,    that  he   should  betray 


JUD 


550 


JUD 


ms  Lord  >  Still  it  may  be  admitted  that  the 
knowledge  which  .ludas  had  of  our  Lord's 
miraculous  power,  might  lead  him  the  more 
readily  to  put.  him  into  tlie  hands  of  the  chief 
priests,  lie  might  suppose  that  lie  would 
deliver  himself  out  of  their  hands;  and  thus 
Judas  attempted  to  play  a  double  villany, 
against  Christ  and  against  his  employers. 

JUDE,  Epistyle  of,  a  canonical  book  of  the 
New  Testament,  written  against  the  heretics, 
who,  by  their  impious  doctrines  and  disorderly 
•  lives,  corrupted  the  faith  and  good  morals  of 
Christians.  The  author  of  this  epistle,  called 
Judas,  and  also  Thaddeus  and  Lebbeus,  was 
one  of  the  twelve  Apostles ;  he  was  the  son 
of  Alphcus,  brother  of  James  the  less,  and  one 
of  those  who  were  called  our  Lord's  brethren. 
We  are  not  informed  when,  or  how,  he  was 
called  to  be  an  Apostle  ;  but  it  has  been  con- 
jectured, that,  before  his  vocation  to  the 
Apostleship,  he  was  a  husbandman,  that  he 
was  married,  and  that  he  had  children.  The 
only  account  we  have  of  him  in  particular,  is 
that  which  occurs  in  John  xiv,  21-23.  It  is 
not  unreasonable  to  suppose  that;  after  having 
received,  in  common  with  other  Apostles,  ex- 
traordinary gifts  at  the  pentecost,  he  preached 
the  Gospel  for  some  time  in  several  parts  of 
the  land  of  Israel,  and  wrought  miracles  in 
the  name  of  Christ.  And,  as  his  life  seems  to 
have  been  prolonged,  it  is  probable  that  he 
afterward  left,  Judea,  and  went  abroad  preach- 
ing the  Gospel  to  Jews  and  Gentiles  in  other 
countries.  Some  have  said  that  he  preached 
in  Arabia,  Syria,  Mesopotamia,  and  Persia; 
and  that  he  suffered  martyrdom  in  the  last 
mentioned  country.  But  we  have  no  account 
of  his  travels  upon  which  we  can  rely;  and  it 
may  be  questioned  whether  he  was  a  martyr. 
In  the  early  ages  of  Christianity,  several 
rejected  the  Epistle  of  St.  Jude,  because  the 
apocryphal  books  of  Enoch,  and  the  ascension 
of  Moses,  are  quoted  in  it.  Nevertheless,  it  is 
to  be  found  in  all  the  ancient  catalogues  of 
the  sacred  writings  ;  and  Clement,  of  Alexan- 
dria, Tertullian,  and  Origen  quote  it  as  written 
by  Jude,  and  reckon  it  among  the  books  of 
sacred  Scripture.  In  the  time  of  Eusebius  it 
was  generally  received.  As  to  the  objections 
that  have  been  urged  against  its  authority, 
Dr.  Lardner  suggests,  that  there  is  no  neces- 
sity for  supposing  that  St.  Jude  quoted  a  book 
called  Enoch,  or  Enoch's  prophecies;  and  even 
allowing  that  lie  did  quote  it,  he  gives  it  no 
authority ;  it  was  no  canonical  book  of  the 
Jews  ;  and  if  such  a  book  existed  among  the 
Jews,  it  was  apocryphal,  and  yet  there  might 
be  in  it  some  right  things.  Instead  of  refer- 
ring to  a  book  called  the  "Assumption  or 
Ascension  of  Christ,"  which  probably  was  a 
forgery  much  later  than  his  time,  it  is  much 
more  credible  that  St.  Jude  refers  to  the  vision 
in  Zech.  iii,  1—3.  It  has  been  the  opinion  of 
several  writers,  and,  among  others,  of  Ham- 
mond and  Benson,  that  St.  Jude  addressed  his 
epistle  to  the  Jewish  Christians  ;  but  Dr.  Lard- 
ner infers,  from  the  words  of  the  inscription 
of  the  epistle,  verses  1,  3,  that  it  was  designed 
for  the  use  of  all  in  general  who  had  embraced 


the  Christian  religion.  The  last  mentioned 
author  supposes  that  this  epistle  was  written 
A.  D.  64,  65,  or  66. 

JUDEA,  a  district  of  Asia  Minor,  which  is 
described  both  by  ancient  and  modern  geo- 
graphers under  a  great  variety  of  names,  and 
with  great  diversity  of  extent.  In  the  most 
extensive  application  of  the  name,  it  compre- 
hends the  whole  country  possessed  by  the  Jews, 
or  people  of  Israel ;  and  included,  therefore, 
very  different  portions  of  territory  at  different 
periods  of  their  history.  Upon  the  conquest 
of  the  country  by  Joshua,  it  was  divided  into 
twelve  portions,  according  to  the  number  of 
the  tribes  of  Israel ;  and  a  general  view  of  their 
respective  allotments  (though  the  intermediate 
boundaries  cannot  be  very  precisely  ascer- 
tained) may  convey  some  idea  of  its  extent  at. 
that  period.  The  portion  of  the  tribe  of  Judah 
comprised  all  the  country  between  Edom,  or 
Idumea,  on  the  south,  the  Mediterranean  on 
the  west,  the  Salt  Sea  on  the  east,  and  an 
imaginary  line  on  the  north,  from  the  northern 
extremity  of  the  Salt  Sea  to  the  Mediterra- 
nean. The  portion  of  Simeon  was  included 
within  that  of  Judah,  and  formed  the  south- 
west corner  of  the  country ;  comprehending 
the  towns  of  Bersaba,  Gerar,  Rapha,  Gaza, 
Ascalon,  and  Azotus.  The  portion  of  Benja- 
min was  situated  to  the  north  of  Judah,  near 
the  centre  of  the  kingdom,  bounded  on  the 
east  by  the  river  Jordan,  and  containing  part 
of  Jerusalem,  Jericho,  Bethel,  Rama,  &c.  The 
portion  of  Dan  lay  to  the  north-west  of  Judah, 
between  that  of  Benjamin  and  the  Mediterra- 
nean, reaching  as  far  north  as  the  latter,  and 
containing  Accaron  and  Jamnia.  The  portion 
of  Ephraim  stretched  along  the  northern  limits 
of  Dan  and  Benjamin,  between  the  river  Jor 
dan  on  the  east,  and  the  Mediterranean  sea  on 
the  west ;  containing  Sichein,  Joppa,  Lydda, 
Gazara,  &c.  The  portion  of  the  half  tribe  of 
Manasseh  was  situated  north  of  Ephraim,  be- 
tween the  river  Jordan  and  the  Mediterranean, 
reaching  as  far  north  as  Dora,  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  Carmel.  The  portion  of  Issachar 
stretched  northward  from  Manasseh,  and  west- 
ward from  Jordan,  as  far  as  Mount  Tabor. 
The  portion  of  Asher  comprehended  the  mari- 
time tract  between  Mount  Carmel,  as  far  as 
Sidon.  The  portion  of  Zebulon,  bounded  by 
Asher  on  the  west,  and  Mount  Tabor  on  the 
south,  joined  on  the  east  the  portion  of  Naph- 
talj,  which  occupied  the  borders  of  the  lake 
Genhesareth,  or  sea  of  Tiberias.  The  portion 
of  Reuben  lay  to  the  eastward  of  the  river  Jor- 
dan, hounded  on  the  south  by  the  torrent  of 
Anion,  and  on  the  north  by  the  river  Jabok. 
The  portion  of  Gad,  also  on  the  east  of  the 
Jordan,  stretched  from  the  Jabok  toward  the 
north,  where  it  was  bounded  by  the  other  half 
tribe  of  Manasseh,  which  occupied  the  country 
east  of  the  lake  Gennesareth,  to  the  northern 
limits  of  the  country.  The  whole  of  this 
extent  between  Coclo-Syria  on  the  north,  and 
Arabia  Petra?a  on  the  south,  the  Mediterra- 
nean on  the  west,  and  Arabia  Deserta  on  the 
east,  may  be  considered  as  situated  between 
31°  10'  and  33°  15'  of  north  latitude,  about  a 


JUD 


551 


JUD 


hundred  and  forty  miles  in  length,  and  nearly 
a  hundred  in  breadth.  Reckoning  from  Dan 
to  Beersheba,  which  are  often  mentioned  in 
sacred  Scripture  as  including  the  more  settled 
and  permanent  possessions  of  the  Israelites, 
its  length  would  not  exceed  a  hundred  and 
twenty  miles.  But,  if  estimated  from  its 
boundaries  in  the  reigns  of  David  and  So- 
lomon, and  several  succeeding  princes,  its 
extent  must  be  enlarged  more  than  three- 
fold ;  including  both  the  land  of  Palestine, 
or  of  the  Philistines,  on  the  south,  and  the 
country  of  Phenice  on  the  north,  with  part  of 
Syria  to  the  north-east.  All  this  extent  was 
originally  comprehended  in  the  land  of  pro- 
mise, Genesis  xv,  18 ;  Deut.  xi,  24 ;  and  was 
actually   possessed    by   David    and    Solomon, 

1  Kings  ix,  20 ;  2  Chron.  viii,  7.  It  is  de- 
scribed in  numerous  passages  of  the  sacred 
writings,  as  all  comprised  in  the  Holy  Land, 
from  Hamath  on  the  north,  to  the  river  of 
Egypt  on  the  south ;  and  from  the  Great  or 
Mediterranean  Sea  on  the  west,  to  the  deserts 
of  Arabia  on  the  east ;  a  tract  of  country  at 
least  four  hundred  and  sixty  miles  in  length, 
and  more  than  a  hundred  in  breadth,  Joshua 
xv,  2,  &c ;   xix,  24,  &c ;    1  Chron.  xiii,  5 ; 

2  Chron.  vii,  8 ;  Ezekiel  xlvii,  16,  20 :  Amos 
vi,  14. 

After  the  death  of  Solomon,  when  the  king- 
dom of  the  Hebrews  had  attained  its  greatest 
extent,  it  was  divided,  in  consequence  of  a 
revolt  of  ten  tribes,  into  two  distinct  sove- 
reignties, named  Israel  and  Judah  ;  the  former 
of  which  had  its  seat  of  government  in  Sama- 
ria, and  the  latter  in  Jerusalem.  The  terri- 
tories of  both  were  gradually  curtailed  and 
laid  waste  by  the  revolt  of  tributary  princes, 
and  the  incursions  of  powerful  neighbours  ; 
and  both  were  at  length  completely  over- 
thrown ;  that  of  Israel,  by  the  king  of  Assyria, 
about  B.  C.  720;  and  that  of  Judah,  by  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, about  a  hundred  and  fourteen 
years  later. 

After  a  captivity  of  seventy  years,  the  Jews, 
who  had  been  the  subjects  of  Judah,  having 
received  permission  from  Cyrus  to  return  to 
their  native  country,  not  only  occupied  the 
former  territories  of  that  kingdom,  but  extend- 
ed themselves  over  great  part  of  what  had 
belonged  to  the  ten  tribes  of  the  kingdom  of 
Israel ;  and  then,  for  the  first  time,  gave  the 
name  of  Judea  to  the  whole  country  over 
which  they  had  again  established  their  domi- 
nion. The  same  name  was  given  to  that  king- 
dom as  possessed  by  Herod  the  Great  under 
the  Romans ;  but,  in  the  enumeration  of  the 
provinces  of  the  empire,  it  was  recognised 
only  by  the  name  of  Palestine.  All  traces  of 
its  ancient  division  among  the  twelve  tribes 
were  now  abolished,  and  it  was  distributed 
into  four  provinces ;  namely,  Judea  Proper  in 
the  south,  Galilee  in  the  north,  Samaria  in 
the  centre,  and  Peraea  on  the  east  of  the  river 
Jordan.  Judea  Proper,  situated  in  31°  40' 
north  latitude,  was  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Samaria,  on  the  west  by  the  Mediterranean, 
on  the  east  by  the  river  Jordan,  on  the  south 
by  Arabia  Petraea ;  and  comprised  the  ancient 


settlements   of  Judah,    Benjamin,    Dan,    and 
Simeon,  with    Philislia    and    Idumea.     It    is 
divided  by  Josephus   into    eleven    toparchies, 
and  by  Pliny  into  ten  ;  but  these  subdivisions 
are  little  noticed  by  ancient  writers,  and  their 
boundaries    are  very  imperfectly  ascertained. 
The  principal  places  in  the  north-east  quarter 
of  the  province  were  Jerusalem,  the  capital, 
which  was  entirely  destroyed  in  the  reign  of 
Hadrian,  and  replaced  by  a  new  city  named 
iElia,  a  little  farther  north,  which  is  now  the 
site  of  the    modern  Jerusalem ;  Jericho,    the 
city  of  palm  trees,  about  nineteen  miles  east- 
ward of  Jerusalem,  and  eight  from  the  rjver 
Jordan ;  Phaselis,  built  by  Herod  in  memory 
of  his    brother,    fifteen    miles   north-west  of 
Jericho  ;  Archelais,  built   by  Archelaus,    ten 
miles  north  of  Jericho;  Gophna,  fifteen  miles 
north   of  Jerusalem,  in  the  road  to  Sichem ; 
Bethel,    twelve    miles    north    of  Jerusalem, 
originally  called  Luz  ;  Gilgal,  about  one  mile 
and  a  half  from  Jericho;  Engeddi,  a  hundred 
furlongs  south  south-east  of  Jericho,  near  the 
northern  extremity  of  the  Dead  Sea  ;  Masada, 
a  strong    fortress    built  by  Judas  Maccabeus, 
the  last  refuge  of  the  Jews   after  the  fall  of 
Jerusalem;  Ephraim,  a  small  town  westward 
of  Jericho  ;  Anathoth,  a  Levitical  town,  nearly 
four  miles  north  of  Jerusalem.     In  the  south- 
east   quarter    of  the    province  were    situated 
Bethlehem,  or  Ephrath,  about  six  miles  south 
from  the  capital ;  Bethzur,  now  St.  Philip,  a 
strong  place  on  the  road  to  Hebron,  ten  miles 
south  of  Jerusalem ;  Ziph,  a  small  town  be- 
tween   Hebron  and  the  Dead  Sea ;   Zoar,  at 
the  southern  extremity  of  the  Dead  Sea,  near 
the    situation    of  Sodom  ;    Hebron,    formerly 
Kirjath-arba,  a  very  ancient  town  in  a  hilly 
country,  twenty-five  miles  south  of  the  capital ; 
Arad,  about  twenty-four  miles  southward  from 
Hebron,  and  near  the  Ascensus  Avrabim,  or 
Scorpion  Mountains,  on  the  border  of  Arabia 
Petraja  ;  and  Thamar,  on  the  southern  limit  of 
the  province,  near  the  south  extremity  of  the 
Dead  Sea.     In    the   north-west  quarter  were 
Bethshemesh,  or  Heliopolis,  a  Levitical  city, 
about  ten  miles  west  of  the  capital ;  Rama,  six 
miles  north  from  Jerusalem  ;  Emmaus,  a  village 
eight  miles  north  north-west  from  Jerusalem, 
afterward  called  Nicopolis,  in  consequence  of 
a  victory  gained  by  Vespasian  over  the  revolt- 
ed Jews ;  Bethoron,  a  populous  Levitical  city 
on  the  road  to  Lydda,  a  few  miles  north-west 
of  Emmaus ;    Kirjath-jearim,    on  the  road  to 
Joppa,  nine  miles  westward  from  the  capital ; 
Lydda,    now  Lod,  and  called  by  the  Greeks 
Diospolis,  about  twelve  miles  east  of  Joppa ; 
Ramla,  supposed  to  be  the  same  as  Arimathea, 
about  five  miles  south-west  of  Lydda;  Joppa, 
a  maritime    town,    now  Jaffa,    about   twelve 
leagues   north-west    of  Jerusalem ;  Jabne,   a 
walled    sea-port    town    between   Joppa    and 
Azotus ;    and    Ekron,    a   town    on  the  north 
boundary  of  the    Philistines.     In   the   south- 
west quarter  of  Judea  were  Gath,  about  twenty 
miles  west   from   Jerusalem,    near  to  which 
were  the  city  of  Eleutheropolis,  a  flourishing 
place    in    the    second  century ;  Makkedah,  a 
strong    place,    eight    miles    north-east    from 


JUD 


552 


JUD 


Eleutheropolis ;  Bersabe,  or  Beersheba,  about 
twenty-six  miles  south  from  Eleutheropolis ; 
Gerar,  between  Beersheba  and  the  sea  coast ; 
Azotus,  or  Ashdod,  to  the  west  of  Eleuthero- 
polis, within  a  few  miles  of  the  sea,  and  the 
seat  of  a  bishop  in  the  first  ages  of  the  Chris- 
tian church  ;  Ascalon,  a  considerable  maritime 
town,  above  forty-three  miles  south-west  of 
Jerusalem  ;  Gaza,  fifteen  miles  southward  from 
Ascalon ;  and  Raphia,  between  Gaza  and 
Rhinocurura,  remarkable  for  a  great  battle 
in  its  neighbourhood,  in  which  Philopater, 
king  of  Egypt,  defeated  Antiochus,  king  of 
Syria. 

Samaria,  lying  between  Judea  and  Galilee, 
in  32°  15'  north  latitude,  extended  along  the 
sea  coast  from  Joppa  to  Dora,  and  along  the 
river  Jordan  from  the  rivulet  of  Alexandrium 
to  the  southern  extremity  of  the  sea  of  Tibe- 
rias ;  comprehending  the  territory  of  the  tribe 
of  Ephraim,  of  the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh, 
and  part  of  Issachar.  Its  principal  cities  were 
Samaria,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel, 
north  of  Sichem,  and  equally  distant  from 
Jordan  and  the  sea  coast,  afterward  named 
Sebaste  by  Herod,  in  honour  of  Augustus ; 
Jezrael,  or  Esdraelon,  about  four  leagues  north 
from  Samaria ;  Sichem,  or  Sychar,  called  by 
the  Romans  Neapolis,  eight  miles  south  of 
Samaria,  in  a  valley  between  the  mountains 
Gerizim  and  Ebal ;  Bethsan,  called  by  the 
Greek  writers  Scythppolis,  about  twenty  miles 
north. east  of  Sichem ;  Cresarea  of  Palestine, 
anciently  called  Turris  Stratonis,  greatly  en- 
larged by  Herod,  and  long  the  principal  city 
of  the  province,  about  nineteen  leagues  north 
north-west  from  Jerusalem  ;  Dora,  now  Tar- 
tura,  nine  miles  north  from  Ca?sarea,  on  the 
road  to  Tyre ;  Apollonia,  now  Arzuf,  on  the 
sea  coast,  twenty-two  miles  south  of  Csesarea; 
and  Hudadriminon,  afterward  called  Maxi- 
mianopolis,  about  seventeen  miles  eastward  of 
Csesarca. 

Galilaea,  in  33°  north  latitude,  bounded  on 
the  south  by  Samaria,  on  the  west  by  the  Me- 
diterranean, on  the  north  by  Syria,  on  the 
east  by  the  river  Jordan  and  the  lake  Gennesa- 
reth,  comprehended  the  possessions  of  Asher, 
Naphtali,  and  Zabulon,  with  part  of  the  allot- 
ment of  Issachar.  The  northern  division  of 
the  province  was  thinly  inhabited  by  Jews, 
and  was  sometimes  called  Galilee  of  the  Gen- 
tiles ;  but  the  southern  portion  was  very 
populous.  Its  principal  towns  were  Caper- 
naum, at  the  northern  extremity  of  the  lake 
of  Gennesareth ;  Bethsaida,  a  considerable 
village  a  few  leagues  south  of  Capernaum ; 
Cinnereth,  south  of  Bethsaida,  rebuilt  by 
Herod  Antipas,  and  named  Tiberias ;  Tari- 
chaea,  a  considerable  town  at  the  efflux  of  the 
river  Jordan  from  the  sea  of  Tiberias,  thirty 
stadia  south  from  the  town  of  Tiberias ; 
Nazareth,  two  leagues  north-west  of  Mount 
Tabor,  and  equally  distant  from  the  lake  of 
Gennesareth  and  the  sea  coast;  Arbela,  sitf 
miles  west  of  Nazareth ;  Sepphoris,  or  Dio- 
Cassarea,  now  Sefouri,  a  large  and  well  forti- 
fied town,  about  five  leagues  north  north-west 
of  Mount   Tabor ;    Zabulon,    a    strong    and 


populous  place,  sixty  stadia  south-east  of 
Ptolemais ;  Acre,  or  Accon,  seven  mijes  north 
from  the  promontory  of  Carmel,  afterward 
enlarged  and  called  Ptolemais  by  Ptolemy  I., 
of  Egypt,  and  in  the  time  of  the  crusades  dis- 
tinguished  by  the  name  of  Acre,  the  last  city 
possessed  by  the  Christians  in  Syria,  and  was 
taken  and  destroyed  by  the  Sultan  Serapha,  of 
Egypt,  in  1291 ;  Kedes,  or  Cydissus,  a  Leviti 
cal  city  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Panium,  twentj 
miles  south-east  of  Tyre ;  Dan,  originally 
Laish,  on  the  north  boundary  of  the  Holy 
Land,  about  thirty  miles  south-east  of  Sidon  ; 
Paneas,  near  to  Dan,  or,  according  to  some, 
only  a  different  name  for  the  same  place,  was 
repaired  by  Philip,  son  of  Herod  the  Great, 
and  by  him  named  Caesarea,  in  honour  of 
Augustus,  with  the  addition  of  Philippi,  to 
distinguish  it  from  the  other  town  of  the  same 
name  in  Samaria ;  Jotapata,  the  strongest 
town  in  Galilee,  about  four  leagues  north 
north-east  of  Dio-Cffisarea;  and  Japha  and 
Gischala,  two  other  fortified  places  in  the 
same  district. 

Peraea,  though  the  name  would  denote  any 
extent  of  country  beyond  Jordan,  is  more 
particularly  applied  to  that  district  in  32° 
north  latitude,  which  formerly  composed  the 
territories  of  Sihon,  the  Amorite,  and  Og, 
king  of  Bashan  ;  extending  from  the  river 
Arnon  (which  flows  through  an  extensive 
plain  into  the  Dead  Sea)  to  the  mount  of 
Gilead,  where  the  Jordan  issues  from  the  sea 
of  Tiberias ;  and  which  fell  to  the  lot  of  the 
tribes  of  Reuben  and  Gad,  and  the  half  tribe 
of  Manasseh.  This  province  was  about  sixty 
miles  from  north  to  south,  and  forty  from  east 
to  west.  The  principal  places  were  Penuel, 
on  the  left  of  the  Jabbok,  which  forms  the 
northern  border  of  the  country ;  Succoth,  on 
the  banks  of  the  Jordan,  a  little  farther  south; 
Bethabara,  a  little  below  Succoth,  where  was 
a  place  of  passage  over  the  river  ;  Amathus, 
afterward  named  Assalt,  a  strong  town  below 
the  influx  of  the  torrent  Jazer  ;  Livias,  between 
Mount  Nebo  and  the  northern  extremity  of 
the  Dead  Sea,  a  town  which  was  so  named  by 
Herod,  in  honour  of  Livia,  the  wife  of  Augus- 
tus ;  Macha?rus,  a  citadel  on  a  steep  rock,  south 
of  Livias,  near  the  upper  end  of  the  Dead  Sea ; 
Lasa,  or  Calle-rhoe,  celebrated  for  its  hot 
springs,  between  Machterus  and  the  river 
Arnon  ;  Herodium,  a  fort  built  by  Herod  a  few 
miles  farther  inland,  as  a  protection  against 
the  Moabites ;  Aroer,  a  town  of  Moab,  seven 
leagues  east  of  the  Dead  Sea ;  Castra  Amo- 
nensia,  a  Roman  station,  supposed  to  be  tho 
ancient  Mephoath,  seven  leagues  north-east 
of  Aroer ;  Hesbon,  or  Esbus,  the  capital  of 
Sihon,  anciently  famed  for  its  fish  pools,  seven 
leagues  east  from  the  Jordan,  three  from  Mount 
Nebo,  and  nearly  in  the  centre  of  the  province  ; 
Madaba,  now  El-Belkaa,  three  leagues  south- 
east of  Hesbon  ;  Jazer,  or  Tira,  a  Levitica! 
city  on  a  small  lake,  five  leagues  north-east 
of  Hesbon.  To  the  south  of  Percea  lies  a  te? 
ritory  called  Moabites,  the  capital  of  which 
was  Rabbath-Moab,  afterward  named  Areopo- 
lis  ;  and  to  the  south-west  of  which  was  Cha- 


JUD 


553 


JUD 


rac-Moab,  or  Karak,  a  fortress  on  the  summit 
of  a  hill,  at  the  entrance  of  a  deep  valley. 

To  the  north  of  Perffia  were  situated  several 
districts,  which,  as  forming  part  of  the  king- 
dom of  Judea  under  Herod  the  Great,  require 
to  be  briefly  noticed  in  this  account ;  and 
which  do  properly  come  under  the  general 
name  of  Peraea,  as  being  situated  on  the  east- 
ward of  the  river  Jordan.  These  were  Ga- 
laadites,  or  Gileadites,  in  32°  20'  north  latitude, 
now  Zarca,  east  from  Jordan,  and  north  from 
the  Jabbok  ;  containing  the  cities  of  Ramoth- 
Gilead,  Mahanaim,  Jabesh-Gilead,  at  the  foot 
of  Mount  Gilead.  Batansea,  anciently  Basan, 
now  Bitinia,  in  32°  25'  north  latitude,  formerly 
celebrated  for  its  oaks  and  pastures,  was  situ- 
ated to  the  north  of  Galaadites,  and  contained 
the  cities  of  Adrea,  or  Edrei,  Astaroth,  and 
Bathyra.  Gaulonitis,  a  narrow  strip  of  land 
between  Batansea  and  the  shore  of  the  sea  of 
Tiberias,  stretching  northward  to  Mount  Her- 
mon,  and  containing  Gamala,  a  strong  town 
near  the  southern  extremity  of  the  sea  of 
Tiberias  ;  Argob,  between  this  sea  and  Mount 
Hippos ;  Julias,  supposed  to  be  the  same  as 
Chorazin,  and  by  others  to  be  Bethsaida ;  and 
Seleuca,  a  fortified  place  on  the  east  border  of 
Lacus  Samochonitis.  Auranitis,  or  Iturasa,  a 
mountainous  and  barren  tract  north  of  Ba- 
tanaea,  and  bounded  on  the  west  by  a  branch 
of  Mount  Hermon,  contained  Bostra,  or  Bozra, 
about  fifty  miles  east  from  the  sea  of  Tiberias, 
bordering  on  Arabia  Petrrea,  afterward  en- 
larged by  Trajan,  and  named  Trajana  Bostra  ; 
and  Trachonitis,  in  33°  15'  nortli  latitude,  be- 
tween Hermon  and  Antilibanus,  eastward  from 
the  sources  of  Jordan,  and  containing  Baal- 
gad,  Mispah,  Paneas,  or  Cssarea  Philippi, 
and  iEnos,  nearly  twenty-five  miles  east  of 
Panamas,  and  as  far  south  south-west  of  Da- 
mascus. There  remains  to  be  noticed  the 
Decapolis,  or  confederation  of  ten  cities  in 
the  last  mentioned  districts,  which  having 
been  occupied  during  the  Babylonish  captivity 
by  Heathen  inhabitants,  refused  to  adopt  the 
Mosaic  ritual  after  the  restoration  of  the  Jews, 
and  found  it  necessary  to  unite  their  strength 
against  the  enterprises  of  the  Asmonean 
princes.  One  of  them,  namely,  Scythopolis,  al- 
ready described  in  the  account  of  Samaria,  was 
situated  to  the  west  of  Jordan ;  but  the  other 
nine  were  all  to  the  east  of  that  river,  namely, 
Gadara,  or  Kedar,  a  strong  place  on  a  hill,  the 
capital  of  Persea  in  the  time  of  Josephus,  about 
sixty  stadia  east  from  the  sea  of  Tiberias,  and 
much  frequented  for  its  hot  baths  :  Hippos, 
sometimes  called  Susitha,  thirty  stadia  north- 
west of  Gadara;  Dium,  or  Dion,  of  which  the 
situation  is  unknown,  but  conjectured  by  D'An- 
ville  to  have  been  about  seven  leagues  east- 
ward from  Pella,  a  considerable  town  supplied 
with  copious  fountains,  on  the  river  Jabbok, 
fourteen  miles  south-east  of  Gadara,  and  cele- 
brated as  the  place  to  which  the  Christians 
retired,  by  divine  admonition,  before  the  de- 
stmction  of  Jerusalem  ;  Canatha,  6outh-east 
of  Csesarea,  and  between  the  Jordan  and 
Mount  Hermon ;  Garasa,  afterward  Jaras, 
throe   leagues  north-east  from  the  upper  ex- 


tremity  of  the  sea  of  Tiberias,  and  much  noted 
during  the  crusades;  Rabbath-Ammon,  the 
capital  of  the  Ammonites,  south-east  of  Ra- 
moth,  and  near  the  source  of  the  Jabbok,  on 
the  confines  of  Arabia,  afterward  called  Phila- 
delphia by  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  from  whom 
it  had  received  considerable  improvements,  of 
which  the  ruins  are  still  visible  ;  Abila,  four 
leagues  east  from  Gadara,  in  a  fertile  tract  be- 
tween the  river  Hieromax  and  Mount  Gilead ; 
and  Capitolais,  a  town  in  Batansa,  five  or  six 
leagues  east  north-east  of  Gadara. 

Judea,  Wilderness  of,  a  wild  and  desert 
country  along  the  southern  course  of  the  river 
Jordan,  east  of  Jerusalem ;  that  which  by  St. 
Matthew  is  called  the  wilderness  of  Judea, 
being  described  by  St.  Luke  as  "all the  coun- 
try about  Jordan  ;"  from  whence  this  wilder- 
ness extended  southward  along  the  western 
side  of  the  Dead  Sea.  This  is  a  stony  and 
desolate  region,  of  hopeless  sterility,  and  most 
savage  aspect ;  consisting  almost  entirely  of 
disordered  piles  of  rocks,  and  rocky  mount- 
ains. This  was  the  wilderness  in  which 
John  first  preached  and  baptized,  and  into 
which  our  Lord,  after  his  own  baptism,  was 
led  by  the  Spirit  to  be  tempted,  Matthew  iv ; 
Luke  iv.  Here,  also,  the  mountain  was  situ- 
ated which  formed  the  scene  of  one  of  the 
most  striking  parts  of  this  temptation.  Maun- 
drell  describes  this  region  as  a  most  miserable, 
dry,  and  barren  place ;  consisting  of  high  rocky 
mountains,  so  torn  and  disordered,  as  if  the 
earth  had  here  suffered  some  great  convulsion. 
Mr.  Buckingham,  who  visited  the  same  part 
in  1816,  says,  "  As  we  proceeded  to  the  north- 
ward, we  had  on  our  left  a  lofty  peak  of  the 
range  of  hills  which  border  the  plain  of  the 
Jordan  on  the  west,  and  ended  in  this  direc- 
tion the  mountains  of  Judea.  This  peak  is 
considered  to  be  that  to  which  Jesus  was 
transported  by  the  devil  during  his  fast  of 
forty  days  in  the  wilderness ;  '  after  which  he 
was  an  hungered.'  Nothing  can  be  more  for- 
bidding than  the  aspect  of  these  hills;  not  a 
blade  of  verdure  is  to  be  seen  over  all  their 
surface,  and  not  the  sound  of  any  living  being 
is  to  be  heard  throughout  all  thoir  extent. 
They  form,  indeed,  a  most  appropriate  scene 
for  that  wilderness  in  which  the  Son  of  God 
is  said  to  have  dwelt  with  the  wild  beasts, 
'while  the  angels  ministered  unto  him.'" 

JUDGES  is  applied  to  certain  eminent  per- 
sons chosen  by  God  himself  to  govern  the 
Jews  from  the  time  of  Joshua  till  the  esta- 
blishment of  the  kings.  For  the  nature  and 
duration  of  their  office,  and  the  powers  with 
which  they  were  invested,  see  Jews.  The 
judges  were  not  ordinary  magistrates,  but 
were  appointed  by  God  on  extraordinary  occa- 
sions ;  as  to  head  the  armies,  to  deliver  the 
people  from  their  enemies,  &c.  Salian  has 
observed,  that  they  not  only  presided  in  courts 
of  justice,  but  were  also  at  the  head  of  the 
councils,  the  armies,  and  of  every  thing  that 
concerned  the  government  of  the  state  ;  though 
they  never  assumed  the  title  either  of  princes, 
governors,  or  the  like. 

Salian  remarks  seven  points  wherein  they 


JUD 


554 


JUD 


differed  from  kings  :  1.  They  were  not  heredi- 
tary. 2.  They  had  no  absolute  power  of  life 
and  death,  but  only  according  to  the  laws,  and 
dependently  upon  them.  3.  They  never  un- 
dertook war  at  their  own  pleasure,  but  only 
when  they  were  commanded  by  God,  or  called 
to  it  by  the  people.  4.  They  exacted  no  tribute. 
5.  They  did  not  succeed  each  other  immedi- 
ately, but  after  the  death  of  one  there  was 
frequently  an  interval  of  several  years  before 
a  successor  was  appointed.  6.  They  did  not 
use  the  ensigns  of  sovereignty,  the  sceptre  or 
diadem.  7.  They  had  no  authority  to  make 
any  laws,  but  were  only  to  take  care  of  the 
observance  of  those  of  Moses.  Godwin,  in 
his  "  Moses  and  Aaron,"  compares  them  to 
the  Roman  dictators,  who  were  appointed  only 
on  extraordinary  emergencies,  as  in  case  of 
war  abroad,  or  conspiracies  at  home,  and 
whose  power,  while  they  continued  in  office, 
was  great,  and  even  absolute.  Thus  the  He- 
brew judges  seem  to  have  been  appointed  only 
in  cases  of  national  trouble  and  danger.  This 
was  the  case  particularly  with  respect  to  Oth- 
niel,  Ehud,  and  Gideon.  The  power  of  the 
judges,  while  in  office,  was  very  great ;  nor 
does  it  seem  to  have  been  limited  to  a  certain 
time,  like  that  of  the  Roman  dictators,  which 
continued  for  half  a  year ;  nevertheless,  it  is 
reasonable  to  suppose,  that,  when  they  had 
performed  the  business  for  which  they  were 
appointed,  they  retired  to  a  private  life.  This 
Godwin  infers  from  Gideon's  refusing  to  take 
upon  him  the  perpetual  government  of  Israel, 
as  being  inconsistent  with  the  theocracy. 

Beside  these  superior  judges,  every  city  in 
the  commonwealth  had  its  elders,  who  formed 
a  court  of  judicature,  with  a  power  of  de- 
termining lesser  matters  in  their  respective 
districts.  The  rabbies  say,  there  were  three 
such  elders  or  judges  in  each  lesser  city,  and 
twenty-three  in  the  greater.  But  Josephus, 
whose  authority  has  greater  weight,  speaks  of 
seven  judges  in  each,  without  any  such  dis- 
tinction of  greater  .and  less.  .Sigonius  sup- 
poses that  these  elders  and  judges  of  cities 
were  the  original  constitution  settled  in  the 
wilderness  by  Moses,  upon  the  advice  given 
him  by  Jethro,  Exod.  xviii,  21,  22,  and  con- 
tinued by  divine  appointment  after  the  settle- 
ment in  the  land  of  Canaan  ;  whereas  others 
imagine  that  the  Jethronian  prefectures  were 
a  peculiar  constitution,  suited  to  their  condi- 
tion while  encamped  in  the  wilderness,  but 
laid  aside  after  they  came  into  Canaan.  It  is 
certain,  however,  that  there  was  a  court  of 
judges  and  officers,  appointed  in  every  city,  by 
the  law  of  Moses,  Dent,  xvi,  18.  How  far, 
and  in  what  respects,  these  judges  differed 
from  the  elders  of  the  city,  it  is  not  easy  to 
ascertain  ;  and  whether  they  were  the  same 
or  different  persons.  Perhaps  the  title  elders 
may  denote  their  seniority  and  dignity ;  and 
that  of  judges,  the  office  they  sustained.  The 
lower  courts  of  justice,  in  their  several  cities, 
were  held  in  their  gates,  Deut.  xvi,  15.  Each 
tribe  had  its  respective  prince,  whose  office 
related  chiefly,  if  not  altogether,  to  military 
affairs.     We  read  also  of  the  princes  of  the 


congregation,  who  presided  in  judiciary  mat- 
tors.  These  are  called  elders,  and  were  seventy 
in  number,  Num.  xi,  16,  17,  24,  25.  But  it 
does  not  appear  whether  or  not  this  consistory 
of  seventy  elders  was  a  perpetual,  or  only  a 
temporary,  institution.  Some  have  supposed 
that  it  was  the  same  that  afterward  became 
famous  under  the  appellation  of  sanhedrim ; 
but  others  conceive  the  institution  of  the 
seventy  elders  to  have  been  only  temporary, 
for  the  assistance  of  Moses  in  the  government, 
before  the  settlement  in  the  land  of  Canaan ; 
and  that  the  sanhedrim  was  first  set  up  in  the 
time  of  the  Maccabees.     See  Sanhedrim. 

Judges,  Book  of,  a  canonical  book  of  the 
Old  Testament,  containing  the  history  of  the 
Israelitish  judges,  of  whom  we  have  been 
speaking  in  the  preceding  article.  The  author 
is  not  known.  It  is  probable  the  work  did 
not  come  from  any  single  hand,  being  rather 
a  collection  of  several  little  histories,  which  at 
first  were  separate,  but  were  afterward  collect- 
ed by  Ezra  or  Samuol  into  a  single  volume ; ' 
and,  in  all  likelihood,  were  taken  from  the 
ancient  journals,  annals,  or  memoirs,  com- 
posed by  the  several  judges.  The  antiquity  of 
this  book  is  unquestionable,  as  it  must  have 
been  written  before  the  time  of  David,  since 
the  description,  Judges  i,  21,  was  no  longer 
true  of  Jerusalem  after  he  had  taken  posses- 
sion of  it,  and  had  introduced  a  third  class  of 
inhabitants  of  the  tribe  of  Judah.  Eichorn  ac- 
knowledges that  it  does  not  bear  the  marks  of 
subsequent  interpolation.  Dr.  Patrick  is  of 
opinion  that  the  five  last  chapters  are  a  dis- 
tinct history,  in  which  the  author  gives  an 
account  of  several  memorable  transactions, 
which  occurred  in  or  about  the  time  of  the 
judges  ;  whose  history  he  would  not  interrupt 
by  intermixing  these  matters  with  it,  and 
therefore  reserved  them  to  be  related  by  them- 
selves in  the  second  part,  or  appendix. 

JUDGMENT,  Day  of,  is  that  important 
period  which  shall  terminate  the  present  dis- 
pensation of  grace  toward  the  fallen  race  of 
Adam,  put  an  end  to  time,  and  introduce  the 
eternal  destinies  of  men  and  angels,  Acts  xvi, 
31 ;  1  Cor.  xv,  24-26 ;  1  Thess.  iv,  14-17 ; 
Matt,  xxv,  31-46.  It  is  in  reference  to  this 
solemn  period  that  the  Apostle  Peter  says, 
"The  heavens  and  the  earth  which  now  exist 
are  by  the  word  of  God  reserved  in  store  unto 
fire,  against  the  day  of  judgment,  and  perdi- 
tion of  ungodly  men,"  2  Peter  iii,  7.  Several 
eminent  commentators  understand  this  pro- 
phecy as  a  prediction  of  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem.  In  support  of  their  interpretation, 
they  appeal  to  the  ancient  Jewish  prophecies, 
where,  as  they  contend,  the  revolutions  in  the 
political  state  of  empires  and  nations  are  fore, 
told  in  the  same  forms  of  expression  with 
those  introduced  in  Peter's  prediction.  The 
following  are  the  prophecies  to  which  they 
appeal  : — Isaiah  xxxiv,  4,  where  the  destruc- 
tion of  Idumea  is  foretold  under  the  figures  of 
dissolving  the  host  of  heaven,  and  of  rolling 
the  heaven  together  as  a  scroll,  and  of  the 
falling  down  of  all  their  host  as  the  leaf  falleth 
off  from  the  vine.    Ezekiel  xxxii,  7,  where  the 


JUD 


555 


JUD 


destruction  of  Egypt  is  described  by  the  figures 
of  covering  the  heaven,  and  making  the  stars 
thereof  dark  ;  and  of  covering  the  sun  with  a 
cloud,  and  of  hindering  the  moon  from  giving 
her  light.  In  Joel  ii,  10,  the  invasion  of  Ju- 
dea  by  foreign  armies  is  thus  foretold  :  "  The 
earth  shall  quake  before  them  ;  the  heavens 
shall  tremble ;  the  sun  and  the  moon  shall  be 
dark,  and  the  stars  shall  withdraw  their  shin- 
ing."  And  in  verses  30,  31,  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem  by  the  Romans  is  thus  predicted  : 
"  I  will  show  wonders  in  the  heavens  and  in 
the  earth,  blood,  and  fire,  and  pillars  of  smoke. 
The  sun  shall  be  turned  into  darkness,  and  the 
moon  into  blood,  before  the  great  and  terrible 
day  of  the  Lord  come."  God,  threatening  the 
Jews,  is  introduced  saying,  "  In  that  day  I  will 
Cause  the  sun  to  go  down  at  noon,  and  I  will 
darken  the  earth  in  the  clear  day,"  Amos 
viii,  9.  The  overthrow  of  Judaism  and  Hea- 
thenism is  thus  foretold  :  "  Yet  once  and  I 
will  shake  the  heavens  and  the  earth,  and  the 
sea  and  the  dry  land,"  Haggai  ii,  6.  Lastly : 
our  Lord,  in  his  prophecy  of  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem,  has  the  following  expressions : 
"  After  the  tribulation  of  those  days  shall  the 
sun  be  darkened,  and  the  moon  shall  not  give 
her  light,  and  the  stars  shall  fall  from  heaven, 
and  the  powers  of  heaven  shall  be  shaken," 
Matt,  xxiv,  29. 

Now  it  is  remarkable  that,  in  these  prophe- 
cies, none  of  the  prophets  have  spoken,  as 
Peter  has  done,  of  the  entire  destruction  of 
this  mundane  system,  nor  of  the  destruction 
of  any  part  thereof.  They  mention  only  the 
rolling  of  the  heavens  together  as  a  scroll,  the 
obscuring  of  the  light  of  the  sun  and  of  the 
moon,  the  shaking  of  the  heavens  and  the 
earth,  and  the  falling  down  of  the  stars : 
whereas  Peter  speaks  of  the  utter  destruction 
of  all  the  parts  of  this  mundane  system  by  fire. 
This  difference  affords  room  for  believing  that 
the  events  foretold  by  the  prophets  are  differ- 
ent in  their  nature  from  those  foretold  by 
the  Apostle ;  and  that  they  are  to  be  figura- 
tively understood,  while  those  predicted  by  the 
Apostle  are  to  be  understood  literally.  To  this 
conclusion,  likewise,  the  phraseology  of  the 
prophets,  compared  with  that  of  the  Apostle, 
evidently  leads  :  for  the  prophetic  phraseology, 
literally  interpreted,  exhibits  impossibilities ; 
such  as  the  rolling  of  the  heavens  together  as 
a  scroll  ;  the  turning  of  the  moon  into  blood, 
and  the  falling  down  of  the  stars  from  heaven 
as  the  leaf  of  a  tree.  Not  so  the  apostolic 
phraseology  :  for  the  burning  of  the  heavens, 
or  atmosphere,  and  its  passing  away  with  a 
great  noise  ;  and  the  burning  of  the  earth  and 
the  works  thereon,  together  with  the  burning 
and  melting  of  the  elements,  that  is,  the  con- 
stituent parts  of  which  this  terraqueous  globe 
is  composed  ;  arc  all  things  possible,  and  there- 
fore may  be  literally  understood ;  while  the 
things  mentioned  by  the  prophets  can  only  be 
taken  figuratively.  This,  however,  is  not  all. 
There  are  things  in  the  Apostle'js  prophecy 
which  show  that  he  intended  it.  to  be  taken 
literally.  As,  1.  He  begins  with  an  account 
of  the   perishing  of  the  old  world,  to  demon- 


strate against  the  scoffers  the  possibility  of  the 
perishing  of  the  present  heavens  and  earth. 
But  that  example  would  not  have  suited  his 
purpose  ;  unless,  by  the  burning  of  the  present 
heavens  and  earth,  he  had  meant  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  material  fabric.  Wherefore,;,  the 
opposition  stated  in  this  prophecy  between  the 
perishing  of  the  old  world  by  water,  and  the 
perishing  of  the  present  world  by  fire,  shows 
that  the  latter  is  to  be  as  real  a  destruction  of 
the  material  fabric  as  the  former  was.  2.  The 
circumstance  of  the  present  heavens  and  earth 
being  treasured  up  and  kept,  ever  since  the 
first  deluge,  from  all  after  deluges,  in  order  to 
their  being  destroyed  by  fire  at  the  day  of 
judgment,  shows,  we  think,  that  the  Apostle 
is  speaking  of  a  real,  and  not  of  a  metaphorical, 
destruction  of  the  heavens  and  earth.  3.  This 
appears,  likewise,  from  the  Apostle's  foretell- 
ing that,  after  the  present  heavens  and  earth 
are  burned,  new  heavens  and  a  new  earth  are 
to  appear,  in  which  the  righteous  are  for  ever 
to  dwell.  4.  The  time  fixed  by  the  Apostle  for 
the  burning  of  the  heavens  and  the  earth, 
namely,  the  day  of  judgment  and  punishment 
of  ungodly  men,  shows  that  the  Apostle  is 
speaking,  not  of  the  destruction  of  a  single 
city  or  nation  during  the  subsistence  of  the 
world,  but  of  the  earth  itself,  with  all  the  wick- 
ed who  have  dwelt  thereon.  These  circum- 
stances persuade  us  that  this  prophecy,  as 
well  as  the  one  recorded,  2  Thess.  i,  9,  is  not 
to  be  interpreted  metaphorically  of  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem ;  but  should  be  understood 
literally  of  the  general  judgment,  and  of  the 
destruction  of  our  mundane  system. 

But  "it  is  appointed  unto  men  once  to  die, 
and  after  death  the  judgment."  These  two 
events  are  inseparably  linked  together  in  the 
divine  decree,  and  they  reciprocally  reflect  im- 
portance on  each  other.  Death  is,  indeed,  the 
terror  of  our  nature.  Men  may  contrive  to 
keep  it  from  their  thoughts,  but  they  cannot 
think  of  it  without  fearful  apprehensions  of  its 
consequences.  It  was  justly  to  be  dreaded  by 
man  in  his  state  of  innocence ;  and  to  the 
unrenewed  man  it  ever  was,  and  ever  will  be, 
a  just  object  of  abhorrence.  The  Gospel  of 
Jesus  Christ,  which  has  brought  life  and  im- 
mortality to  light,  is  the  only  sovereign  anti- 
dote against  this  universal  evil.  To  the  be- 
liever in  Christ,  its  rough  aspect  is  smoothed, 
and  its  terrors  cease  to  be  alarming.  To  him 
it  is  the  messenger  of  peace  ;  its  sting  is  pluck- 
ed out ;  its  dark  valley  is  the  road  to  perfect 
bliss  and  life  immortal.  To  him,  "to  live  is 
Christ,  and  to  die  is  gain,"  Phil,  i,  21.  To  die  ! 
speaking  properly,  he  cannot  die.  He  has 
already  died  in  Christ,  and  with  him  :  his  "  life 
is  hid  with  Christ  in  God,"  Romans  vi,  8 ; 
Col.  iii,  3. 

With  this  conquest  of  the  fear  of  death  is 
nearly  allied  another  glorious  privilege  result- 
ing from  union  with  the  Redeemer  ;  that,  when 
lii>  shall  appear,  we  may  have  confidence,  and 
"  not  be  ashamed  before  him  at  his  coming," 
1  John  ii,  28.  Were  death  all  that  we  have  to 
dread,  death  might  be  braved.  But  after  death 
there  is  a  judgment  ;  a  judgment  attended  with 


JUS 


556 


JUS 


circumstances  so  tremendous  as  to  shake  the 
hearts  of  the  boldest  of  the  sons  of  nature. 
Then  "men  shall  seek  death,  and  shall  not 
find  it ;  and  shall  desire  to  die,  and  death  shall 
flee  from  them,"  Rev.  ix,  6.  Then  shall  come 
indeed  an  awful  day ;  a  day  to  which  all  that 
have  preceded  it  are  intended  to  be  subser- 
vient ;  when  the  Lord  shall  appear  in  the 
united  splendour  of  creating,  of  governing, 
and  of  judicial  majesty,  to  finish  his  purposes 
respecting  man  and  earth,  and  to  pronounce 
the  final,  irreversible  sentence,  "  It  is  done  !" 
Rev.  xxi,  6.  Nothing  of  terror  or  magnifi- 
cence hitherto  beheld, — no  glory  of  the  rising 
sun  after  a  night  of  darkness  and  of  storm, — 
no  convulsions  of  the  earth, — no  wide  irrup- 
tion of  waters, — no  flaming  comet  dragging  its 
burning  train  over  half  the  heaven,  can  convey 
to  us  an  adequate  conception  of  that  day  of 
terrible  brightness  and  irresistible  devastation. 
Creation  then  shall  be  uncreated.  "  The 
heavens  shall  pass  away  with  a  great  noise, 
and  the  elements  shall  melt  with  fervent  heat ; 
the  earth  also,  and  the  works  that  are  therein, 
shall  be  burned  up,"  2  Peter  iii,  10.  The  Lord 
shall  be  revealed  from  heaven  in  flaming  fire, 
2  Thess.  i,  7,  8,  arrayed  in  all  the  glory  of  his 
Godhead,  and  attended  by  his  mighty  angels, 
Matt,  xvi,  27;  xxv,  31.  All  that  are  in  the 
grave  shall  hear  his  voice,  and  shall  come 
forth,  John  v,  28,  29.  Earth  and  sea  shall 
give  up  the  dead  which  are  in  them.  All  that 
ever  lived  shall  appear  before  him,  Rev.  xx, 
12,  13.  The  judgment  shall  sit ;  and  the  books 
shall  be  opened,  Dan.  vii,  10.  The  eye  of 
Omniscience  detects  every  concealment  by 
which  they  would  screen  from  observation 
themselves,  or  their  iniquity.  The  last  reluct- 
ant sinner  is  finally  separated  from  the  con- 
gregation of  the  righteous,  Psalm  i,  5  ;  and 
inflexible  justice,  so  often  disregarded,  derided, 
and  defiod,  gives  forth  their  eternal  doom  !  But 
to  the  saints  this  shall  be  a  day  of  glory  and 
honour.  They  shall  be  publicly  acknowledged 
by  God  as  his  people;  publicly  justified  from 
the  slanders  of  the  world ;  invested  with  im- 
mortal bodies ;  presented  by  Christ  to  the 
Father  ;  and  admitted  into  the  highest  felicity 
in  the  immediate  presence  of  God  for  ever. 
These  are  the  elevating,  the  transporting  views, 
which  made  the  Apostle  Paul  speak  with  so 
much  desire  and  earnest  expectation  of  the 
"day  of  Christ." 

JUSTICE  is  in  Scripture  taken  for  that 
essential  perfection  in  God,  whereby  he  is 
infinitely  righteous  and  just,  both  in  himself 
and  in  all  his  proceedings  with  his  creatures, 
Psalm  lxxxix,  14.  2.  That  political  virtue 
which  renders  to  every  man  his  due  ;  and  is 
first,  distributive,  which  concerns  princes, 
magistrates,  &c,  Job  xxix,  14  ;  secondly,  com- 
municative, which  concerns  all  persons  in 
their  dealings  one  with  another,  Gen.  xviii,  19. 

Justice,  Administration  of.  According  to 
the  Mosaic  law,  there  were  to  be  judges  in  all 
the  cities,  whose  duty  it  was  likewise  to  exer- 
cise judicial  authority  in  the  neighbouring 
villages  ;  but  weighty  causes  and  appeals  went 
up  to  the  supreme  judge  or  ruler  of  the  com 


monwealth,  and,  in  case  of  a  failure  here,  to 
the  high  priest,  Deut.  xvii,  8,  9.  In  the  time 
of  the  monarchy,  weighty  causes  and  appeals 
went  up,  of  course,  to  the  king,  who,  in  very 
difficult  cases,  seems  to  have  consulted  the 
high  priest,  as  is  customary  at  the  present  day 
among  the  Persians  and  Ottomans.  The 
judicial  establishment  was  reorganized  after 
the  captivity,  and  two  classes  of  judges,  the 
inferior  and  superior,  were  appointed,  Ezra 
vii,  25.  The  more  difficult  cases,  nevertheless, 
and  appeals,  were  either  brought  before  the 
ruler  of  the  state,  called  nns,  or  before  the 
high  priest ;  until,  in  the  age  of  the  Macca- 
bees, a  supreme,  judicial  tribunal  was  instituted, 
which  is  first  mentioned  under  Hyrcanus  II. 
This  tribunal  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  the 
seventy-two  counsellors,  who  were  appointed 
to  assist  Moses  in  the  civil  administration  of 
the  government,  but  who  never  filled  the  office 
of  judges.     See  Sanhedrim. 

Josephus  states,  that  in  every  city  there 
was  a  tribunal  of  seven  judges,  with  two  La 
vites  as  apparitors,  and  that  it  was  a  Mosaic 
institution.  That  there  existed  such  an  insti. 
tution  in  his  time,  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt 
but  he  probably  erred  in  referring  its  origin  to 
so  early  a  period  as  the  days  of  Moses.  (See 
Judges.)  This  tribunal,  which  decided  causes 
of  less  moment,  is  denominated  in  the  New 
Testament  Kpfoi?,  or  the  judgment,  Matt,  v,  22. 
The  Talmudists  mention  a  tribunal  of  twenty- 
three  judges,  and  another  of  three  judges ; 
but  Josephus  is  silent  in  respect  to  them. 
The  courts  of  twenty -three  judges  were  the 
same  with  the  synagogue  tribunals,  mentioned 
in  John  xvi,  2  ;  which  merely  tried  questions 
of  a  religious  nature,  and  sentenced  to  no 
other  punishment  than  "forty  stripes  save 
one,"  2  Cor.  xi,  24.  The  court  of  three  judges 
was  merely  a  session  of  referees,  which  was 
allowed  to  the  Jews  \>y  the  Roman  laws  ;  for 
the  Talmudists  themselves,  in  describing  this 
court,  go  on  to  observe,  that  one  judge  was 
chosen  by  the  accuser,  another  by  the  accused, 
and  a  third  by  the  two  parties  conjunctly  ; 
which  shows  at  once  the  nature  of  the  tri- 
bunal. 

The  time  at  which  courts  were  held,  and 
causes  were  brought  before  them  for  trial,  was 
in  the  morning,  Jer.  xxi,  12;  Psalm  ci,  8. 
According  to  the  Talmudists,  it  was  not  law- 
ful to  try  causes  of  a  capital  nature  in  the 
night ;  and  it  was  equally  unlawful  to  examine 
a  cause,  pass  sentence,  and  put  it  in  execution 
on  the  same  day.  The  last  particular  was 
very  strenuously  insisted  on.  It  is  worthy  of 
remark,  that  all  of  these  practices,  which  were 
observed  in  other  trials,  were  neglected  in  the 
tumultuous  trial  of  Jesus,  Matt,  xxvi,  57 ; 
John  xviii,  13-18.  The  places  for  judicial 
trials  were  in  very  ancient  times  the  gates  of 
cities,  which  were  well  adapted  to  this  pur- 
pose. (See  Gates.)  Originally,  trials  were 
every  where  very  summary,  excepting  in 
Egypt;  where  the  accuser  committed  the 
charge  to  writing,  the  accused  replied  in 
writing,  the  accuser  repeated  the  charge,  and 
the  accused  answered  again,  &c,  Job  xiv,  17 


JUS 


557 


JUS 


It  was  customary  in  Egypt  for  the  judge  to 
have  the  code  of  laws  placed  before  him,  a 
practice  which  still  prevails  in  the  east. 
Moses  interdicted,  in  the  most  express  and 
decided  manner,  gifts  or  bribes,  which  were 
intended  to  corrupt  the  judges,  Exod.  xxii, 
20,  21 ;  xxiii,  1-9  ;  Lev.  xix,  15 ;  Deut.  xxiv, 
14,  15.  Moses  also,  by  legal  precautions, 
prevented  capital  punishments,  and  corporal 
punishments  which  were  not  capital,  from 
being  extended,  as  was  done  in  other  nations, 
both  to  parents  and  their  children,  and  thus 
involving  the  innocent  and  the  guilty  in  that 
misery  which  was  justly  due  only  to  the  latter, 
Exod.  xxiii,  7 ;  Deut.  xxiv,  16 ;  Dan.  vi,  24. 

The  ceremonies  which  were  observed  in 
conducting  a  judicial  trial,  were  as  follows : 
1.  The  accuser  and  the  accused  both  made 
their  appearance  before  the  judge  or  judges, 
Deut.  xxv,  1,  who  sat  with  legs  crossed  upon 
the  floor,  which  was  furnished  for  their  ac- 
commodation with  carpet  and  cushions.  A 
secretary  was  present,  at  least  in  more  modern 
times,  who  wrote  down  the  sentence,  and, 
indeed,  every  thing  in  relation  to  the  trial ; 
for  instance,  the  articles  of  agreement  that 
might  be  entered  into  previous  to  the  com- 
mencement of  the  judicial  proceedings,  Isaiah 
x,  1,  2 ;  Jer.  xxxii,  1-14.  The  Jews  assert 
that  there  were  two  secretaries,  the  one  being 
seated  to  the  right  of  the  judge,  who  wrote 
the  sentence  of  not  guilty,  the  other  to  the 
left,  who  wrote  the  sentence  of  condemna- 
tion, Matt,  xxv,  33-46.  That  an  apparitor  or 
beadle  was  present,  is  apparent  from  other 
sources.  2.  The  accuser  was  denominated  in 
Hebrew  yaw,  or  the  adversary,  Zech.  iii,  1-3 ; 
Psalm  cix,  6.  The  judge  or  judges  were 
seated,  but  both  of  the  parties  implicated  stood 
up,  the  accuser  standing  to  the  right  hand  of 
the  accused :  the.  latter,  at  least  after  the 
captivity,  when  the  cause  was  one  of  great 
consequence,  appeared  with  hair  dishevelled, 
and  in  a  garment  of  mourning.  3.  The  wit- 
nesses were  sworn,  and,  in  capital  cases,  the 
parties  concerned,  1  Sam.  xiv,  37-40 ;  Matt. 
xxvi,  63.  In  order  to  establish  the  charges 
alleged,  two  witnesses  were  necessary,  and, 
including  the  accuser,  three.  The  witnesses 
were  examined  separately,  but  the  person 
accused  had  the  liberty  to  be  present  when 
their  testimony  was  given  in,  Num.  xxxv,  30  ; 
Deut.  xvii,  1-15  ;  Matt,  xxvi,  59.  Proofs  might 
be  brought  from  other  sources ;  for  instance, 
from  written  contracts,  or  from  papers  in 
evidence  of  any  thing  purchased  or  sold,  of 
which  there  were  commonly  taken  two  copies, 
the  one  to  be  sealed,  the  other  to  be  left  open, 
as  was  customary  in  the  time  of  Jerom,  Jer. 
xxxii,  10-13.  4.  The  parties  sometimes,  as 
may  be  inferred  from  Prov.  xviii,  18,  made 
use  of  the  lot  in  determining  the  points  of 
difficulty  between  them,  but  not  without  a 
mutual  agreement.  The  sacred  lot  of  Urim 
and  Thummim  was  anciently  resorted  to,  in 
order  to  detect  the  guilty,  Joshua  vii,  14-24  ; 
1  Sam.  xiv ;  but  the  determination  of  a  case 
of  right  or  wrong  in  this  way  was  not  com- 
manded  by    Moses.     5.  The   sentence,   very 


soon  after  the  completion  of  the  examination, 
was  pronounced ;  and  the  criminal,  without 
any  delay,  even  if  the  offence  were  a  capital 
one,  was  hastened  away  to  the  place  of  pun- 
ishment, Joshua  vii,  22,  &c ;  1  Sam  xxii 
18  ;  1  Kings  ii,  23. 

A  few  additional    remarks  will    cast   some 
light  upon  some  passages  of  Scripture  :    the 
station    of  the    accused  was    in    an   eminent 
place  in  the  court,  that  the  people  might  see 
them,    and    hear   what   was    alleged    against 
them,  and  the  proofs  of  it,  together  with  the 
defence  made  by  the  criminals.    This  explains 
the  reason  of  the  remark  by  the  Evangelist 
Matthew,  concerning  the  posture  of  our  Lord 
at    his    trial:    "Jesus    stood    before   the    go- 
vernor ;"  and  that,  in  a  mock  trial,  many  ages 
before    the    birth  of  Christ,   in  which    some 
attention  was  also  paid  to  public  forms,  Naboth 
was  set  on  high  among  the  people,  1  Kings 
xxi,  9.     The  accusers  and  the  witnesses  also 
stood,  unless  they  were  allowed  to  sit  by  the 
indulgence  of  the  judges,  when  they  stated  the 
accusation,  or  gave  their  testimony.     To  this 
custom  of  the  accusers  rising  from  their  seats, 
when  called  by  the  court  to  read  the  indict- 
ment, our  Lord  alludes  in  his  answer  to  the 
scribes  and  Pharisees,  who  expressed  a  wish 
to  see  him  perform  some  miracle  :  "  The  queen 
of  the  south  shall  rise  up  in  the  judgment  with 
this  generation,  and  shall  condemn  it,"  Matt, 
xii,  42.     According  to  this  rule,  which  seems 
to    have    been    invariably  observed,  the  Jews 
who   accused  the  Apostle   Paul  at  the  bar  of 
Festus  the    Roman    governor,    "stood  round 
about,"  while    they  stated   the    crimes  which 
they  had  to  lay  to   his  charge,  Acts  xxv,  7. 
They  were  compelled  to  stand  as  well  as  the 
prisoner,  by  the  established  usage  of  the  courts 
of  justice  in  the  east.     The  Romans  often  put 
criminals  to  the  question,  or  endeavoured  to 
extort   a   confession    from    them    by   torture. 
Agreeably  to  this  cruel  and   unjust    custom, 
"  the    chief  captain    commanded    Paul  to  be 
brought    into   the    castle,    and   bade    that  he 
should  be  examined  by  scourging,"  Acts  xxii, 
24.     It  was  usual,  especially  among  the  Ro- 
mans, when  a  man  was  charged  with  a  capital 
crime,    and    during    his    arraignment,    to   let 
down  his  hair,  sutler  his  beard  to  grow  long, 
to  wear  filthy,  ragged  garments,  and  appear 
in  a  very  dirty  and  sordid  habit ;  on  account 
of  which  they  were  called  surdidnti.     When 
the  person  accused  was  brought  into  court  to 
be  tried,  even  his  near  relations,  friends,  and 
acquaintances,  before  the  court  voted,  appeared 
with  dishevelled  hair,  and  clothed  with  gar- 
ments foul  and  out  of  fashion,  weeping,  crying, 
and    deprecating   punishment.     The    accused 
sometimes  appeared  before  the  judges  clothed 
in  black,  and  his  head  covered  with  dust.     In 
allusion  to  this  ancient  custom,  the  Prophet 
Zcchariah  represents  Joshua,  the  high  priest, 
when  he  appeared  before  the  Lord,  and  Satan 
stood    at    his    right    hand   to  accuse  him,  as 
clothed    with    filthy    garments,    Zech.    iii,  3. 
Alter  the  cause  was  carefully  examined,  and 
all  parties  impartially  heard,  the  public  crier, 
by    command    of    the    presiding    magistrate. 


JUS 


558 


JUS 


ordered  the  judges  to  bring  in  their  verdict. 
The  most  ancient  way  of  giving  sentence, 
was  by  white  and  black  sea  shells,  or  pebbles. 
This  custom  has  been  mentioned  by  Ovid  in 
Ihese  lines : — 

A7e«  erad  antiquia,  niveis  atrieque  lapillis, 
I/if!  damnurc  rtos,  iliis  absoloere  culpa. 
"It  was  a  Boston)  among  the  ancients,  to  give 
their  votes  by  white  or  black  stones ;  with 
these  they  condomncd  the  guilty,  with  those 
acquitted  the  innocent."  In  allusion  to  this 
ancient  custom,  our;  Lord  promises  to  give  the 
spiritual  conqueror  "  a  white  stone,"  Rev.  ii, 
17  ;  the  white  stone  of  absolution  or  approba- 
tion. When  sentence  of  condemnation  was 
pronounced,  if  the  case  was  capital,  the  wit- 
nesses put  their  hands  on  the  head  of  the 
criminal,  and  said,  "  Thy  blood  be  upon  thine 
own  head."  To  this  custom  the  Jews  alluded, 
when  they  cried  out  at  the  trial  of  Christ, 
"  His  blood  be  on  us  and  on  our  children." 
Then  was  the  malefactor  led  to  execution, 
and  none  were  allowed  openly  to  lament  his 
misfortune.  His  hands  were  secured  with 
cords,  and  his  feet  with  fetters ;  a  custom 
which  furnished  David  with  an  affecting  allu- 
sion, in  his  lamentation  over  the  dust  of 
Abner  :  "Thy  hands  were  not  bound,  nor  thy 
feet  put  in  fetters,"  2  Sam.  iii,  34 ;  that  is,  he 
was  put  treacherously  to  death,  without  form 
of  justice. 

2.  Executions  in  the  east  are  often  very 
prompt  and  arbitrary,  when  resulting  from 
royal  authority.  In  many  cases  the  suspicion 
is  no  sooner  entertained,  or  the  cause  of 
offence  given,  than  the  fatal  order  is  issued ; 
the  messenger  of  death  hurries  to  the  unsus- 
pecting victim,  shows  his  warrant,  and  exe- 
cutes his  orders  that  instant  in  silence  and 
solitude.  Instances  of  this  kind  are  continually 
occurring  in  the  Turkish  and  Persian  histories. 
When  the  enemies  of  a  great  man  among  the 
Turks  have  gained  influence  enough  over  the 
prince  to  procure  a  warrant  for  his  death,  a 
capidgi,  the  name  of  the  officer  who  executes 
these  orders,  is  sent  to  him,  who  shows  him 
the  order  he  has  received  to  carry  back  his 
head  ;  the  other  takes  the  warrant  of  the  grand 
signior,  kisses  it,  puts  it  on  his  head  in  token 
of  respect,  and  then,  having  performed  his 
ablutions  and  said  his  prayers,  freely  resigns 
his  life.  The  capidgi,  having  strangled  him, 
cuts  off  his  head,  and  brings  it  to  Constan- 
tinople. The  grand  signior's  order  is  implicitly 
obeyed ;  the  servants  of  the  victim  never 
attempt  to  hinder  the  executioner,  although 
these  capidgis  come  very  often  with  few  or  no 
attendants.  It  appears  from  the  writings  of 
Chardin,  that  the  nobility  and  grandees  of 
Persia  are  put  to  death  in  a  manner  equally 
silent,  hasty,  and  unobstructed.  Such  execu- 
tions were  not  uncommon  among  the  Jews 
under  the  government  of  their  kings.  Solo- 
mon sent  Benaiah  as  his  capidgi,  or  execu- 
tioner, to  put  Adonijali,  a  prince  of  his  own 
family,  to^  death  ;  and  Joab,  the  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  forces  in  the  reign  of  his  father. 
A  capidgi  likewise  beheaded  John  the  Baptist 
m  prison,  and  carried  his  head  to  the  court  of 


Herod.  To  such  silent  and  hasty  executioners 
the  royal  preacher  seems  to  refer  in  that  pro- 
verb, "  The  wrath  of  a  king  is  as  messengers  of 
death ;  but  a  wise  man  will  pacify  it,"  Prov. 
xvi,  14 :  his  displeasure  exposes  the  unhappy 
offender  to  immediate  death,  and  may  fill  the 
unsuspecting  bosom  with  terror  and  dismay, 
like  the  appearance  of  a  capidgi ;  but  by  wise 
and  prudent  conduct  a  man  may  sometimes 
escape  the  danger.  From  the  dreadful  prompti- 
tude with  which  Benaiah  executed  the  com- 
mands of  Solomon  on  Adonijah  and  Joab,  it 
may  be  concluded  that  the  executioner  of  the 
court  was  as  little  ceremonious,  and  the  ancient 
Jews,  under  their  kings,  nearly  as  passive,  as 
the  Turks  or  Persians.  The  Prophet  Elisha 
is  the  only  person  on  the  inspired  record  who 
ventured  to  resist  the  bloody  mandate  of  the 
sovereign ;  the  incident  is  recorded  in  these 
terms  :  "  But  Elisha  sat  in  his  house,  and  the 
elders  sat  with  him ;  and  the  king  sent  a  man 
from  before  him ;  but  ere  the  messenger  came 
to  him,  he  said  to  the  elders,  See  how  this  son 
of  a  murderer  hath  sent  to  take  away  mine 
head  1  Look  ye,  when  the  messenger  cometh, 
shut  the  door  and  hold  him  fast  at  the  door ; 
is  not  the  sound  of  his  master's  feet  behind 
him  ?"  2  Kings  vi,  32.  But  if  such  mandates 
had  not  been  too  common  among  the  Jews, 
and  in  general  submitted  to  without  resistance, 
Jehoram  had  scarcely  ventured  to  despatch  a 
single  messenger  to  take  away  the  life  of  so 
eminent  a  person  as  Elisha. 

Criminals  were  at  other  times  executed  in  pub- 
lic ;  and  then  commonly  without  the  city.  To 
such  executions  without  the  gate,  the  Psalm- 
ist undoubtedly  refers  in  this  complaint :  "  The 
dead  bodies  of  thy  saints  have  they  given  to  be 
meat  unto  the  fowls  of  the  heaven ;  the  flesh 
of  thy  saints  unto  the  beasts  of  the  earth  ;  their 
blood  have  they  shed  like  water  round  about 
Jerusalem,  and  there  was  none  to  bury  them," 
Psalm  lxxix,  2,  3.  The  last  clause  admits  of 
two  senses  :  1.  There  was  no  friend  or  rela- 
tion left  to  bury  them.  2.  None  were  allowed 
to  perform  this  last  office.  The  despotism  of 
eastern  princes  often  proceeds  to  a  degree  of 
extravagance  which  is  apt  to  fill  the  mind  with 
astonishment  and  horror.  It  has  been  thought, 
from  time  immemorial,  highly  criminal  to  bury 
those  who  had  lost  their  lives  by  the  hand  of 
an  executioner,  without  permission.  In  Mo- 
rocco, no  person  dares  to  bury  the  body  of  a 
malefactor  without  an  order  from  the  emperor  ; 
and  Windus,  who  visited  that  country,  speak- 
ing of  a  man  who  was  sawn  in  two,  informs 
us,  that  his  body  must  have  remained  to  be 
eaten  by  the  dogs  if  the  emperor  had  not  par- 
doned him ;  an  extravagant  custom  to  pardon 
a  man  after  ho  is  dead ;  but  unless  he  does  so, 
no  person  dares  bury  the  body.  To  such  a 
degree  of  savage  barbarity  it  is  probable  the 
enemies  of  God's  people  carried  their  opposi- 
tion, that  no  person  dared  to  bury  the  dead 
bodies  of  their  innocent  victims. 

In  ancient  times,  persons  of  the  highest 
rank  and  station  were  employed  to  executo 
the  sentence  of  the  law.  They  had  not  then, 
as  we  have  at   present,  public  executioners ; 


JUS 


559 


JUS 


but  the  prince  laid  his  commands  on  any  of 
his  courtiers  whom  he  chose,  and  probably 
selected  the  person  for  whom  he  had  the  great- 
est favour.  Gideon  commanded  Jether,  his 
eldest  son,  to  execute  his  sentence  on  the  kings 
of  Midian  ;  the  king  of  Israel  ordered  the  foot- 
men who  stood  around  him,  and  who  were 
probably  a  chosen  body  of  soldiers  for  the  de- 
fence of  his  person,  to  put  to  death  the  priests 
of  the  Lord ;  and  when  they  refused,  Doeg, 
an  Edomite,  one  of  his  principal  officers. 
Long  after  the  days  of  Saul,  the  reigning 
monarch  commanded  Benaiah,  the  chief  cap- 
tain of  his  armies,  to  perform  that  duty. 
Sometimes  the  chief  magistrate  executed  the 
sentence  of  the  law  with  his  own  hands ;  for 
when  Jether  shrunk  from  the  duty  which  his 
father  required,  Gideon,  at  that  time  the  su- 
preme magistrate  in  Israel,  did  not  hesitate  to 
do  it  himself.  In  these  times  such  a  command 
would  be  reckoned  equally  barbarous  and  un- 
becoming; but  the  ideas  which  were  enter- 
tained in  those  primitive  ages  of  honour  and 
propriety,  were  in  many  respects  extremely 
different  from  ours.  In  Homer,  the  exasperated 
Ulysses  commanded  his  son  Telemachus  to  put 
to  death  the  suitors  of  Penelope,  which  was 
immediately  done.  The  custom  of  employing 
persons  of  high  rank  to  execute  the  sentence 
of  the  law,  is  still  retained  in  the  principality 
of  Senaar,  where  the  public  executioner  is  one 
of  the  principal  nobility  ;  and,  by  virtue  of  his 
office,  resides  in  the  royal  palace. 

JUSTIFICATION,  in  common  language, 
signifies  a  vindication  from  any  charge  which 
affects  the  moral  character;  but  in  theology  it 
is  used  for  the  acceptance  of  one,  by  God,  who 
is,  and  confesses  himself  to  be,  guilty.  To 
justify  a  sinner,  says  Mr.  Bunting,  in  an  able 
sermon  on  this  important  subject,  is  to  account 
and  consider  him  relatively  righteous ;  and  to 


they  whose  iniquities  are  forgiven,  and  whose 
sins  are  covered.    Blessed  is  the  man  to  whom 
the  Lord  will  not  impute  sin,"  Rom.  iv,  5-8. 
Here,   the  justification   of  the   ungodly,   the 
counting  or  imputation  of  righteousness,  the 
forgiveness  of  iniquity,  and  the  covering  and 
non-imputation  of  sin,  are  phrases  which  have 
all,  perhaps,  their  various  shades  of  meaning, 
but   which    express    the    very   same   blessing 
under  different  views.     But  (1.)  the  justifica- 
tion of  a  sinner  does  not  in  the  least  degree 
alter  or  diminish  the  evil  nature  and  desert  of 
sin.     For  we  know  "  it  is  God,"  the  holy  God, 
"that  justifieth."     And  he  can  never  regard 
sin,  on  any  consideration,  or  under  any  cir- 
cumstances, with  less  than  perfect  and  infinite 
hatred.     Sin,  therefore,  is  not  changed  in  its 
nature,  so  as  to  be  made  less  "exceedingly 
sinful,"  or  less  worthy  of  wrath,  by  the  pardon 
of  the  sinner.     The  penalty  is  remitted,  and 
the  obligation  to  suffer  that  penalty  is  dissolved ; 
but  it  is  still  naturally  due,  though  graciously 
remitted.     Hence    appear   the    propriety    and 
duty  of  continuing  to  confess  and  lament  even 
pardoned  sin  with  a  lowly  and  contrite  heart. 
Though  released  from  its  penal  consequences 
by  an  act  of  divine  clemency,  we  should  still 
remember  that  the  dust  of  self-abasement  is 
our  proper  place  before  God,  and  should  tem- 
per our  exultation  in  his  mercy  by  an  humbling 
recollection  of  our  natural  liability  to  his  wrath. 
"  I  will  establish  my  covenant  with  thee,  and 
thou  shalt  know  that  I  am  the  Lord  :  that  thou 
mayest   remember,    and   be  confounded,    and 
never  open  thy  mouth  any  more  because  of 
thy  shame,  when  I  am  pacified  toward  thee 
for   all  that   thou   hast  done,   saith  the  Lord 
God,"  Ezek.  xvi,  62,  63.     (2.)  The  account 
which  has  been  given  of  justification,  if  cor- 
rect, sufficiently  points  out  the  error  of  many 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  divines,  and  of  some 


deal  with  him  as  such,   notwithstanding  his    mystic  theologians,  who  seem  to  suppose  that 


past  actual  unrighteousness,  by  clearing,  ah 
solving,  discharging,  and  releasing  him  from 
various  penal  evils,   and  especially  from  the 
wrath  of  God,  and  the  liability  to  eternal  death, 
which,  by  that  past  unrighteousness,  he  had 
deserved;  and  by  accepting  him  as  if  just,  and 
admitting  him  to  the  state,  the  privileges,  and 
the  rewards  of  righteousness.     Hence  it  ap- 
pears that  justification,  and  the  remission  or 
forgiveness  of  sin,  are  substantially  the  same 
thing.     These  expressions  relate  to  one  and 
the  same  act  of  God,  to  one  and  the  same 
privilege  of  his  believing  people.  Accordingly, 
St.  Paul  clearly  uses  justification  and  forgive- 
ness  as    synonymous   terms,   when   he   says, 
"Be  it  known  unto  you,  therefore,  men  and 
brethren,  that  through  this  man  is  preached 
unto  you  the  forgiveness  of  sins  :  and  by  him 
all  that  believe  are  justified   from  all  things, 
from  which  ye  could  not  be  justified  by  the 
law  of  Moses,"  Acts  xiii,  38,  39.     Also  in  the 
following   passage:    "To   hiin    that  worketh 
not,  but  believeth   on   him  that  justifieth  the 
ungodly,  his  faith  is  counted  for  righteousness. 
Even  as  David  also  describeth  the  blessedness 
of  the  man,  unto  whom  God  imputeth  right- 
eousness without  works,  saying,   Blessed  are 


to  be  justified  is  to  be,  not  reckoned  righteous, 
but  actually  made  righteous,  by  the  infusion 
of  a  sanctifying  influence,  producing  a  positive 
and  inherent  conformity  to  the  moral  image 
of  God.  This  notion  confounds  the  two  dis- 
tinct though  kindred  blessings  of  justification 
and  regeneration.  The  former,  in  its  Scrip- 
tural sense,  is  an  act  of  God,  not  in  or  upon 
man,  but  for  him,  and  in  his  favour ;  an  act 
which,  abstractedly  considered,  to  use  the 
words  of  Dr.  Barrow,  "  respects  man  only  as 
its  object,  and  translates  him  into  another  rela- 
tive state.  The  inherent  principle  of  righteous- 
ness is  a  consequent  of  this  act  of  God  ;  con- 
nected with  it,  but  not  formally  of  it."  (3.)  The 
justification  extends  to  all  past  sins;  that  is, 
to  all  guilt  contracted  previously  to  that  time 
at  which  the  act  of  justification  takes  place. 
In  respect  of  this,  it  is,  while  it  remains  in 
force,  a  most  full,  perfect,  and  entire  absolution 
from  wrath.  "  All  manner  of  sin"  is  then  for- 
given. The  pardon  which  is  granted  is  a  "jus- 
tification," not  merely  from  some  things,  from 
many  things,  from  most  things,  but  "from  all 
things,"  Acts  xiii,  39.  God  does  not  justify 
us,  or  pardon  our  innumerable  offences,  by 
degrees,  but  at  once.     As  by  the  law  of  works> 


JUS 


560 


JUS 


he  is  cursed,  who  "  continueth  not  in  all  things" 
which  that  law  enjoined,  so  he  who  is  truly 
absolved  by  the  Gospel  is  cleared  from  all  and 
every  thing  which  before  stood  against  him  ; 
and  "  there  is  no  condemnation  to  them  that 
are  in  Christ  Jesus."  Well  may  that  Gospel 
which  reveals  and  offers  such  a  benefit  be 
termed  a  "  great  salvation !"  (4.)  Another 
remark,  which  it  may  not  be  unnecessary  to 
make,  is,  that  justification,  however  effectual 
to  our  release  from  past  guilt,  does  not  termi- 
nate our  state  of  probation.  It  is  not  irre- 
versible, -any  more  than  eternal.  As  he  who 
is  now  justified  was  once  condemned,  so  he 
may  in  future  come  again  into  condemnation, 
by  relapsing  into  sin  and  unbelief,  although  at 
present  "accepted  in  the  Beloved."  Thus 
Adam,  before  transgression,  was  in  a  state  of 
favour ;  but  as  he  had  not  then  fulfilled,  to  the 
end  of  his  probation,  the  righteousness  of  that 
law  under  which  he  was  placed,  his  ultimate 
and  final  acceptance  was  not  absolutely  cer- 
tain. His  privilege,  as  one  accepted  of  God, 
might  be  forfeited,  and  was  actually  forfeited, 
by  his  subsequent  sin.  Now  our  own  justifi- 
cation or  pardon  only  places  us,  as  to  this 
point,  in  similar  circumstances.  Though  ever 
so  clearly  and  fully  forgiven,  we  are  yet  on 
our  trial  for  eternity,  and  should  "look  to 
ourselves,  that  we  lose  not  the  things  which 
we  have  gained."  That  justification  may  for 
our  sin  be  reversed,  appears  from  our  Lord's 
parable  of  the  two  debtors,  in  which  one  who 
had  obtained  the  blessing  of  forgiveness  is 
represented  as  incurring  the  forfeiture  of  it  by 
the  indulgence  of  an  unforgiving  spirit  toward 
his  fellow  servant,  Matt,  xviii,  23-35.  Let  us 
therefore  "  watch  and  pray,  that  we  enter  not 
into  temptation." 

2.  The  immediate  results  of  justification  are 
(1.)  The  restoration  of  amity  and  intercourse 
between  the  pardoned  sinner  and  the  pardon- 
ing God.  For,  "being  justified  by  faith,  we 
have  peace  with  God,"  and,  consequently, 
unforbidden  access  to  him.  The  matter  and 
ground  of  God's  controversy  with  us  being 
then  removed  by  his  act  of  gracious  absolu- 
tion, we  become  the  objects  of  his  friendship. 
"  Abraham  believed  God,  and  it  was  imputed 
to  him  for  righteousness;  and  he  was"  imme- 
diately "  called  the  friend  of  God,"  Jas.  ii,  23 ; 
and  so  are  all  those  who  arc  similarly  justified. 
This  reconciliation,  however,  does  not  extend 
to  their  instant  and  absolute  deliverance  from 
all  those  evils  which  transgression  has  entailed 
on  man.  They  are  still  liable,  for  a  season, 
to  affliction  and  pain,  to  temporal  suffering 
and  mortality.  These  are  portions  of  the 
original  curse  from  which  their  justification 
does  not  as  yet  release  them.  But  it  entitles 
them  to  such  supports  under  all  remaining 
trouble,  and  to  such  promises  of  a  sanctifying 
influence  with  it,  as  will,  if  embraced,  "turn 
the  curse  into  a  blessing."  Whom  the  Lord 
loveth,  he  may  still  chasten,  and  in  very  faith- 
fulness afflict  them.  But  these  are  acts  of 
salutary  discipline,  rather  than  of  vindictive 
displeasure.  His  friendship,  not  his  right- 
eous hostility,   is  the   principle  from  which 


they  all  proceed ;  and  the  salvation,  not  the 
destruction,  of  the  sufferer  is  the  end  to  which 
they  are  all  directed.  (2.)  Another  immediate- 
result  of  justification  is  the  adoption  of  the 
persons  justified  into  the  family  of  God,  and 
their  consequent  right  to  eternal  life  of  body 
and  soul.  God  condescends  to  become  not 
only  their  Friend,  but  their  Father ;  they  are 
the  objects  not  merely  of  his  amicable  regard, 
but  of  his  paternal  tenderness.  And,  admitted 
to  the  relation  of  children,  they  become  entitled 
to  the  children's  inheritance  ;  for,  "if  children, 
then  heirs  ;  heirs  of  God,  and  joint  heirs  with 
Christ ;  if  so  be  that  we  suffer  with  him,  that 
we  may  be  also  glorified  together,"  Rom.  viii, 
17.  (3.)  With  these  results  of  justification  is 
inseparably  connected  another,  of  the  utmost 
value  and  importance  ;  namely,  the  habitual 
indwelling  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  "  Christ  hath 
redeemed  us  from  the  curse  of  the  law,  being 
made  a  curse  for  us  ;  that  the  blessing  of  Abra- 
ham might  come  on  the  Gentiles  through  Jesus 
Christ ;  that  we  might  receive  the  promise  of 
the  Spirit  through  faith,"  Gal.  iii,  13,  14. 
"  Because  ye  are  sons,  God  hath  sent  forth 
the  Spirit  of  his  Son  into  your  hearts,"  Gal. 
iv,  6.  With  the  remission  of  sins,  St.  Peter 
also  connects,  as  an  immediate  result,  as  a 
distinct  but  yet  a  simultaneous  blessing,  "the 
gift  of  the  Holy  Ghost,"  Acts  ii,  38.  And  in 
the  fifth  verse  of  this  chapter,  the  Holy  Ghost 
is  said  to  be  given  to  those  who  are  justified 
by  faith.  Of  this  indwelling  the  immediate 
effects  are,  (i.)  Tranquillity  of  conscience.  For 
he  testifies  and  manifests  to  those  in  whom  he 
dwells  their  free  justification  and  gracious 
adoption.  The  spirit  which  such  persons 
have  received  is  "not  the  spirit  of  bondage  to 
fear,  but  the  Spirit  of  adoption,  whereby  we 
cry,  Abba,  Father.  The  Spirit  itself  beareth 
witness  with  our  spirit  that  we  are  the  chil- 
dren of  God,"  Kom.  viii,  15,  16.  (ii.)  Power 
over  sin;  a  prevailing  desire  and  ability  to  walk 
before  God  in  holy  obedience.  No  sooner  is 
the  Holy  Spirit  enthroned  in  the  heart,  than 
he  begins  to  make  all  things  new.  In  his 
genuine  work,  purity  is  always  connected  with 
consolatioa.  Those  to  whom  he  witnesses 
their  freedom  from  condemnation  he  also 
enables  to  "  walk,  not  after  the  flesh,  but 
after  the  Spirit,"  Rom.  viii,  1.  (iii.)  A  joyous 
hope  of  heaven.  Their  title  results  from  the 
fact  of  their  adoption  ;  their  power  to  rejoice 
in  hope,  from  the  Spirit's  testimony  of  that 
fact.  "  We,  through  the  Spirit,  wait  for  the 
hope  of  righteousness  by  faith,"  and  "abound 
in  hope,  through  the  power  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,"  Gal.  v,  5  ;  Rom.  xv,  13. 

3.  To  have  a  complete  view  of  the  method 
by  which  justification  and  all  its  consequent 
blessings  are  attained,  we  must  consider  the 
originating,  the  meritorious,  and  the  instru- 
mental cause  of  justification.  (1 .)  The  origin- 
ating cause  is  the  grace,  the  free,  undeserved, 
and  spontaneous  love  of  God  toward  fallen 
man.  He  remembered  and  pitied  us  in  our 
low  estate  ;  for  his  mercy  endureth  for  ever. 
"  After  that  the  kindness  and  love  of  God  our 
Saviour  toward  man  appeared,  not  by  works 


JUS 


561 


JUS 


of  righteousness  which  we  have  done,  but 
according  to  his  mercy  he  saved  us.  The 
grace  of  God  bringeth  salvation,"  Titus  ii,  11 ; 
iii,  4,  5.  We  are  "  justified  freely  by  his  grace," 
Rom.  iii,  24.  But  God  is  wise,  and  holy,  and 
just,  as  well  as  merciful  and  gracious.  And 
his  wisdom  determined,  that,  in  order  to  recon- 
cile the  designs  of  his  mercy  toward  sinners 
with  the  claims  of  his  purity  and  justice,  those 
designs  should  be  accomplished  only  througli 
the  intervention  of  a  divine  Redeemer.  We 
are  justified  "  through  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ," 
Rom.  i,  5.  (2.)  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  is  the 
sole  meritorious  cause  of  our  justification. 
All  he  did  and  all  he  suffered  in  his  mediatorial 
character  may  be  said  to  have  contributed  to 
this  great  purpose.  For  what  he  did,  in  obe- 
dience to  the  precepts  of  the  law,  and  what  he 
Buffered,  in  satisfaction  of  its  penalty,  taken 
together,  constitute  that  mediatorial  righteous- 
ness, for  the  sake  of  which  the  Father  is  ever 
well  pleased  in  him.  Now,  in  this  mediatorial 
righteousness  all  who  are  justified  have  a 
saving  interest.  It  is  not  meant  that  it  is 
personally  imputed  to  them  in  its  formal  na- 
ture or  distinct  acts  ;  for  against  any  such 
imputation  there  lie  insuperable  objections 
both  from  reason  and  from  Scripture.  But 
the  collective  merit  and  moral  effects  of  all 
which  the  Mediator  did  and  suffered  are  so 
reckoned  to  our  account  when  we  are  justified, 
that,  for  the  sake  of  Christ  and  in  considera- 
tion of  his  obedience  unto  death,  we  are  re- 
leased from  guilt,  and  accepted  of  God.  From 
this  statement  of  the  meritorious  cause  of  jus- 
tification, it  appears  that  while  our  pardon  is, 
in  its  origin,  an  act  of  the  highest  grace,  it  is 
also,  in  its  mode,  an  act  most  perfectly  con- 
sistent with  God's  essential  righteousness,  and 
demonstrative  of  his  inviolable  justice.  It 
proceeds  not  on  the  principle  of  abolishing  the 
law  or  its  penalty ;  for  that  would  have  implied 
that  the  law  was  unduly  rigorous,  either  in  its 
precepts  or  in  its  sanctions.  But  it  rests  on 
the  ground  that  the  law  has  been  magnified 
and  vindicated,  and  that  its  penalty,  or  suffer- 
ings, which  were  fully  equivalent  to  that 
penalty  in  a  moral  view,  when  the  dignity  of 
the  sufferer  is  considered,  have  been  sustained 
by  our  voluntary  Substitute.  Thus  "  grace 
reigns  through  righteousness,"  not  at  the 
expense  of  righteousness.  "  Now,  the  right- 
eousness of  God  without  the  law  is  manifested, 
being  witnessed  by  the  law  and  the  prophets ; 
even  the  righteousness  of  God  which  is  by 
faith  of  Jesus  Christ  unto  all  and  upon  all 
them  that  believe  :  being  justified  freely  by  his 
grace,  through  the  redemption  that  is  in  Christ 
Jesus ;  whom  God  hath  set  forth  to  be  a  pro- 
pitiation through  faith  in  his  blood,  to  declare 
his  righteousness  for  the  remission  of  sins  that 
are  past,  through  the  forbearance  of  God ;  to 
declare,  I  say,  at  this  time  his  righteousness ; 
that  he  might  be  just,  and  the  justifier  of  him 
which  believeth  in  Jesus,"  Romans  iii,  21-26. 
(3.)  As  to  the  instrumental  cause  of  justifica- 
tion, the  merit  of  the  blood  of  Jesus  does  not 
operate  necessarily  so  as  to  produce  our  pardon 
as  an  immediate  and  unavoidable  effect,  but 
37 


through  the  instrumentality  of  faith.  The 
faith  by  which  we  are  justified  is  present  faith, 
faith  actually  existing  and  exercised.  We  are 
not  justified  by  to-morrow's  faith  foreseen  ;  for 
that  would  lead  to  the  Antinomian  notion  of 
justification  from  eternity,  a  notion  which  to 
mention  is  to  confute.  We  are  not  justified 
by  yesterday's  faith  recorded  or  remembered  ; 
for  that  would  imply  the  opinion  that  justifica- 
tion is  irreversible.  The  justification  offered 
in  the  Scriptures  is  a  justification  upon  be- 
lieving, in  which  we  are  never  savingly  inte- 
rested yntil  we  believe,  and  which  continues 
in  force  only  so  long  as  we  continue  to  believe. 
On  all  unbelievers  the  wrath  of  God  abides. 
The  atonement  of  Jesus  was  indeed  accepted, 
as  from  him,  at  the  time  when  it  was  offered  ; 
but  it  is  not  accepted,  as  for  us,  to  our  indi- 
vidual justification,  until  we  individually  be- 
lieve, nor  after  we  cease  to  believe.  The 
object  of  justifying  faith  may  be  inferred  from 
what  has  been  before  said,  as  to  the  originating 
and  meritorious  causes  of  justification.  It  has 
respect,  in  general,  to  all  that  Christ  is  set 
forth  in  the  Gospel  as  doing  or  suffering,  by 
the  gracious  appointment  of  the  Father,  in 
order  to  our  redemption  and  pardon.  But  it 
has  respect,  in  particular,  to  the  atoning  sacri- 
fice of  Christ,  as  exhibited  by  divine  authority 
in  the  Scriptures,  and  as  attested  to  be  accept- 
able and  sufficient  by  his  resurrection  from 
the  dead,  and  by  his  mediatorial  exaltation  at 
the  right  hand  of  God.  The  acts  or  exercises 
of  this  faith  seem  to  be  three  ;  or  rather,  that 
faith  which  is  required  in  order  to  our  justifi- 
cation is  a  complex  act  of  the  mind,  which 
includes  three  distinct  but  concurrent  exertions 
of  its  powers.  It  includes,  (1.)  The  assent  of 
the  understanding  to  the  truth  of  the  testimony 
of  God  in  the  Gospel ;  and  especially  to  that 
part  of  it  which  concerns  the  design  and  effi- 
cacy of  the  death  of  Jesus  as  a  sacrifice  for 
sin.  (2.)  The  consent  of  the  will  and  affections 
to  this  plan  of  salvation  ;  such  an  approbation 
and  choice  of  it  as  imply  a  renunciation  of 
every  other  refuge,  and  a  steady  and  decided 
preference  of  this.  Unbelief  is  called  a  dis- 
allowing of  the  foundation  laid  in  Zion  ;  where- 
as faith  includes  a  hearty  allowance  of  it,  and 
a  thankful  acquiescence  in  God's  revealed 
method  of  forgiveness.  (3.)  From  this  assent 
of  the  enlightened  understanding,  and  consent 
of  the  rectified  will,  to  the  evangelical  testi- 
mony concerning  Christ  crucified,  results  the 
third  thing,  which  is  supposed  to  be  implied 
in  justifying  faith  ;  namely,  actual  trust  in  the 
Saviour,  and  personal  apprehension  of  his 
merits.  When,  under  the  promised  leading 
and  influence  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  the  penitent 
sinner  thus  confidently  relies  and  individually 
lays  hold  on  Christ,  then  the  work  of  justify- 
ing faith  is  complete ;  then,  and  not  till  then, 
he  is  immediately  justified.  On  the  whole,  it 
may  be  said  that  the  faith  to  which  the  privi- 
lege of  justification  is  annexed,  is  such  a  belief 
of  the  Gospel,  by  the  power  of  the  Spirit  of 
God,  as  leads  us  to  come  to  Christ,  to  receive 
Christ,  to  trust  in  Christ,  and  to  commit  the 
keeping  of  our  souls  into  his  hands,  in  humble 


JUS 


562 


KED 


confidence  of  his  ability  and  his  willingness  to 
save  us. 

The  grand  doctrine  of  the  Reformation  was 
that  of  justification  by  faith,  and  was  therefore 
held  by  all  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed  churches. 
The  Papists  assert  that  man's  inherent  right- 
eousness is  the  meritorious  cause  of  his  justifi- 
cation ;  many  Protestant  divines  have  endea- 
voured to  unite  the  two,  and  have  held  that 
men  are  justified   by  faith  and  good  works  ; 
and  others    have    equally  departed   from    the 
opinions  of  the  earliest  reformers  on  the  sub- 
ject of  justification,  in  representing  it  as  result- 
ing from  the  imputation  of  Christ's  activo  and 
passive    righteousness  to  those   that  believe, 
instead   of  confining   the   imputation    to   the 
moral   consequence   and  effect  of  both.      In 
other  words,  that  which  is  reckoned  to  us  in 
our  justification  for  righteousness  is  our  faith 
in  Christ's  merits,  and  that  not  because  of  any 
intrinsic  value  in  faith ;  but  only  for  the  sake 
of  those  merits.     In  a  mere  moral  sense  man's 
sin  or  righteousness  is  imputed  to  him,  when 
he  is  considered  as  actually  the  doer  of  sinful 
or  of  righteous  acts.   A  man's  sin  or  righteous- 
ness is  imputed  to  him  in  its  legal  consequence, 
under  a  government  of  rewards  and  punish- 
ments ;  and  then  to  impute  sin  or  righteous- 
ness signifies,  in  a  legal  sense,  to  reckon  and 
to  account  it,  to  acquit  or  condemn,  and  forth- 
with to  punish,  or  to  exempt  from  punishment. 
Thus    Shimei  entreats  David,  that  he  would 
"not  impute  folly  to  him,"  that  is,  that  he 
would  not  punish  his  folly.    In  this  sense,  too, 
David  speaks  of  the  blessedness  of  the  man 
whose    "  transgression   is    forgiven,"    and   to 
whom  the  Lord  "  imputeth  not  sin,"  that  is, 
whom  he  forgives,   so  that  the  legal  conse- 
quence of  his  sin  shall  not  fall  upon  him.  This 
non-imputation  of  sin,  to  a  sinner,  is  expressly 
called  the  "  imputation  of  righteousness,  with- 
out works  ;"  the  imputation  of  righteousness  is, 
then,  the  non-punishment,  or  the  pardon  of  sin  ; 
and  if  this  passage  be  read  in  its  connection, 
it  will  also  be  seen,  that  by  "imputing"  faith 
for  righteousness,  the  Apostle  means  precisely 
the  same  tiring:  "  But  to  him  that  workelh  not, 
but  believeth  on  him  that  justifieth  the  ungodly, 
his  faith  is  counted  for  righteousness ;  even  as 
David  also  describeth  the  man  to  whom  God 
imputeth  righteousness  without  works,  saying, 
Blessed  is  the  man  whose  iniquities  are  for- 
given, and  whose  sins  are  covered.     Blessed 
is  the  man  to  whom  the  Lord  imputeth  not 
sin."     This  quotation  from  David  would  have 
been  nothing  to  the  Apostle's  purpose,  unless 
he  had  understood  the  forgiveness  of  sins,  and 
the  imputation  of  righteousness,  and  the  non- 
iinputation  of  sin,  to  signify  the  same  thing  as 
"counting  faith  for  righteousness,"  with  only 
this  difference,  that  the  introduction    of  the 
term  "faith"  marks  the  manner  in  which  the 
forgiveness  of  sin  is  obtained.     To  have  faith 
imputed  for  righteousness,   is  nothing  more 
than   to  bo  justified   by   faith,   which   is  also 
called  by  St.  Paul,  "  being  made  righteous," 
that  is,  being  placed  by  an  act  of  free  forgive- 
ness, through  faith  in  Christ,  in  the  condition 
of  righteous  men,   in  this   respect,  that  the 


penalty  of  the  law  does  not  lie  against  them, 
and  that  they  are  the  acknowledged  objects  of 
the  divine  favour.     See  Faith. 

KADESII-BARNEA,  a  station  of  the  Is- 
raelites, to  which  they  returned  again  after 
thirty-eight  years,  is  said  to  be  in  the  wilder- 
ness of  Zin,  Num.  xiii,  21 ;  xx,  1 ;  Deut. 
xxxii,  51 ;  but  in  the  wilderness  of  Paran, 
Num.  xii,  1G.  In  the  Itinerary  it  is  simply 
called  Rithmah,  "  the  wilderness."  Dr.'  Hales 
observes,  that  Wells,  Shaw,  the  authors  of  the 
"  Universal  History,"  &c,  have  greatly  per- 
plexed and  obscured  the  geography  of  this 
Itinerary,  by  supposing  that  there  were  two 
places  of  this  name  distinct  from  each  other. 
They  consider  the  latter  of  them  as  situated 
on  the  western  side  of  Mount  Hor,  toward  the 
land  of  Canaan,  and  thus  confound  it  with 
that  Kadesh  in  the  land  of  the  Philistines, 
where  Abraham  sojourned,  Gen.  xvi,  13  ;  xx,  1. 
But  that  it  lay  on  the  east  side  of  Mount  Hor, 
is  evident ;  for  why  should  Moses  send  mes- 
sengers from  Kadesh  to  the  king  of  Edom. 
requesting  permission  to  pass  through  his  ter- 
ritories in  the  way  to  Canaan,  if  they  were 
already  at  the  verge  of  Palestine,  Num.  xx,  14  ? 
This  application,  however,  was  necessary  if 
his  territories  were  situated  between  Canaan 
and  the  Israelites.  The  true  situation  of  Ka- 
desh is  ascertained  beyond  a  doubt,  from  its 
lying  between  Mount  Hor  and  Ezion-Geber, 
on  the  Elanitic  Gulf,  Num.  xxxiii,  35-37. 

KADMONITES,  ancient  inhabitants  of  the 
land  of  Canaan,  whose  habitation  wastieyond 
Jordan,  to  the  east  of  Phenicia,  Gen.  xv,  19. 
The  Kadmonites  were  descended  from  Canaan, 
the  son  of  Ham.  It  has  been  conjectured  that 
the  celebrated  Cadmus,  the  founder  of  Thebes 
in  Bccotia,  was  originally  a  Kadmonite ;  and 
that  his  wife,  Hermione,  was  so  named  from 
Mount  Hermon. 

KEDAR.  This  name  signifies  black  in  the 
original ;  and  hence  Bochart  concludes  that  it 
refers  to  a  people  or  tribe  of  Arabs  who  were 
more  than  others  burned  by  the  sun  ;  but  none 
of  the  Arabs  are  black.  The  name  is  also  sup. 
posed  to  refer  to  the  black  tents  made  of  felt, 
which  arc  still  in  use ;  and  Cant,  i,  5,  is  quoted 
in  support  of  this  usage  of  the  word :  "  I  am 
black,  but  comely  as  the  tents  of  Kedar."  But 
the  Arabic  root  is  by  some  said  to  signify 
power  and  dignity.  Kedar  was  the  second  son 
of  Ishmael,  whose  family  probably  became 
more  numerous,  or  more  warlike,  than  those 
of  his  brethren,  and  so  took  precedence  of 
name.  This  latter  supposition  appears  proba- 
ble from  the  manner  in  which  they  are  men- 
tioned by  Isaiah,  xxi,  16,  17,  who  speaks  of 
"  the  glory  of  Kedar,"  and  "the  archers  and 
mighty  men  of  Kedar."  Their  flocks  are  also 
spoken  of  by  the  same  Prophet,  Isaiah  lx,  7, 
together  with  those  of  Ncbaioth,  whose  tribe 
or  family  both  shared  and  outlived  the  glory 
of  Kedar. 

KEDRON,  a  small  brook  which,  rising  near 
Jerusalem,  runs  through  the  valley  on  the  east 
of  the  city,  between  it  and  the  Mount  of  Olives. 
Descending  into  the  valley  from  St.  Stephen's. 


KET 


563 


KID 


gate,  the  traveller  comes  to  the  bed  of  the 
brook  Kedron,  which  is  but  a  few  paces  over. 
This  brook  is  stated  by  Pococke  to  have  its 
rise  a  little  way  farther  to  the  north,  but  its 
source  does  not  appear  to  have  been  ascer- 
tained. Like  the  Ilissus,  it  is  dry  at  least  nine 
months  in  the  year;  its  bed  is  narrow  and 
deep,  which  indicates  that  it  must  formerly 
have  been  the  channel  for  waters  that  have 
found  some  other  and  probably  subterranean 
course.  There  is  now  no  water  in  it,  except 
after  heavy  rains.  A  bridge  is  thrown  over  it  a 
little  below  the  gate  of  St.  Stephen ;  and  they 
say,  that  when  there  is  water,  unless  the  torrent 
swells  much,  which  very  rarely  occurs,  it  all 
runs  under  ground  to  the  north  of  this  bridge. 
The  course  of  the  brook  is  along  the  valley  of 
Jehoshaphat,  to  the  south-west  corner  of  the 
city,  and  then  turning  to  the  south,  it  runs  to 
the  Dead  Sea. 

KEN1TES,  people  who  dwelt  westward  of 
the  Dead  Sea,  and  extended  themselves  pretty 
far  into  Arabia  Petrcea ;  for  Jethro,  the  priest 
of  Midian,  and  father-in-law  to  Moses,  was  a 
Kenite,  Judges  i,  10;  1  Chron.  ii,  55;  1  Sam. 
xv,  6.  When  Saul  was  sent  to  destroy  the 
Amalekites,  the  Kcnites,  who  had  joined  them, 
perhaps  by  compulsion,  were  ordered  to  depart 
from  them,  that  they  might  not  share  in  their 
fate ;  and  the  reason  assigned  was,  that  they 
"showed  kindness  to  the  children  of  Israel 
when  they  came  up  out  of  Egypt,"  1  Sam.  xv,  6. 
Which,  according  to  the  margin  of  our  Bible, 
is  to  be  understood  of  the  father-in-law  of 
Moses  and  his  family.  From  the  story  of 
Jethro,  who  is  expressly  said  to  bo  a  Midianite, 
they  appear  to  have  retained  the  worship  of  the 
true  God  among  them ;  for  which,  and  their 
kindness  to  the  Israelites  when  passing  their 
country,  they  were  spared  in  the  general  de- 
struction of  the  nations  bordering  on  Canaan. 
Of  these  Kenites  were  the  Rechabites,  the 
Tirathites,  the  Shimeathites,  and  the  Sucha- 
thites,  mentioned  in  1  Chron.  ii,  55,  whose 
chief  office  was  that  of  scribes.  (See  Recha- 
bites.) Balaam,  when  invited  by  Balak,  king 
of  Moab,  to  curse  Israel,  stood  upon  a  mount- 
ain, whence  he  addressed  the  Kenites,  and 
said,  "  Strong  is  thy  dwelling  place,  and  thou 
puttest  thy  nest  in  a  rock ;  nevertheless,  the 
Kenite  shall  he  wasted  until  Ashur  shall  carry 
thee  away  captive,"  Num.  xxiv,  21,  22.  The 
Kenites  dwelt  in  mountains  and  rocks  almost 
inaccessible.  They  were  conquered  and  car- 
ried into  captivity  by  Nebuchadnezzar.  After 
Saul  the  Kenites  are  not  mentioned ;  but  they 
subsisted,  being  mingled  among  the  Edomites 
and  other  nations  of  Arabia  Petroea. 

KENIZZITES,  an  ancient  people  of  Ca- 
naan, whose  land  God  promised  to  tho  de- 
scendants of  Abraham,  Gen.  xv,  19.  It  is 
thought  that  this  people  dwelt  in  tho  mount- 
ains  south  of  Judea. 

KETURAII,  the  name  of  Abraham's  second 
wife.  Abraham  married  Keturah,  when  he 
was  one  hundred  and  forty  years  of  age,  and 
by  her  he  had  six  sons,  Zimram,  Jokshan, 
Mcdan,  Midian,  Ishbak,  and  Shuah.  Some 
chronologers,  as  Bishop  Clayton,  Hallet,  &c, 


thinking  it  improbable  that  Abraham  should 
marry  again  at  such  an  advanced  age,  have 
dislocated  the  chronology  of  this  period,  by 
supposing  that  Abraham  took  Kcturali  as  a 
concubine,  in  consequence  of  his  wife  Sarah's 
barrenness,  even  before  he  left  Charran  ;  and 
that  Keturah's  children  were  among  the  souls 
born  to  him  and  Lot  during  their  residence  in 
that  country.  But  it  seems  evident  from  the 
whole  tenor  of  the  history,  that  Abraham  was 
childless  until  the  birth  of  Ishmael,  Gen. 
xv,  2,  3 ;  that  he  had  no  other  son  than  Ish- 
mael when  he  received  the  promise  of  Isaac, 
Gen.  xvii,  18 ;  and  that  Isaac  and  Ishmael 
jointly,  as  his  eldest  sons,  celebrated  his  fune- 
ral, Gen.  xxv,  9.  His  second  marriage,  at  the 
age  of  one  hundred  and  forty  years,  shows  his 
faith  in  tho  divine  promise,  that  he  should  be 
"  a  father  of  many  nations ;"  for  which  purpose 
his  constitution  might  be  miraculously  re- 
newed, as  Sarah's  was.  Beside,  Abraham  him- 
self was  born  when  his  father  Terah  Was  one 
hundred  and  thirty  years  of  age.  Abraham 
settled  the  sons  of  Keturah  in  the  east  country 
of  Arabia,  near  the  residence  of  Ishmael. 

KEY  is  frequently  mentioned  in  Scripture, 
as  well  in  a  natural  as  in  a  figurative  sense. 
The  keys  of  the  ancients  were  very  different 
from  ours ;  because  their  doors  and  trunks 
were  closed  generally  with  bands,  and  the  key 
served  only  to  loosen  or  fasten  these  bands  in 
a  certain  manner.  In  a  moral  sense  key  has 
many  significations:  "And  the  key  of  the 
house  of  David  will  I  lay  upon  his  shoulder  : 
so  he  shall  open,  and  none  shall  shut ;  and 
he  shall  shut,  and  none  shall  open,"  Isaiah 
xxii,  22, — he  shall  be  grand  master  and  prin- 
cipal officer  of  his  prince's  house.  Christ 
promises  to  St.  Peter,  that  he  should  first  open 
the  gate  of  his  kingdom,  both  to  Jew  and 
Gentile,  in  making  the  first  converts  among 
them,  Matt,  xvi,  19,  It  is  observable  that  no 
supremacy  is  here  given  to  St.  Peter ;  as  the 
power  of  binding  and  loosing  belonged  equally 
to  all  the  Apostles,  Matt,  xviii,  18.  The  term 
binding  and  loosing  was  customarily  applied 
by  the  Jews  to  a  decision  respecting  doctrines 
or  rites,  establishing  which  were  lawful  and 
which  unlawful.  (See  Bind.)  And  it  may 
also  denote,  to  bind  with  sickness,  and  to 
loose  by  restoring  to  health.  Jesus  Christ 
says  that  he  has  the  key  of  death  and  hell, 
Rev.  i,  18 ;  that  is,  it  is  in  his  power  to  bring 
to  the  grave,  or  to  deliver  from  it ;  to  appoint 
to  life  or  to  death. 

KIBROTH  HATAAVAII,  one  of  the  en- 
campments of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness. 
Numbers  xi,  34,  35. 

KID,  nJ,  the  young  of  the  goat.  Among 
the  Hebrews  the  kid  was  reckoned  a  great 
delicacy  ;  and  appears  to  have  been  served  for 
food  in  preference  to  the  lamb.  .  (See  Goat.) 
It  continues  to  be  a  choice  dish  in  the  neigh- 
bouring countries.  "  After  drinking,"  says 
Salt,  "  caff  a  la  Sultanc,  as  it  is  termed  by 
French  writers,  hookahs  were  offered  to  us  ; 
and  soon  afterward,  to  my  great  surprise,  din- 
ner was  announced.  We  accordingly  retired 
with  the  dola  of  Aden  to  another  apartment, 


KIN 


564 


KIN 


where  a  kid,  broiled  and  cut  into  small  pieces, 
with  a  quantity  of  pillaued  rice,  was  served  up 
to  us,  agreeably  to  the  fashion  of  the  country. 
No  people  in  the  world  is  more  straitened  than 
the  Abyssinians  with  respect  to  the  necessaries 
of  life  :  a  little  juwarry  broad,  a  small  quantity 
of  fish,  an  adequate  supply  of  goat's  and 
camel's  milk,  and  a  kid  on  very  particular  oc- 
casions, constitute  the  whole  of  their  subsist- 
ence. As  soon  as  we  arrived  at  the  village 
of  Howakil,  a  very  neat  hut  was  prepared  for 
me ;  and  as  the  evening  was  far  advanced,  I 
consented  to  stay  for  the  night.  Nothing 
could  exceed  the  kindness  of  these  good  peo- 
ple ;  a  kid  was  killed,  and  a  quantity  of  fresh 
milk  was  brought  and  presented  in  straw 
baskets  made  of  the  leaves  of  the  doom  tree, 
seared  over  with  wax,  a  manufacture  in  which 
the  natives  of  these  islands  particularly  excel." 
The  village  of  Engedi,  situate  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Jericho,  derives  its  name  from  the, 
Hebrew  word  py,  a  fountain,  and  f\},  a  kid.  It 
is  suggested  by  the  situation  among  lofty  rocks, 
which,  overhanging  the  valleys,  are  very  pre- 
cipitous. A  fountain  of  pure  water  rises  near 
the  summit,  which  the  inhabitants  called  En- 
gedi, "the  fountain  of  the  goat,"  because  it  is 
hardly  accessible  to  any  other  creature. 

KINGDOM,  in  Scripture,  is  a  term  of  fre- 
quent occurrence,  and  variously  applied.  Thus 
we  read  of  the  kingdom  of  God,  Psalm  ciii,  19  ; 
Dan.iv,  3 ;  or  his  universal  empire  and  dominion 
over  all  creatures;  in  reference  to  which  it  is 
said,  "Jehovah  is  a  great  God,  and  a  great  King 
above  all  gods,"  Psalm  xcv,  3.  "  His  throne 
is  established  in  the  heavens,  and  his  kingdom 
ruleth  over  all."  Again :  we  frequently  read 
in  the  evangelists  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven ; 
a  phrase,  says  Dr.  Campbell,  in  which  there  is 
a  manifest  allusion  to  the  predictions  in  which 
the  dispensation  of  the  Messiah  wTas  revealed 
by  the  prophets  in  the  Old  Testament,  par- 
ticularly by  Daniel,  who  mentions  it  as  "  a 
kingdom  which  the  God  of  heaven  would  set 
up,  and  which  should  never  be  destroyed," 
Dan.  ii,  44.  The  same  prophet  also  speaks  of 
it  as  a  kingdom  to  be  given,  with  glory  and 
dominion  over  all  people,  nations,  and  lan- 
guages, to  one  like  unto  the  Son  of  man,  Dan. 
vii,  13, 14.  And  the  Prophet  Micah,  speaking 
of  the  same  era,  represents  it  as  a  time  when 
Jehovah,  having  removed  all  the  afflictions  of 
his  people,  would  reign  over  them  in  Mount 
Zion  thenceforth  even  for  ever,  Micah  iv,  6,  7. 
According  to  the  prophecy  of  Daniel,  this 
kingdom  was  to  take  place  during  the  existence 
of  the  Roman  empire,  the  last  of  the  four  great 
monarchies  that  had  succeeded  each  other, 
Dan.  ii,  44.  And  as  it  was  set  up  by  the  God 
of  heaven,  it  is,  in  the  New  Testament,  termed 
"the  kingdom  of  God,"  or  "the  kingdom  of 
'<■"  It  v,  us  typified  by  the  Jewish  theo- 
cracy, and  declared  to  be  at  hand  by  John  the 
Baptist,  and  by  Christ  and  his  Apostles  also 
in  the  days  of  his  flesh ;  but  it  did  not  come 
with  power  till  Jesus  rose  from  the  dead  and 
^at  down  on  the  right  hand  of  the  Majesty  on 
high,  Acts  ii,  3-J-37.  Then  was  he  most 
solemnly  inaugurated,  and  proclaimed  King  of 


the  New  Testament  church,  amidst  adoring 
myriads  of  attendant  angels,  and  "the  spirits 
of  just  men  made  perfect."  Then  were  fulfil- 
led the  words  of  Jehovah  by  the  Psalmist  Da- 
vid, "  I  have  set  my  King  upon  my  holy  hill 
of  Zion,"  Psalm  ii,  6.  This  is  that  spiritual 
empire  to  which  he  himself  referred  when  in- 
terrogated before  Pontius  Pilate,  and  in  refer- 
ence to  which  he  said,  "  My  kingdom  is  not 
of  this  world,"  John  xviii,  36,  37.  His  empire, 
indeed,  extends  to  every  creature ;  for  "  all 
authority  is  committed  into  his  hands,  both  in 
heaven  and  on  earth,"  and  he  is  "  head  over 
all  things  to  the  church  ;"  but  his  kingdom 
primarily  imports  the  Gospel  church,  which  is 
the  subject  of  his  laws,  the  seat  of  his  govern- 
ment, and  the  object  of  his  care ;  and,  being 
surrounded  with  powerful  opposers,  he  is  repre- 
sented as  ruling  in  the  midst  of  his  enemies. 
This  kingdom  is  not  of  a  worldly  origin,  or 
nature,  nor  has  it  this  world  for  its  end  or  ob- 
ject. It  can  neither  be  promoted  nor  defended 
by  worldly  power,  influence,  or  carnal  weapons, 
but  by  bearing  witness  unto  the  truth,  or  by  the 
preaching  of  the  Gospel  with  the  Holy  Ghost 
sent  down  from  heaven.  Its  real  subjects  are 
only  those  who  are  of  the  truth,  and  hear 
Christ's  voice ;  for  none  can  enter  it  but  such 
as  are  born  from  above,  John  iii,  3-5  ;  nor  can 
any  be  visible  subjects  of  it,  But  such  as  appear  to 
be  regenerated,  by  a  credible  profession  of  faith 
and  obedience.  Its  privileges  and  immunities 
are  not  of  this  world,  but  such  as  are  spiritual 
and  heavenly ;  they  are  all  spiritual  blessings  in 
heavenly  things  in  Christ  Jesus,  Ephesians  i,  3. 
KINGS.  This  word  does  not  always  imply 
the  same  degree  of  power,  nor  the  same  degree 
of  importance  ;  nor  does  it  imply  the  magni- 
tude of  the  dominion  or  territory  of  these  offi- 
cers. In  Scripture  many  persons  are  called 
kings,  whom  we  should  rather  denominate 
chiefs  or  leaders  ;  and  many  single  towns,  or, 
at  most,  together  with  their  adjacent  villages, 
are  said  to  have  had  kings.  Not  aware  of  this 
lower  sense  of  the  word  king,  or  unwilling  to 
adapt  it,  many  persons  have  been  embarrassed 
by  the  following  passage  :  "Moses  commanded 
us  a  law, — he  was  king  in  Jeshurun,"  Deut. 
xxxiii,  4,  5,  or  king  among  the  Israelites ;  that 
is,  he  was  the  principal  among  the  assembly 
of  the  superiors  of  the  Israelites.  Some  refer 
this  to  Jehovah.  Moses  was  the  chief,  the 
leader,  the  guide  of  his  people,  fulfilling  the 
duties  of  a  king  ;  but  he  was  not  king  in  the 
same  sense  as  David  or  Solomon  was  after- 
ward. This  remark  reconciles  the  following 
observation  :  "  These  kings  reigned  in  Edom, 
before  there  reigned  any  king  over  the  children 
of  Israel,"  Gen.  xxxvi,  31 ;  for  Moses,  though 
he  was  king  in  an  inferior  sense,  did  not  reign, 
in  the  stronger  sense,  over  the  children  of  Is- 
rael, their  constitution  not  being  monarchical 
under  him.  Beside,  we  find  in  Joshua,  that 
almost  every  town  in  Canaan  had  its  king; 
and  we  know  that  the  territories  of  these  towns 
must  have  been  very  inconsiderable,  Joshua 
xii,  9-24.  Adonizedek,  himself  no  very  power- 
ful king,  mentions  seventy  kings  whom  he  had 
subdued  and  mutilated. 


KIT 


565 


KOR 


Kings,  Books  of.  The  first  book  of  Kings 
commences  with  an  account  of  the  death  of 
David,  and  contains  a  period  of  a  hundred  and 
twenty-six  years,  to  the  death  of  Jehoshaphat ; 
and  the  second  book  of  Kings  continues  the 
history  of  the  kings  of  Israel  and  Judah 
through  a  period  of  three  hundred  years,  to  the 
destruction  of  the  city  and  temple  of  Jerusa- 
lem by  Nebuchadnezzar.  These  two  books 
formed  only  one  in  the  Hebrew  canon,  and 
they  were  probably  compiled  by  Ezra  from  the 
records  which  were  regularly  kept,  both  in 
Jerusalem  and  Samaria,  of  all  public  transac- 
tions. These  records  appear  to  have  been 
made  by  the  contemporary  prophets,  and  fre- 
quently derived  their  names  from  the  kings 
whose  history  they  contained.  They  are  men- 
tioned in  many  parts  of  Scripture ;  thus  1  Kings 
xi,  41,  we  read  of  the  book  of  the  Acts  of  Solo- 
mon, which  is  supposed  to  have  been  written 
by  Nathan,  Ahijah,  and  Iddo,  2  Chron.  ix,  29. 
We  elsewhere  read  that  Shemaiah  the  pro- 
phet, and  Iddo  the  seer,  wrote  the  Acts  of  Re- 
hoboam,  2  Chron.  xii,  15  ;  that  Jehu  wrote  the 
Acts  of  Jehoshaphat,  2  Chron.  xx,  34 ;  and  Isaiah 
those  of  Uzziah  and  Hezekiah,  2  Chron.  xxvi, 
22 ;  xxxii,  32.  We  may  therefore  conclude, 
that  from  these  public  records,  and  other  au- 
thentic documents,  were  composed  the  two 
books  of  Kings ;  and  the  uniformity  of  their 
style  favours  the  opinion  of  their  being  put 
into  their  present  shape  by  the  same  person. 

KISHON.  "  That  ancient  river,  the  river 
Kishon,"  falls  into  the  bay  of  Acre,  and  has 
its  source  in  the  hills  to  the  east  of  the  plain 
of  Esdraelon,  which  it  intersects.  Being 
enlarged  by  several  small  streams,  it  passes 
between  Mount  Carmel  and  the  hills  to  the 
north,  and  then  falls  into  the  sea  at  this  point. 
In  the  condition  we  saw  it,  says  Maundrell, 
its  waters  were  low  and  inconsiderable  ;  but  in 
passing  along  the  side  of  the  plain,  we  discern- 
ed the  tracts  of  many  lesser  torrents,  falling 
down  into  it  from  the  mountains,  which  must 
needs  make  it  swell  exceedingly  upon  sudden 
rains,  as  doubtless  it  actually  did  at  the  destruc- 
tion of  Sisera's  host. 

KISS,  a  mode  of  salutation,  and  token  of 
respect,  which  has  been  practised  in  all  nations. 
It  was  also  in  ordinary  use  among  the  Jews ; 
hence  Judas  in  this  way  saluted  his  Master. 
But  there  was  also  the  kiss  of  homage,  as  one 
of  the  ceremonies  performed  at  the  inaugura- 
tion of  the  kings  of  Israel.  The  Jews  called 
it  the  kiss  of  majesty.  Psalm  ii,  12,  seems  to 
be  an  allusion  to  this.  St.  Paul  speaks  fre- 
quently of  the  kiss  of  peace,  which  was  in  use 
among  believers,  and  was  given  by  them  to 
one  another  as  a  token  of  charity  and  union, 
publicly  in  their  religious  assemblies,  Heb.  xiii, 
24.  Kissing  the  feet  is  in  eastern  countries 
expressive  of  exuberant  gratitude  or  reverence. 

KITE,  n>N,  Lev.  xi,  14;  Deut.  xiv  13;  Job 
xxviii,  7.  Bochart  supposes  this  to  be  the  bird 
which  the  Arabians  call  the  ja-jao,  from  its 
note ;  and  which  the  ancients  named  cesalon, 
"the  merlm,"  a  bird  celebrated  for  its  sharp- 
eightedness.  This  faculty  is  referred  to  in  Job 
xxviii,  7,  where  the  word  is  rendered  "vul- 


ture." As  a  noun  masculine  plural,  D"N,  in 
Isaiah  xiii,  22 ;  xxxiv,  14 ;  and  Jer.  1,  39,  Bo- 
chart says  that  jackals  are  intended  ;  but,  by 
the  several  contexts,  particularly  the  last,  it 
may  well  mean  a  kind  of  unclean  bird,  and  so 
be  the  same  with  that  mentioned  above. 

KOHATH,  the  second  son  of  Levi,  and 
father  of  Amram,  Izhar,  Hebron,  and  Uzziel, 
Gen.  xlvi,  11 ;  Exod.  vi,  18.  Kohath's  family 
was  appointed  to  carry  the  ark  and  sacred 
vessels  of  the  tabernacle,  while  the  Israelites 
marched  through  the  wilderness,  Num.  iv,  &c. 

KORAH  was  the  son  of  Izhar,  of  the  race 
of  Levi,  and  father  of  Asher,  Elkanah,  and 
Aliasaph,  and  head  of  the  Korites,  a  celebrated 
family  among  the  Levites.  Korah,  being  dis- 
satisfied with  the  rank  he  held  among  the  sons 
of  Levi,  and  envying  the  authority  of  Moses 
and  Aaron,  formed  a  party  against  them,  in 
which  he  engaged  Dathan,  Abiram,  and  On, 
with  two  hundred  and  fifty  of  the  principal 
Levites,  Num.  xvi,  1-3,  &,c.  Korah,  at  the 
head  of  the  rebels,  went  to  Moses  and  Aaron, 
and  complained  that  they  alone  arrogated  to 
themselves  all  the  authority  over  the  people 
of  the  Lord.  Moses  falling  with  his  face  on 
the  earth,  answered  them  as  follows :  "  To- 
morrow, in  the  morning,  the  Lord  will  discover 
who  are  his.  Let  every  one  of  you  take,  there- 
fore, his  censer,  and  to-morrow  he  shall  put 
incense  into  it,  and  offer  it  before  the  Lord ; 
and  he  shall  bo  acknowledged  priest  whom  the 
Lord  shall  choose  and  approve."  The  next 
day,  Korah,  with  two  hundred  and  fifty  of  his 
faction,  presenting  themselves  with  their  cen- 
sers beTore  the  Lord,  the  glory  of  the  Lord 
appeared  visibly  over  the  tabernacle,  and  a 
voice  was  heard  to  say,  "  Separate  yourselves 
from  among  this  congregation,  that  I  may  co'n- 
sume  them  in  a  moment."  Upon  this,  Moses 
and  Aaron,  falling  with  their  faces  to  the 
ground,  said,  ",0  God,  the  God  of  the  spirits 
of  all  flesh,  shall  one  man  sin,  and  wilt  thou 
be  wroth  with  all  the  congregation  ?"  And  the 
Lord  said  unto  Moses,  "  Command  all  the  peo- 
ple to  depart  from  about  the  tents  of  Korah, 
Dathan,  and  Abiram."  When,  therefore,  the 
people  were  retired,  Moses  said,  "  If  these  men 
die  the  common  death  of  all  men,  then  the 
Lord  hath  not  sent  me  ;  but  if  the  earth  open 
and  swallow  them  up  quick,  ye  shall  know 
that  they  have  blasphemed  the  Lord."  As  soon 
as  he  had  spoken,  the  earth  opened  from  under 
their  feet,  and  swallowed  them  up  with  what 
belonged  to  thorn.  There  was  one  thing  which 
added  to  this  surprising  wonder,  and  which 
was,  that  when  Korah  was  thus  swallowed  up 
in  the  earth,  his  sons  were  preserved  from  his 
misfortunes.  We  know  not  the  exact  year 
in  which  the  death  of  Korah  and  his  com- 
panions happened.  The  sons  of  Korah  con- 
tinued as  beforo  to  serve  in  the  tabernacle  of 
the  Lord.  David  appointed  them  their  office 
in  the  temple,  to  guard  the  doors,  and  sing  the 
praises  of  God.  To  them  are  ascribed  several 
psalms,  which  are  designated  by  the  name  of 
Korah ;  as  the  forty-second,  forty-fourth  to 
the  forty-ninth,  eighty-fourth  to  the  eighty- 
seventh  ;  in  all,  eleven  pealms. 


LAM 


566 


LAM 


LABAN,  the  son  of  Bethuel,  grandson  of 
Nahor,  brother  to  Rebekah,  and  father  of 
Rachel  and  Leah,  (Jen.  .x.wiii,  2,  &c.  Of  tliis 
man,  the  first  thing  we  hoar  is  his  entertain- 
ment of  Abraham's  servant  when  be  came  on 
his  errand  to  Rebekah.  Hospitality  was  the 
virtue  of  his  age  and  country.  In  his  case, 
however,  it  seems  to  have  been  no  little  sti- 
mulated by  the  sight  of  "  the  ear  ring  and 
the  bracelets  on  his  sister's  hands,"  which  the 
servant  had  already  given  her,  Gen.  xxiv,  30  ; 
so  he  speedily  made  room  for  the  camels.  He 
next  is  presented  to  us  as  beguiling  that  sis- 
ter's sou,  who  had  sought  a  shelter  in  his 
house,  and  whose  circumstances  placed  him  at 
his  mercy,  of  fourteen  years'  service,  when  he 
had  covenanted  with  him  for  seven  only;  en- 
deavouring to  retain  his  labour  when  he  would 
not  pay  him  his  labour's  worth,  himself  devour- 
ing the  portion  which  he  should  have  given  to 
his  daughters,  counting  them  but  as  strangers, 
Gen.  xxxi,  15.  Compelled,  at  length,  to  pay 
Jacob  wages,  he  changes  them  ten  times, 
and,  in  the  spirit  of  a  crafty,  griping  world- 
ling, makes  him  account  for  whatever  of  the 
flock  was  torn  of  beasts  or  stolen,  whether  by 
day  or  night.  When  Jacob  flies  from  this 
iniquitous  service  with  his  family  and  cattle, 
Laban  still  pursues  and  persecutes  him,  intend- 
ing, if  his  intentions  had  not  been  overruled 
by  a  mightier  hand,  to  send  him  away  empty, 
even  after  he  had  been  making,  for  so  long  a 
period,  so  usurious  a  profit  of  him. 

LACIIISH,  a  city  of  Palestine,  Joshua  x, 
23 ;  xv,  39.  Sennacherib  besieged  Lachish, 
but  did  not  make  himself  master  of  it#  From 
thence  it  was  that  he  sent  Rabshakeh  against 
Jerusalem,  2  Kings  xviii,  17 ;  xix,  8  ;  2  Chron. 
xxxii,  9. 

LAMAISM,  the  religion  of  tho  people  of 
Thibet.  The  Delui  Lama,  "Grand  Lama," 
is  at  once  the  high  priest,  and  the  visible  ob- 
ject of  adoration,  to  this  nation,  to  the  hordes 
of  wandering  Tartars,  and  to  the  prodigious 
population  of  China.  He  resides  at  Patoli,  a 
vast  palace  on  a  mountain  near  the  banks  of 
the  Burampooter,  about  seven  miles  from  La- 
liasse.  The  foot  of  the  mountain  is  surrounded 
by  twenty  thousand  lamas,  or  priests,  in  at- 
tendance on  their  sovereign  pontiff,  wrho  is 
considered  as  the  viceregent  of  the  Deity  on 
earth ;  and  the  remote  Tartars  are  said  to 
regard  him  absolutely  as  the  Deity  himself, 
and  call  him  God,  the  everlasting  Father  of 
heaven.  They  believe  him  to  be  immortal, 
and  endowed  with  all  knowledge  and  virtue. 
Every  year  they  come  up  from  different  parts 
to  worship,  and  make  rich  offerings  at  his 
shrine.  Even  the  emperor  of  China,  who  is  a 
iWantchou  Tartar,  does  not  fail  in  acknow- 
ledgments to  him  in  his  religious  capacity ; 
and  entertains  in  the  palace  of  Pekin  an  infe- 
rior lama,  deputed  as  his  nuncio  from  Thibet. 
The  grand  lama  is  only  to  be  seen  in  a  secret 
place  of  his  palace,  amidst  a  great  number  of 
lamps,  sitting  cross-legged  on  a  cushion,  and 
decked  all  over with  gold  and  precious  stones; 
while,  at  a  distance,  the  people  prostrate  them- 
selves before  him,  jt.bejng  not  lawful  for  any 


so  much  as  to  kiss  his  feet.     He  returns  not 
the  least  sign  of  respect,  nor  ever  speaks,  even 
to  the  greatest  princes;  but  only  lays  his  hand 
upon  their  heads,  and  they  are  fully  persuaded 
that  they  thereby  receive  a  full  forgiveness  of 
their  sins.     The    Siinniaxses,  or    Indian    pil- 
grims, often  visit  Thibet  as  a  holy  place;  and 
the  lama  entertains  a  body  of  two  or  three 
hundred    in    his    pay.      Beside    his    religious 
influence  and  authority,  he  is  possessed  of  un- 
limited power  throughout  his  dominions,  which 
are  very  extensive.     The  inferior  lamas,  who 
form  the  most  numerous  as  well  as  the  most 
powerful  body  in  the  state,  have  the  priesthood 
entirely  in   their   hands,   and,  beside,   fill   up 
many  monastic  orders,  which  are  held  in  great 
veneration  among  them.    The  whole  country, 
like    Italy,   abounds  with    priests ;    and  they 
entirely  subsist  on  the  rich  presents  sent  them 
from  the  utmost  extent  of  Tartary,  from  the 
empire  of  the  great  mogul,  and  from  almost 
all  parts  of  the  Indies.     The  opinion  of  the 
orthodox  among  the  Thibetians  is,  that  when 
the  grand  lama  seems  to  die,  either  of  old  age 
or  infirmities,  his  soul,  in  fact,  only  quits  a 
crazy  habitation  to  enter  another,  younger  and 
better ;  and  is  discovered  again  in  the  body  of 
some  child,  by  certain  tokens,  known  only  to 
the  lamas,  or  priests,  in  which  order  he  always 
appears.     Almost  all  the  nations  of  the  east, 
except  the  Mohammedans,  believe  the  jnetemp- 
sychosis,  or  transmigration  of  the  soul,  as  the 
most   important  article  of  their   faith  ;  espe- 
cially the  inhabitants  of  Thibet  and  Ava,  the 
Peguans,  the  Siamese,  the  greater  part  of  the 
Chinese  and  Japanese,  and  the  Monguls  and 
Kalmucks.  Accordingtotheirdoctrine, the  soul 
no  sooner  leaves  her  old  habitation  than  she 
enters  a  new  one.     The  delai  lama,  therefore, 
or  rather  the  god  Foe  or  Fuh,  residing  in  the 
delai  lama,   passes  to  his  successor  ;  and  he 
being  a  god,  to  whom  all  things  are  known, 
the  grand  lama  is  therefore  acquainted  with 
every  thing  which  happened  during  his  resi- 
dence in  his  former  bodies.  This  religion,  which 
was  early  adopted  in  a  large  part  of  the  globe, 
is  said  to  have  been  of  three  thousand  years1 
standing  ;  and  neither  time,  nor  the  influence 
of  men,  has  had   the  power  of  shaking  the 
authority  of  the  grand  lama.    This  theocracy, 
which  extends  as  fully  to  temporal  as  to  spi- 
ritual concerns,  is  professed  all  over  Thibet 
and  Mongalia ;  is  almost  universal  in  Greater 
and  Less  Bucharia,  and  several  provinces  of 
Tartary ;  has  some  followers  in  the  kingdom 
of  Cashmere,  in  India;  and  is  the  predominant 
religion  of  China. 

It  has  been  observed  that  the  religion  of 
Thibet  is  the  counterpart  of  the  Roman  Ca- 
tholic, since  tho  inhabitants  of  that  country 
use  holy  water,  and  a  singing  service.  They 
also  offer  alms,  prayers,  and  sacrifices  for  tho 
dead.  They  have  a  vast  number  of  convents 
filled  with  monks  and  friars,  amounting  to 
thirty  thousand,  and  confessors  chosen  by  their 
superiors.  They  use  beads,  wear  the  mitre,  like 
the  bishops  ;  and  their  delai  lama  is  nearly  the 
same  among  them  as  the  sovereign  pontiff  was 
formerly,  in  the  zenith  of  his  power,  among 


LAM 


567 


LAM 


the  Roman  Catholics.  So  complete  is  the 
resemblance,  that,  when  one  of  the  first  Romish 
missionaries  penetrated  Thibet,  he  came  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  devil  had  set  up  there  an 
imitation  of  the  rites  of  the  Catholic  church, 
in  order  the  more  effectually  to  destroy  the 
souls  of  men.  Captain  Turner,  speaking  of 
the  religion  of  Thibet,  says,  "  It  seems  to  be 
the  schisinatical  offspring  of  the  religion  of  the 
Hindoos,  deriving  its  origin  from  one  of  the 
followers  of  that  faith,  a  disciple  of  Bouddhu, 
who  first  broached  the  doctrine  which  now 
prevails  over  the  wide  extent  of  Tartary.  It 
is  reported  to  have  received  its  earliest  admis- 
sion in  that  part  of  Tibet,  or  Thibet,  border- 
ing upon  India,  which  from  hence  became  the 
seat  of  the  sovereign  lamas,  to  have  traversed 
over  Mantchieux  Tartary,  and  to  have  been 
ultimately  disseminated  over  China  and  Japan. 
Though  it  differs  from  the  Hindoo  in  many  of 
its  outward  forms,  yet  it  still  bears  a  very  close 
affinity  with  the  religion  of  Brumha  in  many 
important  particulars.  The  principal  idol  in 
the  temples  of  Tibet,  or  Thibet,  is  Muha-Moo- 
nee,  the  Booddhu  of  Bengal,  who  is  worship- 
ped under  these  and  various  other  epithets, 
throughout  the  great  extent  of  Tartary,  and 
among  all  nations  to  the  eastward  of  the 
Brumhapootru.  In  the  wide-extended  space 
over  which  this  faith  prevails,  the  same  object 
of  veneration  is  acknowledged  under  numerous 
titles :  among  others,  he  is  styled  Godumu,  or 
Gotumu,  in  Assam  and  Ava,  Shumunu  in  Sianj, 
Amida  Buth  in  Japan,  Fohi  in  China,"  &c. 

LAMBETH  ARTICLES.  See  Predesti- 
nation. 

LAMECH,  a  descendant  of  Cain,  the  son 
of  Mathusael,  and  father  of  Jabal,  Jubal,  Tu- 
bal-Cain,  and  Naamah,  Gen.  iv,  18-20,  &c. 
He  stands  branded  as  the  father  of  polygamy, 
the  first  who  dared  to  violate  the  sacred  com- 
mand, Gen.  ii,  24;  giving  way  to  his  unbridled 
passion,  and  thus  overleaping  the  divine  mound 
raised  by  the  wisdom  of  our  great  Creator ; 
which  restraint  is  enforced  by  the  laws  of 
nature  herself,  who  peoples  the  earth  with  an 
equal  number  of  males  and  females,  and  thereby 
teaches  foolish  man  that  polygamy  is  incom- 
patible with  her  wise  regulations.  He  married 
Adah  and  Zillah :  the  former  was  the  mother 
of  Jabal  and  Jubal,  and  the  latter  of  Tubal- 
Cain  and  Naamah,  his  sister. 

2.  Lamech,  the  son  of  Methuselah,  and 
father  of  Noah.  He  lived  a  hundred  fourscore 
and  two  years  before  the  birth  of  Noah,  Gen. 
v,  25,  31 ;  after  which  he  lived  five  hundred 
and  ninety-five  years  longer :  thus  the  whole 
term  of  his  life  was  seven  hundred  and  seventy- 
seven  years. 

LAMENTATIONS  OF  JEREMIAH. 
This  book  was  formerly  annexed  to  his  pro- 
phecies, though  it  now  forms  a  separate  book. 
Josephus,  ami  several  other  learned  men,  have 
referred  them  to  the  death  of  Josiah;  but  the 
more  common  opinion  is,  that  they  were  appli- 
cable only  to  some  period  subsequent  to  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar. 
But  though  it  be  allowed  that  the  Lamenta- 
tions were  primarily  intended  as  a  pathetic 


description  of  present  calamities,  yet  while 
Jeremiah  mourns  the  desolation  of  Judah  and 
Jerusalem  during  the  Babylonian  captivity,  he 
may  be  considered  as  prophetically  painting 
the  still  greater  miseries  they  were  to  suffer  at 
some  future  time  :  this  seems  plainly  indicated 
by  his  referring  to  the  time  when  the  puuish- 
ment  of  their  iniquity  shall  be  accomplished, 
and  they  shall  no  more  be  carried  into  cap- 
tivity, Lam.  iv,  22.  The  Lamentations  are 
written  in  metre,  and  consist  of  a  number  of 
plaintive  effusions,  composed  after  the  manner 
of  funeral  dirges.  They  seem  to  have  been 
originally  written  by  their  author  as  they 
arose  in  his  mind,  and  to  have  been  afterward 
joined  together  as  one  poem.  There  is  no 
regular  arrangement  of  the  subject,  or  dispo- 
sition of  the  parts :  the  same  thought  is  fre- 
quently repeated  with  different  imagery,  or 
expressed  in  different  words.  There  is,  how- 
ever, no  wild  incoherency,  or  abrupt  transition ; 
the  whole  appears  to  have  been  dictated  by  the 
feelings  of  real  grief.  Tenderness  and  sorrow 
form  the  general  character  of  these  elegies ; 
and  an  attentive  reader  will  find  great  beauty 
in  many  of  the  images,  and  great  energy  in 
some  of  the  expressions.  This  book  of  La- 
mentations is  divided  into  five  chapters;  in 
the  first,  second,  and  fourth,  the  prophet  speaks 
in  his  own  person,  or  by  an  elegant  and  inte- 
resting personification  introduces  the  city  of 
Jerusalem  as  lamenting  her  calamities,  and 
confessing  her  sins ;  in  the  third  chapter  a 
single  Jew,  speaking  in  the  name  of  a  chorus 
of  his  countrymen,  like  the  Coryphffius  of  the 
Greeks,  describes  the  punishment  inflicted 
upon  him  by  God,  but  still  acknowledges  his 
mercy,  and  expresses  some  hope  of  deliver- 
ance ;  and  in  the  fifth  chapter,  the  whole 
nation  of  the  Jews  pour  forth  their  united 
complaints  and  supplications  to  almighty  God. 
Every  chapter,  with  the  exception  of  the 
third,  contains  twenty-two  verses,  correspond- 
ing in  number  with  the  letters  of  the  Hebrew 
alphabet ;  and  each  verse  commences  with  a 
different  letter,  the  first  with  aleph,  the  second 
with  beth,  the  third  with  gimel,  &c.  The 
third  chapter,  consisting  of  sixty-six  verses, 
has  three  verses  together  beginning  with  the 
same  letter,  the  following  three  with  the  next 
letter,  &c.  This  peculiarity  may  be  seen  in 
Psalm  cxix ;  the  first  eight  verses  in  which 
commence  with  aleph,  the  next  eight  witli 
beth,  &c,  till  the  whole  alphabet  has  been 
consecutively  taken.  This  mode  of  versifica- 
tion, which  has  some  distant  resemblance  to 
the  modern  acrostic  style,  seems  to  have  been 
employed  by  the  Hebrews  in  some  of  their 
elegiac  poetry,  perhaps  to  assist  the  memory. 
LAMP,  Aajuraj.  There  is  frequent  mention 
of  lamps  in  Scriptirre,  and  the  word  is  often 
used  figuratively.  The  houses  in  the  east 
were,  from  the  remotest  antiquity,  lighted  with 
lamps;  and  hence  it  is  so  common  in  Scrip 
ture  to  call  every  thing  which  enlightens  the 
body  or  mind,  which  guides  or  refreshes,  by 
the  name  o"f*a  lamp.  These  lamps  were  sus- 
tained by  a  Targe  candlestick  set  upon  the 
ground.     The  houses   of  Egypt,  in  modern 


LAN 


568 


LAN 


times,    are   never  without  lights :   they  burn 
lamps  all  the  night  long,  and  in  every  occu- 
pied apartment.     So  requisite  to  the  comfort 
of  a   family  is   this   custom  reckoned,  or  so 
imperious  is  the  power  which  it  exercises,  that 
the  poorest  people  would  rather  retrench  part 
of  their  food  than  neglect  it.     As  this  custom 
no  doubt  prevailed  in  Egypt  and  the  adjacent 
regions    of  Arabia    and    Palestine    in    former 
times,  it  imparts  a  beauty  and  force  to  some 
passages  of  Scripture  which  have  been  little 
observed.     Thus,  in  the  language  of  Jeremiah, 
to  extinguish  the  light  in  an  apartment  is  a 
convertible  phrase  for  total  destruction ;  and 
nothing  can  more  properly  and  emphatically 
represent  the  total  destruction  of  a  city  than 
the  extinction  of  the  lights  :  "  I  will  take  from 
them   the   light  of  a  candle,   and  this  whole 
land  shall  be  a  desolation  and    an    astonish- 
ment."    Job    describes   the    destruction    of  a 
family  among  the  Arabs,  and  the  desolation  of 
their  dwellings,  in  the  very  language  of  the 
prophet :  "  How  oft  is  the  candle  of  the  wicked 
put  out,  and  how  oft  cometh  their  destruction 
upon  them  !"  Job  xxi,   17.     Bildad  expresses 
the  same  idea  in  the  following  beautiful  pas- 
sage :  "  Yea,  the  light  of  the  wicked  shall  be 
put  out,  and  the  spark  of  his  fire  shall  not 
shine.     The  light  shall  be  dark  in  his  taber- 
nacle,  and  his  candle  shall  be  put  out  with 
him,"  Job  xviii,  5,  6.     A  burning  lamp  is,  on 
the  other  hand,    the  chosen  symbol  of  pros- 
perity, a  beautiful  instance  of  which  occurs  in 
the  complaint  of  Job:  "O  that  I  were  as  in 
months  past,  as  in  the  days  when  God  pre- 
served me  ;  when  his  candle  shined  upon  my 
head,  and  when  by  his  light  I  walked  through 
darkness,"   Job  xxix,   2,   3.      When  the    ten 
tribes  were  taken  from  Rehoboam,  and  given 
to  his  rival,  Jehovah  promised  to  reserve  one 
tribe,  and  assigns  this  reason  :  "  That  David 
my  servant  may  have  a  light  always  before  me 
in  Jerusalem,"  1  Kings  xi,  36.     In  many  parts 
of  the  east,  and  in  particular  in  the  Indies, 
instead  of  torches  and  flambeaux,  they  carry 
a  pot  of  oil  in  one  hand,  and  a  lamp  full  of 
oily  rags  in  the  other. 

LANGUAGE,  the  faculty  of  human  speech, 
concerning  the  origin  of  which  there  have 
been  entertained  different  opinions  among 
philosophers  and  learned  men.  The  Mosaic 
history,  which  gives  us  an  account  of  the  for- 
mation and  first  occupations  of  man,  represents 
him  as  being  immediately  capable  of  convers- 
ing with  his  Maker ;  of  giving  names  to  the 
various  tribes  and  classes  of  animals ;  and  of 
reasoning  consecutively,  and  in  perfectly 
appropriate  terms,  concerning  his  own  situa- 
tion, and  tho  relation  he  stood  in  to  the  other 
creatures.  As  in  man's  first  attempt  at  speech, 
according  to  this  account,  there  appear  no 
crudeness  of  conception,  no  barrenness  of 
ideas,  and  no  inexpressive  or  unappropriate 
terms,  we  must  certainly  infer,  that  God  who 
made  and  endued  him  with  corporeal  and 
mental  powers  perfectly  suited  to  his  state 
and  condition  in  life,  endued  him,  also,  not 
only  with  the  faculty  of  speech,  but  with 
speech   or  language    itself;  which   latter  was 


as  necessary  to  his  comfort,  and  to  the  per- 
fection and  end  of  his  being,  as  any  other 
power  or  faculty  which  his  Creator  thought 
proper  to  bestow  upon  him. 

Among  the  antediluvians  there  was  but  one 
language ;  and  even  now  the  indications  that 
the  various  languages  of  the  earth  have  had 
one  common  source  are  very  convincing. 
Whether  this  primitive  language  was  the  same 
with  any  of  the  languages  of  which  we  have 
still  any  remains,  has  been  a  subject  of  much 
dispute.  That  the  primitive  language  con- 
tinued at  least  till  the  dispersion  of  mankind, 
consequent  upon  the  building  of  Babel,  there 
seems  little  reason  to  doubt.  When,  by  an 
immediate  interposition  of  divine  power,  the 
language  of  men  was  confounded,  we  are  not 
informed  to  what  extent  this  confusion  of 
tongues  prevailed.  Under  the  article  Confu- 
sion of  Tongues  some  reasons  are  given  to 
show  that  the  primitive  language  was  not  lost 
at  that  event,  but  continued  in  the  form  of 
the  Hebrew. 

There  are,  however,  other  opinions  on  the 
oft  disputed  subject  as  to  the  primitive  lan- 
guage. The  Armenians  allege,  that  as  the 
ark  rested  in  their  country,  Noah  and  hia 
children  must  have  remained  there  a  consider- 
able time,  before  the  lower  and  marshy  country 
of  Chaldea  could  be  fit  to  receive  them ;  and 
it  is  therefore  reasonable  to  suppose  they  left 
their  language  there,  which  was  probably  the 
very  same  that  Adam  spoke.  Some  have 
fancied  the  Greek  the  most  ancient  tongue, 
because  of  its  extent  and  copiousness.  The 
Teutonic,  or  that  dialect  of  it  which  is  spoken 
in  the  Lower  Germany  and  Brabant,  has 
found  a  strenuous  patron  in  Geropius  Becanus, 
who  endeavours  to  derive  even  the  Hebrew 
itself  from  that  tongue.  The  pretensions  of 
the  Chinese  to  this  honour  have  been  allowed 
by  several  Europeans.  The  patrons  of  this 
opinion  endeavour  to  support  it,  partly,  by  the 
great  antiquity  of  the  Chinese,  and  their  hav- 
ing preserved  themselves  so  many  ages  from 
any  considerable  mixture  or  intercourse  with 
other  nations.  It  is  a  notion  advanced  by 
Dr.  Allix,  and  maintained  by  Mr.  Whiston, 
with  his  usual  tenacity  and  fervour,  that  the 
Chinese  are  the  posterity  of  Noah,  by  his 
children  born  after  the  flood ;  and  that  Fohi, 
the  first  king  of  China,  was  Noah.  As  for 
those  which  aro  called  the  oriental  languages, 
th«>y  have  each  their  partisans.  The  gene- 
rality of  eastern  writers  allow  the  preference 
to  the  Syriac,  except  the  Jews,  who  assert  the 
antiquity  of  the  Hebrew  with  the  greatest 
warmth;  and  with  them  several  Christian 
writers  agree,  particularly  Chrysostom,  Austin, 
Origen,  and  Jerome,  among  the  ancients  ;  and 
among  the  moderns,  Bochart,  Heidegger,  Sel- 
den,  and  Buxtorf.  The  Sanscrit  has  also  put 
in  its  claims  ;  and  some  have  thought  that  the 
Pali  bears  the  character  of  the  highest  an- 
tiquity. All  these  are  however  useless  specu- 
lations. The  only  point  worth  contending 
for  is,  that  language  was  conveyed  at  once  to 
the  first  pair  in  sufficient  degree  for  intellect- 
ual intercourse  with  each    other,    and   devo- 


LAN 


569 


LAO 


tienal  intercourse  with  God ;  and  that  man 
was  not  left,  as  infidel  writers  have  been 
pleased  to  say,  to  form  it  for  himself  out  of 
rude  and  instinctive  sounds.  On  this  subject 
the  remarks  of  Delaney  are  conclusive :  "  That 
God  made  man  a  sociable  creature,  does  not 
need  to  be  proved  ;  and  that  when  he  made  him 
such,  he  withheld  nothing  from  him  that  was 
in  any  wise  necessary  for  his  well  being  in 
society,  is  a  clear  consequence  from  the  wis- 
dom  and  goodness  of  God;  and  if  he  withheld 
nothing  any  way  necessary  to  his  well  being, 
much  less  would  he  withhold  from  him  that 
which  is  the  instrument  of  the  greatest  happi- 
ness a  reasonable  creature  is  capable  of  in  this 
world.  If  the  Lord  God  made  '  Adam  a  help 
meet  for  him,'  because  '  it  was  not  good  for 
man  to  be  alone,'  can  we  imagine  he  would 
leave  him  unfurnished  with  the  means  to  make 
that  help  useful  and  delightful  to  him  ?  If  it 
was  not  good  for  him  to  be  alone,  certainly 
neither  was  it  good  for  him  to  have  a  com- 
panion to  whom  he  could  not  readily  commu- 
nicate his  thoughts,  with  whom  he  could 
neither  ease  his  anxieties,  nor  divide  or  double 
his  joys,  by  a  kind,  a  friendly,  a  reasonable,  a 
religious  conversation ;  and  how  he  could  do 
this  in  any  degree  of  perfection,  or  to  any 
height  of  rational  happiness,  is  utterly  incon- 
ceivable without  the  use  of  speech. 

"  If  it  be  said,  that  the  human  organs  being 
admirably  fitted  for  the  formation  of  articulate 
sounds,  these,  with  the  help  of  reason,  might 
in  time  lead  men  to  the  use  of  language.  I 
own  it  imaginable  that  they  might :  but  still, 
till  that  end  were  attained  in  perfection, 
which  possibly  might  not  be  in  a  series  of 
many  generations,  it  must  be  owned  that 
brutes  were  better  dealt  by,  and  could  better 
attain  all  the  ends  of  their  creation.  And  if 
that  be  absurd  to  be  supposed,  certainly  the 
other  is  not  less  absurd  to  be  believed.  Nay, 
I  think  it  justly  doubtful,  whether,  without 
inspiration  from  God  in  this  point,  man  could 
ever  attain  the  true  ends  of  his  being ;  at 
least,  if  we  may  judge  in  this  case,  by  the 
example  of  those  nations  who,  being  destitute 
of  the  advantages  of  a  perfect  language,  are, 
in  all  probability,  from  the  misfortune  of  that 
sole  defect,  sunk  into  the  lowest  condition  of 
barbarism  and  brutality.  And  as  to  the  per- 
fection in  which  the  human  organs  are  framed 
and  fitted  for  the  formation  of  articulate 
sounds,  this  is  clearly  an  argument  for  believ- 
ing that  God  immediately  blessed  man  with 
the  use  of  speech,  and  gave  him  wherewithal 
to  exert  those  organs  to  their  proper  ends ; 
for  this  is  surely  as  credible,  as  that  when  he 
gave  him  an  appetite  for  food,  and  proper 
organs  to  eat  and  to  digest  it,  he  did  not  leave 
him  to  seek  painfully  for  a  necessary  supply, 
(till  his  offence  had  made  such  a  search  his 
curse  and  punishment,)  but  placed  him  at  once 
in  the  midst  of  abundant  plenty.  The  conse- 
quence from  all  which  is,  that  the  perfection 
and  felicity  of  man,  and  the  wisdom  and  good- 
ness of  God,  necessarily  required  that  Adam 
should  be  supernaturally  endowed  with  the 
knowledge  and  use  of  language.     And  there- 


fore, as  certain  as  it  can  be,  that  man  was 
made  perfect  and  happy,  and  that  God  is  wise 
and  good;  so  certain  is  it,  that,  when  Adam 
and  Eve  were  formed,  they  were  immediately 
enabled  by  God  to  converse  and  communicate 
their  thoughts,  in  all  the  perfection  of  lan- 
guage necessary  to  all  the  ends  of  their  crea- 
tion. And  as  this  was  the  conduct  most 
becoming  the  goodness  of  God,  so  we  are 
assured  from  Moses,  that  it  was  that  to  which 
his  infinite  wisdom  determined  him ;  for  we 
find  that  Adam  gave  names  to  all  the  crea- 
tures before  Eve  was  formed ;  and,  conse- 
quently, before  necessity  taught  him  the  use 
of  speech." 

It  is  true  that  many  languages  bear  marks 
of  being  raised  to  their  improved  state  from 
rude  and  imperfect  elements,  and  that  all  are 
capable  of  being  enriched  and  rendered  more 
exact;  and  it  is  this  which  has  given  some 
colour  to  those  theories  which  trace  all  lan- 
guage itself  up  from  elemental  sounds,  as  the 
necessities  of  men,  their  increasing  knowledge, 
and  their  imagination  led  to  the  invention  of 
new  words  and  combinations.  All  this  is, 
however,  consistent  with  the  Scripture  fact, 
that  language  was  taught  at  first  by  God  to 
our  first  parents.  The  dispersion  of  mankind 
carried  many  tribes  to  great  distances,  and 
wars  still  farther  scattered  them,  and  often 
into  wide  regions  where  they  were  farther  dis- 
persed to  live  chiefly  by  the  chase,  by  fishing, 
or  at  best  but  an  imperfect  agriculture.  In 
various  degrees  we  know  they  lost  useful  arts  ; 
and  for  the  same  reasons  they  would  lose  much 
of  their  original  language;  those  terms  being 
chiefly  retained  which  their  immediate  neces. 
sities,  and  the  common  affairs  of  a  gross  life, 
kept  in  use.  But  when  civilization  again 
overtook  these  portions  of  mankind,  and  king- 
doms and  empires  were  founded  among  them, 
or  they  became  integral  parts  of  the  old  em- 
pires, then  their  intercourse  with  each  other 
becoming  more  rapid,  and  artificial,  and  intel- 
lectual, their  language  was  put  into  a  new 
process  of  improvement,  and  to  the  eye  of  the 
critic  would  exhibit  the  various  stages  of  ad- 
vancement ;  and  in  many  it  would  be  pushed 
beyond  that  perfection  which  it  had  when  it 
first  began  to  deteriorate.     See  Letters. 

LANTERN.  The  word  occurs,  John 
xviii,  3  :  pcru  <pav5>v  kou  \a)nrdiiov  :  "  with  torches 
and  lanterns  :"  but  both  terms  appear  to  signify 
torches;  the  former  of  a  ruder  kind  than  the 
latter,  being  formed  of  split  laths  bound  into 
bundles,  throwing  around  a  strong  glare  of 
light.  They  came  thus  furnished  to  appre- 
hend our  Lord,  lest  he  should  escape  through 
the  darkness  of  the  night. 

LAODICEA.  There  were  several  cities 
of  this  name,  but  the  Scripture  speaks  only  of 
that  in  Phrygia,  upon  the  river  Lycus,  near 
Colosse.  Its  ancient  name  was  Diospolis :  it 
was  afterward  called  Rhoas.  Lastly,  Anti- 
ochus,  the  son  of  Stratonice,  rebuilt  it,  and 
called  it  Laodicea,  from  the  name  of  his  wife 
Laodice.  It  became  the  mother  church  of 
sixteen  bishoprics.  Its  three  theatres,  and  the 
immense  circus,  which  was  capable  of  contain- 


LAT 


570 


LAW 


ing  upward  of  thirty  thousand  spectator."?,  the 
spacious  remains  of  which  (with  other  ruins 
buried  under  ruins)  are  yet  to  be  seen,  give  proof 
of  the  greatness  of  its  ancient  wealth  mid  popu- 
lation ;  and  indicate  too  strongly  that  in  that 
city  where  Christians  were  rebuked,  without 
exception,  for  their  lukewurinncss,  there  were 
multitudes  who  were  lovers  of  pleasure  more 
than  lovers  of  Cod.  The  amphitheatre  was  built 
after  the  Apocalypse  was  written,  and  the  warn- 
ing of  the  Spirit  had  been  given  to  the  church  of 
the  Laodiceans  to  be  zealous  and  repent.  There 
are  no  sights  of  grandeur,  nor  scenes  of  tempt- 
ation around  it  now.  Its  own  tragedy  may 
be  briefly  told.  It  was  lukewarm,  and  neither 
cold  nor  hot ;  and  therefore  it  was  loathsome 
in  the  sight  of  God.  And  it  has  been  blotted 
from  the  world.  It  is  now  as  desolate  as  its 
inhabitants  were  destitute  of  the  fear  and  love 
of  God.  It  is,  as  described  in  his  Travels  by 
Dr.  Smith,  "  utterly  desolated,  and  without 
any  inhabitant  except  wolves,  and  jackals,  and 
foxes."  It  can  boast  of  no  human  inhabitants, 
except  occasionally  when  wandering  Turco- 
mans pitch  their  tents  in  its  spacious  amphi- 
theatre. The  finest  sculptured  fragments  are 
to  be  seen  at  a  considerable  depth,  in  exca- 
vations which  have  been  made  among  the 
ruins.  And  Colonel  Lake  observes,  "There 
are  few  ancient  cities  more  likely  than  Lao- 
dicea  to  preserve  many  curious  remains  of 
antiquity  beneath  the  surface  of  the  soil.  Its 
opulence,  and  the  earthquakes  to  which  it  was 
subject,  render  it  probable  that  valuable  works 
of  art  were  often  there  buried  beneath  the 
ruins  of  the  public  and  private  edifices." 

LAPWING,  riDon,  Levit.  xi,  19;  Deut. 
xiv,  18.  The  bird  intended  by  the  Hebrew 
name  in  these  places  is  undoubtedly  the  hoopoe  ; 
a  very  beautiful,  but  most  unclean  and  filthy, 
species  of  birds.  Tho  Septuagint  renders  it 
liroita  ;  and  the  Vulgate,  upupa  ;  which  is  the 
same  with  the  Arabian  interpreters,  The 
Egyptian  name  of  the  bird  is  kukuphah;  and 
the  Syrian,  kikuphah ;  which  approach  the 
Hebrew  dukiphath.  Jt  may  have  its  name 
from  the  noise  or  cry  it  makes,  which  is  very 
remarkable,  and  may  be  heard  a  great  way. 

LATITUDINAUIANS,  a  term  applied  to 
those  divines  who,  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
attempted  to  bring  Episcopalians,  Presby- 
terians, and  Independents,  into  one  commu- 
nion, by  compromising  the  differences  between 
them.  The  chief  leaders  of  this  party  were 
the  great  ChiLlingworth  and  John  Hales;  to 
whom  may  be  added  More,  Cudworth,  Gale, 
Tillotson,  and  Whitchcot.  They  were  zeal- 
ously attached  to  the  church  of  England,  but 
did  not  look  upon  episcopacy  as  indispensable 
to  the  constitution  of  the  Christian  church. 
Hence  they  maintained  that  those  who  adopted 
other  forms  of  government  and  worship,  were 
not  on  that  account  to  be  excluded  from  the 
communion,  or  to  forfeit  the  title  of  brethren. 
They  reduced  the  fundamental  doctrines  of 
Christianity  to  a  few  points.  By  this  way  of 
proceeding,  they  endeavourod  to  show  that 
neither  the  Episcopalians,  who,  generally 
speaking,  were  tlieu  Arminians,  nor  the  Pres- 


byterians and  Independents,  who  as  generally 
adopted  the  doctrines  of  Calvin,  had  any  rea- 
son to  oppose  each  other  with  such  animosity 
and  bitterness ;  since  the  subjects  of  their 
debates  were  matters  non-essential  to  salva 
tion,  and  might,  be  variously  explained  and 
understood  without  prejudice  to  their  eternal 
interests.  This  plan  failing,  through  the 
violence  of  the  bishops  on  one  hand,  (though 
sanctioned  by  the  Lord  Chancellor  Clarendon,) 
and  by  the  jealousy  of  the  more  rigid  on  the 
other,  the  name  Latitudinarian  became  a  term 
of  reproach,  as  implying  an  indifferency  to  all 
religions,  and  has  been  generally  so  used  ever 
since. 

LAVER.  Between  the  altar  and  the  taber- 
nacle, a  little  to  tho  south,  stood  a  circular 
laver,  which,  together  with  its  base,  was  made 
of  the  brazen  ornaments  which  the  women  had 
presented  for  the  use  of  the  tabernacle,  and 
was  thence  called  nifru  mo,  Exodus  xxx,  18; 
xl,  7.  The  priests,  when  about  to  perform  their 
duties,  washed  their  hands  in  this  laver. 

LAW,  a  rule  of  action;  a  precept  or  com- 
mand, coming  from  a  superior  authority,  which 
an  inferior  is  bound  to  obey.  The  manner  in 
which  God  governs  rational  creatures  is  by  c 
law,  as  the  rule  of  their  obedience  to  him,  and 
this  is  what  we  call  God's  moral  government 
of  the  world.  The  term,  however,  is  used  in 
Scripture  with  considerable  latitude  of  mean- 
ing ;  and  to  ascertain  its  precise  import  in  any 
particular  place,  it  is  necessary  to  regard  the 
scope  and  connection  of  the  passage  in  which 
it  occurs.  Thus,  for  instance,  sometimes  it 
denotes  the  whole  revealed  will  of  God  as 
communicated  to  us  in  his  word.  In  this 
sense  it  is  generally  used  in  the  book  of 
Psahns,  i,  2 ;  xix,  7 ;  cxix ;  Isaiah  viii,  20 ; 
xlii,  21.  Sometimes  it  is  taken  for  the  Mo- 
saical  institution  distinguished  from  the  Gos- 
pel, John  i,  17;  Matt,  xi,  13;  xii,  5;  Acts 
XXV|  8.  Hence  we  frequently  read  of  the  law 
of  Moses  as  expressive  of  the  whole  religion 
of  the  Jews,  Heb.  ix,  19;  x,  28.  Sometimes, 
in  a  more  restricted  sense,  for  the  ritual  or 
ceremonial  observances  of  the  Jewish  religion. 
In  this  sense  the  Apostle  speaks  of  "the  law 
of  commandments  contained  in  ordinances," 
Eph.  ii,  15 ;  Heb.  x,  1 ;  and  which,  being 
only  "  a  shadow  of  good  things  to  come," 
Christ  Jesus  abolished  by  his  death,  and  so  in 
effect  destroyed  the  ancient  distinction  between 
Jew  and  Gentile,  Gal.  iii,  17.  Very  frequently 
it  is  used  to  signify  the  decalogue,  or  ten  pre- 
cepts which  were  delivered  to  the  Israelites 
from  Mount  Sinai.  It  is  in  this  acceptation 
of  the  term  that  the  Lord  Jesus  declares  he 
"  came  not  to  destroy  the  law,  but  to  fulfil  it," 
Matt,  v,  17  ;  and  he  explains  its  import  as 
requiring  perfect  love  to  God  and  man,  Luke 
x,  27.  It  is  in  reference  to  this  view  that  St. 
Paul  affirms,  "  By  the  deeds  of  the  law  shall 
no  flesh  living  be  justified;  for  by  the  law  is 
the  knowledge  of  sin,"  Rom.  iii,  20.  The  Ian- 
guage  of  this  law  is,  "The  soul  that  sinneth 
it  shall  die,"  and  "  Cursed  is  every  one  that 
continueth  not  in  all  things  that  are  written," 
or  required,  "in  the  book  of  the  law,  to  do 


LAW 


571 


LAW 


them,"  Gal.  iii,  10.  To  deliver  man  from  this 
penalty,  "  Christ  hath  redeemed  us  from  the 
curse  of  the  law,  being  himself  made  a  curse 
for  us,"  Gal.  iii,  13.  The  law,  in  this  sense, 
was  not  given  that  men  should  obtain  right- 
eousness or  justification  by  it,  but  to  convince 
thein  of  sin,  to  show  them  their  need  of  a 
Saviour,  to  shut  them  up,  as  it  were,  from  all 
hopes  of  salvation  from  that  source,  and  to 
recommend  the  Gospel  of  divine  grace  to  their 
acceptance,  Gal.  iii,  19-25.  Again,  the  law 
often  denotes  the  rule  of  good  and  evil,  or  of 
right  and  wrong,  revealed  by  the  Creator  and 
inscribed  on  man's  conscience,  even  at  his 
creation,  and  consequently  binding  upon  him 
by  divine  authority  ;  and  in  this  respect  it  is  in 
substance  the  same- with  the  decalogue.  That 
such  a  law  was  connate  with,  and,  as  it  were, 
implanted  in,  man,  appears  from  its  traces, 
which,  like  the  ruins  of  some  noble  building, 
are  still  extant  in  every  man.  It  is  from  those 
common  notions,  handed  down  by  tradition, 
though  often  imperfect  and  perverted,  that  the 
Heathens  themselves  distinguished  right  from 
wrong,  by  which  "  they  were  a  law  unto  them- 
selves, showing  the  work  of  the  law  written 
in  their  hearts,  their  conscience  bearing  wit- 
ness," Rom.  ii,  12-15,  although  they  had  no 
express  revelation. 

The  term  law,  is,  however,  eminently  given 
to  the  Mosaic  law  ;  on  the  principles  and  spirit 
of  which,  a  few  general  remarks  may  be  offered. 
The  right  consideration  of  this  divine  institute, 
says  Dr.  Graves,  will  surround  it  with  a  glory 
of  truth  and  holiness,  not  only  worthy  of  its 
claims,  but  which  has  continued  to  be  the  light 
of  the  world  on  theological  and  moral  subjects, 
and  often  on  great  political  principles,  to  this 
day.  If  we  examine  the  Jewish  law,  to  discover 
the  principle  on  which  the  whole  system  de- 
pends, the  primary  truth,  to  inculcate  and 
illustrate  which  is  its  leading  object,  we  find 
it  to  be  that  great  basis  of  all  religion,  both 
natural  and  revealed,  the  self-existence,  essen- 
tial unity,  perfections,  and  providence  of  the 
supreme  Jehovah,  the  Creator  of  heaven  and 
earth.  The  first  line  of  the  Mosaic  writings 
inculcates  this  great  truth  :  "  In  the  beginning 
God  created  the  heaven  and  the  earth."  When 
the  lawgiver  begins  to  recapitulate  the  statutes 
and  judgments  he  had  enjoined  to  his  nation, 
it  is  with  this  declaration  :  "Hear,  O  Israel,  the 
Lord  our  God  is  one  Lord,"  Deut.  vi,  4 ;  or, 
as  it  might  be  more  closely  expressed,  Jehovah 
our  Elohim,  or  God,  is  one  Jehovah.  And  at 
the  commencement  of  that  sublime  hymn,  de- 
livered by  Moses  immediately  before  his  death, 
in  which  this  illustrious  prophet  sums  up  the 
doctrines  he  had  taught,  tho  wonders  by  which 
they  had  been  confirmed,  and  the  denuncia- 
tions by  which  they  were  enforced,  he  declares 
this  great  tenet  with  the  sublimity  of  eastern 
poetry,  hut  at  the  same  time  with  the  precision 
of  philosophic  truth:  "Give  car,"  says  he, 
"O  ye  heavens,  and  I  will  speak:  and  hear, 
O  earth,  the  words  of  my  mouth.  My  doc- 
trine shall  drop  rain  :  my  speech  shall  distil  as 
the  dew,  as  the  small  rain  upon  the  tender 
kerb,   and   as   the   showers   upon   the   grass," 


Deut.  xxxii,  1,  &c.  What,  is  that  doctrine  so 
awful,  that  the  whole  universe  is  thus  invoked 
to  attend  to  it  ?  so  salutary  as  to  be  compared 
with  tho  principle  whose  operation  diffuse 
beauty  and  fertility  over  the  vegetable  world  ' 
Hear  the  answer  :  "  Because  I  will  publish  the 
name  of  Jehovah  ;  ascribe  ye  greatness  unto 
our  God.  He  is  the  rock,  his  work  is  perfect : 
a  God  of  truth,  and  without  iniquity,  just  and 
right  is  he." 

This,  then,  is  one  great  leading  doctrine  of 
the  Jewish  code.  But  the  manner  in  which 
this  doctrine  is  taught  displays  such  wise 
accommodation  to  the  capacity  and  character 
of  the  nation  to  whom  it  is  addressed,  as  de- 
serves to  be  carefully  remarked.  That  charac- 
ter by  which  the  supreme  Being  is  most  clearly 
distinguished  from  every  other,  however  ex- 
alted ;  that  character  from  which  the  acutest 
reasoners  have  endeavoured  demonstratively 
to  deduce,  as  from  their  source,  all  the  divine 
attributes,  is  self-existence.  Is  it  not  then 
highly  remarkable,  that  it  is  under  this  charac- 
ter the  Divinity  is  described  on  his  first  mani- 
festation to  the  Jewish  lawgiver  ?  The  Deity 
at  first  reveals  himself  unto  him  as  the  God  of 
Abraham,  of  Isaac,  and  of  Jacob ;  and  there, 
fore  the  peculiar  national  and  guardian  God  of 
the  Jewish  race.  Moses,  conscious  of  the 
degeneracy  of  the  Israelites,  their  ignorance 
of,  or  their  inattention  to,  the  true  God,  and 
the  difficulty  and  danger  of  any  attempt  to 
recall  them  to  his  exclusive  worship,  and  to 
withdraw  them  from  Egypt,  seems  to  decline 
the  task  ;  but  when  absolutely  commanded  to 
undertake  it,  he  said  unto  God,  "  Behold,  when 
I  come  unto  the  children  of  Israel,  and  shall 
say  unto  them,  The  God  of  your  fathers  hath 
sent  me  unto  you  ;  and  they  shall  say  to  me, 
What  is  his  name  ?  what  shall  I  say  unto 
them  ?  And  God  said  unto  Moses,  /  am  thai 
I  am  :  and  ho  said,  Thus  shalt  thou  say  unto 
the  children  of  Israel,  /  Am  hath  sent  me  unto 
you,"  Exod.  iii,  13, 14.  Here  we  observe,  ac- 
cording to  the  constant  method  of  the  divine 
wisdom,  when  it  condescends  to  the  prejudices 
of  men,  how  in  tho  very  instance  of  indul- 
gence it  corrects  their  superstition.  The  reli 
gion  of  names  arose  from  an  idolatrous  poly. 
theism ;  and  the  name  given  here  directly 
opposes  this  error,  and  in  the  ignorance  of 
that  dark  and  corrupted  period  establishes  that 
great  truth,  to  which  the  most  enlightened 
philosophy  can  add  no  new  lustre,  and  on  which 
all  the  most  refined  speculations  on  the  divine 
nature  ultimately  rest,  the  self-existence,  and, 
by  consequence,  the  eternity  and  immutability, 
of  the  one  great  Jehovah. 

But  though  the  self-ex;stenee  of  the  Deity 
was  a  fact  too  abstract  to  require  its  being 
frequently  inculcated,  his  essential  unity  wa;; 
a  practical  principle,  the  sure  foundation  on 
which  to  erect  tho  structure  of  true  religion, 
and  form  a  barrier  against  the  encroachments 
of  idolatry:  for  this  commenced  not  so  fre- 
quently in  denying  the  existence,  or  even  the 
supremacy,  of  the  our;  true  (rod,  as  in  associat- 
ing with  him  for  objects  of  adoration  inferior 
intermediate  beings,  who  were  supposed  to  bo 


LAW 


572 


LAW 


more  directly  employed  in  the  administration 
of  human  affairs.  To  confute  and  resist  this 
false  principle  was,  therefore,  one  great  object 
of  the  Jewish  scheme.  Hence  the  unity  of 
God  is  inculcated  with  perpetual  solicitude ; 
it  stands  at  the  head  of  the  system  of  moral 
law  promulgated  to  the  Jews  from  Sinai  by 
the  divine  voice,  heard  by  the  assembled  na- 
tion, and  issuing  from  the  divine  glory,  with 
every  circumstance  which  could  impress  the 
deepest  awe  upon  even  the  dullest  minds  :  "  I 
am  the  Lord  thy  God,  which  have  brought 
thee  out  of  the  land  of  Egypt,  out  of  the  house 
of  bondage ;  thou  shalt  have  no  other  gods 
beside  me,"  Exod.  xx,  2,  3.  And  in  the  reca- 
pitulation of  the  divine  laws  in  Deuteronomy, 
it  is  repeatedly  enforced  with  the  most  solemn 
earnestness :  "  Hear,  O  Israel,  The  Lord  our 
God  is  one  Lord,"  Deut.  vi,  4.  And  again : 
"  Unto  thee  it  was  showed,  that  thou  mightest 
know  that  the  Lord  he  is  God  ;  there  is  none 
else  beside  him.  Know,  therefore,  this  day, 
and  consider  it  in  thine  heart,  that  the  Lord 
he  is  God  in  heaven  above,  and  in  the  earth 
beneath :  there  is  none  else,"  Deut.  iv,  35,  39. 

This  self-existent,  supreme  and  only  God  is 
moreover  described  as  possessed  of  every  per- 
fection which  can  be  ascribed  to  the  Divinity : 
"  Ye  shall  be  holy,"  says  the  Lord  to  the  peo- 
ple of  the  Jews  ;  "  for  I  the  Lord  your  God 
am  holy,"  Lev.  xix,  2.  "Ascribe  ye,"  says 
the  legislator,  "  greatness  unto  our  God ;  he 
is  the  rock ;  his  work  is  perfect ;  a  God  of 
truth,  and  without  iniquity,  just  and  right  is 
he,"  Deut.  xxxii,  4.  And  in  the  hymn  of 
thanksgiving  on  the  miraculous  escape  of  the 
Israelites  at  the  Red  Sea,  this  is  its  burden : 
"Who  is  like  unto  thee,  O  Lord,  among  the 
gods  ?  who  is  like  unto  thee,  glorious  in  holi- 
ness, fearful  in  praises,  doing  wonders?"  Exod. 
xv,  11.  And  when  the  Lord  delivered  to 
Moses  the  two  tables  of  the  moral  law,  he  is 
described  as  descending  in  the  cloud,  and  pro- 
claiming the  name  of  the  Lord :  "  And  the 
Lord  passed  by  before  him,  and  proclaimed, 
The  Lord,  the  Lord  God,  merciful  and  gra- 
cious, long-suffering,  and  abundant  in  good- 
ness, keeping  mercy  for  thousands,  forgiving 
iniquity,  transgression,  and  sin,  and  that  will  by 
no  means  clear  the  guilty,"  Exod.  xxxiv,  6,  7. 

But  to  teach  the  self-existence,  the  unity, 
the  wisdom,  and  the  power  of  the  Deity,  nay, 
even  his  moral  perfections  of  mercy,  justice, 
and  truth,  would  have  been  insufficient  to  arrest 
the  attention,  and  command  the  obedience  of 
a  nation,  the  majority  of  which  looked  no 
farther  than  mere  present  objects,  and  at  that 
early  period  cherished  scarcely  any  hopes  higher 
than  those  of  a  temporal  kind, — if,  in  addition 
to  all  this,  care  had  not  been  taken  to  repre- 
sent the  providence  of  God  as  not  only  direct- 
ing the  government  of  the  universe  by  general 
laws,  but  also  perpetually  superintending  the 
conduct  and  determining  the  fortune  of  every 
nation,  of  every  family,  nay,  of  every  indi- 
vidual. It  was  the  disbelief  or  the  neglect  of 
this  great  truth  which  gave  spirit  and  energy, 
plausibility  and  attraction,  to  the  whole  sys- 
tem of  idolatry.    While  men  believed  that  the 


supreme  God  and  Lord  of  all  was  too  exalted 
in  his  dignity,  too  remote  from  this  sublunary 
scene,  to  regard  its  vicissitudes  with  an  atten- 
tive eye,  and  too  constantly  engaged  in  the 
contemplation  of  his  own  perfections,  and  the 
enjoyment  of  his  own  independent  and  all-per- 
fect happiness,  to  interfere  in  the  regulation 
of  human  affairs,  they  regarded  with  indiffer- 
ence that  supreme  Divinity  who  seemed  to  take 
no  concern  in  their  conduct,  and  not  to  inter- 
fere as  to  their  happiness.  However  exalted 
and  perfect  such  a  Being  might  appear  to  ab- 
stract speculation,  he  was  to  the  generality  of 
mankind  as  if  he  did  not  exist ;  as  their  hap- 
piness or  misery  were  not  supposed  to  be  in- 
fluenced by  his  power,  they  referred  not  their 
conduct  to  his  direction.  If  he  delegated  to 
inferior  beings  the  regulation  of  this  inferior 
world ;  if  all  its  concerns  were  conducted  by 
their  immediate  agency,  and  all  its  blessings 
or  calamities  distributed  by  their  immediate 
determination  ;  it  seemed  rational,  and  even 
necessary,  to  supplicate  their  favour  and  submit 
to  their  authority ;  and  neither  unwise  nor 
unsafe  to  neglect  that  Being,  who,  though 
all-perfect  and  supreme,  would,  on  this  suppo. 
sition  appear,  with  respect  to  mankind,  alto- 
gether inoperative.  In  truth,  this  fact  of  the 
perpetual  providence  of  God  extending  even 
to  the  minutest  events,  is  inseparably  connect- 
ed with  every  motive  which  is  offered  to  sway 
the  conduct  of  the  Jews,  and  forcibly  incul- 
cated by  every  event  of  their  history.  This 
had  been  manifested  in  the  appointment  of  the 
land  of  Canaan  for  the  future  settlement  of 
the  chosen  people  on  the  first  covenant  which 
God  entered  into  with  the  Patriarch  Abraham  ; 
in  the  prophecy,  that  for  four  hundred  years 
they  should  be  afflicted  in  Egypt,  and  after- 
ward be  thence  delivered ;  in  the  increase  of 
their  nation,  under  circumstances  of  extreme 
oppression,  and  their  supernatural  deliverance 
from  that  oppression.  The  same  providence 
was  displayed  in  the  destruction  of  the  Egyp- 
tians in  the  Red  Sea ;  the  travels  of  the  thou- 
sands of  Israel  through  the  wilderness,  sus- 
tained by  food  from  heaven ;  and  in  their 
subsequent  settlement  in  the  promised  land 
by  means  entirely  distinct  from  their  own 
strength.  Reliance  on  the  same  providence 
was  the  foundation  of  their  civil  government, 
the  spirit  and  the  principle  of  their  constitu- 
tion. On  this  only  could  they  be  commanded 
to  keep  the  sabbatic  year  .vithout  tilling  their 
land,  or  even  gathering  its  spontaneous  pro- 
duce ;  confiding  in  the  promise,  that  God 
would  send  his  blessing  on  the  sixth  year,  so 
that  it  shoirld  bring  forth  fruit  for  three  years, 
Lev.  xxv,  21.  The  same  faith  in  Divine  Pro- 
vidence alone  could  prevail  on  them  to  leave 
their  properties  and  families  exposed  to  the 
attack  of  their  surrounding  enemies  ;  while  all 
the  males  of  the  nation  assembled  at  Jerusa- 
lem to  celebrate  the  three  great  festivals,  en- 
joined by  divine  command,  with  the  assurance 
that  no  man  should  desire  their  land  when  they 
went  up  to  appear  before  the  Lord  their  God 
thrice  in  the  year,  Exodus  xxxiv,  24.  And, 
finally,  it  is  most  evident,  that,  contrary  to  all 


LAW 


573 


LAW 


other  lawgivers,  the  Jewish  legislator  renders 
his  civil  institutions  entirely  subordinate  to  his 
religious ;  and  announces  to  his  nation  that 
their  temporal  adversity  or  prosperity  would 
entirely  depend,  not  on  their  observance  of 
their  political  regulations ;  not  on  their  pre- 
serving a  military  spirit,  or  acquiring  commer- 
cial wealth,  or  strengthening  themselves  by 
powerful  alliances  ;  but  on  their  continuing  to 
worship  the  one  true  God  according  to  the  re- 
ligious rites  and  ceremonies  by  him  prescribed, 
and  preserving  their  piety  and  morals  untaint- 
ed by  the  corruptions  and  vices  which  idolatry 
tended  to  introduce. 

Such  was  the  theology  of  the  Jewish  reli- 
gion, at  a  period  when  the  whole  world  was 
deeply  infected  with  idolatry  ;  when  all  know- 
ledge of  the  one  true  God,  all  reverence  for  his 
sacred  name,  all  reliance  on  his  providence, 
all  obedience  to  his  laws,  were  nearly  banished 
from  the  earth ;  when  the  severest  chastise- 
ments had' been  tried  in  vain;  when  no  hope 
of  reformation  appeared  from  the  refinements 
of  civilization  or  the  researches  of  philosophy  ; 
for  the  most  civilized  and  enlightened  nations 
adopted  with  the  greatest  eagerness,  and  dis- 
seminated with  the  greatest  activity,  the  ab- 
surdities, impieties,  and  pollutions  of  idolatry. 
Then  was  the  Jewish  law  promulgated  to  a 
nation,  who,  to  mere  human  judgment,  might 
have  appeared  incapable  of  inventing  or  receiv- 
ing such  a  high  degree  of  intellectual  and 
moral  improvement ;  for  they  had  been  long 
enslaved  to  the  Egyptians,  the  authors  and 
supporters  of  the  grossest  idolatry ;  they  had 
been  weighed  down  by  the  severest  bondage, 
perpetually  harassed  by  the  most  incessant 
manual  labours;  for  the  Egyptians  "made 
their  lives  bitter  witli  hard  bondage,  in  mortar, 
and  in  brick,  and  in  all  manner  of  service  in 
the  field,"  Exod.  i,  14.  At  this  time,  and  in 
this  nation,  was  the  Mosaic  law  promulgated, 
teaching  the  great  principles  of  true  religion, 
the  self-existence,  the  unity,  the  perfections, 
and  the  providence  of  the  one  great  Jehovah ; 
reprobating  all  false  gods,  all  image  worship, 
all  the  absurdities  and  profanations  of  idolatry. 
At  this  time,  and  in  this  nation,  was  a  system 
of  government  framed,  which  had  for  its  basis 
the  reception  of,  and  steady  adherence  to,  this 
system  of  true  religion ;  and  establishing  many 
regulations,  which  would  be  in  the  highest 
degree  irrational,  and  could  never  hope  to  be 
received,  except  from  a  general  and  thorough 
reliance  on  the  superintendence  of  Divine  Pro- 
vidence, controlling  the  course  of  nature,  and 
directing  every  event,  so  as  to  proportion  the 
prosperity  of  the  Hebrew  people,  according  to 
their  obedience  to  that  law  which  they  had 
received  as  divine. 

It  is  an  obvious,  but  it  is  not  therefore  a  less 
important  remark,  that  to  the  Jewish  religion 
we  owe  that  admirable  summary  of  moral  duty, 
contained  in  the  ten  commandments.  All  fair 
reasoners  will  admit  that  each  of  these  must 
be  understood  to  condemn,  not  merely  the  ex- 
treme crime  which  it  expressly  prohibits,  but 
every  inferior  offence  of  the  same  kind,  and 
*very  mode  of  conduct  leading  to  such  trans- 


gression ;  and,  on  the  contrary,  to  enjoin  op. 
posite  conduct,  and  the  cultivation  of  opposite 
dispositions.  Thus,  the  command,  "  Thou 
shalt  not  kill,"  condemns  not  merely  the  single 
crime  of  deliberate  murder,  but  every  kind  of 
violence,  and  every  indulgence  of  passion  and 
resentment,  which  tends  either  to  excite  such 
violence,  or  to  produce  that  malignant  dispo- 
sition of  mind,  in  which  the  guilt  of  murder 
principally  consists  :  and  similarly  of  the  rest. 
In  this  extensive  interpretation  of  the  com- 
mandments, we  are  warranted,  not  merely  by 
the  deductions  of  reason,  but  by  the  letter  of 
the  law  itself.  For  the  addition  of  the  last, 
"  Thou  shalt  not  covet,"  proves  clearly  that  in 
all,  the  dispositions  of  the  heart,  as  much  as 
the  immediate  outward  act,  is  the  object  of  the 
divine  Legislator ;  and  thus  it  forms  a  comment 
on  the  meaning,  as  well  as  a  guard  for  the 
observance,  of  all  the  preceding  commands. 
Interpreted  in  this  natural  and  rational  lati- 
tude, how  comprehensive  and  important  is  this 
summary  of  moral  duty  !  It  inculcates  the  ado- 
ration of  the  one  true  God,  who  "made  heaven 
and  earth,  the  sea,  and  all  that  in  them  is ;" 
who  must,  therefore,  be  infinite  in  power,  and 
wisdom,  and  goodness  ;  the  object  of  exclusive 
adoration  ;  of  gratitude  for  every  blessing  we 
enjoy ;  of  fear,  for  he  is  a  jealous  God ;  of 
hope,  for  he  is  merciful.  It  prohibits  every 
species  of  idolatry  ;  whether  by  associating 
false  gods  with  the  true,  or  worshipping  the 
true  by  symbols  and  images.  Commanding 
not  to  take  the  name  of  God  in  vain,  it  en- 
joins the  observance  of  all  outward  respect  for 
the  divine  authority,  as  well  as  the  cultivation 
of  inward  sentiments  and  feelings  suited  to 
this  outward  reverence  ;  and  it  establishes  the 
obligation  of  oaths,  and,  by  consequence,  of 
all  compacts  and  deliberate  promises  ;  a  prin- 
ciple, without  which  the  administration  of  laws 
would  be  impracticable,  and  the  bonds  of  so- 
ciety must  be  dissolved.  By  commanding  to 
keep  holy  the  Sabbath,  as  the  memorial  of  the 
creation,  it  establishes  tlfe  necessity  of  public 
worship,  and  of  a  stated  and  outward  profes. 
sion  of  the  truths  of  religion,  as  well  as  of  the 
cultivation  of  suitable  feelings ;  and  it  enforces 
this  by  a  motive  which  is  equally  applicable  to 
all  mankind,  and  which  should  have  taught 
the  Jew  that  he  ought  to  consider  all  nations 
as  equally  creatures  of  that  Jehovah  whom  he 
himself  adored  ;  equally  subject  to  his  govern- 
ment, and,  if  sincerely  obedient,  entitled  to  all 
the  privileges  his  favour  could  bestow.  It  is 
also  remarkable,  that  this  commandment,  re- 
quiring that  the  rest  of  the  Sabbath  should 
include  the  man-servant,  and  the  maid-servant, 
and  the  stranger  that  was  within  their  gates, 
nay,  even  their  cattle,  proved  that  the  Creator 
of  the  universe  extended  his  attention  to  all 
his  creatures ;  that  the  humblest  of  mankind 
were  the  objects  of  his  paternal  love  ;  that  no 
accidental  differences,  which  so  often  create 
alienation  among  different  nations,  would 
alienate  any  from  the  divine  regard  ;  and  that 
even  the  brute  creation  shared  the  benevolence 
of  their  Creator,  and  Ought  to  be  treated  by 
men  with  gentleness  and  humanity. 


LAW 


574 


LAW 


When  wc  proceed  to  the  second  table,  com- 
prehending more  expressly  our  social  duties, 
i\e  find  all  the  most  important  principles  on 
which    they   depend    clearly    enforced.      The 
commandment  which  enjoins,  "  Honour   thy 
father  and  mother,"  sanctions  the  principles, 
not  merely  of  filial  obedience,  but  of  all  those 
duties  which  arise  from  our  domestic  relations ; 
and,  while  it  requires  not  so  much  any  one 
specific  act,  as  the  general  disposition  which 
should  regulate  our  whole  course  of  conduct 
111  this    instance,  it  impresses  the   important 
conviction,  that  the  entire  law  proceeds  from 
a  Legislator  able  to  searcli  and  judge  the  heart 
of  man.     The  subsequent  commands  coincide 
with  the  clear  dictates  of  reason,  and  prohibit 
crimes  which  human  laws  in  general  have  pro- 
hibited as  plainly  destructive  of  social  happi- 
ness.    But  it  was  of  infinite  importance  to  rest 
the  prohibitions,  "Thou  shall  not  kill,"  "Thou 
shall  not  commit  adultery,"  "  Thou  shalt  not 
steal,"  "Thou  shalt  not  bear  false  witness," 
not  merely  on  the  deductions  of  reason,  but 
also  on  the  weight  of  a  divine  authority.  How 
often  have  false  ideas  of  public  good  in  some 
places,  depraved  passions  in  others,  and  the 
delusions  of  idolatry  in  still  more,  established 
a  law  of  reputation  contrary  to  the  dictates  of 
reason,  and  the  real  interests  of  society.     In 
one   country  we   see  theft  allowed,  if  perpe- 
trated with    address ;    in    others,    piracy   and 
rapine  honoured,  if  conducted  with  intrepidity. 
Sometimes  we  perceive  adultery  permitted,  the 
most  unnatural  crimes  committed  without  re- 
morse or  shame  ;  nay,  every  species  of  impurity 
enjoined  and  consecrated  as  a  part  of  divine 
Woishipa    In  others,  we  find  revenge  honoured 
as  spirit,  and  death  inflicted  at  its  impulse  with 
ferocious  triumph.     Again,  we  sec  every  feel- 
ing of  nature  outraged,  and  parents  exposing 
their  helpless  children  to  perish  for  deformity 
of  body  or  weakness  of  mind  ;  or,  what  is  still 
more  dreadful,    from   mercenary  or    political 
views  ;  and  this  inhuman  practice  familiarized 
by  custom,  and  authorized  by  law.     And,  to 
close  the  horrid  catalogue,  we  see  false  reli- 
gions leading  their  deluded  votaries  to  heap 
the  altars  of  their  idols  with  human  victims ; 
the  master  butchers  his  slave,  the  conqueror 
his  captive  ;  nay,  dreadful  to  relate,  the  parent 
sacrifices  his  children,  and,  while  they  shriek 
amidst  the  tortures  of  the  flames,  or  in   the 
agonies  of  death,  he  drowns  their  cries  by  the 
clangour  of  cymbals  and  the  yells  of  fanati- 
cism.     Yet  these  abominations,  separate  or 
combined,  have   disgraced  ages   and  nations 
which  we  arc  accustomed  to  admire  and  cele- 
brate as  civilized  and  enlightened, — Babylon 
and    Egypt,    Phenicia   and  Carthage,   Greece 
and  Rome.     Many  of  these  crimes  legislators 
have  enjoined,  or  philosophers  defended.  What, 
indeed,  could  be  hoped  from  legislators   and 
philosophers,  when  wc  recollect  the  institu- 
tions of  Lycurgus,  especially  asfo  purity  of 
manners,  and  the  regulations  of  Plato  on  the 
same  subject,  in  his  model  of  a  perfect  repub- 
lic;  when  we  consider  the  sensuality  of  the 
Epicureans,    and   immodesty   of  the  Cynics ; 
when  we  find  suicide  applauded  by  the  Stoics, 


and  the  murderous  combats  of  gladiators  de- 
fended by  Cicero,  and  exhibited  by  Trajan  ? 
Such  variation  and  inconstancy  in  the  rule 
and  practice  of  moral  duty,  as  established  by 
the  feeble  or  fluctuating  authority  of  human 
opinion,  demonstrates  the  utility  of  a  clear 
divine  interposition,  to  impress  these  import, 
ant  prohibitions ;  and  it  is  difficult  for  any 
sagacity  to  calculate  how  far  such  an  interpo- 
sition was  necessary,  and  what  effect  it  may 
have  produced  by  influencing  human  opinions 
and  regulating  human  conduct^  when  we 
recollect  that  the  Mosaic  code  was  probably 
the  first  written  law  ever  delivered  to  any  na. 
tion;  and  that  it  must  have  been  generally 
known  in  those  eastern  countries,  from  which 
the  most  ancient  and  celebrated  legislators  and 
sages  derived  the  models  of  their  laws  and  the 
principles  of  their  philosophy. 

But  the  Jewish  religion  promoted  the  inte- 
rests of  moral  virtue,  not  merely  by  tjie  positive 
injunctions  of  the  decalogue  ;  it  also  incul- 
cated clearly  and  authoritatively  the  two  great 
principles  on  which  all  piety  and  virtue  de- 
pend, and  which  our  blessed  Lord  recognised 
as  the  commandments  on  which  hang  the  law 
and  the  prophets, — the  principles  of  love  to 
God  and  love  to  our  neighbour.  The  love  of 
God  is  every  where  enjoined  in  the  Mosaic 
law,  as  the  ruling  disposition  of  the  heart,  from 
which  all  obedience  should  spring,  and  in 
which  it  ought  to  terminate.  With  what 
solemnity  docs  the  Jewish  lawgiver  impress  it 
at  the  commencement  of  his  recapitulation  of 
the  divine  law  :  "  Hear,  O  Israel :  the  Lord 
our  God  is  one  Lord  :  And  thou  shalt  love  the 
Lord  thy  God  with  all  thine  heart,  and  with 
all  thy  soul,  and  with  all  thy  might,"  Dent,  vi, 
4,  5.  And  again  :  "  And  now,  Israel,  what 
doth  the  Lord  thy  God  require  of  thee,  but  to 
fear  the  Lord  thy  God,  to  walk  in  all  his  ways, 
and  to  love  him,  and  to  serve  the  Lord  thy 
God  with  all  thy  heart  and  with  all  thy  soul  ?" 
Deut.  x,  12.  Nor  is  the  love  of  our  neighbour 
less  explicitly  enforced:  "Thou  shalt  not," 
says  the  law,  "  avenge,  nor  bear  any  grudge 
against  the  children  of  thy  people,  but  thou 
shalt  love  thy  neighbour  as  thyself:  I  am  the 
Lord,"  Lev.  xix,  IS.  The  operation  of  this  be- 
nevolence, thus  solemnly  required,  was  not  to 
be  confined  to  their  own  countrymen  ;  it  was  to 
extend  to  the  stranger,  who,  having  renounced 
idolatry,  was  permitted  to  live  among  them, 
worshipping  the  true  God,  though  without 
submitting  to  circumcision  or  the  other  cere- 
monial parts  of  the  Mosaic  law  :  "If  a 
stranger,"  says  the  law,  "  sojourn  with  thee 
in  your  land,  ye  shall  not  vex  him.  But  the 
stranger  that  dwellcth  with  you  shall  be  unto 
you  as  one  born  among  you,  and  thou  shalt 
love  him  as  thyself;  for  ye  were  strangers  in 
the  land  of  Egypt :  I  am  the  Lord  thy  God," 
Lev.  xix,  33,  34. 

Thus,  on  a  review  of  the  topics  we  have 
discussed,  it  appears  that  the  Jewish  law  pro- 
mulgated the  great  principles  of  moral  duty  in 
(lie  decalogue,  with  a  solemnity  suited  to  their 
high  preeminence  ;  that  it  enjoined  love  to  God 
with  the  most  unceasing  aolicitude,  and  love 


LAW 


575 


LAW 


to  our  neighbour,  as  extensively  and  forcibly, 
as  the  peculiar  design  of  the  Jewish  economy, 
and  the  peculiar  character  of  the  Jewish  peo- 
ple, would  permit ;  that  it  impressed  the  deep- 
est conviction  of  God's  requiring,  not  mere 
external  observances,  but  heart-felt  piety,  well 
regulated  desires,  and  active  benevolence ; 
that  it  taught  sacrifice  could  not  obtain  par- 
don without  repentance,  or  repentance  without 
reformation  and  restitution ;  that  it  described 
circumcision  itself,  and,  by  consequence,  every 
other  legal  rite,  as  designed  to  typify  and  in- 
culcate internal  holiness,  which  alone  could 
render  men  acceptable  to  God ;  that  it  repre- 
sented the  love  of  God  as  designed  to  act  as  a 
practical  principle,  stimulating  to  the  constant 
and  sincere  cultivation  of  purity,  mercy,  and 
truth  ;  and  that  it  enforced  all  these  principles 
and  precepts  by  sanctions  the  most  likely  to 
operate  powerfully  on  minds  unaccustomed  to 
abstract  speculations  and  remote  views,  even 
by  temporal  rewards  and  punishments  ;  the 
assurance  of  which  was  confirmed  from  the 
immediate  experience  of  similar  rewards  and 
punishments,  dispensed  to  their  enemies  and 
to  themselves  by  that  supernatural  Power 
which  had  delivered  the  Hebrew  nation  out 
of  Egypt,  conducted  them  through  the  wilder- 
ness, planted  them  in  the  land  of  Canaan, 
regulated  their  government,  distributed  their 
possessions,  and  to  which  alone  they  could 
look  to  obtain  new  blessings,  or  secure  those 
already  enjoyed.  From  all  this  we  derive  an- 
other presumptive  argument  for  the  divine 
authority  of  the  Mosaic  code ;  and  it  may  be 
contended,  that  a  moral  system  thus  perfect, 
promulgated  at  so  early  a  period,  to  such  a 
people,  and  enforced  by  such  sanctions  as  no 
human  power  could  undertake  to  execute, 
strongly  bespeaks  a  divine  original. 

2.  The  moral  law  is  sometimes  called  the 
Mosaic  law,  because  it  was  one  great  branch 
of  those  injunctions  which,  under  divine 
authority,  Moses  enjoined  upon  the  Israelites 
when  they  were  gathered  into  a  political  com- 
munity under  the  theocracy.  But  it  existed 
previously  as  the  law  of  all  mankind ;  and  it 
has  been  taken  up  into  the  Christian  system, 
and  there  more  fully  illustrated.  As  the  obli- 
gation of  the  moral  law  upon  Christians  has, 
however,  been  disputed  by  some  pervertcrs  of 
the  Christian  faith,  or  held  by  others  on  loose 
and  fallacious  grounds,  this  subject  ought  to 
be  clearly  understood.  It  is,  nevertheless,  to 
be  noticed,  that  the  morals  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment ate  not  proposed  to  us  in  the  form  of  a 
regular  code.  Even  in  the  books  of  Moses, 
which  have  the  legislative  form  to  a  great 
extent,  not  all  the  principles  and  duties  which 
constituted  the  full  character  of  "  godliness," 
under  that  dispensation,  are  made  the-  subjects 
of  formal  injunction  by  particular  precepts. 
They  are  partly  infolded  in  general  principles, 
or  often  lake  the  form  of  injunction  in  an 
apparently  incidental  manner,  or  are  matters 
of  obvious  inference.  A  preceding  code  of 
traditionary  moral  law  is  all  along  supposed 
in  the  writings  of  Moses  and  the  prophets,  as 
well  as  a  consuetudinary  ritual  and  a  doctrinal 


theology,  both  transmitted  from  the  patriarchs. 
This,  too,  is  eminently  the  case  with  Chris- 
tianity.    It  supposes  that  all  who  believed  in 
Christ  admitted  the  divine    authority  of  the 
Old  Testament ;  and  it  assumes  the  perpetual 
authority  of  its  morals,  as  well  as  the  truth  of 
its  fundamental  theology.     The  constant  allu- 
sions   in    the    New  Testament   to  the  moral 
rules    of  the  Jews  and  patriarchs,  either  ex- 
pressly as  precepts,  or  as  the  data  of  argument, 
sufficiently  guard  us  against  the  notion,  that 
what    has    not   in    so   many  words    been    re- 
enacted  by  Christ  and  his  Apostles  is  of  no 
authority  among  Christians.     In  a  great  num- 
ber of  instances,  however,  the  form  of  injunc- 
tion is  directly  preceptive,  so  as  to  have  all 
the  explicitness  and  force  of  a  regular  code  of 
law,  and  is,  as  much  as  a  regular  code  could 
be,    a   declaration    of  the    sovereign   will    of 
Christ,  enforced  by  the  sanctions  of  eternal 
life  and  death.     This,  however,  is  a  point  on 
which  a  few  confirmatory  observations  may 
be  usefully  adduced.     No  part  of  the  preced- 
ing dispensation,  designated  generally  by  the 
appellation  of  "the  law,"  is  repealed  in  the 
New  Testament,  but  what  is  obviously  cere- 
monial, typical,  and  incapable   of  coexisting 
with  Christianity.     Our  Lord,  in  his  discourse 
with  the  Samaritan  woman,  declares,  that  the 
hour  of  the  abolition  of  the  temple  worship 
was  come  ;  the  Apostle  Paul,  in  the  Epistle  to 
the    Hebrews,    teaches    us  that  the  Levitical 
services  were  but  shadows,  the  substance  and 
end  of  which  is  Christ;  and  the  ancient  visi- 
ble  church,  as  constituted  upon  the  ground  of 
natural  descent  from  Abraham,  was  abolished 
by  the    establishment    of  a  spiritual  body  of 
believers  to  take  its  place.     No  precepts  of  a 
purely  political  nature,  that  is,  which  respect 
the  civil  subjection  of  the  Jews  to  their  theo- 
cracy, are,  therefore,  of  any  force    to   us  as 
laws,  although  they  may  have,  in  many  cases, 
the  greatest  authority  as  principles.     No  cere- 
monial   precepts    can  be  binding,  since  they 
were  restrained  to  a  period  terminating  with 
the  death  and  resurrection  of  Christ ;  nor  are 
even  the  patriarchal  rites  of  circumcision  and 
the  passover  obligatory  upon  Christians,  since 
we  have  sufficient  evidence  that  they  were  of 
an  adumbrative  character,  and  were  laid  aside 
by  the  first  inspired  teachers  of  Christianity. 

Willi  the  moral  precepts  which  abound  in 
the  Old  Testament  the  ease  is  very  different, 
as  sufficiently  appears  from  the  different,  and 
even  contrary,  manner  in  which  they  are 
always  spoken  of  by  Christ  and  his  Apostles. 
When  our  Lord,  in  his  sermon  on  the  mount, 
says,  "Think  not  that  I  am  come  to  destroy 
the  law  or  the  prophets;  I  am  not  come  to 
destroy  the  law,  but  to  fulfil ;"  that  is,  to  con- 
firm or  establish  it;  the  entire  scope  of  his 
discourse  shows  that  he  is  speaking  exclusively 
of  the  moral  precepts  of  "  the  law,"  eminent  ly 
so  called,  and  of  the  moral  injunctions  of  the 
prophets  founded  upon  them,  and  to  which  he 
thus  gives  an  eijual  authority.  And  in  so 
solemn  a  manner  does  he  enforce  this,  that  lie 
adds,  doubtless  as  foreseeing  that  attempts 
would  be  made  by  d«  ceiving  or  deceived  men 


LAW 


576 


LAW 


professing  his  religion,  to  lessen  the  authority 
of  the  moral  law,  "  Whosoever,  therefore, 
shall  break  one  of  these  least  commandments, 
and  shall  teach  men  *o,  he  shall  be  called  the 
least  in  the  kingdom  of  heaven ;"  that  is,  as 
St.  Chrysostom  interprets,  "  He  shall  be  the 
farthest  from  attaining  heaven  and  happiness, 
which  imports  that  he  shall  not  attain  it  at 
all."  In  like  manner  St.  Paul,  after  having 
strenuously  maintained  the  doctrine  of  justifi- 
cation by  faith  alone,  anticipates  an  objection 
by  asking,  "  Do  we  then  make  void  the  law 
through  faith?"  and  subjoins,  "God  forbid: 
yea,  we  establish  the  law  ;"  meaning  by  "  the 
law,"  as  the  context  and  his  argument  clearly 
show,  the  moral  and  not  the  ceremonial  law. 
After  such  declarations,  it  is  worse  than 
trifling  for  any  to  contend  that,  in  order  to 
establish  the  authority  of  the  moral  law  of  the 
Jews  over  Christians,  it  ought  to  have  been 
formally  reenacted.  To  this  we  may,  how- 
ever, farther  reply,  not  only  that  many  im- 
portant moral  principles  and  rules  found  in 
the  Old  Testament  were  never  formally  en- 
acted among  the  Jews ;  were  traditional  from 
an  earlier  age  ;  and  received  at  different  times 
the  more  indirect  authority  of  inspired  recog- 
nition ;  but,  to  put  the  matter  in  a  stronger 
light,  that  all  the  leading  moral  precepts  of 
the  Jewish  Scriptures  are,  in  point  of  fact, 
proposed  in  the  New  Testament  in  a  manner 
which  has  the  full  force  of  formal  reenactment, 
as  the  laws  of  the  Christian  church.  This 
argument,  from  the  want  of  formal  reenact- 
ment, will  therefore  have  no  weight.  The 
summary  of  the  law  and  the  prophets,  which 
is  to  love  God  with  all  our  heart,  and  to  serve 
him  with  all  our  strength,  and  to  love  our 
neighbour  as  ourselves,  is  unquestionably  en- 
joined, and  even  reenacted  by  the  Christian 
lawgiver.  When  our  Lord  is  explicitly  asked 
by  "  one  who  came  unto  him  and  said,  Good 
Master,  what  good  thing  shall  I  do,  that  I 
may  have  eternal  life  ?"  the  answer  given 
shows  that  the  moral  law  contained  in  the 
decalogue  is  so  in  force  under  the  Christian 
dispensation,  that  obedience  to  it  is  necessary 
to  final  salvation  : — "  If  thou  wilt  enter  into 
life,  keep  the  commandments."  And  that 
nothing  ceremonial  is  intended  by  this  term, 
is  manifest  from  what  follows :  "  He  saith 
unto  him,  Which  ?  Jesus  said,  Thou  shalt  do 
no  murder.  Thou  shalt  not  commit  adultery. 
Thou  shalt  not  steal,"  &c.  Matt,  xix,  17-19. 
Here,  also,  we  have  all  the  force  of  a  formal 
reenactment  of  the  decalogue,  a  part  of  it 
being  evidently  put  for  the  whole.  Nor  were 
it  difficult  to  produce  passages  from  the  dis- 
courses of  Christ  and  the  writings  of  the 
Apostles,  which  enjoin  all  the  precepts  of  this 
law  taken  separately,  by  their  authority,  as 
indispensable  parts  of  Christian  duty,  and 
that,  too,  under  their  original  sanctions  of 
life  and  death  ;  so  that  the  two  circumstances 
which  form  the  true  character  of  a  law  in  its 
highest  sense,  divine  authority  and  penal 
."auctions,  are  found  as  truly  in  the  New 
Testament  as  in  the  Old.  It  will  not,  for 
jmtance,  be  contended,  that  the  New  Testa- 


ment does  not  enjoin  the  acknowledgment 
and  worship  of  one  God  alone ;  nor  that  it 
does  not  prohibit  idolatry ;  nor  that  it  does 
not  level  its  maledictions  against  false  and  pro- 
fane swearing ;  nor  that  the  Apostle  Paul 
does  not  use  the  very  words  of  the  fifth  com- 
mandment preceptively,  when  he  says,  "Ho- 
nour thy  father  and  mother,  which  is  the  first 
commandment  with  promise,"  Eph.  vi,  2 ; 
nor  that  murder,  adultery,  theft,  false  witness, 
and  covetousness  are  not  all  prohibited  under 
pain  of  exclusion  from  the  kingdom  of  God. 
Thus,  then,  we  have  the  whole  decalogue 
brought  into  the  Christian  code  of  morals,  by 
a  distinct  injunction  of  its  separate  precepts, 
and  by  their  recognition  as  of  permanent  and 
unchangeable  obligation ;  the  fourth  com- 
mandment, respecting  the  Sabbath  only,  being 
so  far  excepted,  that  its  injunction  is  not  so 
expressly  marked.  This,  however,  is  no  ex- 
ception in  fact ;  for  beside  that  its  original 
plac  e  in  the  two  tables  sufficiently  distinguishes 
it  from  all  positive,  ceremonial,  and  typical 
precepts,  and  gives  it  a  moral  character,  in 
respect  to  its  ends,  which  are,  first,  mercy  to 
servants  and  cattle,  and,  second,  the  worship 
of  almighty  God,  undisturbed  by  worldly 
interruptions  and  cares,  it  is  necessarily  in- 
cluded in  that  "law"  which  our  Lord  declares 
he  came  not  to  destroy,  or  abrogate ;  in  that 
"law"  which  St.  Paul  declares  to  be  "esta- 
blished by  faith,"  and  among  those  "com- 
mandments" which  our  Lord  declares  must  be 
"  kept,"  if  any  one  would  "  enter  into  life." 
To  this,  also,  the  practice  of  the  Apostles  is 
to  be  added,  who  did  not  cease  themselves 
from  keeping  one  day  in  seven  holy,  nor  teach 
others  so  to  do  ;  but  gave  to  "  the  Lord's  day" 
that  eminence  and  sanctity  in  the  Christian 
church  which  the  seventh  day  had  in  the 
Jewish,  by  consecrating  it  to  holy  uses;  an 
alteration  not  affecting  the  precept  at  all, 
except  in  an  unessential  circumstance,  (if  in- 
deed in  that,)  and  in  which  we  may  suppose 
them  to  have  acted  under  divine  suggestion. 

Thus,  then,  we  have  the  obligation  of  the 
whole  decalogue  as  fully  established  in  the 
New  Testament  as  in  the  Old,  as  if  it  had 
been  formally  reenacted ;  and  that  no  formal 
reenactment  of  it  took  place,  is  itself  a  pre- 
sumptive proof  that  it  was  never  regarded  by 
the  lawgiver  as  temporary,  which  the  for- 
mality of  republication  might  have  supposed. 
It  is  important  to  remark,  however,  that, 
although  the  moral  laws  of  the  Mosaic  dis- 
pensation pass  into  the  Christian  code,  they 
stand  there  in  other  and  higher  circumstances; 
so  that  the  New  Testament  is  a  more  perfect 
dispensation  of  the  knowledge  of  the  moral 
will  of  God  than  the  Old.  In  particular,  (1.) 
They  are  more  expressly  extended  to  the 
heart,  as  by  our  Lord,  in  his  sermon  on  the 
mount ;  who  teaches  us  that  the  thought  and 
inward  purpose  of  any  offence  is  a  violation  of 
the  law  prohibiting  its  external  and  visible 
commission.  (2.)  The  principles  on  which 
they  are  founded  are  carried  out  in  the  New 
Testament  into  a  greater  variety  of  duties, 
which,  by  embracing  more  perfectly  the  social 


LEA 


577 


LEB 


and  civil  relations  of  life,  are  of  a  more  uni- 
versal character.  (3.)  There  is  a  much  more 
enlarged  injunction  of  positive  and  particular 
virtues,  especially  those  which  constitute  the 
Christian  temper.  (4.)  By  all  overt  acts  being 
inseparably  connected  with  corresponding 
principles  in  the  heart,  in  order  to  constitute 
acceptable  obedience,  which  principles  sup- 
pose the  regeneration  of  the  soul  by  the  Holy 
Ghost.  This  moral  renovation  is,  therefore, 
held  out  as  necessary  to  our  salvation,  and 
promised  as  a  part  of  the  grace  of  our  redemp- 
tion by  Christ.  (5.)  By  being  connected  with 
promises  of  divine  assistance,  which  is  pecu- 
liar to  a  law  connected  with  evangelical  pro- 
visions. (6.)  By  their  having  a  living  illus- 
tration in  the  perfect  and  practical  example  of 
Christ.  (7.)  By  the  higher  sanctions  derived 
from  the  clearer  revelation  of  a  future  state, 
and  the  more  explicit  promises  of  eternal  life, 
and  threatenings  of  eternal  punishment.  It 
follows  from  this,  that  we  have  in  the  Gospel 
the  most  complete  and  perfect  revelation  of 
moral  law  ever  given  to  men ;  and  a  more 
exact  manifestation  of  the  brightness,  perfec- 
tion, and  glory  of  that  law,  under  which 
angels  and  our  progenitors  in  paradise  were 
placed,  and  which  it  is  at  once  the  delight  and 
the  interest  of  the  most  perfect  and  happy 
beings  to  obey. 

LAZARUS,  brother  to  Martha  and  Mary. 
He  dwelt  at  Bethany  with  his  sisters,  near 
Jerusalem ;  and  the  Lord  Jesus  did  him  the 
honour  sometimes  of  lodging  at  his  house 
when  he  visited  the  city.  See  the  account 
of  his  resurrection  related  at  large  in  John 
xi.  5,  &c. 

LEAD,  mBjr,  Exod.  xv,  10 ;  Num.  xxxi,  22 ; 
Job  xix,  24;  Jer.  vi,  29  ;  Ezek.  xxii,  18;  xxvii, 
12;  Zech.  v,  7,  8  ;  a  mineral  of  a  bluish  white 
colour.  It  is  the  softest  next  to  gold,  but  has 
no  great  tenacity,  and  is  not  in  the  least  sono- 
rous. It  is  mentioned  with  five  other  species 
of  metal,  Num.  xxxi,  22  ;  and  there  is  no  doubt 
but  that  this  is  the  meaning  of  the  word ;  so 
the  Septuagint  render  it  throughout,  n6\t65os 
or  fidXtBos. 

LEAVEN.  The  Hebrews  were  forbidden 
by  the  law  to  eat  leavened  bread,  or  a  food 
with  leaven  in  it,  during  the  seven  days  of  the 
passover,  Exod.  xii,  15—19  ;  Lev.  ii,  11.  They 
were  very  careful  in  purifying  their  houses 
from  all  leaven  before  this  feast  began.  God 
forbad  either  leaven  or  honey  to  be  offered  to 
him  in  his  temple ;  that  is,  in  cakes  or  in  any 
baked  meats.  But  on  other  occasions  they 
might  offer  leavened  bread  or  honey.  St.  Paul, 
1  Cor.  v,  7,  8,  expresses  his  desire  that  the 
faithful  should  celebrate  the  Christian  passover 
with  unleavened  bread ;  which,  figuratively, 
signifies  sincerity  and  truth.  In  this  lie  teaches 
us  two  things  ;  first,  that  the  law  which  obliged 
the  Jews  to  a  literal  observance  of  the  passover 
is  no  longer  in  force ;  and,  secondly,  that  by 
unleavened  bread,  truth  and  purity  of  heart 
were  denoted.  The  same  Apostle  alludes  to 
the  ceremony  used  at  the  passover,  when  he 
says,  "  A  little  leaven  leaveneth  the  whole 
Jump  ;"  that  is,  a  small  portion  of  leaven,  in  a 
38 


quantity  of  bread  or  paste,  corrupts  the  whole, 
and  renders  it  unclean.  Our  Saviour,  in  the 
Gospel,  Matthew  xvi,  11,  warns  his  Apostles 
to  beware  of  the  leaven  of  the  Herodians  and 
Pharisees  ;  meaning  their  doctrines. 

LEBANON,  or  LIBANUS,  signifying  white, 
from  its  snows, — the  most  elevated  mountain 
or  mountain  chain  in  Syria,  celebrated  in  all 
ages  for  its  cedars;  which,  as  is  well  known, 
furnished  the  wood  for  Solomon's  temple. 
This  mountain  is  the  centre,  or  nucleus,  of  all 
the  mountain  ridges  which,  from  the  north, 
the  south,  and  the  east,  converge  toward  this 
point;  but  it  overtops  them  all.  This  confi- 
guration of  the  mountains,  and  the  superiority 
of  Lebanon,  are  particularly  striking  to  the 
traveller  approaching  both  from  the  Mediter- 
ranean on  the  west,  and  the  desert  on  the  east. 
On  either  side,  he  first  discovers,  at  a  great 
distance,  a  clouded  ridge,  stretching  from 
north  to  south,  as  far  as  the  eye  can  see  ;  the 
central  summits  of  which  are  capped  with 
clouds,  or  tipped  with  snow.  This  is  Lebanon, 
which  is  often  referred  to  in  Holy  Writ  for  its 
streams,  its  timber,  and  its  wines ;  and  at  the 
present  day  the  seat  of  the  only  portion  of 
freedom  of  which  Syria  can  boast. 

The  altitude  of  Lebanon  is  so  considerable, 
that  it  appears  from  the  reports  of  travellers  to 
have  snow  on  its  highest  eminences  all  the 
year  round.  Volney  says,  that  it  thus  remains 
toward  the  north-east,  where  it  is  sheltered 
from  the  sea  winds  and  the  rays  of  the  sun. 
Maundrell  found  that  part  of  the  mountain 
which  he  crossed,  and  which  in  all  probability 
was  by  no  means  the  highest,  covered  with 
deep  snow  in  the  month  of  May.  Dr.  E.  D. 
Clarke,  in  the  month  of  Jul}-,  saw  some  of  the 
eastern  summits  of  Lebanon,  or  Anti-Libanus, 
near  Damascus,  covered  with  snow,  not  lying 
in  patches,  as  is  common  in  the  summer  s  ason 
with  mountains  which  border  on  the  line  of 
perpetual  congelation,  but  do  not  quite  reach 
it,-  but  with  that,  perfect  white,  smooth,  and 
velvetlike  appearance,  which  snow  only  exhi- 
bits when  it  is  very  deep, — a  striking  spectacle 
in  such  a  climate,  where  the  beholder,  seeking 
protection  from  a  burning  sun,  almost  considers 
the  firmament  to  be  on  fire.  At  the  time  this 
observation  was  made,  the  thermometer,  in  an 
elevated  situation  near  the  sea  of  Tiberias, 
stood  at  102i°  in  the  shade.  Sir  Frederic 
Henniker  passed  over  snow  in  July ;  and  Ali 
Bey  describes  the  same  eastern  ridge  as  covered 
with  snow  in  September.  Of  the  noble  cedars 
which  once  adorned  the  upper  parts  of  this 
mountain  but  few  now  remain,  and  those  much 
decayed.  Burcl.hardt,  who  crossed  Mount 
Libanus  in  1810,  counted  about  thirty-six  large 
ones,  fifty  of  middle  size,  and  about  three  hun- 
dred smaller  and  young  ones  :  but  more  might 
exist  in  other  parts  of  the  mountain.  The 
wine,  especially  that  made  about  the  convent 
ofCanobin,  still  preserves  its  ancient  celebrity; 
and  is  reported  by  travellers,  more  particularly 
by  RauwolfT,  Le  Bruyn,  and  Do  la  Roque,  to 
be  of  the  most  exquisite  kind  for  flavour  and 
fragrance.  The  rains  which  fall  in  the  lower 
regious  of  Lebanon,  and  the  melting  of  the 


LEB 


578 


LEG 


6now  in  the  upper  ones,  furnish  an  abundance  I 
of  perennial  streams,  which  are  alluded  to  by 
Solomon,  Cant,  iv,  15.  On  the  declivities  of 
the  mountain  grew  the  vines  which  furnished 
the  rich  and  fragrant  wine  which  Hosea  cele- 
brated, xiv,  7,  and  which  may  still  be  obtained 
by  proper  culture. 

The  cedar  of  Lebanon  has,  in  all  ages,  been 
reckoned  as  an  object  of  unrivalled  grandeur 
and  beauty  in  the  vegetable  kingdom.  It  is, 
accordingly,  one  of  the  natural  images  which 
frequently  occur  in  the  poetical  style  of  the 
Hebrew  prophets ;  and  is  appropriated  to 
denote  kings,  princes,  and  potentates  of  the 
highest  rank.  Thus,  the  Prophet  Isaiah, 
whose  writings  abound  with  metaphors  and 
allegories  of  this  kind,  in  denouncing  the 
judgments  of  God  upon  the  proud  and  arro- 
gant, declares  that  "the  day  of  the  Lord  of 
Hosts  shall  be  upon  all  the  cedars  of  Lebanon 
that  are  high  and  lifted  up,  and  upon  all  the 
oaks  of  Bashan,"  Isaiah  ii,  13.  The  king  of 
Israel  used  the  same  figure  in  his  reply  to  the 
challenge  of  the  king  of  Judah  :  "  The  thistle 
that  was  in  Lebanon  sent  to  the  cedar  that  was 
in  Lebanon,  saying,  Give  thy  daughter  to  my 
son  to  wife :  and  there  passed  by  a  wild  beast 
that  was  in  Lebanon,  and  trod  down  the 
thistle,"  2  Kings  xiv,  9.  The  spiritual  pros- 
perity of  the  righteous  man  is  compared  by 
the  Psalmist  to  the  same  noble  plant :  "  The 
righteous  shall  flourish  as  the  palm  tree ;  he 
shall  grow  as  the  cedar  in  Lebanon."  To 
break  the  cedars,  and  shake  the  enormous  mass 
on  which  they  grow,  are  the  figures  that  David 
selects  to  express  the  awful  majesty  and  power 
of  Jehovah:  "The  voice  of  the  Lord  is  pow- 
erful ;  the  voice  of  the  Lord  is  full  of  majesty. 
The  voice  of  the  Lord  breaketh  the  cedars : 
yea,  the  Lord  breaketh  the  cedars  of  Lebanon. 
He  maketh  them  also  to  skip  like  a  calf;  Leba- 
non and  Sirion  like  a  young  unicorn,"  Psalm 
xxix,  4-6.  This  description  of  the  divine 
majesty  and  power  possesses  a  character  of 
awful  sublimity. 

The  stupendous  size,  the  extensive  range, 
and  great  elevation  of  Libanus;  its  towering 
summits  capped  with  perpetual  snow,  or 
crowned  with  fragrant  cedars ;  its  olive  plant- 
ations ;  its  vineyards,  producing  the  most 
delicious  wines ;  its  clear  fountains,  and  cold- 
flowing  brooks  ;  its  fertile  vales,  and  odorife- 
rous shrubberies, — combine  to  form  in  Scripture 
language,  "the  glory  of  Lebanon."  But  that 
glory,  liable  to  change,  has,  by  the  unanimous 
consent  of  modern  travellers,  suffered  a  sen- 
sible decline.  The  extensive  forests  of  cedar, 
which  adorned  and  perfumed  the  summits  and 
declivities  of  those  mountains,  have  almost 
disappeared.  Only  a  small  number  of  these 
"trees  of  God,  planted  by  his  almighty  hand," 
whicli,  according  to  the  usual  import  of  the 
phrase,  signally  displayed  the  divine  power, 
wisdom,  ami  goodness,  now  remain.  Their 
countless  number  in  thedays  of  Solomon,  and 
their  pmdigioas  bulk,  must  he  recollected,  in 
order  to  foe  I  the  force  of  that  sublime;  declara- 
tion of  the  prophet:  "Lebanon  is  not.  suffi- 
cient to  burn,  nor  the  beasts  thereof  sufficient 


for  a  burnt-offering,"  Isaiah  xl,  16.  Though 
the  trembling  sinner  were  to  make  choice  of 
Lebanon  for  the  altar  ;  were  to  cut  down  all 
its  forests  to  form  the  pile ;  though  the  fra- 
grance of  this  fuel,  with  all  its  odoriferous 
gums,  were  the  incense;  the  wine  of  Lebanon 
pressed  from  all  its  vineyards,  the  libation  ; 
and  all  its  beasts,  the  propitiatory  sacrifice ; 
all  would  prove  insufficient  to  make  atone- 
ment for  the  sins  of  men ;  would  be  regarded 
as  nothing  in  the  eyes  of  the  supreme  Judge 
for  the  expiation  of  even  one  transgression. 
The  just  and  holy  law  of  God  requires  a 
nobler  altar,  a  costlier  sacrifice,  and  a  sweeter 
perfume, — the  obedience  and  death  of  a  divine 
Person  to  atone  for  our  sins,  and  the  incense 
of  his  continual  intercession  to  secure  our 
acceptance  with  the  Father  of  mercies,  and 
admission  into  the  mansions  of  eternal  rest. 
The  conversion  of  the  Gentile  nations  from 
the  worship  of  idols  and  the  bondage  of  cor- 
ruption, to  the  service  and  enjoyment  of  the 
true  God,  is  foretold  in  these  beautiful  and 
striking  terms  :  "  The  wilderness  and  the  soli- 
tary place  shall  be  glad  for  them  :  and  the 
desert  shall  rejoice,  and  blossom  as  the  rose. 
It  shall  blossom  abundantly,  and  rejoice  even 
with  joy  and  singing ;  the  glory  of  Lebanon 
shall  be  given  unto  it,  the  excellency  of  Car- 
mel  and  Sharon  :  they  shall  see  the  glory  of 
the  Lord,  and  the  excellency  of  our  God," 
Isaiah  xxxv,  4. 

LEEK,  "vsn,  in  Numbers  xi,  5,  translated 
"  leek  ;"  in  1  Kings  xviii,  5  ;  2  Kings  xix,  26 ; 
Job  xl,  15;  Psalm  xxxvii,  2;  xc,  5;  ciii,  15; 
civ,  14 ;  exxix,  6 ;  cxlvii,  8 ;  Isaiah  xxxv,  7  ; 
xxxvii,  27;  xl,  6,  it  is  rendered  "grass;"  in 
Job  viii,  12,  "  herb  ;"  in  Prov.  xxvii,  25 ;  Isaiah 
xv,  6,  "hay;"  and  in  Isaiah  xxxiv,  13,  "a 
court."  It  is  much  of  the  same  nature  with 
the  onion.  The  kind  called  karrat  by  the 
Arabians,  the  allium  porrum  of  Linnseus,  Has- 
selquist  says,  must  certainly  have  been  one  of 
those  desired  by  the  children  of  Israel,  as  it 
has  been  cultivated  and  esteemed  from  the 
earliest  times  to  the  present  in  Egypt.  The 
inhabitants  are  very  fond  of  eating  it  raw,  as 
sauce  for  their  roasted  meat ;  and  the  poor 
people  eat  it  raw  with  their  bread,  especially 
for  breakfast.  There  is  reason,  however,  to 
doubt  whether  this  plant  is  intended  in  Num. 
xi,  5,  and  so  differently  rendered  every  where 
else  :  it  should  rather  intend  such  vegetables 
as  grow  promiscuously  with  grass.  Ludolphus 
supposes  that  it  may  mean  lettuce  and  sallads 
in  general ;  and  Maillet  observes,  that  the 
succory  and  endive  are  eaten  with  great  relish 
by  the  people  in  Egypt :  some  or  all  of  these 
may  be  meant. 

LEGION.  The  Roman  legions  were  com- 
posed each  of  ten  cohorts ;  a  cohort,  of  fifty 
maniples;  a  maniple,  of  fifteen  men;  conse- 
quently, a  full  legion  contained  six  thousand 
soldiers.  Jesus  cured  one  who  called  himself 
"  legion,"  as  if  possessed  by  a  legion  of  devils, 
Mark  v,  9.  He  ;>lso  said  to  Peter,  who  drew 
his  sword  to  defend  him  in  the  olive  garden  : 
"  Thinkest  thou  that  I  cannot  now  pray 
to  my  Father,  who  shall  presently  give  me 


LET 


579 


LET 


more  than  twelve  legions  of  angels  ?"     Matt, 
xxvi,  53. 

LEMUEL.     See  Agur. 

LENTIL,  Diary,  Gen.  xxv,  34;  2  Sam. 
xvii,  28  ;  xxiii,  11  ;  Ezek.  iv,  9,  a  sort  of  pulse  ; 
in  the  Septuagint  Qaicbs,  and  Vulgate  lens.  The 
lentils  of  Egypt  were  very  much  esteemed 
among  the  ancients.  St.  Austin  says,  they 
grow  abundantly  in  Egypt,  are  much  used  as 
a  food  there,  'ind  those  of  Alexandria  are  con- 
sidered particularly  valuable.  Dr.  Shaw  says, 
beans,  lent'ls,  kidney  beans,  and  garvancos 
arc  the  chief  of  their  pulse  kind.  Beans,  when 
boiled  and  stewed  with  oil  and  garlic,  are  the 
principal  food  of  persons  of  all  distinctions. 
Lentils  are  dressed  in  the  same  manner  as 
beans,  dissolving  easily  into  a  mass,  and 
making  a  pottage  of  a  chocolate  colour.  This, 
we  find,  was  the  "  red  pottage"  which  Esau, 
from  thence  called  Edom,  exchanged  for  his 
birthright. 

LEOPARD,  idj,  Cant,  iv,  8 ;  Isaiah  xi,  6 ; 
Jer.  v,  6 ;  xiii,  23  ;  Hosea  xiii,  7 ;  Hab.  i,  8 ; 
Dan.  vii,  6 ;  rorfpiSaAif,  Rev.  xiii,  2 ;  Ecclus. 
xxviii,  23.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
pard  or  leopard  is  the  animal  mentioned. 
Bochart  shows  that  the  name  is  similar  in  the 
Chaldee,  Syriac,  Arabic,  and  Ethiopic.  The 
LXX  uniformly  render  it  by  ndp<5aA<s ;  and 
Jerom,  pardus.  Probably,  these  animals  were 
numerous  in  Palestine  ;  as  we  find  places  with 
a  name  intimating  their  having  been  the  haunts 
of  leopards:  NimraJi,  Num.  xxxii,  3;  Beth. 
Nimruh,  Num.  xxxii,  36;  Joshua  xiii,  27  ;  and 
"  waters  of  Nimriin"  Isa.  xv,  6  ;  Jer.  xlviii,  34  ; 
and  "  mountains  of  leopards,"  Cant,  iv,  8. 
Nimrod  might  have  his  name  from  this  animal : 
"  He  was  a  mighty  hunter  before  the  Lord  ; 
wherefore  it  is  said,  Even  as  Nimrod  the  mighty 
hunter  before  the  Lord,"  Gen.  x,  9.  It  is 
supposed,  however,  that  his  predations  were 
not  confined  to  the  brute  creation.  Dr.  Geddes 
remarks,  that  the  word  "  hunter"  expresses  too 
little.  He  was  a  freebooter,  in  the  worst  sense 
of  the  word  ;  a  lawless  despot : 

Proud  Nimrod  first  die  bloody  chase  began, 
A  mighty  hunter,  and  his  prey  was  man. 
Isaiah,  describing  the  happy  state  of  the  reign 
of  Messiah,  says,  "  The  leopard  shall  lie  down 
with  the  kid,"  Isaiah  xi,  6.  Even  animals 
shall  lose  their  fierceness  and  cruelty,  and  be- 
come gentle  and  tame.  Jeremiah,  v,  6,  men- 
tions the  artful  ambuscades  of  this  animal ; 
and  in  xiii,  23,  alludes  to  his  spots:  "Can  a 
Cushite  change  his  skin ;  or  a  leopard  his 
spots  ?  Then  may  ye  prevail  with  them  to 
do  good  who  are  habituated  to  do  evil ;"  and 
Habakkuk,  i,  8,  refers  to  its  alertness. 

LEPROSY.     See  Diseases. 

LETTERS,  marks  for  the  purpose  of  ex- 
pressing sounds,  used  in  writing.  Few  sub 
jects  have  given  rise  to  more  discussion  than, 
the  origin  of  alphabetic  characters.  If  they 
are  of  human  invention,  they  mult  be  con- 
sidered as  one  of  the  most  admirable  efforts  of 
the  ingenuity  of  man.  So  wonderful  is  the 
facility  which  they  afford  for  recording  human 
thought ;  so  ingenious,  and  at  the  same  time 
bo  simple,  is  the  analysis  which  they  .furnish 


for  the  sounds  of  articulate  speech,  and  for  all 
the  possible  variety  of  words  ;  that  we  might 
expect  the  author  of  this  happy  invention  to 
have  been  immortalized  by  the  grateful  homage 
of  succeeding  ages,  and  his  name  delivered 
down  to  posterity  with  the  ample  honours  it 
so  justly  merited.  But  the  author  and  the 
era  of  this  discovery,  if  such  it  be,  are  both 
lost  in  the  darkness  of  remote  antiquity.  Even 
the  nation  to  which  the  invention  is  due  can- 
not now  be  ascertained.  The  Egyptians,  the 
Assyrians,  the  Phenicians,  the  Persians,  the 
Indians,  have  all  laid  claim  to  the  honour  of 
it ;  and  each  has  named  its  inventor  among 
the  remote,  and  probably  fabulous,  personages 
that  figure  in  the  earlier  ages  of  their  history. 
In  consequence  of  this  uncertainty  respecting 
the  author  of  alphabetic  writing,  and  the  high 
value  and  extreme  difficulty  of  the  invention 
itself,  many  have  been  inclined  to  attribute 
this  art  to  an  immediate  revelation  from  the 
Deity  ;  contending  that  it  was  communicated 
with  other  invaluable  gifts  from  above,  in 
remote  ages,  to  the  descendants  of  Abraham, 
and  probably  to  the  Patriarch  Moses,  who  was 
the  author  of  the  most  ancient  compositions  in 
alphabetical  writing  that  we  at  present  possess. 
The  arguments  which  are  brought  in  support 
of  the  divine  revelation  of  the  alphabet,  are 
chiefly  these:  1.  The  high  antiquity  of  the  use 
of  letters  ;  the  Hebrew  characters  having  ex- 
isted in  a  perfect  state  when  Moses  composed 
the  Pentateuch,  the  most  ancient  writing  now 
known  to  be  extant.  2.  The  similarity  between 
the  various  alphabets  of  different  nations, 
which,  for  the  most  part,  are  the  same,  in  the 
order,  power,  and  even  form,  of  their  letters 
with  the  Hebrew.  3.  The  complete  want  of 
alphabetic  characters  among  those  nations, 
which  have  been  cut  oft'  from  all  communi- 
cation with  the  ancient  civilized  world,  as  the 
aboriginal  Americans ;  or  that  part  of  the 
human  race  which  had  no  opportunity  of  bor. 
rowing  the  system  of  written  characters  re- 
vealed to  the  Hebrews,  as  China. 

Had  man  been  left,  to  himself,  the  first  and 
most  natural  way  of  making  Ins  thoughts 
visible  to  the  eye  would  be  by  pictorial  repre- 
sentations. The  second  step  would,  for  con- 
venience' sake,  be  to  invent  an  abbreviated 
form*  of  these  pictures,  sufficiently  legible 
to  call  to  mind  the  original  picture  in  full,  and 
yet  so  reduced  and  intermixed  with  a  few  easily 
remembered  arbitrary  characters,  or  symbols, 
as  to  be  more" extensively  useful.  The  next 
and  most  difficult  step  would  be  the  alphabet 
so  formed  as  to  express  all  the  sounds  of  the 
language,  by  convenient  combination.  The 
Egyptian  monuments  show  specimens  of  each; 
the  hieroglyph,  the  mixed  and  abbreviated,  and 
the  alphabetical.  The  magnificent  ruins  of 
Persepolis,  the  capital  of  ancient  Persia,  ex- 
hibit also  the  pure  pictorial  style,  and  tablets 
if  abbreviated  emblems.  The  characters  on 
the- bricks  dug  up  from  the  ruins  of  ancient 
Babylon  have  characters,  which  are  supposed 
to  be,  not  alphabetic,  but  abbreviated  symbols, 
and  therefore  suppose  the  existence  of  the 
larger    picture    writing,    whether    the    people 


LET 


580 


LET 


possessed  a  proper  alphabet  or  not.  All  the 
savage  tribes  of  America  had  their  picture 
writings,  and  this  style  was  carried  to  great 
perfection  by  the  Mexicans.  The  latter  had, 
likewise,  abbreviated  marks,  which  were  used 
as  symbols ;  and  thus  made  an  approach  to 
letters,  although  they  never  reached  this  dis- 
covery. It  is  a  curious  fact,  that  in  our  day  a 
Cherokee  chief  has  actually  invented  an  al- 
phabet, and  that  in  the  process  he  commenced 
with  a  pictorial  representation  of  animals  which 
uttered  sounds  somewhat  like  those  of  his 
own  tongue  ;  which  thought  seems  not  to  have 
entered  into  the  picture  writing  of  the  an- 
cients, whose  delineations  spoke  wholly  to  the 
eye,  and  not  at  all  to  the  ear.  Finding  this 
method  imperfect  and  cumbersome,  he  at  last 
hit  upon  the  expedient  of  arbitrary  characters, 
which  he  gradually  reduced  in  number,  and  so 
perfected,  that,  with  a  few  European  improve- 
ments, books  are  now  printed  in  them  for  the 
use  of  his  nation.  In  China  the  language  is 
a  complete  system  of  abbreviated  pictures, 
emblems,  or  symbols ;  and  there  is  no  proper 
alphabet  to  this  day. 

These  facts  are  urged  as  direct  proofs 
or  6trong  presumptions  that  all  alphabetical 
characters  have  been  preceded  by  picture  or 
imitative  characters ;  and  that  as  the  whole  is 
within  the  compass  of  human  ingenuity,  the 
notion  of  a  divine  suggestion  of  letters,  or  of 
the  important  art  of  alphabetical  writing,  is 
bringing  in  the  divine  agency  without  neces- 
sity. But  the  assumption  that  alphabets  have 
in  all  cases  been  formed  through  this  process, 
is  wholly  hypothetic.  Certain  it  is  that  we 
can  prove  from  the  Scriptures  that  literal  writ- 
ing was  in  use  at  an  earlier  period  than  can  be 
assigned  to  any  picture  writing  whatever. 
Writing  and  reading  were  familiar  to  Moses 
and  the  Israelites  when  the  law  was  given, 
and  must  have  long  previously  existed  among 
them,  and,  probably,  among  the  Egyptians  of 
the  same  age  too ;  which  is  much  earlier  than 
any  of  those  monuments  bearing  hieroglyphical 
characters  reach.  We  have  given  sufficient 
reason  to  conclude  that  Job  lived  at  an  earlier 
period  still,  and  as  he  oxpresses  a  wish  that 
his  words  should  be  written  in  a  book,  and 
engraven  on  the  rock,  the  knowledge  of  read- 
ing as  well  as  writing  must  have  been  pretty 
general  in  his  country,  or  the  book  and  the 
inscription  could  not  have  been  a  testimony  of 
his  faith  and  hope  to  his  countrymen,  as  he 
passionately  desired  it  to  be.  Here,  too,  it  is 
to  be  observed,  that  in  the  early  Mosaic  history 
we  have  not  the  least  intimation  of  writing  by 
pictures  or  symbols,  nor  any  that  the  art  of 
writing  had  been  revealed  from  heaven  in  the 
days  of  Moses,  preparatory  to  the  giving  of  a 
written  law  and  the  introduction  of  inspired 
books  for  the  religious  instruction  of  the  pco- 
pie.  We  must  trace  it  up  higher;  though 
whether  of  divine  revelation,  or  human  inven- 
tion, cannot  certainly  be  determined.  Its  im- 
portance was  assuredly  worthy  of  the  former  ; 
and  if  this  was  not  done  by  particular  revela- 
tion, doubtless  we  may  reasonably  and  piously 
ascribe  it  to  a  divine  suggestion. 


It  may,  indeed,  be  asked,  How  then  is  it  that 
in  other  nations  we  can  so  accurately  trace  the 
progress  from  the  picture  to  the  symbol,  and 
thence  on  to  the  alphabet ;  as  for  instance  in 
Egypt  ?  We  answer,  that  if  this  were  allowed, 
still  it  might  be,  and  probably  was,  a  part  of 
the  divine  procedure  with  reference  to  the  pre- 
servation of  the  true  religion,  that  the  know- 
ledge of  letters  should  be  early  given  to  the 
Abrahamic  family,  or,  at  least,  preserved 
among  them,  while  many  others  of  the  more 
dispersed  branches  of  the  human  race  becom- 
ing barbarous,  as  stated  under  the  article  Lan- 
guage, might  lose  it ;  because  picture  writing 
was  easily  convertible  to  idolatrous  purposes, 
and  in  reality  was  greatly  encouraged  from 
that  source.  The  same  care  would  be  exerted 
to  prevent  pictorial  representations  of  spiritual 
beings  and  things  as  the  forming  of  images ;  and 
the  race  of  true  worshippers  of  God  was  never 
therefore  placed  under  the  necessity  of  thus 
expressing  their  thoughts  by  such  delineations. 
But  it  is,  in  fact,  far  from  being  proved,  that  the 
hieroglyph,  or  picture  writing,  of  Egypt  for 
example,  was  more  ancient  among  that  people 
than  alphabetic  writing.  One  of  the  most  re- 
cent writers  on  this  side  is  the  Marquis  Spineto, 
in  his  "  Lectures  on  Egyptian  Hieroglyphics." 
His  theory  is,  in  fact,  that  of  Warburton  ;  and 
he  thinks  that  the  recent  discoveries  as  to  the 
hieroglyphics  of  Egypt  fully  establish  it.  The 
opinion  of  this  learned  prelate  was,  that  the 
primitive  mode  of  writing  among  the  Egyp- 
tians was  by  figurative  delineations  or  hiero- 
glyphics ;  that  this  becoming  too  tedious  and 
voluminous,  by  degrees  they  perfected  another 
character,  which  he  calls  the  running-hand  of 
hieroglyphics,  resembling  the  Chinese  charac- 
ters ;  which  being  at  first  formed  only  by  the 
outlines  of  figures,  became  at  length  a  kind  of 
marks  ;  and  at  last  led  to  the  compendious  use 
of  letters  by  an  alphabet.  His  argument  against 
the  knowledge  of  letters  by  the  immediate 
descendants  of  JMoah  is  as  follows:  "For,  if 
the  invention  of  the  alphabet  had  preceded  the 
dispersion,  we  should  have  found  the  use  of  it 
generally  established  among  mankind,  and 
hieroglyphics  and  picture  writing  entirely  lain 
aside.  But  this  is  not  the  case.  The  Mexi- 
cans and  the  Peruvians,  up  to  the  fifteenth 
century,  and,  to  this  day,  the  Chinese,  have 
no  knowledge  of  the  alphabet.  They  all,  like 
the  Egyptians,  made  use  of  hieroglyphics, 
more  or  less  abridged,  more  or  less  symbolical, 
or,  if  you  please,  more  or  less  arbitrary;  but 
they  had  no  knowledge  of  the  alphabet.  The 
invention  of  letters,  therefore,  must  have  hap- 
pened after  the  dispersion,  at  a  time  when 
picture  or  hieroglyphical  writing  was  generally 
used;  it  was  thus  imported  into  the  respective 
countries,  by  the  primitive  inhabitants,  as  they 
separated  themselves  from  the  common  society, 
carrying  in  their  migrations  those,  partly  true 
and  partly  false  notions  of  the  Deity,  and  of 
the  great  event  which  had  submerged  the 
world  ;  notions  which,  in  fact,  are  to  be  found 
in  the  theology  and  ritual  of  all  the  nations  in 
the  universe,  although  more  or  less  disfigured 
and  altered." 


LET 


581 


LET 


But    as    the    running-hand   hieroglyphics, 
spoken  of  by  Warburton,  were  no  more  alpha- 
betical than  the  hieroglyphics  themselves,  still 
we  are  left  to  make  the  inquiry,  Who  was  the 
inventor  of  the  Egyptian  alphabet?    This  is 
supposed  by  the  Marquis  on  the  authority  of 
a  passage  in  Plato,  to  be  a  secretary  of  one  of 
the    kings    of   Egypt.      This    king   is    called 
Tbamus  ;  who  forbade  his  ingenius  secretary, 
Thouth,  or  Theuth,    to  make  the   invention 
public  ;  lest  the  people  should  no  longer  pay 
attention  to  the  hieroglyphics,   which  would 
then  be  soon  forgotten.     The  secret,  however, 
soon  escaped ;  and  as  it  diminished  to  a  pro- 
digious  degree  the  difficulty  of  writing,  it  was 
generally  adopted  by  the  Egyptians,  and  from 
them  passed  into  other  nations.     "  The  first," 
says  the  Marquis,   "  who  seem  to  have  got  a 
knowledge  of  this  system,  were  the  Phenicians ; 
they  imparted  it  to  the  Arabians,  to  the  Jews, 
and  carried   it   over   to   Greece.     From   that 
country  it  was  exported  to  the  several  islands, 
carried    to    the    continent,    and    reached   the 
northern  nations.     The  Chinese  alone  refused 
to  adopt  the  valuable  discovery  ;  proud  of  the 
antiquity  of  their  social  establishment,  believ- 
ing themselves  superior  to  the  rest  of  mankind, 
they  still  adhered  to  their  ancient  mode   of 
writing.      This,  as  I  have  already  observed, 
though  originally  the  same  with  that  used  by 
the   Egyptians,   became,  in  process  of  time, 
materially  different,  being  made  up  of  arbitrary 
marks,    which    are    for   the    most  part    ideo- 
graphical.   With  the  discovery  of  the  alphabet, 
however,  a  very  material  change  took  place 
in  regard  to  hieroglyphics.     Originally,  as  we 
have  seen,  they  had  been  the  common,  nay, 
the   sole  mode   of  writing,   employed  by  the 
nation  at  large,  in  all  the  transactions  of  life, 
and  through  the  policy  of  King  Thamus,  the 
alphabetical  letters  were  kept  secret :  but,  as 
soon  as    this    discovery  became   known,   the 
contrary  happened ;    alphabetical  writing  be- 
came common,  and  hieroglyphics  mysterious, 
not   because  they  were   purposely  hidden   in 
mystery,    but    simply    because    they  required 
greater  application  and  greater  trouble.  They 
indeed  still  continued  to  be  used  in  matters  of 
religion,  funerals,  public  monuments,  and  the 
like ;  but  in  all  business,  and  common  trans- 
actions, the  alphabetical  writing  was  employed. 
This    was    a   necessary    consequence    of  the 
general  use  of  hieroglyphics  in  their  primitive 
state  ;  for  although  the  Egyptians  might,  and, 
in  fact,  did,  give  the  preference  to  the  alpha- 
bet,  yet  they  did  not  think   it  necessary  to 
erase  the  old  hieroglyphical  characters  from 
their  temples,  from  their  obelisks,  from  their 
tombs,  and  religious  vases.    The  priests,  there- 
fore, still  continued  to  study  and  preserve  the 
knowledge  of  hieroglyphics  ;  and  these,  partly 
by  their  showy  nature,  partly  by  the  continu- 
ation of  the  old  custom,  continued  still  to  be 
used  in  public  monuments    of  a  votive    and 
funeral  nature.     To  distinguish  them,  there- 
fore,   from    ihe    alphabetical    letters    newly 
invented,  they  obtained  the  name  of  sacred, 
on  the  score  of  their  being  employed  only  in 
matters  of  religion.     The   priests,   however, 


who  had  already  invented  a  new  set  of  arbi- 
trary marks,  as  a  shorter  way  of  hieroglyphical 
writing,  which  they  employed  exclusively  in 
trancactions  which  concerned  their  body  and 
their  pursuits,  after  the  invention  of  the  alpha- 
bet turned  these  marks  into  letters,  and  thus 
they  formed  another  set  of  characters,  or  mode 
of  writing,  to  which  they  gave  the  appellation 
of  hieratic,  as  belonging  exclusively  to  their 
order.  In  these  characters  they  wrote  all 
historical,  political,  and  religious  transactions. 
And  as  the  common,  or  demotic  letters  were 
employed  in  all  the  common  business  of  life, 
and  hieroglyphics  confined  to  public  monu- 
ments, and  funereal  and  votive  ceremonies,  the 
Egyptians  became  possessed  of  at  least  three 
different  modes  of  writing,  or  sets  of  charac- 
ters, which  were  hieroglyphic,  demotic,  and 
hieratic.  Whether  the  priests  had  invented 
another  set  of  characters,  unknown  to  the 
people,  and  in  which  they  concealed  their 
doctrine  and  their  knowledge,  is  a  question 
which  cannot  be  solved  at  present.  The  want 
of  monuments  disables  us  from  saying  any 
thing  of  a  decisive  nature  on  this  subject.  One 
thing  alone  we  can  suppose  with  certainty, 
that  if  such  a  mode  of  writing  did  ever  exist, 
and  for  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  supposed 
to  have  existed,  the  knowledge  of  it  must  have 
been  confined  to  -the  priests  only,  and  the 
records  so  written  concealed  with  the  greatest 
care  from  the  eye  of  the  nation.  If,  therefore, 
such  records  exist,  they  must  be  sought  for  in 
the  dwelling  of  the  hicrophant,  in  the  most 
recondite  places  of  the  temples ;  perhaps  in 
those  subterraneous  passages  which  now  lie 
hidden  under  mountains  of  sand,  and  in  which 
no  one  but  the  priests  were  ever  permitted  to 
enter." 

The  whole  of  this  account,  we  may  how- 
ever observe,    is  far  from  being  satisfactory. 
Whether    the    early    Egyptians  wrote    hiero- 
glyphics at  all,  no  monuments  yet  discovered 
are    so    ancient  as  to  prove  ;    since    all  such 
characters  now  known  must  have  been  writ- 
ten subsequently  to   the  advancement  of  tho 
kingdom  into  great  power,  and  after  consider- 
able progress  had  been  made  in  architecture 
and  other  arts.     The  passage,  too,  in  Plato, 
on  which  the  argument  is    made  to  depend, 
may  just  as  well  refer  to  the  running-hand  or 
abridged  hieroglyphical    signs,    as  to    alpha- 
betical writing ;  and  the  supposition,  that  the 
priests  gave  an  alphabetical  character  to  this 
kind  of  abridged  pictorial  writing  after  the  dis- 
covery of  the  real  alphabet,  (and  alphabetical 
Ackerblad  and  Dr.  Young  have  proved  it  to 
be,)  is  quite   hypothetic.     We  think  it  more 
probable    that   alphabetical  writing    is    much 
older  than   the   hieroglyphics ;  that  the  pho- 
netic hieroglyphics  were  fanciful  representa- 
tions of  the  alphabetic  characters,  intermingled 
with   those   symbols   which   idolatry  and   tho 
natural  peculiarities  of  Egypt  would  suggest ; 
that  the  whole  was  originally  easy  to  be  de- 
ciphered by  those  who  knew  letters  at  all ;  and 
that  the  leading  motive  of  fixing  them  on  pub- 
lic monuments  in  preference  to  literal  inscrip- 
tions, was  the  taste  of  the  day,  which  custom, 


LEV 


582 


LEV 


and  antiquity,  and  superstition  at  length  con- 
secrated. We  have  thus  an  easy  way  of  ac- 
counting for  the  alphabetical,  though  obscure, 
character  of  the  hieroglyphic  running-hand, 
or  hieratic  writing,  so  much  used  in  manu- 
scripts. As  an  abridged  form  of  the  hiero- 
glyphical  outline,  it  would  at  least  be  phonetic 
wherever  the  hieroglyphic  was  so;  and  where 
that  was  symbolical,  it  would  naturally  present 
greater  difficulty  in  deciphering,  which,  in  fact, 
has  been  proved  to  be  the  case,  l>v  modern  stu- 
dents in  the  art.  It  is,  indeed,  acknowledged 
by  those  who  advocate  the  priority  of  the 
hieroglyphic  to  the  alphabetic  signs,  that  the 
number  of  ideas  which  could  thus  be  expressed 
is  few  ;  and  this  the  Marquis  Spineto  considers 
as  a  presumptive  proof  of  his  theory.  In  these 
early  ages,  "the  position  pf  mankind  after  the 
flood,"  he  observes,  "  was  such  as  to  preclude 
the  possibility  of  supposing  that  they  had  many 
ideas  and  many  wants ;  therefore  wc  may 
reasonably  conclude,  that  their  language  con- 
sisted of  words  only  which  were  intended  to 
express  the  things  most,  necessary  to  life,  and 
consequently  contained  a  small  number  of 
words."  We  know,  indeed,  that  it  is  the  notion 
of  many  infidel  writers,  that  the  original  race 
or  races  of  mankind  were  a  sort  of  savages  ; 
and  that  a  state  of  society  gradually  increased 
the  ideas,  and  enriched  the  language  of  those 
who  at  first  were  capable  of  uttering  but  a  few 
simple  articulate  sounds  ;  but  that  any  person 
should  talk  in  a  similar  strain,  who  professes 
to  receive  the  Mosaic  history,  is  absurd.  The 
antediluvians  had  surely  much  knowledge. 
Many  arts  were  invented  before  the  flood  ;  and 
the  ark  itself  is  a  vast  monument  of  mechanical 
skill.  Arts,  science,  morals,  legislation,  the- 
ology, were  all  known  before  the  flood;  and 
were  all  transmitted  from  the  old  world  to  the 
new,  by  Noah  and  his  sons.  These  were  not 
men  "  of  few  ideas,"  nor  was  the  pastoral  mode 
of  life  incompatible  with  great  moral  know- 
ledge, eloquence,  and  the  highest  and  richest 
poetry,  as  we  see  in  the  book  of  Job.  Men 
were  not  then,  as  many  moderns  have  sup- 
posed, a  race  of  babies,  able  only  to  ask  for 
what  they  needed  to  eat  and  drink,  or  child- 
ishly to  play  with  ;  and  we  may  therefore  rest 
assured  that  they  had  a  language  so  copious, 
and  enunciations  of  ideas  so  various  in  their 
respective  tongues,  that  picture  writing  neither 
was  nor  could  be  adequate  to  their  full  ex- 
pression. The  true  origin  of  hieroglyphic 
writing  is  still  unexplained  ;  and  will,  after  all, 
probably,  remain  inexplicable:  but  it  has  little 
claim  to  lie  considered  as  the  first  mode  of  ex- 
pressing the  sounds  of  language.  As  for  the 
Chinese  language,  it  is  evident  that  it  cannot 
be  urged  in  proof  of  alphabetical  writing  hav- 
ing in  all  cases  passed  through  the  process 
above  mentioned  ;  for  to  this  day  the  Chinese 
have  no  alphabet.  As  a  language  it  is  indeed 
peculiar,  as  being  wholly  monosyllabic ;  and 
we  must  be  better  acquainted  with  the  early 
circumstances  of  that  people  before  we  can 
account  for  either.     See  Writing. 

LEVIATHAN,    jn>V?,  Job  hi,    8 ;   xli,   1  ; 
T   ,1m  lxxiv,  14;  civ,  26;  Isa.  xxvii,  1.     The 


old  commentators  concurred  in  regarding  the 
whale  as  the  animal  here  intended.  Beza  and 
Diodati  were  among  the  first  to  interpret  it  the 
crocodile  :  and  Bochart  has  since  supported 
this  last  rendering  with  a  train  of  argument 
which  has  nearly  overwhelmed  all  opposition, 
and  brought  almost  every  commentator  over 
to  his  opinion.  It  is  very  certain  that  it  could 
not  be  the  whale,  which  does  not  inhabit  the 
Mediterranean,  much  less  the  rivers  that  empty 
themselves  into  it ;  nor  will  the  characteristics 
at  all  apply  to  the  whale.  The  crocodile,  on 
the  contrary,  is  a  natural  inhabitant  of  the 
Nile,  and  other  Asiatic  and  African  rivers  ; 
of  enormous  voracity  and  strength,  as  well  as 
fleetness  in  swimming;  attacks  mankind  and 
the  largest  animals  with  most  daring  impetu- 
osity ;  when  taken  by  means  of  a  powerful  net, 
will  often  overturn  the  boats  that  surround  it ; 
has,  proportionally,  the  largest  mouth  of  all 
monsters  whatever  ;  moves  both  its  jaws 
equally,  the  upper  of  which  has  not  less  than 
forty,  and  the  lower  than  thirty-eight  sharp, 
but  strong  and  massy,  teeth  ;  and  is  furnished 
with  a  coat  of  mail,  so  scaly  and  callous  as  to 
resist  the  force  of  a  musket  ball  in  every  part, 
except  under  the  belly.  Indeed,  to  this  ani- 
mal the  general  character  of  the  leviathan 
seems  so  well  to  apply,  that  it  is  unnecessary 
to  seek  farther. 

LEVITES.  Under  this  name  may  be  com- 
prised all  the  descendants  of  Levi ;  but  it  prin- 
cipally denotes  those  who  were  employed  in 
the  lowest  ministries  of  the  temple,  by  which 
they  were  distinguished  from  the  priests,  who, 
being  descended  from  Aaron,  were  likewise  of 
the  race  of  Levi  by  Kohath,  but  were  employed 
in  higher  offices.  The  Levites  were  descend- 
ants of  Levi,  by  Gershom,  Kohath,  and  Merari, 
excepting  the  family  of  Aaron  ;  for  the  children 
of  Moses  had  no  part  in  the  priesthood,  and 
were  only  common  Levites.  God  chose  the 
Levites  instead  of  the  first-born  of  all  Israel; 
for  the  service  of  his  tabernacle  and  temple, 
Num.  iii,  6,  &c.  They  obeyed  the  priests  in 
the  ministrations  of  the  temple,  and  brought 
to  them  wood,  water,  and  other  things  neces- 
sary for  the  sacrifices.  They  sung  and  played 
on  instruments,  in  the  temple,  &c  ;  they  studied 
the  law,  and  were  the  ordinary  judges  of  the 
country,  but  subordinate  to  the  priests.  God 
provided  for  the  subsistence  of  the  Levites,  by 
giving  them  the  tithe  of  corn,  fruit,  and  cattle  ; 
but  they  paid  to  the  priests  the  tenth  of  their 
tithes  ;  and  as  the  Levites  possessed  no  estates 
in  the  land,  the  tithes  which  the  priests  received 
from  them  were  looked  on  as  the  first-fruits 
which  they  were  to  offer  to  the  Lord,  Num. 
xviii,  21—24.  God  assigned  them  for  their 
habitations  forty-eight  cities,  with  fields,  pas- 
tures, and  gardens,  Num.  xxxv.  Of  these  thir- 
teen were  given  to  the  priests,  six  of  which 
were  cities  of  refuge,  Joshua  xx,  7  ;  xxi,  19, 
20,  &c.  While  the  Levites  were  actually  em- 
ployed in  the  temple,  they  were  subsisted  out 
of  the  provisions  in  store  there,  and  out  of 
the  daily  offerings  there  made  ;  and  if  any  Le- 
vite  quitted  the  place  of  his  abode,  to  serve  the. 
temple,  even  out  of  the  time  of  his  half-yearly 


LEV 


583 


LIB 


or  weekly  waiting,  he  was  received  there, 
kept  and  provided  for,  in  like  manner  as  his 
other  brethren,  who  were  regularly  in  waiting, 
Deut.  xviii,  6-8.  The  consecration  of  Levites 
was  without  much  ceremony.  They  wore  no 
particular  habit  to  distinguish  them  from  the 
other  Israelites,  and  God  ordained  nothing  par- 
ticularly for  their  mourning,  2  Chron.  xxix,  34. 
The  manner  of  their  consecration  may  be  seen 
in  Num.  viii,  5-7,  &c. 

Josephus  says,  that  in  the  reign  of  Agrippa, 
king  of  the  Jews,  about  A.  D.  62,  six  years 
before  the  destruction  of  the  temple  by  the 
Romans,  the  Levites  desired  permission  from 
that  prince  to  wear  the  linen  tunic  like  the 
priests  ;  and  this  was  granted.  This  innova- 
tion was  displeasing  to  the  priests  ;  and  the 
Jewish  historian  remarks,  that  the  ancient 
customs  of  the  country  were  never  forsaken 
with  impunity.  He  adds,  that  Agrippa  per- 
mitted likewise  the  families  of  the  Levites, 
whose  duty  it  was  to  guard  the  doors,  and  per- 
form other  troublesome  offices,  to  learn  to  sing 
and  play  on  instruments,  that  they  might  be 
qualified  for  the  temple  service  as  musicians. 
The  Levites  were  divided  into  different  classes : 
Gershonites,  Kohathites,  Merarites,  and  Aaron- 
ites  or  priests,  Num.  iii,  &c.  The  Gershon- 
ites, whose  number  was  seven  thousand  five 
hundred,  were  employed  in  the  marches 
through  the  wilderness  in  carrying  the  veils 
and  curtains  of  the  tabernacle ;  the  Kohathites, 
whose  number  was  eight  thousand  six  hundred, 
in  carrying  the  ark  and  sacred  vessels  of  the 
tabernacle  ;  the  Merarites,  whose  number  was 
six  thousand  two  hundred,  in  carrying  the 
several  pieces  of  the  tabernacle  which  could 
not  be  placed  upon  the  chariots ;  and  the 
Aaronites  were  the  priests  who  served  the 
sanctuary.  When  the  Hebrews  encamped  in 
the  wilderness,  the  Levites  were  placed  around 
the  tabernacle ;  Moses  and  Aaron  at  the  east, 
Gershon  at  the  west,  Kohath  at  the  south,  and 
Merari  at  the  north.  Moses  ordained  that  the 
Levites  should  not  begin  in  the  service  of  the 
tabernacle  till  they  were  five-and-twenty  years 
of  age,  Num.  viii,  24—26 ;  or,  as  he  says  else- 
where, from  thirty  to  fifty  years  old,  Num. 
iv,  3.  But  David,  finding  that  they  were  no 
longer  employed  in  these  grosser  offices  of 
transporting  the  vessels  of  the  tabernacle,  ap- 
pointed them  to  enter  on  service  at  the  temple 
at  twenty  years  of  age.  The  priests  and  Le- 
vites waited  by  turns,  weekly,  in  the  temple. 
They  began  their  weeks  on  one  Sabbath  day, 
and  on  the  Sabbath  day  in  the  following  week 
went  out  of  waiting,  1  Chronicles  xxiii,  24 ; 
2  Chron.  xxi,  17 ;  Ezra  iii,  8.  When  an  Israelite 
made  a  religious  entertainment  in  the  temple, 
God  required  that  the  Levites  should  be  invited 
to  it,  Deut.  xii,  18, 19. 

LEVITICUS,  a  canonical  book  of  Scrip- 
ture, being  the  third  book  of  the  Pentateuch 
of  Moses  ;  thus  called  because  it  contains  prin- 
cipally the  laws  and  regulations  relating  to 
the  Levites,  priests,  and  sacrifices ;  for  which 
reason  the  Hebrews  call  it  the  law  of  the 
priests,  because  it  includes  many  ordinances 
concerning  their  services.    See  Pentateuch. 


LIBATION.  This  word  is  used  in  sacrifi- 
cial language,  to  express  an  affusion  of  liquors, 
poured  upon  victims  to  be  sacrificed  to  the 
Lord.  The  quantity  of  wine  for  a  libation  was 
the  fourth  part  of  a  hin,  rather  more  than  two 
pints.  Libations  among  the  Hebrews  were 
poured  on  the  victim  after  it  was  killed,  and 
the  several  pieces  of  it  were  laid  on  the  altar, 
ready  to  be  consumed  by  the  flames,  Lev.  vi, 
20;  viii,  25,  26;  ix,  4;  xvi,  12,  20.  These 
libations  consisted  in  offerings  of  bread,  wine, 
and  salt.  The  Greeks  and  Latins  offered  liba- 
tions with  the  sacrifices,  but  they  were  poured 
on  the  victim's  head  while  it  was  living.  So 
Sinon,  relating  the  manner  in  which  he  was 
to  be  sacrificed,  says  he  was  in  the  priest's 
hands  ready  to  be  slain,  was  loaded  with  bands 
and  garlands  ;  that  they  were  preparing  to 
pour  upon  him  the  libations  of  grain  and  salted 
meal : — 

Jamque  dies  infanda  aderat,  mild  sacra  parari, 
El  salsa  fruges,  el  circum  lempora  villa. 

VKneid  ii,  130,  131. 
[And  now  the  horrible  day  being  come,  they 
began  to  prepare  for  me  the  sacred  rites.] 
"  The  salted  barley  on  my  front  was  spread, 
The  sacred  fillets  bound  my  destined  head." 

Pitt. 
And  Dido,  beginning  to  sacrifice,  pours  wine 
between  the  horns  of  the  victim  : — 

Ipsa  tenens  dextra  pateram  pulcherrima  Dido, 
Candentsi  vacctn  media  inter  cornua  fudit. 

JSneid  iv. 
"  The  queen  before  the  snowy  heifer  stands, 
Amid  the  shrines,  a  goblet  in  her  hands ; 
Between  the  horns  she  sheds  the  sacred  wine, 
And  pays  due  honours  to  the  powers  divine." 

Pitt. 
St.  Paul  describes  himself,  as  it  were,  a  victim 
about  to  be  sacrificed,  and  that  the  accustomed 
libations  of  meal  and  wine  were  already,  in  a 
manner,  poured  upon  him  :  "  For  I  am  ready 
to  be  offered,  and  the  time  of  my  departure  is 
at  hand,"  2  Tim.  iv,  6.  The  same  expressive 
sacrificial  term  occurs  in  Phil,  ii,  17,  where 
the  Apostle  represents  the^aith  of  the  Philip- 
pians  as  a  sacrifice,  and  his  own  blood  as  a 
libation  poured  forth  to  hallow  and  consecrate 
it :  "  Yea,  and  if  I  be  offered,  oxcv&ofiai,  upon  the 
sacrifice  and  service  of  your  faith,  hi  rfj  Svoia 
ko.1  \uTovpyla,  I  joy  and  rejoice  with  you  all." 

LIBERTINES.  Mention  is  made  of  the 
synagogue  of  the  Libertines,  Acts  vi,  9  ;  con- 
cerning whom  there  are  different  opinions,  two 
of  which  bid  fairest  for  the  truth.  The  first  is 
that  of  Grotius  and  Vitringa,  that  they  were 
Italian  Jews  or  proselytes.  The  ancient  Ro- 
mans distinguished  between  libertus  and  liber, 
tinus.  Libertus  was  one  who  had  been  a  slave, 
and  obtained  his  freedom  ;  libertinus  was  the 
son  of  a  libertus.  But  this  distinction  in  after 
ages  was  not  strictly  observed  ;  and  libertinus 
also  came  to  be  used  for  one  not  bom,  but 
made  free,  in  opposition  to  ingenuus,  or  one 
born  free.  Whether  the  libertini  mentioned  in 
this  passage  of  the  Acts  were  Gentiles,  who 
had  become  proselytes  to  Judaism,  or  native 
Jews,  who  having  been  made  slaves  to  the 
Romans  were  afterward  set  at  liberty,  and  in 
remembrance  of  their  captivity  called  thein- 


LIB 


584 


LIC 


selves  libertini,  and  formed  a  synagogue  by 
themselves,  is  differently  conjectured  by  the 
learned.  It  is  probable  the  Jews  of  Cyrenia, 
Alexandria,  &c,  built  synagogues  at  Jerusalem 
at  their  own  charge,  for  the  use  of  their  bre- 
thren who  came  from  those  countries ;  as  the 
Danes,  Swedes,  &lc,  build  churches  for  the  use 
of  their  own  countrymen  in  London  ;  and  that 
the  Italian  Jews  did  the  same;  and  because 
the  greatest  number  of  them  wire  libertini, 
their  synagogue  was  therefore  called  the  syna- 
gogue of  the  Libertines.  The  other  opinion, 
which  is  hinted  by  (Ecumenius  on  the  Acts, 
and  mentioned  by  Dr.  Lardner,  as  more  lately 
advanced  by  Mr.  Daniel  Gerdes,  professor  of 
divinity  in  the  university  of  Groningen,  is  this, 
that  the  Libertines  are  so  called  from  a  city  or 
country  called  Libertus,  or  Libertina,  in  Africa, 
about  Carthage.  Suidas,  in  his  Lexicon,  on 
the  word  Ai&prij'os,  says  it  was  ovopa  eOvovs, 
nomen  gentis.  [The  name  of  a  nation.]  And 
the  glossrr  interlinear  is,  of  which  Nicolas  de 
Lyra  made  great  use  in  his  notes,  hath  over 
the  word  libertini,  e  regione,  denoting  that  they 
were  so  styled  from  a  country.  In  the  acts 
of  the  famous  conference  with  the  Donatists 
at  Carthage,  A.  D.  411,  there  is  mentioned  one 
Victor,  bishop  of  the  church  of  Libertina  :  and 
in  the  acts  of  the  Lateran  council,  which  wras 
held  in  (549,  there  is  mention  of  Januarius 
gratia  Dei  episcopus  sancta  ecclcsim  Liberti- 
nensis ;  [Januarius  by  the  grace  of  God  bishop 
of  the  holy  church  of  Libertina ;]  and  there- 
fore Fubricius,  in  his  "  Geographical  Index  of 
Christian  Bishoprics,"  has  placed  Libertina  in 
what  was  called  Africa  Propria,  or  the  procon- 
sular province  of  Africa.  Now,  as  all  the 
other  people  of  the  several  synagogues,  men- 
tioned in  this  passage  of  the  Acts,  are  deno- 
minated from  the  places  from  whence  they 
came,  it  is  probable  that  the  Libertines  were 
so  too;  and  as  the  Cyrenians  and  Alexan- 
drians, who  came  from  Africa,  are  placed  next 
to  the  Libertines  in  that  catalogue,  it  is  proba- 
ble they  also  belonged  to  the  same  country. 
So  that,  upon  the  whole,  there  is  little  reason 
to  doubt  of  the  Libertines  being  so  called  from 
the  place  from  whence  they  came ;  and  the 
order  of  the  names  in  the  catalogue  might  lead 
us  to  think,  that  they  were  farther  off'  from 
Jerusalem  than  Alexandria  and  Cyrenia,  whicli 
will  carry  us  to  the  proconsular  province  in 
Africa  about  Carthage. 

LIBNAH,  a  city  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah,  Joshua  xv,  42,  of  which  a  ces- 
sion was  made  to  the  priests  for  their  habita- 
tion, and  which  was  declared  a  city  of  refuge, 
1  Chron.  vi,  57. 

LIBYA.  The  name,  in  its  largest  sense, 
was  used  by  the  Greeks  to  denote  the  whole 
of  Africa.  But  Libya  Proper,  or  the  Libya  of 
the  New  Testament,  the  country  of  the  Lubims 
of  the  Old,  was  a  large  country  lying  along 
the  Mediterranean,  on  the  west  of  Egypt.  It 
was  called  Pcntapolitana  Regio  by  Pliny,  from 
its  five  chief  cities,  Berenice,  Arsinoe,  Ptole- 
mais,  Apollonia,  and  Cyrene ;  and  Libya  Cy- 
renaica  by  Ptolemy,  from  Cyrene  its  capital. 
Libya  is  supposed  to  have  been  first  peopled 


by,  and  to  have  derived  its  name  from,  the 
Lehabim,  or  Lubim.  These,  its  earlier  inha- 
bitants, appear  in  the  times  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, to  have  consisted  of  wandering  tribes,  who 
were  sometimes  in  alliance  with  Egypt,  and  at 
others  with  the  Ethiopians  of  Arabia  ;  as  they 
are  said  to  have  assisted  both  Shishak  and  Ze- 
rah  in  their  expeditions  into  Judea,  2  Chron. 
xii,  xiv,  xvi.  They  were  for  a  time  sufficiently 
powerful  to  maintain  a  war  with  the  Cartha. 
ginians,  by  whom  they  were  in  the  end  en- 
tirely overcome.  Since  that  period,  Libya,  in 
common  with  the  rest  of  the  east,  has  succes- 
sively passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Greeks, 
Romans,  Saracens,  and  Turks.  The  city  Cy- 
rene, built  by  a  Grecian  colony,  was  the  capital 
of  this  country,  in  which,  and  other  parts, 
dwrelt  many  Jews,  who  came  up  to  Jerusalem 
at  the  feast  of  pentecost,  together  with  those 
dispersed  among  other  nations,  and  are  called 
by  St.  Luke  "  dwellers  in  the  parts  of  Libya 
about  Cyrene,"  Acts  ii,  10. 

LICE.  Swarms  of  lice  was  the  third  plague 
with  which  God  punished  the  Egyptians, 
Exod.  viii,  16.  The  Hebrew  word  0'J3, 
which  the  LXX  render  amines,  some  translate 
"  flies,"  and  think  them  the  same  as  gnats. 
Origen  says  that  the  sciniphe  is  so  small  a  fly, 
that  it  is  scarcely  perceptible  to  the  eye,  but 
that  it  occasions  a  sharp  stinging  pain.  How- 
ever, the  original,  according  to  the  Syriac, 
and  several  good  interpreters,  signifies  "lice." 

But  Josephus,  the  Jewish  rabbins,  and  most 
of  the  modern  translators  render  the  Hebrew 
word  at  large  lice;  and  Bochart  and  Bryant 
support  this  interpretation.  The  former  argues 
that  gnats  could  not  be  meant.  1.  Because 
the  creatures  here  mentioned  sprang  from  the 
dust  of  the  earth,  and  not  from  the  waters. 
2.  Because  they  were  both  on  men  and  cattle, 
which  cannot  be  spoken  of  gnats.  3.  Because 
their  name  comes  from  the  radix  |!3,  which 
signifies  to  make  firm,  fix,  establish,  which  can 
never  agree  to  gnats,  flies,  &c,  which  are  ever 
changing  their  place,  and  are  almost  con- 
stantly on  the  wing.  4.  Because  nj3  is  the 
term  by  whicli  the  talmudists  express  tho 
term  louse,  &c.  To  which  may  be  added, 
that  if  they  were  winged  and  stinging  insects, 
as  Jcrom,  Origen,  and  others  have  supposed, 
the  plague  of  flies  is  unduly  anticipated  ;  and 
the  next  miracle  will  be  only  a  repetition  of 
the  former.  Mr.  Bryant,  in  illustrating  the 
aptness  of  this  miracle,  has  the  following 
remarks  :  "  The  Egyptians  affected  great  ex- 
ternal purity,  and  were  very  nice  both  in  their 
persons  and  clothing ;  bathing  and  making 
ablutions  continually.  Uncommon  care  was 
taken  not  to  harbour  any  vermin.  They  were 
particularly  solicitous  on  this  head  ;  thinking 
it  wTould  be  a  great  profanation  of  the  temple 
which  they  entered,  if  any  animalcule  of  this 
sort  were  concealed  in  their  garments.  The 
priests,  says  Herodotus,  are  shaved,  botli  as 
to  their  heads  and  bodies,  ever}7  third  day,  to 
prevent  any  louse,  or  any  other  detestable 
creature,  being  found  upon  them  when  they 
are  performing  their  duty  to  the  gods.  The 
same    is  'mentioned  by  another    author,  whe 


LIG 


585 


LIL 


adds,  that  all  woollen  was  considered  as  foul, 
as  from  a  perishable  animal;  but  flax  is  the 
product  of  the  immortal  earth,  affords  a  deli- 
cate and  pure  covering,  and  is  not  liable  to 
harbour  lice.  We  may  hence  see  what  an 
abhorrence  the  Egyptians  showed  toward  this 
sort  of  vermin,  and  what  care  was  taken  by 
the  priests  to  guard  against  them.  The  judg- 
ments, therefore,  inflicted  by  the  hands  of 
Moses,  were  adapted  to  their  prejudices.  It 
was,  consequently,  not  only  most  noisome  to 
the  people  in  general,  but  was  no  small  odium 
to  the  most  sacred  order  in  Egypt,  that  they 
were  overrun  with  these  filthy  and  detestable 
vermin. 

LIGHT,  0(3?,  is  used  in  a  physical  sense, 
Matt,  xvii,  2  ;  Acts  ix,  3 ;  xii,  7  ;  2  Cor.  iv,  6; 
for  a  fire  giving  light,  Mark  xiv,  54 ;  Luke 
xxii,  56 ;  for  a  torch,  candle,  or  lamp,  Acts 
xvi,  29  ;  and  for  the  material  light  of  heaven, 
as  the  sun,  moon,  or  stars,  Psalm  exxxvi,  7 ; 
James  i,  17.  Figuratively  taken,  it  signifies 
a  manifest  or  open  state  of  things,  Matt,  x,  27  ; 
Luke  xii,  3  ;  also  prosperity,  truth,  and  joy. 

God  is  said  to  dwell  in  light  inaccessible, 
1  Tim.  vi,  16.  This  seems  to  contain  a  refer- 
ence to  the  glory  and  splendour  which  shone 
in  the  holy  of  holies,  where  Jehovah  appeared 
in  the  luminous  cloud  above  the  mercy  seat, 
and  which  none  but  the  high  priest,  and  he 
only  once  a  year,  was  permitted  to  approach 
unto,  Lev.  xvi,  2 ;  Ezek.  i,  22,  26,  28 ;  but 
this  was  typical  of  the  glory  of  the  celestial 
world.  It  signifies,  also,  instruction,  both  by 
doctrine  and  example,  Matt,  v,  16;  John  v, 
35  ;  or  persons  considered  as  giving  such  light, 
Matt,  v,  14 ;  Rom.  ii,  19.  It  is  applied  figura- 
tively to  Christ,  the  true  Light,  the  Sun  of 
Righteousness,  who  is  that  in  the  spiritual, 
which  the  material  light  is  in  the  natural, 
world  ;  who  is  the  great  Author,  not  only  of 
illumination  and  knowledge,  but  of  spiritual 
life,  health,  and  joy  to  the  souls  of  men. 

The  images  of  light  and  darkness,  says 
Bishop  Lowth,  are  commonly  made  use  of  in 
all  languages  to  imply  or  denote  prosperity 
and  adversity,  agreeably  to  the  common  sense 
and  perception  which  all  men  have  of  the 
objects  themselves.  But  the  Hebrews  employ 
those  metaphors  more  frequently  and  with  less 
variation  than  other  people  :  indeed,  they  sel- 
dom refrain  from  them  whenever  the  subject 
requires  or  will  even  admit  of  their  introduc- 
tion. These  expressions,  therefore,  may  be 
accounted  among  those  forms  of  speech,  which 
in  the  parabolic  style  are  established  and  de- 
fined ;  since  they  exhibit  the  most  noted  and 
familiar  images,  and  the  application  of  them 
on  this  occasion  is  justified  by  an  acknow- 
ledged analogy,  and  approved  by  constant  and 
unvarying  custom.  In  the  use  of  rmages,  so 
conspicuous  and  so  familiar  among  the  He- 
brews, a. degree  of  boldness  is  excusable.  The 
Latins  introduce  them  more  sparingly,  and 
therefore  are  more  cautious  in  the  application 
of  them.  But  the  Hebrews,  upon  a  subject 
more  sublime  indeed,  in  itself,  and  illustrating 
it  by  an  idea  which  was  more,  habitual  to 
them,  more  daringly  exalt  their  strains,  and 


give  a  loose  rein  to  the  spirit  of  poetry. 
They  display*  for  instance,  not  the  image  of 
the  spring,  of  Aurora,  of  the  dreary  night, 
but  the  sun  and  stars  as  rising  with  increased 
splendour  in  a  new  creation,  or  again  involved 
in  chaos  and  primeval  darkness.  Does  the 
sacred  bard  promise  to  his  people  a  renewal  of 
the  divine  favour,  and  a  recommencement  of 
universal  prosperity  ?  In  what  magnificent 
colours  does  he  depict  it !  Such,  indeed,  as  no 
translation  can  illustrate,  but  such  as  none 
can  obscure : — 

"The  light,  of  the  moon  shall  be  as  the  light  of  the  sun, 
And  the  light  of  the  sun  shall  be  sevenfold." 

Isaiah  xxx,  26. 
But  even  this  is  not  sufficient : — 

"  No  longer  shalt  thou  have  the  sun  for  thy  light  by  day  ; 
Nor  by  night  shall  the  brightness  of  the  moon  enlighten 

thee : 
For  Jehovah  shall  be  to  thee  an  everlasting  light, 
And  thy  God  shall  be  thy  glory. 
Thy  sun  shall  no  more  decline; 
Neither  shall  thy  moon  wane  ; 
For  Jehovah  shall  be  thine  everlasting  light ; 
And  the  days  of  thy  mourning  shall  cease." 

Isaiah  lx,  19,  20. 

In  another  place  he  has  admirably  diversified 
the  same  sentiment : — 

"And  the  moon  shall  be  confounded,  and  the  sun  shall 
be  ashamed ; 
For  Jehovah,  God  of  Hosts,  shall  reign 
On  Mount  Sion,  and  in  Jerusalem  : 
And  before  his  ancients  shall  he  be  glorified." 

Isaiah  xxiv,  25. 

On  the  other  hand,  denouncing  ruin  against 
the  proud  king  of  Egypt : — 

"  And  when  I  shall  put  thee  out,  I  will  cover  the  heavens, 
And  the  stars  thereof  will  I  make  dark  : 
I  will  involve  the  sun  in  a  cloud, 
Nor  shall  the  moon  give  out  her  light. 
All  the  bright  lights  of  heaven  will  I  make  dark  over 

thee,  ' 
And  I  will  set  darkness  upon  thy  land,  saith  the  Lord 

Jehovah."  Ezekiel  xxvii,  7,  8. 

These  expressions  are  bold  and  daring ;  but 
the  imagery  is  well  known,  the  use  of  it  is 
common,  the  signification  definite  :  they  are 
therefore  perspicuous,  clear,  and  truly  mag- 
nificent. 

LIGN-ALOES.     See  Aloe. 

L1GURE,  ocV,  Exod.  xxviii,  19 ;  xxxix, 
12,  a  precious  stone  of  a  deep  red  colour, 
with  a  considerable  tinge  of  yellow.  Theo- 
phrastus  and  Pliny  describe  it  as  resembling 
the  carbuncle,  of  a  brightness  sparkling  like 
fire. 

LILY,  it!OB\  1  Kings  vii,  19,  22,  26;  2 
Chron.  iv,  5  ;  Cant,  ii,  2,  16 ;  iv,  5  ;  v,  13  ;  vi, 
2,  3;  vii,  2;  Hosea  xiv,  5;  xpirov,  Watt,  vi, 
28;  Luke  xii,  27;  a  well  known  sweet  and 
beautiful  flower,  which  furnished  Solomon 
with  a  variety  of  charming  images  in  his 
Snng,  and  with  graceful  ornaments  in  the 
fabric  and  furniture  of  the  temple.  The  title 
of  some  of  the  Psalms  "upon  Shushan,"  or 
"  Shoshanim,"  Psalms  xiv  ;  l.\  ;  Ixix  ;  lxxx, 
probably  means  no  more  than  that  the  music 
of  these  sacred  compositions  was  to  be  regu- 
lated by  that  of  some  odes,  which  were  known 
by  those  names  or  appellations.     By  "  the  lily 


LIL 


586 


LIO 


of  the  valley,"  Cant,  ii,  2,  we  are  not  to  under- 
stand  the  humble  flower,  generally  so  called 
with  us,  the  lilium  convallium,  but  the  noble 
flower  which  ornaments  our  gardens,  and 
which  in  Palestine  grows  wild  in  the  fields, 
and  especially  in  the  valleys.  Pliny  reckons 
the  lily  the  next  plant  in  excellency  to  the 
rose ;  and  the  gay  Anacreon  compares  Venus 
to  this  flower.  In  the  east,  as  with  us,  it  is 
the  emblem  of  purity  and  moral  excellence. 
So  the  Persian  poet,  Sadi,  compares  an  amia- 
ble youth  to  "the  white  lily  in  a  bed  of  nar- 
cissuses," because  he  surpassed  all  the  young 
shepherds  in  goodness.  As,  in  Cant,  v,  13, 
the  lips  are  compared  to  the  lily,  Bishop  Pat- 
rick supposes  the  lily  here  instanced  to  be  the 
same  which,  on  account  of  its  deep  red  colour, 
is  particularly  called  by  Pliny  rubeiis  lilium, 
and  which,  he  tells  us,  was  much  esteemed  in 
Syria.  Such  may  have  been  the  lily  mentioned 
in  Matt,  vi,  28-30 ;  for  the  royal  robes  were 
purple  :  "Consider  the  lilies  of  the  field,  how 
they  grow  ;  they  toil  not,  neither  do  they  spin  : 
and  yet  I  say  unto  you,  that  Solomon  in  all 
his  glory  was  not  arrayed  like  one  of  these:" 
so  in  Luke  xii,  27.  The  scarcity  of  fuel  in 
the  east  obliges  the  inhabitants  to  use,  by 
turns,  every  kind  of  combustible  matter.  The 
withered  stalks  of  herbs  and  flowers,  the  ten- 
drils of  the  vine,  the  small  branches  of  rose- 
mary, and  other  plants,  are  all  used  in  heating 
their  ovens  and  bagnios.  We  can  easily  re- 
cognize this  practice  in  that  remark  of  our 
Lord,  "If  God  so  clothe  the  grass  of  the  field, 
which  to-day  is,  and  to-morrow  is  cast  into 
the  oven,  shall  he  not  much  more  clothe  you, 
O  ye  of  little  faith  ?"  Matt,  vi,  30.  The  grass 
of  the  field,  in  this  passage,  evidently  includes 
the  lilies  of  which  he  had  just  been  speaking, 
and,  by  consequence,  herbs  in  general;  and  in 
this  extensive  sense  the  word  x°PT°s  ls  not-  un- 
frequently  taken.  Those  beautiful  productions 
of  nature,  bo  richly  arrayed,  and  so  exquisitely 
perfumed,  that  the  splendour  even  of  Solomon 
is  not  to  be  compared  to  theirs,  shall  soon 
wither  and  decay,  and  be  used  as  fuel.  God 
has  so  adorned  these  flowers  and  plants  of  the 
field,  which  retain  their  beauty  and  vigour  but 
for  a  few  days,  and  are  then  applied  to  some 
of  the  meanest  purposes  of  life  :  will  he  not 
much  more  take  care  of  his  servants  who  are 
£0  precious  in  his  sight,  and  designed  for  such 
important  services  in  the  world  ?  This  passage 
13  one  of  those  of  which  Sir  Thomas  Browne 
says,  "The  variously  interspersed  expressions 
from  plants  and  flowers  elegantly  advantage 
the  significancy  of  the  text." 

Mr.  Salt,  in  his  "  Voyage  to  Abyssinia," 
says,  "  At  a  few  miles  from  Adowa,  we  dis- 
covered a  new  and  beautiful  species  of  ama- 
ryllis,  which  bore  from  ten  to  twelve  spikes  of 
bloom  on  each  stem,  as  large  as  those  of  the 
belladonna,  springing  from  one  common  re- 
ceptacle. The  general  colour  of  the  corolla 
was  white,  and  every  petal  was  marked  with 
a  single  streak  of  bright  purple  down  the  mid- 
dle. The  flower  was  sweet  scented,  and  its 
6mell,  though  much  more  powerful,  resembled 
that  of  the  lily  of  the  valley.     This   superb 


plant  excited  the  admiration  of  the  whole 
party ;  and  it  brought  immediately  to  my 
recollection  the  beautiful  comparison  used  on 
a  particular  occasion  by  our  Saviour  :  '  I  say 
unto  you,  that  Solomon  in  all  his  glory  was 
not  arrayed  like  one  of  these.'"  And  Sir 
James  E.  Smith  observes,  "  It  is  natural  to 
presume  the  divine  Teacher,  according  to  his 
usual  custom,  called  the  attention  of  his 
hearers  to  some  object  at  hand ;  and  as  the 
fields  of  the  Levant  are  overrun  with  the  ama. 
ryllis  lutea,  whose  golden  lilaceous  flowers  in 
autumn  afford  one  of  the  most  brilliant  and 
gorgeous  objects  in  nature,  the  expression  of 
'  Solomon  in  all  his  glory  not  being  arrayed 
like  one  of  these,'  is  peculiarly  appropriate.  I 
consider  the  feeling  with  which  this  was  ex- 
pressed as  the  highest  honour  ever  done  to 
the  study  of  plants  ;  and  if  my  botanical  con- 
jecture be  right,  wTe  learn  a  chronological  fact 
respecting  the  season  of  the  year  when  the 
sermon  on  the  mount  was  delivered." 

LIME,  w,  Deut.  xxvii,  2,  4 ;  Isaiah  xxxiii, 
12 ;  Amos  ii,  1 ;  a  soft  friable  substance,  ob- 
tained by  calcining  or  burning  stones,  shells, 
or  the  like.  From  Isa.  xxxiii,  12,  it  appears 
that  it  was  made  in  a  kiln  lighted  with  thorn 
bushes ;  and  from  Amos  ii,  1,  that  bones  were 
sometimes  calcined  for  lime.  The  use  of  it 
was  for  plaster  or  cement,  the  first  mention 
of  which  is  in  Deut.  xxvii,  where  Moses 
directed  the  elders  of  the  people,  saj'ing, 
"  Keep  all  the  commandments  which  I  com- 
mand you  this  day.  And  it  shall  be  on  the 
day  when  you  shall  pass  over  Jordan  unto  the 
land  which  the  Lord  your  God  giveth  you, 
that  you  shall  set  up  great  stones,  and  plaster 
them  with  plaster,  and  shall  write  upon  them 
all  the  words  of  this  law,"  &c.  The  book  of 
the  law,  in  order  to  render  it  the  more  sacred, 
was  deposited  beside  the  ark  of  the  covenant. 
The  guardians  of  the  law,  to  whom  was  en- 
trusted the  duty  of  making  faithful  transcripts 
of  it,  were  the  priests.  But  Moses  did  not 
account  even  this  precaution  sufficient  for  the 
due  preservation  of  his  law  in  its  original 
purity ;  for  he  commanded  that  it  should  be- 
side be  engraven  on  stones,  and  these  stones 
kept  on  a  mountain  near  Sichem,  in  order  that 
a  genuine  exemplar  of  it  might  be  transmitted 
even  to  the  latest  generations. 

LION,  nn,  or  mx,  Genesis  xlix,  9 ;  Deut. 
xxxiii,  22 ;  Psalm  vii,  2 ;  xxii,  13 ;  Hosea 
xiii,  8  ;  Micah  v,  8 ;  a  large  beast  of  prey,  for 
his  courage  and  strength  called  the  king  of 
beasts.  This  animal  is  produced  in  Africa, 
and  the  hottest  parts  of  Asia.  It  is  found  in 
the  greatest  numbers  in  the  scorched  and 
desolate  regions  of  the  torrid  zone,  in  the 
deserts  of  Zaara  and  Billdulgerid,  and  in  all 
the  interior  parts  of  the  vast  continent  of 
Africa.  In  these  desert  regions,  from  whence 
mankind  are  driven  by  the  rigorous  heat  of 
the  climate,  this  animal  reigns  sole  master. 
His  disposition  seems  to  partake  of  the  ardour 
of  his  native  soil.  Inflamed  by  the  influence 
of  a  burning  sun,  his  rage  is  tremendous,  and 
his  courage  undaunted.  Happily,  indeed,  the 
species   is   not  numerous,  and  is   said  to  bg 


LIO 


587 


LIO 


greatly  diminished ;  for,  if  we  may  credit  the 
testimony  of  those  who  have  traversed  those 
vast  deserts,  the  number  of  lions  is  not  nearly 
so  great  as  formerly.  Mr.  Shaw  observes  that 
the  Romans  carried  more  lions  from  Libya  in 
one  year  for  their  public  spectacles,  than  could 
be  found  in  all  that  country  at  this  time.  The 
lion  was  also  found  in  Palestine,  and  the  neigh- 
bouring countries.  The  length  of  the  largest 
lion  is  between  eight  and  nine  feet,  the  tail 
about  four,  and  its  height  about  four  feet  and 
a  half.  The  female  is  about  one-fourth  part 
less,  and  without  a  mane.  As  the  lion  ad- 
vances in  years,  his  mane  grows  longer  and 
thicker.  The  hair  on  the  rest  of  the  body  is 
short  and  smooth,  of  a  tawny  colour,  but 
whitish  on  the  belly.  Its  roaring  is  loud  and 
dreadful.  When  heard  in  the  night  it  re- 
sembles distant  thunder.  Its  cry  of  anger  is 
much  louder  and  shorter.  The  attachment  of 
a  lioness  to  her  young  is  remarkably  strong. 
For  their  support  she  is  more  ferocious  than 
the  lion  himself;  makes  her  incursions  with 
greater  boldness ;  destroys,  without  distinction, 
every  animal  that  falls  in  her  way,  and  carries 
it  reeking  to  her  cubs.  She  usually  brings 
forth  in  the  most  retired  and  inaccessible 
places ;  and  when  afraid  that  her  retreat 
should  be  discovered,  endeavours  to  hide  her 
track  by  brushing  the  ground  with  her  tail. 
When  much  disturbed  or  alarmed,  she  will 
6ometimes  transport  her  young,  which  are 
usually  three  or  four  in  number,  from  one 
place  to  another  in  her  mouth  ;  and,  if  ob- 
structed in  her  course,  will  defend  them  to  the 
last  extremity.  The  habits  of  the  lion  and  the 
lioness  afford  many  spirited,  and  often  sublime, 
metaphors  to  the  sacred  writers. 

The  lion  has   Several  names  in   Scripture, 
according  to  his  different  ages  or  character : 

1.  -ru,  a  little  lion,  a  lion's  whelp,  Deut.  xxxiii, 
22;  Jer.  li,  38;  Ezek.  xix,  2;  Nahum  ii,  13. 

2.  TB3,  a  young  lion  that  has  done  sucking 
the  lioness,  and,  leaving  the  covert,  begins  to 
seek  prey  for  himself.  So  Ezekiel  xix,  2,  3 : 
"  The  lioness  hath  brought  up  one  of  her 
whelps  ;  it  became  a  chephir ;  it  learned  to 
catch  the  prey  ;  it  devoured  men."  See  Psalm 
xci,  13 ;  Prov.  xix,  12.  3.  nN,  a  grown  and 
vigorous  lion,  having  whelps,  eager  in  pursuit 
of  prey  for  them,  Nahum  ii,  12  ;  valiant,  2  Sam. 
xvii,  10 ;  arrogantly  opposing  himself,  Num. 
xxiii,  24.  This  is,  indeed,  the  general  name, 
and  occurs  frequently.  4.  "?n;p,  one  in  the  full 
strength  of  his  age  :  a  black  lion,  Job  iv,  10 ; 
x,  16 ;  Psalm  xci,  13 ;  Prov.  xxvi,  13 ;  Hosea 
v,  14  ;  xiii,  7.  5.  IP'1?,  a  fierce  or  enraged  lion, 
Job  iv,  11 ;  Prov.  xxx,  30  ;  Isaiah  xxv,  6.  A 
regard  to  these  characteristics  and  distinctions 
is  very  important  for  illustrating  the  passages 
of  Scripture  where  the  animal  is  spoken  of, 
and  discovering  the  propriety  of  the  allusions 
and  metaphors  which  he  so  often  furnishes  to 
the  Hebrew  poets.  The  lion  of  the  tribe  of 
Judah,  mentioned  Rev.  v,  5,  is  Jesus  Christ, 
who  sprung  from  the  tribe  of  Judah,  and  over- 
came death,  the  world,  and  the  devil.  The 
lion  from  the  swelling  of  Jordan,  Jer.  1,  44,  is 
Nebuchadnezzar  marching  against  Judea,  with 


the  strength  and  fierceness  of  a  lion.  Isaiah, 
describing  the  happy  time  of  the  Messiah,  says, 
that  then  the  calf,  and  the  young  lion,  and  the 
fatling  should  lie  down  together ;  and  that  a 
little  child  should  lead  them ;  and  that  the  lion 
should  eat  straw  like  the  ox,  Isaiah  xi,  G,  7, 
which  is  hyperbolical,  and  signifies  the  peace 
and  happiness  which  the  church  of  Christ 
should  enjoy.  "The  lion  hath  roared,  and 
who  shall  not  fear  ?"  Amos  iii,  8.  "  The 
king's  wrath  is  as  the  roaring  of  a  lion.  Who 
provoketh  him  to  anger  sinneth  against  his 
own  soul,"  Prov.  xix,  12  ;  xx,  2 ;  that  is,  he 
secketh  his  own  death.  Solomon  says,  "  A 
living  dog  is  better  than  a  dead  lion,"  Eccles. 
x,  4 ;  showing  that  death  renders  those  con- 
temptible who  otherwise  are  the  greatest,  most 
powerful,  and  most  terrible. 

"  Then  went  Samson  down  and,  behold,  a 
young  lion  roared  against  him,  and  the  Spirit 
of  the  Lord  came  mightily  upon  him,  and  he 
rent  him  as  he  would  have  rent  a  kid,  and  he 
had  nothing  in  his  hand,"  Judges  xtv,  5,  G. 
An  instance  in  quite  modern  times  of  an  un- 
armed man  attempting  to  combat  a  lion  is 
related  by  Poiret :  "  In  a  douar,  or  a  camp  of 
Bedouin  Arabs,  near  La  Calle,  a  French  fac- 
tory, a  young  lion  had  seized  a  cow.  A  young 
Moor  threw  himself  upon  the  savage  beast,  to 
tear  his  booty  from  him,  and  as  it  were  to 
stifle  him  in  his  arms,  but  he  would  not  let  go 
his  prey.  The  father  of  the  young  man 
hastened  to  him,  armed  with  a  kind  of  hoe  ; 
and  aiming  at  the  lion,  struck  his  son's  hand, 
and  cut  off  three  of  his  fingers.  It  cost  a  great 
deal  of  trouble  to  rescue  the  prey  from  the 
lion.  I  saw  this  young  man,  who  was  attended 
by  Mr.  Gay,  at  that  time  surgeon  to  the  hos- 
pital of  La  Calle."  David,  according  to  1  Sam. 
xvii,  34,  had,  when  a  shepherd,  once  fought 
with  a  lion,  and  another  time  with  a  bear,  and 
rescued  their  prey  from  them.  Tellez  relates, 
that  an  Abyssinian  shepherd  had  once  killed 
a  lion  of  extraordinary  size  with  only  two  poles. 
"  Behold,  he  shall  come  up  like  a  lion  from  the 
swelling  of  Jordan  against  the  habitation  of  the 
strong,"  Jer.  xlix,  19.  The  comparison  used 
by  the  prophet  in  these  words  will  be  perfectly 
understood  by  the  account  which  Mr.  Maun- 
drell  gives  of  the  river  Jordan  :  "  Afler  having 
descended,"  says  he,  "  the  outermost  bank  of 
Jordan,  you  go  about  a  furlong  upon  a  level 
strand,  before  you  come  to  the  immediate  bank 
of  the  river.  This  second  bank  is  so  beset 
with  bushes  and  trees,  such  as  tamarisks,  wil- 
lows, oleanders,  &c,  that  you  can  see  no  water 
till  you  have  made  your  way  through  them. 
In  this  thicket  anciently,  and  the  same  is  re- 
ported of  it  at  this  day,  several  sorts  of  wild 
beasts  were  wont  to  harbour  themselves,  whose 
being  washed  out  of  the  covert  by  the  over- 
flowings of  the  river  gave  occasion  to  that 
allusion  :  '  He  shall  come  up  like  a  lion  from 
the  swelling  of  Jordan.'" 

"  He  shall  be  cast  into  the  den  of  lions," 
Dan.  vi,  7.  "In  Morocco,"  says  Host,  "  tho 
king  has  a  lions'  den,  into  which  men,  par- 
ticularly Jews,  are  sometimes  thrown  ;  but  the 
latter  generally  come  off  unhurt,  because  the 


LIT 


588 


LIT 


keepers  of  these  animals  are  Jews,  who  may 
safely  be  with  thein,  with  a  rod  in  the  hand, 
if  they  only  take  care  to  go  out  backward,  as 
the  lion  does  not  suffer  any  one  to  turn  bis 
back  upon  him.  The  other  Jews  do  not  let 
their  brethren  remain  longer  than  a  night 
among  tbc  lions,  as  they  might  otherwise  be- 
come too  hungry  ;  but  ransom  them  with 
money,  which  is,  in  fact,  the  king's  object." 
In  another  place  in  the  same  work  we  find  the 
following  description  of  the  construction  of 
this  lions'  den:  "At  one  end  of  the  royal 
palace  there  is  a  place  for  ostriches  and  their 
young ;  and  beyond  the  other  end,  toward  the 
mountains,  there  is  a  large  lions'  den,  which 
consists  of  a  large  square  hole  in  the  ground, 
with  a  partition,  iu  the  middle  of  Which  there 
is  a  door,  which  the  Jews,  who  are  obliged  to 
maintain  and  keep  them  for  nothing,  are  able 
to  open  and  shut  from  above,  and  can  thus 
entice  the  lions,  by  means  of  the  food,  from 
one  division  to  the  other,  to  clean  the  other 
in  the  mean  time.  It  is  all  in  the  open  air,  and 
a  person  may  look  down  over  a  wall,  which  is 
a  yard  and  a  quarter  high." 

LITANY,  a  solemn  form  of  supplication  to 
God.  The  word  is  derived  from  h.ravsta,  sup- 
plication. At  first  the  use  of  litanies  was  not 
fixed  to  any  stated  time ;  but  they  were  em- 
ployed only  as  exigencies  required.  They 
were  observed  in  imitation  of  the  Ninevites 
with  ardent  supplications  and  fastings,  to  avert 
the  threatened  judgments  of  fire,  earthquake, 
inundations,  or  hostile  invasions.  The  days 
on  which  they  were  used  were  called  rogation 
days.  Several  of  these  days  were  appointed 
by  the  canons  of  different  councils,  till  the 
seventeenth  council  of  Toledo  decreed  that 
litanies  should  be  used  in  every  month.  Thus, 
by  degrees,  these  solemn  supplications  came 
to  be  used  week])-,  on  Wednesdays  and  Fridays, 
the  ancient  stationary  days  in  all  churches.  As 
to  the  form  in  which  litanies  ;ire  made,  namely, 
in  short,  petitions  by  the  priest  with  responses 
by  the  people,  St.  Chrysos'torn  derives  the  cus- 
tom from  the  primitive  ages,  when  the  priest. 
began  and  uttered  by  the  Spirit  some  things 
fit  to  be  prayed  for,  and  the  people  joined  the 
intercessions,  saying,  "  We  beseech  thee  to 
hear  us,  good  Lord."  When  the  miraculous 
gift  of  the  Spirit  began  to  cease,  they  wrote 
down  several  of  these  forms,  which  were  the 
original  of  our  present  litanies.  St.  Ambrose 
has  left  us  one,  which  agrees  in  many  particu- 
lars with  that  of  our  own  church.  About  the 
year  400,  litanies  began  to  be  used  in  proces- 
sions, the  people  walking  barefoot,  and  repent. 
ing  them  with  great,  devotion.  It  is  pretended 
that  several  countries  were  delivered  from  great 
calamities  by  this  means.  About  the  year  600, 
Gregory  the  Great,  from  all  the  litanies  ex- 
tant, composed  the  famous  sevenfold  litany, 
by  w.hieh  Rome,  it  is  said,  was  delivered  from 
a  grievous  mortality.  This  has  served  as  a 
pattern  to  all  the  western  churches  since  ;  and 
to  it  ours  of  the  church  of  England  comes 
nearer  than  that  of  the  Romish  missal,  in 
which  later  popes  have  inserted  the  invocation" 
of  saints,  which  our  Reformers  properly  ex- 


punged. These  processional  litanies  having 
occasioned  much  scandal,  it  was  decreed  that 
in  future  the  litanies  should  be  used  only  within 
the  walls  of  the  church.  Before  the  last  review 
of  the  Common  Prayer,  the  litany  was  a  dis- 
tinct service  by  itself,  and  used  some  time  after 
the  morning  prayer  was  ended.  At  present  it 
forms  one  office  with  the  morning  service, 
being  ordered  to  be  read  after  the  third  collect 
for  grace,  instead  of  the  intercessional  prayers 
in  the  daily  service. 

LITURGY  denotes  all  the  ceremonies  in 
general  belonging  to  divine  service.  The  word 
comes  from  the  Greek,  Xetrupyia,  public  service, 
or  public  ministry ;  formed  of  Aa-nx,  public,  and 
cpyov,  work.  In  a  more  restrained  signification, 
liturgy  is  used  among  the  Romanists  to  signify 
the  mass  ;  and  among  us,  the  common  prayer. 
All  who  have  written  on  liturgies  agree  that, 
in  primitive  days,  divine  service  was  exceed- 
ingly simple,  clogged  with  very  few  ceremo- 
nies, and  consisted  of  but  a  very  small  number 
of  prayers  ;  but,  by  degrees,  they  increased  the 
number  of  ceremonies,  and  added  new  prayers, 
to  render  the  office  more  awful  and  venerable 
to  the  people.  At  length,  things  were  carried 
to  such  a  pitch  that  a  regulation  became  ne- 
cessary ;  and  it  was  found  needful  to  put  the 
service,  and  the  manner  of  performing  it,  into 
writing ;  and  this  was  what  they  called  a 
liturgy.  Liturgies  have  been  different  at  dif- 
ferent times  and  in  different  countries.  We 
have  the  liturgy  of  St.  Chrysostom,  of  St. 
Peter,  the  Armenian  liturgy,  Gallican  liturgy, 
&c.  "  The  properties  required  in  a  public 
liturgy,"  says  Paley,  "  are  these  :  it  must  be 
compendious  ;  express  just  conceptions  of  the 
divine  attributes ;  recite  such  wants  as  a  con- 
gregation are  likely  to  feel,  and  no  other ;  and 
contain  as  few  controverted  propositions  as 
possible."  The  liturgy  of  the  church  of  Eng- 
land was  composed  A.  D.  1547,  and  established 
in  the  second  year  of  King  Edward  VI.  In 
the  fifth  year  of  this  prince,  it  was  reviewed, 
because  some  things  were  contained  in  that 
liturgy  which  showed  a  compliance  with  the 
superstitions  of  those  times  ;  and  exceptions 
were  taken  against  it.  by  learned  men  at  home, 
and  by  Calvin  abroad.  Some  alterations  were 
made  in  it,  which  consisted  in  adding  the 
general  confession  and  absolution,  and  the 
communion  service,  to  begin  with  the  com- 
mandments. The  use  of  oil  in  confirmation 
and  extreme  unction,  was  left  out,  and  also 
prayers  for  souls  departed,  and  what  related  to 
a  belief  of  the  real  presence  of  Christ  in  the 
eucharist.  The  liturgy,  so  reformed,  was  es- 
tablished by  the  acts  of  5tb  and  Gth  of  Edward 
VI.,  chap.  1.  However,  it  was  abolished  by 
Queen  Mary,  who  enacted  that  the  service 
should  stand  as  it  was  commonly  used  in  the 
last  year  of  King  Henry  VIII.  That  of  Ed- 
ward VI.  was  reestablished,  with  some  few 
alterations,  by  Elizabeth.  Some  farther  altera- 
tions were  introduced,  in  consequence  of  the 
review  of  the  Common  Prayer  Book,  by  order 
of  King  James,  in  the  first  year  of  his  reign  ; 
particularly  in  the  office  of  private  baptism,  in 
several  rubrics,  and  other  passages,  with  the 


LOC 


589 


LOL 


addition  of  five  or  six  new  prayers  and  thanks- 
givings, and  all  that  part  of  the  catechism 
which  contains  the  doctrines  of  the  sacraments. 
This  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  so  altered, 
remained  in  force  from  the  first  year  of  King 
James  to  the  fourteenth  of  Charles  II.  The 
last  review  of  the  liturgy  was  in  the  year  1661. 
It  is  an  invidious  cavil,  says  Dr.  Nichols,  that 
our  liturgy  was  compiled  out  of  popish  books. 
Our  reformers  took  nothing  from  them,  but 
what  was  taken  before  from  the  oldest  writers. 
We  have  many  things  out  of  the  Greek  litur- 
gies of  Basil  and  Chrysostom ;  more  out  of 
the  litanies  of  Ambrose  and  Gregory ;  very 
much  out  of  the  ancient  forms  of  the  church 
dispersed  in  the  works  of  the  fathers,  who 
wrote  long  before  the  Roman  Breviary,  and 
Canon  of  the  Mass.  Our  Reformers  added 
many  prayers,  and  thanksgivings,  and  exhor- 
tations, to  supply  the  defect. 

LIZARD,  nxa1?,  Levit.  xi,  30.  All  inter- 
preters agree  that  the  original  word  here 
signifies  a  sort  of  lizard.  Bochart  takes  it 
for  that  kind  which  is  of  a  reddish  colour, 
lies  close  to  the  earth,  and  is  of  a  venomous 
nature. 

LOCUST,  rOTK.  The  word  is  probably  de- 
rived from  rm,  which  signifies  to  multiply,  to 
become  numerous,  &c  ;  because  of  the  immense 
swarms  of  these  animals  by  which  different 
countries,  especially  in  the  east,  are  infested. 
See  tins  circumstance  referred  to,  Judges  vi,  5 ; 
vii,  12 ;  Psalm  cv,  34 ;  Jer.  xlvi,  23 ;  li,  14 ; 
Joel  i,  4 ;  Nahum  iii,  15 ;  Judith  ii,  19,  20 ; 
where  the  most  numerous  armies  are  compared 
to  the  arbeh,  or  locust. 

The  locust,  in  entomology,  belongs  to  a 
genus  of  insects  known  among  naturalists  by 
the  name  of  grylli.  The  common  great  brown 
locust  is  about  three  inches  in  length,  has  two 
antennee  about  an  inch  long,  and  two  pairs  of 
wings.  The  head  and  horns  are  brown  ;  the 
mouth,  and  insides  of  the  larger  legs,  bluish ; 
the  upper  side  of  the  body,  and  upper  wings, 
brown  ;  the  former  spotted  with  black,  and  the 
latter  with  dusky,  spots.  The  back  is  defended 
by  a  shield  of  a  greenish  hue  ;  the  under  wings 
are  of  a  light  brown  hue,  tinctured  with  green, 
and  nearly  transparent.  The  general  form  and 
appearance  of  the  insect  is  that  of  the  grass- 
hopper so  well  known  in  this  country.  These 
creatures  are  frequently  mentioned  in  the  Old 
Testament.  They  were  employed  as  one  of 
the  plagues  for  the  punishment  of  the  Egyp- 
tians ;  and  their  visitation  was  threatened  to 
the  Israelites  as  a  mark  of  the  divine  displea- 
sure. Their  numbers  and  destructive  powers 
very  aptly  fit  them  for  this  purpose.  When 
they  take  the  field,  they  always  follow  a  leader, 
whose  motions  they  invariably  observe.  They 
often  migrate  from  their  native  country,  proba- 
bly in  quest  of  a  greater  supply  of  food.  On 
these  occasions  they  appear  in  such  large  flocks 
as  to  darken  the  air;  forming  many  compact 
bodies  or  swarms,  of  several  hundred  yards 
square.  These  flights  are  very  frequent  in 
Barbary,  and  generally  happen  at  the  latter 
end  of  March  or  beginning  of  April,  after  the 
wind  has  blown  from  the  south  for  some  days. 


The  month  following,  the  young  brood  also 
make  their  appearance,  generally  following 
the  track  of  the  old  ones.  In  whatever  coun- 
try they  settle,  they  devour  all  the  vegetables, 
grain,  and,  in  fine,  all  the  produce  of  the  earth  ; 
eating  the  very  bark  off  the  trees ;  thus  de- 
stroying at  once  the  hopes  of  the  husbandman, 
and  all  the  labours  of  agriculture  :  for  though 
their  voracity  is  great,  yet  they  contaminate  a 
much  greater  quantity  than  they  devour ;  as 
their  bite  is  poisonous  to  vegetables,  and  the 
marks  of  devastation  maybe  traced  for  several 
succeeding  seasons.  There  are  various  species 
of  them,  which  consequently  have  different 
names ;  and  some  are  more  voracious  and  de- 
structive than  others,  though  all  are  most 
destructive  and  insatiable  spoilers.  Bochart 
enumerates  ten  different  kinds  which  he  thinks 
are  mentioned  in  the  Scripture. 

Writers  in  natural  history  bear  abundant 
testimony  to  the  Scriptural  account  of  these 
creatures.  Dr.  Shaw  describes  at  large  the 
numerous  swarms  and  prodigious  broods  of 
those  locusts  which  he  saw  in  Barbary.  Dr. 
Russel  says,  "  Of  the  noxious  kinds  of  insects 
may  well  be  reckoned  the  locusts,  which  some- 
times arrive  in  such  incredible  multitudes,  that 
it  would  appear  fabulous  to  give  a  relation  of 
them  ;  destroying  the  whole  of  the  verdure 
wherever  they  pass."  Captain  Woodroffe,  who 
was  for  some  time  at  Astrachan,  a  city  near 
the  Volga,  sixty  miles  to  the  north-west  of  the 
Caspian  Sea,  in  latitude  47°,  assures  us,  that, 
from  the  latter  end  of  July  to  the  beginning  of 
October,  the  country  about  that  city  is  fre- 
quently infested  with  locusts,  which  fly  in  such 
prodigious  numbers  as  to  darken  the  air,  and 
appear  at  a  distance  as  a  heavy  cloud.  As  for 
the  Mosaic  permission  to-  the  Jews  of  eating 
the  locusts,  Lev.  xi,  22,  however  strange  it 
may  appear  to  the  mere  English  reader,  yet 
nothing  is  more  certain  than  that  several  na- 
tions, both  of  Asia  and  Africa,  anciently  used 
these  insects  for  food  ;  and  that  they  are  still 
eaten  in  the  east  to  this  day.  Niebhur  gives 
some  account  of  the  several  species  of  locusts 
eaten  by  the  Arabs,  and  of  their  different  ways 
of  dressing  them  for  food.  "  The  Europeans," 
he  adds,  "do  not  comprehend  how  the  Arabs 
can  eat  locusts  with  pleasure  ;  and  those  Arabs 
who  have  had  no  intercourse  with  the  Chris- 
tians will  not  believe,  in  thoir  turn,  that  these 
latter  reckon  oysters,  crabs,  shrimps,  cray-fish, 
&c,  for  dainties.  These  two  facts,  however, 
are  equally  certain."  Locusts  are  often  used 
figuratively  by  the  prophets,  for  invading 
armies ;  and  their  swarms  aptly  represented 
the  numbers,  the  desolating  march  of  the  vast 
military  hordes  and  their  predatory  followers, 
which  the  ancient  conquerors  of  the  east 
poured  down  upon  every  country  they  attacked, 

LOG,  Lev.  xiv,  12,  a  Hebrew  measure  for 
things  liquid,  containing  five-sixths  of  a  pint. 

LOLLARDS,  the  supposed  followers  of 
Walter  Lpllard,  or  rather  of  Walter  the  Lol- 
lard, who,  according  to  Dr.  Mosheim,  was  a 
Dutchman  of  remarkable  eloquence  and  piety, 
though  tinctured  with  mysticism,  and  who,  for 
teat  king  sentiments  contrary  to  the  church  of 


LOR 


590 


LOR 


Rome,  and  nearly  corresponding  with  those  of 
Wickliffe,  was  burned  alive  at  Cologne  in 
1322.  But  before  this  there  existed,  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  Germany  and  Flanders,  various 
societies  of  Cellites,  to  whom  the  term  Lollards 
was  applied,  and  who  were  protected  by  the 
magistrates  and  inhabitants,  on  account  of 
their  usefulness  to  the  sick,  and  in  burying  the 
dead.  They  received  the  name  Lollards,  from 
the  old  German  or  Belgic  word  lullen,  (Latin, 
lallo,)  "  to  sing  with  a  low  voice,"  to  lull  to 
sleep,"  (whence  lullaby,)  because  when  they 
carried  to  the  grave,  the  bed  of  death,  such  as 
died  of  the  plague,  which  at  that  period  ravaged 
all  Europe,  they  sung  a  dirge  or  hymn,  proba- 
bly, in  a  soft  and  mournful  tone.  These  Lollards 
obtained  many  papal  grants,  by  which  their 
institution  was  confirmed,  their  persons  ex- 
empted from  the  cognizance  of  the  inquisitors, 
and  subjected  entirely  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
bishops  ;  and,  at  last,  for  their  farther  security, 
Charles,  duke  of  Burgundy,  in  1472,  obtained 
a  bull  from  Pope  Sixtus  IV.,  by  which  they 
were  ranked  among  the  religious  orders,  and 
delivered  from  the  jurisdiction  of  their  bishops  ; 
which  privileges  were  yet  more  extended  by 
Pope  Julius  II.  in  1506. 

In  England  the  followers  of  Wickliffe  were 
called  Lollards  by  way  of  reproach,  either  on 
account  of  the  humble  offices  of  the  original 
Lollards,  (the  Cellites,)  or  from  the  attachment 
of  the  Wicklilfites  to  singing  hymns.  Their 
enemies  probably  meant  to  describe  them  as 
poor  melancholy  creatures,  only  fit  to  sing 
psalms  at  a  funeral. 

LOOKING  GLASS.  Moses  states  that 
the  women  who  waited  all  night  at  the  door 
of  the  tabernacle,  cheerfully  offered  their  look- 
ing glasses,  to  be  employed  in  making  a  brazen 
laver  for  the  purification  of  the  priests,  Exod. 
xxxviii,  8.  These  looking  glasses  wrere  doubt- 
less of  brass,  since  the  basin  here  mentioned, 
and  the  basis  thereof,  w:cre  made  from  them. 
The  ancient  looking  glasses  were  mirrors,  not 
made  of  glass  as  ours  ;  but  of  brass,  tin,  silver, 
and  a  mixture  of  brass  and  silver,  which  last 
were  the  best  and  most  valuable. 

LORD'S  DAY.     See  Sabbath. 

LORD'S  SUPPER,  an  ordinance  instituted 
by  our  Saviour  in  commemoration  of  his  death 
and  sufferings.  The  institution  of  this  sacra- 
ment is  recorded  by  the  first  three  evangelists, 
and  by  the  Apostle  Paul,  whose  words  differ 
very  little  from  those  of  his  companion  St. 
Luke;  and  the  only  difference  between  St. 
Matthew  and  St.  Mark  is,  that  the  latter  omits 
the  words,  "  for  the  remission  of  sins."  There 
is  so  general  an  agreement  among  them  all, 
that  it  will  only  be  necessary  to  recite  the 
words  of  one  of  them:  "Now,' when  the  even 
was  come,  he  sat  down  with  the  twelve,"  to 
eat  the  passover  which  had  been  prepared  by 
his  direction  ;  "  and  as  they  were  eating,  Jesus 
took  bread,  and  blessed  it,  and  brake  it,  and 
gave  it  to  the  disciples,  and  said,  Take,  eat: 
this  is  my  body.  And  he  took  the  cup,  and 
gave  thanks,  and  gave  it  to  them,  saying, 
Drink  ye  all  of  it ;  for  this  is  my  blood  of  the 
Now  Testament,  which  is  shed  for  many  for 


the  remission  of  sins,"  Matt,  xxvi,  20,  26-28. 
The  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper  being  thus 
instituted,  was  adopted  by  all  the  early  Chris- 
tians, with  very  few  exceptions ;  and  no  mo- 
dern sect  rejects  it,  except  the  Quakers  and 
some  mystics,  who  make  the  whole  of  religion 
to  consist  of  contemplative  love. 

In  the  early  times  of  the  Gospel  the  celebra- 
tion of  the  Lord's  Supper  was  both  frequent 
and  numerously  attended.  Voluntary  absence 
was  considered  as  a  culpable  neglect ;  and 
exclusion  from  it,  by  the  sentence  of  the  church, 
as  a  severe  punishment.  Every  one  brought 
an  offering  proportioned  to  his  ability ;  these 
offerings  were  chiefly  of  bread  and  wine  ;  and 
the  priests  appropriated  as  much  as  was  neces- 
sary for  the  administration  of  the  eucharist. 
The  clergy  had  a  part  of  what  was  left  for 
their  maintenance  ;  and  the  rest  furnished  the 
repast  called  ayd-rrn,  or  love-feast,  wiiich  imme- 
diately followed  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's 
Supper,  and  of  which  all  the  communicants, 
both  rich  and  poor,  partook.  The  sacrament 
of  the  Lord's  Supper  greatly  resembled  the 
religious  feasts  to  which  the  Jews  were  accus- 
tomed. At  those  feasts  they  partook  of  bread 
and  wine  in  a  serious  and  devout  manner, 
after  a  solemn  blessing  or  thanksgiving  to  God 
for  his  manifold  mercies.  This  was  particu- 
larly the  case  at  the  feast  of  the  passover, 
which  our  Saviour  was  celebrating  with  his 
Apostles  when  he  instituted  this  holy  sacra- 
ment. At  that  feast,  they  commemorated  the 
deliverance  of  their  own  peculiar  nation  from 
the  bondage  of  Egypt ;  and  there  could  not  be 
a  more  suitable  opportunity  for  establishing  an 
ordinance  which  was  to  commemorate  the 
infinitely  more  important  deliverance  of  all 
mankind  from  the  bondage  of  sin.  The  former 
deliverance  was  typical  of  the  latter ;  and 
instead  of  keeping  the  Jewish  passover,  which 
was  now  to  be  abrogated,  they  were  to  com- 
memorate Christ,  their  passover,  who  was 
sacrificed  for  them;  the  bread  broken  was  to 
represent  his  body  offered  upon  the  cross  ;  and 
the  wine  poured  out  was  to  represent  his  blood, 
which  was  shed  for  the  salvation  of  men.  The 
nourishment  which  these  elements  afford  to 
our  bodies  is  figurative  of  the  salutary  effects 
which  the  thing  signified  has  upon  our  souls. 
And  as  the  celebration  of  the  passover  was 
not  only  a  constant  memorial  of  the  deliver- 
ance of  the  Israelites  out  of  the  land  of  Egypt, 
but  also  a  symbolical  action,  by  which  they 
had  a  title  to  the  blessings  of  the  old  covenant ; 
so  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper  is  not 
oulv  a  constant  memorial  of  the  death  of 
Christ,  but.  also  a  pledge  or  earnest  to  the 
communicant  of  the  benefits  promised  by  the 
new  covenant.  As  the  passover  was  instituted 
the  night  beforo  the  actual  deliverance  of  the 
Israelites,  so  the  Lord's  Supper  was  instituted 
the  night  before  the  redemption  of  man  was 
accomplished  by  the  crucifixion  of  the  blessed 
Jesus.  It  is  to  be  partaken  of  bj  all  who  look 
for  remission  of  sins  by  the  death  of  Christ ; 
we  are  not  only  to  cherish  that  trust  in  our 
minds,  and  express  it  in  our  devotions,  but  we 
are  to  give  an  outward  proof  of  our  reliance 


LOT 


591 


LOV 


up&n  the  merits  of  his  passion  as  the  means  of 
our  salvation,  by  eating  that  bread,  and  drink- 
ing that  wine,  which  are  typical  representations 
of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ,  "  who  by  his 
one  oblation  of  himself  once  offered,  made  a 
full,  perfect,  and  sufficient  sacrifice,  oblation, 
and  satisfaction  for  the  sins  of  the  whole 
world."     See  Sacraments. 

LOT,  the  son  of  Haran,  and  nephew  ■  to 
Abraham.  He  accompanied  his  uncle  from 
Ur  to  Haran,  and  from  thence  to  Canaan ;  a 
proof  of  their  mutual  attachment,  and  simi- 
larity of  principles  respecting  the  true  religion. 
With  Abraham  he  descended  into  Egypt,  and 
afterward  returned  with  him  into  Canaan : 
but  the  multiplicity  of  their  flocks,  and  still 
more  the  quarrels  of  their  servants,  rendered  a 
friendly  separation  necessary.  When  God 
destroyed  the  cities  of  the  plain  with  fire  and 
brimstone,  he  delivered  "just  Lot"  from  the 
conflagration,  according  to  the  account  of  the 
divine  historian.  The  whole  time  that  Lot 
resided  there  was  twenty -three  years.  During 
all  this  period  he  had  been  a  preacher  of  right- 
eousness among  this  degenerate  people.  In 
him  they  had  before  their  eyes  an  illustrious 
example  of  the  exercise  of  genuine  piety,  sup- 
ported by  unsullied  justice  and  benevolent 
actions.  And  doubtless  it  was  for  these  pur- 
poses that  Divine  Providence  placed  him  for  a 
time  in  that  city.  The  losses  which  Lot  sus- 
tained on  this  melancholy  occasion  were  very 
great ;  his  wife,  property,  and  all  the  pros- 
pects of  the  future  settlement  of  his  family 
blasted.  Pity  must  therefore  draw  a  friendly 
veil  over  the  closing  scene  of  this  man  of 
affliction  ;  and  let  him  that  thinketh  he  stand- 
eth,  take  heed  lest  he  fall  into  deeds  more 
reprehensible  than  those  of  Lot,  without  hav- 
ing equal  trials  and  sufferings  to  plead  in  his 
favour.  Respecting  his  wife,  whether  grieving 
for  the  loss  of  her  property,  or  inwardly  cen- 
suring the  severity  of  the  divine  dispensation, 
or  whether  moved  by  unbelief  or  curiosity, 
cannot  now  be  known  ;  but,  looking  back,  she 
became  a  pillar  of  salt,  Gen.  xix,  26.  It  would 
be  endless  to  present  the  reader  with  all  the 
opinions  on  this  subject.  Some  contend  that 
nothing  more  is  meant  than  that  she  was  suffo- 
cated :  others,  that  a  column  or  monument  of 
metallic  salt  was  erected  upon  her  grave : 
others  affirm  that  she  became  encrusted  with 
the  sulphur,  insomuch  that  she  appeared  like  an 
Egyptian  mummy,  which  is  embalmed  with 
salt.  Our  Lord  warns  his  disciples  to  remem- 
ber Lot's  wife  in  their  flight  from  Jerusalem, 
and  not  to  imitate  her  tardiness,  Luke  xvii,  32. 

2.  Lot,  any  thing  cast  or  drawn  in  order  to 
determine  any  matter  in  question,  Proverbs 
xviii,  18.  We  see  the  use  of  lots  among  the 
Hebrews  in  many  places  of  Scripture  :  God 
commands,  for  example,  that  lots  should  be 
cast  upon  the  two  goats  which  were  offered 
for  the  sins  of  the  people,  upon  the  solemn 
day  of  expiation,  to  know  which  of  the  two 
should  be  sacrificed,  and  which  liberated,  Lev. 
xvi,  8-10.  He  required  also  that  the  land  of 
promise  should  be  divided  by  lot  as  soon  as  it 
was  conquered ;  which  command  Joshua  ac- 


cordingly executed,  Num.  xxvi,  55,  56 ;  xxxiii, 
54 ;  xxxiv,  13,  &c ;  Joshua  xiv-xvi ;  hence 
the  term  "lot"  is  used  for  an  inheritance, 
"  Thou  maintainest  my  lot ;"  and  figuratively 
for  a  happy  state  or  condition.  The  priests 
and  Levites  had  their  cities  appointed  by  lot. 
Lastly,  in  the  time  of  David,  the  four  and 
twenty  classes  of  the  priests  and  Levites  were 
distributed  by  lot,  to  determine  in  what  order 
they  should  wait  in  the  temple,  1  Chron.  vi, 
54,  61 ;  xxiv,  5 ;  xxv,  8.  In  the  division  of 
the  spoil,  after  victory,  lots  were  likewise  cast, 
to  give  every  man  his  portion,  Obadiah  11 ; 
Nahum  iii,  10,  &c.  In  the  New  Testament, 
after  the  death  of  Judas,  lots  were  cast  to 
decide  who  should  occupy  the  place  of  the 
traitor,  Acts  i,  26.  From  the  above  instances, 
it  is  clear  that  when  men  have  recourse  to  this 
method,  the  matter  ought  to  be  of  the  greatest 
importance,  and  no  other  apparent  way  left  to 
determine  it ;  and  the  manner  of  making  the 
appeal  should  be  solemn  and  grave,  if  we 
would  escape  the  guilt  of  taking  the  name  of 
God  in  vain.  It  unquestionably  implies  a 
solemn  appeal  to  the  Most  High  to  interpose 
by  his  decision ;  and  so  every  thinking  man 
will  be  very  careful  that  he  has  a  true  and 
religious  ground  for  so  serious  a  proceeding ; 
and  few  if  any  cases  can  now  occur  in  which 
it  can  have  any  justification.  The  ancient 
manner  of  casting  lots,  was  either  in  some 
person's  "lap,"  or  fold  of  the  robe;  into  a  hel- 
met, or  urn,  or  other  vessel,  in  which  they 
might  be  shaken  before  they  were  drawn 
or  cast. 

LOVE-FEASTS.  It  is  Godwin's  opinion, 
that  the  agapce,  or  love-feasts,  of  the  primitive 
Christians,  were  derived  from  the  j^ji-in  or 
feasts  upon  the  sacrifices,  at  which  the  Jews 
entertained  their  friends,  and  fed  the  poor ; 
Deut.  xii,  18;  xxvi,  12.  There  were  also 
feasts  of  much  the  same  kind  in  use  amoncr 
the  Greeks  and  Romans.  The  former  were 
wont  to  offer  certain  sacrifices  to  their  gods, 
which  were  afterward  given  to  the  poor.  They 
had  likewise  public  feasts  for  certain  districts, 
suppose  for  a  town  or  a  city,  toward  which  all 
who  could  afford  it,  contributed,  in  proportion 
to  their  different  abilities,  and  all  partook  of  it 
in  common.  Of  this  sort  were  the  owo-tn'u  of 
the  Cretans  ;  and  the  (ptSirla  of  the  Lacedaemo- 
nians, instituted  by  Lycurgus,  and  so  called 
roapu  rrjs  <ptXiau  (the  A  being  changed  into  <5  ac- 
cording to  their  usual  orthography,)  as  denoting 
that  love  and  friendship  which  they  were  intend- 
ed to  promote  among  neighbours  and  fellow 
citizens.  The  Romans  likewise  had  a  feast  of 
the  same  kind,  called  charistia :  which  was  a 
meeting  only  of  those  who  were  akin  to  each 
other;  and  the  design  of  it  was,  that  if  any 
quarrel  or  misunderstanding  had  happened 
among  any  of  them,  they  might  there  he  recon- 
ciled. To  this  Ovid  alludes  in  the  second  book 
of  his  Fasti : — 

Proximn  cognati  dixere  charistia  cart, 

Et  venit  adsocios  turba  propinqua  deos     v.  617. 

[The   feasts  next   in   order   beloved    relatives 

called   rliaristia,  at  which  the  kindred  throng 

assembled  under  their  family  household  godo.] 


LOV 


592 


LOV 


In  imitation  either  of  these  Jewish  or  Gentile 
love-feasts,  or  probably  of  both,  the  primitive 
Christians,  in  each  particular  church,  had 
likewise  their  love-feasts,  which  were  supplied 
by  the  contribution  of  the  members,  according 
to  their  several  abilities,  and  partaken  of  by 
all  in  common.  And  whether  they  were  con- 
verts from  among  the  Jews  or  Gentiles,  they 
retained  their  old  custom  with  very  little 
alteration,  and  as  their  ayd-ai  had  been  com- 
monly annexed  to  their  sacrifices,  so  they  were 
now  annexed  to  the  commemoration  of  the 
sacrifice  of  Christ  at  the  Lord's  Supper  ;  and 
were  therefore  held  on  the  Lord's  day  before 
or  after  the  celebration  of  that  ordinance.  It 
would  seem  at  Corinth,  in  the  Apostles'  days, 
they  were  ordinarily  held  before;  for  when  the 
Corinthians  are  blamed  for  unworthily  receiv- 
ing the  Lord's  Supper,  it  is  partly  charged  upon 
this,  that  some  of  them  came  drunk  to  that 
ordinance,  having  indulged  to  excess  at  the 
preceding  love-feast :  "  Every  one  taketh  be- 
fore, srpoAa/iSavu,  his  own  supper,  and  one  is 
hungry,  and  another  is  drunken,"  1  Cor.  xi,  21. 
This  shows,  says  Dr.  Whitby,  that  this  banquet, 
namely,  the  love-feast,  was  celebrated  before 
the  Lord's  Supper.  But  Chrysostom  gives  an 
account  of  it,  as  being  in  his  time  kept  after  it. 
It  is  commonly  supposed,  that  when  St.  Jude 
mentions  certain  persons,  who  were  spots  in 
the  feasts  of  charity,  h  rats  iydwais,  verse  12, 
he  means  in  the  Christian  love-feasts  ;  though 
Dr.  Lightfoot  and  Dr.  Whitby  apprehend  the 
reference  in  this  passage  is  rather  a  custom  of 
the  Jews,  who,  on  the  evening  of  their  Sab- 
bath, had  their  Katyavta,  or  communion,  when 
the  inhabitants  of  the  same  city  met  in  a  com- 
mon place  to  eat  together.  However  that  be, 
all  antiquity  bears  testimony  to  the  reality  of 
the  Christian  ayd-nai,  or  love-feasts. 

The  most  circumstantial  account,  says  Dr. 
Townley,  of  the  manner  in  which  the  ancient 
agapa>  were  celebrated,  is  given  by  Tertullian, 
in  his  "Apology,"  written  in  the  second  cen- 
tury: "Our  supper,"  says  he,  "which  you 
accuse  of  luxury,  shows  its  reason  in  its  very 
name,  for  it  is  called  aydirn,  that  is,  love. 
Whatever  charge  we  are  at,  it  is  gain  to  be  at 
expense  upon  the  account  of  piety.  For  we 
therewith  relieve  and  refresh  the  poor.  There 
is  nothing  vile  or  immodest  committed  in  it. 
For  we  do  not  sit  down  before  we  have  first 
offered  up  prayer  to  God.  We  eat  only  to 
satisfy  hunger,  and  drink  only  so  much  as  be- 
comes modest  persons.  We  fill  ourselves  in 
such  a  manner,  as  that  we  remember  still  that 
we  arc  to  worship  God  by  night.  We  discourse 
as  in  the  presence  of  God,  knowing  that  lie 
hears  us.  Then,  after  water  to  wash  our 
hands,  and  lights  brought  in,  every  one  is  moved 
to  sing  some  hymn  to  God,  either  out  of  Scrip- 
ture, or,  as  he  is  able,  of  his  own  composing, 
ami  by  this  we  judge  whether  he  has  observed 
the  rules  of  temperance  in  drinking.  Prayer 
again  concludes  our  feast;  and  thence  we  de- 
part, not  to  fight  and  quarrel ;  not  to  run  about 
and  abuse  all  we  meet;  not  to  give  up  our- 
selves to  lascivious  pastime ;  but  to  pursue  the 
same  care  of  modesty  and  chastity,  as  men 


that  have  fed  at  a  supper  of  philosophy  and 
discipline,  rather  than  a  corporeal  feast."  Ig- 
natius, in  his  epistle  to  the  church  of  Smyrna, 
in  the  first  century,  affords  us  the  additional 
information,  "that  it  was  not  lawful  to  bap- 
tize, or  celebrate  the  love-feasts,  without  the 
bishop,  or  minister."  Lucian,  the  epicurean, 
has  also  a  passage  which  seems  to  refer  to  the 
agapte.  He  tells  us  that  when  Peregrinus,  a 
Christian,  was  in  prison,  "you  might  have 
seen,  early  in  the  morning,  old  women,  some 
widows,  and  orphans,  waiting  at  the  prison. 
Their  presidents  bribed  the  guards,  and  lodged 
in  the  prison  with  him.  Afterward  (that  is, 
in  the  evening)  various  suppers  (that  is,  sup- 
pers consisting  of  various  dishes,  and  various 
kinds  of  meat,  brought  thither  by  various  per- 
sons of  the  company)  were  brought  in,  and 
they  held  their  sacred  conversations,  hpoi  \oyot, 
or  their  sacred  discourses  were  delivered." 
Pliny,  in  his  celebrated  epistle  to  Trajan,  men- 
tions the  "  cibus  promiscuus  et  innoxius" — 
"common  and  harmless  meal"  of  the  Chris- 
tians, which  they  ate  together  after  the  cele- 
bration of  the  eucharist.  This  primitive  prac- 
tice, though  under  a  simpler  form,  and  more 
expressly  religious,  is  retained  in  modern  times, 
only  by  the  Moravians,  and  by  the  Wesleyan 
Methodists. 

LOVE  TO  GOD.  To  serve  and  obey  God 
on  the  conviction  that  it  is  right  to  serve  and 
obey  him,  is  in  Christianity  joined  with  that 
love  to  God  which  gives  life  and  animation  to 
service,  and  renders  it  the  means  of  exalting 
our  pleasures,  at  the  same  time  that  it  accords 
with  our  convictions.  The  supreme  love  of 
God  is  the  chief,  therefore,  of  what  have  some- 
times been  called  our  theopathetic  affections. 
It  is  the  sum  and  the  end  of  the  law ;  and 
though  it  has  been  lost  by  us  in  Adam,  it  is 
restored  to  us  by  Christ.  When  it  regards  God 
absolutely,  and  in  himself,  as  a  Being  of  infi- 
nite and  harmonious  perfections  and  moral 
beauties,  it  is  that  movement  of  the  soul  to- 
ward him  which  is  produced  by  admiration, 
approval,  and  delight.  When  it  regards  him 
relatively,  it  fixes  upon  the  ceaseless  emana- 
tions of  his  goodness  to  us  all  in  the  continu- 
ance of  the  existence  which  he  at  first  bestow- 
ed ;  the  circumstances  which  render  that 
existence  felicitous ;  and,  above  all,  upon  that 
"  great  love  wherewith  he  loved  us,"  manifested 
in  the  gift  of  his  Son  for  our  redemption,  and 
in  saving  us  by  his  grace ;  or,  in  the  forcible 
language  of  St.  Paul,  upon  "the  exceeding 
riches  of  his  grace  in  his  kindness  to  us  through 
Christ  Jesus."  Under  all  these  views  an  un- 
bounded gratitude  overflows  the  heart  which 
is  influenced  by  this  spiritual  affection.  But 
the  hive  of  God  is  more  than  a  sentiment  of 
gratitude  :  it  rejoices  in  his  perfections  and 
glories,  and  devoutly  contemplates  them  as 
the  highest  and  most  interesting  subjects  of 
thought ;  it  keeps  the  idea  of  this  supremely 
beloved  object  constantly  present  to  the  mind  ; 
it  turns  to  it  with  adoring  ardour  from  the 
business  and  distractions  of  life  ;  it  connects  it 
with  every  scene  of  majesty  and  beauty  in 
nature,  and  with  every  event  of  general  and 


LOV 


593 


LUC 


particular  providence  ;  it  brings  the  soul  into 
fellowship  with  God,  real  and  sensible,  because 
vital ;  it  moulds  the  other  affections  into  con- 
formity with  what  God  himself  wills  or  pro- 
hibits,  loves  or  hates  ;  it  produces  an  unbound- 
ed desire  to  please  him,  and  to  be  accepted  of 
him  in  all  things  ;  it  is  jealous  of  his  honour, 
unwearied  in  his  service,  quick  to  prompt  to 
every  sacrifice  in  the  cause  of  his  truth  and  his 
church  ;  and  it  renders  all  such  sacrifices,  even 
when  carried  to  tho  extent  of  suffering  and 
death,  unreluctant  and  cheerful.  It  chooses 
God  as  the  chief  good  of  the  soul,  the  enjoy- 
ment of  which  assures  its  perfect  and  eternal 
interest  and  happiness :  "  Whom  have  I  in 
heaven  but  thee  ?  and  there  is  none  upon  earti 
that  I  desire  beside  thee,"  is  the  language  of 
every  heart,  when  its  love  of  God  is  true  in 
principle  and  supreme  in  degree. 

If,  then,  the  will  of  God  is  the  perfect  rule 
of  morals  ;  and  if  supreme  and  perfect  love  to 
God  must  produce  a  prompt  and  unwearied,  a 
delightful  subjection  to  his  will,  or  rather  an 
entire  and  most  free  choice  of  it  as  the  rule  of 
all  our  principles,  affections,  and  actions ;  the 
importance  of  this  affection  in  securing  that 
obedience  to  the  law  of  God  in  which  true  mo- 
rality consists,  is  manifest ;  and  we  clearly 
perceive  the  reason  why  an  inspired  writer  has 
affirmed,  that  "  love  is  the  fulfilling  of  the 
law."  The  necessity  of  keeping  this  subject 
before  us  under  those  views  in  which  it  is 
placed  in  the  Christian  system,  and  of  not  sur- 
rendering it  to  mere  philosophy,  is,  however, 
an  important  consideration.  With  the  philo- 
sopher the  love  of  God  may  be  the  mere  ap- 
proval of  the  intellect ;  or  a  sentiment  which 
results  from  the  contemplation  of  infinite  per- 
fection, manifesting  itself  in  acts  of  power  and 
goodness.  In  the  Scriptures  it  is  much  more 
than  either,  and  is  produced  and  maintained 
by  a  different  process.  We  are  there  taught 
that  "the  carnal  mind  is  enmity  to  God,"  and 
is  not,  of  course,  capable  of  loving  God.  Yet 
this  carnal  mind  may  consist  with  deep  attain- 
ments in  philosophy,  and  with  strongly  impas- 
sioned poetic  sentiment.  The  mere  approval 
of  the  understanding,  and  the  susceptibility 
of  being  impressed  with  feelings  of  admiration, 
awe,  and  even  pleasure,  when  the  character  of 
God  is  manifested  in  his  works,  as  both  may 
be  found  in  the  carnal  mind  which  is  enmity 
to  God,  are  not  therefore  the  love  of  God. 
They  are  principles  which  enter  into  that  love, 
since  it  cannot  exist  without  them  ;  but  they 
may  exist  without  this  affection  itself,  and  be 
found  in  a  vicious  and  unchanged  nature.  The 
love  of  God  is  a  fruit  of  the  Holy  Spirit ;  that 
is,  it  is  implanted  by  him  only  in  the  souls  which 
he  has  regenerated  ;  and  as  that  which  excites 
its  exercise  is  chiefly,  and  in  the  first  place,  a 
sense  of  the  benefits  bestowed  by  the  grace  of 
God  in  our  redemption,  and  a  well  grounded 
persuasion  of  our  persona]  interest  in  those  be- 
nefits, it  necessarily  presupposes  our  recon- 
ciliation to  God  through  faith  in  the  atonement 
of  Christ,  and  that  attestation  of  it  to  the  heart 
by  the  Spirit  of  adoption.  We  here  see,  then, 
another  proof  of  the  necessary  connection  of 
39 


Christian  morals  with  Christian  doctrine,  and 
how  imperfect  and  deceptive  every  system  must 
be  which  separates  them.  Love  is  essential  to 
true  obedience  ;  for  when  the  Apostle  declares 
love  to  be  "the  fulfilling  of  the  law,"  he  de- 
clares, in  effect,  that  the  law  cannot  be  fulfil- 
led without  love  ;  and  that  every  action  which 
has  not  this  for  its  principle,  however  virtuous 
in  its  show,  fails  of  accomplishing  the  precepts 
which  are  obligatory  upon  us.  But  this  love 
to  God  cannot  be  felt  so  long  as  we  are  sensi- 
ble of  his  wrath,  and  are  in  dread  of  his  judg- 
ments. These  feelings  are  incompatible  witli 
each  other,  and  we  must  be  assured  of  his  re- 
conciliation to  us,  before  we  are  capable  of 
loving  him.  Thus  the  very  existence  of  love 
to  God  implies  the  doctrines  of  atonement, 
repentance,  faith,  and  the  gift  of  the  Spirit  of 
adoption  to  believers ;  and  unless  it  be  taught 
in  this  connection,  and  through  this  process 
of  experience,  it  will  be  exhibited  only  as  a 
bright  and  beauteous  object  to  which  man  has 
no  access ;  or  a  fictitious  and  imitative  senti- 
mentalism  will  be  substituted  for  it,  to  the 
delusion  of  the  souls  of  men. 

LUCIAN,  a  philosoper  and  wit,  who  appear- 
ed as  one  of  the  early  opposers  of  the  Chris- 
tian religion  and  its  followers.  The  hostile 
sentiments  of  the  Heathens  toward  Christiani- 
ty, says  Dr.  Neander,  were  different  according 
to  the  difference  of  their  philosophical  and  re- 
ligious views.  There  entered  then  upon  the 
contest  two  classes  of  men,  who  have  never 
since  ceased  to  persecute  Christianity.  These 
were  the  superstitious,  to  whom  the  honouring 
God  in  spirit  and  in  truth  was  a  stumbling 
stone,  and  the  careless  unbeliever,  who,  unac- 
quainted with  all  feelings  of  religious  wants, 
was  accustomed  to  laugh  and  to  mock  at  every 
thing  which  proceeded  from  them,  whether  he 
understood  it  or  not,  and  at  all  which  supposed 
such  feelings,  and  proposed  to  satisfy  them. 
Such  was  Lucian.  To  him  Christianity,  like 
every  other  remarkable  religious  phenomenon, 
appeared  only  as  a  fit  object  for  his  sarcastic 
wit.  Without  giving  himself  the  trouble  to 
examine  and  to  discriminate,  he  threw  Chris- 
tianity, superstition,  and  fanaticism,  into  the 
same  class.  It  is  easy  enough,  in  any  system 
which  lays  deep  hold  on  man's  nature,  to  find 
out  some  side  open  to  ridicule,  if  a  man  brings 
forward  only  that  which  is  external  in  the 
system,  abstracted  from  .all  its  inward  power 
and  meaning,  and  without  either  understand- 
ing, or  attempting  to  understand,  this  power. 
He,  therefore,  who  looked  on  Christianity  with 
cold  indifference,  and  the  profane  every-day 
feelings  of  worldly  prudence,  might  easily  here 
and  there  find  objects  for  his  satire.  The 
Christian  might  indeed  have  profited  by  that 
ridicule,  and  have  learned  from  the  children 
of  darkness  to  join  the  wisdom  of  the  serpent 
with  the  meekness  of  the  dove.  In  the  end 
the  scoffer  brings  himself  to  derision,  because 
he  ventures  to  pass  sentence  on  the  phenomena 
of  a  world  of  which  he  has  not  the  slightest 
conception,  and  which  to  his  eyes,  buried  as 
they  are  in  the  films  of  the  earth,  is  entirely 
closed.   Such  was  Lucian.   He  sought  to  bring 


LUD 


594 


LUK 


lor  ward  all  that  is  striking  and  remarkable  in 
the  external  conduct  and  circumstances  of 
Christians,  which  might  serve  for  the  object 
of  his  sarcastic  raillery,  without  any  deeper 
inquiry  as  to  what  the  religion  of  the  Chris, 
tians  really  was.  And  yet  even  in  that  at 
which  he  scoffed,  there  was  much  which  might 
have  taught  him  to  remark  in  Christianity 
no  common  power  over  the  hearts  of  men, 
had  he  been  capable  of  such  serious  impres- 
sions. The  firm  hope  of  eternal  life  which 
taught  them  to  meet  death  with  tranquillity, 
their  brotherly  love  one  toward  another,  might 
have  indicated  to  him  some  higher  spirit  which 
animated  these  men  ;  but  instead  of  this  he 
treats  it  all  as  delusion,  because  many  gave 
themselves  up  to  death  with  something  like 
fanatical  enthusiasm.  He  scoffs  at  the  notion 
of  a  crucified  man  having  taught  them  to  re- 
gard all  mankind  as  their  brethren,  the  moment 
the}'  should  have  abjured  the  gods  of  Greece  ; 
as  if  it  were  not  just  the  most  remarkable  part 
of  all  this,  that  an  obscure  person  in  Jerusa- 
lem, who  was  deserted  by  every  one,  and  exe- 
cuted as  a  criminal,  should  be  able,  a  good 
century  after  his  death,  to  cause  such  effects 
as  Lucian,  in  his  own  time,  saw  extending  in 
all  directions,  and  in  spite  of  every  kind  of  per- 
secution. How  blinded  must  he  have  been  to 
pass  thus  lightly  over  such  a  phenomenon ! 
But  men  of  his  ready  wit  are  apt  to  exert  it 
with  too  great  readiness  on  all  subjects.  They 
are  able  to  illustrate  everything  out  of  nothing; 
with  their  miserable  "nil  admirari"  they  can 
close  their  hearts  against  all  lofty  impressions. 
With  all  his  wit  and  keenness,  with  all  his 
undeniably  fine  powers  of  observation  in  all 
that  has  no  concern  with  the  deeper  impulses 
of  man's  spirit,  he  was  a  man  of  very  little 
mind.  But  hear  his  own  language  :  "  The 
wretched  people  have  persuaded  themselves 
that  they  are  altogether  immortal,  and  will  live 
for  ever ;  therefore  they  despise  death,  and 
many  of  them  meet  it  of  their  own  accord. 
Their  first  lawgiver  has  persuaded  them  also 
to  regard  all  mankind  as  their  brethren,  as 
60on  as  they  have  abjured  the  Grecian  gods, 
and,  honouring  their  crucified  Master,  have 
begun  to  five  according  to  his  laws.  They  de- 
spise every  thing  Heathen  equally,  and  regard 
all  but  their  own  notions  as  profaneness,  while 
they  have  yet  embraced  those  notions  without 
sufficient  examination."  He  has  no  farther 
accusation  to  make  against  them  here,  except 
the  ease  with  which  they  allowed  their  bene- 
volence toward  their  fellow  Christians  to  be 
abused  by  impostors,  in  which  there  may  be 
much  truth,  but  there  is,  nevertheless,  some 
exaggeration. 

LUDIM.  There  were  two  Luds ;  the  one 
the  son  of  Shem,  from  whom  the  Lydians  of 
Asia  Minor  are  supposed  to  have  sprung,  and 
the  other  the  son  of  Mizraim,  whose  residence 
was  in  Africa.  The  descendants  of  the  latter 
only  are  mentioned  in  Scripture  :  they  are 
toined  by  Isaiah,  lxvi,  19,  with  Pul,  whose 
settlement  is  supposed  to  have  been  about  the 
island  Philoe,  near  the  first  cataract  of  the 
Nile  ;  by  Jeremiah,  xlvi,  9,  with  the  Ethiopians 


and  Libyans ;  by  Ezekiel,  xxvii,  10,  with  Phut, 
as  the  mercenary  soldiers  of  Tyre,  and  xxx,  5, 
with  the  Ethiopians  and  Libyans  ;  all  plainly 
denoting  their  African  position ;  but  in  what 
particular  part  of  that  continent  this  position 
was,  is  not  known. 

LUKE.  The  New  Testament  informs  us 
of  very  few  particulars  concerning  St.  Luke. 
He  is  not  named  in  any  of  the  Gospels.  In 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  which  were,  as  will 
hereafter  be  shown,  written  by  him,  he  uses 
the  first  person  plural,  when  he  is  relating 
some  of  the  travels  of  St.  Paul ;  and  thence  it 
is  inferred,  that  at  those  times  he  was  himself 
with  that  Apostle.  The  first  instance  of  this 
kind  is  in  the  eleventh  verse  of  the  sixteenth 
chapter  ;  he  there  says,  "  Loosing  from  Troas, 
we  came  up  with  a  straight  course  to  Samo- 
thracia."  Thus,  we  learn  that  St.  Luke  ac- 
companied St.  Paul  in  this  his  first  voyage  to 
Macedonia.  From  Samothracia  they  went  to 
Neapolis,  and  thence  to  Philippi.  At  this  last 
place  we  conclude  that  St.  Paul  and  St.  Luke 
separated,  because  in  continuing  the  history 
of  St.  Paul,  after  he  left  Philippi,  St.  Luke 
uses  the  third  person,  saying,  "Now  when 
they  had  passed  through  Amphipolis,"  &c, 
Acts  xvii,  1 ;  and  he  does  not  resume  the  first 
person  till  St.  Paul  was  in  Greece  the  second 
time.  We  have  no  account  of  St.  Luke  during 
this  interval ;  it  only  appears  that  he  was  not 
with  St.  Paul.  When  St.  Paul  was  about  to 
go  to  Jerusalem  from  Greece,  after  his  second 
visit  into  that  country,  St.  Luke,  mentioning 
certain  persons,  says,  "  These  going  before 
tarried  for  us  at  Troas  ;  and  ice  sailed  away 
from  Philippi,"  Acts  xx,  5,  6.  Thus  again  we 
learn  that  St.  Luke  accompanied  St.  Paul  out 
of  Greece,  through  Macedonia  to  Troas  ;  and 
the  sequel  of  St.  Paul's  history  in  the  Acts, 
and  some  passages  in  his  epistles,  2  Tim.  iv, 
11 ;  Col.  iv,  14,  Philemon  24,  written  while  he 
was  a  prisoner  at  Rome,  informs  us  that  St. 
Luke  continued  from  that  time  with  Paul,  till 
he  was  released  from  his  confinement  at  Rome ; 
which  was  a  space  of  about  five  years,  and 
included  a  very  interesting  part  of  St.  Paul's 
life,  Acts  xx-xxviii. 

Here  ends  the  certain  account  of  St.  Luke. 
It  seems  probable,  however,  that  he  went  from 
Rome  into  Achaia ;  and  some  authors  have 
asserted  that  he  afterward  preached  the  Gos- 
pel in  Africa.  None  of  the  most  ancient 
fathers  having  mentioned  that  St.  Luke  suf- 
fered martyrdom,  we  may  suppose  that  he  died 
a  natural  death ;  but  at  what  time,  or  in  what 
place,  is  not  known.  We  are  told  by  some 
that  St.  Luke  was  a  painter,  and  Grotius  and 
Wetstein  thought  that  he  was  in  the  earlier 
part  of  his  life  a  slave  ;  but  I  find,  says  Bishop 
Tomline,  no  foundation  for  either  opinion  in 
any  ancient  writer.  It  is  probable  that  he 
was  by  birtli  a  Jew,  and  a  native  of  Antioch 
in  Syria  ;  and  I  see  no  reason  to  doubt  that 
"  Luke,  the  beloved  physician,"  mentioned  in 
the  Epistle  to  the  Colossians,  iv,  14,  was  Luke 
the  evangelist. 

Lardner  thinks  that  there  are  a  few  allusions 
to   this   Gospel  in    some    of  the    apostolical 


LUK 


595 


LUN 


fathers,  especially  in  Hernias  and  Polycarp ;  and 
in  Justin  Martyr  there  are  passages  evidently 
taken  from  it ;  but  the  earliest  author,  who 
actually  mentions  St.  Luke's  Gospel,  is  Ire- 
naeus  ;  and  he  cites  so  many  peculiarities  in  it, 
all  agreeing  with  the  Gospel  which  we  now 
have,  that  he  alone  is  sufficient  to  prove"  its 
genuineness.  We  may  however  observe,  that 
his  testimony  is  supported  by  Clement  of  Alex, 
andria,  Tertullian,  Origen,  Eusebius,  Jerom, 
Chrysostom,  and  many  others.  Dr.  Owen  and 
Dr.  Townson  have  compared  many  parallel 
passages  of  St.  Mark's  and  St.  Luke's  Gospels ; 
and  Dr.  Townson  has  concluded  that  St.  Luke 
had  seen  St.  Mark's  Gospel,  and  Dr.  Owen, 
that  St.  Mark  had  seen  St.  Luke's  ;  but  there 
does  not  appear  to  be  a  sufficient  similarity  of 
expression  to  justify  either  of  these  conclu- 
sions. There  vvas  among  the  ancients  a  differ, 
ence  of  opinion  concerning  the  priority  of 
these  two  Gospels ;  and  it  must  be  acknow- 
ledged to  be  a  very  doubtful  point. 

There  is  also  great  doubt  about  the  place 
where  this  Gospel  was  published.  It  seems 
most  probable  that  it  was  published  in  Greece, 
and  for  the  use  of  Gentile  converts.  Dr. 
Townson  observes,  that  the  evangelist  has 
inserted  many  explanations,  particularly  con- 
cerning the  scribes  and  Pharisees,  which  he 
would  have  omitted  if  he  had  been  writing  for 
those  who  were  acquainted  with  the  customs 
and  sects  of  the  Jews.  We  must  conclude 
that  the  histories  of  our  Saviour,  referred  to 
in  the  preface  to  this  Gospel,  were  inaccurate 
and  defective,  or  St.  Luke  would  not  have 
undertaken  this  work.  It  does  not,  however, 
appear  that  they  were  written  with  any  bad 
design  ;  but  being  merely  human  compositions, 
and  perhaps  put  together  in  great  haste,  they 
were  full  of  errors.  They  are  now  entirely 
lost,  and  the  names  of  their  authors  are  not 
known.  When  the  four  authentic  Gospels 
were  published,  and  came  into  general  use,  all 
others  were  quickly  disregarded  and  forgotten. 

St.  Luke's  Gospel  is  addressed  to  Theophi- 
lus ;  but  there  was  a  doubt,  even  in  the  time 
of  Epiphanius,  whether  a  particular  person, 
or  any  good  Christian  in  general,  be  intended 
by  that  name.  Theophilus  was  probably  a  real 
person,  that  opinion  being  more  agreeable  to 
the  simplicity  of  the  sacred  writings.  We  have 
seen  that  St.  Luke  was  for  several  years  the 
companion  of  St.  Paul ;  and  many  ancient 
writers  consider  this  Gospel  as  having  the 
sanction  of  St.  Paul,  in  the  same  manner  as 
St.  Mark's  had  that  of  St.  Peter.  Whoever 
will  examine  the  evangelist's  and  the  Apostle's 
account  of  the  eucharist  in  their  respective 
original  works,  will  observe  a  great  coinci- 
dence of  expression,  Luke  xxii ;  1  Cor.  xi. 
St.  Luke  seems  to  have  had  more  learning 
than  any  other  of  the  evangelists,  and  his  lan- 
guage is  more  varied,  copious,  and  pure.  This 
superiority  in  style  may  perhaps  be  owing  to 
his  longer  residence  in  Greece,  and  greater 
acquaintance  with  Gentiles  of  good  education, 
than  fell  to  the  lot  of  the  writers  of  the  other 
three  Gospels.  This  Gospel  contains  many 
things   which    are    not   found   in    the    other 


Gospels ;  among  which  are  the  following : 
the  birth  of  John  the  Baptist ;  the  Roman 
census  in  Judea  ;  the  circumstances  attend- 
ing Christ's  birth  at  Bethlehem;  the  vision 
granted  to  the  shepherds ;  the  early  testi- 
mony of  Simeon  and  Anna ;  Christ's  conver- 
sation with  the  doctors  in  the  temple  when 
he  was  twelve  years  old ;  tlie  parables  of  the 
good  Samaritan,  of  the  prodigal  son,  of  Dives 
and  Lazarus,  of  the  wicked  judge,  and  of  the 
publican  and  Pharisee;  the  mhaculous  cure 
of  the  woman  who  had  been  bowed  down  by 
illness  eighteen  years  ;  the  cleansing  of  the 
ten  lepers ;  and  the  restoring  to  life  the  son 
of  a  widow  at  Nain  ;  the  account  of  Zaccheus, 
and  of  the  penitent  thief;  and  the  particulars 
of  the  journey  to  Emmaus.  It  is  very  satis. 
factory  that  so  early  a  writer  as  Irenoeus  has 
noticed  most  of  these  peculiarities ;  which 
proves  not  only  that  St.  Luke's  Gospel,  but 
that  the  other  Gospels  also,  are  the  same  now 
that  they  were  in  the  second  century. 

LUNATICS,  a£\r]vta$oiiivovs,  lunatici,  Matt, 
iv,  24.  Thus  those  sick  persons  were  called, 
who  were  thought  to  suffer  most  severely  at 
the  changes  of  the  moon  ;  for  example,  epilep. 
tical  persons,  or  those  who  have  the  falling 
sickness,  insane  persons,  or  those  tormented 
with  fits  of  morbid  melancholy.  Mad  people 
are  still  called  lunatics,  from  an  ancient,  but 
now  almost  exploded,  opinion,  that  they  are 
much  influenced  by  that  planet.  A  sounder 
philosophy  has  taught  us,  that,  if  there  be  any 
thing  in  it,  it  must  be  accounted  for,  not  in 
the  manner  the  ancients  imagined,  nor  other- 
wise than  by  what  the  moon  has  in  common 
with  other  heavenly  bodies,  occasioning  vari- 
ous alterations  in  the  gravity  of  our  atmos- 
phere, and  thereby  affecting  human  bodies. 
However,  there  is  considerable  reason  to  doubt 
the  fact ;  and  it  is  certain  that  the  moon  has 
no  perceivable  influence  on  our  most  accurate 
barometers.  It  has  bpen  the  fashion  to  decry 
and  ridicule  the  doctrine  of  demoniacal  pos. 
sessions,  and  to  represent  the  patients  merely 
as  lunatics  or  madmen.  And  some  think  that 
this  is  countenanced  by  the  calumny  of  the 
unbelieving  Jews  concerning  Christ,  "  He 
hath  a  demon,  and  is  mad,"  John  x,  20  ;  both 
possession  and  madness  often  producing  the 
same  symptoms  of  convulsions,  paralysis,  &e, 
Matt,  xvii,  15-18.  But  that  they  were  distinct 
diseases,  may  be  collected  from  the  following 
considerations  :  1.  The  evangelists,  enumerat- 
ing the  various  descriptions  of  patients,  distin- 
guish Satfwvi^dfiivoi,  demoniacs,  <riX;/i'in£d/m'o<, 
lunatics,  and  capaAuriKoi,  paralytics,  from  per- 
sons afflicted  with  other  kinds  of  diseases, 
Matt,  iv,  24;  Mark  i,  34;  Luke  vi,  17,  18. 
2.  That  a  real  dispossession  took  place,  seems 
to  follow  from  the  number  of  these  impure 
inmates.  Mary  of  Magdala,  or  the  Magda- 
lene, was  afflicted  with  .seven  demons,  Mark 
xvi,  9.  "A  legion"  besought  Christ's  per- 
mission to  enter  into  a  numerous  herd  of  two 
thousand  swine ;  which  they  did,  and  drove 
the  whole  herd  down  a  precipice  into  the  sea, 
where  they  were  all  drowned.  This  remark- 
able case  is  noticed  by  the  three  evangelists 


LUT 


596 


LUT 


most  circumstantially,  Matt,  viii,  28  ;  Mark 
v,  1 ;  Luke  viii,  26.  3.  The  testimony  of  the 
demoniacs  to  Christ  was  not  that  of  madmen 
or  idiots.  It  evinced  an  intimate  knowledge  both 
of  his  person  and  character,  which  was  hidden 
from  the  "wise  and  prudent"  of  the  nation, 
the  chief  priests,  scribes,  and  Pharisees.  Their 
language  was,  "  What  hast  thou  to  do  witli 
us,  Jesus  of  Nazareth  ?  Art  thou  come  to  tor- 
ment us  before  the  time  ?"  "  I  know  thee  who 
thou  art,  the  Holy  One  of  God  :"  "  thou  art 
the  Christ,  the  Son  of  God,  the  Son  of  the 
most  high  God,"  Matt,  viii,  29  ;  Mark  i,  24  ; 
iii,  11 ;  Luke  iv,  34-41.  And  they  repeatedly 
besought  him  not  to  torment  them,  not  to  order 
them  to  depart  into  the  abyss,  Luke  viii,  28-31. 
See  Demoniacs. 

LUTHERANS,  or  the  LUTHERAN 
CHURCH,  the  disciples  and  followers  of 
Martin  Luther,  an  Augustine  friar,  who  was 
born  at  Isleben,  in  Upper  Saxony,  in  the  year 
1483.  He  possessed  an  invincible  magnani- 
mity, and  uncommon  vigour  and  acuteness  of 
genius.  He  first  took  offence  at  the  indulgen- 
ces which  were  granted  in  1517,  by  Pope  Leo 
X.,  to  those  who  contributed  toward  finishing 
St.  Peter's  church  at  Rome,  Luther  being  then 
professor  of  divinity  at  Wittemberg.  Those 
indulgences  promised  remission  of  all  sins, 
past,  present,  and  to  come,  however  enormous 
their  nature,  to  all  who  were  rich  enough  to 
purchase  them.  At  this  Luther  raised  his 
warning  voice  ;  and  in  ninety-five  propositions, 
which  he  maintained  publicly  at  Wittemberg, 
September  30,  1517,  exposed  the  doctrine  of 
indulgences,  which  led  him  to  attack  also  the 
authority  of  the  pope.  This  was  the  com- 
mencement of  that  memorable  revolution  in 
the  church  which  is  styled  the  Reformation  ; 
though  Mosheim  fixes  the  era  of  the  Reform- 
ation from  1520,  when  Luther  was  excom- 
municated by  the  pope. 

In  1523  Luther  drew  up  a  liturgy,  that,  in 
many  things,  differed  but  little  from  the  Mass 
Book  ;  but  he  left  his  followers  to  make  farther 
reforms,  as  they  saw  them  necessary ;  and,  in 
consequence,  the  forms  of  worship  in  the  Lu- 
theran churches  vary  in  points  of  minor  im- 
portance :  but  they  agree  in  reading  the  Scrip- 
tures publicly,  in  offering  prayers  and  praises 
to  God  through  the  Mediator  in  their  own 
language,  in  popular  addresses  to  the  congre- 
gation, and  the  reverend  administration  of  the 
sacraments. 

The  Augsburgh  Confession  (see  Confessions) 
forms  the  established  creed  of  the  Lutheran 
church.  The  following  are  a  few  of  the  prin- 
cipal points  of  doctrine  maintained  by  this 
great  reformer,  and  a  few  of  the  Scriptures  by 
which  he  supported  them. 

1.  That  the  Holy  Scriptures  are  the  only 
source  whence  we  are  to  draw  our  religious 
sentiments,  whether  they  relate  to  faith  or 
practice,  John  v,  39 ;  1  Cor.  iv,  16;  2  Tim. 
iii,  15-17.  Reason  also  confirms  the  sufficiency 
of  the  Scriptures;  for,  if  the  written  word  be 
allowed  to  be  a  rule  in  one  case,  how  can  it 
be  denied  to  be  a  rule  in  another  ? 

2.  That  justification  is  the  effect  of  faith 


exclusive  of  good  works  ;  and  that  faith  ought 
to  produce  good  works  purely  in  obedience  to 
God,  and  not  in  order  to  our  justification  ;  for 
St.  Paul,  in  his  Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  stren- 
uously opposed  those  who  ascribed  our  justi- 
fication, though  but  in  part,  to  works  :  "  If 
righteousness  come  by  the  law,  then  Christ  is 
dead  in  vain,"  Gal.  ii,  21.  Therefore  it  is 
evident  we  are  not  justified  by  the  law,  or  by 
our  works ;  but  to  him  that  believeth,  sin  is 
pardoned,  and  Christ's  righteousness  imputed. 
This  article  of  justification  by  faith  alone, 
Luther  used  frequently  to  call  "  articulns  stan. 
tis  vel  cadentis  ecclesia? ;"  that  by  which  the 
church  must  stand  or  fall. 

3.  That  no  man  is  able  to  make  satisfaction 
for  his  sins  ;  for  our  Lord  teaches  us  to  say, 
when  we  have  done  all  things  that  are  com- 
manded us,  "  We  are  unprofitable  servants," 
Luke  xvii,  10.  Christ's  sacrifice  is  alone  suf- 
ficient to  satisfy  for  sin,  and  nothing  need  be 
added  to  the  infinite  value  of  his  atonement. 

Luther  also  rejected  tradition,  purgatory, 
penance,  auricular  confession,  masses,  invo- 
cation of  saints,  monastic  vows,  and  other 
doctrines  of  the  church  of  Rome.  Luther  dif- 
fered widely  from  Calvin  on  matters  of  church 
discipline ;  and  on  the  presence  of  Christ's 
body  in  the  sacrament.  His  followers  also 
deviated  from  him  in  some  things ;  but  the 
following  may  be  considered  as  a  fair  state- 
ment of  their  principles,  and  the  difference 
between  them  and  the  Calvinists :  1.  The  Lu- 
therans in  Germany  reject  both  Episcopacy  and 
Presbyterianism,  but  appoint  superintendents 
for  the  government  of  the  church,  who  preside 
in  their  consistories,  when  that  office  is  not 
supplied  by  a  delegate  from  the  civil  govern- 
ment ;  and  they  hold  meetings  in  the  different 
towns  and  villages,  to  inquire  into  the  state 
of  the  congregations  and  the  schools.  The 
appointment  of  superintendents,  and  the  pre- 
sentation to  livings,  is  generally  in  the  prince, 
or  ecclesiastical  courts.  The  Swedes  and 
Danes  have  an  ecclesiastical  hierarchy,  similar 
to  that  of  England.  2.  They  differ  in  their 
\  i<nvs  of  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper. 
All  the  Lutherans  reject  <ra«s-substantiation, 
but  affirm  that  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ 
are  materially  present  in  the  sacrament,  though 
in  an  incomprehensible  manner ;  this  they 
called  cow-substantiation.  The  Calvinists  hold, 
on  the  contrary,  that  Jesus  Christ  is  only 
spiritually  present  in  the  ordinance,  by  the 
external  sij.nis  of  bread  and  wine.  3.  Thev 
differ  as  to  the  doctrine  of  the  eternal  decrees 
of  God  respecting  man's  salvation.  The 
modern  Lutherans  maintain  that  the  divine 
decrees,  respecting  the  salvation  and  misery  of 
men,  are  founded  upon  the  divine  prescience. 
The  Calvinists,  on  the  contrary,  consider  these 
decrees  as  absolute  and  unconditional. 

The  Lutherans  are  generally  divided  into 
the  moderate  and  the  rigid.  The  moderate 
Lutherans  air  those  who  submitted  to  the 
Interim  published  by  the  Emperor  Charles  V. 
Melancthon  was  tin'  head  of  this  part}-,  and 
they  were  called  Adiaphorists.  The  rigid 
Lutherans   are   those   who  would  not  endure 


LUT 


597 


LUT 


any  change  in  their  master's  sentiments,  of 
whom  M.  Flaccius  was  the  head.  The  Lu- 
therans are  partial  to  the  use  of  instrumental 
music  in  their  churches,  and  admit  statues  and 
paintings,  as  the  church  of  England  does, 
without  allowing  them  any  religious  venera- 
tion ;  but  the  rigid  Calvinists  reject  these,  and 
allow  only  the  simplest  forms  of  psalmody. 
The  modern  Lutherans,  about  the  close  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  enlarged  their  liberality 
toward  other  sects,  and  gave  up  the  supposed 
right  of  persecution ;  confessing  that  Chris- 
tians are  accountable  to  God  only  for  their 
religious  faith.  They  admit,  also,  into  their 
sacred  canon  the  Epistle  of  St.  James,  which 
Luther  rashly  rejected,  because  he  could  not 
reconcile  it  with  St.  Paul's  doctrine  of  justifi- 
cation ;  and  the  Revelation  of  St.  John,  which 
Luther  also  rejected,  because  he  could  not 
explain  it. 

On  some  of  the  doctrines  of  the  early  Ger- 
man reformers  the  following  remarks  by  Arch- 
bishop Laurence  are  entitled  to  high  consider- 
ation : — Against  the  church  of  Rome,  which 
always,  when  attacked,  fled  for  protection  to 
the  shield  of  scholastical  sophistry,  Luther  had 
waged  a  dauntless,  unwearied,  and  effectual 
warfare.  He  entered  the  field  of  contest  without 
distrust  or  apprehension,  under  a  rooted  per- 
suasion that  the  victory  over  superstition  would 
prove  easy  at  an  era  when  learning  had  already 
begun  to  extend  itself  in  every  direction,  and 
was  become  closely  allied  to  theological  attain- 
ments. When  the  light  of  day  appeared,  the 
genuine  doctrines  of  Scripture  and  the  primi- 
tive opinions  of  antiquity  began  to  be  more 
distinctly  perceived,  and  more  accurately 
investigated.  With  an  attachment  to  classical 
pursuits  arose  a  zeal  for  Biblical  inquiries. 
Taste  and  truth  went  hand  in  hand.  Luther, 
than  whom  no  one  was  more  capable  of 
infusing  energy  into  the  cause  in  which  he 
had  embarked,  was  of  all  men  the  worst 
adapted  to  conduct  it  with  moderation  :  he 
was  calculated  to  commence,  but  not  to 
complete,  reformation.  Prompt,  resolute,  and 
impetuous,  he  laboured  with  distinguished 
success  in  the  demolition  of  long  established 
error;  he  also  hastily  threw  together  the 
rough  and  cumbrous  materials  of  a  better  sys- 
tem. But  the  office  of  selecting,  modelling, 
and  arranging  them  was  consigned  to  a  cor- 
recter  hand.  Melancthon  was  of  a  character 
directly  opposite  to  that  of  Luther,  possessing 
every  requisite  to  render  truth  alluring  and 
reformation  respectable  ;  and  hence  upon  him, 
in  preference,  the  princes  of  Germany  conferred 
the  honour  of  compiling  the  public  profession 
of  their  faith.  But  it  ought  not  to  be  concealed, 
that,  previously  to  the  time  when  Lutheranism 
first  became  settled  upon  a  permanent  basis, 
and  added  public  esteem  to  public  notice,  tenets 
were  advanced,  which  retarded  the  progress  of 
truth  more  than  all  the  subtleties  of  scholastic 
argument,  or  the  terrors  of  papal  anathema. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  Reformation,  as  Me- 
lancthon frankly  observed  to  Cranmer,  there 
existed  among  its  advocates  stoical  disputa- 
tions respecting  fate,  offensive  in  their  nature, 


and  noxious  in  their  tendency.  The  duration, 
however,  of  these  stoical  disputations  was  but 
short ;  and  the  substitution  of  a  more  rational 
as  well  as  practical  system,  for  the  space  of 
more  than  twenty  years  before  the  appearance 
of  our  Articles,  prevented  the  founders  of  our 
church  from  mistaking,  for  the  doctrines  of  the 
Lutherans,  those  which  they  themselves  wished 
to  forget,  and  were  anxious  to  obliterate.  As 
we  descend  to  particulars,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  keep  our  eye  upon  one  prominent  doctrine, 
which  was  eminently  conspicuous  in  all  the 
controversies  of  the  Lutherans, — the  doctrine 

of  COMPLETE   REDEMPTION   BY   CHRIST,   which   in 

their  idea  their  adversaries  (the  Papists)  dis- 
regarded, who  denied  in  effect  the  depravity 
of  our  nature,  believed  the  favour  of  Heaven 
in  this  life  recoverable  by  what  was  denom- 
inated merit  of  congruity,  and,  in  the  life  to 
come,  by  that  which  was  termed  merit  of  con- 
dignity,  and  founded  predestination  upon 
merits  of  such  a  description ;  thus  in  every 
instance,  while  retaining  the  name  of  Chris- 
tians, rendering  Christianity  itself  superfluous. 
In  opposition  to  opinions  so  repugnant  in 
many  respects  to  reason,  and  in  almost  all  so 
subversive  of  Scripture,  the  Lutherans  con 
stantly  pressed  the  unsophisticated  tenet  of 
the  atonement,  not  contractedly  in  a  Calvin- 
istical,  but  comprehensively  in  a  Christian, 
point  of  view, — in  one  in  which  both  Calvin- 
ists and  Arminians  alike  embrace  it. 

Upon  original  sin  the  doctrine  of  the 
schoolmen  was  no  less  fanciful  and  remote 
from  every  Scriptural  idea,  than  flattering  to 
human  pride.  They  contended  that  the  in- 
fection of  our  nature  is  not  a  mental  but  a 
mere  corporeal  taint ;  that  the  body  alone 
receives  and  transmits  the  contagion,  while 
the  soul  in  all  instances  proceeds  immaculate 
from  the  hands  of  her  Creator.  This  dispo- 
sition to  disease,  such  as  they  allowed  it  to 
be,  was  considered  by  some  of  them  as  the 
effect  of  a  peculiar  quality  in  the  forbidden 
fruit ;  by  others,  as  having  been  contracted 
from  the  poisonous  breath  of  the  infernal  spirit 
which  inhabited  the  serpent's  body.  On  one 
point  they  were  all  united ;  by  preserving  to 
the  soul  the  bright  traces  of  her  divine  origin 
unimpaired,  they  founded  on  a  deceitful  basis 
an  arrogant  creed,  which,  in  declaring  peace 
a.nd  pardon  to  the  sinner,  rested  more  upon 
personal  merit  than  the  satisfaction  of  a  Sa- 
viour.  In  commenting  upon  the  celebrated 
Book  of  Sentences,  a  work  once  not  much  less 
revered  than  the  Scriptures  themselves,  the 
disciples  of  Lombard  never  failed  to  improve 
every  hint  which  tended  to  degrade  the  grace 
of  God  and  exalt  the  pride  of  man.  Original 
sin  the  Romish  schoolmen  directly  opposed  to 
original  righteousness ;  and  this  they  con- 
sidered not  as  something  connatural  with  man, 
but  as  a  superinduced  habit  or  adventitious 
ornament,  the  removal  of  which  could  not 
prove  detrimental  to  the  native  powers  of  his 
mind.  When,  therefore,  they  contemplated 
the  effects  of  the  fall,  by  confining  the  evil  to 
a  corporeal  taint,  and  not  extending  it  to  tho 
nobler  faculties  of  the  soul,  they  regarded  man 


LUT 


598 


LUT 


as  an  object  of  divine  displeasure,  not  because 
he  possessed  that  which  was  offensive,  but 
because  he  was  defective  in  that  which  was 
pleasing  to  the  Almighty.  Adam,  they  said, 
received  for  himself  and  his  posterity  the  gift 
of  righteousness,  which  he  subsequently  for- 
feited ;  in  his  loins  wc  were  included,  and  by 
him  were  virtually  represented  :  bis  will  was 
ours,  and  hence  the  consequence  of  his  lapse 
is  justly  imputable  to  us  his  descendants.  By 
our  natural  birth,  therefore,  under  this  idea, 
we  are  alienated  from  God,  innocent  in  our 
individual  persons,  but  guilty  in  that  of  him 
from  whom  we  derived  our  existence ;  a  guilt 
which,  although  contracted  through  the  fault 
of  another,  yet  so  closely  adheres  to  us  that  it 
effectually  precludes  our  entrance  at  the  gate 
of  everlasting  life,  until  the  reception  of  a  new 
birth  in  baptism.  Thus  they  contended,  that 
the  sin  of  Adam  conveys  to  us  solely  imputed 
guilt ;  the  corporeal  infection  which  they 
admitted  not  being  sin  itself,  but  only  the 
subject  matter  of  it, — not  peccatum,  but,  ac- 
cording to  their  phraseology,  fomes  peccati,  a 
kind  of  fuel  which  the  human  will  kindles  or 
not  at  pleasure.  Such  was  the  outline  of  the 
doctrine  maintained  in  the  church  of  Rome. 
The  tenet  of  the  Lutherans,  on  the  other  hand, 
is  remarkable  for  its  simplicity  and  perspicuity. 
Avoiding  all  intricate  questions  upon  the  sub- 
ject, they  taught  that  original  sin  is  a  corrup- 
tion of  our  nature  in  a  general  sense,  a  depra- 
vation  of  the  mental  faculties  and  the  corporeal 
appetites ;  that  the  resplendent  image  of  the 
Deity,  which  man  received  at  the  creation  of 
the  world,  although  not  annihilated,  is  never- 
theless greatly  impaired  ;  and  that,  in  conse- 
quence, the  bright  characters  of  unspotted 
sanctity,  once  deeply  engraven  on  his  mind 
by  the  hand  of  the  living  God,  are  become 
obliterated,  the  injury  extending  to  his  intel- 
lect, and  affecting  as  well  his  reason  and  his 
will  as  his  affections  and  passions.  To  con- 
ceive that  inclination  to  evil  incurs  not  in 
itself  the  disapprobation  of  Heaven,  appeared 
to  them  little  better  than  an  apology  for  crime, 
or  at  least  a  dangerous  palliation  of  that  which 
the  Christian's  duty  compels  him  not  only  to 
repress  but  abhor. 

The  case  of  Cornelius,  whose  prayers  and 
alms  are  said  to  have  ascended  up  for  a  me- 
morial before  God,  was  often  quoted,  by  the 
advocates  of  the  church  of  Rome,  to  prove  the 
merit  of  works  before  the  reception  of  grace; 
to  prove  the  human  will  capable,  by  its  own 
inherent  rectitude,  of  deserving  the  favour 
and  approbation  of  Heaven.  The  Lutherans, 
on  the  other  hand,  contended,  that  the  argu- 
ment supported  not  the  conclusion  drawn 
from  it,  and  was  therefore  irrelevant ;  that  the 
works  of  Cornelius  were  not  the  causes  but 
the  effects  of  grace ;  and  that  this  is  suffi- 
ciently apparent  from  the  context,  in  which 
he  is  described  as  "  a  devout  man,  who  feared 
God  and  prayed  continually."  The  disciples 
of  Lombard,  in  whatever  mode  disposed  to 
pervert  reason  and  annihilate  Scripture,  uni- 
versally held,  that  neither  before  nor  after  the 
fall  was  man  in  himself  capable  of  meriting 


heaven  ;  that  by  the  gratuitous  endowments 
of  his  creation,  even  in  paradise,  he  was  only 
enabled  to  preserve  his  innocence,  and  not  to 
sin ;  and  that  he  was  utterly  incompetent  to 
proceed  one  step  farther,  efficaciously  to  will 
a  remunerable  good,  and  by  his  natural  exer- 
tions to  obtain  a  reward  above  his  nature  ; 
original  righteousness  being  reputed  not  a 
connate  quality,  but  a  supernatural  habit. 
Thus,  he  could  resist  evil,  but  not  advance 
good  to  perfection  ;  could  in  some  sense  live 
well,  by  living  free  from  sin,  but  could  not 
without  divine  aid  so  live  as  to  deserve  ever- 
lasting life.  For  such  a  purpose  they  asserted 
that  grace  was  necessary,  to  operate  upon  his 
will  in  its  primary  determinations,  and  to  co- 
operate with  it  in  its  ultimate  acts.  It  was, 
therefore,  in  the  loss  of  this  celestial  aid,  this 
superadded  gift,  and  not  in  any  depravity  of 
his  mind,  that  they  supposed  the  principal  evil 
derivable  from  his  lapse  to  consist ;  a  loss, 
however,  which,  by  a  due  exertion  of  his 
inna'e  abilities,  they  deemed  to  be  retriev- 
able ;  and  hence  sprung  that  offensive  doc- 
trine of  human  sufficiency  which,  in  the  Lu- 
theran's eye,  completely  obscured  the  glory  of 
the  Gospel,  and  which,  when  applied  to  the 
sinner's  conscience,  taught  the  haughty  to 
presume,  and  the  humble  to  despair.  Accord- 
ing, then,  to  the  system  under  consideration, 
the  favour  of  God  in  this  life,  and  his  beatific 
vision  in  the  life  to  come,  are  both  attainable 
by  personal  merit ;  the  former  by  congruous, 
as  it  was  termed,  the  latter  by  condign;  the 
one  without,  the  other  with,  the  assistance  of 
grace.  By  our  natural  strength,  it  was  said, 
we  can  fulfil  the  commands  of  God  as  far  as 
their  obligation  extends ;  yet  was  it  added, 
that  we  cannot  fulfil  them  according  to  the 
intention  of  the  divine  Legislator ;  an  inten- 
tion of  rewarding  only  those  who  obey  them 
in  virtue  formed  by  charity,  under  the  influ- 
ence of  a  quality  rather  regulating  the  ten- 
dency, than  augmenting  the  purity,  of  the 
action.  They  stated,  that  we  may  so  prepare 
ourselves  for  grace  as  to  become  entitled  to  it 
congruously,  not  as  to  a  debt  which  in  strict 
justice  God  is  bound  to  pay,  but  as  to  a  grant 
which  it  is  congruous  in  him  to  give,  and 
which  it  would  be  inconsistent  with  his  attri- 
butes to  withhold.  This  favourite  doctrine 
was  supported  by  every  denomination  of 
scholastics,  and  by  every  individual  of  the 
church  of  Rome.  Congruous  merit  was  uni- 
versally esteemed  a  pearl  above  all  price,  the 
intrinsic  value  of  which  attracted  the  re- 
gard, and  conciliated  the  benevolence,  of  the 
Almighty.  According  to  their  conception, 
we  are  endowed  with  an  innate  propensity  to 
good,  which  vice  itself  can  never  obliterate, 
and  are  able  not  only  to  reverence  and  adore 
the  supreme  Being,  but  to  love  bun  above 
other  objects.  They  supposed  man  competent 
no  less  to  the  efficient  practice,  than  to  the 
barren  admiration,  of  holiness ;  enabled  as 
well  to  obey  the  laws,  as  to  love  the  goodness, 
of  the  Almighty  ;  and,  if  not  to  deserve  the 
rewards,  at  least  to  discharge  the  obligations, 
of  religion.     Impressed,  therefore,  with  such 


LUT 


599 


LUT 


exalted  notions  of  human  ability,  and  forget, 
ful  of  the  Christian  propitiation  for  sin,  the 
sophists  of  the  schools  maintained,  that  the 
soul  of  man  possesses  in  the  freedom,  or 
rather  in  the  capacity,  of  her  will  a  faculty 
ahnost  divine.  Stimulated  by  the  most  upright 
propensities,  and  undepraved  in  her  noblest 
powers,  she  directs  her  progress  in  the  path  of 
truth  and  the  road  to  bliss,  by  the  pure  and 
inextinguishable  light  of  an  unperverted  rea- 
son. Although  mutable  in  her  decisions, 
nevertheless  complete  controller  of  her  con- 
duct, she  becomes  at  pleasure  either  the  servant 
of  righteousness  or  the  slave  of  sin;  and,  dis-v 
daining  to  be  anticipated  by  God  himself, 
prevents  him  in  his  supernatural  gifts  by  a 
previous  display  of  her  own  meritorious  deeds, 
challenging,  as  a  congruous  right,  that  which 
only  could  have  been  otherwise  conferred  as 
a  favour  undeserved.  "  By  the  bare  observance 
of  my  holy  order,"  exclaimed  the  secluded 
devotee,  "  I  am  able  not  solely  to  obtain  grace 
for  myself,  but,  by  the  works  which  I  then 
may  do,  can  accumulate  merit  sufficient  both 
to  supply  my  own  wants  and  those  of  others ; 
so  that  I  may  sell  the  superabundance  of  my 
acquired  treasure."  Can  we  be  surprised  that 
a  reformer  of  Luther's  manly  disposition,  who 
wrote  without  reserve  and  reasoned  without 
control,  when  adverting  to  opinions  of  so 
noxious  a  tendency,  should  sometimes,  from 
excess  of  zeal,  lose  sight  of  moderation  in  his 
censures  ?  The  Lutherans  commenced  the 
attack  upon  these  unscriptural  dogmas,  under 
a  persuasion  that  the  position  of  their  oppo- 
nents militated  against  the  leading  principles 
of  Christianity.  "If  man,"  they  said,  "be 
capable  of  pleasing  God  by  his  own  works 
abstractedly  considered,  without  divine  assist- 
ance, where  is  the  necessity,  and  what  is  the 
utility,  of  that  assistance  ?"  They  argued, 
that,  were  it  possible  for  the  moral  virtues  of 
the  mind  by  their  own  efficiency  to  render  our 
persons  acceptable  to  God  and  obtain  his  lost 
favour,  no  need  would  exist  of  any  other  satis- 
faction for  sin,  and  thus  the  whole  scheme  of 
Gospel  redemption  would  have  been  fruitless, 
and  Christ  have  died  in  vain.  While,  there- 
fore, the  doctrine  of  the  atonement  presented 
nothing  but  a  cloud  and  darkness  to  their 
adversaries,  it  gave  light  by  night  to  these  ;  on 
them  it  shone,  amidst  surrounding  gloom,  with 
lustre  unobscured.  Luther  advanced  a  propo- 
sition which  proved  highly  offensive  to  the 
Papists,  and  which  they  never  ceased  to  con- 
demn and  calumniate.  His  assertion  was, 
that  he  who  exerts  himself  to  the  utmost  of 
his  ability  still  continues  to  sin.  On  the  other 
side,  unassisted  man  was  thought  incapable  of 
performing  an  action  remunerably  good,  or, 
as  it  was  usually  termed,  condignly  meritori- 
ous, even  before  his  lapse ;  and  that  conse- 
quently, in  his  fallen  state,  all  to  which  he 
was  conceived  competent  by  his  innate  strength 
was  not  to  sin.  When  Luther  therefore  drew 
up  his  thesis  for  public  disputation  against  the 
tenet  of  congruous  works,  if  littlo  delicacy, 
yet  some  caution,  and  much  discrimination, 
appeared  requisite.     Had  he  stated  them  to  be 


thus  good  in  a  scholastic  sense,  he  would  have 
completely  lost  sight  of  his  object,  and  allowed 
more  than  even  his  opponents  themselves. 
Had  he  described  them  as  not  demeritorious, 
or,  in  other  words,  not  sinful,  he  would  have 
precisely  maintained  the  adverse  position,  and 
might  consequently  have  spared  his  labour,  at 
the  same  time  that  he  would  have  tacitly 
acknowledged  them  to  possess,  what  he  could 
not  consistently  with  truth  attribute  to  them, 
every  natural  perfection  of  virtue  and  holiness. 
Under  what  denomination,  then,  could  he 
class  them,  except  under  that  of  sinful  ?  a 
denomination  which  he  the  more  readily 
adopted  because,  even  among  his  adversaries 
themselves,  the  words  sin  and  grace,  as  he 
remarked,  were  in  general  immediately  op- 
posed to  each  other.  Anxious  to  rescue 
Christian  theology  from  the  grasp  of  those 
who  embraced  only  to  betray,  the  Lutherans 
laboured  to  restore  that  importance  to  the 
doctrine  of  redemption  with  which  the  Scrip- 
tures invest  it,  but  of  which,  by  a  subtle  per- 
versity, it  had  been  deprived.  The  principal 
object,  therefore,  in  their  view  evidently  was, 
to  Christianize  the  speculations  of  the  schools  ; 
and  the  principal  drift  of  their  argument  is  to 
prove,  that  human  virtue,  how  extravagantly 
soever  extolled  by  a  vain  philosophy,  is  wholly 
insufficient  (because  imperfect)  to  merit  the 
favour  of  Heaven.  Allowing  no  medium  be. 
tween  righteousness  and  unrighteousness, 
the  approbation  and  disapprobation  of  the 
Almighty,  characterizing  that  as  sinful  which 
is  confessedly  not  holy,  and  thus  annihilating 
every  ground  of  self-presumption,  they  incul 
cated  the  necessity  of  contemplating  with 
the  eye  of  faith  those  means  of  reconciliation 
which  Christianity  alone  affords.  But  it  has 
been  insinuated,  that  the  Lutheran  doctrine 
went  to  prove  man's  total  inability  to  extri- 
cate himself  from  crime,  until  the  arrival  of 
some  uncertain  moment,  which  brings  with 
it  a  regeneration  from  on  high,  the  sudden 
transfusion  of  a  new  light  and  new  virtues. 
But  those  who  thus  conceive  of  it  are  not 
probably  aware,  that  Melancthon,  the  vene- 
rable author  of  the  Augsburgh  Confession, 
warmly  reprobates  this  precise  idea,  which  he 
denominates  a  Manichean  conceit  and  a  hor- 
rible falsehood.  Upon  the  abstract  question  of 
free  will  it  is  indeed  true,  that  Melancthon, 
no  less  than  Luther,  at  first  held  opinions 
which  he  was  happy  to  retract.  But  when 
this  is  acknowledged  it  should  be  added,  that 
he  made  ample  amends  for  his  indiscretion  by 
not  only  expunging  the  offensive  passages 
from  the  single  work  which  contained  them, 
but  by  introducing  others  of  a  nature  diamet- 
rically opposite.  And  although  the  more  in- 
flexible coadjutor  of  Melancthon  was  too  lofty 
to  correct  what  he  had  once  made  public,  and 
too  magnanimous  to  regard  the  charge  of 
inconsistency  which  his  adversaries  urged 
against  him ;  yet  what  his  better  judgment 
approved  clearly  appears  from  a  preface  writ- 
ten not  long  before  his  death ;  in  which,  while 
ho  expressed  an  anxiety  to  have  his  own 
chaotic  labours,  as  he  styled  them,  buried  iu 


LUT 


600 


LUT 


eternal  oblivion,  ho  recommended  .n  strong 
terms,  as  a  work  admirably  adapted  to  form 
the  Christian  divine,  that  very  performance  of 
his  friend  which  was  remarkable  for  something 
more  than  a  mere  recantation  of  the  opinions 
alluded  to.  It  was  not  against  any  conceived 
deficiency  in  the  quality  of  our  virtue  that 
they  argued,  but  against  its  supposed  com- 
petency, whether  wrought  in  or  out  of  grace, 
with  greater  or  less  degrees  of  purity,  to  effect 
that  which  the  oblation  of  Christ  alone  accom- 
plishes. Upon  both  points  Luther  treated  the 
doctrine  of  his  adversaries  as  altogether  frivo- 
lous, and  incapable  of  corroboration  by  a  single 
fact.  Futile,  however,  as  the  scholastical  tenet 
appeared  to  be,  although  deficient  in  proof 
and  unsupported  by  example,  upon  this,  he 
remarked  with  indignation  and  grief,  was 
founded  the  whole  system  of  papal  delusion. 

Justification  was  on  both  sides  supposed  to 
consist  entirely  in  the  remission  of  sins.     The 
popish  scholastics,  on  this  head,  were  remark- 
ably distinct  in  their  ideas,  and  express  in  their 
language.      They  represented  it  as  an  effect 
produced  by  the  infusion  of  divine  grace  into 
the  mind  ;  not  as  a  consequent  to  a  well  spent 
life,  but  as  preceding  all  remunerable  obedience, 
as  the  intervening  point  between   night  and 
day,  the  gloom  of  a  guilty  and  the  light  of  a 
Belf-approving  conscience  ;  or,  in  other  words, 
and  to  adopt  their  own  phraseology,   as  the 
exact  boundary  where  merit  of  congruity  ends 
and   where    merit    of  condignity  begins,   the 
infallible  resujt  of  a  previous  disposition  on 
our  part,  which  never  fails  of  alluring  from 
on  high  that  supernatural  quality  which,  being 
itself  love,   renders  the  soul  beloved.     While 
the  Lutherans,  however,  adhered  to  the  gene- 
ral import  of  the  term  as  understood  in  the 
schools,  they  waged  an  incessant  warfare  upon 
another  point ;  while  they  allowed  that,  justifi- 
cation consists  in  the  remission  of  sin,  they 
denied  that  this  remission  is  to  be  acquired  by 
the  merit  of  the  individual.     Their  scholastic 
opponents  maintained  that  man  is  justified  in 
the  sight  of  God  in  consequence  of  his  own 
preparation,   and  on  account  of  his  personal 
qualities.     They,   on  the  other  hand,   argued 
with    an   inflexibility   which    admitted   of  no 
compromise,  that,  possessing  not  merits  of  his 
own  to  plead,  man  freely  received  forgiveness 
through  the  mercy  of  God  solely  on  account 
of  the  merits  of  Christ.     The  effective  prin- 
ciple, therefore,  or  meritorious  cause  of  justifi- 
cation, was  the  great  point  contested.      The 
doctrine  of  the  popish  divines,  explained  more 
at  large,  was  this  :  When  the  sinner,  conscious 
of  his  past  transgressions,  inquired  where  he 
was  to  seek  the   expiation  of  his   crime,   and 
deliverance  from  the  dreadful  consequences  of 
it,  the  general   answer  was,   In  the  merit  of 
penitence ;    a    merit    capable    of   annihilating 
guilt,  and  appeasing  the  anger  of  incensed  Om- 
nipotence,   lie,  they  argued,  who,  having  dis- 
obeyed the  laws   of  Heaven,   is   desirous  of 
returning  into  that  state  of  acceptance  from 
which  he  has  fallen,  must  not  expect  free  for- 
giveness ;  but  previously  by  unfeigned  sorrow 
of  heart  deserve  the  restoration  of  grace,  and, 


with  it,  the  obliteration  of  his   offences.     To 
effect  this  desirable  purpose  he  is  bound  strictly 
to  survey  and  detest  his  former  conduct,  ac- 
curately to  enumerate  his  transgressions  and 
deeply  feel  them ;  and,  impressed  with  a  due 
sense  of  their  magnitude,  impurity,  and  con- 
sequences, to  condemn  his  folly  and  deplore 
his  fault,  which  have  made  him  an  outcast  of 
Heaven,  and  exposed  him  to  eternal  misery. 
So  far  he  can  proceed  by  that  operation  of  the 
mind  which  they  denominated  attrition,  and 
which,  being  within  the  sphere  of  his  natural 
powers,    they    regarded    as    congruous   piety 
meritorious  of  justification,  as  a  preparation  of 
the  soul  more  or  less  necessary  to  receive  and 
merit  justifying  grace.     When,  therefore,  he 
is  arrived  at  this  point,  attrition  ceases  and 
con-;  rition  commences  ;  the  habit  of  sin  is  ex- 
pelled, while  that  of  holiness  is  superinduced 
in  its  stead,   and  with  the  infusion  of  charity, 
the  plastic  principle  of  a  new  obedience,  justi- 
fication becomes  complete.     But  even  here  it 
was   not   conceived  that  a  total   deliverance 
takes  place  ;  a  liberation  from  guilt  and  eternal 
punishment  is  effected,  but  not  from  temporal, 
which  is  never  remitted  unless  either  by  the 
infliction  of  some  personal  suffering  or  satis- 
factory compensation  required  of  him  who  is 
already  justified    and    approved    by    Heaven. 
However,  to  accomplish  this  remaining  object, 
nothing  more  is  wanting  than  a  continuation, 
to  a  sufficient  intensity,  of  that  compunction 
of  heart  which  is  now  denominated  contrition, 
grace    supplying  the  defects  of  nature,    and 
enabling  penitential  merit  not  only  to  justify, 
but  to  obtain  exemption  from  punishment  of 
every  species.     But  so  great  appeared  to  the 
popish  scholastics  the  frailty  of  man  and  the 
severity  of  God,  that  no  inconsiderable  diffi- 
culty occurred  in  the  due  application  of  this 
favourite  doctrine  to  individuals  ;  for  the  means 
of  expiation,  they  imagined,  ought  always  to 
be    proportionate    to    the    magnitude    of  the 
offences.      "  How,"  they  reasoned,   "  are  we 
to   be   assured   that  our  contrition   has   been 
either  sufficient  or  sincere,  and  whether  it  has 
been   so  in   the   obliteration  not  only  of  one 
crime,  but  of  all ;  whether  it  has  atoned  for  past 
transgressions  of  every  kind,  the  number  of 
which  may  perplex,  as  well  as  their  guilt  con- 
found, us  ?"    Instead,  therefore,  of  penitence 
in  its  strictest  acceptation  as  a  perfect  virtue, 
God,  they  said,  in  condescension  to   human 
infirmity,  has  substituted  for  general  practice 
the    sacrament    of  penitence,    which,    for    the 
attainment  of  full  remission,  requires  only  a 
moderate  compunction  of  soul,  with  confession 
to  the  priest,  and  the  discharge  of  such  satis,- 
faction  as  lie  may  enjoin.     And,  still  lower  to 
reduce  the  terms    of  acceptance,   they  even 
argued  that  it  is  not  absolutely  necessary  for 
the  penitent  to  experience  an  entire  conver- 
sion   of  heart,    but  only  not    to   oppose  the 
impediment  of  mortal  crime,  to  feel  some  dis- 
pleasure at  his  past  conduct,  and  to  express  a 
resolution  of  amending  it  in  future.     But,  after 
all,  and  in  spite  of  the  boasted  authority  of  the 
keys,  complete  confidence  in  divine  forgiveness 
was  never  inculcated  ;    for  it  was  neither  the 


LUT 


601 


LUT 


interest  nor  the  inclination  of  the  church  of 
Rome  to  teach  the  simple  doctrine  of  Christian 
faith,  but  rather  to  involve  it  in  metaphysical 
obscurity.  Under  the  pretext,  therefore,  of 
relieving  the  throbbing  breast  from  its  appre- 
hensions, they  had  recourse  to  numerous 
inventions  for  propping  the  insecure  fabric  of 
penitential  hope ;  asserting,  among  other  ex- 
travagancies, that  the  sacraments  are  in  them- 
selves efficacious  by  virtue  of  their  own  opera- 
tion, exclusively  of  all  merit  in  the  recipient ; 
and  that  the  sacrament  of  the  altar,  in  par- 
ticular, acts  so  powerful  in  this  respect  as  to 
communicate  grace  not  only  to  those  who 
partake  of  it,  but  to  others  from  whom  it  is 
received  by  substitution,  provided  its  operation 
be  not  hindered  by  confessedly  flagrant  immo- 
rality. So  deeply  rooted  in  the  minds  of  the 
papists  had  become  the  persuasion  of  its  thus 
effecting  the  best  of  purposes,  and  that  even 
without  the  necessity  of  an  actual  participa- 
tion of  it  by  him  upon  whom  the  benefit  is 
conferred,  that  the  celebration  of  the  mass 
was  universally  regarded  as  the  means  of 
appeasing  the  anger  of  Heaven,  and  obtaining 
pardon  and  peace,  of  procuring  divine  assist- 
ance for  the  living,  and,  for  the  dead,  deliver- 
ance from  the  bitter  pains  of  purgatory.  Nor 
by  the  sacraments  alone,  but  by  every  good 
external  work,  as  well  as  internal  disposition, 
was  justifying  grace  supposed  to  be  merited 
congruously,  and  satisfaction  for  sin  to  be  made 
condignly.  In  monastical  institutions,  like- 
wise, were  found  no  mean  materials  for  simi- 
lar purposes  ;  '.'  for  in  those  feigned  religions," 
as  the  homily  On  Good  Works  describes  them, 
"  the  devotees  boasted  of  having  lamps  which 
ran  always  over,  able  to  satisfy  not  only  for 
their  own  sins,  but  also  for  all  other  their 
benefactors,  brothers  and  sisters  of  religion, 
as  ino^t  ungodly  and  craftily  they  had  persuaded 
the  multitude  of  ignorant  people ;  keeping  in 
divers  places  marts  or  markets  of  merits,  being 
full  of  their  holy  relics,  images,  shrines,  and 
works  of  overflowing  abundance,  ready  to  be 
sold."  Yet,  whether  the  dubious  penitent  was 
instructed  to  derive  consolation  from  the  effi- 
cacy of  the  sacraments,  from  his  own  personal 
qualities,  or  from  any  of  what  Cranmer  aptly 
termed  "the  fantastical  works  of  man's  in- 
vention," it  should  be  observed  that  he  was 
not  directly  taught  to  consider  these  as  wholly 
superseding  the  virtue  of  repentance,  but  as 
supplying  his  deficiencies  in  the  performance 
of  it ;  an  incongruous  system  of  atonement, 
fabricated  by  the  avarice  of  Rome,  and  the  ob- 
sequiousness of  scholastical  philosophy,  to 
augment  the  treasures  and  extend  the  influ- 
ence of  the  church,  to  extinguish  the  light  of 
Gospel  truth,  and,  while  keeping  the  world  at 
large  in  ignorance,  to  hold  the  conscience  of 
the  individual  in  slavery.  Upon  the  whole, 
then,  the  scholastics  maintained  that  justifica- 
tion is  unattainable  without  repentance,  at 
least,  without  some  degree  of  attrition  on  our 
part;  but  in  the  common  apprehension  of  the 
doctrine  even  this  seems  to  have  been  forgot- 
ten, and  merit  of  congruity  considered  in  a 
general  point  of  view  as   alone   efficacious. 


Thus  good  works  of  every  species  preceding 
grace  were  said  to  deserve  it,  and,  by  deserving 
grace,  to  deserve  the  justifying  principle.  And 
always  were  they  careful  to  impute  the  cause 
of  forgiveness,  not  to  the  mercy  of  God  in 
Christ,  but  to  the  sole  change  in  the  indi- 
vidual, to  his  transmutation  from  a  state  of 
unrighteousness  to  one  of  righteousness,  to 
his  possession  of  a  quality  which  renders  him 
a  worthy  object  of  divine  approbation.  For 
in  every  instance  personal  merit  was  conceived 
to  be  the  solid  basis  upon  which  rests  the  com- 
plete remission  of  sin.  Upon  no  one  point, 
perhaps,  has  the  opinion  of  Luther  been  more 
misrepresented  than  upon  this.  Rome  have 
ascribed  to  it  a  solifidian  tendency,  if  not  of 
the  most  enthusiastical,  at  least,  of  the  most 
unqualified,  description.  But  it  seems  indeed 
impossible  accurately  to  comprehend  the  posi- 
tion which  he  maintained,  if  we  examine  it  in 
an  insulated  point  of  view,  unless  we  connect 
it  with  that  of  which  in  the  church  of  Rome  it 
properly  formed  a  part,  and  from  which  he 
never  intended  to  separate  it, — the  doctrine 
of  penitence.  In  opposing  the  absurdity  of 
papal  indulgences,  (the  first  impiety  against 
which  his  manly  mind  revolted,)  a  ray  of  light, 
before  unnoticed,  darted  upon  him,  and  opened 
a  completely  new  scene,  which,  while  it  stimu- 
lated his  efforts  as  a  reformer,  animated  his 
hopes  as  a  Christian.  Hence,  averting  with 
disdain  from  the  speculations  of  sophists,  and 
turning  to  the  sacred  page  of  revelation,  he 
there  beheld  an  affiance  very  different  from 
what  the  schools  inculcated ;  and  thus,  while 
their  vain  language  was,  "Repent,  snd  trust 
to  the  efficacy  of  your  contrition,  either  with 
or  without  extraneous  works,  according  to  the 
degree  of  its  intensity,  for  the  expiation  of  your 
offences  ;"  Ms,  more  Scriptural  and  more  con- 
soling, became  simply  this  :  "  Repent,  and  trust 
not  for  expiation  to  your  own  merits  of  any 
kind,  but  solely  to  those,  off  your  Redeemer." 
Rejecting  the  dreams  of  their  adversaries  with 
respect  to  the  nature  and  effects  of  this  im- 
portant duty,  they  represented  it  as  consisting 
of  two  essential  parts,  contrition  and  faith, 
the  latter  as  always  associated  with  the  former. 
Hence,  in  the  Apology  of  their  Confession, 
they  repeatedly  declared  a  disavowal  of  all 
faith,  except  such  as  exists  in  the  conlrito 
heart.  Far  was  it  from  their  intention  to 
encourage  the  presumptuous  or  fanatical  sin- 
ner in  a  false  security;  their  object  WEB  very 
different  and  Iaudable^r-they  laboured  to  fix  the 
eye  of  him  who  hot li  laments  and  detests  his 
offences,  upon  the  only  deserving  object  of 
human  confidence  and  divine  complacency. 
Properly,  then,  as  they  frequently  remarked, 
their  doctrine  of  justification  was  appropriated 
to  troubled  consciences,  at  every  period  of  true 
repentance,  and  particularly  at  the  awful  hour 
of  death,  when  the  time  for  habitual  proofs  ol 
amendment  has  elapsed,  and  when  the  past 
appears  replete  with  guilt  and  the  future  with 
terror.  At  such  moments,  they  taught  not, 
with  the  schools,  an  affiance  in  human  merit, 
but  in  the  gratuitous  mercy  of  God  through 
Christ:  to  contrition,  as  a  preparatory  qualifi 


LUT 


602 


LUT 


cation  or  previous  requisite,  they  added  faith ; 
and  from  faith  they  deemed  every  principle  of 
real  piety  and  virtue  inseparable.  Good  works, 
or  the  outward  fruits  of  an  inward  renovation 
of  mind,  were  said  to  follow  remission  of  sins; 
internal  necessarily  preceding  external  reform- 
ation. For  the  individual,  they  argued,  must 
himself  be  good  before  the  action  can  be  so 
denominated,  be  justified  before  it  can  be 
deemed  just,  and  accepted  before  it  can  prove 
acceptable, — distinguishing  between  the  pri- 
mary admission  into  God's  favour,  and  the 
subsequent  preservation  of  that  favour. 

The  unfathomable  depths  of  divine  predes- 
tination and  predetermination  human  reason 
in  vain  attempts  to  sound,  finite  faculties  to 
scan  infinite,  or  the  limited  intellect  of  man  to 
comprehend  the  immensity  of  the  Godhead. 
Erasmus,  a  peculiar  favourite  with  the  reform- 
ers of  our  own  county,  when  contemplating 
this  inexplicable  subject,  observed,  that  "in 
the  Holy  .Scriptures  there  are  certain  secret 
recesses,  which  God  is  unwilling  for  us  too 
minutely  to  explore  ;  and  which,  if  we  endea- 
vour to  explore,  in  proportion  as  we  penetrate 
farther,  our  minds  become  more  and  more 
oppressed  with  darkness  and  stupefaction ;  that 
thus  we  might  acknowledge  the  inscrutable 
majesty  of  the  divine  wisdom,  and  the  imbe- 
cility of  the  human  mind."  Congenial,  also, 
with  the  feelings  and  sentiments  of  Erasmus 
upon  this  point  were  those  of  Luther.  "  To 
acquire  any  knowledge,"  he  remarked,  "of  a 
deity  not  revealed  in  Scripture,  to  know  what 
his  existence  is,  his  actions  and  dispositions, 
belongs  not  to  me.  My  duty  is  only  this  ;  to 
know  what  are  his  precepts,  his  promises,  and 
his  threatenings.  Pernicious  and  pestilent  is 
the  thought  of  investigating  causes,  and  brings 
with  it  inevitable  ruin,  especially  when  we 
ascend  too  high,  and  wish  to  philosophize 
upon  predestination."  How  differently  Calvin 
fclt  upon  the  same  subject,  and  with  what  little 
reserve,  or  rather  with  what  bold  temerity,  he 
laboured  to  scrutinize  the  unrevealed  Divinity, 
is  too  well  known  to  require  any  thing  beyond 
a  bare  allusion  to  the  circumstance.  His  sen- 
timents, however,  were  much  less  regarded 
than  some  are  disposed  to  allow  ;  and  upon  this 
particular  question,  so  far  were  they  from  hav- 
ing attained  their  full  celebrity  at  the  period 
when  the  articles  of  the  church  of  England 
were  framed,  that  they  were  not  taught  with- 
out opposition  even  in  his  own  unimportant 
territory  of  Geneva.  For  at  that  precise  era 
he  was  publicly  accused  (by  Sebastian  Castel- 
lio)  of  making  God  the  author  of  sin  ;  and 
a  Kin mgh,  not  contented  with  silencing,  he  first 
imprisoned  and  afterward  banished  his  accuser, 
yet  he  could  not  expel  the  opinions  of  his  ad- 
versary. While  the  church  of  Rome  main- 
tained a  predestination  to  life  of  one  man  in 
preference  to  another  individually  on  account 
(if  personal  merit,  the  Lutherans  taught  a 
gratuitous  predestination  of  Christians  collect- 
ively, of  those  whom  God  has  chosen  in  Christ 
out  of  mankind  ;  and  by  this  single  point  of 
difference  were  the  contending  opinions  prin- 
cipally contradistinguished.     With  us  the  sys- 


tem of  Calvin  still  retains  so  many  zealous 
advocates,  that  to  a  modern  ear  the  very  term 
predestination  seems  to  convey  a  meaning 
only  conformable  with  his  particular  system. 
It  should,  however,  be  observed  that  this  word 
was  in  familiar  use  for  centuries  before  the  Re- 
formation,  in  a  sense,  very  different  from  what 
Calvin  imputed  to  it,  not  as  preceding  the 
divine  prescience,  but  as  resulting  from  it, 
much  in  the  same  sense  as  that  in  which  it  has 
since  been  supported  by  the  Arminians.  Yet, 
obvious  as  this  appears,  writers  of  respecta- 
bility strangely  persuade  themselves,  that,  im- 
mediately prior  to  the  Reformation,  the  doc- 
trines of  the  church  of  Rome  were  completely 
Calvinistical ;  a  conclusion  to  which,  certainly, 
none  can  subscribe  who  are  sufficiently  conver- 
sant with  the  favourite  productions  of  that 
time.  So  far,  indeed,  was  this  from  being  the 
fact,  that  Calvin  peculiarly  prided  himself  on 
departing  from  the  common  definition  of  the 
term,  which  had  long  been  adopted  by  the 
adherents  of  the  schools,  and  retained  with  a 
scrupulous  precision.  For  while  they  held  that 
the  expression  predestinati  is  exclusively  ap- 
plicable to  the  elect,  whom  God,  foreknowing  as 
meritorious  objects  of  his  mercy,  predestinates 
to  life ;  and  while  they  appropriated  that  of 
ptasciti  to  the  non-elect,  whose  perseverance 
in  transgression  is  simply  foreknown ;  Calvin, 
on  the  other  side,  treating  the  distinction  as  a 
frivolous  subterfuge,  contended  that  God,  de- 
creeing the  final  doom  of  the  elect  and  non- 
elect  irrespectively,  predestinates  both,  not 
subsequently  but  previously  to  all  foreknow- 
ledge of  their  individual  dispositions,  especially 
devotes  the  latter  to  destruction  through  the 
medium  of  crime,  and  creates  them  by  a  fatal 
destiny  to  perish.  Whatever,  therefore,  modern 
conjecture  may  have  attributed  to  the  popish 
scholastics,  it  is  certain  that,  abhorring  every 
speculation  which  tends  in  the  remotest  degree 
to  make  God  the  author  of  sin,  they  believed 
that  only  salutary  good  is  predestinated ;  grace 
to  those  who  deserve  it  congruously,  and  glory 
to  those  who  deserve  it  condignly.  They  main- 
tained that  almighty  God,  before  the  foundations 
of  the  world  were  laid,  surveying  in  his  com- 
prehensive idea,  or,  as  they  phrased  it,  in  his 
prescience  of  simple  intelligence,  the  possibili- 
ties of  all  things  before  he  determined  their 
actual  existence,  foresaw  that,  if  mankind  were 
created,  (although  he  willed  the  salvation  of 
all,  and  was  inclined  to  assist  all  indifferently, 
yet)  some  would  deserve  eternal  happiness,  and 
others  eternal  misery ;  and  that  therefore  he  ap- 
proved and  elected  the  former,  but  disapproved 
or  reprobated  the  latter.  Thus,  grounding  elec- 
tion upon  foreknowledge,  they  contemplated 
it,  not  as  an  arbitrary  principle,  separating  one 
individual  from  another  under  the  influence  of 
a  blind  chance  or  an  irrational  caprice ;  but, 
on  the  contrary,  as  a  wise  and  just  principle, 
which  presupposes  a  diversity  between  those 
who  are  accepted  and  those  who  are  reject- 
ed. Hence  it  was,  that  in  order  to  systema- 
tize upon  this  principle  of  election,  and  to 
show  how  consistent  it  is  as  well  with  the 
justice  as  the  benevolence  of  the  Deity,  the 


LUT 


603 


LUT 


will  of  God  was  considered  in  a  double  point 
of  view,  as  absolute  and  conditional,  or,  in 
the  technical  language  of  the  schools,  as  ante- 
cedent and  consequent.  In  the  first  instance, 
by  his  absolute  or  antecedent  will,  he  was  said 
to  desire  the  salvation  of  every  man  ;  in  the 
latter,  by  his  conditional  or  consequent  will, 
that  only  of  those  whom  he  foresaw  abstain- 
ing from  sin  and  obeying  his  commandments  : 
the  one  expressed  his  general  inclination,  the 
other  his  particular  resolution  upon  the  view 
of  individual  circumstances  and  conditions. 
To  the  inquiry,  why  some  are  unendowed  with 
grace,  their  answer  was,  "  Because  some  are 
not  willing  to  receive  it,  and  not  because  God 
is  unwilling  to  give  it."  "  He,"  they  said, 
"  offers  his  light  to  all.  He  is  absent  from 
none ;  but  man  absents  himself  from  the  pre- 
sent Deity,  like  one  who  shuts  his  eyes  against 
the  noon-day  blaze."  To  the  foregoing  state- 
ment it  should  be  added,  that  they  held  an 
election,  or  rather  an  ordination,  to  grace 
(which  they  expressly  asserted  to  be  defectible) 
distinct  from  an  election  to  glory  ;  that  accord- 
ing to  them,  a  name  may  be  written  in  the 
book  of  life  at  one  pei±od,  which  at  another 
many  be  erased  from  it ;  and  that  predestina- 
tion to  eternal  happiness  solely  depends  upon 
final  perseverance  in  well  doing.  On  the  whole 
it  is  evident,  that  they  considered  the  dignity 
or  worthiness  of  the  individual  as  the  merito- 
rious basis  of  predestination ;  merit  of  con- 
gruity  as  the  basis  of  a  preordination  to  grace, 
and  merit  of  condignity  as  that  of  a  preordina- 
tion to  glory.  Thus,  not  more  fastidious  in  the 
choice  of  their  terms  than  accurate  in  the  use 
of  them,  while  they  denied  that  the  prescience 
of  human  virtue,  correctly  speaking,  could  be 
the  primary  cause  of  the  divine  will,  because 
nothing  in  time  can  properly  give  birth  to  that 
which  has  existed  from  eternity,  they  strenu- 
ously maintained  it  to  be  a  secondary  cause, 
the  ratio  or  rule  in  the  mind  of  the  Deity  which 
regulated  his  will  in  the  formation  of  its  ulti- 
mate decisions.  Although  in  the  established 
confession  of  their  faith  the  Lutherans  avoided 
all  allusion  to  the  subject  of  predestination,  it 
was  nevertheless  introduced  into  another  work 
of  importance,  and  of  considerable  public  au- 
thority, the  Loci  Theologici  of  Melancthon,  a 
production  which  was  every  where  received  as 
the  standard  of  Lutheran  divinity.  Both  Luther 
and  Melancthon,  after  the  Diet  of  Augsburgh, 
kept  one  object  constantly  in  view, — to  incul- 
cate only  what  was  plain  and  practical,  and 
never  to  attempt  philosophizing.  But  to  what, 
it  may  be  asked,  did  the  Lutherans  object  in 
the  theory  of  their  opponents  when  they  them- 
selves abandoned  the  tenet  of  necessity  ?  Cer- 
tainly, not  to  the  sobriety  and  moderation  of 
that  part  of  it  which  vindicated  the  justice,  and 
displayed  the  benevolence,  of  the  Almighty; 
but,  generally,  to  the  principles  upon  which  it 
proceeded ;  to  the  presumption,  in  overleaping 
the  boundary  which  Heaven  has  prescribed  to 
our  limited  faculties,  and  which  we  cannot 
pass  without  plunging  into  darkness  and  error ; 
and  to  its  impiety  in  disregarding,  if  not  despis- 
ing, the  most  important  truths  of  Christianity. 


A  system  of  such  a  nature  they  hesitated  not 
to  reject,  anxious  to  conduct  themselves  by  the 
light  of  Scripture  alone,  nor  presuming  to  be 
wise  above  what  God  has  been  pleased  to  dis- 
cover. Maintaining  not  a  particular  election 
of  personal  favourites,  either  by  an  absolute 
will,  or  even  a  conditional  one,  dependent 
upon  the  ratio  of  merit,  but  a  general  election 
of  all  who,  by  baptism  in  their  infancy,  or  by 
faith  and  obedience  in  mature  years,  become 
the  adopted  heirs  of  Heaven  ;  they  conceived 
this  to  be  the  only  election  to  which  the  Gos- 
pel alludes,  and,  consequently,  the  only  one 
upon  which  we  can  speak  with  confidence,  or 
reason  without  presumption.  If  it  be  observed, 
that  the  selection  of  an  integral  body  necessarily 
infers  that  of  its  component  parts,  the  answer 
is  obvious  :  The  latter,  although  indeed  it  be 
necessarily  inferred  by  the  former,  is  neverthe- 
less not  a  prior  requisite,  but  a  posterior  result 
of  the  divine  ordination.  What  they  deemed 
absolute  on  the  part  of  God  was  his  everlast- 
ing purpose  to  save  his  elect  in  Christ,  or  real 
Christians  considered  as  a  whole,  and  con- 
trasted with  the  remainder  of  the  human  race  ; 
the  completion  of  this  purpose  being  regulated 
by  peculiar  circumstances,  operating  as  infe- 
rior causes  of  a  particular  segregation.  For, 
persuaded  of  his  good  will  toward  all  men 
without  distinction,  of  his  being  indiscrimi- 
nately disposed  to  promote  the  salvation  of  all, 
and  of  his  seriously  (not  fictitiously,  as  Calvin 
taught)  including  all  in  the  universal  promise 
of  Christianity,  they  imputed  to  him  nothing- 
like  a  partial  choice,  no  limitation  of  favours, 
no  irrespective  exclusion  of  persons ;  but  as- 
suming the  Christian  character  as  the  sole 
ground  of  individual  preference,  they  believed 
that  every  baptized  infant,  by  being  made  a 
member  of  Christ,  not  by  being  comprised  in  a 
previous  arbitrary  decree,  is  truly  the  elect  of 
God,  and,  dying  in  infancy,  certain  of  eter- 
nal happiness  ;  that  he  who,  in  maturer  years, 
becomes  polluted  by  wilful  crime,  loses  that 
state  of  salvation  which  before  he  possessed  ; 
that  nevertheless  by  true  repentance,  and  con- 
version to  the  Father  of  mercy  and  God  of  all 
consolation,  he  is  again  reinstated  in  it ;  and 
that,  by  finally  persevering  in  it,  he  at  length 
receives  the  kingdom  prepared  for  every  sin- 
cere Christian  before  the  foundation  of  the 
world.  Can  any  man,  whom  prejudice  has 
not  blinded,  rank  these  sentiments  with  those 
of  Calvin  ?  It  may  seem  almost  unnecessary 
to  subjoin,  that  the  Lutherans  held  the  defecti- 
bility  of  grace  ;  its  indefectibility  being  a  posi- 
tion supported  but  by  those  who  think  thai 
the  Redeemer  died  for  a  selected  few  alone. 
Upon  the  whole  then  it  appears,  that  the  Lu- 
therans, affecting  not  in  any  way  to  philoso- 
phize, but  committing  themselves  solely  to  the 
guidance  of  Scripture,  differed  from  the  church 
of  Rome  in  several  important  particulars.  For, 
although  on  some  points  they  coincided  with 
her,  although  they  inculcated,  with  equal  zeal 
and  upon  a  better  principle,  both  the  univer- 
sality and  the  defectibility  of  grace,  as  well  as 
a  conditional  admission  into  the  number  of  the 
elect,  they  nevertheless  were  entirely  at  van- 


LUT 


604 


LUT 


anoe  with  her  upon  the  very  foundation  of  the 

system.  Thus  while  their  opponents  taught, 
that  predestination  consists  in  the  prospective 
discrimination  of  individuals  by  divine  favour, 
according  to  the  foreseen  ratio  of  every  man's 
own  merit, — works  of  congruity  deserving 
grace  here,  and  works  of  condignity  eternal  life 
hereafter,  and  that  in  this  way  it  principally 
rests  upon  human  worth  ;  the  Lutherans,  dis- 
claiming  every  idea  of  such  a  discrimination, 
placed  it  upon  the  same  basis  as  they  assumed 
in  the  case  of  justification, — that  of  an  effectual 
redemption  by  Christ.  Instead,  therefore,  of 
holding  the  election  of  individuals  as  men  on 
account  of  personal  aigmty  or  worthiness,  they 
maintained  the  election  of  a  general  mass  as 
Christians  on  account  of  Christ  alone;  adding 
that  wc  are  admitted  into  that  number,  or  dis- 
carded from  it,  in  the  eye  of  Heaven,  propor- 
tionably  as  we  embrace  or  reject  tbe  salvation 
offered  to  all,  embracing  it  with  a  faith  insepa- 
rable from  genuine  virtue,  or  rejecting  it  by 
incredulity  and  crime.  For  neither  in  this, 
nor  in  the  instance  of  justification,  did  they 
exclude  repentance  and  a  true  conversion  of 
the  heart  and  life,  as  necessary  requisites,  but 
only  as  meritorious  causes,  from  the  contem- 
plation of  God's  omniscient  intellect.  "  Let 
those,"  said  Luther,  "who  wish  to  be  elected 
avoid  an  evil  conscience,  and  not  transgress  the 
divine  commandments."  Instructed  then  by 
the  unerring  page  of  truth,  they  asserted  no 
other  predestination  than  what  is  there  ex- 
pressly revealed  ;  that  of  the  good  and  gracious 
Father  of  mankind,  who  from  eternity  has  been 
disposed  to  promote  the  happiness  and  welfare 
of  all  men,  has  destined  Christ  to  be  the  Sa- 
viour of  the  whole  world,  and  withholden  from 
none  the  exalted  hope  of  the  Christian  calling. 
Convinced  that  this  is  the  only  predestination 
which  Christianity  discloses,  and  consequently 
the  only  one  which  we  can  either  with  safety 
or  certainty  embrace,  they  discouraged  every 
attempt  at  investigating  the  will,  out  of  the 
word,  of  God;  every  attempt  at  effecting  im- 
possibilities, at  unveiling  the  secret  counsels  of 
Him  who  shrouds  his  divine  perfections  in 
darkness  impervious  to  mortal  eyes.  With  such 
investigations,  indeed,  the  world  had  already 
been  sufficiently  bewildered  by  the  scholastics, 
who,  endowed  with  a  ready  talent  at  perplex- 
ing what  before  was  plain,  and  at  rendering 
abstruseness  still  more  abstruse,  had  made  the 
subject  totally  inexplicable,  vainly  labouring  to 
develope  with  precision  that  mysterious  will 
upon  which  the  wise  must  ever  think  it  fully, 
and  the  good  impiety,  to  speculate.  Disqui- 
sitions of  this  presumptuous  nature,  from  a 
personal  experience  of  their  mischievous  tend- 
ency, Luthei  abjured  himself,  and  deprecated 
in  others.  "Arc  we,  miserable  men,"  he  ex- 
claimed, "  who  as  yet  are  incapable  of  compre- 
hending the  rays  of  God's  promises,  the  glim- 
merings of  his  precepts  and  his  works,  although 
confirmed  by  words  and  miracles,  are  we,  infirm 
and  impure,  eager  to  comprehend  all  that  is 
great  and  glorious  in  the  solar  light  itself,  in 
the  incomprehensible  light  of  a  miraculous 
Godhead  ?     Do  we  not  know,  that  God  dwells 


in  splendour  inaccessible  ?  And  yet  do  we  ap- 
proach, or  rather  do  we  presume  to  approach 
it  ?  Are  we  not  aware,  that  his  judgments  are 
inscrutable  ?  And  yet  do  we  endeavour  to 
scrutinize  them  ?  And  these  things  we  do, 
before  we  are  habituated  even  to  the  faint  lus- 
tre of  his  promises  and  precepts,  with  a  vision 
still  imperfect,  blindly  rushing  into  the  majesty 
of  that  light  which,  secret  and  unseen,  has 
never  been  by  words  or  miracles  exhibited. 
What  wonder,  then,  if,  while  we  explore  its 
majesty,  we  are  overwhelmed  with  its  glory  ?" 
For  a  farther  account  of  the  Lutheran  views 
on  predestination,  see  the  last  pages  of  the 
article  Calvinism. 

After  this  very  ample  exposition  of  the 
sentiments  of  the  German  reformers  on  the 
chief  points  of  Christian  doctrine,  it  is  only 
necessary  to  give  a  few  additional  particulars 
in  corroboration  of  some  portions  of  the  pre- 
ceding statement.  The  high  estimation  in 
which  Luther  held  the  productions  of  I  he 
judicious  Melancthon  is  apparent  from  a  pas- 
sage in  the  preface  to  the  first  volume  of 
Luther's  works,  dated  1545.  In  that  year 
also  appeared  the  last  amended  edition  of 
Melancthon's  li  Common  Places,"  to  which  he 
alludes.  "  Long  and  earnestly,"  he  says, 
"have  I  resisted  the  importunity  of  those 
who  have  wished  me  to  publish  my  works,  or, 
to  spe.ak  more  correctly,  my  confused  and 
disorderly  lucubrations ;  not  only  because  I 
was  unwilling  that  the  labours  of  the  ancients 
should  be  turned  aside  by  my  novelties,  and 
that  the  reader  should  be  hindered  from  pe- 
rusing them,  but  likewise  because  now,  by  the 
grace  of  God,  a  great  number  of  methodical 
books  are  extant ;  among  which  the  Common 
Places  of  our  Philip  claim  the  preference,  for 
by  them  a  divine  and  a  bishop  may  be  abun- 
dantly and  satisfactorily  confirmed,  so  as  to 
become  powerful  in  the  word  of  the  doctrine 
of  piety,  especially  when  the  Holy  Bible  itself 
can  now  be  procured  in  almost  every  language. 
But  the  want  of  order  in  the  matters  to  be  dis- 
cussed in  my  books  induced,  nay  compelled, 
me  to  render  them  a  sort  of  rude  and  indigested 
chaos,  which  it  would  now  require  even  on  my 
part  no  small  exertion  to  digest  into  a  method- 
ical form.  Under  the  influence  of  such  mo- 
tives as  these,  I  was  desirous  that  all  my 
productions  should  be  buried  in  perpetual 
oblivion,  that  they  might  give  place  to  others 
of  a  better  description."  In  this  preface  Lu- 
ther also  gives  the  following  testimony  to  the 
general  usefulness  of  Melancthon's  labours : 
"  In  the  same  year  Philip  Melancthon  had 
been  called  to  this  university  by  Prince 
Frederick  to  fill  the  chair  of  Greek  professor, 
but  no  doubt  with  the  intention  that  I  should 
have  him  as  my  colleague  in  the  labours  of  the 
divinity  professorship.  For  his  works  are 
sufficiently  in  proof  of  what  the  Lord  hath 
effected  by  this  his  choice  instrument,  not  only 
in  polite  literature,  but  in  theology,  although 
Satan  be  enraged  and  all  his  party."  Though 
the  early  opinions  of  Luther  upon  the  doc- 
trine of  a  philosophical  necessity  appear  to 
havo  been  occasionally  expressed  in  a.  harsh 


LUT 


605 


LUT 


and  repulsive  manner,  yet  his  followers  perti- 
naciously contend  that  even  the  harshest  of 
them  cannot,  with  propriety,  be  construed  into 
a  6ense  favourable  to  the  Calvinistical  system. 
Those  of  Melancthon  in  the  first  edition  of 
bis  Loci  Theologici,  although  occurring  but  in 
one  or  two  instances,  were  nevertheless  still 
more  offensive,  and  less  capable  of  a  mitigated 
interpretation.  So  far  indeed  did  he  carry  the 
doctrine  of  divine  predetermination  as  to 
degrade  man  to  a  level  with  the  brutes,  as  will 
be  obvious  from  the  following  passage  in  the 
edition  of  1525.  "Lastly,  divine  predesti- 
nation takes  away  human  liberty.  For  all 
things  come  to  pass  according  to  divine  pre- 
destination, not  only  external  works,  but  also 
internal  thoughts  in  all  creatures."  After  the 
Diet  of  Augsburgh  in  1530,  we  hear  no  more 
of  this  obnoxious  tenet.  Indeed  so  early  as 
1527  these  reformers  seem  to  have  abandoned 
it.  At  least,  when  in  that  year  a  form  of  doc- 
trine was  drawn  up  for  the  churches  of  Saxony, 
free  will  in  acts  of  morality  was  thus  incul- 
cated :  "The  human  will  is  so  far  free  as  to 
be  able  in  some  sort  to  perform  the  righteous- 
ness of  the  flesh,  or  civil  justice,  when  it  is 
obliged  by  the  law  and  by  force  not  to  steal, 
not  to  kill,  not  to  commit  adultery,  &c.  There- 
fore let  ministers  teach,  that  it  is  in  a  measure 
in  our  own  hands  to  restrain  carnal  affections, 
and  to  perform  civil  justice  ;  and  let  them  dili- 
gently exhort  men  to  a  strict  and  proper  course 
of  life,  because  God  also  requires  this  kind  of 
righteousness,  and  will  grievously  punish  those 
men  who  live  so  negligent  of  their  duty.  For 
as  we  are  bound  to  make  a  good  use  of  the 
other  gifts  of  God,  so  is  it  likewise  our  duty  to 
employ  to  good  purpose  those  powers  which 
God  has  bestowed  on  nature."  "  For  God 
takes  no  delight  in  that  ferocious  mode  of  life 
which  is  adopted  by  some  men,  who,  after 
having  heard  that  we  are  not  justified  by  our 
own  powers  and  works,  foolishly  dream  that 
they  will  wait  until  they  be  drawn  by  God,  and 
in  the  mean  time  their  course  of  life  is  most 
impure.  Such  persons  God  will  most  severely 
punish ;  and  they  must  therefore  be  earnestly 
reprehended  and  admonished  by  those  whose 
province  it  is  to  teach  in  the  churches."  This 
work,  which  is  generally  termed,  IAbellus 
Visitaiionis  Saxonic,  was  first  composed  in 
German  by  Melancthon  in  1527,  and  afterward 
republished  by  Luther  with  a  preface,  in  which 
he  thus  expresses  himself:  "  We  do  not  publish 
these  as  rigorous  precepts,  nor  do  we  again 
employ  ourselves  in  drawing  up  pontifical 
decrees,  but  we  relate  matters  of  history  and 
public  deeds,  and  present  the  confession  and 
symbol  of  our  belief."  The  previous  contro- 
versy between  Luther  and  Erasmus,  on  the 
topic  of  free  will,  had  probably  tended  to  pro- 
duce an  amelioration  of  the  doctrinal  system 
of  the  Lutheran  church.  In  this  view  it  was 
not  without  reason  that  Erasmus  made  the 
following  reflections  in  a  letter  dated  1528, 
soon  after  he  had  seen  this  production  :  "The 
Lutheran  fever,  every  succeeding  day,  assumes 
a  milder  form;  so  that  Luther  himself  now 
writes  recantations  on  almost  every  thing,  and 


on  this  account  he  is  considered  by  the  rest  as 
a  heretic  and  a  madman."  Similar  caustic 
remarks  occur  in  other  letters  of  Erasmus ; 
and  as,  in  those  days  of  high  religious  excite- 
ment, taunts  of  this  kind  were  considered  too 
good  to  be  confined  as  secrets  within  the  breast 
of  the  correspondents  to  whom  they  were  ad- 
dressed, it  is  not  improbable  that  Luther  might 
be  prevented  through  them,  among  other  rea- 
sons, from  making  farther  doctrinal  conces- 
sions ;  it  being  no  uncommon  circumstance  in 
the  history  of  the  human  mind  for  persons  of 
otherwise  strong  understandings  to  be  under 
the  influence  of  this  pitiable  weakness.  That 
Melancthon  not  only  abandoned  but  repre- 
hended the  doctrine  in  1529,  we  cannot  doubt, 
because  his  own  express  testimony  in  proof  of 
it  remains  on  record.  In  a  letter  to  Chris- 
topher Stathmio,  dated  March  20th,  1559, 
which  was  not  long  before  his  death,  he 
notices  the  subject  in  these  words  :  "  Thirty 
years  ago,  not  through  the  desire  of  conten- 
tion, but  on  account  of  the  glory  of  God,  and 
for  the  sake  of  discipline,  I  sharply  reprehended 
the  Stoical  paradoxes  concerning  necessity, 
because  they  are  reproachful  toward  God  and 
injurious  to  morals.  At  this  time  the  legions 
of  the  Stoics  are  waging  war  against  me  ;  but 
in  the  answer  which  I  have  written  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  Bavarian  inquisition,  I  have  once 
more  pointed  out  in  a  modest  manner  that 
opinion  (on  fate  or  predestination)  in  which 
anxious  minds  may  acquiesce  and  be  at  rest." 
On  consulting  the  tract  to  which  his  letter 
alludes,  we  find  him  employing  this  strong  and 
unequivocal  language  :  "  1  also  openly  reject 
and  abhor  those  Stoical  and  Manichean  furies 
who  affirm  that  all  things  necessarily  happen, 
evil  as  well  as  good  actions.  But  concerning 
these  I  refrain  at  present  from  any  lengthened 
discussion ;  only  I  entreat  young  people  to  avoid 
these  monstrous  opinions,  which  are  contume- 
lious against  God,  and  pernicious  to  morals." 
From  the  Loci  Theologici,  in  which  Melanc- 
thon had  first  introduced  this  obnoxious  tenet, 
he  expunged  necessity  in  the  edition  of  1533, 
and  inserted  in  its  place  the  opposite  one  of 
contingency.  The  following  are  extracts  from 
this  amended  work:  "  The  discussion  on  the 
cause  of  sin  and  that  on  contingeney  have  some- 
times greatly  agitated  the  church,  and  excited 
mighty  tragedies.  Men  of  acute  minds  collect 
multitudes  of  inextricable  and  absurd  things 
about  both  these  subjects.  Because  there  is 
some  danger  in  them,  young  people  must  bi 
warned  to  abstain  from  these  interminable 
disputes,  and  in  preference  to  search  out  a 
simple  and  pious  opinion,  beneficial  to  religion 
and  morals,  in  which  they  may  abide,  nor 
sutler  themselves  to  be  withdrawn  from  it  by 
those  fallacious  tricks  of  disputations.  But 
this  is  a  pious  and  true  sentiment  to  be  em- 
braced with  both  hands,  and  to  be  retained 
rather  by  the  whole  heart, — that  f!od  is  not 
the  cause  of  sin,  and  that  he  does  not  will  sin. 
But  the  causes  of  sin  are  the  will  of  the  devil, 
and  the  will  of  man."  "But  this  sentiment 
being  once  laid  down,  that  God  is  not  the 
I  cause  of  sin,  it  evidently  follow:,  thai  contin- 


LUT 


606 


LYD 


gency  must  be  granted.  The  freedom  of  the 
will  is  the  cause  of  the  contingency  of  our 
actions."  "Neither  must  the  delirious  doat- 
ings  about  Stoical  fate,  or  about  necessity,  be 
' conveyed  into  the  church,  because  they  are 
inextricable  and  sometimes  injurious  to  piety 
and  morals."  "  From  these  opinions  it  becomes 
the  pious  to  be  abhorrent  in  their  ears  and  in 
their  hearts."  These  extracts  serve  to  provo, 
that  Melancthon  reprobated  the  idea  of  intro- 
ducing into  the  church  the  doctrine  of  Stoical 
fate,  before  Calvin  had  distinguished  himself 
either  as  an  author  or  a  reformer.  Into  his 
subsequent  productions  of  almost  every  descrip- 
tion Melancthon  introduced  the  doctrine  of 
contingency,  and  strenuously  defended  it,  par- 
ticularly in  the  amended  edition  of  his  Loci 
Theologici  in  1545.  Luther  never  formally 
revoked  any  of  his  own  writings ;  but  on  this 
last  corrected  production  of  his  friend,  as  we 
have  shown,  he.  bestowed  the  highest  com- 
mendations. Yet  he  did  not  scruple  publicly 
to  assert,  that  at  the  beginning  of  the  Reform- 
ation he  had  not  completely  settled  his  creed. 
In  the  seventh  volume  of  his  works  this  sen- 
tence is  found:  "I  have  also  published  the 
confession  of  my  faith  ;  in  which  I  have  openly 
testified  what  and  how  I  believe,  and  in  what 
articles  I  think  myself  at  length  to  be  at  rest." 
He  seems,  indeed,  to  have  generally  avoided 
the  subject,  from  the  period  of  his  controversy 
with  Erasmus,  to  the  publication  of  his  Com- 
mentary on  Genesis, — his  last  work  of  any 
importance.  But  in  this,  after  a  long  argu- 
ment to  prove  that,  as  we  have  no  knowledge 
of  the  unrevealed  Deity,  we  have  nothing  to 
do  with  those  things  which  are  above  our  com- 
prehension ;  and  that  we  are  not  to  reason 
upon  predestination  out  of  Christianity ;  he 
thus  apologizes  for  his  former  opinions  :  "  It 
has  been  my  wish  diligently  and  accurately  to 
deliver  these  charges  and  admonitions ;  be- 
cause, after  my  death,  many  persons  will  pub- 
lish my  books  to  the  world,  and  by  that  course 
will  confirm  errors  of  every  kind  and  their  own 
delirious  ravings.  But  among  other  matters  I 
have  written,  that  all  tilings  are  absolute  and 
necessary ;  but  at  the  same  time  I  added,  that 
we  must  behold  God  as  he  is  revealed  to  us,  as 
we  sin"  in  the  Psalm,  'Jesus  Christ  is  the 
Lord  of  sabaoth,  nor  is  there  any  other  God.' 
In  several  other  passages  I  have  used  similar 
expressions.  But  these  people  will  pass  by  all 
such  passages,  and  will  only  seize  upon  those 
concerning  a  hidden  Deity.  You,  therefore, 
who  now  hear  me,  recollect  that  I  have  taught 
this, — We  must  not  inquire  concerning  the 
predestination  of  a  hidden  God,  but  we  must 
abide  and  acquiesce  in  those  things  which  are 
revealed  by  calling  and  by  the  ministry  of  the 
word."  "  Bui  in  other  passages  of  my  different 
works  I  have  inculcated  the  same  sentiments, 
and  I  ow  d  liver  them  again  with  an  audible 
voice  ;  therefore  I  am  excused."  For  the  more 
modern  state  of  the  Lutheran  church  see  Nk- 
ologv. 

The  following  account  of  the  union  between 
the  Lutheran  and  Calvinistic  churches,  as  given 
in   the  advertisement  to  Baron  Von  Wessen- 


berg's  "  Correspondence  with  the  Court  of 
Rome,"  may  not  be  uninteresting  to  the  reader : 
"  The  Germans  have  just  set  the  noble  example 
of  forming  a  union  between  these  two  branches 
of  the  Protestant  faith.  This  union,  which 
originated,  we  believe,  in  the  grand  duchy  of 
Nassau,  has  taken  place  almost  universally 
throughout  Germany  ;  and  the  separate  appel- 
lations of  Lutheran  and  Calvinistic  churches 
have  merged  in  the  common  appellation  of  the 
Evangelical  church.  The  Lutheran  and  Re- 
formed churches  of  Prussia  met  in  synod 
together,  on  the  invitation  of  their  monarch, 
the  first  of  October,  1817,  and  soon  came  to 
an  agreement ;  and  the  union  was  celebrated 
on  the  day  of  the  tri-centenary  festival  of  the 
Reformation.  A  similar  synod  of  the  Lu- 
therans and  Calvinists  in  Hesse-Cassel  was 
held  at  Hanau  in  May  and  June,  1818,  and 
attended  with  the  same  result.  The  royal  con- 
firmation was  given  to  the  Bavarian  union  on 
the  first  of  October  following.  Saxe- Weimar, 
and  most  of  the  other  small  states  have  fol- 
lowed this  example.  The  Protestant  Germans 
have  now,  therefore,  only  one  Gospel,  one 
temple,  one  divine  Instructer,  and  one  mode 
of  communion  ;  and,  what  is  singular,  and 
highly  honourable  to  their  liberality,  this 
union  was  every  where  accomplished  with 
the  greatest  ease,  and  without  a  dissentient 
voice  having  been  raised  against  it."  How 
different  was  this  result  from  that  of  the  synods 
and  councils  of  other  times  ;  and  what  a  change 
in  the  state  of  public  opinion  does  it  indicate  ! 
And  yet  it  is  to  be  feared  that  the  liberality 
from  which  this  union  has  resulted,  is  rather 
indifference  to  the  grand  peculiarities  of  the 
Christian  faith  than  mutual  charity. 

LYCAONIA,  a  province  of  Asia  Minor, 
accounted  a  part  of  Cappadocia,  having  Pisidia 
on  the  west,  and  Cilicia  on  the  south.  In  it 
were  the  cities  of  Iconium,  Lystra,  and  Derbe, 
mentioned  in  the  travels  of  St.  Paul.  The 
former  was  the  capital,  and  the  country  itself 
at  that  time  a  Roman  province.  The  "  speech 
of  Lycaonia,"  mentioned  Acts  xiv,  11,  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  a  corrupt  Greek,  inter- 
mingled with  many  oriental  words. 

LYCIA,  a  country  of  Asia  Minor,  having 
Phrygia  on  the  north,  Pamphylia  on  the  east, 
the  Mediterranean  on  the  south,  and  Caria  on 
the  west.  The  greatest  part  of  the  country, 
however,  is  a  peninsula  projecting  into  the 
Mediterranean.  Lycia  derived  its  name  from 
Lycus,  the  son  of  Pandion,  who  settled  here. 
It  was  conquered  by  Croesus,  king  of  Lydia, 
and  passed  with  his  kingdom  into  the  hands 
of  the  Persians.  It  afterward,  in  common 
with  the  neighbouring  countries  of  Asia  Minor, 
formed  part  of  the  Macedonian  empire,  under 
Alexander;  then  of  that  of  the  Seleucida?,  his 
successors  in  those  countries  ;  and,  at  the  time 
of  the  Apostles,  was  reduced  to  the  state  of  a 
Roman  province. 

LYDDA,  by  the  Greeks  called  Diospolis. 
It  lay  in  the  way  from  Jerusalem  to  Coesarea, 
four  or  rive  leagues  to  the  east  of  Joppa. 
Lydda  belonged  to  the  tribe  of  Ephraim.  It 
seems  to  have   been  inhabited  by  the  Benja- 


MAC 


607 


MAC 


mites,  at  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  the 
Babylonish  captivity,  Neh.  xi,  35.  St.  Peter 
coming  to  Lydda,  cured  a  sick  man  of  the  palsy 
named  Eneas,  Acts  ix,  33,  34. 

LYDIA,  a  woman  of  Thyatira,  a  seller  of 
purple,  who  dwelt  in  the  city  of  Philippi,  in 
Macedonia.  She  was  converted  to  the  faith 
by  St.  Paul,  and  both  she  and  her  family  were 
baptized.  She  offered  her  house  to  the  Apostle, 
and  pressed  him  to  abide  there  so  earnestly, 
that  he  yielded  to  her  entreaties.  She  was 
not  a  Jewess  by  birth,  but  a  proselyte,  Acts 
xvi,  14,  15,  40. 

-2.  Lydia,  an  ancient  celebrated  kingdom  of 
Asia  Minor,  which,  in  the  time  of  the  Apostles, 
was  reduced  to  a  Roman  province.  Sardis  was 
the  capital. 

LYSTRA,  a  city  of  Lycaonia,  the  native 
place  of  Timothy.  The  Apostle  Paul  and 
Barnabas  having  preached  here,  and  healed  a 
cripple,  were  taken  for  gods.  But  so  fickle  are 
human  praise  and  popular  encomiums,  that,  in 
the  space  of  a  few  hours,  those  who  had  been 
deemed  gods  were  regarded  as  less  than  mor- 
tals, and  were  stoned  by  the  very  persons  who 
eo  lately  deified  them.     See  Acts  xiv. 


MAACAH,  or  BETH-MAACHA,  a  little 
province  of  Syria  to  the  east  and  the  north  of 
the  sources  of  the  river  Jordan,  upon  the  road 
to  Damascus.  Abel  or  Abela  was  in  this  coun- 
try, whence  it  was  called  Abelbeth-Maachah. 
We  learn  from  Joshua  xiii,  13,  that  the  Israel- 
ites did  not  destroy  the  Maachathites,  but  per- 
mitted them  to  dwell  in  the  land  among  them. 
The  distribution  of  the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh, 
beyond  Jordan,  extended  as  far  as  this  country, 
Deut.  iii,  14  ;  Joshua  xii,  5. 

MACCABEES,  two  apocryphal    books   of 
Scripture,  containing  the  history  of  Judas  and 
his  brothers,  and  their  wars  against  the  Syrian 
kings  in  defence  of  their  religion  and  liberties, 
so  called  from  Judas,  the  son  of  Mattathias, 
surnamed    Maccabams,  as  some  authors  say, 
from  the  word  -odd,  formed  of  the  initials  of 
pin'  Q^fO  rooo-iD,  "Who  is  like  unto  thee, 
O  Lord,    among   the    gods  ?"    Exod.    xv,   11, 
which  was  the  motto  of  his  standard  ;  whence 
those  who    fought   under   his    standard  were 
called  Maccabees,  and  the  name  was  generally 
applied  to  all  who  suffered  in  the  cause  of  true 
religion,  under  the  Egyptian  or  Syrian  kings. 
This  name,  formed  by  abbreviation  according 
to    the    common    practice    of  the   Jews,    dis- 
tinguished Judas  Maccabaeus  by  way  of  emi- 
nence, as  he  succeeded  his  father,  B.  C.  166, 
in  the  command  of  those  forces  which  he  had 
with  him  at  his  death ;  and,  being  joined  by 
his  brothers,  and  all  others  that  were  zealous 
for  the  law,  he  erected  his  standard,  on  which 
he    inscribed    the    above    mentioned    motto. 
Those,  also,  who  suffered  under  Ptolemy  Phi- 
lopater  of  Alexandria,  fifty  years  before  this 
period,  were  afterward  called  Maccabees  ;  and 
so   were    Eleazar,    and   the    mother    and   her 
seven  sons,  though  they  suffered  before  Judas 
erected    his    standard   with    the    motto    from 
which  the  appellation  originated.     And  there- 
fore, as  these  books  which  contain  the  history 


of  Judas  and  his  brothers,  and  their  wars 
against  the  Syrian  kings,  in  defence  of  their 
religion  and  liberties,  are  called  the  first  and 
second  books  of  the  Maccabees;  so  that  book 
which  gives  us  the  history  of  those  who,  in 
the  like  cause,  under  Ptolemy  Philopater,  were 
exposed  to  his  elephants  at  Alexandria,  is 
called  the  third  book  of  the  Maccabees ;  and 
that  which  is  written  by  Josephus,  of  the  mar- 
tyrdom of  Eleazar,  and  the  seven  brothers  and 
their  mother,  is  called  the  fourth  book  of  the 
Maccabees. 

The  first  book  of  the  Maccabees  is  an  ex- 
cellent history,  and  comes  nearest  to  the  style 
and  manner  of  the  sacred  historians  of  any 
extant.       It    was    written    originally    in    the 
Chaldee  language,  of  the  Jerusalem   dialect, 
and  was  extant  in  this  language  in  the  time  of 
Jerom,  who  had  seen  it.     From  the  Chaldee 
it  was  translated  into  Greek,  from  the  Greek 
into    Latin.     Theodotion    is    conjectured    to 
have  translated  it  into  Greek  ;  but  this  version 
was  probably  more  ancient,  as  we  may  infer 
from  its  use  by  ancient  authors,  as  Tertullian, 
Origen,  and  others.     It  is  supposed  to  have 
been  written  by  John  Hyrcanus,  the  son  of 
Simon,  who  was  prince  and  high  priest  of  the 
Jews  near  thirty  years,  and  began  his  govern- 
ment at  the  time  where  this  history  ends.     It 
contains  the  history  of  forty  years,  from  the 
reign  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  to  the  death  of 
Simon,  the  high  priest ;  that  is,  from  the  year 
of  the  world  3829  to  the  year  3869,  B.  C.  131. 
The    second    book    of  the  Maccabees  begins 
with  two  epistles  sent  from  the  Jews  of  Jeru- 
salem to  the  Jews  of  Egypt  and  Alexandria, 
to    exhort   them    to  observe  the  feast  of  the 
dedication  of  the  new  altar  erected  by  Judas, 
on  his  purifying  the  temple.     The   first  was 
written   in  the  169th  year  of  the  era  of  the 
SeleucidED,  that  is,  B.  C.  144  ;  and  the  second, 
in  the  188th  year  of  the  same  era,  or  B.  C. 
125 ;  and  both  appear  to  be  spurious.     After 
these  epistles  follows  the  preface  of  the  author 
to  his  history,  which   is  an  abridgment  of  a 
larger  work,  composed  by  one  Jason,  a  Jew  of 
Cyrene,  who  wrote    in  Greek  the  history  of 
Judas  Maccabseus,  and  his  brethren,  and  the 
wars  against  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  and  Eupa- 
tor  his  son.     The  two  last,  chapters  contain 
events    under  the  reign  of  Demetrius  Soter, 
the  successor  of  Antiochus  Eupator,  and  con- 
tain such  varieties  in  their  style,  as  render  it 
doubtful  whether  they  had  the  same  author  as 
the  rest  of  the  work.     This  second  book  does 
not  by  any  means  equal  the  accuracy  and  ex- 
cellency of  the  first.     It  contains  a  history  of 
about   fifteen   years,    from    the    execution  of 
Ileliodorus's    commission,  who  was    sent    by 
Seleucus  to  fetch  away  the  treasures  of  the 
temple,  to  the  victory  obtained  by  Judas  Mac- 
cabaeus over  Nicanor ;  that  is,  from  the  year 
of  the  world  3828  to  the  year  3843,  B.  C.  157. 
There  are  in  the  Polyglott  Bibles,  both  of 
i  aris    and    London,    Sjliac  versions  of  both 
these  books ;  but  they,  as  well  as  the  English 
versions  which  we  have  among  the  apocryphal 
writers  in  our  Bibles,  are  derived    from    the 
Greek.     For  a  farther  account  of  Judas  Mac- 


MAG 


608 


MAG 


cabaeus,  and  of  his  brothers,  whose  history  is 
recorded  in  the  first  and  second  books  of  the 
Maccabees,  and  also  by  Josephus,  \vc  refer  to 
the  article  Jews.  The  third  book  of  the  Mac- 
cabees contains  the  history  of  the  persecution 
of  Ptolemy  Philopster  against  the  Jews  in 
Egypt,  and  their  Bufferings  under  it ;  and 
"seems  to  have  been  written  by  some  Alexan- 
drian Jew  in  the  Greek  language,  not  long 
after  the  time  of  Siracides.  This  book,  with 
regard  to  its  subject,  ought  to  be  called  the 
first,  as  the  things  which  are  related  in  it 
occurred  before  the  Maccabees,  whose  history 
is  recorded  in  the  first  and  second  books ;  but 
as  it  is  of  less  authority  and  repute  than  the 
other  two,  it  is  reckoned  after  them.  It  is 
extant  in  Syriac,  though  the  translator  did  not 
seem  to  have  well  understood  the  Greek  lan- 
guage. It  is  in  most  of  the  ancient  manu- 
script copies  of  the  Greek  Septuagint,  par- 
ticularly in  the  Alexandrian  and  Vatican,  but 
was  never  inserted  into  the  vulgar  Latin  ver- 
sion of  the  Bible,  nor,  consequently,  into  any 
of  our  English  copies.  The  first  authentic 
mention  we  have  of  this  book  is  in  Eusebins's 
"  Chronicon."  It  is  also  named  with  two  other 
books  of  the  Maccabees  in  the  eighty-fifth  of 
the  apostolic  canons.  But  it  is  uncertain 
when  that  canon  was  added.  Grotius  thinks 
that  this  book  was  written  after  the  two  first 
books,  and  shortly  after  the  book  of  Ecclesi- 
asticus,  from  which  circumstance  it  was  called 
the  third  book  of  Maccabees.  Moreover, 
Josephus's  history  of  the  martyrs  that  suffered 
under  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  is  found  in  some 
manuscript  Greek  Bibles,  under  the  name  of 
the  fourth  book  of  the  Maccabees.  This  book, 
ascribed  to  Josephus,  occurs  under  the  title, 
*•  Concerning  the  Empire  or  Government  of 
Reason ;"  but  learned  men  have  expressed  a 
doubt  whether  this  was  the  book  known  to 
the  ancients  as  the  fourth  book  of  the  Mac- 
cabi  i 

MACEDONIA,  a  kingdom  of  Greece,  hav- 
ing Thrace  to  the  north,  Thessaly  south, 
Epirus  west,  and  the  jEgean  Sea  east.  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  son  of  Philip,  king  of  Mace- 
donia, having  conquered  Asia,  and  subverted 
the  Persian  empire,  the  name  of  the  Macedo- 
nians became  very  famous  throughout  the 
east ;  and  it  is  often  given  to  the  Greeks,  the 
successors  of  Alexander  in  the  monarchy.  In 
like  manner,  the  name  of  Greeks  is  often  put 
for  Macedonians,  2  Maccabees  iv,  36.  When 
the  Roman  empire  was  divided,  Macedonia 
fell  to  the  share  of  the  emperor  of  the  east. 
After  it  had  long  continued  subject  to  the 
Romans,  it  fell  under  the  power  of  the  Otto- 
man Turks,  who  are  the  present  masters  of  it. 

St.  Paul  was  invited  by  an  angel  of  the 
Lord,  who  appeared  to  him  at  Troas,  to  come 
and  preach  the  Oospcl  in  Macedonia,  Acts 
xvi,  It.  Al'ter  this  vision,  the  Apostle  no 
longer  doubted  his  divine  call  to  preach  the 
I  in  Macedonia;  and  the  success  that 
.  led  bis  ministry  confirmed  him  in  his 
persuasion.  Here  he  laid  the  foundation  of 
the  churcheu  of  Thessalonica  and  Philippi. 

MAGDALA,  b  eity  on  the  west  side  of  the 


sea  of  Galilee,  near  Dalmanutha;  Jesus,  after 
the  miracle  of  the  seven  loaves,  being  said  by 
St.  Matthew  to  have  gone  by  ship  to  the 
coasts  of  Magdala,  Matt,  xv,  39 ;  and  by  St. 
Mark,  to  "  the  parts  of  Dalmanutha,"  Mark 
viii,  10.  Mr.  Buckingham  came  to  a  small 
village  in  this  situation  called  Migdal,  close  to 
the  edge  of  the  lake,  beneath  a  range  of  high 
cliffs,  in  which  small  grottoes  are  seen,  with 
the  remains  of  an  old  square  tower,  and  some 
larger  buildings,  of  rude  construction,  appa- 
rently of  great  antiquity.  Migdol  implies  a 
tower,  or  fortress  ;  and  this  place,  from  having 
this  name  particularly  applied  to  it,  was  doubt- 
less, like  the  Egyptian  Migdol,  one  of  con- 
siderable importance  ;  and  may  be  considered 
as  the  site  of  the  Migdal  of  the  Naphtalites, 
as  well  as  the  Magdala  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. 

MAGI,  or  MAGIANS,  a  title  which  the 
ancient  Persians  gave  to  their  wise  men,  or 
philosophers.  Magi,  among  the  Persians, 
answers  to  c6<poi,  or  <p{k6aotpni,  among  the 
Greeks;  sapientes,  among  the  Latins;  druids, 
among  the  Gauls  ;  gymnosophists,  among  the 
Indians  ;  and  priests,  among  the  Egyptians. 

The  ancient  magi,  according  to  Aristotle 
and  Laertius,  were  the  sole  authors  and  con- 
servators  of  the  Persian  philosophy  ;  and  the 
philosophy  principally  cultivated  among  them 
was  theology  and  politics ;  they  being  always 
esteemed  as  the  interpreters  of  all  law,  both 
divine  and  human  ;  on  which  account  they 
were  wonderfully  revered  by  the  people. 
Hence  Cicero  observes  that  none  were  ad- 
mitted to  the  crown  of  Persia,  but  such  as 
were  well  instructed  in  the  discipline  of  the 
magi ;  who  taught  tu  f}aai\iKa,  and  showed 
princes  how  to  govern.  Plato,  Apuleius, 
Laertius,  and  others,  agree  that  the  philosophy 
of  the  magi  related  principally  to  the  worship 
of  the  gods :  they  were  the  persons  who  were 
to  offer  prayers,  supplications,  and  sacrifices, 
as  if  the  gods  would  be  heard  by  them  alone. 
But,  according  to  Lucian,  Suidas,  &c,  this 
theology,  or  worship  of  the  gods,  as  it  is  call- 
ed, about  which  the  magi  were  employed,  was 
little  more  than  the  diabolical  art  of  divina- 
tion ;  so  that  jiayda,  strictly  taken,  was  the 
art  of  divination.  These  people  were  held  in 
such  veneration  among  the  Persians,  that 
Darius,  the  son  of  Hystaspes,  among  other 
things,  had  it  engraven  on  his  monument, 
that  he  was  the  master  of  the  magi.  Philo 
Judffius  describes  the  magi  to  be  diligent  in- 
quirers into  nature,  out  of  the  love  they  bear 
to  truth;  and  who,  setting  themselves  apart 
from  other  things,  contemplate  the  divine 
virtues  the  more  clearly,  and  initiate  others  in 
the  same  mysteries.  The  magi,  ,,r  magians, 
formed  one  of  the  two  grand  sects  into  which 
the  idolatry  of  the  world  was  divided  between 
500  and  600  years  before  Christ.  These 
abominated  all  those  images  which  were  wor- 
shipped by  the  other  sect,  denominated  Sabians, 
and  paid  their  worship  to  the  Deity  under  the 
emblem  of  fire.  Their  chief  doctrine  was, 
that  there  were  two  principles,  one  of  which 
was  the  cause  of  all  good,  and  the  other  the 


MAG 


609 


MAG 


cause  of  all  evil.  The  former  was  represented 
by  light,  and  the  latter  by  darkness,  as  their 
truest  symbols ;  and  of  the  composition  of 
these  two  they  supposed  that  all  things  in  the 
world  were  made.  The  sect  of  the  magians 
was  revived  and  reformed  by  Zoroaster.  This 
celebrated  philosopher,  called  by  the  Persians 
Zerdusht,  or  Zaratush,  began  about  the  thirty- 
sixth  year  of  the  reign  of  Darius  to  restore 
and  reform  the  magian  system  of  religion. 
He  was  not  only  excellently  skilled  in  all  the 
learning  of  the  east  that  prevailed  in  his  time, 
but  likewise  thoroughly  versed  in  the  Jewish 
religion,  and  in  all  the  sacied  writings  of  the 
Old  Testament  that  were  then  extant :  whence 
some  have  inferred  that  he  was  a  native  Jew 
both  by  birth  and  profession ;  and  that  he  had 
been  servant  to  one  of  the  prophets,  probably 
Ezekiel  or  Daniel.  He  made  his  first  appear- 
ance in  Media,  in  the  city  of  Xix,  now  called 
Aderbijan,  as  some  say ;  or,  according  to 
others  in  Ecbatana,  now  called  Tauris.  In- 
stead of  admitting  the  existence  of  two  first 
causes,  with  the  magians,  he  asserted  the  ex- 
istence of  one  supreme  God,  who  created  both 
these,  and  out  of  these  two  produced,  accord- 
ing to  his  sovereign  pleasure,  every  thing  else. 
According  to  his  doctrine,  there  was  one 
supreme  Being  independently  and  self-existing 
from  all  eternity.  Under  him  there  are  two 
angels  :  one  the  angel  of  light,  the  author  and 
director  of  all  good ;  and  the  other  the  angel 
of  darkness,  who  is  the  author  and  director  of 
all  evil.  These  two,  probably  speaking  figura- 
tively, out  of  the  mixture  of  light  and  dark- 
ness, made  all  things  that  are ;  and  they  are 
in  a  state  of  perpetual  conflict ;  so  that  where 
the  angel  of  light  prevails,  there  the  most  is 
good ;  and  where  the  angel  of  darkness  pre- 
vails, there  the  most  is  evil.  This  struggle 
shall  continue  to  the  end  of  the  world ;  and 
then  there  shall  be  a  general  resurrection,  and 
a  day  of  judgment :  after  which,  the  angel  of 
darkness  and  his  disciples  shall  go  into  a  world 
of  their  own,  where  they  shall  suffer  in  ever- 
lasting darkness  the  punishment  of  their  evil 
deeds  ;  and  the  angel  of  light  and  his  disciples 
shall  go  into  a  world  of  their  own,  where  they 
shall  receive  in  everlasting  light  the  reward 
due  unto  their  good  deeds  :  and  henceforward 
they  shall  for  ever  remain  separate. 

Of  the  controversy  as  to  Zoroaster,  Zera- 
tusht,  or  Zertushta,  and  the  sacred  books  said 
to  have  been  written  by  him,  called  Zend  or 
Zendavesta,  which  has  divided  the  most  emi- 
nent critics,  it  would  answer  no  important  end 
to  give  an  abstract.  Those  who  wish  for  in- 
formation on  the  subject  are  referred  to  Hyde's 
"  Religio  Veterum  Persurum ;"  Prideaux's 
"  Connection  ;"  Warburton's  "  Divine  Lega- 
tion ;"  Bryant's  "  Mythology ;"  "  The  Uni- 
versal History  ;"  Sir  W.  Jones's  Works,  vol. 
iii,  p.  115;  M.  Du  Perron,  and  Richardson's 
"  Dissertation,"  prefixed  to  his  Persian  and 
Arabic  Dictionary.  But  whatever  may  become 
of  the  authority  of  the  whole  or  part  of  the 
Zendavesta,  and  with  whatever  fables  the 
history  of  the  reformer  of  the  magian  religion 
may  be  mixed,  the  learned  are  generally  agreed 
40 


that  such  a  reformation  took  place  by  his 
instrumentality.  "  Zeratusht,"  says  Sir  W. 
Jones,  "  reformed  the  old  religion  by  the  addi- 
tion of  genii  or  angels,  of  new  ceremonies  in 
the  veneration  shown  to  fire,  of  a  new  work 
which  he  pretended  to  have  received  from 
heaven,  and,  above  all,  by  establishing  the  actual 
adoration  of  the  supreme  Being;"  and  he  farther 
adds,  "  The  reformed  religion  of  Persia  con- 
tinued in  force  till  that  country  was  conquered 
by  the  Musselmans  ;  and,  without  studying  the 
Zend,  we  have  ample  information  concerning  it 
in  the  modern  Persian  writings  of  several  who 
profess  it.  Bahman  always  named  Zeratusht 
with  reverence  ;  he  was,  in  truth,  a  pure  Theist, 
and  strongly  disclaizned  any  adoration  of  the 
fire  or  other  elements ;  and  he  denied  that  the 
doctrine  of  two  coeval  principles,  supremely 
good  and  supremely  bad,  formed  any  part  of 
his  faith."  "  The  Zeratusht  of  Persia,  or  the 
Zoroaster  of  the  Greeks,"  says  Richardson, 
"  was  highly  celebrated  by  the  most  discerning 
people  of  ancient  times;  and  his  tenets,  we 
are  told,  were  most  eagerly  arid  rapidly  em. 
braced  by  the  highest  in  rank,  and  the  wisest 
men  in  the  Persian  empire."  He  distinguished 
himself  by  denying  that  good  and  evil,  repre- 
sented by  light  and  darkness,  were  coeval, 
independent  principles  ;  and  asserted  the  supre- 
macy of  the  true  God,  in  exact  conformity 
with  the  doctrine  contained  in  a  part  of  that 
celebrated  prophecy  of  Isaiah  in  which  Cyrus 
is  mentioned  by  name  :  "  I  am  the  Lord,  and 
there  is  none  else,  there  is  no  God  beside  me," 
no  coeval  power.  "  I  form  the  light,  and 
create  darkness,  I  make  peace,"  or  good,  "and 
create  evil,  I  the  Lord  do  all  these  things." 
Fire,  by  Zerdushta,  appears  to  have  been  used 
emblematically  only ;  and  the  ceremonies  for 
preserving  and  transmitting  it,  introduced  by 
him,  were  manifestly  taken  from  the  Jews,  and 
the  sacred  fire  of  their  tabernacle  and  temple. 
The  old  religion  of  the  Persians  was  cor- 
rupted by  Sabianism,  or  the  worship  of  tho 
host  of  heaven,  with  its  accompanying  super- 
stition. The  magian  doctrine,  whatever  it 
might  be  at  first,  had  degenerated ;  and  two 
eternal  principles,  good  and  evil,  had  been 
introduced.  It  was  therefore  necessarily  idola- 
trous also,  and,  like  all  other  false  systems, 
flattering  to  the  vicious  habits  of  the  people. 
So  great  an  improvement  in  the  moral  charac- 
ter and  influence  of  the  religion  of  a  whole 
nation  as  was  effected  by  Zoroaster,  a  change 
which  is  not  certainly  paralleled  in  the  ancient 
history  of  the  religion  of  mankind,  can  scarcely, 
therefore,  be  thought  possible,  except  we  sup- 
pose a  divine  interposition,  either  directly,  or 
by  the  occurrence  of  some  very  impressive 
events.  Now  as  there  are  so  many  authorities 
for  fixing  the  time  of  Zoroaster  or  Zeratusht 
not  many  years  subsequent  to  the  death  of  the 
great  Cyrus,  the  events  connected  with  the 
conquest  of  Babylon  may  account  for  his  suc- 
cess in  that  reformation  of  religion  of  which 
he  was  the  author.  For,  had  not  the  minds  of 
men  been  prepared  for  this  change  by  something 
extraordinary,  it  is  not  supposable  that  they 
would  have  adopted  a  purer  faith  from  him. 


MAG 


610 


MAG 


That  he  gave  them  a  better  doctrine,  is  clear 
from  the  admission  of  even  Dean  Prideaux, 
who  has  very  unjustly  branded  him  as  an 
impostor.  Let  it  then  be  remembered,  that  as 
"the  Most  High  ruleth  in  the  kingdoms  of 
men,"  he  often  overrules  great  political  events 
for  moral  purposes.  The  Jews  were  sent  into 
captivity  to  Babylon  to  be  reformed  from  their 
idolatrous  propensities,  and  their  reformation 
commenced  with  their  calamity.  A  miracle 
was  there  wrought  in  favour  of  three  Hebrew 
confessors  of  the  existence  of  one  only  God, 
and  that  under  circumstances  to  put  shame 
upon  a  popular  idol  in  the  presence  of  the 
king  and  "  all  the  rulers  of  the  provinces,"  that 
the  issue  of  this  controversy  between  Jehovah 
and  idolatry  might  be  made  known  throughout 
that  vast  empire. — Worship  was  refused  to  the 
idol  by  a  few  Hebrew  captives,  and  the  idol 
had  no  power  to  punish  the  public  affront : — 
the  servants  of  Jehovah  were  cast  into  a  fur- 
nace, and  he  delivered  them  unhurt ;  and  a 
royal  decree  declared  "that  there  was  no  god 
who  could  deliver  after  this  sort."  The  proud 
monarch  himself  also  is  smitten  with  a  singu- 
lar disease  ; — he  remains  subject  to  it  until  he 
acknowledges  the  true  God ;  and,  upon  his 
recovery,  he  publicly  ascribes  to  him  both  the 
justice  and  the  mercy  of  the  punishment.  This 
event  takes  place,  also,  in  the  accomplishment 
of  a  dream  which  none  of  the  wise  men  of 
Babylon  could  interpret.  It  was  interpreted 
by  Daniel,  who  made  the  fulfilment  to  redound 
to  the  honour  of  the  true  God,  by  ascribing  to 
him  the  perfection  of  knowing  the  future, 
which  none  of  the  false  gods,  appealed  to  by 
the  Chaldean  sages,  possessed  ;  as  the  inability 
of  their  servants  to  interpret  the  dream  suffi- 
ciently proved.  After  these  singular  events, 
Cyrus  takes  Babylon,  and  he  finds  there  the 
sage  and  the  statesman,  Daniel,  the  worship- 
per of  the  true  God,  "  who  creates  both  good 
and  evil,"  "who  makes  the  light,  and  forms 
the  darkness."  There  is  little  doubt  but  that 
he  and  the  principal  Persians  throughout  the 
empire  would  have  the  prophecy  of  Isaiah 
respecting  Cyrus,  delivered  more  than  a  hun- 
dred years  before  he  was  born,  and  in  which 
his  name  stood  recorded,  along  with  the  pre- 
dicted circumstances  of  the  capture  of  Babylon, 
pointed  out  to  them.  Every  reason,  religious 
and  political,  urged  the  Jews  to  make  the  pre- 
diction a  matter  of  notoriety ;  and  from  Cyrus's 
decree  in  Ezra  it  is  certain  that  he  was  ac- 
quainted with  it ;  because  there  is  in  the  decree 
an  obvious  reference  to  the  prophecy.  This 
prophecy,  so  strangely  fulfilled,  would  give 
mighty  force  to  the  doctrine  connected  with 
it,  and  which  it  proclaims  with  so  much 
majesty  : — 

•'  I  am  Jehovah,  and  none  pIkp, 

Forming  light,  and  creating  hahkness, 

M  iking  pbacb,  and  creating  evil; 

I  Jehhv  wi  am  the  authored  all  these  things." 
II-  i"  the  g»aJ  principle  of  corrupted  magi. 
.-iiii.Mii  ww  directly  attacked;  and,  in  propor- 
tion as  the  fulfilment  of  the  prophecy  was  felt 
to  be  singular  and  striking,  the  doctrine  blended 
with  it  would  attract  notice.     Its  force   was 


both  felt  and  acknowledged,  as  we  have  seen, 
in  the  decree  of  Cyrus  for  the  rebuilding  of 
the  temple.  In  that  Cyrus  acknowledged  the 
true  God  to  be  supreme,  and  thus  renounced 
his  former  faith ;  and  the  example,  the  public 
example,  of  a  prince  so  beloved,  and  whose 
reign  was  so  extended,  could  not  fail  to  influ- 
ence the  religious  opinions  of  his  people.  That 
the  effect  did  not  terminate  in  Cyrus,  we 
know ;  for,  from  the  book  of  Ezra,  it  appears 
that  both  Darius  and  Artaxerxes  made  decrees 
in  favour  of  the  Jews,  in  which  Jehovah  has 
the  emphatic  appellation  repeatedly  given  to 
him,  "  the  God  of  heaven,"  the  very  terms 
used  by  Cyrus  himself.  Nor  are  we  to  sup- 
pose the  impression  confined  to  the  court ;  for 
the  history  of  the  three  Hebrew  youths,  of 
Nebuchadnezzar's  dream,  sickness,  and  re- 
formation from  idolatry,  of  the  interpretation 
of  the  hand  writing  on  the  wall  by  Daniel  the 
servant  of  the  living  God,  of  his  deliverance 
from  the  lions,  and  the  publicity  of  the  pro- 
phecy of  Isaiah  respecting  Cyrus,  were  too 
recent,  too  public,  and  too  striking  in  their 
nature,  not  to  be  often  and  largely  talked  of. 
Beside,  in  the  prophecy  respecting  Cyrus,  the 
intention  of  almighty  God  in  recording  the 
name  of  that  monarch  in  an  inspired  book, 
and  showing  beforehand  that  he  had  chosen 
him  to  overturn  the  Babylonian  empire,  is 
expressly  mentioned  as  having  respect  to  two 
great  objects,  first,  the  deliverance  of  Israel, 
and,  second,  the  making  known  his  supreme 
divinity  among  the  nations  of  the  earth.  We 
again  quote  Lowth's  translation  : — 
"  For  the  sake  of  my  servant  Jacob, 

And  of  Israel  my  chosen, 

I  have  even  called  thee  by  thy  name, 

I  have  surnamed  thee,  though  thou  knewest  me  not. 

I  am  Jehovah,  and  none  else, 

Bes'de  me  there  is  no  God ; 

I  will  gird  thee,  though  thou  hast  not  known  me, 

That  the;/  may  know,  from  the  risi?ig  of  the  sun, 

And  from  the  west,  that  there  is  none  beside  me." 
It  was  therefore  intended  by  this  proceeding 
on  the  part  of  Providence  to  teach,  not  only 
Cyrus,  but  the  people  of  his  vast  empire,  and 
surrounding  nations,  1.  That  the  God  of  the 
.lows  was  Jehovah,  the  self-subsistent,  the 
eternal  God  ;  2.  That  he  was  God  alone,  there 
being  no  deity  beside  himself;  and,  3.  That 
good  and  evil,  represented  by  light  and  dark- 
Dees,  were  neither  independent  nor  eternal 
subsistences,  but  his  great  instruments,  and 
under  his  control. 

The  Persians,  who  had  so  vastly  extended 
their  empire  by  the  conquest  of  the  countries 
formerly  held  by  the  monarchs  of  Babylon, 
were  thus  prepared  for  such  a  reformation  of 
their  religion  as  Zoroaster  effected.  The  prin. 
ciples  he  advocated  had  been  previously  adopted 
by  Cyrus  and  other  Persian  monarchs,  and  pro- 
bably by  many  of  the  principal  persons  of  that 
nation.  Zoroaster  himself  thus  became  ac- 
quainted with  the  great  truths  contained  in 
this  famous  prophecy,  which  attacked  the  very 
foundations  of  every  idolatrous  and  Manichean 
system.  Prom  the  other  sacred  books  of  the 
Jews,  who  mixed  with  the  Persians  in  every 
part  of  the  empire,  he  evidently  learned  more. 


MAG 


611 


MAH 


This  is  sufficiently  proved  from  the  many 
points  of  similarity  between  his  religion  and 
Judaism,  though  he  should  not  be  allowed  to 
speak  so  much  in  the  style  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures as  some  passages  in  the  Zendavesta  would 
indicate.  He  found  the  people,  however,  "  pre- 
pared  of  the  Lord"  to  admit  his  reformations, 
and  he  carried  them.  This  cannot  but  be  looked 
upon  as  one  instance  of  several  merciful  dis- 
pensations of  God  to  the  Gentile  world,  through 
his  own  peculiar  people,  the  Jews,  by  which 
the  idolatries  of  the  Heathen  were  often  check- 
ed, and  the  light  of  truth  rekindled  among 
( hem.  In  this  view  the  ancient  Jews  evidently 
considered  the  Jewish  church  as  appointed  not 
to  preserve  only  but  to  extend  true  religion. 
"  God  be  merciful  to  us  and  bless  us  ;  that  thy 
way  may  be  known  upon  earth,  thy  saving 
health  unto  all  nations."  This  renders  Pagan 
nations  more  evidently  "without  excuse." 
That  this  dispensation  of  mercy  was  afterward 
neglected  among  the  Persians,  is  certain.  How 
long  the  effect  continued  we  know  not,  nor 
how  widely  it  spread  ;  perhaps  longer  and  wider 
than  may  now  distinctly  appear.  If  the  magi, 
who  came  from  the  east  to  seek  Christ,  were 
Persians,  some  true  worshippers  of  God  would 
appear  to  have  remained  in  Persia  to  that  day; 
and  if,  as  is  probable,  the  prophecies  of  Isaiah 
and  Daniel  were  retained  among  them,  they 
might  be  among  those  who  "  waited  for  redemp- 
tion," not  at  Jerusalem,  but  in  a  distant  part 
of  the  world.  The  Parsees,  who  were  nearly 
extirpated  by  Mohammedan  fanaticism,  were 
charged  by  their  oppressors  with  the  idolatry 
of  fire,  and  this  was  probably  true  of  the  mul- 
titude- Some  of  their  writers,  however,  warmly 
defended  themselves  against  the  charge.  A 
considerable  number  of  them  remain  in  India 
to  this  day,  and  profess  to  have  the  books  of 
Zoroaster. 

2.  The  term  magi  was  also  anciently  used 
generally  throughout  the  east,  to  distinguish 
philosophers,  and  especially  astronomers.  Pliny 
and  Ptolemy  mention  Arabi  as  synonymous 
with  magi ;  and  it  was  the  opinion  of  many 
learned  men  in  the  first  ages  of  Christianity, 
that  the  magi  who  presented  offerings  to  the 
infant  Saviour,  Matt.ii,  1,  dame  from  southern 
Arabia ;  for  it  is  certain  that  "  gold,  frankin- 
cense, and  myrrh,"  were  productions  of  that 
country.  They  were  philosophers  among 
whom  the  best  parts  of  the  reformed  magian 
system,  which  was  extensively  diffused,  were 
probably  preserved.  They  were  pious  men, 
also,  who  had  some  acquaintance,  it  may  be, 
with  the  Hebrew  prophecies,  and  were  favoured 
themselves  with  divine  revelations.  They  are 
to  be  regarded  as  members  of  the  old  patri- 
archal church,  never  quite  extinguished  among 
the  Heathen  ;  and  they  had  the  special  honour 
to  present  the  homage  of  the  Gentile  world  to 
the  infant  Saviour. 

MAGICIAN  not  unfrequenlly  occurs  in 
Scripture.  Generally  it  signifies  a  diviner,  a 
fortune  teller,  &c.  Moses  forbids  recourse  to 
such  on  pain  of  death:  "The  soul  that  turn- 
eth  after  such  as  have  familiar  spirits,  and 
after  wizards,  to  go  a  whoring  after  them,  I 


will  even  set  my  face  against  that  soul,  and 
even  cut  him  off  from  among  his  people," 
Leviticus  xix,  31  ;  xx,  6.  The  Hebrew  is 
CD>jy-iin-l7Mi  roNn-1?^,  which  signify  literally, — 
the  first,  those  possessed  with  a  spirit  of  Python, 
or  a  demon  that  fortels  future  events ; — the 
second,  knowers,  they  who  boast  of  the 
knowledge  of  secret  things.  It  was  such 
sort  of  people  that  Saul  extirpated  out  of  the 
land  of  Israel,  1  Sam.  xxviii,  3.  Daniel  also 
speaks  of  magicians  and  diviners  in  Chaldea, 
under  Nebuchadnezzar,  Daniel  i,  20,  &c ; 
anno1?!  aio^oc1?}  D'fliPK1?!  o^Dcnn1?.  He  names 
four  sorts :  Chartumim,  Asaphim,  Mecasphim, 
and  Casdim,  Daniel  ii,  2.  The  first,  Chartu- 
mim, according  to  Theodotion,  signifies  "en- 
chanters;" according  to  the  LXX,  "sophists;" 
according  to  Jeroni,  kariolas,  "  diviners,  for- 
tune tellers,  casters  of  nativities."  The  second 
word,  Asaphim,  has  a  great  resemblance  to  the 
Greek  word  coyes,  "  wise  man ;"  whether  the 
Greeks  took  this  word  from  the  Babylonians, 
or  vice  versa.  Theodotion  and  Jerom  have 
rendered  it  "  magicians  ;"  the  LXX,  "  philoso- 
phers." The  third  word,  Mecasphim,  by  Jerom 
and  the  Greeks,  is  translated  malefici,  "en- 
chanters ;"  such  as  used  noxious  herbs  and 
drugs,  the  blood  of  victims,  and  the  bones  of  the 
dead,  for  their  superstitious  operations.  The 
fourth  word,  Casdim,  or  Chaldeans,  has  two 
significations  :  first,  the  Chaldean  people,  over 
whom  Nebuchadnezzar  was  monarch  ;  the 
second,  a  sort  of  philosophers,  who  dwelt  in  a 
separate  part  of  the  city,  who  were  exempt 
from  all  public  offices  and  employments.  Their 
studies  were  physic,  astrology,  divination, 
foretelling  of  future  events  by  the  stars,  inter- 
pretation of  dreams,  augury,  worship  of  the 
gods,  &c.  All  these  inquisitive  and  supersti- 
tious arts  were  prohibited  among  the  Israelites, 
as  founded  on  imposture  or  devilism,  and  as 
inconsistent  with  faith  in  God's  providence, 
and  trust  in  his  supremacy. 

MAGOG.     See  Gog. 

MAHANAIM,  a  city  of  (he  Levitos,  of  the 
family  of  Merari,  in  the  tribe  of  Gad,  upon  the 
brook  Jabbok,  Joshua  xxi,  38;  xiii,  26.  The 
name  Mahanaim  signifies  "  two  hosts,"  or 
"  two  fields."  The  patriarch  gave  it  this 
name  because  in  this  place  he  had  a  vision  of 
angels  coming  to  meet  him,  Genesis  xxxii,  2. 
Mahanairn  was  the  seat  of  the  kingdom  of 
Ishbosheth,  after  the  death  of  Saul,  2  Sam.  ii, 
9,  12.  It  was  also  to  (his  place  that  David 
retired  during  the  usurpation  of  Absalom, 
2  Sam.  xvii,  24 ;  and  this  rebellious  son  was 
subdued,  and  suffered  death,  not  far  from  this 
city. 

MAHOMETANISM.  Mohammed,  its  dis- 
tinguished founder,  was  born  in  Arabia,  toward 
the  conclusion  of  the  sixth  century.  Although 
he  had  been  reduced  to  poverty,  he  was  de- 
scended from  ancestors  who  had  long  been 
conspicuous  by  rank  and  by  influence  ;  but 
having  been  shut  out  from  the  advantages  of 
education,  which  in  his  peculiar  case  might 
have  rather  cramped  than  invigorated  the 
astonishing  powers  of  his  mind,  he  had  been 
compelled  to  seek  his  subsistence  by  devoting 


MAH 


612 


MAH 


himself  to  a  menial  occupation.  Yet  although 
thus  unfavourably  situated,  he  was  led,  in  con. 
ducting  the  commercial  transactions  which, 
in  the  service  of  Cadijah,  a  woman  of  great 
wealth,  he  was  employed  to  arrange,  to  survey 
the  state  of  several  of  the  neighbouring  na. 
tions  ;  became  acquainted  with  the  most 
striking  features  in  the  characters  of  those  by 
whom  he  was  surrounded  ;  and  he  was  enabled 
to  profit  by  the  information  which  he  thus  pro- 
cured,  from  his  adding  to  the  graces  of  personal 
elegance  and  beauty,  the  most  captivating 
manners,  and  the  most  winning  address.  Ex- 
alted by  the  partiality  of  Cadijah,  who  con- 
ferred on  him  her  hand  and  her  extensive 
possessions,  he  seems  early  to  have  formed  the 
scheme  of  announcing  himself  as  the  author 
of  a  new  religion,  and,  in  virtue  of  this  sacred 
office,  of  ascending  to  that  supremacy  of  po- 
litical influence  which  it  was  his  singular  for- 
tune, soon  after  he  unfolded  his  pretensions, 
to  attain.  Taking  advantage  of  that  insensi- 
bility into  which,  by  the  attacks  of  epilepsy, 
he  was  occasionally  thrown,  he  pretended  that 
he  was  wrapped  in  divine  contemplation,  or 
was  actually  holding  communication  with 
higher  orders  of  beings,  who  were  committing 
to  him  the  divine  instructions  which  he  was 
to  disseminate  through  the  world. 

When  the  time  which  he  conceived  to  be 
favourable  for  the  grand  object  of  his  ambition 
had  arrived,  he  openly  declared  that  he  was  the 
prophet  of  the  most  high  God  ;  but  the  magis- 
trates of  Mecca,  despising  his  pretensions,  or 
dreading  the  evils  which  might  result  from 
religious  innovation,  vigorously  opposed  him, 
and  he  found  himself  compelled,  in  order  to 
avoid  the  punishment  which  they  were  pre- 
paring to  inflict  on  him,  to  have  recourse  to 
flight.  He  did  not,  however,  relinquish  the 
scheme  upon  which  he  had  so  long  meditated, 
and  which  he  was  convinced  that  he  was 
qualified  to  carry  into  execution.  After  his 
departure  from  Mecca,  from  which  event  the 
Mohammedan  era  of  the  hegira  takes  its  com- 
mencement, he  was  joined  by  a  few  followers 
determined  to  share  his  fate ;  and  having 
solemnly  consecrated  the  banner  under  which 
he  was  to  extend  his  power  and  propagate  his 
tenets,  he  commenced  hostilities  against  those 
by  whom  he  had  been  opposed.  His  first  efforts, 
however,  were  not  crowned  with  success,  but 
he  had  infused  into  his  attendants  a  spirit 
which  misfortune  could  not  subdue  :  they  re- 
newed their  enterprise,  and  Mecca  at  length 
submitted  to  his  arms.  From  this  period  his 
exaltation  was  very  rapid ;  he  was  venerated 
as  the  favoured  messenger  of  Heaven,  and  his 
countrymen  bowed  down  before  a  sovereign 
protected,  as  they  believed,  by  the  Omnipotent, 
and  commissioned  to  reveal  his  will.  There 
were  many  causes  which  satisfactorily  account 
for  his  success.  The  Christian  religion,  in 
the  corrupted  form  in  which  it  existed  in  the 
regions  contiguous  to  the  country  of  the  pro- 
phet, was  not  interwoven  with  the  affections 
of  its  professors  ;  they  were  split  into  factions, 
contending  about  the  most  frivolous  distinc 
tions  and  the  most  ridiculous  tenets;  and  the 


sword  of  persecution  was  mutually  wielded  by 
them  all,  to  spread  misery  where  there  should 
have  been  the  ties  of  charity  and  love.  Thus 
divided,  they  presented  no  steady  resistance  to 
the  attempt  made  to  wrest  from  them  their 
religion  ;  and,  indeed,  as  many  of  them  had 
adopted  that  religion,  not  from  conviction,  but 
from  dread  of  the  tyranny  by  which  it  had 
been  imposed  on  them,  they  only  did  what 
they  had  previously  done,  when,  shrinking 
from  the  ferocious  zeal  of  the  emissaries  of  the 
prophet,  they  submitted  to  his  doctrine.  With 
admirable  address,  too,  he  had  framed  his  reli- 
gious system,  so  as  to  gratify  those  to  whom 
it  was  announced.  Laying  down  the  sublime 
and  unquestionable  doctrine  of  the  unity  of 
God,  he  professed  to  revere  the  patriarchs, 
whose  memory  the  Arabs  held  in  veneration  ; 
he  admitted  that  Moses  was  a  messenger  from 
God ;  he  acknowledged  Jesus  as  an  exalted 
prophet ;  and  he  founded  his  own  pretensions 
upon  the  intimation  which  our  Saviour  had 
given  that  the  Paraclete,  or  Comforter,  was 
to  be  sent  to  lead  the  world  into  all  truth. 
Thus  each  party  found  in  the  Koran  much  of 
what  it  had  been  accustomed  to  believe ;  and 
the  transition  was  in  this  way  rendered  more 
easy  to  the  admission  that  a  new  revelation 
had  been  vouchsafed. 

This  effect  was  facilitated  by  the  ignorance 
which  prevailed  in  Arabia.  Accustomed  to  a 
wandering  life,  the  Arabs  had  devoted  no  time 
to  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  ;  most  of  them 
were  even  unable  to  read  the  Koran,  the 
sublimity  and  beauty  of  which  were  held  forth 
to  them  as  incontestable  proofs  of  the  inspira, 
tion  of  its  author.  Had  Mohammed,  indeed- 
rested  his  doctrine  upon  miracles,  it  might 
have  happened  that  the  imposture  by  some 
would  have  been  detected  ;  but,  with  his  usual 
policy,  he  avoided  what  he  knew  was  so 
hazardous ;  and,  with  the  exception  of  his 
reference  to  the  Koran,  as  surpassing  the  ca- 
pacity of  man,  he  explicitly  disclaimed  having 
been  authorized  to  do  such  mighty  works  as 
had  been  wrought  to  establish  the  previous 
dispensations  of  the  Almighty.  The  fascinat- 
ing representation  that  he  gave  of  the  joys  of 
paradise,  which  he  accommodated  to  the  con- 
ceptions and  wishes  of  the  eastern  nations, 
also  made  a  deep  and  favourable  impression ; 
the  wantonness  of  imagination  was  gratified 
with  the  anticipation  of  a  state  abounding 
with  sensual  gratification  raised  to  the  highest 
degree  of  exquisiteness  ;  while  the  dismal  fate 
allotted  through  eternity  to  all  who  rejected 
the  message  which  he  brought,  alarmed  the 
fears  of  the  credulous  and  superstitious  multi- 
tude whom  he  was  eager  to  alluro.  When 
with  these  causes  are  combined  the  vigour  of 
his  administration,  and  the  certainty  of  suffer- 
ing or  of  death  in  the  event  of  withstanding 
his  doctrine,  there  is  sufficient  to  account  for 
the  success  of  his  religion  ;  and  there  is  in  that 
success  nothing  which  can,  with  the  shadow 
of  reason,  be  employed,  as,  with  strange  per- 
version of  argument,  it  has  sometimes  been, 
to  invalidate  the  proof  for  the  truth  of  Chris- 
tianity deduced  from  its  rapid  diffusion.    That 


MAH 


613 


MAH 


proof  does  not  rest  upon  the  mere  circum- 
stance that  the  religion  of  Jesus  was  widely 
and  speedily  propagated  ;  there  might,  under 
particular  circumstances,  have  been  in  this 
nothing  wonderful ;  but  on  the  facts  that  it 
was  so  propagated,  when  all  the  human  means 
to  which  they  who  preached  it  could  have 
recourse,  would  have  retarded  rather  than 
promoted  what  actually  took  place  ;  that  it 
employed  no  force  ;  that  it  held  out  no  earthly 
advantages  ;  that  it  accommodated  itself  to  no 
previous  religious  prejudices ;  and  that  it  op- 
posed and  reproved  all,  and  did  not  gratify 
any,  of  the  corruptions  and  lusts  of  human 
nature. 

But  Mohammed  did  not  limit  his  views  to 
the  sovereignty  of  Arabia  :  he  was  elevated  by 
the  hope  of  universal  empire  ;  and  he  moulded 
his  system  so  as  to  promote  what  he  was  eager 
to  attain.  For  this  purpose  he  promised  to  all 
who  enrolled  themselves  under  his  banner  full 
license  to  plunder  the  nations  against  which 
they  were  led  ;  and  he  made  it  a  fundamental 
tenet  of  his  faith  that  they  who  fell  in  the  war- 
like enterprises  destined  to  enlarge  the  number 
of  believers  were  at  once  delivered  from  the 
guilt  and  misery  of  their  sins,  and  were  admit- 
ted to  the  happy  scenes  prepared  for  the  faith- 
ful. He  thus  collected  around  him  an  army 
thoroughly  devoted,  prepared  for  meeting  every 
danger,  stimulated  to  the  most  laborious  exer- 
tions by  the  hope  of  plunder,  and  steeled 
against  all  which  can  weaken  courage  or  ex- 
haust resolution,  by  the  enthusiasm  of  hope  ; 
whatever  was  their  fate,  they  had  nothing  to 
dread  ;  if  they  escaped  the  weapons  of  their 
enemies,  they  were  loaded  with  spoil,  and  in- 
vited to  indulgence  ;  and  if  they  fell,  they  were 
canonized  by  those  who  survived,  and  ex- 
changed the  vicissitudes  and  troubles  of  this 
world  for  the  delights  of  a  sensual  paradise.  An 
army  thus  constituted  and  thus  impelled  must, 
under  any  circumstances,  have  been  formidable ; 
against  them  the  usual  methods  to  defeat  inva- 
sion and  to  prevent  conquest  would  have  failed  ; 
they  could  have  been  successfully  encountered 
only  by  men  who  had  imbibed  a  similar  spirit, 
and  who  identified  patience  and  courage  in  the 
field  with  the  most  sacred  duty  required  by  re- 
ligion. Of  the  advantages  which,  after  Arabia 
had  acknowledged  his  sway,  and  hailed  him  as 
the  prophet  of  the  Lord,  he  might  confidently 
anticipate,  Mohammed  was  abundantly  sensi- 
ble ;  but  while  he  was  preparing  to  bring  into 
action  the  mighty  machine  which  he  had 
erected,  his  earthly  career  was  terminated,  and 
he  left  to  others  to  execute  the  schemes  which 
he  had  fondly  devised. 

The  energy  of  the  system  remained  after 
the  author  of  it  was  removed  from  the  world; 
and  his  successors  lost  no  time  in  extending 
their  dominions  far  beyond  the  bounds  of  Ara- 
bia. The  obstacles  opposed  to  them  instantly 
yielded ;  a  feeble  and  degenerate  empire  sink- 
ing under  its  own  weight,  and  unable  to  resist 
any  power  acting  against  it,  at  once  submitted 
to  the  host  of  fanatical  plunderers,  who  spread 
desolation  as  they  advanced ;  the  richest  pro- 
vinces soon  were  wrested  from  it ;    and  the 


most  fertile  regions  of  Asia  fell  under  the  con- 
quering fury  of  the  caliphs.  Persia,  which 
had  long  persecuted  Christianity,  was  added 
to  their  increasing  territories ;  Syria  submit- 
ted to  fheir  yoke  ;  and,  what  filled  with  horror 
and  with  anguish  the  believers  in  the  Gospel, 
Palestine,  that  holy  land  from  which  the  light 
of  divine  truth  had  beamed  upon  the  nations, 
which  had  been  the  scene  of  those  awful  or 
interesting  events  recorded  in  the  inspired 
Scriptures,  which  had  witnessed  the  life,  the 
ministry,  the  death,  the  resurrection,  and  as- 
cension of  the  Redeemer  of  mankind,  bent 
under  the  iron  sceptre  of  an  infidel  sovereign, 
nominally,  indeed,  revering  the  Founder  of 
its  religion,  but  filled  with  bigoted  and  im- 
placable hatred  against  the  most  attached 
and  conscientious  of  his  disciples.  But  the 
caliphs  did  not  accomplish  their  principal  ob- 
ject when  they  reduced  to  subjection  the  coun- 
tries which  they  ravaged :  to  them  it  was  of 
infinitely  more  moment  to  propagate  the  Mus- 
selman  faith  ;  and,  accordingly,  although  in  the 
commencement  of  that  faith  some  indulgence 
was,  from  political  considerations,  granted  to 
the  Christians,  there  was  soon  no  alternative 
left  to  the  trembling  captives  but  to  embrace  tho 
doctrine  of  the  prophet,  or  to  submit  to  slavery 
or  death.  We  cannot  wonder  that  tenets  thus 
enforced  rapidly  spread  ;  they  supplanted,  in 
many  extensive  regions,  the  religion  of  Jesus; 
and,  incorporating  themselves  with  civil  go- 
vernments, or  rather  founding  all  governments 
upon  the  Koran,  they  continue,  at  the  distance 
of  eleven  hundred  years,  to  be  believed  through 
a  large  proportion  of  the  world. 

The  effect  of  this  signal  revolution  was  first 
experienced  by  those  Christians  who  inhabit- 
ed the  eastern  parts  of  the  empire  ;  but  the 
account  of  it  must  have  been  speedily  convey- 
ed throughout  Christendom,  and  the  gigantic 
enterprises  of  the  Saracens  soon  threatened  all 
nations  with  slavery  and  superstition.  The 
successors  of  the  prophet,  in  the  eighth  centu- 
ry, directed  their  steps  toward  Europe  ;  and 
having  at  length  crossed  the  narrow  sea  which 
separates  Africa  from  Spain,  they  dispersed 
the  troops  of  Roderick,  king  of  the  Goths,  took 
possession  of  the  greater  part  of  his  dominions, 
subverted  the  empire  of  the  Visigoths,  which 
had  been  established  in  Spain  for  upward  of 
three  centuries,  and  planted  themselves  along 
the  coast  of  Gaul,  from  the  Pyrenean  mount- 
ains to  the  Rhine.  Charlemagne,  alarmed  at 
their  progress,  made  a  great  effort  to  crush 
them  ;  but  he  failed  in  accomplishing  his  ob- 
ject, and  they  committed,  in  various  parts  of 
Europe  which  they  visited,  the  most  shocking 
devastations. 

When  a  great  part  of  the  life  of  Mohammed 
had  been  spent  in  preparatory  meditation  on 
the  system  lie  was  about  to  establish,  the  chap- 
ters of  the  Alcoran  or  Koran,  which  was  to 
contain  the  rule  of  the  faith  and  practice  of 
his  followers,  were  dealt  out  slowly  and  sepa- 
rately during  the  long  period  of  three-and- 
twenty  years.  He  entrusted  his  beloved  wife, 
Raphsa,  the  daughter  of  Omar,  with  the  keep- 
ing of  the  chest  of  his  apostleship,  in  which 


MAII 


614 


MAH 


were  laiil  up  all  the  originals  of  the  revelations 
he  pretended  to  have  received  by  the  ministra- 
tion of  the  Angel  Gabriel,  and  out  of  which 
the  Koran,  consisting ,of  one  hundred  and  four- 
teen surats,  or  chapters,  of  very  unequal  length, 
was  composed  after  his  death.  Yet,  defective 
in  its  structure,  and  not  less  exceptionable  in 
its  doctrines  and  precepts,  was  the  work  which 
he  thus  delivered  to  his  followers  as  (lie  oracles 
od.  We  will  not  detract  from  the  real 
merit  of  the  Koran;  we  allow  it  to  be  gene- 
rally elegant  and  often  sublime;  but  at  the  same 
time  we  reject  with  disdain  its  arrogant  pre- 
tensions to  any  thing  supernatural.  Nay,  if, 
descending  to  a  minute  investigation  of  it,  we 
consider  its 'perpetual  inconsistency  and  ab- 
surdity, we  shall  indeed  have  cause  for  asto- 
nishment at  that  weakness  of  humanity  which 
could  ever  have  received  such  compositions  as 
the  work  of  the  Deity,  and  which  could  still 
hold  it  in  such  high  admiration  as  it  is  held  by 
the  followers  of  Mohammed  to  the  present  day. 
Far  from  supporting  its  arrogant  claim  to  a 
supernatural  work,  it  sinks  below  the  level  of 
many  compositions  confessedly  of  human  ori- 
ginal ;  and  still  lower  does  it  fall  when  com- 
pared with  that  pure  and  perfect  pattern  which 
we  justly  admire  in  the  Scriptures  of  truth. 
The  first  praise  of  all  the  productions  of  genius 
is  invention ;  but  the  Koran  bears  little  im- 
pression of  this  transcendent  character.  It 
does  not  contain  one  single  doctrine  which  j 
may  not  fairly  be  derived  cither  from  the  Jew- 
ish and  Christian  Scriptures,  from  the  spurious 
and  apocryphal  Gospels,  then  current  in  the 
east,  from  the  Talmudical  legends,  or  from  the 
traditions,  customs,  and  opinions  of  the  Ara- 
bians. And  the  materials  collected  from  these 
several  sources  are  here  heaped  together  with 
perpetual  and  needless  repetitions,  without  any 
settled  principle,  or  visible  connection.  The 
most  prominent  feature  of  the  Koran,  that 
point  of  excellence  in  which  the  partiality  of 
its  admirers  has  ever  delighted  to  view  it,  is 
the  sublime  notion  it.  generally  impresses  of 
the  nature  and  attributes  of  God.  But  if  its 
author  had  really  derived  these  just  concep- 
tions from  the  inspiration  of  that  Being  whom 
they  attempt  to  describe,  they  would  not  have 
been  surrounded,  as  they  now  are,  on  every 
side  with  error  and  absurdity.  By  attempt- 
ing to  explain  what  is  inconceivable,  to  de- 
scribe what  is  ineffable,  and  to  materialize 
what  in  itself  is  spiritual,  he  absurdly  and  im- 
piously aimed  to  sensualize  the  purity  of  the 
ill .  Lne  essence.  But  it  might  easily  be  proved, 
thai  whatever  the  Koran  justly  defines  of  the 
divine  attributes,  was  borrowed  from  our  Holy 
Scriptures;  which,  even  from  their  first  pro- 
mulgation, but  especially  from  the  completion 
of  the  New  Testament,  have  extended  the 
views,  and  enlightened  the  understandings,  of 
kind. 
The  Koran,  indeed,  every  where  inculcates 
that  grand  and  fundamental  doctrine  of  the 
unity  of  the  gupreme  Being,  the  establishment 
of  which  was  constantly  alleged  by  the  im- 
postor as  the  primary  object  of  his  pretended 
m.-sio;i;  but  on  the  subject  of  the  Christian 


trinity,  its  author  seems  to  have  entertained 
vory  gross  and  mistaken  ideas,  and  to  have 
been  totally  ignorant  of  the  perfect  consistency 
of  that  opinion  with  the  unity  of  the  Deity. 
With  respect  to  the  great  doctrine  of  a  future 
life,  and  the  condition  of  the  soul  after  its  de- 
parture from  the  body,  it  must  indeed  be  ac- 
knowledged that  the  prophet  of  Arabia  has 
presented  us  with  a  nearer  prospect  of  the 
invisible  world,  and  disclosed  to  us  a  thousand 
particulars  concerning  it,  which  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures had  wrapped  in  the  most  profound  and 
mysterious  silence.  But  in  his  various  repre- 
sentations of  another  life,  he  generally  de- 
scends to  an  unnecessary  minuteness  and 
particularity,  which  excite  disgust  and  ridi- 
cule, instead  of  reverence.  He  constantly 
pretended  to  have  received  these  stupendous 
secrets  by  the  ministry  of  the  Angel  Gabriel, 
from  that  eternal  book  in  which  the  divine 
decrees  have  been  written  by  the  finger  of  the 
Almighty  from  the  foundation  of  the  world  ; 
but  the  learned  inquirer  will  discover  a  more 
accessible,  and  a  far  more  probable,  source 
whence  they  might  be  derived,  partly  in  the 
wild  and  fanciful  opinions  of  the  ancient 
Arabs,  and  chiefly  in  those  exhaustless  stores 
of  marvellous  and  improbable  fiction,  the  works 
of  the  rabbins.  Hence,  that  romantic  fable  of 
the  angel  of  death,  whose  peculiar  office  it  is, 
at  the  destined  hour,  to  dissolve  the  union  be- 
tween soul  and  body,  and  to  free  the  departing 
spirit  from  its  prison  of  flesh.  Hence,  too,  the 
various  descriptions  of  the  general  resurrec- 
tion and  final  judgment  with  which  the  Koran 
every  where  abounds  ;  and  hence  the  vast  but 
ideal  balance  in  which  the  actions  of  all  man- 
kind shall  then  be  impartially  weighed,  and 
their  eternal  doom  be  assigned  them,  either  in 
the  regions  of  bliss  or  misery,  according  as 
their  good  or  evil  deeds  shall  preponderate. 
Here,  too,  may  be  traced  the  grand  and  original 
outlines  of  that  sensual  paradise,  and  those 
luxurious  enjoyments,  which  were  so  success- 
fully employed  in  the  Koran,  to  gratify  the 
ardent  genius  of  the  Arabs,  and  allure  them  to 
the  standard  of  the  prophet. 

The  same  observation  which  has  been  ap- 
plied with  respect  to  the  sources  whence  the 
doctrines  were  drawn,  may,  with  some  fe.w 
limitations, be  likewise  extended  to  the  precepts 
which  the  Arabian  legislator  has  enjoined. 
That  the  Koran,  amidst  a  various  and  confused 
heap  of  ridiculous  and  even  immoral  precepts, 
contains  many  interesting  and  instructive  les- 
sons of  morality,  cannot  with  truth  be  denied. 
Of  these,  however,  the  merit  is  to  be  ascribed, 
not  to  the  feeble  imitation,  but  to  the  great  and 
perfect  original  from  which  they  were  mani- 
festly drawn.  Instead  of  improving  on  the 
Christian  precepts  by  a  superior  degree  of 
refinement ;  instead  of  exhibiting  a  purer  and 
more  perfect  system  of  morals  than  that  of  the 
Gospel;  the  prophet  of  Arabia  has  miserably 
debased  and  weakened  even  what  he  has  bor- 
rowed from  that  system.  We  are  told  by  our 
Saviour,  that  a  man  is  to  be  the  husband  of 
one  wife,  and  that  there  is  to  be  an  inseparable 
union  between  them.     By  Mohammed's  con- 


MAH 


615 


MAH 


fession,  Jesus  Christ  was  a  prophet  of  the  true 
God,  and  the  Holy  Spirit  was  with  him.  Yet  in 
the  Koran  we  find  permission  for  any  person  to 
have  four  wives,  and  as  many  concubines  as  he 
can  maintain.  Again  :  our  Saviour  expressly 
tells  us,  that,  at  the  resurrection,  "  they  will  nei- 
ther marry  nor  be  given  in  marriage  ;  but  be  like 
the  angels  of  God  in  heaven."  We  are  informed 
also  by  St.  Paul,  that  we  shall  be  changed,  and 
have  a  spiritual  and  glorified  body;  "for  flesh  and 
blood  cannot  inherit  the  kingdom  of  heaven ; 
neither  can  corruption  inherit  incorruption." 
But  Mohammed  gives  a  very  different  account : 
it  is  clear,  from  his  own  confession,  that  the 
happiness  promised  in  the  Koran  consists  in 
base  and  corporeal  enjoyments.  According  to 
its  author,  there  will  not  only  be  marriage,  but 
also  servitude  in  the  next  world.  The  very 
meanest  in  paradise  will  have  eighty  thousand 
servants,  and  seventy-two  wives  of  the  girls 
of  paradise,  beside  the  wives  he  had  in  this 
world ;  he  will  also  have  a  tent  erected  for 
him  of  pearls,  hyacinths,  and  emeralds.  And 
as  marriage  will  take  place,  so  a  new  race  will 
'  be  introduced  in  heaven ;  for,  says  the  Koran, 
"  If  any  of  the  faithful  in  paradise  be  desirous 
of  issue,  it  shall  be  conceived,  born,  and  grown 
up  in  the  space  of  an  hour."  But  on  the  con- 
tradiotions*in  point  of  doctrine,  though  suffi- 
cient of  themselves  to  confute  the  pretensions 
of  Mohammed,  we  forbear  to  insist. 

The  impure  designs  which  gave  birth  to  the 
whole  system  may  be  traced  in  almost  every 
subordinate  part;  even  its  subliinest  descrip- 
tions of  the  Deity,  even  its  most  exalted  moral 
precepts,  not  unfrequently  either  terminate  in, 
or  are  interwoven  with,  some  provision  to 
gratify  the  inordinate  cravings  of  ambition,  or 
some  license  for  the  indulgence  of  the  corrupt 
passions  of  the  human  heart.  It  has  allowed 
private  revenge,  in  the  case  of  murder;  it  has 
given  a  sanction  to  fornication  ;  and,  if  any 
weight  be  due  to  the  example  of  its  author,  it 
has  justified  adultery.  It  has  made  war,  and 
rapine,  and  bloodshed,  provided  they  be  exer- 
cised against  unbelievers,  not  only  meritorious 
acts,  but  even  essential  duties  to  the  good 
Musselman ;  duties  by  the  performance  of 
which  he  may  secure  the  constant  favour  and 
protection  of  God  and  his  prophet  in  this  life, 
and  in  the  next  entitle  himself  to  the  boundless 
joys  of  paradise.  In  the  Koran  are  advanced 
the  following  assertions,  among  others  already 
noticed :  That  both  Jews  and  Christians  are 
idolaters ;  that  the  patriarchs  and  Apostles 
were  Mohammedans ;  that  the  angels  wor- 
shipped Adam,  and  that  the  fallen  angels  were 
driven  from  heaven  for  not  doing  so  ;  that  our 
blessed  Saviour  was  neither  God,  nor  the  Son 
of  God ;  and  that  he  assured  Mohammed  of 
this  in  a  conference  with  the  Almighty  and 
him  ;  yet  that  he  was  both  the  word  and  Spirit 
of  God  :  not  to  mention  numberless  absurdities 
concerning  the  creation,  the  deluge,  the  end 
of  the  world,  the  resurrection,  the  day  of  judg- 
ment, too  gross  to  be  received  by  any  except 
the  most  debased  understandings. 

It  was  frequently  the  triumphant  boast  of 
St.  Paul,  that  the  Gospel  of  Jesus  Christ  had 


for  ever  freed  mankind  from  the  intolerable 
burden  of  ceremonial  observances.  But  the 
Koran  renews  and  perpetuates  the  slaver}',  by 
prescribing  to  its  votaries  a  ritual  still  more 
oppressive,  and  entangling  them  again  in  a 
yoke  of  bondage  yet  more  severe  than  that  of 
the  law.  Of  this  kind,  amidst  a  variety  of 
instances,  is  that  great  and  meritorious  act  of 
Mohammedan  devotion,  the  pilgrimage  to  the 
holy  city  of  Mecca;  an  act  which  the  Koran 
has  enjoined,  and  the  pious  Musselman  im- 
plicitly performs,  as  necessary  to  the  obtaining 
pardon  of  his  sins,  and  qualifying  him  to  be  a 
partaker  of  the  alluring  pleasures  and  exquisite 
enjoyments  of  paradise.  To  the  several  arti- 
cles of  faith  to  which  all  his  followers  were  to 
adhere,  Mohammed  added  four  fundamental 
points  of  religious  practice  ;  namely,  prayer 
five  times  a  day,  fasting,  alms-giving,  and  the 
pilgrimage  to  Mecca.  Under  the  first  of  these 
are  comprehended  those  frequent  washings  or 
purifications  which  ho  prescribed  as  necessary 
preparations  for  the  duty  of  prayer.  So  ne- 
cessary did  he  think  them,  that  he  is  said  to 
have  declared,  that  the  practice  of  religion  is 
founded  upon  cleanliness,  which  is  one  half 
of  faith,  and  the  key  of  prayer.  The  second 
of  these  he  conceived  to  be  a  duty  of  so  great 
moment,  that  he  used  to  say  it  was  the  gate 
of  religion,  and  that  the  odour  of  the  mouth 
of  him  who  fastetli  is  more  grateful  to  God 
than  that  of  musk.  The  third  is  looked  upon 
as  so  pleasing  in  the  sight  of  God,  that  the 
Caliph  Omar  Ebn  Abdalaziz  used  to  say, 
"Prayer  carries  us  half  way  to  God;  fasting 
brings  us  to  the  door  of  his  palace ;  and  alms 
procure  us  admission."  The  last  of  these  prac- 
tical religious  duties  is  deemed  so  necessary, 
that,  according  to  a  tradition  of  Mohammed, 
he  who  dies  without  performing  it,  "  may  as 
well  die  a  Jew  or  a  Christian."  As  to  the 
negative  precepts  and  institutions  of  this  reli- 
gion, the  Mohammedans  are  forbidden  the  use 
of  wine,  and  are  prohibited  from  gaming, 
usury,  and  the  eating  of  blood  and  swine's 
flesh,  and  whatever  dies  of  itself,  or  is  strangled, 
or  killed  by  a  blow,  or  by  another  beast. 
They  are  said,  however,  to  comply  with  the 
prohibition  of  gaming,  (from  which  chess 
seems  to  be  excepted,)  much  better  than  they 
do  with  that  of  wine,  under  which  all  strong 
and  inebriating  liquors  are  included ;  for  both 
the  Persians  and  Turks  are  in  tho  habit  of 
drinking  freely. 

However  successful  and  triumphant  from 
without,  the  progress  of  tho  followers  of  Mo- 
hammed received  a  considerable  check  by  the 
civil  dissensions  which  arose  among  them- 
selves soon  after  his  death.  Abubeker  and 
Ali,  the  former  the  father-in-law,  the  latter 
the  son-in-law,  of  this  pretended  prophet, 
aspired  both  to  succeed  him  in  the  empiro 
which  he  had  erected.  Upon  this  arose  a 
cruel  and  tedious  contest,  whose  flames  pro- 
duced that  schism  which  divided  the  Moham- 
medans into  two  great  factions ;  and  this 
separation  not  only  gave  rise  to  a  variety  of 
opinions  and  rites,  but  also  excited  the  most 
implacable  hatred,  and  the  most  deadly  ani. 


MAL 


616 


MAN 


tnogjtiee,  which  have  been  continued  to  the 
present  day.  With  such  furious  zeal  is  this 
contention  still  carried  on  between  these 
two  factions,  who  arc  distinguished  by  the 
name  of  Sonnites  and  Schiites,  that  eacli  party 
detest  and  anathematize  the  other  as  abomi- 
nable heretics,  and  farther  from  the  truth  than 
either  the  Christians  or  the  Jews.  The  chief 
points  in  which  they  differ  are  :  1.  The  Schi- 
ites reject  Abubeker,  Omar,  and  Othman,  the 
first  three  caliphs,  as  usurpers  and  intruders; 
but  the  Sonnites  acknowledge  and  respect 
them  as  rightful  caliphs  or  imams,  2.  The 
Schiites  prefer  Ali  to  Mohammed,  or,  at  least, 
esteem  them  both  equal ;  but  the  Sonnites 
adrpit  neither  Ali,  nor  any  of  the  prophets,  to 
be  equal  to  Mohammed.  3.  The  Sonnites 
charge  the  Schiites  with  corrupting  the  Koran, 
and  neglecting  its  precepts ;  and  the  Schiites 
retort  the  same  charge  on  the  Sonnites. 
4.  The  Sonnites  receive  the  Sonna,  or  book 
of  traditions  of  their  prophet,  as  of  canonical 
authority  ;  but  the  Schiites  reject  it  as  apocry- 
phal, and  unworthy  of  credit.  The  Sonnites 
are  subdivided  into  four  chief  sects,  of  which 
the  first  is  that  of  the  Hanefites,  who  generally 
prevail  among  the  Turks  and  Tartars ;  the 
second,  that  of  the  Malecites,  whose  doctrine  is 
chiefly  followed  in  Barbary,  and  other  parts  of 
Africa  ;  the  third,  that  of  the  Shafeites,  who  are 
chiefly  confined  to  Arabia  and  Persia;  and  the 
fourth  orthodox  sect  is  that  of  the  Hanbalites, 
who  are  not  very  numerous,  and  seldom  to  be 
met  with  out  of  the  limits  of  Arabia.  The 
heretical  sects  among  the  Mohammedans  are 
those  which  are  counted  to  hold  heterodox 
opinions  in  fundamentals,  or  matters  of  faith; 
and  they  are  variously  compounded  and  de- 
compounded of  the  opinions  of  four  chief 
sects ;  the  Motazalites,  the  Safatians,  the 
Kharejites,  and  the  Schiites. 

Ever  since  the  valour  of  John  Sobieski  rolled 
back  the  hosts  of  Jslamism  from  eastern  and 
central  Europe,  the  civil  dominion  of  the  false 
prophet  has  been  rather  retrograde  than  ad- 
vancing. A  free  philosophy  in  many  places 
is  destroying  the  influence  of  the  system 
among  the  better  informed  ;  and  the  barbarism 
and  misery  which  a  bad  government  inflicts 
upon  the  people,  weakens  its  power,  and  is 
preparing  the  way  for  great  changes.  The 
throwing  off  the  Turkish  yoke  by  the  Greeks, 
and  the  rising  greatness  of  Russia,  are  symp- 
toms of  the  approaching  subversion  of  Mo- 
hammedanism as  a  power ;  and  thus  the  fall 
of  this  eastern  antichrist  cannot  long  be 
delayed.  It  is,  indeed,  even  now  supported 
only  by  the  rival  interests  of  Christian  powers  ; 
and  a  new  combination  among  them  would 
suddenly  withdraw  its  only  support. 

\I  \I,ACHI,  the  last  of  the  twelve  minor 
prophets.  Malachj  prophesied  about  B.  C.  400  ; 
and  some  traditionary  accounts  state  that  he 
was  a  native  of  Sapha,  and  of  the  tribe  of 
Zebulun.  He  reproves  the  people  for  their 
wickedness,  and  the  priests  for  their  negligence 
in  the  discharge  of  their  office ;  he  threatens 
the  disobedient  with  the  judgments  of  God, 
and  promises  great  rewards  to  the  penitent  and 


pious  ;  he  predicts  the  coming  of  Christ,  and 
the  preaching  of  John  the  Baptist ;  and  with  a 
solemnity  becoming  the  last  of  the  prophets, 
he  closes  the  sacred  canon  with  enjoining  the 
strict  observance  of  the  Mosaic  law,  till  the 
forerunner,  already  promised,  should  appear 
in  the  spirit  of  Elias,  to  introduce  the  Mes. 
siah,  who  was  to  establish  a  new  and  everlast- 
ing covenant. 

MAMMON,  a  Syriac  word  which  signifies 
riches,  Matt,  vi,  24. 

MAMRE,  an  Amorite,  brother  of  Aner  and 
Eshcol,  and  friend  of  Abraham,  Gen.  xiv,  13. 
It  was  with  these  three  persons,  together  with 
his  own  and  their  domestics,  that  Abraham 
pursued  and  overcame  the  kings  after  their 
conquest  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah. 

2.  Mamre,  the  same  as«Hebron.  In  Gen. 
xxiii,  19,  it  is  said,  that  "Abraham  buried 
Sarah  in  the  cave  of  the  field  of  Machpelah, 
before  Mamre :  the  same  is  IJebron  in  the 
land  of  Canaan."  And  in  Gen.  xxxv,  27,  it  is 
said,  that  "Jacob  came  unto  Isaac  his  father, 
unto  Mamre,  unto  the  city  of  Arba,  which  is , 
Hebron."  The  city  probably  derived  its  name 
from  that  Mamre  who  joined  Abraham  in  the 
pursuit  of  Chedorlaomer,  and  the  rescue  of 
Lot,  Gen.  xiv. 

Mamre,  Plain  of,  a  plain  near^Ylamre,  or 
Hebron,  said  to  be  about  two  miles  to  the  south 
of  the  town.  Here  Abraham  dwelt  after  his 
separation  from  Lot ;  here  he  received  from 
God  himself  a  promise  of  the  land,  in  which  he 
was  then  a  stranger,  for  his  posterity ;  here  he 
entertained  the  angels  under  an  oak,  and 
received  a  second  promise  of  a  son  ;  and  here 
he  purchased  a  burying  place  for  Sarah;  which 
served  also  as  a  sepulchre  for  himself  and  the 
rest  of  his  family. 

MANAHEM  was  the  sixteenth  king  of 
Israel,  and  son  of  Gadi.  He  revenged  the 
death  of  his  master  Zachariah,  by  killing  Shal- 
lum,  son  of  Jabesh,  who  had  usurped  the  crown 
of  Israel,  A.  M.  3232,  2  Kings  xv,  13,  &c. 
Manahem  reigned  in  his  stead. 

MANASSEH,  the  eldest  son  of  Joseph,  and 
grandson  of  the  patriarch  Jacob,  Gen.  xli,  50, 
was  born,  A.  M.  2290,  B.  C.  1714.  The  name 
Manasseh  signifies  forgetfulness,  because  Jo- 
seph said,  "  God  hath  made  me  forget  all  my 
toil,  an4  all  rny  father's  house."  When  Jacob 
was  going  to  die,  Joseph  brought  his  two  sons 
to  him,  that  his  father  might  give  them  his 
last  blessing,  Gen.  xlviii.  Jacob,  having  seen 
them,  adopted  them.  The  tribe  of  Manasseh 
came  out  of  Egypt  in  number  thirty-two  thou- 
sand two  hundred  men,  upward  of  twenty 
years  old,  under  the  conduct  of  Gamaliel, 
son  of  Pedahzur,  Num.  ii,  20,  21.  This  tribe 
was  divided  in  the  land  of  promise.  One  half 
tribe  of  Manasseh  settled  beyond  the  river  Jor- 
dan, and  possessed  the  country  of  Bashan, 
from  the  river  Jabbok,  to  Mount  Libanus; 
and  the  othor  half  tribe  of  Manasseh  settled 
on  this  side  Jordan,  and  possessed  the  country 
between  the  tribe  of  Ephraim  south,  and  the 
tribe  of  Issachar  north,  having  the  river  Jor- 
dan east,  and  the  Mediterranean  Sea  west, 
Joshua  xvi ;  xvii. 


MAN 


617 


MAN 


2.  Manasseh,  the  fifteenth  king  of  Judah, 
and  son  and  successor  of  Hezekiah,  was  twelve 
years  old  when  he  began  to  reign,  and  reigned 
fifty-five  years,   2  Kings  xx,  21 ;   xxi,   1,  2 ; 
2  Chron.  xxxiii,  1,  2,  &c.    His  mother's  name 
was  Hephzibah.    He  did  evil  in  the  sight  of  the 
Lord  ;  worshipped  the  idols  of  the  land  of  Ca- 
naan ;  rebuilt  the  high  places  that  his  father 
Hezekiah  had  destroyed  ;  set  up  altars  to  Baal ; 
and  planted  groves  to  false  gods.     He  raised 
altars  to  the  whole   host  of  heaven,   in  the 
courts    of  God's    house ;    made   his   son    pass 
through  the  fire  in  honour  of  Moloch;  was 
addicted  to  magic,  divinations,  auguries,  and 
other  superstitions ;  set  up  the  idol  Astarte  in 
the   house   of  God ;    finally,   he    involved   his 
people  in  all  the  abomination  of  the  idolatrous 
nations  to  that  degree,  that  Israel  committed 
more  wickedness  than  the  Canaanites,  whom 
the  Lord  had  driven'  out  before  them.     To  all 
these  crimes  Manasseh  added  cruelty ;  and  he 
shed  rivers   of  innocent  blood  in  Jerusalem. 
The  Lord  being  provoked  by  so  many  crimes, 
threatened  him  by  his  prophets,  "  I  will  blot 
out  Jerusalem  as  a  writing  is  blotted  out  of  a 
writing  tablet."     The   calamities  which  God 
had  threatened  began  toward  the  twenty-second 
year  of  this  impious  prince.     The  king  of  As- 
syria sent  his  army  against  him,  who,  seizing 
him  among  the  briers  and  brambles  where  he 
was  hid,  fettered  his  hands  and  feet,  and  carried 
him  to  Babylon,  2  Chron.  xxxiii,  11,  12,  etc.   It 
was  probably  Sargon  or  Esar-haddon,  king  of 
Assyria,  who  sent  Tartan  into  Palestine,  and 
who  taking  Azoth,  attacked  Manasseh,  put  him 
in  irons,  and  led  him  away,  not  to  Nineveh, 
but  to  Babylon,    of  which   Esar-haddon    had 
become  master,  and  had  reunited  the  empires 
of  the  Assyrians  and  the  Chaldeans.   Manasseh, 
in  bonds  at  Babylon,  humbled  himself  before 
God,  who  heard  his  prayers,  and  brought  him 
back  to  Jerusalem ;   and   Manasseh  acknow- 
ledged the  hand  of  the  Lord.     Manasseh  was 
probably  delivered  out  of  prison  by  Saosduchin, 
the  successor  of  Esar-haddon,  2  Chron.  xxxiii, 
13,  14,  &c.     Being  returned  to  Jerusalem,  he 
restored  the  worship  of  the  Lord ;  broke  down 
the  altars  of  the  false  gods  ;  abolished  all  traces 
of  their  idolatrous  worship  ;  but  he  did  not  de- 
stroy the  high  places  :  which  is  the  only  thing 
Scripture  reproaches  him  with,  after  his  return 
from   Babylon.     He   caused  Jerusalem  to  be 
fortified ;  and  he  inclosed  with  a  wall  another 
city,  which  in  his  time  was  erected  west  of 
Jerusalem,  and  which  went  by  the  name  of  the 
second  city,  2  Chron.  xxxiii,  14.     He  put  gar- 
risons into   all   the   strong   places  of  Judah. 
Manasseh  died  at  Jerusalem,  and  was  buried 
in  the  garden  of  his  house,  in  the  garden  of 
Uzza,  2  Kings  xxi,  18.     He  was  succeeded  by 
his  son  Amon. 

MANDRAKE,  o^n,  Gen.  xxx,  14-16; 
Cant,  vii,  13.  Interpreters  have  wasted  much 
time  and  pains  in  endeavouring  to  ascertain 
what  is  intended  by  the  Hebrew  word  dudaim. 
Some  translate  it  by  "violet,"  others,  "lilies," 
"jasmines,"  "truffle  or  mushroom,"  and  some 
think  that  the  word  means  "  flowers,"  or  "  fine 
flowers,"  in  general.     Bochart,  Calmat,   and 


Sir  Thomas  Browne,  suppose  the  citron  in- 
tended ;   Celsius   is   persuaded   that  it    is   the 
fruit  of  the  lote  tree ;  Hiller,  that  cherries  are 
spoken  of;  and  Ludolf maintains  that  it  is  the 
fruit  which  the  Syrians  call  inauz,  resembling 
in   figure   and  taste   the   Indian   fig ;  but  the 
generality  of  interpreters  and   commentators 
understand  by  dudaim,  mandrakes,  a  species 
of  melon  ;  and  it  is  so  rendered  in  the  Septua- 
gint,  and  in  both  the  Targums,  on  Gen.  xxx,  14. 
It  appears  from  Scripture,  that  they  were  in 
perfection   about  the   time  of  wheat  harvest, 
have  an  agreeable  odour,  may  be  preserved, 
and  are  placed  with  pomegranates.     Hassel- 
quist,  the  pupil  and  intimate  friend  of  Linnaeus, 
who  travelled  into  the  Holy  Land  to  make  dis- 
coveries in  natural  history,  imagines  that  the 
plant  commonly  called  mandrake,  is  intended. 
Speaking  of  Nazareth,   in   Galilee,   he   says, 
"  What  I  found  most  remarkable  at  this  village 
was  the    great   number  of  mandrakes  which 
grew  in  a  vale  below  it.     I  had  not  the  plea- 
sure to  see  this  plant  in  blossom,  the  fruit  now 
(May   5th,  O.  S.)  hanging  ripe  on  the  stem, 
which  lay  withered  on  the  ground.     From  the 
season  in  which  this  mandrake  blossoms  and 
ripens  fruit,  one  may  form  a  conjecture  that  it 
was  Rachel's   dudaim.     These   were   brought 
her  in  the  wheat  harvest,  which  in  Galilee  is 
in  the  month  of  May,  about  this  time,  and  the 
mandrake  was  now  in  fruit." 

MANICHjEANS,  or  MANICHEES,  a  de- 
nomination founded  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
third  century,  by  Mani,  Manes,  or  Manichseus. 
Being  a  Persian  or  Chaldean  by  birth,  and  edu- 
cated among  the  magi,  he  attempted  a  coalition 
of  their  doctrine  with  the  Christian  system,  or 
rather,  the  explication  of  the  one  by  the  other. 
Dr.  Lardner,  so  far  from  taking  Mani  and  his 
followers  for  enthusiasts,  as  some  have  done, 
thinks  they  erred  on  the  other  side,  and  were 
rather  a  sect  of  reasoners  and  philosophers, 
than  visionaries  and  enthusiasts.  So  Faustus, 
one  of  their  leaders,  says,  the  doctrine  of  Mani 
taught  him  not  to  receive  every  thing  recom- 
mended as  said  by  our  Saviour,  but  first  to 
examine  and  consider  whether  it  be  true,  sound, 
right,  genuine ;  while  the  Catholics,  he  says, 
swallowed  every  thing,  and  acted  as  if  they 
despised  the  benefit  of  human  reason,  and  were 
afraid  to  examine  and  distinguish  between 
truth  and  falsehood.  St.  Augustine,  it  is  well 
known,  was  for  some  time  among  this  sect ; 
but  they  were  not  pretensions  to  inspiration, 
but  specious  and  alluring  promises  of  rational 
discoveries,  by  which  Augustine  was  deluded, 
ns  he  particularly  states  in  his  letter  to  his 
friend  Honoratus.  So  Beausobre  remarks : 
"These  heretics  were  philosophers,  who, 
having  formed  certain  systems,  accommodated 
revelation  to  them,  which  was  the  servant  of 
their  reason,  not  the  mistress." 

Mani,  according  to  Dr.  Lardner,  believed  in 
an  eternal  self-existent  Being,  completely  happy 
and  perfect  in  goodness,  whom  alone  he  called 
God,  in  a  strict  and  proper  sense  ;  but  he  be- 
lieved, also,  in  an  evil  principle  or  being, 
which  he  called  hyle,  or  the  devil,  whom  he 
considered  as  the  god  of  this  world,  blinding 


MAN 


618 


MAN 


the  eyes  of  them  that  believe  not,  2  Cor.  iv,  4. 
God,  the  supreme  and  good,  they  considered 
as  the  Author  of  the  universe  ;  and,  according 
to  St.  Augustine,  they  believed,  also,  in  a 
consubstantial  trinity,  though  they  strangely 
supposed  the  Father  to  dwell  in  light  inac- 
cessible, the  Son  to  have  his  residence  in  the 
solar  orb,  and  the  Holy  Spirit  to  be  diffused 
throughout  the  atmosphere  ;  on  which  account 
they  paid  a  superstitious,  and  perhaps  an  idol- 
atrous, reverence  to  the  sun  and  moon.  Their 
belief  in  the  evil  principle  was,  no  doubt, 
adopted  to  solve  the  mysterious  question  of 
the  origin  of  evil,  which,  says  Dr.  Lardner, 
was  the  ruin  of  these  men,  and  of  many  others. 
As  to  the  hyle,  or  the  devil,  though  they  dared 
not  to  consider  him  as  the  creature  of  God, 
neither  did  they  believe  in  his  eternity;  for 
they  contended,  from  the  Greek  text  of  John 
viii,  41,  that  lie  had  a  father.  But  they  admit- 
ted the  eternity  of  matter,  which  they  called 
darkness  ;  and  supposed  hyle  to  be  the  result  of 
some  wonderful  and  unaccountable  commotion 
in  the  kingdom  of  darkness,  which  idea  seems 
to  be  borrowed  from  the  Mosaic  chaos.  In 
this  commotion  darkness  became  mingled  with 
light,  and  thus  they  account  for  good  and  evil 
being  so  mixed  together  in  the  world.  Having 
thus  brought  hyle,  or  Satan,  into  being,  they 
next  found  an  empire  and  employment  for  him. 
Every  tiling,  therefore,  which  they  conceived 
unworthy  of  the  fountain  of  goodness,  they  attri- 
buted to  the  evil  being ;  particularly  the  mate- 
rial world,  the  Mosaic  dispensation,  and  the 
Scriptures  on  which  it  was  founded.  This 
accounts  for  their  rejecting  the  Old  Testament. 
Dr.  Lardner  contends,  however,  that  they 
received  generally  the  books  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament, though  they  objected  to  particular 
passages  as  corrupted,  which  they  could  not 
reconcile  to  their  system.  On  Rom.  vii,  Mani 
founded  the  doctrine  of  two  souls  in  man,  two 
active  principles ;  one,  the  source  and  cause 
of  vicious  passions,  deriving  its  origin  from 
matter ;  the  other,  the  cause  of  the  ideas  of 
just  and  right,  and  of  inclinations  to  follow 
those  ideas,  deriving  its  origin  from  God. 
Considering  all  sensual  enjoyments  to  be  in 
some  degree  criminal,  they  were  enemies  to 
marriage;  though,  at  the  same  time,  knowing 
that  all  men  cannot  receive  this  saying,  they 
allowed  it  to  the  second  class  of  their  disci- 
ples, called  auditors ;  but  by  no  means  to  the 
perfect  or  confirmed  believers.  Another  absurd 
consequence  of  believing  the  moral  evil  of 
matter  was,  that  they  denied  the  real  existence 
of  Christ's  human  nature,  and  supposed  him  to 
suffer  and  die  in  appearance  only.  According 
to  them,  lie  took  the  form  only  of  man  ;  a 
notion  that  was  afterward  adopted  by  Moham- 
med, and  which  necessarily  excludes  all  faith  in 
the  atonement.  Construing  too  literally  the 
assertion  that  flesh  and  blood  could  not  inherit 
the  kingdom  of  God,  they  denied  the  doctrine 
of  the  resurrection.  Christ  came,  they  said,  to 
save  the  souls  of  men,  and  not  the  bodies.  No 
part  of  matter,  according  to  them,  could  be 
worthy  of  salvation.  In  many  leading  prin- 
ciples they   thus    evidently    agreed   with    the 


Gnostics,  of  whom,  indeed,  they  may  be  con- 
sidered  a  branch. 

MANNA,  p,  Exod.  xvi,  15,  33,  35 ;  Num. 
xi,  6,  7,  9 ;  Josh,  v,  12  ;  Neh.  ix,  20 ;  Psa.  lxxviii, 
24 ;  puna,  John  vi,  31,  49,  58 ;  Heb.  ix,  4 ;  Rev. 
ii,  17 ;  the  food  which  God  gave  the  children 
of  Israel  during  their  continuance  in  the  deserts 
of  Arabia,  from  the  eighth  encampment  in  the 
wilderness  of  Sin.  Moses  describes  it  as  white 
like  hoar  frost,  round,  and  of  the  bigness  of 
coriander  seed.  It  fell  every  morning  upon 
the  dew;  and  when  the  dew  was  exhaled  by 
the  heat  of  the  sun,  the  manna  appeared  alone, 
lying  upon  the  rocks  or  the  sand.  It  fell  every 
day  except  on  the  Sabbath,  and  this  only  around 
the  camp  of  the  Israelites.  Every  sixth  day 
there  fell  a  double  quantity;  and  though  it  pu- 
trefied and  bred  maggots  when  it  was  kept  any 
other  day,  yet  on  the  Sabbath  there  was  no 
such  alteration.  The  same  substance  which 
was  melted  by  the  heat  of  the  sun  when  it  was 
left  abroad,  was  of  so  hard  a  consistence  when 
brought  into  the  tent,  that  it  was  beaten  in 
mortars,  and  would  even  endure  the  fire,  being 
made  into  cakes  and  baked  in  pans.  It  fell  in 
so  great  quantities  during  the  whole  forty 
years  of  their  journey,  that  it  was  sufficient  to 
feed  the  whole  multitude  of  above  a  million  of 
souls.  Every  man,  that  is,  every  male  or 
head  of  a  family,  was  to  gather  each  day  the 
quantity  of  an  omer,  about  three  quarts  Eng- 
lish measure  ;  and  it  is  observed  that  "  he 
that  gathered  much  had  nothing  over,  and  he 
that  gathered  little  had  no  lack,"  because  his 
gathering  was  in  proportion  to  the  number  of 
persons  for  whom  he  had  to  provide.  Or  every 
man  gathered  as  much  as  he  could  ;  and  then, 
when  brought  home  and  measured  by  an  omer, 
if  he  had  a  surplus,  it  went  to  supply  the  wants 
of  some  other  family  that  had  not  been  able  to 
collect  a  sufficiency,  the  family  being  large, 
and  the  time  in  which  the  manna  might  be 
gathered,  before  the  heat  of  the  day,  not  being 
sufficient  to  collect  enough  for  so  numerous  a 
household,  several  of  whom  might  be  so  con- 
fined as  not  to  be  able  to  collect  for  themselves. 
Thus  there  was  an  equality;  and  in  this  light 
the  words  of  St.  Paul  lead  us  to  view  the  pas- 
sage, 2  Cor.  viii,  15.  To  commemorate  their 
living  upon  manna,  the  Israelites  were  directed 
to  put  one  omer  of  it  into  a  golden  vase ;  and 
it  was  preserved  for  many  generations  by  the 
side  of  the  ark. 

Our  translators  and  others  make  a  plain 
contradiction  in  the  relation  of  this  account 
of  the  manna,  by  rendering  it  thus :  "  And 
when  the  children  of  Israel  saw  it,  they  said 
one  to  another,  It  is  manna ;  for  they  knew 
not  what  it  was ;"  whereas  the  Septuagint, 
and  several  authors,  both  ancient  and  mo- 
dern, have  translated  the  text  according  to 
the  original :  "  The  Israelites  seeing  this, 
said  one  to  another,  What  is  it  ?  Nin  p ;  for 
they  knew  not  what  it  was,"  and  therefore 
they  could  not  give  it  a  name.  Moses  im- 
mediately answers  the  question,  and  says, 
"  This  is  the  bread  which  the  Lord  hath  given 
you  to  eat."  From  Exod.  xvi,  31,  we  learn 
that    this  substance  was  afterward  called  p, 


MAR 


619 


MAR 


probably  in  commemoration  of  the  question 
they  had  asked  on  its  first  appearance.  What 
this  substance  was,  we  know  not.  It  was 
nothing  that  was  common  in  the  wilderness. 
It  is  evident  that  the  Israelites  never  saw  it 
before ;  for  Moses  says,  "  He  fed  thee  with 
manna  which  thou  knewest  not,  neither  did 
thy  fathers  know,"  Deut.  viii,  3,  16;  and  it  is 
very  likely  that  nothing  of  the  kind  had 
ever  been  seen  before ;  and  by  a  pot  of  it 
being  laid  up  in  the  ark,  it  is  as  likely  that 
nothing  of  the  kind  ever  appeared  after  the 
miraculous  supply  in  the  wilderness  had 
ceased.  The  author  of  the  book  of  Wisdom, 
xvi,  '20,  21,  says,  that  the  manna  so  accommo- 
dated itself  to  every  one's  taste  that  it  proved 
palatable  and  pleasing  to  all.  It  has  been 
remarked  that  at  this  day,  what  is  called 
manna  is  found  in  several  places ;  in  Arabia, 
on  Mount  Libanus,  Calabria,  and  elsewhere. 
The  most  famous  is  that  of  Arabia,  which  is 
a  kind  of  condensed  honey,  which  exudes  from 
the  leaves  of  trees,  from  whence  it  is  collected 
when  it  has  become  concreted.  Salmasius 
thinks  this  of  the  same  kind  which  fed  the 
children  of  Israel ;  and  that  the  miracle  lay, 
not  in  creating  any  new  substance,  but  in 
making  it  fall  duly  at  a  set  time  every  day 
throughout  the  whole  year,  and  that  in  such 
plenty  as  to  suffice  so  great  a  multitude.  But 
in  order  for  this,  the  Israelites  must  be  sup- 
posed every  day  to  have  been  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  trees  on  which  this  substance 
is  formed ;  which  was  not  the  case,  neither  do 
these  trees  grow  in  those  deserts.  Beside, 
this  kind  of  manna  is  purgative,  and  the 
stomach  could  not  endure  it  in  such  quantity 
as  is  implied  by  its  being  eaten  for  food.  The 
whole  history  of  the  giving  the  manna  is  evi- 
dently miraculous ;  and  the  manna  was  truly 
"  bread  from  heaven,"  as  sent  by  special  inter- 
position of  God. 

MANOAH,  the  father  of  Samson,  was  of 
the  tribe  of  Dan,  and  a  native  of  the  city  of 
Zorah,  Judges  xiii,  6-23.     See  Samson. 

MARAH,  or  MARA,  a  word  which  signi- 
fies bitterness.  When  the  Israelites  came  out 
of  Egypt,  and  had  arrived  at  the  desert  of 
Etham,  they  found  the  water  so  bitter  that 
neither  themselves  nor  their  cattle  could  drink 
of  it,  Exod.  xv,  23.  On  this  account  they 
gave  the  name  of  Marah  to  that  encampment. 
And  here  their  murmurings  began  against 
Moses ;  for  they  asked,  "  What  shall  we. 
drink  ?"  Moses  prayed  to  the  Lord,  who 
instructed  him  to  take  a  particular  kind  of 
wood,  and  cast  it  into  the  water,  which  he 
did  ;  and  immediately  the  water  became  palat- 
able. According  to  the  orientals,  this  wood 
was  called  Alnah. 

MARANATHA.     See  Anathema. 

MARBLE,  ti"ty,  1  Chron.xxix,  2;  Esther  i, 
G;  Canticles  v,  15;  a  valuable  kind  of  stone, 
of  a  texture  so  hard  and  compact,  and  of  a 
grain  so  fine,  as  readily  to  take  a  beautiful 
polish.  It  is  dug  out  of  quarries  in  large 
masses,  and  is  much  used  in  buildings,  orna- 
mental pillars,  &c.  Marble  is  of  different 
colours,  black,  white,  &c ;  and  is  sometimes  | 


elegantly  clouded  and  variegated.  The  stone 
mentioned  in  the  places  cited  above  is  called 
the  stone  of  sis  or  sish  :  the  LXX  and  Vulgate 
render  it  "  Parian  stone,"  which  was  remark- 
able for  its  bright  white  colour.  Probably  the 
cliff  Ziz,  2  Chron.  xx,  16,  was  so  called  from 
being  a  marble  crag  :  the  place  was  afterward 
called  Petra.  The  variety  of  stones,  ana,  tt"ir, 
"n,  mnD,  mentioned  in  the  pavement  of 
Ahasuerus,  might  be  marble  of  different 
colours.  The  ancients  sometimes  made  pave- 
ments wherein  were  set  very  valuable  stones. 

MARK  was  the  nephew  of  Barnabas,  being 
his  sister's  son  ;  and  he  is  supposed  to  have 
been  converted  to  the  Gospel  by  St.  Peter, 
who  calls  him  his  son,  1  Peter  v,  13 ;  but  no 
circumstances  of  his  conversion  are  recorded. 
The  first  historical  fact  mentioned  of  him  in 
the  New  Testament  is,  that  he  went,  in  the 
year  44,  from  Jerusalem  to  Antioch,  with 
Paul  and  Barnabas.  Not  long  after,  he  set 
out  from  Antioch  with  those  Apostles  upon  a 
journey,  which  they  undertook  by  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Holy  Spirit,  for  the  purpose  of 
preaching  the  Gospel  in  different  countries  : 
but  he  soon  left  them,  probably  without  suffi- 
cient reason,  at  Perga  in  Pamphylia,  and  went 
to  Jerusalem,  Acts  xiii.  Afterward,  when 
Paul  and  Barnabas  had  determined  to  visit  the 
several  churches  which  they  had  established, 
Barnabas  proposed  that  they  should  take 
Mark  with  them ;  to  which  Paul  objected, 
because  Mark  had  left  them  in  their  former 
journey.  This  produced  a  sharp  contention 
between  Paul  and  Barnabas,  which  ended  in 
their  separation.  Mark  accompanied  his  uncle 
Barnabas  to  Cyprus,  but  it  is  not  mentioned 
whither  they  went  when  they  left  that  island. 
We  may  conclude  that  St.  Paul  was  afterward 
reconciled  to  St.  Mark, 'from  the  manner  in 
which  he  mentions  him  in  his  epistles  written 
subsequently  to  this  dispute  ;  and  particularly 
from  the  direction  which  he  gives  to  Timothy  : 
"  Take  Mark,  and  bring  him  with  thee ;  for 
he  is  profitable  to  me  for  the  ministry,"  2 
Tim.  iv,  11.  No  farther  circumstances  are 
recorded  of  St.  Mark  in  the  New  Testament ; 
but  it  is  believed,  upon  the  authority  of  an- 
cient writers,  that  soon  after  his  journey  with 
Barnabas  he  met  Peter  in  Asia,  and  that  he 
continued  with  him  for  some  time ;  perhaps 
till  Peter  suffered  martyrdom  at  Rome. 
Epiphanius,  Eusebius,  and  Jerom,  all  assert 
that  Mark  preached  the  Gospel  in  Egypt; 
and  the  two  latter  call  him  bishop  of  Alex- 
andria. 

Dr.  Lardner  thinks  that  St.  Mark's  Gospel 
is  alluded  to  by  Clement  of  Rome ;  but  the 
earliest  ecclesiastical  writer  upon  record  who 
expressly  mentions  it  is  Papias.  It  is  men- 
tioned, also,  by  Irenaeus,  Clement  of  Alexan- 
dria, Tertullian,  Origen,  Eusebius,  Epiphanius, 
Jerom,  Augustine,  Chrysostom,  and  many 
others.  The  works  of  these  fathers  contain 
numerous  quotations  from  this  Gospel;  and, 
as  their  testimony  is  not  contradicted  by  any 
ancient  writer,  we  may  safely  conclude  that 
the  Gospel  of  St.  Mark  is  genuine.  The  au- 
thority of  this  Gospel  is  not  affected  by  the 


MAR 


620 


MaR 


question  concerning  the  identity  of  Mark  the 
evangelist,  and  Mark  the  nephew  of  Barnabas  ; 
since  all  agree  that  the  writer  of  this  Gospel 
was  the  familiar  companion  of  St.  Peter,  and 
that  he  was  qualified  For  the  work  which  he 
undertook,  by  having  heard,  for  many  years, 
the  public  discourses  and  private  conversation 
of  that  Apostle. 

Some  writers  have  asserted  that  St.  Peter 
revised  and  approved  this  Gospel,  and  others 
have  not  scrupled  to  call  it  the  Gospel  accord- 
ing to  St.  Peter ;  by  which  title  they  did  not 
mean  to  question  St.  Mark's  right  to  be  con- 
sidered as  the  author  of  this  Gospel,  but  merely 
to  give  it  the  sanction  of  St.  Peter's  name. 
The  following  passage  in  Eusebius  appears  to 
contain  so  probable  an  account  of  the  occa- 
sion of  writing  this  Gospel,  and  comes  sup- 
ported by  such  high  authority,  that  we  think 
it  right  to  transcribe  it:  "  The  lustre  of  piety 
so  enlightened  the  minds  of  Peter's  hearers  at 
Rome,  that  they  were  not  contented  with  the 
bare  hearing  and  unwritten  instruction  of  his 
divine  preaching,  but  they  earnestly  requested 
St.  Mark,  whose  Gospel  we  have,  being  an 
attendant  upon  St.  Peter,  to  leave  with  them 
a  written  account  of  the  instructions  which 
had  been  delivered  to  them  by  word  of  mouth  ; 
nor  did  they  desist  till  they  had  prevailed  upon 
him ;  and  thus  they  were  the  cause  of  the 
writing  of  that  Gospel,  which  is  called  accord- 
ing to  St.  Mark  ;  and  they  say,  that  the  Apos- 
tle being  informed  of  what  was  done,  by  the 
revelation  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  was  pleased 
with  the  zeal  of  the  men,  and  authorized  the 
writing  to  be  introduced  into  the  churches. 
Clement  gives  this  account  in  the  sixth  book 
of  his  Institutions ;  and  Papias,  bishop  of 
Hierapolis,  bears  testimony  to  it."  Jerom  also 
says,  that  St.  Mark  wrote  a  short  Gospel  from 
what  he  had  heard  from  St.  Peter,  at  the  re- 
quest of  the  brethren  at  Rome,  which,  when 
St.  Peter  knew,  he  approved,  and  published  it 
in  the  church,  commanding  the  reading  of  it 
by  his  own  authority. 

Different  persons  have  assigned  different 
dates  to  this  Gospel ;  but  there  being  almost, 
a  unanimous  concurrence  of  opinion,  that  it 
was  written  while  St.  Mark  was  with  St. 
Peter  at  Rome,  and  not  finding  any  ancient 
authority  for  supposing  that  St.  Peter  was  in 
that  city  till  A.  D.  64,  we  are  inclined  to  place 
the  publication  of  this  Gospel  about  A.  D.  65. 
St.  Mark  having  written  this  Gospel  for  the 
use  of  the  Christians  at  Rome,  which  was  at 
that  time  the  great  metropolis  and  common 
centre  of  all  civilized  nations,  we  accordingly 
find  it  free  from  all  peculiarities,  and  equally 
accommodated  to  every  description  of  persons. 
Quotations  from  the  ancient  prophets,  and 
allusions  to  Jewish  customs,  are,  as  much  as 
possible,  avoided;  and  such  explanations  are 
added  as  might  be  necessary  for  Gentile  read- 
ers at  Rome  ;  thus,  when  Jordan  is  first  men- 
tioned in  this  Gospel,  the  word  river  is  pre- 
fixed, Mark  i,  5 ;  the  oriental  word  corban  is 
said  to  mean  a  gift,  Mark  vii,  11 ;  the  prepara- 
tion is  said  to  be  the  day  before  the  Sabbath, 
Mark  xv,  42;   and   defiled  hands  are  said  to 


mean  unwashed  hands,  Mark  vii,  2 ;  and  the 
superstition  of  the  Jews  upon  that  subject  is 
stated  more  at  large  than  it  would  have  been 
by  a  person  writing  at  Jerusalem. 

Some  learned  men,  from  a  collation  of  St. 
Matthew's  and  St.  Mark's  Gospels  have  pointed 
out  the  use  of  the  same  words  and  expressions 
in  so  many  instances  that  it  has  been  supposed 
St.  Mark  wrote  with  St.  Matthew's  Gospel 
before  him  ;  but  the  similarity  is  not  strong 
enough  to  warrant  such  a  conclusion  ;  and 
seems  no  greater  than  might  have  arisen  from 
other  causes.  St.  Peter  would  naturally  recite 
in  his  preaching  the  same  events  and  dis- 
courses which  St.  Matthew  recorded  in  his 
Gospel ;  and  the  same  circumstances  might  be 
mentioned  in  the  same  manner  by  men  who 
sought  not  after  "  excellency  of  speech,"  but 
whose  minds  retained  the  remembrance  of  facts 
or  conversations  which  strongly  impressed 
them,  even  without  taking  into  consideration 
the  idea  of  supernatural  guidance.  We  may 
farther  observe  that  the  idea  of  St.  Mark's 
writing  from  St.  Matthew's  Gospel  does  not 
correspond  with  the  account  given  by  Eusebius 
and  Jerom  as  stated  above. 

MARK  ON  THE  FOREHEAD.  See 
Forehead. 

MARONITES,  a  sect  of  eastern  Christians 
who  follow  the  Syrian  rite,  and  are  subject  to 
the  pope ;  their  principal  habitation  being  on 
Mount  Libanus,  or  between  the  Ansarians  to 
the  north  and  the  Druses  to  the  south.  Mo- 
sheim  informs  us,  that  the  Monothelites, 
condemned  and  exploded  by  the  council  of 
Constantinople,  found  a  place  of  refuge  among 
the  Mardaites,  signifying  in  Syriac  rebels,  a 
people  who  took  possession  of  Lebanon, 
A.  D.  676,  which  became  the  asylum  of  vaga- 
bonds, slaves,  and  all  sorts  of  rabble  ;  and 
about  the  conclusion  of  the  seventh  century 
they  were  called  Maronites,  after  Maro,  their 
first  bishop;  a  name  which  they  still  retain. 
None,  he  says,  of  the  ancient  writers,  give 
any  certain  account  of  the  first  person  who 
instructed  these  mountaineers  in  the  doctrine 
of  the  Monothelites  ;  it  is  probable,  however, 
from  several  circumstances,  that  it  was  John 
Maro,  whose  name  they  have  adopted ;  and 
that  this  ecclesiastic  received  the  name  of  Maro 
from  his  having  lived  in  the  character  of  a 
monk,  in  the  famous  convent  of  St.  Maro, 
upon  the  borders  of  the  Orontes,  before  his 
settlement  among  the  Mardaites  of  Mount 
Libanus.  One  thing  is  certain,  from  the  testi- 
mony of  Tyrius,  and  other  unexceptionable 
witnesses,  as  also  from  the  most  authentic 
records,  namely,  that  tho  Maronites  retained 
the  opinions  of  the  Monothelites  until  the 
twelfth  century,  when,  abandoning  and  re- 
nouncing the  doctrine  of  ene  will  in  Christ, 
they  were  readmitted  into  the  communion  of 
the  Roman  church.  The  most  learned  of  the 
modern  Maronites  have  left  no  method  unem- 
ployed to  defend  their  church  against  this 
accusation  ;  they  have  laboured  to  prove,  by 
a  variety  of  testimonies,  that  their  ancestors 
always  persevered  in  the  Catholic  faith,  and 
in   their  attachment  to  the    Roman   pontiff, 


MAR 


621 


MAR 


without  ever  adopting  the  doctrine  of  the 
Monophysites  or  Monothelites.  But  all  their 
efforts  are  insufficient  to  prove  the  truth  of 
these  assertions,  and  the  testimonies  they 
allege  will  appear  absolutely  fictitious  and 
destitute  of  authority. 

The  nation  may  be  considered  as  divided 
into  two  classes,  the  common  people  and  the 
shaiks,  by  whom  must  be  understood  the  most 
eminent  of  the  inhabitants,  who,  from  the 
antiquity  of  their  families,  and  the  opulence 
of  their  fortunes  are  superior  to  the  ordinary 
class.  They  all  live  dispersed  in  the  mount- 
ains,  in  villages,  hamlets,  and  even  detached 
houses  ;  which  is  never  the  case  in  the  plains. 
The  whole  nation  consists  of  cultivators. 
Every  man  improves  the  little  domain  he  pos- 
sesses, or  farms,  with  his  own  hands.  Even 
the  shaiks  live  in  the  same  manner,  and  are 
only  distinguished  from  the  rest  by  a  bad  pe- 
liss,  a  horse,  and  a  "few  slight  advantages  in 
food  and  lodging  ;  they  all  live  frugally,  with- 
out many  enjoyments,  but  also  with  few  wants, 
as  they  are  little  acquainted  with  the  inven- 
tions of  luxury.  In  general,  the  nation  is 
poor,  but  no  one  wants  necessaries ;  and  if 
beggars  are  sometimes  seen,  they  come  rather 
from  the  sea  coast  than  the  country  itself. 
Property  is  as  sacred  among  them  as  in  Eu- 
rope ;  nor  do  we  see  there  those  robberies  and 
extortions  so  frequent  with  the  Turks.  Travel- 
lers may  journey  there,  either  by  night  or  by 
day,  with  a  security  unknown  in  any  other 
part  of  the  empire,  and  the  stranger  is  received 
with  hospitality,  as  among  the  Arabs  :  it  must 
be  owned,  however,  that  the  Maronites  are 
less  generous,  and  rather  inclined  to  the  vice 
of  parsimony.  Conformably  to  the  doctrines 
of  Christianity,  they  have  only  one  wife,  whom 
they  frequently  espouse  without  having  seen, 
and  always  without  having  been  much  in  her 
company.  Contrary  to  the  precepts  of  that 
same  religion,  however,  they  have  admitted, 
or  retained,  the  Arab  custom  of  retaliation, 
and  the  nearest  relation  of  a  murdered  person 
is  bound  to  avenge  him.  From  a  habit  founded 
on  distrust,  and  the  political  state  of  the  coun- 
try, every  one,  whether  shaik  or  peasant,  walks 
continually  armed  with  a  musket  and  poinards. 
This  is,  perhaps,  an  inconvenience  ;  but  this 
advantage  results  from  it,  that  they  have  no 
novice-;  in  the  use  of  arms  among  them,  when 
it  is  necessary  to  employ  them  against  the 
Turks.  As  the  country  maintains  no  regular 
troops,  every  man  is  obliged  to  join  the  army 
in  time  of  war ;  and  if  this  militia  were  weil 
conducted,  it  would  be  superior  to  many  Eu- 
ropean armies.  From  accounts  taken  in  late 
years,  the  number  of  men  fit  to  bear  arms, 
amounts  to  thirty-five  thousand. 

In  religious  matters  the  Maronites  are  de- 
pendent on  Rome.  Though  they  acknowledge 
the  supremacy  of  the  pope,  their  clergy  con- 
tinue, as  heretofore,  to  elect  a  head,  with  the 
title  of  batrak,  or  patriarch  of  Antioch.  Their 
priests  marry,  as  in  the  first  ages  of  tin  church  ; 
but  their  wives  must  be  maidens,  and  not 
widows ;  nor  can  they  marry  a  second  time. 
They  celebrate  mass  in  Syriac,     f  which  the 


greatest  part  of  them  comprehend  not  a  word. 
The  Gospel,  alone,  is  read  aloud  in  Arabic, 
that  it  may  be  understood  by  the  people.  The 
communion  is  administered  in  both  kinds.  In 
the  small  country  of  the  Maronites  there  are 
reckoned  upward  of  two  hundred  convents  for 
men  and  women.  These  religious  are  of  the 
order  of  St.  Anthony,  whose  rules  they  ob- 
serve with  an  exactness  which  reminds  us  of 
earlier  times.  The  court  of  Rome,  in  affiliat- 
ing the  Maronites,  has  granted  them  a  hospi- 
tium  at  Rome,  to  which  they  may  send  several 
of  their  youth  to  receive  a  gratuitous  educa- 
tion. It  should  seem  that  this  institution 
might  introduce  among  them  the  ideas  and 
arts  of  Europe  ;  but  the  pupils  of  this  school, 
limited  to  an  education  purely  monastic,  bring 
home  nothing  but  the  Italian  language,  which 
is  of  no  use,  and  a  stock  of  theological  learn- 
ing, from  which  as  little  advantage  can  be 
derived ;  they  accordingly  soon  assimilate 
with  the  rest.  Nor  has  a  greater  change 
been  operated  by  the  three  or  four  missiona- 
ries maintained  by  the  French  capuchins  at 
Gazir,  Tripoli,  and  Bairout.  Their  labours 
consist  in  preaching  in  their  church,  in  in- 
structing children  in  the  catechism,  Thomas 
a  Kempis,  and  the  Psalms,  and  in  teaching 
them  to  read  and  write.  Formerly,  the  Jesuits 
had  two  missionaries  at  their  house  at  Antoura, 
and  the  Lazarites  have  now  succeeded  them 
in  their  mission.  The  most  valuable  advantage 
that  has  resulted  from  these  labours  is,  that 
the  art  of  writing  has  become  more  common 
among  the  Maronites,  and  rendered  them,  in 
this  country,  what  the  Copts  are  in  Egypt,  that 
is,  they  are  in  possession  of  all  the  posts  of 
writers,  intendants,  and  kaiyas  among  the 
Turks,  and  especially  of  those  among  their 
allies  and  neighbours,  the  Druses. 

Mosheim  observes,  that  the  subjection  of 
the  Maronites  to  the  spiritual  jurisdiction  of 
the  Roman  pontiff  was  agreed  to  with  this 
express  condition,  that  neither  the  popes  nor 
their  emissaries  should  pretend  to  change  or 
abolish  any  thing  that  related  to  the  ancient 
rites,  mora!  precepts,  or  religious  opinions  of 
this  people  :  so  that,  in  reality,  there  is  nothing 
to  be  found  among  the  Maronites  that  savours 
of  popery,  if  we  except  their  attachment  to  the 
Roman  pontiff.  It  is  also  certain  that  there  are 
Maronites  in  Syria,  who  still  behold  the  church 
of  Rome  with  the  greatest  aversion  and  abhor- 
rence ;  nay,  what  is  still  more  remarkable, 
great  numbers  of  that  nation  residing  in  Italy, 
even  under  the  eye  of  the  pontiff,  opposed  his 
authority  during  the  seventeenth  century,  and 
threw  the  court  of  Rome  into  great  perplexity. 
One  body  of  these  non-conforming  Maronites 
retired  into  the  valleys  of  Piedmont,  where 
they  joined  the  Waldenses  ;  another,  above 
six  hundred  in  number,  with  a  bishop,  and 
several  ecclesiastics  at  their  head,  flew  into 
Corsica,  and  implored  the  protection  of  the 
republic  of  Genoa,  against  the  violence  of  the 
inquisitors. 

MARRIAGE,  a  civil  and  religious  contract, 
by  which  a  man  is  joined  and  united  to  a  wo- 
man, for  the  ends  of  procreation.    The  essence 


MAR 


622 


MAR 


of  marriage  consists  in  the  mutual  consent  of 
the  parties.  Marriage  is  a  part  of  the  law  of 
nations,  and  is  in  use  among  all  people.  The 
public  use  of  marriage  institutions  consists, 
according  to  Archdeacon  Paley,  in  their  pro- 
moting the  following  beneficial  effects  :  1.  The 
private  comfort  of  individuals.  2.  The  pro- 
duction of  the  greatest  number  of  healthy  chil- 
dren, their  better  education,  and  the  making 
of  due  provision  for  their  settlement  in  life. 
3.  The  peace  of  human  society,  in  cutting  off 
a  principal  source  of  contention,  by  assigning 
one  or  more  women  to  one  man,  and  protect, 
ing  his  exclusive  right  by  sanctions  of  morality 
and  law.  4.  The  better  government  of  society, 
by  distributing  the  community  into  separate 
families,  and  appointing  over  each  the  au- 
thority of  a  master  of  a  family,  which  has  more 
actual  influence  than  all  civil  authority  put 
together.  5.  The  additional  security  which 
the  state  receives  for  the  good  behaviour  of  its 
citizens,  from  the  solicitude  they  feel  for  the 
welfare  of  their  children,  and  from  their  being 
confined  to  permanent  habitations.  6.  The 
encouragement  of  industry. 

Whether  marriage  be  a  civil  or  a  religious 
contract,  has  been  a  subject  of  dispute.  The 
truth  seems  to  be  that  it  is  both.  It  has  its 
engagements  to  men,  and  its  vows  to  God.  A 
Christian  state  recognizes  marriage  as  a  branch 
of  public  morality,  and  a  source  of  civil  peace 
and  strength.  It  is  connected  with  the  peace 
of  society  by  assigning  one  woman  to  one 
man,  and  the  state  protects  him,  therefore,  in 
her  exclusive  possession.  Christianity,  by 
allowing  divorce  in  the  event  of  adultery,  sup- 
poses, also,  that  the  crime  must  be  proved  by 
proper  evidence  before  the  civil  magistrate  ; 
and  lest  divorce  should  be  the  result  of  un- 
founded suspicion,  or  be  made  a  cover  lor 
license,  the  decision  of  the  case  could  safely 
be  lodged  no  where  else.  Marriage,  too,  as 
placing  one  human  being  more  completely 
under  the  power  of  another  than  any  other 
relation,  requires  laws  for  the  protection  of 
those  who  are  thus  so  exposed  to  injury.  The 
distribution  of  society  into  families,  also,  can 
only  be  an  instrument  for  promoting  the  order 
of  the  community,  by  the  cognizance  which 
the  law  takes  of  the  head  of  a  family,  and  by 
making  him  responsible,  to  a  certain  extent, 
for  the  conduct  of  those  under  his  influence. 
Questions  of  property  are  also  involved  in 
marriage  and  its  issue.  The  law  must,  there- 
fore, for  these  and  many  other  weighty  rea- 
sons, be  cognizant  of  marriage  ;  must  prescribe 
various  regulations  respecting  it ;  require  pub- 
licity of  the  contract;  and  guard  some  of  the 
great  injunctions  of  religion  in  the  matter  by 
penalties.  In  every  well  ordered  society  mar- 
riage must  be  placed  under  the  cognizance  and 
control  of  the  state.  But  then  thoso  who 
would  have  the  whole  matter  to  lie  between 
the  parties  themselves,  and  the  civil  magis- 
trate, appear  wholly  to  forget  that,  marriage  is 
also  a  solemn  religious  act,  in  which  vows  are 
made  to  God  by  both  persons,  who,  when  the 
rite  is  properly  undei  tood,  engage  to -abide  by 
ill  those  laws  with  which  he  lias  guarded  the 


institution  ;  to  love  and  cherish  each  other  , 
and  to  remain  faithful  to  each  other  until  death. 
For  if,  at  least,  they  profess  belief  in  Chris- 
tianity, whatever  duties  are  laid  upon  husbands 
and  wives  in  Holy  Scripture,  they  engage  to 
obey,  by  the  very  act  of  their  contracting  mar- 
riage. The  question,  then,  is  whether  such 
vows  to  God  as  are  necessarily  involved  in 
marriage,  are  to  be  left  between  the  parties 
and  God  privately,  or  whether  they  ought  to 
be  publicly  made  before  his  ministers  and  the 
church.  On  this  the  Scriptures  are  silent ; 
but  though  Michaelis  has  shown  that  the 
priests  under  the  law  were  not  appointed  to 
celebrate  marriage  ;  yet  in  the  practice  of  the 
modern  Jews  it  is  a  religious  ceremony,  the 
chief  rabbi  of  the  synagogue  being  present, 
and  prayers  being  appointed  for  the  occasion. 
This  renders  it  probable  that  the  character  of 
the  ceremony  under  the  law,  from  the  most 
ancient  times,  was  a  religibus  one.  The  more 
direct  connection  of  marriage  wTith  religion  in 
Christian  states,  by  assigning  its  celebration 
to  the  ministers  of  religion,  appears  to  be  a 
very  beneficial  custom,  and  one  which  the 
state  has  a  right  to  enjoin.  For  since  the 
welfare  and  morals  of  society  are  so  much 
interested  in  the  performance  of  the  mutual 
duties  of  the  married  state ;  and  since  those 
duties  have  a  religious  as  well  as  a  civil  cha- 
racter, it  is  most  proper  that  some  provision 
should  be  made  for  explaining  those  duties ; 
and  for  this  a  standing  form  of  marriage  is 
best  adapted.  By  acts  of  religion,  also,  they 
are  more  solemnly  impressed  upon  the  parties. 
When  this  is  prescribed  in  any  state,  it  becomes 
a  Christian  cheerfully,  and  even  thankfully,  to 
comply  with  a  custom  of  so  important  a  tend- 
ency, as  matter  of  conscientious  subjection  to 
lawful  authority,  although  no  Scriptural  pre- 
cept can  be  pleaded  for  it.  That  the  ceremony 
should  be  confined  to  the  clergy  of  an  esta- 
blished church,  is  a  different  consideration. 
We  think  that  the  religious  effect  would  be 
greater,  were  the  ministers  of  each  religious 
body  to  be  authorized  by  the  state  to  celebrate 
marriages  among  their  own  people,  due  pro- 
vision being  previously  made  by  the  civil 
magistrate  for  the  regular  and  secure  registry 
of  them,  and  to  prevent  the  laws  respecting 
marriage  from  being  evaded ;  which  is  indeed 
his  business.  The  offices  of  religion  would 
then  come  in  by  way  of  sanction  and  moral 
enforcement. 

When  this  important  contract  is  once  made, 
then  certain  rights  are  acquired  by  the  parties 
mutually,  who  are  also  bound  by  reciprocal 
duties,  in  the  fulfilment  of  which  the  practical 
virtue  of  each  consists.  And  here  the  superior 
character  of  the  morals  of  the  New  Testament, 
as  well  as  their  higher  authority,  is  illustrated. 
It  may,  indeed,  be  within  t he  scope  of  mere 
moralists  to  show  that  fidelity,  and  affection,  and 
all  the  courtesies  necessary  to  maintain  affec- 
tion, arc  rationally  obligatory  upon  those  who 
are  connected  by  the  nuptial  bond  ;  but  in  Chris- 
tianity nuptial  fidelity  is  guarded  by  the  express 
law,  "Thou  shalt  not  commit  adultery;"  and 
by  our  Lord's  exposition  of  the  spirit  of  that 


MAR 


623 


MAR 


law  which  forbids  the  indulgence  of  loose 
thoughts  and  desires,  and  places  the  purity  of 
the  heart  under  the  guardianship  of  that  hal- 
lowed fear  which  his  authority  tends  to  inspire. 
Affection,  too,  is  made  a  matter  of  diligent  cul- 
tivation upon  considerations,  and  by  a  stand- 
ard, peculiar  to  our  religion.  Husbands  are 
placed  in  a  relation  to  their  wives,  similar  to 
that  which  Christ  bears  to  his  church,  and  his 
example  is  thus  made  their  rule.  As  Christ 
loved  the  church,  so  husbands  are  to  love  their 
wives  ;  as  Christ  "  gave  himself,"  his  life,  "  for 
the  church,"  Eph.  v,  25,  so  are  they  to  hazard 
life  for  their  wives;  as  Christ  saves  his  church, 
so  is  it  the  bounden  duty  of  husbands  to  en- 
deavour, by  every  possible  means,  to  promote 
the  religious  edification  and  salvation  of  their 
wives.  The  connection  is  thus  exalted  into  a 
religious  one  ;  and  when  love  which  knows  no 
abatement,  protection  at  the  hazard  of  life, 
and  a  tender  and  constant  solicitude  for  the 
salvation  of  a  wife,  are  thus  enjoined,  the 
greatest  possible  security  is  established  for 
the  exercise  of  kindness  and  fidelity.  The 
oneness  of  this  union  is  also  more  forcibly 
stated  in  Scripture  than  any  where  beside. 
"  They  twain  shall  be  one  flesh."  "  So  ought 
men  to  love  their  wives  as  their  own  bodies ; 
he  that  loveth  his  wife  loveth  himself.  For 
no  man  ever  yet  hated  his  own  flesh,  but  nour- 
isheth  and  cherisheth  it,  even  as  the  Lord  the 
church."  Precept  and  illustration  can  go  no 
higher  than  this ;  and  nothing  evidently  is 
wanting  either  of  direction  or  authority  to 
raise  the  state  of  marriage  into  the  highest, 
most  endearing,  and  sanctified  relation  in 
which  two  human  beings  can  stand  to  each 
other. 

2.  We  find  but  few  laws  in  the  books  of 
Moses  concerning  the  institution  of  marriage. 
Though  the  Mosaic  law  no  where  obliges  men 
to  marry,  the  Jews  have  always  looked  upon 
it  as  an  indispensable  duty  implied  in  the  words, 
"  Increase  and  multiply,"  Gen.  i,  28  ;  so  that  a 
man  who  did  not  marry  his  daughter  before 
she  was  twenty  years  of  age,  was  looked  upon 
as  accessary  to  any  irregularities  the  young 
woman  might  be  guilty  of  for  want  of  being 
timely  married.  Moses  restrained  the  Israel- 
ites from  marrying  within  certain  degrees  of 
consanguinity ;  which  had  till  then  been  per- 
mitted, to  prevent  their  taking  wives  from 
among  the  idolatrous  nations  among  whom 
they  lived.  Abraham  gave  this  as  a  reason 
for  choosing  a  wife  for  Isaac  from  among  his 
own  kindred,  Gen.  xxxiv,  3,  &c.  But  when 
his  descendants  became  so  exceedingly  multi- 
plied, this  reason  ceased  ;  and  the  great  law- 
giver prohibited,  under  pain  of  death,  certain 
degrees  of  kindred  as  incestuous.  Polygamy, 
though  not  expressly  allowed,  is  however 
tacitly  implied  in  the  laws  of  Moses,  Gen.  xxxi ; 
Exod.  xxi,  10.  This  practice  likewise  was  au- 
thorized by  the  example  of  the  patriarchs.  Thus 
Jacob  married  both  the  daughters  of  Laban. 
In  respect  to  which  custom,  Moses  enjoins  that, 
upon  the  marriage  of  a  second  wife,  a  man 
shall  be  bound  to  continue  to  the  first  her 
food,  raiment,  and  the  duty  of  marriage.    The 


Jews  did  not  always  content  themselves  with 
the  allowance  of  two  wives,  as  may  be  seen  in 
the  examples  of  David,  Solomon,  and  many 
others.  However,  they  made  a  distinction 
between  the  wives  of  the  first  rank,  and  those 
of  the  second.  The  first  they  called  nashim, 
and  the  other  pilgashim;  which  last,  though 
most  versions  render  it  by  the  words  "  concu- 
bines," "  harlots,"  and  "  prostitutes,"  yet  it  has 
no  where  in  Scripture  any  6uch  bad  sense. 
There  is  a  particular  law  called  the  Levirate, 
which  obliged  a  man,  whose  brother  died  with- 
out issue,  to  marry  his  widow,  and  raise  up 
seed  to  his  brother,  Deut.  xxv,  5,  &c.  But 
Moses  in  some  measure  left  it  to  a  man's 
choice,  whether  he  would  comply  with  this 
law  or  not ;  for  in  case  of  a  refusal,  the  widow 
could  only  summon  him  before  the  judges  of 
the  place,  when,  if  he  persisted,  she  untied  his 
shoe,  and  spit  in  his  face,  and  said,  "  Thus 
shall  it  be  done  unto  the  man  who  refuses  to 
build  up  his  brother's  house."  A  man  was  at 
liberty  to  marry  not  only  in  the  twelve  tribes, 
but  even  out  of  them,  provided  it  was  among 
such  nations  as  used  circumcision  ;  such  were 
the  Midianites,  Ishmaelites,  Edomites,  Moab- 
ites,  and  Egyptians.  Accordingly,  we  find 
Moses  himself  married  to  a  Midianite,  and 
Boaz  to  a  Moabite.  Amasa  was  the  son  of 
Jether,  an  Ishmaelite,  by  Abigail,  David's 
sister ;  and  Solomon,  in  the  beginning  of  his 
reign,  married  Pharaoh's  daughter.  When- 
ever we  find  him  and  other  kings  blamed  for 
marrying  strange  women,  we  must  understand 
it  of  those  nations  which  were  idolatrous  and 
uncircumcised. 

It  appears  almost  impossible  to  Europeans, 
says  Mr.  Hartley,  that  a  deception  like  that  of 
Laban's  could  be  practised.  But  the  following 
extract,  from  a  journal  which  I  kept  at  Smyrna, 
presents  a  parallel  case:  "The  Armenian  brides 
are  veiled  during  the  marriage  ceremony  ;  and 
hence  deceptions  have  occurred,  in  regard  to 
the  person  chosen  for  wife.  I  am  informed 
that,  on  one  occasion,  a  young  Armenian  at 
Smyrna  solicited  in  marriage  a  younger  daugh- 
ter, whom  he  admired.  The  parents  of  the 
girl  consented  to  the  request,  and  every  pre- 
vious arrangement  was  made.  When  the  time 
for  solemnizing  the  marriage  arrived,  the  elder 
daughter,  who  was  not  so  beautiful,  was  con- 
ducted by  the  parents  to  the  altar,  and  the 
young  man  was  unconsciously  married  to  her. 
And  '  it  came  to  pass,  that  in  the  morning, 
behold,  it  was  the  elder  daughter.'  The  deceit 
was  not  discovered,  till  it  could  not  be  recti- 
fied ;  and  the  manner  in  which  the  parents 
justified  themselves  was  precisely  that  of  La- 
ban  :  '  It  must  not  be  so  done  in  our  country, 
to  give  the  younger  before  the  first-born.'  It  is 
really  the  rule  among  the  Armenians,  that 
neither  a  younger  son  nor  daughter  be  mar- 
ried, till  their  elder  brother  or  sister  have 
preceded  them."  I  was  once  present  at  the 
solemnization  of  matrimony  among  the  Ar- 
menians ;  and  some  recollections  of  it  may 
tend  to  throw  light  on  this  and  other  passages 
of  Scripture.  The  various  festivities  attend- 
ant on  these  occasions  continue  for  three  days  ; 


MAR 


624 


MAR 


and  during  the  last  night  the  marriage  is  cele- 
brated. I  was  conducted  to  the  house  of  the 
bride,  where  I  found  a  very  large  assemblage 
of  persons.  The  company  was  dispersed 
through  various  rooms;  reminding  me  of  the 
directions  of  our  Saviour,  in  regard  to  the 
choice  of  the  lowermost  rooms  at  feasts.  On 
the  ground  floor  I  actually  observed  that  the 
persons  convened  were  of  an  inferior  order  of 
the  community,  while  in  the  upper  rooms  were 
assembled  those  of  higher  rank.  The  large 
number  of  young  females  who  were  present, 
naturally  reminded  me  of  the  wise  and  foolish 
virgins  in  our  Saviour's  parable.  These  being 
friends  of  the  bride,  the  virgins,  her  compa- 
nions, had  come  to  meet  the  bridegroom, 
Psalm  xlv,  14.  It  is  usual  for  the  bridegroom 
to  come  at  midnight ;  so  that,  literally,  at  mid- 
night the  cry  is  made,  "  Behold,  the  bride- 
groom coineth  !  go  ye  out  to  meet  him,"  Matt. 
xxv,  6.  But,  on  this  occasion  the  bridegroom 
tarried :  it  was  two  o'clock  before  he  arrived. 
The  whole  party  then  proceeded  to  the  Arme- 
nian church,  where  the  bishop  was  waiting  to 
receive  them ;  and  there  the  ceremony  was 
completed.      See  Divorce  and  Bride. 

MARTHA  was  sister  of  Lazarus  and  Mary, 
and  mistress  of  the  house  where  our  Saviour 
was  entertained,  in  the  village  of  Bethany. 
Martha  is  always  named  before  Mary,  probably 
because  she  was  the  elder  sister. 

MARY,  the  mother  of  Jesus,  and  wife  of 
Joseph.  She  is  called  by  the  Jews  the  daugh- 
ter of  Eli ;  and  by  the  early  Christian  writers, 
the  daughter  of  Joakim  and  Anna  :  but  Joakim 
and  Eliakim  are  sometimes  interchanged, 
2  Chron.  xxxvi,  4;  and  Eli,  or  Heli,  is  there- 
fore the  abridgment  of  Eliakim,  Luke  iii,  23. 
She  was  of  the  royal  race  of  David,  as  was 
also  Joseph  her  husband ;  and  she  was  also 
cousin  to  Elizabeth,  the  wife  of  Zacharias  the 
priest,  Luke  i,  5,  3G.  Mary  being  espoused  to 
Joseph,  the  Angel  Gabriel  appeared  to  her,  to 
announce  to  her  that  she  should  be  the  mother 
of  the  Messiah,  Luke  i,  26,  27,  &c.  To  con- 
firm his  message,  and  to  show  that  nothing  is 
impossible  to  God,  he  added  that  her  cousin 
Elizabeth,  who  was  old,  and  had  been  hitherto 
barren,  was  then  in  the  sixth  month  of  her 
pregnancy.  Mary  answered,  "  Behold  the 
handmaid  of  the  Lord,  be  it  unto  me  according 
to  thy  word ;"  and  presently  she  conceived. 
She  set  out  for  Hebron,  a  city  in  the  mount- 
ains of  Judah,  to  visit  her  cousin  Elizabeth. 
As  soon  as  Elizabeth  heard  the  voice  of  Mary, 
her  child,  John  the  Baptist,  leaped  in  her 
womb;  and  she  was  filled  with  the  Holy 
Ghost,  and  spake  with  a  loud  voice,  saying, 
"  Blessed  art  thou  among  women,"  &c.  Then 
Mary  praised  God,  saying,  "My  soul  doth 
magnify  me  Lord,  and  my  spirit  hath  rejoiced 
in  God  my  Saviour,"  &c.  Mary  continued 
with  Elizabeth  about  three  months,  and  thon 
returned  to  her  own  house.  An  edict  of  Cre- 
sai  Augustus  having  decreed,  that  all  subjects 
of  the  empire  should  goto  their  own  cities,  to 
register  their  names  according  to  their  fami- 
lies, Joseph  and  Mary,  who  were  both  of  the 
lineage  of  David,   went    to  Bethlehem,  from 


whence  sprung  their  family.  But  while  they 
were  here,  the  time  being  fulfilled  in  which 
Mary  was  to  be  delivered,  she  brought  forth 
her  first-born  son.  She  wrapped  him  in  swad- 
dling clothes,  and  laid  him  in  the  manger  of 
the  stable  or  cavern  whither  they  had  retired, 
because  there  was  no  room  in  the  inn.  Angels 
made  this  event  known  to  shepherds,  who 
were  in  the  fields  near  Bethlehem,  and  these 
came  in  the  night  to  Joseph  and  Mary,  and 
saw  the  child  lying  in  the  manger,  and  paid 
him  their  adoration.  The  presentation  of 
Christ  in  the  temple,  the  flight  into  Egypt,  the 
slaughter  of  the  innocents,  and  other  events 
connected  with  the  birth  and  infancy  of  our 
Lord,  are  plainly  related  in  the  Gospels. 

Mary  and  Joseph  went  every  year  to  Jeru- 
salem to  the  passover ;  and  when  Jesus  was 
twelve  years  of  age,  they  took  him  with  them. 
When  they  were  returning,  the  youth  con- 
tinued at  Jerusalem,  without  their  perceiving 
it.  Three  days  after,  they  found  him  in  the 
temple,  sitting  among  the  doctors,  hearing 
them  and  asking  them  questions.  Afterward, 
he  returned  with  them  to  Nazareth,  and  lived 
in  filial  submission  to  them.  But  his  mother 
laid  up  all  these  things  in  her  heart,  Luke  ii, 
51,  &c.  The  Gospel  speaks  nothing  more  of 
the  Virgin  Mary  till  the  marriage  at  Cana  of 
Galilee,  at  which  she  was  present  with  her 
son  Jesus.  She  was  at  Jerusalem  at  the  last 
passover  our  Saviour  celebrated  there.  There 
she  saw  all  that  w,as  transacted  ;  followed  him 
to  Calvary ;  and  stood  at  the  foot  of  his  cross 
with  an  admirable  constancy  and  courage. 
Jesus  seeing  his  mother,  and  his  beloved  dis- 
ciple near,  he  said  to  his  mother,  "  Woman, 
behold  thy  son  ;  and  to  the  disciple,  Behold 
thy  mother.  And  from  that  hour  the  disciple 
took  her  home  to  his  own  house."  No  farther 
particulars  of  this  favoured  woman  are  men- 
tioned, except  that  she  was  a  witness  of 
Christ's  resurrection.  A  veil  is  drawn  over 
her  character  and  history  ;  as  though  with  the 
design  to  reprove  that  wretched  idolatry  of 
which  she  was  made  the  subject  when  Chris- 
tianity became  corrupt  and  paganized. 

2.  Mary,  the  mother  of  John  Mark,  a  dis- 
ciple of  the  Apostles.  She  had  a  house  in 
Jerusalem,  whither,  it  is  thought,  the  Apostles 
retired  after  the  ascension  of  our  Lord,  and 
where  they  received  the  Holy  Ghost.  After 
the  imprisonment  of  St.  Peter,  the  faithful 
assembled  in  this  house,  and  were  praying 
there  when  Peter,  delivered  by  the  ministry 
of  an  angel,  knocked  at  the  door  of  the  house, 
Acts  xii,  12. 

3.  Mary,  of  Cleophas.  St.  Jerom  says,  she 
bore  the  name  of  Cleophas,  either  because  of 
her  father,  or  for  some  other  reason  which 
cannot  now  be  known.  Others  believe,  with 
greater  probability,  that  she  was  wife  of  Cleo- 
phas, as  our  version  of  the  New  Testament 
makes  her,  by  supplying  the  word  wife,  John 
xix,  25,  and  mother  of  James  the  less,  and  of 
Simon,  brethren  of  our  Lord.  These  last 
mentioned  authors  take  Mary  mother  of  James, 
and  Mary  wife  of  Cleophas,  to  be  the  same 
person,  Matthew  xxvii,  56 ;  Mark  xv,  40,  41 ; 


MAR 


625 


MAS 


Luke  xxiv,  10  ;  John  xix,  25.  St.  John  gives 
her  the  name  of  Mary  of  Cleophas ;  and  the 
other  evangelists,  the  name  of  Mary,  mother 
of  James.  Cleophas  and  Alpheus  are  the  same 
person  ;  as  James,  son  of  Mary,  wife  of  Cleo- 
phas, is  the  same  as  James,  son  of  Alpheus. 
It  is  thought  she  was  the  sister  of  the  Virgin 
Mary,  and  that  she  was  the  mother  of  James 
the  less,  of  Joses,  of  Simon,  and  of  Judas, 
who  in  the  Gospel  are  named  the  brethren  of 
Jesus  Christ,  Matt,  xiii,  55 ;  xxvii,  56 ;  Mark 
vi,  3 ;  that  is,  his  eousin-germans.  She  was 
an  early  believer  in  Jesus  Christ,  and  attended 
him  on  his  journeys,  to  minister  to  him.  She 
was  present  at  the  last  passover,  and  at  the 
death  of  our  Saviour  she  followed  him  to  Cal- 
vary ;  and  during  his  passion  she  was  with  the 
mother  of  Jesus  at  the  foot  of  the  cross.  She 
was  also  present  at  his  burial ;  and  on  the 
Friday  before  had,  in  union  with  others,  pre- 
pared the  perfumes  to  embalm  him,  Luke 
xxiii,  56.  But  going  to  his  tomb  very  early 
on  the  Sunday  morning,  with  other  women, 
they  there  learned  from  the  mouth  of  an  angel, 
that  he  was  risen ;  of  which  they  carried  the 
news  to  the  Apostles,  Luke  xxiv,  1-5 ;  Matt, 
xxviii,  9.  By  the  way,  Jesus  appeared  to  them  ; 
and  they  embraced  his  feet,  worshipping  him. 
This  is  all  we  know  with  certainty  concerning 
Mary,  the  wife  of  Cleophas. 

4.  Mary,  sister  of  Lazarus,  who  has  been 
preposterously  confounded  with  that  female 
sinner  spoken  of,  Luke  vii,  37-39.  She  lived 
with  her  brother  and  her  sister  Martha  at 
Bethany;  and  Jesus  Christ,  having  a  particular 
affection  for  this  family,  often  retired  to  their 
house  with  his  disciples.  Six  days  before  the 
passover,  after  having  raised  Lazarus  from  the 
dead,  he  came  to  Bethany  with  his  disciples, 
and  was  invited  to  sup  with  Simon  the  leper, 
John  xii,  1,  &c  ;  Matthew  xxvi,  6,  &c  ;  Mark 
xiv,  3,  &c.  Martha  attended  at  the  table,  and 
Lazarus  was  one  of  the  guests.  Upon  this 
occasion,  Mary,  taking  a  pound  of  spikenard, 
which  is  the  most  precious  perfume  of  its  kind, 
poured  it  upon  the  head  and  feet  of  Jesus.  She 
wiped  his  feet  with  her  hair,  and  the  whole 
house  was  filled  with  the  odour  of  the  perfume. 
Judas  Iscariot  murmured  at  this  ;  but  Jesus 
justified  Mary  in  what  she  had  done,  saying, 
that  by  this  action  she  had  prevented  his  em- 
balmment, and  in  a  manner  had  declared  his 
death  and  burial,  which  were  at  hand.  From 
this  period  the  Scriptures  make  no  mention 
of  either  Mary  or  Martha. 

5.  Mary  Magdalene,  so  called,  it  is  proba- 
ble, from  Magdala,  a  town  of  Gtililee,  of  which 
she  was  a  native,  or  where  she  had  resided 
during  the  early  part  of  her  life.  Out  of  her, 
St.  Luke  tells  us,  Jesus  had  cast  seven  devils, 
Luke  viii,  2.  He  informs  us,  also,  in  the  same 
place,  that  Jesus,  in  company  with  his  Apostles, 
preached  the  Gospel  from  city  to  city  ;  and 
that  there  were  several  women  with  them, 
whom  he  had  delivered  from  evil  spirits,  and 
healed  of  their  infirmities;  among  whom  was 
this  Mary,  whom  some,  without  a  shadow  of 
proof,  have  supposed  to  be  the  sinful  woman 
spoken  of,  Luke  vii,  37-39 ;  as  others  have  as 

41 


erroneously  imagined  her  to  be  Mary,  the  sister 
of  Lazarus.  Mary  Magdalene  is  mentioned 
by  the  evangelists  as  being  one  of  those  women 
that  followed  our  Saviour,  to  minister  to  him, 
according  to  the  custom  of  the  Jews.  She 
attended  him  in  the  last  journey  he  made  from 
Galilee  to  Jerusalem,  and  was  at  the  foot  of 
the  cross  with  the  holy  virgin,  John  xix,  25 ; 
Mark  xv,  47  ;  after  which  she  returned  to 
Jerusalem,  to  buy  and  prepare  with  others 
certain  perfumes,  that  she  might  embalm  him 
after  the  Sabbath  was  over,  which  was  then 
about  to  begin.  All  the  Sabbath  day  she  re- 
mained in  the  city  ;  and  the  next  day,  early  in 
the  morning,  went  to  the  sepulchre  along*  with 
Mary,  the  mother  of  James,  and  Salome,  Mark 
xvi,  1,  2 ;  Luke  xxiv,  1,  2.  For  other  par- 
ticulars respecting  her,  see  also  Matt,  xxviii, 
1-5 ;  John  xx,  11-17.  In  Dr.  Townley's 
Essays,  there  is  one  of  considerable  research 
on  Mary  Magdalene  ;  and  his  conclusion  is, 
that  it  is  probable  that  the  woman  mentioned 
by  St.  Luke,  and  called  in  the  English  trans- 
lation "  a  sinner,"  had  formerly  been  a  Hea- 
then ;  but  whether  subsequently  a  proselyte  to 
Judaism  or  not,  is  uncertain  ;  and  that,  having 
been  brought  to  the  knowledge  of  Christian 
truth,  and  having  found  mercy  from  the  Re- 
deemer, she  pressed  into  Simon's  house,  and 
gave  the  strongest  proofs  of  her  gratitude  and 
veneration  by  anointing  the  Saviour's  feet, 
bedewing  them  with  her  tears,  and  wiping 
them  with  the  hairs  of  her  head  : — that  by  a 
wilful  and  malicious  misrepresentation,  the 
Jews  confounded  Mary  Magdalene  with  Mary 
the  mother  of  Jesus,  and  represented  her  as 
an  infamous  character : — and  that,  from  the 
blasphemous  calumny  of  the  Jews,  a  stigma 
of  infamy  has  been  affixed  to  the  name  of 
Mary  Magdalene,  and  caused  her  to  be  re- 
garded in  the  false  light  of  a  penitent  prosti- 
tute. There  is  no  doubt  but  that  Mary  Mag- 
dalene, both  in  character  and  circumstances, 
was  a  woman  of  good  reputation. 

MASCHIL,  a  title,  or  inscription,  at  the 
head  of  several  psalms  of  David  and  others, 
in  the  book  of  Psalms.  Thus  Psalm  xxxii  is 
inscribed,  "  A  Psalm  of  David,  Maschil ;"  and 
Psalm  xlii,  "To  the  chief  musician,  Maschil, 
for  the  sons  of  Korah."  The  word  Maschil, 
in  the  Hebrew,  signifies,  "  he  that  instructs  ;" 
though  some  interpreters  take  it  for  the  name 
of  a  musical  instrument.  Some  of  the  rabbins 
believe  that,  in  repeating  the  psalms  which 
have  this  inscription,  it  was  usual  to  add  an 
interpretation  or  explication  to  them.  Others, 
on  the  contrary,  think  it  shows  the  clearness 
and  perspicuity  of  such  psalms,  and  that  they 
needed  no  particular  explication.  The  most 
probable  opinion  is,  that  Maschil  means  an 
instructive  song. 

MASS,  MISSA,  in  the  church  of  Rome, 
the  office  of  prayers  used  at  the  celebration  of 
the  eucharist;  or,  in  other  words,  the  conse- 
crating the  bread  and  wine  so  that  it  is  tran- 
substantiated into  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ, 
and  offer  them  as  an  expiatory  sacrifice  for  the 
quick  and  the  dead.  Nicod,  after  Baronius, 
observes  that  the  word  comes  from  the  Hebrew 


MAT 


626 


MAT 


missach,  (oblation,)  or  from  the  Latin  misBa 
/iiissorum;  because  in  former  times  the  cate- 
chumens and  excommunicated  were  sent  out 
of  the  church,  when  the  deacons  said,  "  Ite, 
misfnj  est,"  after  sermon  and  reading  of  the 
epistle  and  Gospel ;  they  not  being  allowed  to 
assist  at  the  consecration.  Menage  derives 
the  word  from  viissio,  "dismissing;"  others, 
from  missa,  "  sending ;"  because  in  the  mass 
the  prayers  of  men  on  earth  are  sent  up  to 
heaven. 

As  the  mass  is  in  general  believed  to  be  a 
representation  of  the  passion  of  our  blessed 
Saviour,  so  every  action  of  the  priest,  and 
every  particular  part  of  the  service,  are  sup- 
posed to  allude  to  the  particular  circumstances 
of  his  passion  and  death.  The  general  division 
of  masses  is  into  high  and  low  mass.  The 
first  is  that  sung  by  the  choristers,  and  cele- 
brated with  the  assistance  of  a  deacon  and  sub- 
deacon  :  low  masses  are  those  in  which  the 
prayers  are  barely  rehearsed  without  singing. 
There  are  a  great  number  of  different  or  occa- 
sional masses  in  the  Romish  church,  many  of 
which  have  nothing  peculiar  but  the  name. 
Such  are  the  masses  of  the  saints:  that  of  St. 
Mary  of  the  Snow,  celebrated  on  the  fifth  of 
August ;  that  of  St.  Margaret,  patroness  of 
lying-in  women  ;  that  at  the  feast  of  St.  John 
the  Baptist,  at  which  are  said  three  masses  ; 
that  of  the  Innocents,  at  which  the  Gloria  in 
excelsis  and  Hallelujah  are  omitted  ;  and,  it 
being  a  day  of  mourning,  the  altar  is  of  a 
violet  colour.  As  to  ordinary  masses,  some 
are  said  for  the  dead,  and,  as  is  supposed,  con- 
tribute to  extricate  the  soul  out  of  purgatory. 
At  these  masses  the  altar  is  put  in  mourning, 
and  the  only  decorations  are  a  cross  in  the 
middle  of  six  yellow  wax  lights ;  the  dress  of 
tho  celebrant,  and  the  very  mass  book,  are 
black ;  many  parts  of  tho  office  are  omitted, 
and  the  people  are  dismissed  without  the  bene- 
diction. If  the  mass  be  said  for  a  person  dis- 
tinguished by  his  rank  or  virtues,  it  is  followed 
with  a  funeral  oration  ;  they  erect  a  chapelle 
ardt  nte,  that  is,  a  representation  of  the  de- 
ceased, with  branches  and  tapers  of  yellow 
wax,  either  in  the  middle  of  the  church,  or 
near  the  deceased's  tomb,  where  the  priest 
pronounces  a  solemn  absolution  of  the  de- 
ceased. There  are  likewise  private  masses 
said  for  stolen  or  strayed  goods  or  cattle,  for 
health,  for  travellers,  &c,  which  go  under  the 
name  of  votive  masses.  There  is  still  a  farther 
distinction  of  masses,  denominated  from  the 
countries  in  which  they  were  used:  thus  the 
Gothic  mass,  or  missa  moaarabttm,  is  that  used 
among  the  Goths  when  they  were  masters  of 
Spain,  and  which  is  still  observed  at  Toledo 
and  Salamanca;  the  Ambrosian  mass  is  that 
composed  by  St.  Ambrose,  and  used  only  at 
Milan,  of  which  city  he  was  bishep;  the  Gallic 
mass,  used  by  the  ancient  Gauls  ;  and  the  Ro- 
man  mass,  used  by  almost  all  the  churches  in 
the  Roman  communion! 

M  Vl'KUIAUNM,  the  doctrine  which  re- 
solves  the  thinking  principle  in  man,  or  the 
immaterial  and  immortal  sou]  with  which  God 
was  pleased   to  endue  Adam  at  his  creation, 


into  mere  matter,  or  into  a  faculty  resulting 
from  its  organization.  Much  has  been  written 
of  late  years  against  this  doctrine,  and  the  dif- 
ferent modifications  which  it  has  assumed ; 
but  in  substance  nothing  new  has  been  said  on 
either  side  ;  and  the  able  and  condensed  argu- 
ment of  Wollaston  in  his  "  Religion  of  Nature 
Delineated,"  if  well  considered,  will  furnish 
every  one  with  a  most  clear  and  satisfactory 
refutation  of  this  antiscriptural  and  irrational 
error  : — The  soul  cannot  be  mere  matter  :  for 
if  it  is,  then  either  all  matter  must  think  ;  or 
the  difference  must  arise  from  the  different 
modification,  magnitude,  figure,  or  motion  of 
some  parcels  of  matter  in  respect  of  others  ; 
or  a  faculty  of  thinking  must  be  superadded  to 
some  systems  of  it,  which  is  not  superadded 
to  others.  But  in  the  first  place,  that  position, 
which  makes  all  matter  to  be  cogitative,  is 
contrary  to  all  the  apprehensions  and  know- 
ledge we  have  of  the  nature  of  it ;  nor  can  it 
be  true,  unless  our  senses  and  faculties  be  con- 
trived only  to  deceive  us.  We  perceive  not 
the  least  symptom  of  cogitation  or  sense  in  eur 
tables,  chairs,  &c.  Why  doth  the  scene  of 
thinking  lie  in  our  heads,  and  all  the  ministers 
of  sensation  make  their  reports  to  something 
there,  if  all  matter  be  apprehensive  and  cogi- 
tative ?  For  in  that  case  there  would  be  as 
much  thought  and  understanding  in  our  heels, 
and  every  where  else,  as  in  our  heads.  If  all 
matter  be  cogitative,  then  it  must  be  so  qua- 
tenus  [so  far  forth  as]  matter,  and  thinking  must 
be  of  the  essence  and  definition  of  it ;  whereas 
by  matter  no  more  is  meant  than  a  substance 
extended  and  impenetrable  to  other  matter. 
And  since,  for  this  reason,  it  cannot  be  neces- 
sary for  matter  to  think,  (because  it  may  be 
matter  without  this  property,)  it  cannot  think 
as  matter  only ;  if  it  did,  we  should  not  only 
continue  to  think  always,  till  the  matter  of 
which  we  consist  is  annihilated,  and  so  the 
asserter  of  this  doctrine  would  stumble  upon 
immortality  unawares  ;  but  we  must  also  have 
thought  always  in  time  past,  ever  since  that 
matter  was  in  being ;  nor  could  there  be  any 
the  least  intermission  of  actual  thinking;  which 
does  not  appear  to  be  our  case.  If  thinking, 
self-consciousness,  &.c,  were  essential  to  mat- 
ter, every  part  of  it  must  have  them  ;  and  then 
no  system  could  have  them.  For  a  system  of 
material  parts  would  be  a  system  of  things 
conscious,  every  one  by  itself  of  its  own  ex- 
istence and  individuality,  and,  consequently, 
thinking  by  itself;  but  there  could  be  no  one 
act  of  self-consciousness  or  thought  common 
to  the  whole.  Juxtaposition,  in  this  case, 
could  signify  nothing ;  the  distinction  and  in- 
dividuation of  the  several  particles  would  be 
as  much  retained  in  their  vicinity,  as  if  they 
were  separated  by  miles. 

In  the  next  place,  the  faculties  of  thinking, 
&c,  cannot  arise  from  the  size,  figure,  texture, 
or  motion  of  it ;  because  bodies  by  the  altera- 
tion of  these  only  become  greater  or  less,  round 
or  square,  &c,  rare  or  dense,  translated  from 
one  place  to  another  with  this  or  that  new 
direction  or  velocity,  or  the  like  ;  all  which 
ideas  arc  quite  different  from  that  of  thinking  ; 


MAT 


627 


MAT 


there  can  be  no  relation  between  them.  These 
modifications  and  affections  of  matter  are  so 
far  from  being  principles  or  causes  of  thinking 
and  acting,  that  they  are  themselves  but  effects, 
proceeding  from  the  action  of  some  other  mat- 
ter or  thing  upon  it,  and  are  proofs  of  its  pas- 
sivity, deadness  and  utter  incapacity  of  becom- 
ing cogitative  :  this  is  evident  to  sense.  They 
who  place  the  essence  of  the  soul  in  a  certain 
motion  given  to  some  matter,  (if  any  such  men 
there  really  be,)  should  consider,  among  many 
other  things,  that  to  move  the  body  spontane- 
ously, is  one  of  the  faculties  of  the  soul  ;  and 
that  this,  which  is  the  same  with  the  power 
of  beginning  motion,  cannot  come  from  motion 
already  begun,  and  impressed  ab  extra.  Let 
the  materialist  examine  well,  whether  he  does 
not  feel  something  within  himself  that  acts 
from  an  internal  principle  ;  whether  he  does 
not  experience  some  liberty,  some  power  of 
governing  himself,  and  choosing  ;  whether  he 
does  not  enjoy  a  kind  of  invisible  empire  in 
which  he  commands  his  own  thoughts,  sends 
them  to  this  or  that  place,  employs  them  about 
this  or  that  business,  forms  such  and  such  de- 
signs and  schemes ;  and  whether  there  is  any 
thing  like  this  in  bare  matter,  however  fashion- 
ed or  proportioned ;  which,  if  nothing  should 
protrude  or  communicate  motion  to  it,  would 
for  ever  remain  fixed  to  the  place  where  it 
happens  to  be,  ai;  eternal  monument  of  its 
own  being  dead.  Can  such  an  active  being  as 
the  soul  is,  the  subject  of  so  many  powers,  be 
itself  nothing  but  an  accident  ?  When  I  begin 
to  move  myself,  I  do  it  for  some  reason,  and 
with  respect  to  some  end,  the  means  to  effect 
which  I  have,  if  there  be  occasion  for  it,  con- 
certed within  myself;  and  this  does  not  at  all 
look  like  motion  merely  material,  or  in  which 
matter  is  only  concerned,  which  is  all  mecha- 
nical. Who  can  imagine  matter  to  be  moved 
by  arguments,  or  ever  placed  syllogisms  and 
demonstrations  among  levers  and  pullies  ?  We 
not  only  move  ourselves  upon  reasons  which 
we  find  in  ourselves,  but  upon  reasons  impart- 
ed by  words  or  writings  from  others,  or  per- 
haps merely  at  their  desire  or  bare  sugges- 
tion :  in  which  case,  again,  nobody  surely  can 
imagine  that  the  words  spoken  or  written,  the 
sound  in  the  air,  or  the  strokes  on  the  paper, 
can,  by  any  natural  or  mechanical  efficience, 
cause  the  reader  or  hearer  to  move  in  any  de- 
terminate manner,  or  at  all.  The  reason,  re- 
quest, or  friendly  admonition,  which  is  the 
true  motive,  can  make  no  impression  upon  mat- 
ter. It  must  be  some  other  kind  of  being  that 
apprehends  the  force  and  sense  of  them.  Do 
not  we  see  in  conversation,  how  a  pleasant 
thing  said  makes  people  break  out  into  laugh- 
ter, a  rude  thing  into  passion,  and  so  on  ? 
These  affections  cannot  be  the  physical  effects 
of  the  words  spoken  ;  because  then  they  would 
have  the  same  effect,  whether  they  were  un- 
derstood or  not.  And  this  is  farther  demon, 
strable  from  hence,  that  though  the  words  do 
really  contain  nothing  which  is  either  pleasant 
or  rude,  or  perhaps  words  are  thought  to  be 
spoken  which  are  not  spoken  ;  yet  if  they  are 
apprehended   to  do  that,   or  the  sound  to  be 


otherwise  than  it  was,  the  effect  will  be  the 
same.  It  is  therefore  the  sense  of  the  words, 
which  is  an  immaterial  thing,  that  by  passing 
through  the  understanding,  and  causing  that 
which  is  the  subject  of  the  intellectual  facul- 
ties to  influence  the  body,  produces  these  mo- 
tions in  the  spirits,  blood,  and  muscles. 

They  who  can  fancy  that  matteT  may  come 
to  live,  think,  and  act  spontaneously,  by  being 
reduced  to  a  certain  magnitude,  or  having  its 
parts  placed  after  a  certain  manner,  or  being 
invested  with  such  a  figure,  or  excited  by  such 
a  particular  motion ;  they,  I  say,  would  do 
well  to  discover  to  us  that  degree  of  fineness, 
that  alteration  in  the  situation  of  its  parts,  &c, 
at  which  matter  may  begin  to  find  itself  alive 
and  cogitative ;  and  which  is  the  critical 
minute,  that  introduces  these  important  pro- 
perties. If  they  cannot  do  this,  nor  have  their 
eye  upon  any  particular  crisis,  it  is  a  sign  that 
they  have  no  good  reason  for  what  they  say. 
For  if  they  have  no  reason  to  charge  this 
change  upon  any  particular  degree  or  differ- 
ence, one  more  than  another,  they  have  no 
reason  to  charge  it  upon  any  degree  or  differ- 
ence at  all ;  and  then  they  have  no  reason  by 
which  they  can  prove  that  such  a  change  is 
made  at  all.  Beside  all  which,  since  magni- 
tude, figure,  and  motion  are  but  accidents  of 
matter,  not  matter,  and  only  the  substance 
is  truly  matter  ;  and  since  the  substance  of  any 
one  part  of  matter  does  not  differ  from  that  of 
another,  if  any  matter  can  be  by  nature  cogi- 
tative, all  must  be  so :  but  this  we  have  seen 
cannot  be.  So  then,  in  conclusion,  if  there  is 
any  such  thing  as  matter  that  thinks,  &c,  this 
must  be  a  particular  privilege  granted  to  it ; 
that  is,  a  faculty  of  thinking  must  be  super- 
added to  certain  parts  or  parcels  of  it;  which, 
by  the  way,  must  infer  the  existence  of  some 
being  able  to  confer  this  faculty ;  who,  when 
the  ineptness  of  matter  has  been  well  consider- 
ed, cannot  appear  to  be  less  than  omnipotent, 
or  God.  But  the  truth  is,  matter  seems  not  to 
be  capable  of  such  improvement,  of  being  made 
to  think.  For  since  it  is  not  the  essence  of 
matter,  it  cannot  be  made  to  be  so  without 
making  matter  another  kind  of  substance  from 
what  it  is.  Nor  can  it  be  made  to  arise  from 
any  of  the  modifications  or  accidents  of  mat- 
ter ;  and  in  respect  of  what  else  can  any  mat- 
ter be  made  to  differ  from  other  matter. 

The  accidents  of  matter  are  so  far  from  be- 
ing made  by  any  power  to  produce  cogitation, 
that  some  even  of  them  show  it  incapable 
of  having  a  faculty  'of  thinking  superadded. 
The  very  divisibility  of  it  does  this.  For  that 
which  is  made  to  think  must  either  be  one 
part,  or  more  parts  joined  together.  But  we 
know  no  such  thing  as  a  part  of  matter  purely 
one,  or  indivisible.  It  may,  indeed,  have 
pleased  the  Author  of  nature,  that  there  should 
be  atoms,  whose  parts  are  actually  indiscerpti- 
ble,  and  which  may  be  the  principles  of  other 
bodies;  but  still  they  consist  of  parts,  though 
firmly  adhering  together.  And  if  the  seat  of 
cogitation  be  in  more  parts  than  one,  whether 
they  lie  close  together,  or  are  loose,  or  in  a 
state  of  fluidity,  it  is  the  same  thing,  how  can 


MAT 


628 


MAT 


it  be  avoided,  but  that  either  there  must  be  so 
many  several  minds,  or  thinking  substances, 
as  there  are  parts,  and  then  the  consequence 
which  has  been  mentioned  would  return  upon 
us  again  ;  or  else  that  there  must  be  something 
else  superadded  for  them  to  centre  in,  to  unite 
their  acts,  and  make  their  thoughts  to  be  one  ? 
And  then  what  can  this  be  but  some  other 
substance,  which  is  purely  one? 

Matter  by  itself  can  never  entertain  abstract, 
fil  and  general  ideas,  such  as  many  in  our 
minds  are.  For  could  it  reflect  upon  what 
passes  within  itself,  it  could  possibly  rind  there 
nothing  but  material  and  particular  impres- 
sions; abstractions  and  metaphysical  ideas 
could  not  be  printed  upon  it.  How  could  one 
abstract  from  matter  who  is  himself  nothing 
but  matter  ? 

If  the  soul  were  mere  matter,  external  visi- 
ble objects  could  only  be  perceived  within  us 
according  to  the  impressions  they  make  upon 
matter,  and  not  otherwise.  For  instance  :  the 
image  of  a  cube  in  my  mind,  or  my  idea  of  a 
cube,  must  be  always  under  some  particular 
prospect,  and  conform  to  the  rules  of  perspec- 
tive ;  nor  could  I  otherwise  represent  it  to 
myself;  whereas  now  I  can  form  an  idea  of  it 
as  it  is  in  itself,  and  almost  view  all  its  hedra 
at  once,  as  it  were  encompassing  it  with  my 
mind.  I  can  within  myself  correct  the  exter- 
nal appearances  and  impressions  of  objects, 
and  advance,  upon  the  reports  and  hints  re- 
ceived by  my  senses,  to  form  ideas  of  things 
that  are  not  extant  in  matter.  By  seeing  a 
material  circle  I  may  learn  to  form  the  idea 
of  a  circle,  or  figure  generated  by  the  revolu- 
tion of  a  ray  about  its  centre  ;  but  then,  recol- 
lecting what  I  know  of  matter  upon  other 
occasions,  I  can  conclude  there  is  no  exact 
material  circle.  So  that  I  have  an  idea,  which 
perhaps  w-as  raised  from  the  hints  I  received 
from  without,  but  is  not  truly  to  be  found 
there.  If  I  see  a  tower  at  a  great  distance, 
which,  according  to  the  impressions  made 
upon  my  material  organs,  seems  little  and 
round,  I  do  not  therefore  conclude  it  to  be 
either ;  there  is  something  within  that  reasons 
upon  the  circumstances  of  the  appearance, 
and  as  it  were  commands  my  sense,  and  cor- 
rects the  impression ;  and  this  must  be  some- 
thing superior  to  matter,  since  a  material  soul 
is  no  otherwise  impressible  itself  but  as  ma- 
terial organs  are :  instances  of  this  kind  are 
endless.  If  we  know  any  thing  of  matter,  we 
know  that  by  itself  it  is  a  lifeless  tiling,  inert 
and  passive  only ;  and  '  acts  necessarily,  or 
rather  is  acted,  according  to  the  laws  of  mo- 
tion  and  gravitation.  This  passiveness  seems 
to  be  essential  to  it.  And  if  we  know  any 
thing  of  ourselves,  we  know  that  we  are  con- 
scious of  our  pwn  existence  and  acts,  that  is, 
tint  we  live;  that  we  have  a  degree  of  free- 
dom; th.it  we  can  move  ourselves  spontane- 
ously ;  and,  in  short,  that  we  can,  in  many 
instances,  take  oft"  tho  effect  of  gravitation, 
and  impress  new  motions  upon  our  spirits,  or 
i  hem  new  directions,  only  by  a  thought. 
Therefore,  to  make  mere  matter  do  all  thfs  is 
to  change  the  nature  of  it ;  to  change  death 


into  life,  incapacity  of  thinking  into  cogita- 
tivity,  necessity  into  liberty.  And  to  say  that 
God  may  superadd  a  faculty  of  thinking,  mov- 
ing itself,  &c,  to  matter,  if  by  this  be  meant, 
that  he  may  make  matter  to  be  the  suppositum 
of  these  faculties,  that  substance  in  which 
they  inhere,  is  the  same  in  effect  as  to  say, 
that  God  may  superadd  a  faculty  of  thinking 
to  incogitativity,  of  acting  freely  to  necessity, 
and  so  on.  What  sense  is  there  in  this  ?  And 
yet  so  it  must  be,  while  matter  continues  to  be 
matter. 

That  faculty  of  thinking,  so  much  talked  of 
by  some  as  superadded  to  certain  systems  of 
matter,  fitly  disposed,  by  virtue  of  God's  om- 
nipotence, though  it  be  so  called,  must  in 
reality  amount  to  the  same  thing  as  another 
substance  with  the  faculty  of  thinking.  For 
a  faculty  of  thinking  alone  will  not  make  up 
the  idea  of  a  human  soul,  which  is  endued 
with  many  faculties ;  apprehending,  reflect- 
ing, comparing,  judging,  making  deductions 
and  reasoning,  willing,  putting  the  body  in 
motion,  continuing  the  animal  functions  by 
its  presence,  and  giving  life  ;  and  therefore, 
whatever  it  is  that  is  superadded,  it  must  be 
something  which  is  endued  with  all  those 
other  faculties.  And  whether  that  can  be  a 
faculty  of  thinking,  and  so  these  other  facul- 
ties be  only  faculties  of  a  faculty,  or  whether 
they  must  not  all  be  rather  the  faculties  of 
some  substance,  which,  being  by  their  own 
concession,  superadded  to  matter,  must  be  dif- 
ferent from  it,  we  leave  the  unprejudiced  to 
determine.  If  men  would  but  seriously  look 
into  themselves,  the  soul  would  not  appear  to 
them  as  a  faculty  of  the  body,  or  a  kind  of 
appurtenance  to  it,  but  rather  as  some  sub- 
stance, properly  placed  in  it,  not  only  to  use 
it  as  an  instrument,  and  act  by  it,  but  also  to 
govern  it,  or  the  parts  of  it,  as  the  tongue, 
hands,  feet,  &c,  according  to  its  own  reason. 
For  I  think  it  is  plain  enough,  that  the  mind, 
though  it  acts  under  great  limitations,  doth, 
however,  in  many  instances  govern  the  body 
arbitrarily ;  and  it  is  monstrous  to  suppose 
this  governor  to  be  nothing  but  some  fit  dis- 
position or  accident,  superadded,  of  that  mat- 
ter which  is  governed.  A  ship,  it  is  true, 
would  not  be  fit  for  navigation,  if  it  was  not 
built  and  provided  in  a  proper  mariner;  but 
then,  when  it  has  its  proper  form,  and  is  be- 
come a  system  of  materials  fitly  disposed,  it  is 
not  this  disposition  that  governs  it :  it  is  the 
man,  that  other  substance,  who  sits  at  the 
helm,  and  they  who  manage  the  sails  and 
tackle,  that  do  this.  So  our  vessels  without 
a  proper  organization  and  conformity  of  parts 
would  not  be  capable  of  being  acted  as  they 
are ;  but  still  it  is  not  the  shape,  or  modifica- 
tion, or  any  other  accident,  that  can  govern 
them.  The  capacity  of  being  governed  or 
used  can  never  be  the  governor,  applying  and 
using  that  capacity.  No,  there  must  be  at  the 
helm  something  distinct,  that  commands  the 
body,  and  without  which  the  vessel  would  run 
adrift  or  rather  sink. 

For  the  foregoing  reasons  it  is  plain,  that 
matter  cannot  think,  cannot  be  made  to  think 


MAT 


629 


MAT 


But  if  a  faculty  of  thinking  can  be  superadded 
to  a  system  of  matter,  without  uniting  an  im- 
material substance  to  it ;  yet  a  human  body  is 
not  such  a  system,  being  plainly  void  of 
thought,  and  -organized  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  transmit  the  impressions  of  sensible  objects 
up  to  the  brain,  where  the  percipient,  and  that 
which  reflects  upon  them,  certainly  resides ; 
and  therefore  that  which  there  apprehends, 
thinks,  and  wills,  must  be  that  system  of  mat- 
ter  to  which  a  faculty  of  thinking  is  superad- 
ded. All  the  premises  then  well  considered, 
judge  whether,  instead  of  saying  that  this  in- 
habitant of  our  heads  (the  soul)  is  a  system  of 
matter  to  which  a  faculty  of  thinking  is  super- 
added, it  might  not  be  more  reasonable  to  say, 
it  is  a  thinking  substance  intimately  united  to 
some  fine  material  vehicle,  which  has  its  resi- 
dence in  the  brain.  Though  I  understand 
not  perfectly  the  manner  how  a  cogitative 
and  spiritual  substance  can  be  thus  closely 
united  to  such  a  material  vehicle,  yet  I  can 
understand  this  union  as  well  as  how  it  can 
be  united  to  the  body  in  general;  perhaps  as 
how  the  particles  of  the  body  itself  cohere 
together,  and  much  better  than  how  a  think- 
ing facility  can  be  superadded  to  matter ;  and 
beside,  several  phenomena  may  more  easily  be 
solved  by  this  hypothesis ;  which,  in  short,  is 
this,  that  the  human  soul  is  a  cogitative  sub- 
etance  united  to  a  material  vehicle  ;  that  these 
act  in  conjunction,  that  which  affects  the  one 
affecting  the  other ;  that  the  soul  is  detained 
in  the  body  till  the  habitation  is  spoiled,  and 
their  mutual  tendency  interrupted,  by  some 
hurt  or  disease,  or  by  the  decays  and  ruins  of 
old  age,  or  the  like. 

But  many  a  man,  says  Mr.  Rennell,  has 
maintained,  that  the  brain  has  the  power  of 
thought,  from  the  conclusions  which  his 
own  experience,  and,  perhaps,  his  extended 
knowledge  of  the  human  frame,  have  enabled 
him  to  draw.  He  has  observed  the  action  of 
the  brain,  has  watched  the  progress  of  its 
diseases,  and  has  seen  the  close  connection 
which  exists  between  many  of  its  afflictions, 
and  the  power  of  thought.  But  in  this,  as  in 
most  other  cases,  partial  knowledge  leads  him 
to  a  more  mistaken  view  of  the  matter  than 
total  ignorance.  Satisfied  with  the  correct- 
ness of  his  observations,  he  hastily  proceeds 
to  form  his  opinion,  forgetting  that  it  is  not 
on  the  truth  only,  but  on  the  whole  truth, 
that  he  should  rest  his  decision.  By  an  acci- 
dental blow,  the  scull  is  beaten  in,  the  brain  is 
pressed  upon,  and  the  patient  lies  without 
sense  or  feeling.  No  sooner  is  the  pressure 
removed  than  the  power  of  thought  immedi- 
ately returns.  It  is  known,  again,  that  the 
phenomena  of  fainting  arise  from  a  temporary 
deficiency  of  blood  in  the  brain  ;  the  vessels 
collapse,  and  the  loss  of  sense  immediately 
ensues.  Restore  the  circulation,  and  the  sense 
is  as  instantly  recovered.  On  the  contrary, 
when  the  circulation  in  the  brain  is  too  rapid, 
and  inflammation  of  the  organ  succeeds,  we 
find  that  delirium,  frenzy,  and  other  disorders 
of  the  mind  arise  in  proportion  to  the  inflam- 
matory action,  by  which  they  aro  apparently 


produced.  It  is  observed,  also,  that  when  the 
stomach  is  disordered  by  an  excess  of  wine, 
or  of  ardent  spirits,  the  brain  is  also  affected 
through  the  strong  sympathies  of  the  nervous 
system,  the  intellect  is  disordered,  and  the 
man  has  no  longer  a  rational  command  over 
himself  or  his  actions.  From  these,  ana 
other  circumstances  of  a  similar  nature,  it  is 
concluded,  that  thought  is  a  quality  or  function 
of  the  brain,  that  it  is  inseparable  from  the 
organ  in  which  it  resides,  and  as  Mr.  Law- 
rence, after  the  French  physiologists,  repre- 
sents it,  that  "  medullary  matter  thinks." 

Now  it  must  certainly.be  inferred  from  all 
these  circumstances,  that  there  is  a  close  con- 
nection between  the  power  of  thinking  and 
the  brain ;  but  it  by  no  means  follows,  that 
they  are,  therefore,  one  and  the  same.  Allow- 
ing, however,  for  a  moment,  the  justice  of  the 
inference,  from  the  premises  which  have  been 
stated,  we  must  remember,  that  we  have  not 
as  yet  taken  in  all  the  circumstances  of  the 
case.  We  have  watched  the  body  rather  than 
the  mind,  and  that  only  in  a  diseased  state ; 
and  from  this  partial  and  imperfect  view  of 
the  subject,  our  conclusions  have  been  deduced. 
Let  us  take  a  healthy  man  in  a  sound  sleep. 
He  lies  without  sense  or  feeling,  yet  no  part 
of  his  frame  is  diseased,  nor  is  a  single  power 
of  his  life  of  vegetation  suspended.  All  within 
his  body  is  as  active  as  ever.  The  blood  cir- 
culates as  regularly,  and  almost  as  rapidly,  in 
the  sleeping  as  in  the  waking  subject.  Di- 
gestion, secretion,  nutrition,  and  all  the  func- 
tions of  the  life  of  vegetation  proceed,  and  yet 
the  understanding  is  absent.  Sleep,  therefore, 
is  an  affection  of  the  mind,  rather  than  of  the 
bo^dy ;  and  the  refreshment  which  the  latter 
receives  from  it,  is  from  the  suspension  of  its 
active  and  agitating  principle.  Now  if  thought 
was  identified  with  the  brain,  when  the  former 
was  suspended,  the  latter  would  undergo  a 
proportionate  change.  Memory,  imagination, 
perception,  and  all  the  stupendous  powers  of 
the  human  intellect  are  absent;  and  yet  the 
brain  is  precisely  the  same,  the  same  in  every 
particle  of  matter,  the  same  in  every  animal 
function.  Of  not  a  single  organ  is  the  action 
suspended.  When,  again,  the  man  awakens, 
and  his  senses  return,  no  change  is  produced 
by  the  recovery ;  the  brain,  the  organs  of 
sense,  and  all  the  material  parts  of  his  frame 
remain  precisely  in  the  same  condition. 
Dreaming  may  perhaps  be  adduced  as  an  ex- 
ception to  this  statement.  But  it  is  first  to 
be  remarked,  that  this  affection  is  by  no  means 
general.  There  are  thousands  who  never 
dream  at  all,  and  thousands  who  dream  only 
occasionally.  Dreaming  therefore,  even  though 
it  were  to  be  allowed  as  an  exception,  could 
not  be  admitted  to  invalidate  the  rule.  And 
if  there  be  a  circumstance,  which  to  any  phi- 
losophic mind  will  clearly  intimate  the  inde- 
pendency of  thought  upon  matter,  it  is  the 
phenomenon  of  dreaming.  Perception,  that 
faculty  of  the  soul  which  unites  it  with  the 
external  world,  is  then  suspended,  and  the 
avenues  of  sense  are  closed.  All  communica- 
tion with  outward  objects  being  thus  removed, 


MAT 


630 


MAT 


the  soul  is  transported,  as  it  were,  into  a  world 
of  its  own  creation.  There  appears  to  be  an 
activity  in  the  motions,  and  a  perfection  in 
the  faculties,  of  the  mind,  when  disengaged 
from  the  body,  arid  disencumbered  of  its  ma- 
terial organs.  The  slumber  of  its  external 
perception  seems  to  be  but  the  awakening  of 
every  other  power.  The  memory  is  far  more 
keen,  the  fancy  far  more  vived,  in  the  dream- 
ing than  in  the  waking  man.  Ideas  rise  in 
rapid  succession,  and  are  varied  in  endless 
combination  ;  so  that  the  judgment,  which, 
next  to  the  perception,  depends  most  upon 
external  objects,  is  .unable  to  follow  the  ima- 
gination in  all  its  wild  and  unwearied  flights. 
A  better  notion  of  the  separate  and  independ- 
ent existenco  of  the  soul  cannot  be  formed, 
than  that  which  we  derive  from  our  observa- 
tions on  the  phenomena  of  dreaming.  Again  : 
when  the  mind  is  anxiously  engaged  in  any 
train  of  thought,  whether  in  company  or  alone, 
it  frequently  neglects  the  impressions  made 
upon  the  external  organs.  When  a  man  is 
deeplv  immersed  in  meditation,  or  eagerly  en- 
gaged in  a  discussion,  he  often  neither  hears 
a  third  person  when  he  speaks,  nor  observes 
what  he  does,  nor  even  when  gently  touched 
does  he  feel  the  pressure.  Yet  there  is  no 
defect  either  in  the  ear,  the  eye,  or  the  nerv- 
ous system ;  the  brain  is  not  disordered,  for  if 
his  mind  were  not  so  fully  occupied,  he  would 
perceive  every  one  of  those  impressions  which 
he  now  neglects.  In  this  case,  therefore,  as 
in  sleep,  the  independence  of  mind  upon  the 
external  organ  is  clearly  shown. 

But  let  us  take  the  matter  in  another  point 
of  view.  We  have  observed  the  action  of  the 
brain  upon  thought,  and  have  seen  that  when 
the  former  is  unnaturally  compressed,  the 
latter  is  immediately  disordered  or  lost.  Let 
us  now  turn  our  attention  to  the  action  of 
thought  upon  the  brain.  A  letter  is  brought 
to  a  man  containing  some  afflicting  intelli- 
gence. He  casts  his  eye  upon  its  contents, 
and  drops  down  without  sense  or  motion. 
What  is  the  cause  of  this  sudden  affection  ? 
It  may  be  said  that  the  vessels  have  collapsed, 
that  the  brain  is  consequently  disordered,  and 
that  loss  of  sense  is  the  natural  consequence. 
But  let  us  take  one  step  backward,  and  inquire 
what  is  the  cause  of  the  disorder  itself,  the 
effects  of  which  are  thus  visible.  It  is  pro- 
duced by  a  sheet  of  white  paper  distinguished 
by  a  few  black  marks.  But  no  one  would  be 
abi  uril  enough  to  suppose,  that  it  was  the  effect 
of  the  paper  alone,  or  of  the  characters  in- 
Bcribed  upon  it,  unless  those  characters  con- 
veyed rame  meaning  to  the  understanding.  It 
light  then  which  so  suddenly  agitates  and 
disturbs  the  brain,  and  makes  its  vessels  to 
collapse.  From  this  circumstance  alone  we 
discover  the  amazing  influence  of  thought 
upon  the  external  organ;  of  that  thought 
which  we  can  neither  hear,  nor  see,  nor  touch, 
which  yet  produces  an  affection  of  the  brain 
rally  equal  to  a  blow,  a  pressure,  or  any  other 
mii  ;l.|e  injury.  Now  this  very  action  of 
thought  upon  the  brain  clearly  shows  that  the 
brain  docs  not  produce  it,  while  the  mutual 


influence  which  they  possess  over  each  other, 
as  clearly  shows  that  there  is  a  strong  con- 
nection between  them.  But  it  is  carefully  to 
be  remembered,  that  connection  is  not  identity. 
While  we  acknowledge  then,  on  the  one  side, 
the  mutual  connection  of  the  understanding 
and  the  brain,  we  must  acknowledge,  on  the 
other,  their  mutual  independence.  The  phe- 
nomena which  we  daily  observe  lead  us  of 
necessity  to  the  recognition  of  these  two  im- 
portant principles.  If  then  from  the  obser- 
vations which  we  are  enabled  to  make  on  the 
phenomena  of  the  understanding  and  of  the 
brain,  we  are  led  to  infer  mutual  independence, 
we  shall  find  our  conclusions  still  farther 
strengthened  by  a  consideration  of  the  sub- 
stance and  composition  of  the  latter.  Not 
only  is  the  brain  a  material  substance,  endowed 
with  all  those  properties  of  matter  which  we 
have  before  shown  to  be  inconsistent  with 
thought,  but  it  is  a  substance,  which,  in  com- 
mon with  the  rest  of  our  body,  is  undergoing 
a  perpetual  change.  Indeed  experiments  and 
observations  give  us  abundant  reason  for  con- 
cluding that  the  brain  undergoes  within  itself 
precisely  the  same  change  with  the  remainder 
of  the  body.  A  man  will  fall  down  in  a  fit  of 
apoplexy,  and  be  recovered  ;  in  a  few  years  he 
will  be  attacked  by  another,  which  will  prove 
fatal.  Upon  dissection  it  will  be  found  that 
there  is  a  cavity  formed  by  the  blood  effused 
from  the  ruptured  vessel,  and  that  a  certain 
action  had  been  going  on,  which  gradually 
absorbed  the  coagulated  blood.  If  then  an 
absorbent  system  exists  in  the  brain,  and  the 
organ  thereby  undergoes,  in  the  course  of  a 
certain  time,  a  total  change,  it  is  impossible 
that  this  flux  and  variable  substance  can  be 
endowed  with  consciousness  or  thought.  If 
the  particles  of  the  brain,  either  separately  or 
in  a  mass,  were  capable  of  consciousness,  then 
after  their  removal  the  consciousness  which 
they  produced  must  for  ever  cease.  The  con- 
sequence of  which  would  be,  that  personal 
identity  must  be  destroyed,  and  that  no  man 
could  be  the  same  individual  being  that  he  was 
ten  years  ago.  But  our  common  sense  informs 
us,  that  as  far  as  our  understanding  and  our 
moral  responsibility  are  involved,  we  are  the 
same  individual  beings  that  we  ever  were.  If 
the  body  alone,  or  any  substance  subject  to 
the  laws  of  body,  were  concerned,  personal 
identity  might  reasonably  be  doubted  :  but  it 
is  something  beyond  the  brain  that  makes  the 
man  at  every  period  of  his  life  the  same  :  it 
is  consciousness,  that,  amidst  the  perpetual 
change  of  our  material  particles,  unites  every 
link  of  successive  being  in  one  indissoluble 
chain.  The  body  may  bo  gradually  changed, 
and  yet  by  the  deposition  of  new  particles, 
similar  to  those  which  absorption  has  removed, 
it  may  preserve  the  appearance  of  identity. 
But  in  consciousness  there  is  real,  not  an 
apparent,  individuality,  admitting  of  no  change 
or  substitution. 

So  inconsistent  with  reason  is  every  attempt 
which  has  been  made  to  reduce  our  thoughts 
to  a  material  origin,  and  to  identify  our  under- 
standing with  any  part  of  our  corporeal  frame  ! 


MAT 


631 


MAT 


The  more  carefully  we  observe  the  operation, 
both  of  the  mind  and  of  the  brain,  the  more 
clearly  we  shall  distinguish,  and  the  more 
forcibly  shall  we  feel,  the  independence  of  the 
one  upon  the  other.  We  know  that  the  brain 
is  the  organ  or  instrument  by  which  the  mind 
operates  on  matter,  and  we  know  that  the  brain 
again  is  the  chain  of  communication  between 
the  mind  and  the  material  world.  That  cer- 
tain disorders  therefore  in  the  chain  should 
either  prevent  or  disturb  this  communication 
is  reasonably  to  be  expected  ;  but  nothing  more 
is  proved  from  thence  than  we  knew  before, 
namely,  that  the  link  is  imperfect.  And  when 
that  link  is  again  restored,  the  mind  declares 
its  identity,  by  its  memory  of  things  which 
preceded  the  injury  or  the  disease  ;  and  where 
the  recovery  is  rapid,  the  patient  awakes  as  it 
were  from  a  disturbed  dream.  How  indeed 
the  brain  and  the  thinking  principle  are  con- 
nected,  and  in  what  manner  they  mutually 
affect  each  other,  is  beyond  the  reach  of  our 
faculties  to  discover.  We  must,  for  the  pre- 
sent, be  contented  with  our  ignorance  of  the 
cause,  while  from  the  effects  we  are  persuaded 
both  of  their  connection  on  the  one  hand,  and 
of  their  independence  on  the  other. 

MATTHEW,  called  also  Levi,  was  the  son 
of  Alpheus,  but  probably  not  of  that  Alpheus 
who  was  the  father  of  the  Apostle  James  the 
less.  He  was  a  native  of  Galilee ;  but  it  is 
not  known  in  what  city  of  that  country  he 
was  born,  or  to  what  tribe  of  the  people  of 
Israel  he  belonged.  Though  a  Jew,  he  was  a 
publican  or  tax-gatherer  under  the  Romans ; 
and  his  office  seems  to  have  consisted  in  col- 
lecting the  customs  due  upon  commodities 
which  were  carried,  and  from  persons  who 
passed,  over  the  lake  of  Gennesareth.  Our 
Saviour  commanded  him,  as  he  was  sitting  at 
the  place  where  he  received  these  customs,  to 
follow  him.  He  immediately  obeyed ;  and 
from  that  time  he  became  a  constant  attendant 
upon  our  Saviour,  and  was  appointed  one  of 
the  twelve  Apostles.  St.  Matthew,  soon  after 
his  call,  made  an  entertainment  at  his  house, 
at  which  were  present  Christ  and  some  of  his 
disciples,  and  also  several  publicans.  After 
the  ascension  of  our  Saviour,  he  continued, 
with  the  other  Apostles,  to  preach  the  Gospel 
for  some  time  in  Judea ;  but  as  there  is  no 
farther  account  of  him  in  any  writer  of  the 
first  four  centuries,  we  must  consider  it  as 
uncertain  into  what  country  he  afterward 
went,  and  likewise  in  what  manner  and  at 
what  time  he  died. 

In  the  few  writings  which  remain  of  the 
apostolical  fathers,  Barnabas,  Clement  of 
Rome,  Hermas,  Ignatius,  and  Polycarp,  there 
are  manifest  allusions  to  several  passages  in 
St.  Matthew's  Gospel ;  but  the  Gospel  itself  is 
not  mentioned  in  any  one  of  them.  Papias, 
the  companion  of  Polycarp,  is  the  earliest 
author  on  record  who  has  expressly  named 
St.  Matthew  as  the  writer  of  a  Gospel ;  and 
we  are  indebted  to  Eusebius  for  transmitting 
to  us  this  valuable  testimony.  The  work  itself 
of  Papias  is  lost ;  but  the  quotation  in  Euse- 
bius is  such  as  to  convince  us  that  in  the  time  of 


Papias  no  doubt  was  entertained  of  the  genu- 
ineness of  St.  Matthew's  Gospel.  This  Gos- 
pel is  repeatedly  quoted  by  Justin  Martyr,  but 
without  mentioning  the  name  of  St.  Matthew. 
It  is  both  frequently  quoted,  and  St.  Matthew 
mentioned  as  its  author,  by  Irenajus,  Origen, 
Athanasius,  Cyril,  Epiplianius,  Jerom,  Chry- 
sostom,  and  a  long  train  of  subsequent  writers. 
It  was,  indeed,  universally  received  by  the 
Christian  church  ;  and  we  do  not  find  that  its 
genuineness  was  controverted  by  any  early 
profane  writer.  We  may  therefore  conclude, 
upon  the  concurrent  testimony  of  antiquity, 
that  this  Gospel  is  rightly  ascribed  to  St.  Mat- 
thew. It  is  generally  agreed,  upon  the  most 
satisfactory  evidence,  that  St.  Matthew's  Gos- 
pel was  the  first  which  was  written ;  but 
though  this  is  asserted  by  many  ancient  au- 
thors, none  of  them,  except  Irenreus  and  Eu- 
sebius, have  said  any  thing  concerning  the 
exact  time  at  which  it  was  written.  The  only 
passage  in  which  the  former  of  these  fathers 
mentions  this  subject,  is  so  obscure,  that  no 
positive  conclusion  can  be  drawn  from  it ;  Dr. 
Lardner,  and  Dr.  Townson,  understand  it  in 
very  different  senses  ;  and  Eusebius,  who  lived 
a  hundred  and  fifty  years  after  Irenaeus,  barely 
says,  that  Matthew  wrote  his  Gospel  just  be- 
fore he  left  Judea  to  preach  the  religion  of 
Christ  in  other  countries  ;  but  when  that  was, 
neither  he  nor  any  other  ancient  author  in- 
forms us  with  certainty.  The  impossibility 
of  settling  this  point  upon  ancient  authority 
has  given  rise  to  a  variety  of  opinions  among 
moderns.  Of  the  several  dates  assigned  to  this 
Gospel,  which  deserve  any  attention,  the  ear- 
liest is  A.  D.  38,  and  the  latest,  A.  D.  64. 

It  appears  very  improbable  that  the  Chris- 
tians should  be  left  any  considerable  number 
of  years  without  a  written  history  of  our  Sa- 
viour's ministry.     It  is  certain  that  the  Apos- 
tles, immediately  after  the  descent  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  which  took  place  only  ten  days  after 
the    ascension    of  our    Saviour  into  heaven, 
preached  the  Gospel  to  the  Jews  with  great 
success  ;  and  surely  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose, 
that  an  authentic  account  of  our  Saviour's  doc- 
trines and  miracles  would  very  soon  be  com- 
mitted to  writing,  for  the  confirmation  of  those 
who  believed  in  his  divine  mission,  and  for  the 
conversion  of  others  ;  and,  more  particularly, 
to  enable  the  Jews  to  compare  the  circum- 
stances of  the  birth,  death,  and  resurrection 
of  Jesus  with  their  ancient  prophecies  relative 
to  the  Messiah  ;  and  we  may  conceive  that  the 
Apostles  would  be  desirous  of  losing  no  time 
in  writing  an  account  of  the  miracles  which 
Jesus  performed,  and  of  the  discourses  which 
lie  delivered,  because  the  sooner  such  an  ac- 
count was  published,  the  easier  it  would  be  to 
inquire  into  its  truth  and  accuracy;  and,  con- 
sequently, when  these  points  were  satisfactorily 
ascertained,  the  greater  would  be  its  weight  and 
authority.    We  must  own  that  these  arguments 
are  so  strong  in  favour  of  an  early  publication 
of  some  history  of  our  Saviour's  ministry,  that 
we  cannot  but  accede  to  the  opinion  of  Jones, 
Wetstein,  and  Dr.  Owen,  that  St.  Matthew'o 
Gospel  was  written  A.  D.  38 


MAT 


632 


MEA 


There  has  also  of  late  been  great  difference 
of  opinion  concerning  the  language  in  which 
this  Gospel  was  originally  written.  Among 
the  ancient  fathers,  Papias,  as  quoted  by  Ecu 
sebius,  Irenams,  Origen,  Cyril,  Epiphanius, 
Chrysostom,  and  Jerora,  positively  assert  that 
it  was  written  by  St.  Matthew  in  Hebrew,  that 
is,  in  the  language  then  spoken  in  Palestine  ; 
and  indeed  Dr.  Campbell  says,  that  this  point 
was  not  controverted  by  any  author  for  four- 
teen hundred  years.  Erasmus  was  one  of  the 
first  who  contended  that  the  present  Greek  is 
the  original ;  and  he  has  been  followed  by  Le 
Clerc,  Wetstein,  Basnage,  Whitby,  Jortin,  Hug, 
and  many  other  learned  men.  On  the  other 
hand,  Grotius,  Du  Pin,  Simon,  Walton,  Cave, 
Hammond,  Mill,  Michaelis,  Owen,  and  Camp, 
bell  have  supported  tho  opinion  of  the  ancients. 
In  a  question  of  this  sort,  which  is  a  question 
of  fact,  the  concurrent  voice  of  antiquity  is 
decisive.  Though  the  fathers  are  unanimous 
in  declaring  that  St.  Matthew  wrote  his  Gos- 
pel iu  Hebrew,  yet  they  have  not  informed  us 
by  whom  it  was  translated  into  Greek.  No 
writer  of  the  first  three  centuries  makes  any 
mention  whatever  of  the  translator  ;  nor  does 
Eusebius  :  and  Jerom  tells  us,  that  in  his  time 
it  was  not  known  who  was  the  translator.  It 
is,  however,  universally  allowed,  that  the 
Greek  translation  was  made  very  early,  and 
that  it  was  more  used  than  the  original.  This 
last  circumstance  is  easily  accounted  for. 
After  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  the  lan- 
guage of  the  Jews,  and  every  thing  which 
belonged  to  them,  fell  into  great  contempt ; 
and  the  early  fathers,  writing  in  Greek,  would 
naturally  quote  and  refer  to  the  Greek  copy 
of  St.  Matthew's  Gospel,  in  the  same  manner 
as  they  constantly  used  the  Septuagint  version 
of  the  Old  Testament.  There  being  no  longer 
any  country  in  which  the  language  of  St. 
Matthew's  original  Gospel  was  commonly 
spoken,  that  original  would  soon  be  forgotten  ; 
and  the  translation  into  Greek,  the  language 
then  generally  understood,  would  be  substi- 
tuted in  its  room.  This  cariy  and  exclusive 
use  of  the  Greek  translation  is  a  strong  proof 
of  its  correctness,  and  leaves  us  but  littlo  rea- 
son to  lament  the  loss  of  the  original. 

"  As  the  sacred  writers,"  says  Dr.  Campbell, 
"  especially  the  evangelists,  have  many  quali- 
ties in  common,  so  there  is  something  in  every 
one  of  them,  which,  if  attended  to,  will  be 
found  to  distinguish  him  from  the  rest.  That 
which  principally  distinguishes  St.  Matthew, 
is  the  distinctness  and  particularity  with  which 
he  has  related  many  of  our  Lord's  discourses 
and  moral  instructions.  Of  these,  his  sermon 
on  the  mount,  his  charge  to  the  Apostles,  his 
illustrations  of  the  nature  of  his  kingdom,  and 
his  prophecy  on  Mount  Olivet,  are  examples. 
He  has  also  wonderfully  united  simplicity  and 
energy  in  relating  the  replies  of  his  Master 
to  the  cavils  of  his  adversaries.  Being  early 
called  to  the  apostlesbip,  he  was  an  eye-wit. 
ness  and  car-witness  of  most  of  the  things 
which  he  relates  ;  and  though  I  do  not  think 
it  was  the  scope  of  any  of  these  historians  to 
adjust  their  narratives  to  the  precise  order  of 


time  wherein  the  events  happened,  there  are 
some  circumstances  which  incline  me  to  think, 
that  St.  Matthew  has  approached  at  least  as 
near  that  order  as  any  of  them."  And  this, 
we  may  observe,  would  naturally  be  the  distin- 
guishing characteristic  of  a  narrative,  written 
very  soon  after  the  events  had  taken  place. 
The  most  remarkable  things  recorded  in  St. 
Matthew's  Gospel,  and  not  found  in  any  other, 
are  the  following :  the  visit  of  the  eastern  magi; 
our  Saviour's  flight  into  Egypt ;  the  slaughter 
of  the  infants  at  Bethlehem ;  the  parable  of 
the  ten  virgins ;  the  dream  of  Pilate's  wife ; 
the  resurrection  of  many  saints  at  our  Saviour's 
crucifixion  ;  and  the  bribing  of  the  Roman 
guard  appointed  to  watch  at  the  holy  sepulchre 
by  the  chief  priests  and  elders. 

MATTHIAS  the  Apostle  was  first  in  the 
rank  of  our  Saviour's  disciples,  and  one  of 
those  who  continued  with  him  from  his  bap- 
tism to  his  ascension,  Acts  i,  21,  22.  It  is  very- 
probable  he  was  of  the  number  of  the  seventy, 
as  Clemens  Alexandrinus  and  other  ancients 
inform  us.  We  have  no  particulars  of  his 
youth  or  education,  for  we  may  reckon  as 
nothing  what  is  read  in  Abdias,  or  Obadiah, 
concerning  this  matter.  After  the  ascension 
of  our  Lord,  the  Apostles  retiring  to  Jerusalem 
in  expectation  of  the  effusion  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  as  had  been  promised,  Peter  proposed 
to  fill  up  the  place  of  Judas :  to  this  the  dis- 
ciples agreed.  They  then  presented  two  per- 
sons, Joseph  Barsabas,  surnamed  Justus,  and 
Matthias.  The  lot  falling  on  Matthias,  he  was 
from  that  time  associated  with  the  eleven 
Apostles.  The  Greeks  believe  that  Matthias 
preached  and  died  at  Colchis. 

MEASURE,  that  by  which  any  thing  is 
measured,  or  adjusted,  or  proportioned,  Prov. 
xx,  10;  Micah  vi,  10.  Tables  of  Scripture 
measures  of  length  and  capacity  are  found  at 
the  end  of  this  volume. 

MEATS.  The  Hebrews  had  several  kinds 
of  animals  which  they  refused  to  eat.  Among 
domestic  animals  they  only  ate  the  cow,  the 
sheep,  and  the  goat ;  the  hen  a-nd  pigeon, 
among  domestic  birds  ;  beside  several  kinds  of 
wild  animals.  To  eat  the  flesh  with  the  blood 
was  forbidden  them,  much  more  to  eat  the 
blood  without  the  flesh.  We  may  form  a 
judgment  of  their  taste  by  what  the  Scripture 
mentions  of  Solomon's  table,  1  Kings  iv,  22, 
23.  Thirty  measures  of  the  finest  wheat  flour 
were  provided  for  it  every  day,  and  twice  as 
much  of  the  ordinary  sort ;  twenty  stall-fed 
oxen,  twenty  pasture  oxen,  a  hundred  sheep, 
beside  the  venison  of  deer  and  roebucks,  and 
wild  fowls.  It  does  not  appear  that  the  an- 
cient Hebrews  were  very  nice  about  the  sea- 
reming  and  dressing  of  their  food.  We  find 
among  them  roast  meat,  boiled  meat,  and 
ragouts.     They  roasted  the  paschal  lamb. 

At  the  first  settling  of  the  Christian  church, 
very  great  disputes  arose  concerning  the  use 
of  meats  offered  to  idols.  Some  newly  con- 
verted Christians,  convinced  that  an  idol  was 
nothing,  and  that  the  distinction  of  clean  and 
unclean  creatures  was  abolished  by  our  Saviour, 
ato  indifferently  of  whatever  was  served  up  to 


MED 


633 


MED 


them,  even  among  Pagans,  without  inquiring 
whether  these  meats  had  been  first  offered  to 
idols.  They  took  the  same  liberty  in  buying 
meat  sold  in  the  markets,  not  regarding  whe- 
ther it  was  pure  or  impure  according  to  the 
Jews,  or  whether  it  was  that  which  had  been 
offered  to  idols.  But  other  Christians,  weaker 
or  less  instructed,  were  offended  at  this 
liberty ;  and  thought  to  eat  of  nieat  that  had 
been  once  offered  to  idols,  was  a  kind  of 
partaking  of  that  wicked  and  sacrilegious 
offering.  This  diversity  in  opinion  produced 
some  scandal,  to  which  St.  Paul  thought  it 
behoved  him  to  provide  a  suitable  remedy, 
Rom.  xiv,  20  ;  Titus  i,  15.  He  determined, 
therefore,  that  all  things  were  clean  to  such 
as  were  clean,  and  that  an  idol  was  nothing 
at  all ;  that  a  man  might  safely  eat  of  what- 
ever was  sold  in  the  shambles,  and  though  it 
might  be  a  part  of  what  had  been  previously 
offered  in  the  temple,  and  there  exposed  to 
sale,  he  need  not  scrupulously  inquire  whence 
it  came  ;  that  if  an  unbeliever  should  invite  a 
believer  to  eat  with  him,  the  believer  might 
eat  of  whatever  was  set  before  him,  &c,  1  Cor. 
x,  25-27.  But  at  the  same  time  he  enjoins, 
that  the  law  of  charity  and  prudence  should 
be  observed ;  that  men  should  be  cautious  of 
scandalizing  or  offending  weak  minds  ;  that 
though  all  things  may  be  lawful,  yet  all  things 
are  not  always  expedient ;  that  no  one  ought 
to  seek  his  own  accommodation  or  satisfac- 
tion, but  that  of  his  neighbour ;  that  if  any 
one  should  say  to  us,  "  This  has  been  offered 
to  idols,"  we  may  not  then  eat  of  it,  for  the 
sake  of  him  who  gives  the  information  ;  not 
so  much  for  fear  of  wounding  our  own  con- 
science, but  his;  in  a  word,  that  he  who  is 
weak,  and  thinks  he  may  not  indifferently  use 
all  sorts  of  food,  should  forbear,  and  eat  herbs, 
rather  than  offend  a  brother,  Rom.  xiv,  1,  2. 
Yet  it  is  certain,  that  generally  Christians  ab- 
stained from  eating  meat  thi^  had  been  offered 
to  idols. 

MEDIA.  It  has  been  commonly  thought 
that  Media  was  peopled  by  the  descendants  of 
Madai,  son  of  Japhcth,  Gen.  x,  2.  The  Greeks 
maintain  that  this  country  took  its  name  from 
Medus,  the  son  of  Medea.  If,  however,  Madai 
and  his  immediate  descendants  did  not  people 
this  country,  some  of  his  posterity  might  have 
carried  his  name  thither,  since  we  find  it  so 
often  given  to  Media,  from  the  times  of  the 
Prophets  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah,  and  from  the 
transportation  of  the  ten  tribes,  and  the  de- 
struction of  Samaria  under  Salmaneser,  A.  M. 
3283.  Media  Proper  was  bounded  by  Armenia 
and  Assyria  Proper  on  the  west,  by  Persia  on 
the  east,  by  the  Caspian  provinces  on  the  north, 
and  by  Susiana  on  the  south.  It  was  an  .ele- 
vated and  mountainous  country,  and  formed  a 
kind  of  pass  between  the  cultivated  parts  of 
eastern  and  western  Asia.  Hence,  from  its 
geographical  position,  and  from  the  tempera- 
ture., verdure,  and  fertility  of  its  climate,  Media 
was  one  of  the  most  important  and  interesting 
regions  of  Asia.  Into  this  country  the  ten 
tribes  who  composed  the  kingdom  of  Israel 
were  transplanted,  in  the  Assyrian  captivity, 


by  Tiglath-pileser  and  Salmaneser.  The  for- 
mer prince  carried  away  the  tribes  of  Reuben, 
Gad,  and  half  Manasseh,  on  the  east  side  of 
Jordan,  to  Halah,  and  Habor,  and  Hara,  and 
to  the  river  of  Gozan.  His  successor  carried 
away  the  remaining  seven  tribes  and  a  half, 
to  the  same  places,  which  are  said  to  be  "  cities 
of  the  Medes,  by  the  river  of  Gozan,"  1  Chron. 
v,  ^26  ;  2  Kings  xvii,  6.  The  geographical 
position  of  Media  was  wisely  chosen  for  the 
distribution  of  the  great  body  of  the  captives  ; 
for,  it  was  so  remote,  and  so  impeded  and  inter- 
sected with  great  mountains  and  numerous 
and  deep  rivers,  that  it  would  be  extremely 
difficult  for  them  to  escape  from  this  natural 
prison,  and  return  to  their  own  country.  They 
would  also  be  opposed  in  their  passage  through 
Kir,  or  Assyria  Proper,  not  only  by  the  native 
Assyrians,  but  also  by  their  enemies,  the  Sy- 
rians, transplanted  thither  before  them.  The 
superior  civilization  of  the  Israelites,  and  their 
skill  in  agriculture  and  in  the  arts,  would  tend 
to  civilize  and  improve  those  wild  and  barba- 
rous regions. 

MEDIATOR,  one  who  stands  in  a  middle 
office  or  capacity  between  two  differing  parties, 
and  has  a  power  of  transacting  every  thing 
between  them,  and  of  reconciling  them  to  each 
other.  Hence  a  mediator  between  God  and 
man  is  one  whose  office  properly  is  to  mediate 
and  transact  affairs  between  them  relating  to 
the  favour  of  almighty  God,  and  the  duty  and 
happiness  of  man.  No  sooner  had  Adam 
transgressed  the  law  of  God  in  paradise,  and 
become  a  sinful  creature,  than  the  Almighty 
was  pleased  in  mercy  to  appoint  a  Mediator 
or  Redeemer,  who,  in  due  time  should  be  born 
into  the  world,  to  make  an  atonement  both  for 
his  transgression,  and  for  all  the  sins  of  men. 
This  is  what  is  justly  thought  to  be  implied 
in  the  promise,  that  "  the  seed  of  the  woman 
should  bruise  the  serpent's  head  ;"  that  is,  that 
there  should  some  time  or  other  be  born,  of 
the  posterity  of  Eve,  a  Redeemer,  who,  by 
making  satisfaction  for  the  sins  of  men,  and 
reconciling  them  to  the  mercy  of  almighty 
God,  should  by  that  means  bruise  the  head  of 
that  old  serpent,  the  devil,  who  had  beguiled 
our  first  parents  into  sin,  and  destroy  his  em- 
pire and  dominion  among  men.  Thus  it  be- 
came a  necessary  part  of  Adam's  religion  after 
the  fall,  as  well  as  that  of  his  posterity  after 
him,  to  worship  God  through  hope  in  this 
Mediator.  To  keep  up  the  remembrance  of  it 
God  was  pleased,  at  this  time,  to  appoint  sacri- 
fices of  expiation  or  atonement  for  sin,  to  be 
observed  through  all  succeeding  generations, 
till  the  Redeemer  himself  should  come,  who 
was  to  make  the  true  and  only  proper  satisfac 
tion  and  atonement. 

The  particular  manner  in  which  Christ  inter- 
posed in  the  redemption  of  the  world,  or  his 
office  as  Mediator  between  God  and  man,  is 
thus  represented  to  us  in  the  Scripture.  He 
is  the  light  of  the  world,  John  i ;  viii,  12  ;  the 
revealer  of  the  will  of  God  in  the  most  eminent 
sense.  He  is  a  propitiatory  sacrifice,  Rom, 
iii,  25 ;  v,  11 ;  1  Cor.  v,  7 ;  Eph.  v,  2 ;  1  John 
ii,  2 ;  Matt,  xxvi,  28  ;  John  i,  29,  36  ;  and,  a3 


MED 


634 


MED 


because  of  his  peculiar  offering,  of  a  merit 
transcending  all  others,  he  is  styled  our  High 
Priest.  He  was  also  described  beforehand  in  the 
Old  Testament,  under  the  same  character  of  a 
priest,  and  an  expiatory  victim,  Isa.  liii ;  Dan. 
ix,  24  ;  Psa.  ex,  4.  And  whereas  it  is  objected, 
that  all  this  is  merely  by  way  of  allusion  to  the 
sacrifices  of  the  Mosaic  law,  the  Apostle  on 
the  contrary  affirms,  that  "the  law  was  a 
shadow  of  good  things  to  come,  and  not  the 
very  image  of  the  things,"  Heb.  x,  1 ;  and  that 
the  "  priests  that  offer  gifts  according  to  the 
law,  serve  unto  the  example  and  shadow  of 
heavenly  things,  as  Moses  was  admonished  of 
God,  when  he  was  about  to  make  the  taber- 
nacle :  for  see,  saith  he,  that  thou  make  all 
things  according  to  the  pattern  showed  to 
thee  in  the  mount,"  Heb.  viii,  4,  5 ;  that  is, 
the  Levitical  priesthood  was  a  shadow  of  the 
priesthood  of  Christ ;  in  like  manner  as  the 
tabernacle  made  by  Moses  was  according  to 
that  showed  him  in  the  mount.  The  priest- 
hood of  Christ,  and  the  tabernacle  in  the 
mount,  were  the  originals ;  of  the  former  of 
which,  the  Levitical  priesthood  was  a  type; 
and  of  the  latter,  the  tabernacle  made  by  Moses 
was  a  copy.  The  doctrine  of  this  epistle,  then, 
plainly  is,  that  the  legal  sacrifices  were  allu- 
sions to  the  great  atonement  to  be  made  by 
the  blood  of  Christ ;  and  not  that  it  was  an 
allusion  to  those.  Nor  can  any  thing  be  more 
express  or  determinate  than  the  following 
passage  :  "  It  is  not  possible  that  the  blood  of 
bulls  and  of  goats  should  take  away  sin.  Where- 
fore when  he  [Christ]  eometh  into  the  world, 
he  saith,  Sacrifice  and  offering,"  that  is,  of 
bulls  and  of  goats,  "thou  wouldest  not,  but  a 
body  hast  thou  prepared  inc.  Lo,  I  come  to 
do  thy  will,  O  God  !  By  which  will  we  are 
sanctified,  through  the  offering  of  the  body  of 
Jesus  Christ  once  for  all,"  Heb.  x,  4,  5,  7,  9,  10. 
And  to  add  one  passage  more  of  the  like  kind  : 
"Christ  was  once  offered  to  bear  the  sins  of 
many  ;  and  unto  them  that  look  for  him  shall 
he  appear  the  second  time,  without  sin;"  that 
is,  without  bearing  sin,  as  he  did  at  his  first 
coming,  by  being  an  offering  for  it ;  without 
having  our  iniquities  again  laid  upon  him ; 
without  being  any  more  a  sin-offering : — "  And 
unto  them  that  look  for  him  shall  he  appear 
the  >eeond  time  without  sin  unto  salvation," 
Heb.  ix,  28.  Nor  do  the  inspired  writers  at 
all  confine  themselves  to  this  manner  of  speak- 
■ng  concerning  the  satisfaction  of  Christ;  but 
declare  that  there  was  an  efficacy  in  what  he 
did  and  suffered  for  us,  additional  to  and  beyond 
mere  instruction  and  example.  This  they  de- 
dun  with  great  variety  of  expression  :  that 
"  he  suffered  for  sins,  the  just,  for  the  unjust," 
1  Peter  iii,  18;  that  "he  gave  his  life  a 
n,"  Matt.  \\.  38;  Mark  x,  45;  1  Tim. 
ii,  6  ;  that  "  we  are  bought  with  a  price,"  2  Pet. 
Hi  1  i  Rev.  jiv,  1;  I  Cor.  vi,  20;  that  "he 
redeemed  us  with  his  blood,"  "redeemed  us 
from  i|M.  curs,,  of  the  law,  being  made  a  curse 
lor  us,"  1  Peter  i,  11);  Rev.  v,  9;  Gal  iii,  13; 
that  "  he  is  our  advocate,  intercessor,  and  pro- 
pitiation,"  f l.l>.  vii,  25;  1  John  ii,  1,  2;  that 
"  he  was  made  perfect,  through  sufferings ;  and 


being  thus  made  perfect,  he  became  the  author 
of  salvation,"  Heb.  ii,  10 ;  v,  9  ;  that  "  God  was 
in  Christ,  reconciling  the  world  to  himself,  not 
imputing  their  trespasses  unto  them,"  2  Cor. 
v,  19;  Rom.  v,  10;  Eph.  ii,  16;  and  that 
"through  death  he  destroyed  him  that  had 
the  power  of  death,"  Heb.  ii,  14.  Christ,  then, 
having  thus  "  humbled  himself,  and  become 
obedient  to  death,  even  the  death  of  the  cross  ; 
God,  also,  hath  highly  exalted  him,  and  given 
him  a  name  which  is  above  every  name  ;"  hath 
commanded  us  to  pray  in  his  name ;  consti- 
tuted him  man's  advocate  and  intercessor ; 
distributes  his  grace  only  through  him,  and  in 
honour  of  his  death ;  hath  given  all  things 
into  his  hands ;  and  hath  committed  all  judg- 
ment unto  him;  "that  at  the  name  of  Jesus 
every  knee  should  bow,"  and  "that  all  men 
should  honour  the  Son  even  as  they  honour 
the  Father,"  Phil,  ii,  8-10 ;  John  iii,  35 ;  v, 
22,  23. 

All  the  offices  of  Christ,  therefore,  arise  out 
of  his  gracious  appointment,  and  voluntary 
undertaking,  to  be  "  the  Mediator  between 
God  and  man ;"  between  God  offended,  and 
man  offending  ;  and  therefore  under  the  penalty 
of  God's  violated  law,  which  denounces  death 
against  every  transgressor.  He  is  the  Prophet 
who  came  to  teach  us  the  extent  and  danger  of 
our  offences,  and  the  means  which  God  had  ap- 
pointed for  their  remission.  He  is  "  the  great 
High  Priest  of  our  profession,"  who,  having 
"  offered  himself  without  spot  to  God,"  has 
entered  the  holiest  to  make  intercession  for 
us,  and  to  present  our  prayers  and  services  to 
God,  securing  to  them  acceptance  by  virtue  of 
his  own  merits.  He  is  King,  ruling  over  the 
whole  earth,  for  the  maintenance  and  establish- 
ment and  enlargement  of  his  church,  and  for 
the  punishment  of  those  who  reject  his  autho- 
rity ;  and  he  is  the  final  Judge  of  the  quick  and 
the  dead,  to  whom  is  given  the  power  of  dis- 
tributing the  rewards  and  penalties  of  eter- 
nity.   See  Atonement  and  Jesus  Christ. 

There  is  an  essential  connection  between 
the  mediation  of  our  Lord  and  the  covenant  of 
grace.  (See  Covenant.)  He  is  therefore  called 
the  Mediator  of  "  a  better  covenant,"  and  of  a 
"  new  covenant."  The  word  jxcairrn  literally 
means  "a  person  in  the  middle,"  between  two 
parties ;  and  the  fitness  of  there  being  a  Me- 
diator of  the  covenant  of  grace  arises  from 
this,  that  the  nature  of  the  covenant  implies  that 
the  two  parties  were  at  variance.  Those  who 
hold  the  Socinian  principles  understand  a  me- 
diator to  mean  nothing  more  than  a  messenger 
sent  from  God  to  give  assurance  of  forgiveness 
to  his  offending  creatures.  Those  who  hold 
the  doctrine  of  the  atonement  understand,  that 
Jesus  is  called  the  Mediator  of  the  new  cove- 
nant, because  he  reconciles  the  two  parties,  by 
having  appeased  the  wrath  of  God  which  man 
had  deserved,  and  by  subduing  that  enmity  to 
God  by  which  their  hearts  were  alienated  from 
him.  It  is  plain  that  this  is  being  a  mediator 
in  the  strict  and  proper  sense  of  the  word  ; 
and  there  seems  to  be  no  reason  for  resting  in 
a  meaning  less  proper  and  emphatical.  This 
sense  of  the  term  mediator  coinoides  with  the 


MED 


635 


MEL 


meaning  of  another  phrase  applied  to  him, 
Heb.  vii,  22,  where  he  is  called  Kpcirrovos  SiadijKijs 
iyyvos.  If  he  is  a  Mediator  in  the  last  sense, 
then  he  is  also  syyvos,  the  sponsor,  the  surety, 
of  the  covenant.  He  undertook,  on  the  part  of 
the  supreme  Lawgiver,  that  the  sins  of  those 
who  repent  shall  be  forgiven ;  and  he  fulfilled 
this  undertaking  by  offering,  in  their  stead,  a 
satisfaction  to  divine  justice.  He  undertook, 
on  their  part,  that  they  should  keep  the  terms 
of  the  covenant ;  and  he  fulfils  this  under- 
taking by  the  influence  of  his  Spirit  upon 
their  hearts. 

If  a  mediator  be  essential  to  the  covenant 
of  grace,  and  if  all  who  have  been  saved  from 
the  time  of  the  first  transgression  were  saved 
by  that  covenant,  it  follows  that  the  Mediator 
of  the  new  covenant  acted  in  that  character 
before  he  was  manifested  in  the  flesh.  Hence 
the  importance  of  that  doctrine  respecting  the 
person  of  Christ ;  that  all  tlie  communications 
which  the  Almighty  condescended  to  hold  with 
the  human  race  were  carried  on  from  the  be- 
ginning by  this  person  ;  that  it  is  he  who  spake 
to  the  patriarchs,  who  gave  the  law  by  Moses, 
and  who  is  called  in  the  Old  Testament,  "  the 
angel  of  the  covenant."  These  views  open  to 
us  the  full  importance  of  a  doctrine  which 
manifestly  unites  in  one  faith  all  who  obtain 
deliverance  from  that  condition ;  for,  accord- 
ing to  this  doctrine,  not  ®nly  did  the  virtue  of 
the  blood  which  he  shed  as  a  priest  extend  to 
the  ages  past  before  his  manifestation,  but  all 
the  intimations  of  the  new  covenant  established 
in  his  blood  were  given  by  him  as  the  great 
Prophet,  and  the  blessings  of  the  covenant 
were  applied  in  every  age  by  the  Spirit,  which 
he,  as  the  King  of  his  people,  sends  forth.  The 
Socinians,  who  consider  Jesus  as  a  mere  man, 
having  no  existence  till  he  was  born  of  Mary, 
necessarily  reject  the  doctrine  now  stated : 
and  the  church  of  Rome,  although  they  admit 
the  divinity  of  our  Saviour,  yet,  by  the  system 
which  they  hold  with  regard  to  the  mediation 
of  Christ,  agree  with  the  Socinians  in  throw- 
ing out  of  the  dispensations  of  the  grace  of 
God  that  beautiful  and  complete  unity  which 
arises  from  their  having  been  conducted  by 
one  person.  The  church  of  Rome  considers 
Christ  as  Mediator  only  in  respect  of  his  human 
nature.  As  that  nature  did  not  exist  till  he  was 
born  of  Mary,  they  do  not  think  it  possible 
that  he  could  exercise  the  office  of  Mediator 
under  the  Old  Testament ;  and  as  they  admit 
that  a  mediator  is  essential  to  the  covenant  of 
grace,  they  believe  that  those  who  lived  under 
the  Old  Testament,  not  enjoying  the  benefit  of 
his  mediation,  did  not  obtain  complete  remis- 
sion of  sins.  They  suppose,  therefore,  that 
persons  in  former  times  who  believed  in  a 
Saviour  that  was  to  come,  and  who  obtained 
justification  with  God  by  this  faith,  were 
detained  after  death  in  a  place  of  the  infernal 
regions,  which  received  the  name  of  limbus 
patrum ;  a  kind  of  prison  where  they  did  not 
endure  punishment,  but  remained  without 
partaking  of  the  joys  of  heaven,  in  earnest 
expectation  of  the  coming  of  Christ,  who, 
after  suffering  on  the  cross,  descended  to  hell 


that  he  might  set  them  free.  This  fanciful 
system  has  no  other  foundation  than  the  slen- 
der support  which  it  appears  to  receive  from 
some  obscure  passages  of  Scripture  that  admit 
of  another  interpretation.  But  if  Christ  acted 
as  the  Mediator  of  the  covenant  of  grace  from 
the  time  of  the  first  transgression,  this  system 
becomes  wholly  unnecessary ;  and  we  may 
believe,  according  to  the  general  strain  of 
Scripture,  and  what  we  account  the  analogy 
of  faith,  that  all  who  "  died  in  faith,"  since  the 
world  began,  entered  immediately  after  death 
into  that  "  heavenly  country  which  they  de- 
sired." 

Although  the  members  of  the  church  of 
Rome  adopt  the  language  of  Scripture,  in  which 
Jesus  is  styled  the  Mediator  of  the  new  cove- 
nant, they  differ  from  all  Protestants  in  acknow- 
ledging other  mediators;  and  the  use  which 
they  make  of  the  doctrine  that  Christ  is  Media- 
tor only  in  his  human  nature  is  to  justify  their 
admitting  those  who  had  no  other  nature  to 
share  that  office  with  him.  Saints,  martyrs, 
and  especially  the  Virgin  Mary,  are  called  me- 
diatores  secundarii,  because  it  is  conceived  that 
they  hold  this  character  under  Christ,  and  that, 
by  virtue  of  his  mediation,  the  superfluity  of 
their  merits  may  be  applied  to  procure  accept- 
ance with  God  for  our  imperfect  services. 
Under  this  character,  supplications  and  solemn 
addresses  are  presented  to  them  ;  and  the  me- 
diatores  secundarii  receive  in  the  church  of 
Rome,  not  only  the  honour  due  to  eminent 
virtue,  but  a  worship  and  homage  which  that 
church  wishes  to  vindicate  from  the  charge  of 
idolatry,  by  calling  it  the  same  kind  of  inferior 
and  secondary  worship  which  is  offered  to  the 
man  Christ  Jesus,  who  in  his  human  nature 
acted  as  Mediator.  In  opposition  to  all  this, 
we  hold  that  Jesus  Christ  was  qualified  to  act 
as  Mediator  by  the  union  between  his  divine 
and  his  human  nature  ;  that  his  divine  nature 
gave  an  infinite  value  to  all  that  he  did,  ren- 
dering it  effectual  for  the  purpose  of  reconcil- 
ing us  to  God,  while  the  condescension  by 
which  he  approached  to  man,  in  taking  part 
of  flesh  and  blood,  fulfilled  the  gracious  inten- 
tion for  which  a  Mediator  was  appointed  ;  that 
the  introducing  any  other  mediator  is  unneces- 
sary, derives  no  warrant  from  Scripture,  and 
is  derogatory  to  the  honour  of  him  who  is 
there  called  the  "one  Mediator  between  God 
and  men  ;"  and  that  as  the  union  of  the  divine 
to  the  human  nature  is  the  foundation  of  that 
worship  which  in  Scripture  is  often  paid  to  the 
Mediator  of  the  new  covenant,  this  worship 
does  not  afford  the  smallest  countenance  to 
the  idolatry  and  will  worship  of  those  who 
ascribe  divine  honours  to  any  mortal. 

MEGIDDO,  a  city  of  the  tribe  of  Manas- 
seh,  famous  for  the  battle  fought  there  be- 
tween Pharaoh-Necho  and  King  Josiah,  in 
which  the  latter  was  defeated  and  mortally 
wounded,  Josh,  xvii,  11 ;  Judges  i,  27  ;  2  Kings 
xxiii,  29. 

MELCHIZEDEK.  When  Abram  returned 
from  the  slaughter  of  the  Assyrians,  in  his 
way  to  Hebron,  he  was  met  at  Shaveh,  or 
King's  Dale,  afterward  the  valley  of  Jehosha. 


MEL 


636 


MEN 


phat,  between  Jerusalem  and  Mount  Olivet, 
by  Melchizedek,  king  of  Salem,  the  most  an- 
cient quarter  of  Jerusalem,  a  priest  of  the  most 
high  God,  who  gave  him  bread  and  wine,  and 
blessed  him  in  the  name  of  the  "  mosl  high 
God,  Creator  of  heaven  and  earth;"  to  whom 
Abrain  in  return  piously  gave  tithes,  or  the 
tenth  part  of  all  the  spoils  as  an  offering  to 
God,  Heb.  vii,  2.  This  Canaanitish  prince 
was  early  considered  as  a  type  of  Christ  in  the 
Jewish  church:  "Thou  art  a  priest  for  ever, 
after  the  order  of  Melchizedek,"  Psalm  ex,  4. 
He  resembled  Christ  in  the  following  par- 
ticulars:  1.  In  his  name,  Melchizedek,  "King 
of  Righteousness ;"  2.  In  his  city,  Salem, 
"Peace  ;"  3.  In  his  offices  of  king  and  priest 
of  the  most  high  God  ;  and  4.  In  the  omission 
of  the  names  of  his  parents  and  genealogy, 
the  time  of  his  birth  and  length  of  his  life,  ex- 
hibiting an  indefinite  reign  and  priesthood,  ac- 
cording to  the  Apostle's  exposition,  Heb.  vii,  5. 
The  import  of  this  is,  that  he  came  not  to  his 
office  by  right  of  primogeniture,  (which  im- 
plies a  genealogy,)  or  by  the  way  of  succession, 
but  was  raised  up  and  immediately  called  of 
God  to  it.  In  that  respect  Christ  is  said  to  be 
a  priest  after  his  "  order."  Then,  again,  that 
he  hud  no  successor,  nor  could  have  ;  for  there 
was  no  law  to  constitute  an  order  of  succes- 
sion, so  that  he  was  a  priest  only  upon  an  ex- 
traordinary call.  In  this  respect  our  Lord's 
priesthood  answers  to  his,  because  it  is  wholly 
in  himself,  who  has  no  successor.  An  infi- 
nite number  of  absurd  opinions  have  been  at 
different  times  held  respecting  this  mystic 
personage,  as  that  he  was  Shem,  or  Ham  ;  or, 
among  those  who  think  he  was  more  than 
human,  that  he  was  the  Holy  Ghost,  or  the 
Son  of  God  himself;  absurdities  which  are  too 
obsolete  to  need  refutation. 

MELITA,  now  culled  Malta,  an  island  in 
the  African  or  Mediterranean  Sea,  I.. 
Africa  and  Sicily,  twenty  miles  in  length  and 
twelve  in  breadth,  formerly  reckoned  a  part 
of  Africa,  but  now  belonging  to  Europe.  St. 
Paul  suffered  shipwreck  upon  the.  coast  of 
Malt;),  Acts  xviii,  1-3.  In  the  opinion  of  Dr. 
Hales,  the  island  where  this  happened  was  not 
Malta,  but  Meleda.  His  words  are:  "That 
this  island  was  Meleda,  near  the  Illyrian  coast, 
not  Malta,  on  the  southern  coast  of  Sicily, 
may  appear  from  the  following  considerations  : 
1.  It  iies  confessedly  in  the  Adriatic  Sea,  but 
Malta  a  considerable  distance  from  it.  2.  It 
lies  nearer  the  mouth  of  the  Adriatic  than  any 
other  island  of  that  sea;  and  would  of  course, 
be  more  likely  to  receive  the  wreck  of  any 
ves-i  1  driven  by  tempests  toward  that  quarter. 
And  it  lies  north-west  by  north  of  the  south- 
west promontory  of  Crete;  and  came  nearly 
in  the  direction  of  a  storm  from  the  south-cast 
quarter.  3.  An  obscure;  island  called  Melite, 
whose  inhabitants  were  'barbarous,'  was  not 
applicable  to  the  celebrity  of  Malta  at  that 
time,  which  Cicero  represents  us  abounding 
in  curiosities  and  riches,  and  possessing  a  re- 
markable manufacture  of  the  finest  linen  ;  and 
Diodorus  Siculus  more  fully  :  '  Malta  is  fur- 
nished with   many   and   very   good  harbours, 


and  the  inhabitants  are  very  rich ;  for  it  is  full 
of  all  sorts  of  artificers,  among  whom  there 
are  excellent  weavers  of  fine  linen.  Their 
houses  are  very  stately  and  beautiful,  adorned 
with  graceful  eaves,  and  pargetted  with  white 
plaster.  The  inhabitants  are  a  colony  of  Phe- 
nicians,  who,  trading  as  merchants,  as  far  as 
the  western  ocean,  resorted  to.  this  place  on 
account  of  its  commodious  ports  and  con- 
venient situation  for  maritime  commerce  ;  and 
by  the  advantage  of  this  place,  the  inhabitants 
frequently  became  famous  both  for  their  wealth 
and  their  merchandise.'  4.  The  circumstance 
of  the  viper,  or  venomous  snake,  which  fas- 
tened on  St.  Paul's  hand,  agrees  with  the  damp 
and  woody  island  of  Meleda,  affording  shelter 
and  proper  nourishment  for  such,  but  not  with 
the  dry  and  rocky  island  of  Malta,  in  which  there 
are  no  serpents  now,  and  none  in  the  time  of 
Pliny.  5.  The  disease  with  which  the  father 
of  Publius  was  affected,  dysentery  combined 
with  fever,  probably  intermittent,  might  well 
suit  a  country  woody  and  damp,  and  probably, 
for  want  of  draining,  exposed  to  the  putrid 
effluvia  of  confined  moisture;  but  was  not 
likely  to  affect  a  dry,  rocky,  and  remarkably 
healthy  island  like  Malta." 

MELON,  Q'neiN,  Numbers  xi,  5,  a  luscious 
fruit  so  well  known  that  a  description  of  it 
would  be  superfluous.  It  grows  to  great  per- 
fection, and  is  highly  esteemed  in  Egypt,  es- 
pecially by  the  lower  class  of  people,  during 
the  hot  months.  The  juice  is  peculiarly  cool- 
ing and  agreeable  in  that  sultry  climate,  where 
it  is  justly  pronounced  one  of  the  most  deli- 
cious refreshments  that  nature,  amidst  her 
constant  attention  to  the  wants  of  man,  affords 
in  the  season  of  violent  heat.  There  are  va- 
rieties of  this  fruit ;  but  that  more  particularly 
referred  to  in  the  text  must  be  the  water  melon. 
It  is  cultivated,  says  Hasselquist,  on  the  banks 
of  the  Nile,  in  the  rich  clayey  earth,  which 
subsides  during  the  inundation.  This  serves 
the  Egyptians  for  meat,  drink,  and  physic.  It 
is  eaten  in  abundance  during  the  season,  even 
by  the  richer  sort  of  people  ;  but  the  common 
people,  on  whom  Providence  has  bestowed 
nothing  but  poverty  and  patience,  scarcely 
eat  any  tiling  but  these,  and  account  this  the 
best  time  of  the  year,  as  they  are  obliged  to 
put  up  with  worse  fare  at  other  seasons.  This 
fruit  sometimes  serves  them  for  drink,  the 
juice  refreshing  these  poor  creatures,  and  they 
have  less  occasion  for  water  than  if  they  were 
to  live  on  more  substantial  food  in  this  burn- 
ing climate.  This  well  explains  the  regret 
expressed  by  the  Israelites  for  the  loss  of  this 
fruit,  whose  pleasant  liquor  had  so  often 
quenched  their  thirst,  and  relieved  their  weari- 
ness in  their  servitude,  and  which  would  have 
been  exceedingly  grateful  in  a  dry  scorching 
desert. 

MEMPHIS.  See  Norn. 
MENNONITES,  a  society  of  Baptists  in 
Holland,  so  palled  from  Menno  Simon  of 
Friesland,  who  lived  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
He  was  originally  a  Romish  priest,  but  joined 
a  party  of  the  Anabaptists,  and,  becoming  their 
leader,  cured  them  of  many  extravagancies, 


MEN 


637 


MES 


and  reduced  the  system  to  consistency  and 
moderation.  The  Mennonites  maintain  that 
practical  piety  is  the  essence  of  religion,  and 
that  the  surest  mark  of  the  true  church  is  the 
sanctity  of  its  members.  They  plead  for  uni- 
versal toleration  in  religion,  and  debar  none 
from  their  societies  who  lead  pious  lives,  and 
own  the  Scriptures  for  the  word  of  God.  They 
teach  that  infants  are  not  the  proper  subjects 
of  baptism ;  that  ministers  of  the  Gospel  ought 
to  receive  no  salary.  They  also  object  to  the 
terms  person  and  trinity,  as  not  consistent 
with  the  simplicity  of  the  Scriptures.  They 
are,  like  the  Society  of  Friends,  uttely  averse 
to  oaths  and  war,  and  to  capital  punishments, 
as  contrary  to  the  spirit  of  the  Christian  dis- 
pensation. In  their  private  meetings  every 
one  has  the  liberty  to  speak,  to  expound  the 
Scriptures,  and  to  pray.  They  assemble,  or 
used  to  do  so,  twice  every  year  from  all  parts 
of  Holland,  at  Rynsbourg,  a  village  two  leagues 
from  Leyden,  at  which  time  they  receive*thc 
communion,  sitting  at  a  table  in  the  manner 
of  the  Independents ;  but  in  their  form  of  dis- 
cipline they  are  said  more  to  resemble  the 
Presbyterians.  The  ancient  Mennonites  pro- 
fessed a  contempt  of  erudition  and  science, 
and  excluded  all  from  their  communion  who 
deviated  in  the  least  from  the  most  rigorous 
rules  of  simplicity  and  gravity :  but  this  primi- 
tive austerity  is  greatly  diminished  in  their 
most  considerable  societies.  Those  who  ad- 
here to  their  ancient  discipline  are  called 
Flemings  or  Flandrians.  The  whole  sect  were 
formerly  called  Waterlandians,  from  the  dis- 
trict in  which  they  lived.  The  Mennonites  in 
Pennsylvania  do  not  baptize  by  immersion, 
though  they  administer  the  ordinance  to  none 
but  adult  persons.  Their  common  method  is 
this :  The  person  to  be  baptized  kneels,  the 
minister  holds  his  hands  over  him,  into  which 
the  deacon  pours  water,  so  that  it  runs  on  the 
head  of  the  baptized  ;  after  which  follow  impo- 
sition of  hands  and  prayer. 

Divine  worship  is  conducted  among  the 
Mennonites  much  as  among  the  churches  of 
the  reformed,  or  among  the  Dissenters  in  Eng- 
land, only  with  this  peculiarity,  that  collec- 
tions are  made  every  Sabbath  day,  sometimes 
in  the  middle  of  the  sermon,  in  two  bags,  one 
for  the  poor,  and  the  other  for  the  expenses  of 
public  worship.  They  have  a  Mennonite  col- 
lege at  Amsterdam,  and  the  ministers  are 
chosen  in  some  places  by  the  congregation, 
and  in  others  by  the  elders  only.  As  they  re- 
ject infant  baptism,  they  refuse  to  commune 
at  the  Lord's  table  with  any  who  administer 
the  ordinance  to  children,  unless  resprinkled. 
They  train  up  catechumens  under  their  minis- 
ters, and,  about  the  age  of  sixteen,  baptize 
them,  taking  from  the  candidate,  before  the 
minister  and  elders,  an  account  of  his  repent- 
ance and  faith.  In  some  parts  of  North  Hol- 
land, young  people  are  baptized  on  the  day  of 
their  marriage.  They  baptize  by  pouring  or 
sprinkling  thrice. 

With  respect  to  their  confession  of  faith,  as 
it  is  stated  by  one x>f  their  ministers,  Mr.  '  «-m, 
of  Rysvvick,  they  believe  that  in  the  fall  man 


lost  his  innocence,  and  that  all  his  posterity 
are  born  with  a  natural  propensity  to  evil,  and 
with  fleshly  inclinations,  and  are  exposed  to 
sickness  and  death.  The  posterity  of  Adam 
derive  no  moral  guilt  from  his  fall :  sin  is  per- 
sonal, and  the  desert  of  punishment  cannot  be 
inherited.  The  incarnate  Son  of  God  is  set 
forth  to  us  as  inferior  to  the  Father,  not  only 
in  his  state  of  humiliation,  but  in  that  of  his 
exaltation,  and  as  subject  to  the  Father :  he  is 
nevertheless  an  object  of  religious  trust  and 
confidence  in  like  manner  as  the  Father. 
With  respect  to  the  number  of  Mennonites  in 
Holland,  they  are  calculated  at  only  thirty 
thousand,  including  children,  and  form  about 
a  hundred  and  thirty  churches.  In  the  United 
States  of  America,  it  appears,  there  are  more 
than  two  hundred  Mennonite  churches,  some 
of  which  contain  as  many  as  three  hundred 
members  in  each.  They  are  mostly  the  de- 
scendants of  the  Mennonites  who  emigrated 
in  great  numbers  from  Paltz. 

MERCY  SEAT,  IXa^pwv,  propitiatory.  This 
word  is  properly  an  adjective,  agreeing  with 
htdefja,  a  lid,  understood,  which  is  expressed 
by  the  LXX,  Exod.  xxv,  17.  In  that  version, 
'iXa^fipwv  generally  answers  to  the  Hebrew 
mca,  from  the  verb  neo,  to  cover,  expiate,  and 
was  the  lid  or  covering  of  the  ark  of  the  cove- 
nant, made  of  pure  gold,  on  and  before  which 
the  high  priest  was  to  sprinkle  the  blood  of 
the  expiatory  sacrifices  on  the  great  day  of 
atonement,  and  where  God  promised  to  meet 
his  people,  Exod.  xxv,  17,  22;  xxix,  42;  xxx, 
36;  Lev.  xvi,  2,  14.  St.  Paul,  by  applying 
this  name  to  Christ,  Rom.  iii,  25,  assures  us 
that  he  is  the  true  mercy  seat,  the  reality  of 
what  the  niD3  represented  to  the  ancient  be- 
lievers ;  by  him  our  sins  are  covered  or  expi- 
ated, and  through  him  God  communes  with 
us  in  mercy.  The  mercy  seat  also  represents 
our  approach  to  God  through  Christ ;  we  come 
to  the  "throne  of  grace;"  which  is  only  a 
variation  of  the  term  "mercy  seat." 

MEROM,  Waters  of,  or  lacus  Samecho- 
uitis :  the  most  northern  and  the  smallest  of 
the  three  lakes  which  are  supplied  by  the 
waters  of  the  Jordan.  Indeed  the  numerous 
branches  of  this  river,  descending  from  the 
mountains,  unite  in  this  small  piece  of  water; 
out  of  which  issues  the  single  stream  which 
may  be  considered  as  the  Jordan  Proper.  It 
is  at  present  called  the  lake  of  Houle  ;  and  is 
situated  in  a  hollow  or  valley,  about  twelve 
miles  wide,  called  the  Ard  Houle,  formed  by 
the  Djebel  Heish  on  the  west,  and  Djebcl  Safat. 
on  the  east,  the  two  branches  into  which  the 
mountains  of  Hasbeya,  or  Djebel  Esheikh,  the 
ancient  Hermon,  divides  itself  about  fifteen 
mites  to  the  north. 

MEROZ,  a  place  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  brook  Kishon,  whose  inhabitants,  refusing 
to  come  to  the  assistance  of  their  brethren, 
when  they  fought  with  Sisera,  were  put  under 
an  anathema,  Judges  v,  23. 

MESHECH,  Country  of.  Meshech  was 
the  sixth  so»  of  Japheth,  and  is  generally 
mentioned  in  conjunction  with  his  brother 
Tubal ;  and  both  were  first  seated  in  the  north- 


MES 


638 


MES 


eastern  angle  of  Asia  Minor,  from  the  shores 
of  the  Euxine,  along  to  the  south  of  Caucasus ; 
where  were  the  Montes  Moschisi,  and  where, 
in  after  times,  were  the  Iberi,  Tibareni,  and 
Mosclii ;  near  to  whom  also*  or  mingled  with 
them,  were  the  Chalyfies,  who,  it  is  probable, 
derived  their  Grecian  appellation  from  the 
general  occupation  of  the  families  of  Tubal 
and  Meehecb,  as  workers  in  brass  and  iron, 
as  the  inhabitants  of  the  same  countries  have 
been  in  all  ages,  for  the  supply  of  Tyre,  Persia, 
Greece,  and  Armenia.  There  appears  a-lso  to 
have  been  in  the  same  neighbourhood,  namely, 
in  Armenia,  a  river  and  country  termed  Rosh  : 
for  so,  Boehart  says,  the  river  Araxes  is  called 
by  the  Arabs  ;  and  that  there  was  a  people  in 
the  adjoining  country  called  Rhossi.  That 
paasage  in  Ezekiel,  xxxviii,  also,  which  in  our 
Bibles  is  rendered  "the  chief  prince  of  Mc 
ahech  and  Tubal,"  is,  in  the  Septuagint,  "the 
prince  of  Rosh,  Meehecb,  and  Tubal."  These 
Rossi  and  Mosclii,  who  were  neighbours  in 
Asia,  dispersed  their  colonies  jointly  over  the 
vast  empire  of  Russia ;  and  preserve  their 
names  still  in  those  of  Russians  and  Musco- 
vites. 

M  EJSOPOTAMIA,    an  extensive  province 
of  Asia,    the    Greek  name   of  which  denotes 
"between   the   rivers,"  and  on  this  account 
Strabo  says,   on  /carat  ncra^v  tov  Kinppdrn  Kai  tov 
Tiypos,  that  "  it  was  situated  between  the  Eu- 
phrates and  the   Tigris."     In    Scripture    this 
country  is  called  Aram,  and  Aramea.     But  as 
Aram  also  signifies  Syria,  it  is  denominated 
Aram  Nahaxaim,  or  the  Syria  of  the  rivers. 
This  province,  which  inclines  from  the  south- 
east 10  the  north-west,  commenced  at  33°  20' 
N.   lat.,   and  terminated  near  37°  30'  N.  lat. 
Toward  the  south  it  extended   as  far  as  the 
bend  formed  by  the  Jordan  at  Cunaxa,  and  to 
the  wall  of  Semiramis  which  separated  it  from 
Messene.    Toward  the  north,  it  comprehended 
part  of  Taurus  and  the  Mesius,  which  lay  be- 
tween   the    Euphrates    and  the  Tigris.     The 
modern  name,  given  by  the  Arabs  to  this  part, 
is  of  the  same  import  with  the  ancient  appel- 
lation ;  they  call  it  "isle,"  or,  in  their  language, 
l/-/>gezera.     In  this  northern  part  is  found 
Osrhoene,  which  seems  to  have  been  the  same 
place  with  Anthemusir.     The  northern  part  of 
Mesopotamia  is  occupied  by  chains  of  mount, 
ains  passing  from  north-west  to  south-east,  in 
the  situation  of  the  rivers.     The  central  parts 
of  these  mountains  were  called  Singara^  Mon- 
tes.    The  principal  rivers  were  Chaboras,  (Al 
Kabour,)  which  commenced  at  Charrsc,  (Har- 
Tan,)  east  of  the  mountains,   and  discharged 
itself  into  the  Euphrates  at  Circesium  (Kirki- 
sieh ;)  the  Mygdonios,  (Hanali,)  the  source  of 
Which  was  near  Nisibis,  and  its  termination  in 
the  Chaboras.     The    principal   towns    in  the 
a  part  along  the  Tigris  and  near  it,  are 
Nisibis,  (Niajbin,)  Bezabde,  (ZabdaJ  Singbra, 
r s 1 1 1 <  1 1 ;i , ;    Lftbbana   on   the   Tigris,    (Mosul,) 
llatru,   (Harder,)  and  Apamea-Mesenes.     At 
boine  distance  to  the  south,  upon  the  Tigris 
and   on   the  borders  of  Mesopotamia,  was  the 
town  of  Antiochia,   near  which    commenced 
the  wall  that  passed  from  the  Tigris  to  the 


Euphrates,  under  the  name  of  Murus  Media, 
or  Semiramidis.  In  the  western  part  were 
Bdessa,  called  also  Callin-Rha;,  (Orfa,)  Charrae, 
(Ilarran,)  Nicephorium,  (Racca,)  Circesium 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Chaboras,  Anatho,  (Anah,) 
Neharda,  (Hadith  Unnour,)  upon  the  right  of 
the  Euphrates.  There  are  several  other  towns 
of  less  importance.  According  to  Strabo,  this 
country  was  fertile  in  vines,  and  afforded 
abundance  of  good  wine.  According  to 
Ptolemy,  Mesopotamia  had  on  the  north  a 
part  of  Armenia,  on  the  west  the  Euphrates 
on  the  side  of  Syria,  on  the  east  the  Tigris 
on  the  borders  of  Assyria,  and  on  the  south 
the  Euphrates  which  joined  the  Tigris.  Me- 
sopotamia was  a  satrapy  under  the  kings  of 
Syria. 

In  the  earliest  accounts  we  have  of  this 
country,  subsequent  to  the  time  of  Abraham, 
it  was  subject  to  a  king,  called  Cushan-Risha- 
thaim,  then  perhaps  the  most  powerful  poten- 
tate* of  the  east,  and  the  first  by  whom  the 
Israelites  were  made  captive,  which  happened 
soon  after  the  death  of  Joshua,  and  about 
B.  C.  1400,  Judges  iii,  8.  The  name  of  this 
king  bespeaks  him  a  descendant  of  Nimrod ; 
and  it  was  probably  of  the  Lower  Mesopota- 
mia only,  or  Babylonia,  of  which  he  was 
sovereign ;  the  northern  parts  being  in  the 
possession  of  the  Arameans.  This  is  implied 
in  the  history  of  Abraham  ;  who,  when  ordered 
to  depart  from  his  country,  namely,  Chaldea, 
in  the  southern  part  of  Mesopotamia,  removed 
to  Charran,  still  in  Mesopotamia,  but  beyond 
the  boundary  of  the  Chaldees,  and  in  the  ter- 
ritory of  Aram.  About  four  hundred  years 
after  Cushan-Rishathaim,  we  find  the  northern 
parts  of  Mesopotamia  in  the  hands  of  the 
Syrians  of  Zobah  ;  as  we  are  told,  in  2  Sam.  x, 
that  Hadarezer,  king  of  Zobah,  after  his  de- 
feat by  Joab,  " sent  and  brought  out  the 
Syrians  that  were  beyond  the  river"  Euphra- 
tes. The  whole  country  was  afterward  seized 
by  the  Assyrians ;  to  whom  it  pertained  till 
the  dissolution  of  their  empire,  when  it  was 
divided  between  the  Medes  and  the  Baby- 
lonians. It  subsequently  formed  a  part  of  the 
Medo-Persian,  second  Syrian  or  Macedonian, 
and  Parthian  empires,  as  it  does  at  the  present 
day  of  the  modern  Persian.  The  southern 
part  of  Mesopotamia  answers  nearly  to  the 
country  anciently  called  the  land  of  Shinar ; 
to  which  the  Prophet  Daniel,  i,  2,  refers,  and 
Zechariah  v,  11. 

"  On  the  fifth  or  sixth  day  after  leaving 
Aleppo,"  says  Campbell  in  his  Overland  Jour- 
net/  /o  India,  "we  arrived  at  the  city  of  Diar- 
beker,  the  capital  of  the  province  of  that 
name  ;  having  passed  over  an  extent  of  country 
of  between  three  and  four  hundred  miles,  most 
of  it  blessed  with  the  greatest  fertility,  and 
abounding  with  as  rich  pastures  as  I  ever  be- 
held, covered  with  numerous  herds  and  flocks. 
The  air  was  charmingly  temperate  in  the  day 
time,  but,  to  my  feeling,  extremely  cold  at 
night.  Yet  notwithstanding  the  extreme  fer 
tility  of  this  country,  the  bad  administration 
of  government,  conspiring  with  the  indolence 
of  the  inhabitants,  leaves  it  unpeopled  and  ur- 


MES 


639 


MES 


cultivated.  Diaibeker  Proper,  called  also 
Mesopotamia  from  its  lying  between  two 
famous  rivers,  and  by  Moses  called  Padana- 
ram,  that  is,  '  the  fruitful  Syria,''  abounds  with 
corn,  wine,  oil,  fruits,  and  all  the  necessaries 
of  life.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  seat 
of  the  earthly  paradise  ;  and  all  geographers 
agree  that  here  the  descendants  of  Noah  set- 
tled immediately  after  the  flood.  To  be  tread- 
ing that  ground  which  Abraham  trod,  where 
Nahor  the  father  of  Rebecca  lived,  where  holy 
Job  breathed  the  pure  air  of  piety  and  sim- 
plicity, and  where  Laban  the  father-in-law  of 
Jacob  resided,  was  to  me  a  circumstance  pro- 
ductive of  delightful  sensations.  As  I  rode 
along,  I  have  often  mused  upon  the  contempt- 
ible stratagems  to  which  I  was  reduced,  in 
order  to  get  through  this  country,  for  no  other 
reason  than  because  I  was  a  Christian ;  and  I 
could  not  avoid  reflecting  with  sorrow  on  the 
melancholy  effects  of  superstition,  and  regret- 
ting that  this  fine  tract  of  country,  which 
ought  to  be  considered  above  all  others  as  the 
universal  inheritance  of  mankind,  should  now 
be  cut  off  from  all  except  a  horde  of  sense- 
less bigots,  barbarous  fanatics,  and  inflexible 
tyrants." 

MESSIAH.  The  Greek  word  Xpirfc,  from 
whence  comes  Christ  and  Christian,  exactly 
answers  to  the  Hebrew  Messiah,  which  signi- 
fies him  that  hath  received  unction,  a  prophet, 
a  king,  or  a  priest.     See  Jesus  Christ. 

Our  Lord  warned  his  disciples  that  false 
messiahs  should  arise,  Matt,  xxiv,  24 ;  and  the 
event  has  verified  the  prediction.  No  less 
than  twenty-four  false  Christs  have  arisen  in 
different  places  and  at  different  times :  Caziba 
was  the  first  of  any  note  who  made  a  noise  in 
the  world.  Being  dissatisfied  with  the  state 
of  things  under  Adrian,  he  set  himself  up  as 
the  head  of  the  Jewish  nation,  and  proclaimed 
himself  their  long  expected  mfessiah.  He  was 
one  of  those  banditti  that  infested  Judea,  and 
committed  all  kinds  of  violence  against  the 
Romans  ;  and  had  become  so  powerful  that  he 
was  chosen  king  of  the  Jews,  and  by  them 
acknowledged  their  messiah.  However,  to 
facilitate  the  success  of  this  bold  enterprise, 
he  changed  his  name  from  Caziba,  which  it 
was  at  first,  to  that  of  Barchochcba,  alluding 
to  the  star  foretold  by  Balaam ;  for  he  pre- 
tended to  be  the  star  sent  from  heaven  to 
restore  his  nation  to  its  ancient  liberty  and 
glory.  He  chose  a  forerunner,  raised  an 
army,  was  anointed  king,  coined  money  in- 
scribed with  his  own  name,  and  proclaimed 
himself  messiah  and  prince  of  the  Jewish 
nation.  Adrian  raised  an  army,  and  sent  it 
against  him;  he  retired  into  a  town  called 
Bither,  where  he  was  besieged.  Barchocheba 
was  killed  in  the  siege,  the  city  was  taken, 
and  a  dreadful  havoc  succeeded.  The  Jews 
themselves  allow,  that,  during  this  short  war 
against  the  Romans  in  defence  of  this  false 
messiah,  they  lost  five  or  six  hundred  thousand 
souls.  This  was  in  ,he  former  part  of  the 
second  century.  In  the  reign  of  Theodosius 
the  younger,  A.  D.  434,  another  impostor 
aroso,  called  Moses  Cretensis.     He  pretended 


to  be  a  second  Moses,  sent  to  deliver  the  Jews 
who  dwelt  in  Crete,  and  promised  to  divide 
the  sea,  and  give  them  a  safe  passage  through 
it.  Their  delusion  proved  so  strong  and  uni- 
versal, that  they  neglected  their  lands,  houses, 
and  other  concerns,  and  took  only  so  much 
with  them  as  they  could  conveniently  carry. 
And  on  the  day  appointed,  this  false  Moses, 
having  led  them  to  the  top  of  a  rock,  men, 
women,  and  children  threw  themselves' head- 
long down  into  the  sea,  without  the  least 
hesitation  or  reluctance,  till  so  great  a  number 
of  them  were  drowned  as  opened  the  eyes  of 
the  rest,  and  made  them  sensible  of  the  cheat. 
They  then  began  to  look  for  their  pretended 
leader ;  but  he  had  disappeared,  and  escaped 
out  of  their  hands.  In  the  reign  of  Justin, 
about  A.  D.  520,  another  impostor  appeared, 
who  called  himself  the  son  of  Moses.  His 
name  was  Dunaan.  He  entered  into  a  city  of 
Arabia  Felix,  and  there  he  greatly  oppressed 
the  Christians ;  but  he  was  taken  prisoner, 
and  put  to  death  by  Elesban,  an  Ethiopian 
general.  The  Jews  and  Samaritans  rebelled 
against  the  Emperor  Justinian,  A.  D.  529, 
and  set  up  one  Julian  for  their  king,  and 
accounted  him  the  messiah.  The  emperor 
sent  an  army  against  them,  killed  great  num- 
bers of  them,  took  their  pretended  messiah 
prisoner,  and  immediately  put  him  to  death. 
In  the  time  of  Leo  Isaurus,  about  A.  D.  721, 
arose  another  false  messiah  in  Spain ;  his 
name  was  Sercnus.  He  drew  great  numbers 
after  him,  to  their  no  small  loss  and  disap- 
pointment ;  but  all  his  pretensions  came  to 
nothing.  The  twelfth  century  was  fruitful  in 
messiahs.  About  A.  D.  1137,  there  appeared  one 
in  France,  who  was  put  to  death,  and  numbers 
of  those  who  followed  him.  In  A.  D.  1138, 
the  Persians  were  disturbed  with  a  Jew,  who 
called  himself  the  messiah.  He  collected  a 
vast  army  ;  but  he  too  was  put  to  death,  and 
his  followers  treated  with  great  inhumanity.  A 
false  messiah  stirred  up  the  Jews  at  Corduba 
in  Spain,  A.  D.  1157.  The  wiser  and  better 
sort  looked  upon  him  as  a  madman,  but  the 
great  body  of  the  Jews  in  the  nation  believed 
in  him.  On  this  occasion  nearly  all  the  Jews 
in  Spain  were  destroyed.  Another  false  mes- 
siah arose  in  the  kingdom  of  Fez,  A.  D.  1167, 
which  brought  great  troubles  and  persecutions 
upon  the  Jews  that  were  scattered  throughout 
that  country.  In  the  same  year,  an  Arabian 
professed  to  be  the  messiah,  and  pretended  to 
work  miracles.  When  search  was  made  for 
him,  his  followers  fled,  and  he  was  brought 
before  the  Arabian  king.  Being  questioned 
by  him,  he  replied,  that  he  was  a  prophet  sent 
from  God.  The  king  then  asked  him  what 
sign  he  could  show  to  confirm  his  mission. 
"  Cut  off  my  head,"  said  he,  "  and  I  will  return 
to  life  again."  The  king  took  him  at  his 
word,  promising  to  believe  him  if  his  predic- 
tion was  accomplished.  The  poor  wretch, 
however,  never  came  to  life  again,  and  the 
cheat  was  sufficiently  discovered.  Those  who 
had  been  deluded  by  him  were  grievously  pun- 
ished, and  the  nation  condemned  to  a  very 
heavy  fine.  Not  long  after  this,  a  Jow  who  dwelt 


MET 


640 


MET 


beyond  the  Euphrates,  called  himself  the  mcs- 
6iah,  and  drew  vast  multitudes  of  people  after 
him.  He  gave  this  for  a  sign  of  it,  that  he 
had  been  leprous,  and  had  been  cured  in  the 
course  of  one  night.  He,  like  the  rest, 
perished,  and  brought  great  persecution  on 
his  countrymen.  A  magician  and  false  christ 
arose  in  Persia,  A.  D.  1174,  who  seduced 
many  of  the  common  people,  and  brought  the 
Jews  Into  great  tribulation.  Another  of  these 
impostors  arose,  A.  I).  1171),  in  Moravia,  who 
was  called  David  Almusser.  Ho  pretended  he 
could  make  himself  invisible ;  but  he  was  soon 
taken  and  put  to  death,  and  a  heavy  fine  laid 
upon  the  jews.  A  famous  cheat  and  rebel 
I  ImiM  If  in  Persia,  A.  D.  1199,  called 
David  el  David.  He  was  a  man  of  learning, 
lal  magician,  and  pretended  to  be  the 
messiah.  He  raised  an  army  against  the  king, 
but  was  taken  and  imprisoned;  and,  having 
made  his  oseape,  was  afterward  retaken  and 
beheaded.  Vast  numbers  of  the  Jews  were 
butchered  for  taking  part  with  this  impostor. 
Rabbi  Lemlem,  a  German  Jew  of  Austria, 
declared  himself  a  forerunner  of  the  messiah, 
A.  D.  1500,  and  pulled  down  his  own  oven, 
promising  his  brethren  that  they  should  bake 
their  bread  in  the  holy  laud  next  year.  A  false 
christ  arose  in  the  East  Indies,  A.  D.  1615, 
and  was  greatly  followed  by  the  Portuguese 
Jews  who  are  scattered  over  that  country. 
Another  in  the  Low  Countries  declared  him- 
self to  be  the  messiah  of  the  family  of  David, 
and  of  the  line  of  Nathan,  A.  D.  1624.  He 
promised  to  destroy  Romo,  and  to  overthrow 
the  kingdom  of  antichrist,  and  the  Turkish 
empire.  In  A.  D.  1666,  appeared  the  false 
messiah  Sabatai  Tzevi,  who  made  a  great 
noise,  and  gained  a  great  number  of  proselytes. 
He  was  born  at  Aleppo,  and  imposed  on  the 
Jews  for  a  considerable  time;  hut  afterward, 
with  a  view  of  saving  his  life,  he  turned  Mo- 
bammedan,  and  was  at  last  beheaded.  The  last 
false  christ  that  made  any  considerable  num- 
ber of  converts  was  one  rabbi  Mordecai,  a 
Jew  of  Germany  :  he  appeared,  A.  D.  1682. 
It  was  not  long  before  he  was  found  out  to  be 
an  impostor,  and  was  obliged  to  rlec  from  Italy 
to  Poland  to  save  his  life  :  what  became  of  him 
afterward  does  not  seem  to  be  recorded. 

METEMPSYCHOSIS,  the  doctrine  of  the 
transmigration  of  souls  into  other  bodies. 
This  tenet  has  been  attributed  to  the  sect 
of  the  Pharisees.  Josephus,  who  was  himself 
a  Pharisee,  gives  this  account,  of  their  doctrine 
in  these  points  :  "Every  soul  is  immortal;  those 
of  the  good  only  enter  into  another  body,  but 
those  of  the  bad  are  tormented  with  everlasting 
punishment."  From  whence  it  has  been  pretty 
generally  concluded,  that  the  resurrection  they 
In  Id  was  only  a  Pythagorean  one,  namely,  the 
transmigration  of  the  soul  into  another  body; 
from  which  tiny  excluded  all  that  were  no- 
toriously wicked,  who  were  doomed  at  once  to 
I  punishment;  but  their  opinion  was, 
that  thoM  who  wen  guilty  only  of  lesser 
•runes  were  punished  for  them  in  the  bodies 
into  which  their  souls  were  next  sent.  It  is 
upposed,  that  it  was  upon  this  notion  the 


disciples  asked  our  Lord,  "Did  this  man  sin, 
or  his  parents,  that  he  was  born  blind  ?"  John 
ix,  2  ;  and  that  some  said,  Christ  was  "  John 
the  Baptist,  some  Elias,  others  Jeremias,  or 
one  of  the  prophets,"  Matt,  xvi,  14.  The 
transmigration  of  souls  into  other  bodies  was 
undoubtedly  the  opinion  of  the  Pythagoreans 
and  Platonists,  and  was  embraced  by  some 
among  the  Jews  ;  as  by  the  author  of  the  Book 
of  Wisdom,  who  says,  that  "  being  good,  he 
came  into  a  body  undefiled,"  viii,  20.  Never- 
theless, it  is  questioned  by  some  persons, 
whether  the  words  of  Josephus,  before  quoted, 
are  a  sufficient  evidence  of  this  doctrine  of  the 
metempsychosis  being  received  by  the  whole 
sect  of  the  Pharisees  ;  for  "passing  into  another 
or  different  body,"  may  only  denote  its  receiv- 
ing a  body  at  the  resurrection  ;  which  will  be 
another,  not  in  substance,  but  in  quality ;  as 
it  is  said  of  Christ  at  his  transfiguration,  rd 
tlioi  tov  zzpoawKOv  avTOv  'ircpov,  "the  fashion  of 
his  countenance  was"  another,  or,  as  we  ren- 
der it,  was  "  altered,"  Luke  ix,  29.  As  to  the 
opinion  which  some  entertained  concerning 
our  Saviour,  that  he  was  either  John  the  Bap- 
tist, or  Elias,  or  Jeremias,  or  one  of  the  pro- 
phets, Matt,  xvi,  14,  it  is  not  ascribed  to  the 
Pharisees  in  particular,  and  if  it  were,  one 
cannot  see  how  it  could  be  founded  on  the  doc- 
trine  of  the  metempsychosis ;  since  the  soul 
of  Elias,  now  inhabiting  the  body  of  Jesus, 
would  no  more  make  him  to  be  Elias,  than 
several  others  had  been,  in  whose  bodies  the 
soul  of  Elias,  according  to  this  doctrine,  is 
supposed  to  have  dwelt  since  the  death  of  that 
ancient  prophet,  near  a  thousand  years  before. 
Beside,  how  was  it  possible  any  person  that 
saw  Christ,  who  did  not  appear  to  be  less  than 
thirty  years  old,  should,  according  to  the  notion 
of  the  metempsychosis,  conceive  him  to  be 
John  the  Baptist,  who  had  been  so  lately  be- 
headed? Surely  this  apprehension  must  be 
grounded  on  the  supposition  of  a  proper 
resurrection.  It  was  probably,  therefore,  up- 
on the  same  account,  that  others  took  him  to 
he  Elias,  and  others  Jeremias.  Accordingly, 
St.  Luke  expresses  it  thus  :  "  Others  say,  that, 
one  of  the  old  prophets  is  risen  from  the  dead," 
Luke  ix,  19.  It  may  farther  be  observed,  that 
the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection,  which  St. 
Paul  preached,  was  not  a  present  metempsy- 
chosis, but  a  real  future  resurrection,  which 
he  calls  "  the  hope  and  resurrection  of  the 
dead,"  Acts  xxiii,  6.  This  he  professed  as  a 
Pharisee,  and  for  this  profession  the  partisans 
of  that  sect  vindicated  him  against  the  Saddu. 
cees,  Acts  xxiii,  7-9.  Upon  the  whole,  there- 
fore, it  appears  most  reasonable  to  adopt  the 
opinion  of  Reland,  though  in  opposition  to  the 
sentiments  of  many  other  learned  men,  that 
the  Pharisees  held  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrec- 
tion in  a  proper  sense. 

METHODISTS,  a  name  given  in  derision 
at  different  times  to  religious  persons  and  par- 
ties which  have,  appeared  in  this  country;  but 
which  now  principally  designates  the  follow- 
ers of  the  Rev.  John  Wesley.  The  socie- 
ties raised  up  by  the  instrumentality  of  the 
Rev.  George  Whitefield  were  also  called  Me- 


MET 


641 


MET 


thodists,  and  in  Wales  especially  are  still 
known  by  that  appellation.  For  distinction's 
sake,  therefore,  and  also  because  a  number  of 
smaller  sects  have  broken  off  from  the  Method- 
ist societies  since  Mr.  Wesley's  death,  the 
religious  body  which  he  raised  up  and  left  or- 
ganized under  his  rules,  have  of  late  been 
generally  denominated  the  Wesleyan  Method- 
ists. In  the  year  1729,  Mr.  John  Wesley, 
being  then  fellow  of  Lincoln  College,  began  to 
spend  some  evenings  in  reading  the  Greek 
Testament  with  Charles  Wesley,  student,  and 
Mr.  Morgan,  commoner  of  Christ  Church,  and 
Mr.  Kirkham,  of  Merton  College.  Not  long 
after,  two  or  three  of  the  pupils  of  Mr.  John 
Wesley,  and  one  pupil  of  Mr.  Charles  Wesley, 
obtained  leave  to  attend  these  meetings.  They 
then  began  to  visit  the  sick  in  different  parts 
of  the  town,  and  the  prisoners  also,  who  were 
confined  in  the  castle.  Two  years  after,  they 
were  joined  by  Mr.  Ingham,  of  Queen's  Col- 
lege, Mr.  Broughton,  and  Mr.  Hervey  ;  and  in 
1735,  by  the  celebrated  Mr.  George  Whitefield, 
then  in  his  eighteenth  year.  At  this  time  their 
number  in  Oxford  amounted  to  about  fourteen. 
They  obtained  the  name  of  Methodists,  from 
the  exact  regularity  of  their  lives,  and  the 
manner  of  spending  their  time.  In  October, 
1735,  John  and  Charles  Wesley,  Mr.  Ingham, 
and  Mr.  Delamotte,  son  of  a  merchant  in  Lon- 
don, embarked  for  Georgia,  having  been  en- 
gaged by  the  trustees  of  that  colony  as  chap- 
lains ;  but  their  ultimate  design  was  to  preach 
the  Gospel  to  the  Indians.  No  favourable  oppor- 
tunity offering  itself  for  this  pious  work,  and 
the  strict  and  faithful  preaching  of  the  Wes- 
leys  having  involved  them  in  much  persecution, 
and  many  disputes  with  the  colonists,  they  re- 
turned to  England,  Mr.  Charles  Wesley  in 
1737,  Mr.  John  Wesley  in  1738.  On  the 
passage  to  America,  and  while  in  Georgia, 
Mr.  John  had  met  with  several  pious  Moravi- 
ans ;  whose  doctrines  of  justification  by  faith 
alone,  conscious  pardon  of  sin,  and  peace  with 
God,  confirmed  by  their  own  calmness  in  dan- 
ger and  freedom  from  the  fear  of  death,  greatlv 
impressed  him.  On  his  return  to  England,  he 
was  more  fully  instructed  in  these  views  by 
Bohler,  a  Moravian  minister ;  and  having 
proved  their  truth  in  his  own  experience,  he 
began  to  preach  in  the  churches  of  the  me- 
tropolis, and  other  places,  and  then  in  rooms, 
fields,  and  streets,  the  doctrine  of  salvation  by 
faith.  In  this  his  brother  Charles  was  his 
zealous  coadjutor ;  and  the  effect  was  the 
awakening  of  great  multitudes  to  a  religious 
concern,  and  the  commencement  of  a  great 
revival  of  religion  throughout  the  land,  which 
has  in  its  effects  extended  itself  to  the  most 
distant  parts  of  the  world.  At  the  time  of 
Mr.  Wesley's  death,  the  societies  in  connection 
with  him  in  Europe,  America,  and  the  West 
Indies,  amounted  to  eighty  thousand  members ; 
they  are  now  [1831]  upward  of  three  hundred 
thousand,  beside  about  half  a  million  in  the 
United  States  of  America,  who  since  the 
acquisition  of  independence  by  that  country 
have  formed  a  separate  church.  The  rules 
of  this  religious  society  were  drawn  up  by 
42 


Messrs.  John  and  Charles  Wesley  in  1743,  and 
continue  to  be  in  force.  They  state  the  na- 
ture and  design  of  a  Methodist  society  in  the 
following  words  :  "  Such  a  society  is  no  other 
than  a  company  of  men,  having  the  form  and 
seeking  the  power  of  godliness :  united,  in 
order  to  pray  together,  to  receive  the  word  of 
exhortation,  and  to  watch  over  one  another  in 
love,  that  they  may  help  each  other  to  work 
out  their  own  salvation.  That  it  may  the 
more  easily  be  discerned  whether  they  are 
indeed  working  out  their  own  salvation,  each 
society  is  divided  into  smaller  companies,  called 
classes,  according  to  their  respective  places  of 
abode.  There  are  about  twelve  persons,  some- 
times fifteen,  twenty,  or  even  more,  in  each 
class  ;  one  of  whom  is  styled  the  leader.  It  is 
his  business,  1.  To  see  each  person  in  his  class 
once  a  week,  at  least,  in  order  to  inquire  how 
their  souls  prosper ;  to  advise,  reprove,  com 
fort,  or  exhort,  as  occasion  may  require  ;  to 
receive  what  they  are  willing  to  give  to  the 
poor,  or  toward  the  support  of  the  Gospel. 
2.  To  meet  the  minister  and  the  stewards  of 
the  society  once  a  week,  to  inform  the  minister 
of  any  that  are  sick,  or  of  any  that  walk  dis- 
orderly and  will  not  be  reproved ;  to  pay  to  the 
stewards  what  they  have  received  of  their 
several  classes  in  the  week  preceding ;  and  to 
show  their  account  of  what  each  person  has 
contributed.  There  is  only  one  condition  pre- 
viously required  of  those  who  desire  admission 
into  these  societies,  namely,  a  desire  to  flee 
from  the  wrath  to  come  ;  to  be  saved  from  their 
sins :  but  wherever  this  is  really  fixed  in  the 
soul,  it  will  be  shown  by  its  fruits.  It  is  there- 
fore expected  of  all  who  continue  therein,  that 
they  should  continue  to  evidence  their  desire 
of  salvation,  1.  By  doing  no  harm  ;  by  avoid- 
ing evil  in  every  kind,  especially  that  which  is 
most  generally  practised,  such  as  taking  the 
name  of  God  in  vain  ;  profaning  the  day  of  the 
Lord,  either  by  doing  ordinary  work  thereon, 
or  by  buying  or  selling  ;  drunkenness  ;  buying 
and  selling  spirituous  liquors,  or  drinking  them, 
unless  in  cases  of  extreme  necessity  ;  fighting, 
quarrelling,  brawling;  brother  going  to  law 
with  brother  ;  returning  evil  for  evil,  or  railing 
for  railing ;  the  using  many  words  in  buying 
or  selling ;  the  buying  or  selling  uncustomed 
goods;  the  giving  or  taking  things  on  usury, 
that  is,  unlawful  interest ;  uncharitable  or  un- 
profitable conversation,  particularly  speaking 
evil  of  magistrates  or  of  ministers ;  doing  to 
others  as  we  would  not  the}'  should  do  unto 
us ;  doing  what  we  know  is  not  for  the  glory 
of  God,  as  the  putting  on  of  gold  or  costly  ap- 
parel ;  the  taking  such  diversions  as  cannot  be 
used  in  the  name  of  the  Lord  Jesus ;  singing 
those  songs,  or  reading  those  books,  which  do 
not  tend  to  the  knowledge  or  love  of  God ; 
softness,  or  needless  self-indulgence ;  laying 
up  treasure  upon  eartli ;  borrowing  without  a 
probability  of  paying;  or  taking  up  goods, 
without  a  probability  of  paying  for  them.  It  is 
expected  of  all  who  continue  in  these  societies, 
that  they  should  continue  to  evidence  their 
desire  of  salvation,  2.  By  doing  good;  by 
being  in  every  kind  merciful  after  their -power. 


MET 


642 


MET 


as  they  have  opportunity  ;  doing  good  of  every 
possible  sort,  and,  as  far  as  possible,  to  all 
men  ;  to  their  bodies,  of  the  ability  which  God 
giveth,  by  giving  food  to  the  hungry,  by  cloth- 
ing the  naked,  by  visiting  or  helping  them  that 
are  sick  or  in  prison  ;  to  their  souls,  by  instruct- 
ing, reproving,  or  exhorting  all  we  have  any 
intercourse  with;  trampling  under  foot  that 
enthusiastic  doctrine  of  devils, — that  we  are 
not  to  do  good  unless  our  hearts  be  free  to  it : 
by  doing  good,  especially  to  them  that  are  of 
the  household  of  faith,  or  groaning  so  to  be ; 
employing  then'  preferably  to  others ;  buying 
one  oi"  another ;  helping  each  other  in  busi- 
ness, and  so  much  the  more  as  the  world  will 
love  its  own,  and  them  only;  by  all  possible 
diligence  and  frugality,  that  the  Gospel  be  not 
blamed;  by  running  with  patience  the  race  set 
before  them,  denying  themselves,  and  taking 
up  their  cross  daily;  submitting  to -bear  the 
reproach  of  Christ ;  to  be  as  the  filth  and  off- 
scouring  of  the  world,  and  looking  that  men 
should  say  all  manner  of  evil  of  them  falsely 
for  the  Lord's  sake.  It.  is  expected  of  all  who 
continue  in  these  societies,  that  they  should 
continue  to  evidence  their  desire  of  salvation, 
3.  By  attending  on  all  the  ordinances  of  God  : 
such  are,  the  public  worship  of  God  ;  the  minis- 
try of  the  word  either  read  or  expounded  ;  the 
supper  of  the  Lord  ;  family  and  private  prayer ; 
searching  the  Scriptures,  and  fasting  and  ab- 
stinence. These  are  the  general  rules  of  our 
societies,  all  which  we  are  taught  of  God  to  ob- 
serve, even  in  his  written  word,  the  only  rule, 
and  the  sufficient  rule,  both  of  our  faith  and 
practice ;  and  all  these  we  know  his  Spirit  writes 
on  every  truly  awakened  heart.  If  there  be 
any  among  us  who  observe  them  not,  who 
habitually  breaks  any  of  them,  let  it  be  made 
known  to  them  who  watch  over  that  soul,  as 
they  that  must  give  an  account.  We  will  ad- 
monish him  of  the  error  of  his  ways  ;  we  will 
bear  with  him  for  a  season  ;  but  then,  if  he 
repent  not,  he  hath  no  more  place  among  us : 
we  have  delivered  our  own  souls." 

The  effect  produced  by  the  preaching  of  the 
two  brothers  in  various  parts  of  the  kingdom, 
and  those  frequently  the  most  populous  and 
rude,  rendered  it  necessary  to  call  out  preachers 
to  their  assistance,  and  especially  since  the 
clergy  generally  remained  negligent,  and  rather 
opposed  and  persecuted,  than  encouraged,  the 
YVesleys  in  their  endeavours  to  effect  a  na- 
tional reformation.  The  association  of  preach- 
ers with  themselves  in  the  work  led  to  an 
annual  meeting  of  the  miiiisters,  then  and 
since  called  the  conference.  The  first  confer- 
ence was  held  in  June  1744,  at  which  Mr. 
Wesley  met  his  brother,  two  or  three  other 
clergymen,  and  a  few  of  the  preachers,  whom 
he  had  appointed  to  come  from  various  parts, 
to  confer  with  them  on  the  affairs  of  the  socie- 
ties. "  Monday,  June  25,"  observes  Mr.  Wes- 
ley, "and  the  five  following  days,  we  spent  in 
conference  with  our  |  reachers,  seriously  con- 
sidering by  what  means  we  might  the  most 
effectually  save  our  own  souls,  and  them  that 
heard  us;  and  the  result  of  our  consultations 
we  yet  down  to  be  the  rule  of  our  future  prac- 


tice." Since  that  time  a  conference  has  been 
annually  held  ;  Mr.  Wesley  himself  having 
presided  at  forty-seven.  The  subjects  of  their 
deliberations  were  proposed  in  the  form  of 
questions,  which  were  amply  discussed  ;  and 
the  questions,  with  the  answers  agreed  upon, 
were  afterward  printed  under  the  title  of 
"  Minutes  of  several  Conversations  between 
the  Rev.  Mr.  Wesley  and  others,"  commonly 
called  Minutes  of  Conference. 

As  the  kingdom  had  been  divided  into  cir- 
cuits, to  each  of  which  several  preachers  were 
appointed  for  one  or  two  years,  a  part  of  the 
work  of  every  conference  was  to  arrange  these 
appointments  and  changes.  In  the  early  con- 
ferences various  points  of  doctrine  were  dis- 
cussed with  reference  to  the  agreement  of  all 
in  a  common  standard ;  and  when  this  was 
settled,  and  the  doctrinal  discussions  discon. 
tinued,  new  regulations  continued  to  be 
adopted,  as  the  state  of  the  societies,  and  the 
enlarging  opportunities  of  doing  good,  re- 
quired. The  character  of  all  those  who  were 
engaged  in  the  ministry  was  also  annually 
examined  ;  and  those  who  had  passed  the  ap- 
pointed term  of  probation,  were  solemnly 
received  into  the  ministry.  All  the  preachers 
were  itinerants,  and,  animated  by  the  example 
of  Mr.  Wesley,  went  through  great  labours, 
and  endured  many  privations  and  persecutions, 
but  with  such  success  that  societies  and  congre- 
gations were  in  a  few  years  raised  up  in  almost 
every  part  of  England,  and  in  a  very  consider- 
able number  of  places  in  Ireland,  Wales,  and 
Scotland.  The  doctrines  held  by  the  Method- 
ists, Mr.  Wesley  declared  repeatedly  in  his 
writings  to  be  those  contained  in  the  Articles 
of  the  church  of  England  ;  for  he  understood 
the  article  on  predestination,  as  many  others 
have  done,  in  a  sense  not  contrary  to  the  doc- 
trine of  the  redemption  and  the  possible  salva- 
tion of  the  whole  human  race.  It  will,  there- 
fore, be  merely  necessary  to  state  those  views 
of  certain  doctrines  which  it  has  been  thought 
the  Wesleyan  Methodists  hold  in  a  somewhat 
peculiar  way,  or  on  which  they  have  been  most 
liable  to  misrepresentation. 

They  maintain  the  total  fall  of  man  in  Adam, 
and  his  utter  inability  to  recover  himself,  or 
take  one  step  toward  his  recovery,  "  without 
(he  grace  of  God  preventing  him,  that  he  may 
have  a  good  will,  and  working  with  him  when 
he  has  that  good  will."  They  assert  that 
"Christ,  by  the  grace  of  God,  tasted  death  for 
every  man."  This  grace  they  call  free,  as 
extending  itself  freely  to  all.  They  say  that 
"  Christ  is  the  Saviour  of  all  men,  especially 
of  them  that  believe  ;"  and  that,  consequently, 
they  are  authorized  to  offer  salvation  to  all, 
and  to  "  preach  the  Gospel  to  every  creature." 
They  hold  justification  by  faith.  "Justifica- 
tion," says  Mr.  Wesley,  "sometimes  means 
our  acquittal  at  the  last  day,  Matt,  xii,  37  :  but 
this  is  altogether  out  of  the  present  question  ; 
for  that  justification  whereof  our  Articles  and 
Homilies  speak,  signifies  present  forgiveness, 
pardon  of  sins,  and  consequently  acceptance 
with  God,  who  therein  declares  his  righteous- 
ness, or  justice,  and  mercy,  by  or  for  the  re- 


MET 


643 


MET 


mission  of  sin:/  that  are  past,  Romans  iii,  25, 
saying,  '  I  will  be  merciful  to  thy  unrighteous- 
ness, and  thine  iniquities  I  will  remember  no 
more.'     I  believe  the  condition  of  this  is  faith, 
Rom.  iv,  5,  &c  ;  I  mean,  not  only  that  with- 
out faith  we  cannot  be  justified,  but  also  that 
as  soon  as  any  one  has  true  faith,  in  that  mo- 
ment he  is  justified.     Faith,  in  general,  is  a 
divine   supernatural  evidence,  -or  conviction, 
of  things   not  seen,   not  discoverable  by  our 
bodily  senses,  as  being  either  past,  future,  or 
spiritual.     Justifying  faith  implies,  not  only  a 
divine  evidence,  or  conviction,  that  '  God  was 
in  Christ,  reconciling  the  world  unto  himself,' 
but  a  full  reliance  on  the  merits  of  his  death, 
a  sure  confidence  that  Christ  died  for  my  sins  ; 
that  he  loved  me,   and  gave  himself  for  me  : 
and  the   moment  a  penitent   sinner  believes 
this,  God  pardons  and  absolves  him."     This 
faith,  Mr.  Wesley  affirms,  "is  the  gift  of  God. 
No  man  is  able  to  work  it  in  himself.     It  is  a 
work   of  Omnipotence.      It  requires   no   less 
power  thus  to  quicken  a  dead  soul,  than  to 
raise  a  body  that  lies  in  the  grave.     It  is   a 
new  creation  ;   and   none   can   create   a   soul 
anew  but  He  who  at  first  created  the  heavens 
and  the   earth.     It   is  the   free   gift   of  God, 
which  he  bestows  not  on  those  who  are  worthy 
of  his  favour,  not  on  such  as  are  previously 
holy,  and  so  fit  to  be   crowned  with  all  the 
blessings  of  his  goodness  ;  but  on  the  ungodly 
and  unholy,  on  those  who  till  that  hour  were 
fit  only  for  everlasting  destruction  ;  those  in 
whom  is  no  good  tiling,   and  whose  only  plea 
was,  '  God  be  merciful  to  me,  a  sinner !'    No 
merit,  no  goodness,  in  man,  precedes  the  for- 
giving love    of  God.     His   pardoning  mercy 
supposes  nothing  in  us  but  a  sense  of  mere 
sin  and  misery;  and  to  all  who  see  and  feel 
and  own  their  wants,  and  their  utter  inability 
to  remove  them,  God  freely  gives  faith,  for  the 
.sake  of  Him  in  whom  he  is  always  well  pleased. 
Good  works  follow  this  faith,  Luke  vi,  43,  but 
cannot  go  before  it ;  much  less  can  sanctifica- 
tion,  which  implies  a  continued  course  of  good 
works  springing  from  holiness  of  heart."     As 
to  repentance  he  insisted  that  it  is  conviction 
of  sin,  and  that  repentance,  and  works  meet 
for  repentance,  go  before  justifying  faith;  but 
he  held,  with  the  church  of  England,  that  all 
works,  before  justification,  had  "the  nature  of 
sin  ;"  and  that,  as  they  had  no  root  in  the  love 
of  God,  which  can  only  arise  from  a  persua- 
sion of  his  being  reconciled  to  us,  they  could 
not  constitute  a  moral  worthiness  preparatory 
to  pardon.    That  true  repentance  springs  from 
the  grace  of  God,  is  most  certain ;  but,  what- 
ever fruits  it  may  bring  forth,  it  changes  not 
man's  relation  to  God.     He  is  a  sinner,  and  is 
justified  as  such;  "  for  it  is  not  a  saint,  but  a 
sinner,  that  is  forgiven,  and  under  the  notion 
of  a  sinner."     God  justifieth  the  ungodly,  not 
the  godly.    Repentance,  according  to  his  state- 
ment,  is   necessary  to   true   faith  ;    but   faith 
alone  is  the  direct  and  immediate  instrument 
of  pardon.     They  hold  also  the  direct  internal 
testimony  of  the  Holy  Spirit  to  the  believer's 
adoption  ;    for   an   exposition    of  which   see 
Holy  Spirit. 


They  maintain  also  that,  by  virtue  of  the 
blood  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  the  operations  of 
the  Holy  Spirit,  it  is  their  privilege  to  arrive 
at  that  maturity  in  grace,  and  participation  of 
the  divine  nature,  which  excludes  sin  from 
the  heart,  and  fills  it  with  perfect  love  to  God 
and  man.  This  they  denominate  Christian 
perfection.  On  this  doctrine  Mr.  Wesley  ob- 
serves, "  Christian  perfection  does  not  imply 
an  exemption  from  ignorance  or  mistake, 
infirmities  or  temptations  ;  but  it.  implies  the 
being  so  crucified  with  Christ,  as  to  be  able  to 
testify,  '  I  live  not,  but  Christ  liveth  in  me,' 
Gal.  ii,  23,  and  '  hath  purified  their  hearts  by 
faith,' Acts  xv,  9."  Again:  "To  explain  my- 
self a  little  farther  on  this  head:  1.  Not  only 
sin,  properly  so  called,  that  is,  a  voluntary 
transgression  of  a  known  law  ;  but  sin,  impro- 
perly  so  called,  that  is,  an  involuntary  trans- 
gression of  a  divine  law  known  or  unknown, 
needs  the  atoning  blood.  2.  I  believe  there  is 
no  such  perfection  in  this  life  as  excludes  these 
involuntary  transgressions,  which  I  apprehend 
to  be  naturally  consequent  on  the  ignorance  and 
mistakes  inseparable  from  mortality.  3.  There- 
fore, sinless  perfection  is  a  phrase  I  never  use,  lest 
I  should  seem  to  contradict  myself.  4.  I  believe 
a  person  filled  with  the  love  of  God  is  still  liable 
to  these  involuntary  transgressions.  5.  Such 
transgressions  you  may  call  sins,  if  you  please  ; 
I  do  not,  for  the  reasons  above  mentioned." 

The  rules  of  the  Methodist  societies  have 
been  already  given ;  but,  in  order  to  have  a 
general  view  of  their  ecclesiastical  economy, 
it  must  be  remarked,  that  a  number  of  these 
societies  united  together  form  what  is  called  a 
circuit.  A  circuit  generally  includes  a  large 
market  town,  and  the  circumjacent  villages  to 
the  extent  often  or  fifteen  miles.  To  one  circuit 
two  or  three,  and  sometimes  four,  preachers 
are  appointed,  one  of  whom  is  styled  the  super- 
intendent ;  and  this  is  the  sphere  of  their 
labour  for  at  least  one  year,  or  not  more  than 
three  years.  Once  a  quarter  the  preachers 
meet  all  the  classes,  and  speak  personally  to 
each  member.  Those  who  have  walked  orderly 
the  preceding  quarter  then  receive  a  ticket. 
These  tickets  are  in  some  respects  analogous 
to  the  tessera,  of  the  ancients,  and  answer  all 
the  purposes  of  the  commendatory  letters 
spoken  of  by  the  Apostle.  Their  chief  use  is 
to  prevent  imposture.  After  the  visitation  of 
the  classes  a  meeting  is  held,  consisting  of 
all  the  preachers,  leaders,  and  stewards  in 
the  circuit.  At  this  meeting  the  stewards  de- 
liver their  collections  to  a  circuit  steward, 
and  every  thing  relating  to  temporal  matters 
is  publicly  settled.  At  this  meeting  the  candi- 
dates for  the  ministry  are  proposed,  and  the 
stewards,  after  officiating  a  definite  period,  are 
changed.  A  number  of  circuits,  from  five  to 
ten,  more  or  fewer,  according  to  their  extent, 
form  a  district,  the  preachers  of  which  meet 
annually.  Every  district  has  a  chairman,  who 
fixes  the  time  of  meeting.  These  assemblies 
have  authority,  1.  To  examine  candidates  for 
the  ministry,  and  probationers,  and  to  try  and 
suspend  preachers  who  are  found  immoral, 
erroneous  in  doctrine,  or  deficient  in  abilities. 


MET 


644 


MET 


2.  To  decide  concerning  the  building  of  cha- 
pels. 3.  To  examine  the  demands  from  the 
poorer  circuits  respecting  the  support  of  the 
preachers  and  of  their  families,  from  the  pub- 
lic funds.  4.  To  elect  a  representative  to  at- 
tend and  form  a  committee  to  sit  previously  to 
the  meeting  of  the  conference,  in  order  to  pre- 
pare a  draught  of  the  stations  of  all  the  preach- 
ers for  the  ensuing  year.  The  judgment  of 
this  meeting  is  conclusive  until  conference,  to 
which  an  appeal  is  allowed  in  all  cases. 

The  conference,  strictly  speaking,  consists 
only  of  a  hundred  of  the  senior  preachers,  ac- 
cording to  the  arrangements  prescribed  in  a 
deed  of  declaration,  executed  by  Mr.  Wesley, 
and  enrolled  in  chancery.  But  the  preachers 
elected  at  the  preceding  district  meetings  as 
representatives,  the  superintendents  of  the  cir- 
cuits, and  such  preachers  as  the  districts  allow 
to  attend,  sit  and  vote  usually  as  one  body. 
At  the  conference,  every  preacher's  character 
undergoes  the  strictest  scrutiny  ;  and  if  any 
charge  be  proved  against  him,  he  is  dealt  with 
accordingly.  The  preachers  are  also  station- 
ed, the  proceedings  of  the  subordinate  meet- 
ings reviewed,  and  the  state  of  the  connection 
at  large  is  considered.  The  conference  is 
commonly  held  in  London,  Leeds,  Bristol, 
Manchester,  Liverpool,  and  Sheffield,  in  rota- 
tion, at  the  latter  end  of  July. 

By  the  minutes  of  the  last  conference,  1831, 
it  appears  that  this  religious  body  had  three 
hundred  and  sixty-three  circuits  in  England, 
Wales,  and  Scotland ;  forty-five  in  Ireland ; 
and  a  hundred  and  fifty-six  mission  stations, 
most  of  them  being  also  circuits,  in  Sweden, 
France,  the  Mediterranean,  Continental  India, 
Ceylon,  the  South  Seas,  Africa,  the  West  In- 
dies, and  British  America.  The  number  of 
members  in  the  societies  were,  in  Great  Britain, 
two  hundred  and  forty-nine  thousand  one 
hundred  and  nineteen  ;  in  Ireland,  twenty-two 
thousand  four  hundred  and  seventy ;  in  the 
foreign  stations,  forty-two  thousand  seven 
hundred  and  forty-three.  Their*egular  preach- 
ers were  eight  hundred  and  forty-six  in  Great 
Britain  ;  in  Ireland,  a  hundred  and  forty-six  ; 
in  foreign  stations,  exclusive  of  catechists,  a 
hundred  and  eighty-seven. 

[The  preceding  account,  so  far  as  it  respects 
the  original  history,  the  doctrines,  and  the 
moral  discipline  of  Wesleyan  Methodists,  is 
equally  applicable  to  those  in  America  and  in 
Europe.  The  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in 
the  United  States,  however,  which  became  a 
distinct  and  independent  church  in  the  year 
1784,  differs  considerably  in  its  organization, 
and  in  the  details  of  its  ecclesiastical  economy, 
from  the  British  Wesleyan  connection.  The 
circuits,  into  which  the  whole  field  of  labour 
occupied  by  the  itinerant  ministry  is  divided, 
are  in  general  much  larger,  nor  is  any  preacher 
allowed  to  remain  on  them  more  than  two 
years  successively.  Of  these  circuits,  from  five 
or  six  to  fifteen  or  more,  according  to  circum- 
stances, constitute  a  district.  Of  the  districts, 
from  four  or  five  to  six  or  eight,  usually,  com- 
prise the  tract  of  country  embraced  within  the 
boundaries  of  au  annual  conference ;  and  of 


annual  conferences,  the  whole  of  the  United 
States  and  Territories,  agreeably  to  the  minutes 
of  the  last  year,  (1831,)  were  divided  into  nine- 
teen.  From  all  these  annual  conferences,  de- 
legates, in  a  certain  prescribed  ratio,  are  sent 
once  in  four  years  to  constitute  a  general  con- 
ference, the  highest  ecclesiastical  assemblage 
among  American  Wesleyan  Methodists.  The 
minister  or  preacher  first  named  of  those  ap- 
pointed to  each  circuit  or  station,  is  thereby 
invested  with  the  pastoral  charge  thereof,  and 
is  usually  denominated  the  preacher  in  charge. 
Each  district  is  committed  to  the  care  of  an 
elder,  denominated  the  presiding  elder,  who  is 
appointed  annually,  and  may  remain  four  years 
successively  on  a  district,  but  not  longer  ;  and 
all  the  districts  comprising  the  whole  extent 
of  the  church,  are  under  the  general  superin. 
tendence  of  the  bishops.  These  at  present, 
(April,  1832,)  are  four  in  number,  and  like  all 
others  of  our  stated  ministry,  are  required  to 
be  itinerant.  If  they  cease  to  travel  at  laft*ge, 
without  the  consent  of  the  general  conference, 
they  forfeit  the  exercise  of  their  episcopal 
functions.  Their  visitations  are  annual  and 
alternate,  on  a  preconcerted  plan,  through  the 
bounds  of  the  entire  work.  They  preside  in 
the  annual  and  general  conferences,  station 
the  preachers,  with  (by  established  usage)  the 
counsel  of  the  presiding  elders,  and  are  jointly 
and  severally  responsible  to  the  general  con- 
ference for  their  administration  and  conduct. 
(See  also  the  articles  "  Episcopalians,"  and 
"  Imposition  of  Hands.") 

For  a  more  minute  detail  of  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal economy,  spiritual  and  temporal,  of  Ame- 
rican Wesleyan  Methodists,  (which  would  lead 
us  too  far  for  a  work  of  this  sort,)  reference 
may  be  had  to  the  small  volume  published  at  the 
Conference  Office,  entitled  '  The  Doctrines  and 
Discipline  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church.' 

By  the  minutes  of  the  annual  conferences 
for  the  last  year,  (1831,)  there  were  in  the 
communion  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
in  the  United  States,  five  hundred  and  thirteen 
thousand  one  hundred  and  twenty-four  mem- 
bers; of  whom  four  hundred  and  thirty-seven 
thousand  and  twenty-four  were  whites,  seven- 
ty-one thousand  five  hundred  and  eighty-nine 
coloured,  and  four  thousand  five  hundred  and 
one  Indians.  The  number  of  itinerant  minis- 
ters was  two  thousand  and  ten,  of  whom  one 
hundred  and  thirty  four  were  superannuated, 
or  worn  out.  In  addition  to  these,  there  are 
also  several  thousand  local  ministers  and 
preachers,  many  of  whom  were  once  itinerant ; 
and  who,  though  not  statedly  devoted  to  the 
work  of  the  ministerial  office,  as  the  itinerant 
ministers  are,  yet,  by  their  valuable  services  on 
tho  Sabbath,  or  at  other  times  occasionally  in 
their  respective  vicinities,  constitute  an  import- 
ant auxiliary  branch  of  the  system,  and  con- 
tribute much  to  its  compactness  and  efficiency. 

Beside  the  above,  there  are  in  the  United 
States  several  smaller  associations  of  persons 
bearing  the  name  of  Methodists,  who  hold  and 
teach,  in  general,  the  doctrines  of  Wesleyan 
Methodists,  but  are  not  in  connection  with  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  and  differ  from 


MIC 


645 


MID 


it  in  various  points  of  ecclesiastical  economy 
and  discipline. 

The  Wesleyan  Methodists  in  Upper  Canada, 
who  were  formerly  in  connection  with  the 
church  in  the  United  States,  have  recently, 
with  the  consent  of  the  general  conference  of 
the  latter  body,  been  constituted  a  distinct 
church,  under  an  episcopal  form.  Its  organi- 
zation, however,  has  not  yet  been  completed 
by  the  consecration  of  a  bishop,  though  we 
understand  that  a  reverend  individual  has  been 
selected,  who  will  probably  shortly  be  set  apart 
for  that  holy  office.  This  branch  of  the  Ame- 
rican Wesleyan  Methodists,  agreeably  to  their 
minutes  for  the  year  1831,  consisted  of  sixty- 
five  itinerant  ministers,  and  twelve  thousand 
five  hundred  and  sixty-three  members ;  of 
whom  one  thousand  two  hundred  and  thirty- 
three  were  Indians.] 

METHUSELAH,  the  son  of  Enoch,  and 
father  of  Lamech,  Gen.  v,  21.  He  was  born 
A.  M.  687,  and  died  A.  M.  1656,  being  the  very 
year  of  the  deluge,  at  the  age  of  nine  hundred 
and  sixty-nine,  the  greatest  age  to  which  any 
mortal  man  ever  attained. 

MICAH,  the  seventh  in  order  of  the  twelve 
lesser  prophets,  is  supposed  to  have  prophe- 
sied about  B.  C.  750.  He  was  commissioned 
to  denounce  the  judgments  of  God  against  both 
the  kingdoms  of  Judah  and  Israel,  for  their 
idolatry  and  wickedness.  The  principal  pre- 
dictions contained  in  this  book  are,  the  inva- 
sions of  Shalmanezer  and  Sennecharib  ;  the 
destruction  of  Samaria  and  of  Jerusalem,  mixed 
with  consolatory  promises  of  the  deliverance 
of  the  Jews  from  the  Babylonian  captivity, 
and  of  the  downfall  of  the  power  of  their  As- 
syrian and  Babylonian  oppressors  ;  the  cessa- 
tion of  prophecy  in  consequence  of  their  con- 
tinued deceitfulness  and  hypocrisy ;  and  a 
desolation  in  a  then  distant  period,  still  greater 
than  that  which  was  declared  to  be  impending. 
The  birth  of  the  Messiah  at  Bethlehem  is  also 
expressly  foretold  ;  and  the  Jews  are  directed 
to  look  to  the  establishment  and  extent  of  his 
kingdom,  as  an  unfailing  source  of  comfort 
amidst  general  distress.  The  style  of  Micah  is 
nervous,  concise,  and  elegant,  often  elevated, 
and  poetical,  but  sometimes  obscure  from  sud- 
den transitions  of  subject ;  and  the  contrast 
of  the  neglected  duties  of  justice,  mercy,  hu- 
mility, and  piety,  with  the  punctilious  observ- 
ance of  the  ceremonial  sacrifices,  affords  a 
beautiful  example  of  the  harmony  which  sub- 
sists between  the  Mosaic  and  Christian  dispen- 
sations, and  shows  that  the  law  partook  of  that 
spiritual  nature  which  more  immediately  cha- 
racterizes the  religion  of  Jesus. 

The  prophecy  of  Micah,  contained  in  the  fifth 
chapter,  is,  perhaps  the  most  important  single 
prophecy  in  all  the  Old  Testament,  and  the  most 
comprehensive  respecting  the  personal  charac- 
ter of  the  Messiah,  and  his  successive  manifest- 
ations to  the  world.  It  crowns  the  whole  chain 
of  predictions  respecting  the  several  limitations 
of  the  promised  seed  :  to  the  line  of  Shem ;  to 
the  family  of  Abraham,  of  Isaac,  and  of  Jacob  ; 
to  the  tribe  of  Judah  ;  and  to  the  royal  house 
of  David,  terminating  in  his  birth  at  Bethle- 


hem, "the  city  of  David."  It  carefully  dis- 
tinguishes his  human  nativity  from  his  divine 
nature  and  eternal  existence ;  foretels  the 
casting  off  of  the  Israelites  and  Jews  for  a  sea- 
son ;  their  ultimate  restoration  ;  and  the  uni- 
versal peace  which  should  prevail  in  the  king- 
dom and  under  the  government  of  the  Messiah. 
This  prophecy,  therefore,  forms  the  basis  of 
the  New  Testament  revelation  which  com- 
mences with  the  birth  of  the  Messiah  at  Beth- 
lehem, the  miraculous  circumstances  of  which 
are  recorded  by  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Luke  in 
the  introduction  to  their  respective  histories ; 
the  eternal  subsistence  of  Christ  as  "  the 
Word,"  in  the  sublime  introduction  to  St.  John's 
Gospel  ;  his  prophetic  character  and  second 
coming,  illustrated  in  the  four  Gospels  and  in 
the  apostolic  epistles. 

MICHAEL.     See  Archangel. 

MIDIAN,  Land  of,  a  country  of  the  Midi- 
anites,  derived  its  name  and  its  inhabitants 
from  Midian,  the  Bon  of  Abraham  by  Keturah. 
This  country  extended  from  the  east  of  the 
land  of  Moab,  on  the  east  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
southward,  along  the  Elanitic  gulf  of  the  Red 
Sea,  stretching  some  way  into  Arabia.  It 
farther  passed  to  the  south  of  the  land  of 
Edom,  into  the  peninsula  of  Mount  Sinai, 
where  Moses  met  with  the  daughter  of  Jethro, 
the  priest  of  Midian,  whom  he  married.  The 
Midianites,  together  with  their  neighbours,  the 
Ishmaelites,  were  early  engaged  in  the  trade 
between  the  east  and  the  west,  as  we  find  the 
party  to  whom  Joseph  was  sold,  carrying 
spices,  the  produce  of  the  east,  into  Egypt ; 
and,  taking  Gilead  in  their  way,  to  add  the 
celebrated  and  highly  prized  balm  of  that 
country  to  their  merchandise.  It  appears  that, 
at  the  time  of  the  passage  of  the  Israelites 
through  the  country  of  the  Amorites,  the  Mi- 
dianites had  been  subdued  by  that  people,  as 
the  chiefs  or  kings  of  their  five  principal  tribes 
are  called  dukes  of  Sihon,  and  dwelt  in  his 
country,  Joshua  xiii,  21.  It  was  at  this  time 
that  the  Midianites,  alarmed  at  the  numbers 
and  the  progress  of  the  Israelites,  united  with 
the  Moabites  in  sending  into  Syria  for  Balaam, 
the  soothsayer;  thinking  to  do  that  by  incan- 
tation, which  they  despaired  of  effecting  by 
force.  The  result  of  this  measure,  the  con- 
straint  imposed  on  Balaam  to  bless  instead  of  to 
curse,  and  the  subsequent  defeat  and  slaughter 
of  the  Midianites,  forms  one  of  the  most  inte- 
resting narratives  in  the  early  history  of  the 
Jews,  Num.  xxii-xxv,  xxxi.  About  two  hun- 
dred years  after  this,  the  Midianites,  having 
recovered  their  numbers  and  their  strength, 
were  permitted  by  God  to  distress  the  Israel- 
ites for  the  space  of  seven  years,  as  a  punish- 
ment for  their  relapse  into  idolatry.  But  at 
length  their  armies,  "like  grasshoppers  for 
multitude,  with  camels  out  of  number  as  sand 
by  the  sea  side  for  multitude,"  which  had  en- 
camped in  the  valley  of  Jezreel,  were  miracu- 
lously defeated  by  Gideon,  Judges  vi-viii.  The 
Midianites  appear  not  to  have  survived  this 
second  discomfiture  as  a  nation ;  but  their  re- 
mains became  gradually  incorporated  with  the 
Moabites  and  Arabians. 


MIL 


646 


MIL 


MIGDOL.  Moses  writes,  that  when  the 
Israelites  came  out  of  Egypt,  the  Lord  com- 
manded them  to  encamp  over  against  Pihahi- 
rotli,  between  Migdol  and  the  sea,  over  against 
Baal-Zephon,  Exud.  xiv,  2.  It  is  not  known 
whether  this  Migdol  was  a  city,  or  only  a  for- 
tress :  probably  the  latter,  in  which  a  garrison 
was  stationed. 

MILK,  a  measure  of  length,  containing  a 
thousand  puces.  Eight  stadia  or  furlongs  make 
a  mile.  The  Romans  commonly  measured  by 
miles,  and  the  Greeks  by  furlongs.  The  fur- 
long was  a  hundred  and  twenty-five  paces ; 
the  pace  was  five  feet.  The  ancient  Hebrews 
had  neither  miles,  furlongs,  nor  feet,  but  only 
the  cubit,  the  reed,  and  the  line.  The  rabbins 
make  a  mile  to  consist  of  two  thousand  cubits, 
and  four  miles  make  a  parasang. 

MILETUS,  a  city  on  the  continent  of  Asia 
Minor,  and  in  the  province  of  Caria,  memora- 
ble for  being  the  birthplace  of  Thales,  one  of 
the  sevpn  u  ise  men  of  Greece,  of  Anaximander 
and  Anaximines,  the  philosophers,  and  of  Ti- 
motheus,  the  musician.  It  was  about  thirty- 
six  miles  south  of  Ephesus,  and  the  capital  of 
both  Caria  and  Ionia.  The  Milesians  were 
subdued  by  the  Persians,  and  the  country 
passed  successively  into  the  power  of  the 
Greeks  and  Romans.  At  present  the  Turks 
call  it  Molas,  and  it  is  not  far  distant  from  the 
true  Meander,  which  encircles  all  the  plain 
with  many  mazes,  and  innumerable  windings. 
It  was  to  this  place  that  St.  Paul  called  the 
elders  of  the  church  of  Ephesus,  to  deliver  his 
last  charge  to  thorn,  Acts  xx,  15,  &c.  There 
was  another  Miletus  in  Crete,  mentioned 
2  Tim.  iv,  20. 

MILL.  In  the  first  ages  they  parched  or 
roasted  their  grain  ;  a  practice  which  the  peo- 
ple of  Israel,  as  we  learn  from  the  Scriptures, 
long  continued :  afterward  they  pounded  it 
in  a  mortar,  to  which  Solomon  thus  alludes  : 
"Though  thou  shouldest  bray  a  fool  in  a 
mortar  among  wheat  with  a  pestle,  yet  will 
not  his  foolishness  depart  from  him,"  Prov. 
xxvii,  22.  This  was  succeeded  by  mills,  simi- 
lar to  the  hand  mills  formerly  used  in  this 
country,  of  which  there  were  two  sorts :  the 
first  were  large,  and  turned  by  the  strength 
of  horses  or  asses ;  the  second  were  smaller, 
and  wrought  by  men,  commonly  by  slaves 
condemned  to  this  hard  labour,  as  a  punish- 
ment for  their  crimes.  Chardin  remarks,  in 
his  manuscript,  that  the  persons  employed  are 
generally  female  slaves,  who  are  least  regarded, 
or  are  least  fitted  for  any  thing  else  ;  for  the 
work  is  extremely  laborious,  and  esteemed  the 
lowest  employment  about  the  house.  Most 
of  their  corn  is  ground  by  these  little  mills, 
although  they  sometimes  make  use  of  large 
mills,  wrought  by  oxen  or  camels.  Near  Is- 
pahan, and  some  of  the  other  great  cities  of 
Persia,  he  saw  water  mills;  but  he  did  not 
meet  with  a  single  wind  mill  in  the  east.  Al- 
most every  family  grind  their  wheat  and  barley 
at  home,  having  two  portable  mill  stones  for 
that  purpose  ;  of  which  the  uppermost  is  turned 
round  by  a  small  handle  of  wood  or  iron  that 
is  placed  in  the  rim.    When  this  stone  is  large, 


or  expedition  is  required,  a  second  person  js 
called  in  to  assist;  and  as  it  is  usual  for  the 
women  only  to  be  concerned  in  this  employ- 
ment, who  seat  themselves  over  against  each 
other,  with  the  mill  stone  between  them,  we 
may  see  the  propriety  of  the  expression  in  the 
declaration  of  Moses  :  "  And  all  the  first-born 
in  the  land  of  Egypt  shall  die,  from  the  first- 
born of  Pharaoh  that  sitteth  upon  his  throne 
even  unto  the  first-born  of  the  maid-servant 
that  is  behind  the  mill,"  Exod.  xi,  5.  The 
manner  in  which  the  hand  mills  are  worked 
is  well  described  by  Dr.  E.  D.  Clarke,  in  his 
Travels  :  "  Scarcely  had  we  reached  the  apart- 
ment prepared  for  our  reception,  when,  look- 
ing from  the  window  into  the  court  yard 
belonging  to  the  house,  we  beheld  two  women 
grinding  at  the  mill,  in  a  manner  most  forcibly 
illustrating  the  saying  of  our  Saviour  :  '  Two 
women  shall  be  grinding  at  the  mill,  the  one 
shall  be  taken  and  the  other  left.'  They  were 
preparing  flour  to  make  our  bread,  as  it  is 
always  customary  in  the  country  when  stran- 
gers arrive.  The  two  women,  seated  upon  the 
ground  opposite  to  each  other,  held  between 
them  two  round  flat  stones,  such  as  are  seen 
in  Lapland,  and  such  as  in  Scotland  are  called 
querns.  In  the  centre  of  the  upper  stone  was 
a  cavity  for  pouring  in  the  corn,  and  by  the 
side  of  this  an  upright  wooden  handle  for 
moving  the  stone.  As  this  operation  began, 
one  of  the  women  opposite  received  it  from 
her  companion,  who  pushed  it  toward  her, 
who  again  sent  it  to  her  companion ;  thus 
communicating  a  rotatory  motion  to  the  upper 
stone,  their  left  hands  being  all  the  while 
employed  in  supplying  fresh  corn,  as  fast  as 
the  bran  and  flour  escaped  from  the  sides  of 
the  machine."  When  they  are  not  impelled, 
as  in  this  instance,  to  premature  exertions  by 
the  arrival  of  strangers,  they  grind  their  corn 
in  the  morning  at  break  of  day :  the  noise  of 
the  mill  is  then  to  be  heard  every  where,  and 
is  often  so  great  as  to  rouse  the  inhabitants  of 
the  cities  from  their  slumbers ;  for  it  is  well 
known  they  bake  their  bread  every  day,  and 
commonly  grind  their  corn  as  it  is  wanted. 
The  noise  of  the  mill  stone  is  therefore,  with 
great  propriety,  selected  by  the  prophet  as  one 
of  the  tokens  of  a  populous  and  thriving  coun- 
try :  "  Moreover,  I  will  take  from  them  the 
voice  of  mirth,  and  the  voice  of  gladness,  the 
voice  of  the  bridegroom  and  the  voice  of  the 
bride,  the  sound  of  mill  stones  and  the  light  of 
a  candle,  and  their  whole  land  shall  be  a  deso- 
lation," Jer.  xxv,  10.  The  morning  shall  no 
more  be  cheered  with  the  joyful  sound  of  the 
mill,  nor  the  shadows  of  evening  by  the  light 
of  a  candle;  the  morning  shall  be  silent,  and 
the  evening  dark  and  melancholy,  where  deso- 
lation reigns.  "  At  the  earliest  dawn  of  the 
morning,"  says  Mr.  Forbes,  "  in  all  the  Hin- 
doo towns  and  villages,  the  hand  mills  are  at 
work,  when  the  menials  and  widows  grind 
meal  for  the  daily  consumption  of  the  family: 
this  work  is  always  performed  by  women,  who 
resume  their  task  every  morning,  especially 
the  forlorn  Hindoo  widows,  divested  of  every 
ornament,  and  with  their  heads  shaved,  de. 


MIL 


647 


MIL 


graded  to  almost  a  state  of  servitude."  How 
affecting,  then,  is  the  call  to  the  daughter  of 
Babylon ! — "  Come  down,  and  sit  in  the  dust, 
O  daughter  of  Babylon,  sit  on  the  ground  : 
there  is  no  throne,  O  daughter  of  the  Chal- 
deans ;  for  thou  shalt  no  more  be  called  tender 
and  delicate.  Take  the  mill  stones,  and  grind 
meal ;  uncover  thy  locks,  make  bare  the  leg, 
uncover  the  thigh,  pass  over  the  rivers,"  Isaiah 
xlvii,  1,  2. 

The  custom  of  daily  grinding  their  corn  for 
the  family,  shows  the  propriety  of  the  law : 
"No  man  shall  take  the  nether  or  the  upper 
mill  stone  to  pledge,  for  he  taketh  a  man's  life 
to  pledge  ;"  because  if  he  take  either  the  upper 
or  the  nether  mill  stone,  he  deprives  him  of 
his  daily  provision,  which  cannot  be  prepared 
without  them.  That  complete  and  perpetual 
desolation  which,  by  the  just  allotment  of  Hea- 
ven, is  ere  long  to  overtake  the  mystical  Baby- 
lon, is  clearly  signified  by  the  same  precept : 
"  The  sound  of  the  mill  stone  shall  be  heard  no 
more  at  all  in  thee,"  Rev.  xviii,  22.  The  means 
of  subsistence  being  entirely  destroyed,  no  hu- 
man creature  shall  ever  occupy  the  ruined 
habitations  more.  In  the  book  of  Judges,  the 
sacred  historian  alludes,  with  characteristic 
accuracy,  to  several  circumstances  implied  in 
that  custom,  where  he  describes  the  fall  of 
Abimelech.  A  woman  of  Thebez,  driven  to 
desperation  by  his  furious  attack  on  the  tower, 
started  up  from .  the  mill  at  which  she  was 
grinding,  seized  the  upper  mill  stone,  33i  n^D, 
and,  rushing  to  the  top  of  the  gate,  cast  it  on 
his  head,  and  fractured  his  skull.  This  was 
the  feat  of  a  woman,  for  the  mill  is  worked 
only  by  females ;  it  was  not  a  piece  of  a  mill 
stone,  but  the  rider,  the  distinguishing  name  of 
the  upper  mill  stone,  which  literally  rides  upon 
the  other,  and  is  a  piece  or  division  of  the  mill : 
it  was  a  stone  of  two  feet  broad,  and  therefore 
fully  sufficient,  when  thrown  from  such  a 
height,  to  produce  the  effect  mentioned  in  the 
narrative.  It  displays,  also,  the  vindictive 
contempt  which  suggested  the  punishment  of 
Samson,  the  captive  ruler  of  Israel,  that  the 
Philistines,  with  barbarous  contumely,  com- 
pelled him  to  perform  the  meanest  service  of  a 
female  slave ;  they  sent  him  to  grind  in  the 
prison,  Judges  xvi,  21,  but  not  for  himself 
alone  ;  this,  although  extremely  mortifying  to 
the  hero,  had  been  more  tolerable ;  they  made 
him  grinder  for  the  prison,  perhaps  while  the 
vilest  malefactor  was  permitted  to  look  on, 
and  join  in  the  mockery.  Samson,  the  ruler 
and  avenger  of  Israel,  labours,  as  Isaiah  fore- 
told the  virgin  daughter  of  Babylon  should 
labour :  "  Come  down,  and  sit  in  the  dust, 
O  virgin  daughter  of  Babylon :  there  is  no 
throne,"  no  seat  for  thee,  "  O  daughter  of  the 
Chaldeans.  Take  the  mill  stones  and  grind 
meal,"  but  not  with  the  wonted  song;  "Sit 
thou  silent,  and  get  thee  into  darkness,"  there 
to  conceal  thy  vexation  and  disgrace,  Isaiah 
xlvii,  1,  2,  5.  The  females  engaged  in  this 
operation,  endeavoured  to  beguile  the  lingering 
hours  of  toilsome  exertion  with  a  song.  We 
laarn  from  an  expression  of  Aristophanes,  pre- 
served by  Athenapus,  that  the  Grecian  maidens 


accompanied  the  sound  of  the  mill  stones  with 
their  voices.  This  circumstance  imparts  force 
to  the  description  of  the  prophet,  the  light  of 
a  candle  was  no  more  to  be  seen  in  the  eve- 
ning; the  sound  of  the  mill  stones,  the  indi- 
cation of  plenty,  and  the  song  of  the  grinders, 
the  natural  expression  of  joy  and  happiness, 
were  no  more  to  be  heard  at  the  dawn.  The 
grinding  of  corn  at  so  early  an  hour  throws 
light  on  a  passage  of  considerable  obscurity  : 
"  And  the  sons  of  Rimmon  the  Beerothite, 
Rechah  and  Baanah,  went,  and  came  about 
the  heat  of  the  day  to  the  house  of  Ishbosheth, 
who  lay  on  a  bed  at  noon  ;  and  they  came 
thither  into  the  midst  of  the  house,  as  though 
they  would  have  fetched  wheat,  and  they  smote 
him  under  the  fifth  rib;  and  Rechab  and 
Baanah  his  brother  escaped,"  2  Sam.  iv,  5-7. 
It  is  still  a  custom  in  the  east,  according  to 
Dr.  Perry,  to  allow  their  soldiers  a  certain  . 
quantity  of  corn,  with  other  articles  of  pro- 
visions, together  with  some  pay ;  and  as  it 
was  the  custom,  also,  to  carry  their  corn  to 
the  mill  at  break  of  day,  these  two  captains 
very  naturally  went  to  the  palace  the  day  be- 
fore to  fetch  wheat,  in  order  to  distribute  it  to 
the  soldiers,  that  it  might  be  sent  to  the  mill 
at  the  accustomed  hour  in  the  morning.  The 
princes  of  the  east  in  those  days,  as  the  history 
of  David  shows,  lounged  in  their  divan,  or  re- 
posed on  their  couch,  till  the  cool  of  the  eve- 
ning began  to  advance.  Rechab  and  Baanah, 
therefore,  came  in  the  heat  of  the  day,  when 
they  knew  that  Ishbosheth,  their  master,  would 
be  resting  on  his  bed ;  and  as  it  was  neces- 
sary, for  the  reason  just  given,  to  have  the 
corn  the  day  before  it  was  needed,  their  com- 
ing at  that  time,  though  it  might  be  a  little 
earlier  than  usual,  created  no  suspicion,  and 
attracted  no  notice. 

MILLENARIANS  are  those  who  believe, 
according  to  an  ancient  tradition  in  the  church, 
grounded  on  some  doubtful  texts  in  the  book 
of  Revelation  and  other  scriptures,  that  our 
Saviour  shall  reign  a  thousand  years  with  the 
faithful  upon  earth  after  the  first  resurrec- 
tion, before  the  full  completion  of  final  happi- 
ness ;  and  their  name,  taken  from  the  Latin 
word  mille,  "  a  thousand,"  has  a  direct  allu- 
-sion  to  the  duration  of  this  spiritual  empire, 
which  is  styled  the  millennium.  A  millennium, 
or  a  future  paradisaical  state  of  the  earth,  is 
viewed  by  some  as  a  doctrine  not  of  Christian, 
but  of  Jewish,  origin.  The  tradition  which 
fixes  the  duration  of  the  world,  in  its  present 
imperfect  state,  to  six  thousand  years,  and 
announces  the  approach  of  a  Sabbath  of  one 
thousand  years  of  universal  peace  and  plenty, 
to  be  ushered  in  by  the  glorious  advent  of  the 
Messiah,  has  been  traced  up  to  Elias,  a  rab- 
binical writer,  who  flourished  about  two  cen- 
turies before  the  birth  of  Christ.  It  certainly 
obtained  among  the  Chaldeans  from  the  earliest 
times ;  and  it  is  countenanced  by  Barnabas, 
Irenscus,  and  other  primitivo  writers,  and  also 
by  the  Jews  at  the  present  day.  But  though 
the  theory  may  not  be  very  improbable,  yet,  as 
it  has  not  the  sanction  of  Scripture  to  support 
it,  we  are  not  bound  to  respect  it  any  farther 


MIL 


648 


MIL 


than  as  a  doubtful  tradition.  The  Jews  un- 
derstood several  passages  of  the  prophets,  as 
Zechariah  xiv,  16,  &c,  of  the  millennium;  in 
which,  according  to  their  carnal  apprehen- 
sions, the  Messiah  is  to  reign  on  earth,  and 
to  bring  all  nations  within  the  pale,  and  under 
subjection  to  the  ordinances,  of  the  Jewish 
church- 

Justin  Martyr,  the  most  ancient  of  the  fa- 
thers, wits  a  great,  supporter  of  the  doctrine  of 
the  millennium,  or  that  our  Saviour  shall  reign 
with  the  faithful  upon  earth,  after  the  resur- 
rection, for  a  thousand  years ;  which  he  de- 
clares was  the  belief  of  all  orthodox  Christians. 
But  this  opinion  is  not  generally  followed; 
for,  though  there  has  been,  perhaps,  no  age 
of  the  church  in  which  this  doctrine  was  not 
admitted  by  one  or  more  divines  of  the  first 
eminence,  it  yet  appears,  from  the  writings  of 
Eusebius,  Irenseus,  and  others  among  the 
ancients,  :is  -\\i>ll  ;is  from  the  histories  of  Du- 
pin,  Mosheim,  and  other  moderns,  that  it  was 
never  adopted  by  the  whole  church,  nor  formed 
an  article  of  t  he  established  creed  in  any  nation. 
Origen,  the  most  learned  of  the  fathers,  and 
Dionysius,  bishop  of  Alexandria,  usually,  for  his 
immense  erudition,  surnamed  the  Great,  both 
opposed  the  doctrine  that  prevailed  on  the 
subject  in  their  day ;  and  Dr.  Whitby,  in  his 
learned  treatise  on  the  subject,  proves,  first, 
that  the  millennium  was  never  generally  re- 
ceived in  the  church  of  Christ ;  and,  secondly, 
that  there  is  no  just  ground  to  think  it  was 
derived  from  the  Apostles. 

On  the  other  hand,  Dr.  T.  Burnet  and  others 
maintain  that  it  was  very  generally  admitted 
till  the  Nicene  council,  in  325,  or  till  the  fourth 
century.  The  doctor  supposes  Dionysius  of 
Alexandria,  who  wrote  against  Nepos,  an 
Egyptian  bishop,  before  the  middle  of  the 
third  century,  to  have  been  the  first  that 
attacked  this  doctrine  ;  but  Origen  had  pre- 
viously assailed  it  in  many  of  his  fictitious 
additions.  The  truth  seems  to  be,  as  one  well 
remarks,  "that  a  spiritual  reign  of  Christ  was 
believed  by  all  who  carefully  examined  the 
Scriptures,  though  the  popular  notions  of  the 
millennium  were  often  rejected;  and  ancient 
as  well  as  modern  writers  assailed  the  extrava- 
gant superstructure,  not  the  Scriptural  founda- 
tion of  the  doctrine."  During  the  interregnum 
in  England,  in  the  time  of  Cromwell,  there 
arose  a  set  of  enthusiasts  sometimes  called 
Millenarians,  but  more  frequently  Fifth  Mo- 
narcliy  Men,  who  expected  the  sudden  ap- 
pearance of  Christ,  to  establish  on  earth  a 
new  monarchy  or  kingdom.  In  consequence 
of  this,  some  of  them  aimed  at  the  subversion 
of  all  human  government.  In  ancient  history 
we  read  of  four  great  monarchies;  the  Assy- 
rian, Persian,  Grecian,  and  the  Roman ;  and 
theM  men.  believing  that  this  new  spiritual 
kingdom  of  Christ  was  to  be  the  fifth,  obtained 
the  name  by  which  they  were  called.  They 
claimed  to  be  the  saints  of  God,  and  to  have 
the  dominion  of  saints,  Dan.  vii,  27  ;  expecting 
that,  when  Christ  was  come  into  this  kingdom, 
to  begin  his  reign  on  earth,  they,  as  his  depu- 
ties,  were   to   govern    all   things  under   him. 


They  went  so  far  as  to  give  up  their  own 
Christian  names,  and  assume  others  from 
Scripture,  like  the  Manicheans  of  old. 

The  opinions  of  the  moderns  on  this  subject 
may  be  reduced  to  two :  1.  Some  believe  that 
Christ  will  reign  personally  on  the  earth,  and 
that  the  prophecies  of  the  millennium  point  to 
a  resurrection  of  martyrs  and  other  just  men, 
to  reign  with  him  a  thousand  years  in  a  visible 
kingdom.  2.  Others  are  inclined  to  believe 
that,  by  the  reign  of  Christ  and  the  saints  for 
a  thousand  years  on  earth,  "  nothing  more  is 
meant  than  that,  before  the  general  judgment, 
the  Jews  shall  be  converted,  genuine  Christi- 
anity be  diffused  through  all  nations,  and  man- 
kind enjoy  that  peace  and  happiness  which  the 
faith  and  precepts  of  the  Gospel  are  calculated 
to  confer  on  all  by  whom  they  are  sincerely 
embraced."  The  state  of  the  Christian  church, 
say  they,  will  be,  for  a  thousand  years  before 
the  general  judgment,  so  pure  and  so  widely 
extended,  that,  when  compared  with  the  state 
of  the  world  in  the  ages  preceding,  it  may,  in 
the  language  of  Scripture,  be  called  a  resur- 
rection from  the  dead.  In  support  of  this  inter- 
pretation, they  quote  two  passages  from  St. 
Paul,  in  which  a  conversion  from  Paganism  to 
Christianity,  and  a  reformation  of  life  is  called 
a  "resurrection  from  the  dead,"  Rom.  vi,  13; 
Ephesians  v,  14.  There  is,  indeed,  an  order 
in  the  resurrection,  1  Cor.  xv,  24 ;  but  we  no 
where  observe  mention  made  of  a  first  and 
second  resurrection  at  the  distance  of  a  thou- 
sand years  from  each  other :  yet,  were  the 
millenarian  hypothesis  well  founded,  the  words 
should  rather  have  run  thus  :  "  Christ,  the  first, 
fruits,  then  the  martyrs  at  his  coming,  and  a 
thousand  years  afterward  the  residue  of  man- 
kind,— then  cometh  the  end,"  &c. 

Mr.  Joseph  Mede,  Dr.  Gill,  Bishop  Newton, 
Mr.  Winchester,  Mr.  Eyre,  Mr.  Kett,  and  a 
host  of  writers  recently,  are  advocates  for  the 
first  of  these  opinions,  and  contend  for  the 
personal  reign  of  Christ  on  earth.  "  When 
these  great  events  shall  r-ome  to  pass,"  says 
Bishop  Newton,  "  of  which  we  collect  from 
the  prophecies  this  to  be  the  proper  order, — 
the  Protestant  witnesses  shall  be  greatly  ex- 
alted, and  the  twelve  hundred  and  sixty  years 
of  their  prophesying  in  sackcloth,  and  of  the 
tyranny  of  the  beast,  shall  end  together ;  the 
conversion  and  restoration  of  the  Jews  suc- 
ceed ;  then  follows  the  ruin  of  the  Ottoman 
empire  ;  and  then  the  total  destruction  of 
Rome  and  of  antichrist.  When  these  great 
events,  I  say,  shall  come  to  pass,  then  shall 
the  kingdom  of  Christ  commence,  or  the  reign 
of  saints  upon  earth.  So  Daniel  expressly 
informs  us  that  the  kingdom  of  Christ  and  the 
saints  will  be  raised  upon  the  ruins  of  the 
kingdom  of  antichrist,  Daniel  vii,  26,  27.  So 
likewise  St.  John  saith,  that,  upon  the  final 
destruction  of  the  beast  and  of  the  false  pro- 
phet, '  Satan  is  bound,'  &c,  Rev.  xx,  2-6.  It 
is,  I  conceive,  to  these  great  events,,  the  fall 
of  antichrist,  the  reestablishment  of  the  Jews, 
and  the  beginning  of  the  glorious  millennium, 
that  the  three  different  dates  in  Daniel,  of 
twelve  hundred  and  sixty  years,  twelve  hun- 


MIL 


649 


MIL 


dred  and  ninety  years,  and  thirteen  hundred 
and  thirty-five  years,  are  to  be  referred.  And, 
as  Daniel  saith,  '  Blessed  is  he  that  waiteth, 
and  cometlvto  the  thirteen  hundred  and  thirty- 
five  years,'  Daniel  xii,  12 :  so  St.  John  saith, 
'  Blessed  and  holy  is  he  that  hath  part  in  the 
first  resurrection,'  Rev.  xx,  6.  Blessed  and 
happy,  indeed,  will  be  this  period;  and  it  is 
very  observable,  that  the  martyrs  and  confess- 
ors of  Jesus,  in  papist  as  well  as  Pagan  times, 
will  be  raised  to  partake  of  this  felicity.  Then 
shall  all  those  gracious  promises  in  the  Old 
Testament  be  fulfilled,  of  the  amplitude  and 
extent  of  the  peace  and  prosperity,  of  the 
glory  and  happiness,  of  the  church  in  the 
latter  days.  Then,  in  the  full  sense  of  the 
words,  '  shall  the  kingdoms  of  this  world  be- 
come the  kingdoms  of  our  Lord,  and  of  his 
Christ,  and  he  shall  reign  for  ever  and  ever,' 
Rev.  xi,  15.  According  to  tradition,  these 
thousand  years  of  the  reign  of  Christ  and  the 
saints  will  be  the  seventh  millenary  of  the 
world ;  for,  as  God  created  the  world  in  six 
days,  and  rested  on  the  seventh,  so  the  world, 
it  is  argued,  will  continue  six  thousand  years, 
and  the  seventh  thousand  will  be  the  great 
sabbatism,  or  holy  rest  of  the  people  of  God ; 
'  one  day  being  with  the  Lord  as  a  thousand 
years,  and  a  thousand  years  as  one  day,'  2  Pet. 
iii,  8.  According  to  tradition,  too,  these  thou- 
sand years  of  the  reign  of  Christ  and  the  saints 
are  the  great  day  of  judgment,  in  the  morning 
or  beginning  whereof  shall  be  the  coming  of 
Christ  in  flaming  fire,  and  the  particular  judg- 
ment of  antichrist,  and  the  first  resurrection  ; 
and  in  the  evening  or  conclusion  whereof  shall 
be  the  general  resurrection  of  the  dead,  small 
and  great ;  '  and  they  shall  be  judged  every 
man  according  to  his  works.'  " 

Such  is  the  representation  of  the  millennium, 
as  given  by  those  who  embrace  the  opinion  of 
Christ's  reigning  personally  on  earth  during 
the  period  of  one  thousand  years.  But  Dr. 
Whitby,  Mr.  Lowman,  &.c,  contend  against 
the  literal  interpretation  of  the  millennium, 
both  as  to  its  nature  and  duration.  Mr.  Faber 
observes  that,  "  respecting  the  yet  future  and 
mysterious  millennium,  the  less  that  is  said 
upon  the  subject  the  better.  Unable  myself  to 
form  the  slightest  conception  of  its  specific 
nature,  I  shall  weary  neither  my  own  nor  my 
reader's  patience  with  premature  remarks  upon 
it.  That  it  will  be  a  season  of  great  blessed- 
ness, is  certain ;  farther  than  this  we  know 
nothing  definitely."  The  millenarians  do  not 
form  a  sect  distinct  from  others ;  but  their 
distinguishing  tenet,  in  one  view  or  other, 
prevails,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  among 
most  denominations  into  which  the  Christian 
world  is  divided. 

The  following  observations  from  Jones's 
Biblical  Cyclopaedia  are  worthy  great  attention 
for  their  sobriety  : — Some  have  supposed  that 
the  passage,  Rev.  xx,  4,  is  to  be  taken  literally, 
as  importing  that  at  that  time  Jesus  Christ  will 
come,  in  his  human  nature,  from  heaven  to 
earth,  and  6et  his  kingdom  up  here,  reigning 
visibly  and  personally,  with  distinguished  glory 
on  earth ;  that  the  bodies  of  the  martyrs,  and 


of  other  eminent  Christians  will  then  be  raised 
from  the  dead,  in  which  they  shall  live  and 
reign  with  Christ  here  on  earth  a  thousand 
years.     And  some  suppose,  that  all  the  saints, 
the  true  friends  to  God  and  Christ,  who  have 
lived  before  that  time,  will  then  be  raised  from 
the    dead,  and  live   on   earth   perfectly  holy, 
during  this  thousand   years.     And  this  they 
suppose    is   meant  by  the    first  resurrection. 
Those  who  agree  in  general  in  this  notion  of 
the   millennium  differ  with  respect  to  many 
circumstances,  which  it  is  needless  to  mention 
here.     Others  have  understood  this  paragraph 
of  Scripture  in  a  figurative  sense  :  that  by  this 
reign   of  Christ  on   earth,   is  not  meant   his 
coming  from  heaven  to  earth  in  his  human 
visible  nature ;  but  his  taking  to  himself  his 
power,  and  utterly  overthrowing  the  kingdom 
of  Satan,    and  setting  up  his  own   kingdom 
throughout  the  world  which,  before  this,  had 
been  confined  to  very  narrow  bounds ;  subdu- 
ing all  hearts  to  a  willing  subjection,  and  thus 
reigning  generally  over  the    men  who    shall 
then  be  in  the  world,  and  live  in  that  thousand 
years.    And  by  "  the  souls  of  them  which  were 
beheaded  for  the  witness  of  Jesus,  and  for  the 
word  of  God,  and  which  had  not  worshipped 
the  beast,  neither  his  image,  neither  had  re- 
ceived his  mark  upon  their  foreheads,  or  in 
their  hands,"  living  again  and  reigning  with 
Christ  a  thousand  years ;  they  suppose,  is  not 
meant  a  literal  resurrection,  or  the  resurrection 
of  their  bodies,  which  is  not  asserted  here,  as 
there  is  nothing  said  of  their  bodies,  or  of  their 
being  raised  to  life  ;  but  that  they  shall  live 
again,  and  reign  with  Christ,  in  the  revival, 
prosperity,  reign,  and  triumph  of  that  cause 
and  interest  in  which  they  lived,  and  for  the 
promotion  of  which  they  died ;  and  in  whose 
death  the  cause  seemed  to  languish  and  be- 
come extinct.     Thus  they  shall  live  again  in 
their  successors,  who  shall  arise  and  stand  up 
with  the  same  spirit,  and  in  the  same  cause, 
in  which  they  lived  and  died,  agreeable  to  an- 
cient prophecies.      "  The  meek  shall  inherit 
the  earth."    "  And  the  kingdom  and  dominion, 
and  the  greatness  of  the  kingdom  under  the 
whole  heaven,  shall  be  given  to  the  people  of 
the  saints  of  the  Most  High  ;  whose  kingdom 
is  an  everlasting  kingdom,  and  all  dominions 
shall  serve  him."     And  they  suppose  that  this 
revival  of  the  cause  of  Christ,  by  the  numerous 
inhabitants  of  the  earth  rising  up  to  a  new  and 
holy  life,  is  that  which  is  here  called  the  first 
resurrection,   in  distinction  from  the  second, 
which  will  consist  in  the  resurrection  of  the 
body  ;  whereas  this  is  a  spiritual  resurrection  ; 
a  resurrection  of  the  cause  of  Christ,  which 
had  been,  in  a  great  degree,  dead  and  lost ;  a 
resurrection  of  the  souls  of  men,  by  the  reno- 
vation of  the  Holy  Spirit.    That  this  important 
passage  of  Scripture  is  to  be  understood  in  the 
figurative  sense,  last  mentioned,  is  probable, 
and  the  following  considerations  are  thought 
sufficient  to  support  it : — 

1.  Most  if  not  all  the  prophecies  in  this 
book  are  delivered  in  figurative  language,  refer- 
ring to  types  and  events  recorded  in  the  Old 
Testament ;  and  in  imitation  of  the  language 


MIL 


650 


MIL 


of  the  ancient  prophets.  And  this  was  proper, 
and  even  necessary,  in  the  best  manner  to 
answer  the  ends  of  prophecy,  as  might  easily 
be  shown  were  it  necessary.  The  first  part  of 
this  passage,  all  must  allow,  is  figurative.  Satan 
cannot  be  bound  with  a  literal,  material  chain. 
The  key,  the  great  chain,  and  the  seal,  cannot 
be  understood  literally.  The  whole  is  a  figure, 
and  can  mean  no  more  than,  that,  when  the 
time  of  the  millennium  arrives,  or  rather  pre- 
vious to  it,  Jesus  Christ  will  lay  effectual 
restraints  on  Satan,  so  that  his  powerful  and 
prevailing  influence,  by  which  he  had  before 
deceived  and  destroyed  a  great  part  of  man- 
kind, shall  be  wholly  taken  from  him  for  a 
thousand  years.  And  it  is  most  natural  to 
understand  the  other  part  of  the  description 
of  this  remarkable  event  to  be  represented  in 
the  same  figurative  language,  as  the  whole  is 
a  representation  of  one  scene ;  especially,  since 
no  reason  can  be  given  why  it  should  not  be 
so  understood. 

2.  To  suppose  that  Christ  shall  come  in  his 
human  nature  to  this  earth,  and  live  here  in 
his  whole  person  visible  a  thousand  years 
before  the  day  of  judgment,  appears  to  be  con- 
trary to  several  passages  of  Scripture.  The 
coming  of  Christ,  and  his  appearing  at  the 
day  of  judgment  in  his  human  nature,  is  said 
to  be  his  second  appearance,  answering  to  his 
first  appearance,  in  his  human  nature  on  earth, 
from  his  birth  to  his  ascension  into  heaven, 
which  was  past.  "  And  as  it  is  appointed 
unto  men  once  to  die,  but  after  this  the  judg- 
ment :  so  Christ  was  once  offered  to  bear  the 
sins  of  many  ;  and  unto  them  who  look  for 
him  shall  he  appear  the  second  time,  without 
sin,  unto  salvation,"  Heb.  ix,  27,  28.  The 
appearance  here  spoken  of  is  the  appearance 
of  Christ  at  the  day  of  judgment,  to  complete 
the  salvation  of  his  church.  This  could  not 
be  his  appearing  the  second  time,  were  he  thus 
to  appear,  and  to  be  bodily  present  in  his 
human  nature  on  earth,  in  the  time  of  the 
millennium,  which  is  to  take  place  before  the 
day  of  judgment.  The  coming  of  Christ  does 
not  always  intend  his  coming  visibly  in  his 
human  nature  ;  but  he  is  said  to  come,  when 
he  destroyed  the  temple  and  nation  of  the 
Jews,  and  appeared  in  favour  of  his  church. 
So  his  destruction  of  Heathen  Rome,  and 
delivering  his  church  from  that  persecuting 
power,  was  an  instance  of  his  coining.  And 
he  will,  in  the  same  way,  come  to  destroy 
antichrist,  and  the  kingdom  of  Satan  in  the 
world,  and  introduce  the  millennium  ;  and  in 
these  instances,  and  others,  he  may  be  said  to 
appear.  But  his  coming  to  judgment,  and 
appearing  to  complete  the  final  destruction  of 
all  his  enemies,  and  to  perfect  the  salvation 
of  his  church,  is  his  last  coming  and  appear- 
ance.  But  if  he  were  here  on  earth,  visible  in 
his  human  nature,  and  reigning  in  his  glorified 
body,  during  the  millennium,  he  would  be 
already  here  to  attend  the  last  judgment,  and 
lie  could  not  be  properly  said  to  come  from 
heaven,  and  to  be  revealed  from  heaven,  be- 
cause this  was  done  a  thousand  years  before. 
Beside,  that  Christ  should  come  from  heaven, 


and  appear  and  reign  in  his  human  nature 
and  presence  before  the  day  of  judgment,  seems 
to  be  contrary  to  the  following  scriptures  : 
"  For  the  Lord  himself  shall  descend  from 
heaven  with  a  shout,  with  the  voice  of  the 
archangel,  and  with  the  trump  of  God:  and 
the  dead  in  Christ  shall  rise  first."  "  When 
the  Lord  Jesus  shall  be  revealed  from  heaven, 
with  his  mighty  angels,  in  flaming  fire,  taking 
vengeance  on  them  that  know  not  God,"  &c. 
"  When  he  shall  come  to  be  glorified  in  his 
saints,"  1  Thess.  iv,  16;  2  Thess.  i,  7,  8,  10. 
This  is  evidently  his  appearing  the  second 
time,  for  the  salvation  of  all  them  that  look 
for  him  ;  but  were  he  on  earth  before  this,  in 
the  human  nature,  during  the  time  of  the  mil- 
lennium, how  could  he  be  said  to  be  revealed, 
to  descend  and  come  from  heaven  to  judge 
the  world  ? 

3.  There  is  nothing  expressly  said  of  the 
resurrection  of  the  body  in  this  passage.  The 
Apostle  John  saw  the  souls  of  them  which 
were  beheaded  for  the  witness  of  Jesus,  &c, 
and  they  lived  and  reigned  with  Christ.  The 
resurrection  of  the  body  is  no  where  expressed 
in  Scripture  by  the  soul's  living.  And  as 
there  is  nothing  said  of  the  body,  and  he  only 
saw  their  souls  to  live :  this  does  not  appear 
to  be  a  proper  expression  to  denote  the  resur- 
rection of  the  body,  and  their  living  in  that. 
As  this,  therefore,  does  not  seem  to  be  the 
natural  meaning  of  the  words,  and  certainly 
is  not  the  necessary  meaning,  we  are  war- 
ranted to  look  for  another  meaning,  and  to 
acquiesce  in  it,  if  one  can  be  found  which  is 
more  easy  and  natural,  and  more  agreeable  to 
the  whole  passage  and  to  the  Scripture  in 
general.     Therefore, 

4.  The  most  easy  and  probable  meaning  is, 
that  the  souls  of  the  martyrs,  and  all  the  faith- 
ful followers  of  Christ,  who  have  lived  in  the 
world,  and  have  died  before  the  millennium 
shall  commence,  shall  revive  and  live  again  in 
their  successors,  who  shall  rise  up  in  the  same 
spirit,  and  in  the  same  character,  in  which 
they  lived  and  died ;  and  in  the  revival  and 
flourishing  of  that  cause  which  they  espoused, 
and  spent  their  lives  in  promoting.  This  is 
therefore  a  spiritual  resurrection,  denoting  that 
all  Christ's  people  shall  appear  in  the  spirit 
and  power  of  those  martyrs  and  holy  men, 
who  had  before  lived  in  the  world,  and  who 
shall  live  again  in  these  their  successors,  and 
in  the  revival  of  their  cause,  or  in  the  resur- 
rection of  the  church,  from  the  very  low  state 
in  which  it  had  been  before  the  millennium, 
to  a  state  of  great  prosperity  and  glory.  This 
is  agreeable  to  the  way  of  representing  things 
in  Scripture  in  other  instances.  John  the 
Baptist  was  Elijah,  because  he  rose  in  the 
spirit  of  Elijah,  and  promoted  the  same  cause 
in  which  Elijah  lived  and  died ;  and  Elijah 
revived  and  lived  in  John  the  Baptist,  because 
he  went  before  Christ,  in  the  spirit  and  power 
of  Elijah,  Luke  i,  17.  Therefore  Christ  says 
of  John,  "This  is  Elijah  who  was  to  come," 
Matt,  xi,  14. 

With  regard  to  the  nature  of  the  millennial 
state,  or  the  blessings  which   shall    bo   more 


MIL 


651 


MIL 


particularly  enjoyed  during  that  period,  the 
following  things  seem  to  be  marked  out  in 
prophecy : — 

1.  It  is  expressly  said  of  those  who  shall 
partake  of  this  first  resurrection,  that  they 
shall  be  "  blessed  and  holy ;"  by  which  the 
inspired  writer  seems  to  denote  that  it  will  be 
a  time  of  eminent  holiness.  This  will  consti- 
tute the  peculiar  glory  and  the  source  of  the 
happiness  of  the  millennium  state,  Zech.  xiv, 
20,  21.  And  that  such  will  be  the  case,  we 
may  infer,  also,  from  the  consideration,  that, 

2.  There  is  reason  to  expect  a  remarkable 
effusion  of  the  Spirit,  about  the  commence- 
ment of  this  happy  period,  even  as  there  was 
at  the  first  setting  up  of  Christ's  kingdom  in 
the  world.  Beside  the  promises  of  the  Spirit 
which  were  accomplished  in  the  apostolic  age, 
there  are  others  which  from  the  connection 
appear  to  refer  to  the  time  we  are  now  speak- 
ing of.  Thus  Isaiah,  after  having  described 
Christ's  kingdom  which  was  set  up  at  his  first 
coming,  and  then  the  succeeding  desolate  state 
of  the  Jews,  represents  this  as  continuing 
"until  the  Spirit  be  poured  upon  us  from  on 
high,  and  the  wilderness  be  a  fruitful  field,  and 
the  fruitful  field  be  counted  for  a  forest,"  Isa. 
xxxii,  15-19.  The  Apostle  Paul,  speaking  of 
the  conversion  of  the  Jews  at  this  period, 
refers  to  a  passage  m  Isaiah  where  a  pro- 
mise of  the  Spirit  is  made  to  them  :  "  As  for 
me,  this  is  my  covenant  with  them,  saith  the 
Lord  :  My  Spirit  which  is  upon  thee,  and  my 
words  which  I  have  put  in  thy  mouth,  shall 
not  depart  out  of  thy  mouth,  nor  out  of  the 
mouth  of  thy  seed,  nor  out  of  the  mouth  of 
thy  seed's  seed,  saith  the  Lord,  from  hence- 
forth and  for  ever,"  Isa.  lix,  20,  21 ;  Rom.  xi, 
26,  27.  The  Lord  having  mentioned  the  for- 
lorn dispersed  state  of  Israel  throughout  the 
nations,  among  whom  they  had  profaned  his 
name,  promises  to  gather  them,  cleanse  them, 
and  give  them  a  new  heart  and  spirit,  and 
adds,  "  And  I  will  put  my  Spirit  within  you, 
and  cause  you  to  walk  in  my  statutes ;  and  ye 
shall  keep  my  judgments  and  do  them,"  Ezek. 
xxxvi,  27 ;  xxxix,  28,  29.  The  promise  of 
pouring  upon  them  the  spirit  of  grace  and 
supplication  has  also  a  view  to  this  period, 
Zech.  xii,  10.  •  Though  we  are  not  to  expect 
the  miraculous  gifts  of  the  apostolic  age,  yet 
the  work  of  the  Spirit  will  abundantly  appear 
in  qualifying  men  for  propagating  the  Gospel 
throughout  the  world,  filling  them  with  light, 
zeal,  courage,  and  activity,  in  that  work ;  in 
giving  success  and  effect  to  the  Gospel  by 
converting  multitudes  to  the  faith,  quickening 
the  dead  in  trespasses  and  sinsfand  translating 
them  into  the  kingdom  of  Christ ;  and  in 
enlightening,  quickening,  purifying,  and  com- 
forting the  children  of  God,  stirring  them  up 
to  greater  liveliness,  love,  zeal,  activity,  and 
fruitfulness  in  his  service. 

3.  A  universal  spread  of  the  Gospel,  diffus- 
ing the  knowledge  of  the  Lord  throughout 
the  world  in  a  more  extensive  and  effectual 
manner  than  ever  it  was  before.  This  is  re- 
peatedly promised :  "  The  earth  shall  be  full 
of  the  knowledge  of  the  Lord,  as  the  waters 


cover  the  sea ;"  and  this  shall  take  place  in 
that  day  when  the  Gentiles  shall  seek  to  the 
branch  of  the  root  of  Jesse,  whose  rest  shall 
be  glorious,  and  when  "  the  Lord  shall  set  his 
hand  again  the  second  time  to  recover  the 
remnant  of  his  people,  and  shall  set  up  an 
ensign  for  the  nations,  and  shall  assemble  the 
outcasts  of  Israel,  and  gather  together  the 
dispersed  of  Judah,  from  the  four  corners  of 
the  earth,"  Isaiah  xi,  9-12.  The  same  promise 
of  the  universal  knowledge  of  the  glory  of  the 
Lord  is  repeated  in  the  prophecy  of  Habak- 
kuk,  ii,  14.  This  will  be  attended  with  cor- 
responding effects  :  "  All  the  ends  of  the  world 
shall  remember  and  turn  unto  the  Lord ;  and 
all  the  kindreds  of  the  nations  shall  worship 
before  him,"  Psalm  xxii,  27 ;  yea,  all  kings 
shall  fall  down  before  him,  "  all  nations  shall 
serve  him,"  Psalm  lxxii,  11.  And  though  we 
may  not  imagine  that  all  the  inhabitants  of 
the  globe  will  have  the  true  and  saving  know- 
ledge of  the  Lord ;  yet  we  may  expect  such 
a  universal  spread  of  light  and  religious 
knowledge  as  shall  root  up  Pagan,  Mohamme 
dan,  and  antichristian  delusions,  and  produce 
many  good  effects  upon  those  who  are  not 
really  regenerated,  by  awing  their  minds, 
taming  their  ferocity,  improving  their  morals, 
and  making  them  peaceable  and  humane. 

4.  The  Jews  will  then  be  converted  to  the 
faith  of  the  Messiah,  and  partake  with  the 
Gentiles  of  the  blessings  of  his  kingdom. 
The  Apostle  Paul,  in  the  eleventh  chapter  of 
his  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  treats  of  this  at 
large,  and  confirms  it  from  the  prophecies  of 
the  Old  Testament.  He  is  speaking  of  Israel 
in  a  literal  sense,  the  natural  posterity  of 
Abraham  ;  for  he  distinguishes  them  both  from 
the  believing  Gentiles  and  the  Jewish  converts 
of  his  time,  and  describes  them  as  the  rest  who 
were  blinded,  had  stumbled  and  fallen,  and  so 
had  not  obtained,  but  were  broken  off  and 
cast  away,  Rom.  xi,  7,  11,  12,  15,  17.  Yet  he 
denies  that  they  have  stumbled  that  they 
should  fall,  that  is,  irrecoverably,  so  as  in  no 
future  period  to  be  restored  ;  but  shows  that 
God's  design  in  permitting  this  was,  that 
through  their  fall  salvation  might  come  unto 
the  Gentiles,  and  that  this  again  might  provoke 
them  to  jealousy  or  emulation,  verse  11.  He 
argues  that  if  their  fall  and  diminishing  was 
the  riches  of  the  Gentiles,  and  the  casting 
away  of  them  was  the  reconciling  of  the  world, 
their  fulness  will  be  much  more  so,  and  the 
receiving  of  them  be  life  from  the  dead,  verses 
12,  15.  He  farther  argues,  that  if  the  Gentiles 
"  were  grafted  contrary  to  nature  into  a  good 
olive  tree,  how  much  more  shall  these  which 
be  the  natural  branches  be  grafted  into  their 
own  olive  tree  ?"  verse  24.  Nor  did  he  con- 
sider this  event  as  merely  probable,  but  as 
absolutely  certain  ;  for  he  shows  that  the  pre- 
sent blindness  and  future  conversion  of  that 
people  is  the  mystery  or  hidden  sense  of  pro- 
phecies concerning  them  ;  and  he  cites  two  of 
these  prophecies  where  the  context  foretels 
both  their  rejection  and  recovery,  Isaiah  lix, 
20,  21 ;  xxvii,  9. 

5.  The  purity  of  visible  church  communion, 


MIL 


652 


MIL 


worship,  and  discipline,  will  then  be  restored 
according  to  the  primitive  apostolic  pattern. 
During  the  reign  of  antichrist  a  corrupted 
form  of  Christianity  was  drawn  over  the  na- 
tions, and  established  in  the  political  constitu- 
tions of  the  kingdoms  which  were  subject  to 
that  monstrous  power.  By  this  means  the 
children  of  God  were  either  mixed  in  visible 
religious  communion  with  the  profane  world, 
in  direct  opposition  to  the  word  of  God,  or 
persecuted  for  their  nonconformity.  In  refer- 
ence to  this  state  of  things,  the  angel  com- 
mands St.  John  to  leave  out  the  court  which 
is  without  the  temple,  and  not  to  measure  it, 
for  this  reason,  because  "  it  is  given  to  the 
Gentiles ;  and  the  holy  city  shall  they  tread 
under  foot  forty  and  two  months,"  Rev.  xi,  2  ; 
that  is,  they  shall  pollute  and  profane  the 
worship  and  communion  of  the  church  during 
the  one  thousand  two  hundred  and  sixty  years 
of  antichrist's  reign,  so  that  it  cannot  be  mea- 
sured by  the  rule  of  God's  word.  But  when 
the  period  we  are  speaking  of  shall  arrive,  the 
sanctuary  shall  be  cleansed,  Dan.  viii,  14 ; 
the  visible  communion,  worship,  order,  and 
discipline  of  the  house  of  God  will  then  be  re- 
stored to  their  primitive  purity,  and  accord  with 
the  rule  of  the  New  Testament.  So  it  is  pro- 
mised to  Zion,  "  Henceforth  there  shall  no 
more  come  into  thee  the  uncircumcised  and 
the  unclean,"  Isaiah  lii,  1.  "Thy  people  shall 
be  all  righteous ;  they  shall  inherit  the  land 
for  ever,  the  branch  of  my  planting,  the  work 
of  my  hands,  that  I  may  be  glorified,"  Isaiah 
Ix,  21.  "And  in  that  day  there  shall  be  no 
more  the  Canaanite  in  the  house  of  the  Lord 
of  Hosts,"  Zech.  xiv,  21. 

6.  The  Lord's  special  presence  and  residence 
will  then  be  in  the  midst  of  his  people.  Christ 
hath  promised  to  be  with  his  people  in  every 
period  of  the  church,  even  unto  the  end  of  the 
world,  Matt,  xxviii,  20,  and  that  he  will  be  in 
the  midst  even  of  two  or  three  of  them  when 
gathered  together  in  his  name,  Matt,  xviii,  20. 
He  also  calls  them  to  purity  of  communion 
and  personal  holiness,  and  promiseth  to  dwell 
in  them  and  walk  in  them,  2  Cor.  vi,  16,  17 ; 
but  this  will  be  fulfilled  in  an  eminent  and 
remarkable  manner  during  the  millennial 
period.  The  Lord,  having  promised  to  raise 
Israel  out  of  their  graves,  to  gather  them  from 
among  the  Heathen,  and  bring  them  into  the 
church  and  kingdom  of  Christ,  as  one  fold 
having  one  shepherd,  adds,  "And  I  will  set 
my  sanctuary  in  the  midst  of  them  for  ever- 
more ;  my  tabernacle  also  shall  be  with  them ; 
yea,  I  will  be  their  God,  and  they  shall  be  my 
people,"  Ezek.  xx.wii,  11-27.  This  alludes  to 
his  dwelling  among  Israel  in  the  tabernacle 
and  sanctuary  of  old,  Lev.  xxvi,  11,  12;  and 
imports  his  manifesting  himself  unto  them, 
admitting  them  into  the  most  intimate  corres- 
pondence and  communion  with  himself  in  his 
ordinances,  communicating  light,  life,  and 
consolation  to  them  by  his  Spirit ;  and  also  his 
protection  and  care  of  them  as  his  peculiar 
people.  It  is  intimated  that  there  will  be  such 
visible  tokens  of  the  divine  presence  and  resi- 
dence among  them  as  will  fall  under  the  notice 


of  the  world,  and  produce  conviction  and  awe, 
as  was  in  some  measure  the  case  in  the  first 
churches,  Acts  ii,  47 ;  v,  11,  13 ;  1  Cor.  xiv, 
24,  25;  for  it  is  added,  "And  the  Heathen 
shall  know  that  I  the  Lord  do  sanctify  Israel, 
when  my  sanctuary  shall  be  in  the  midst  of 
them  for  evermore,"  Ezek.  xxxvii,  28.  Indeed, 
this  is  that  very  promise  which  is  represented 
to  St.  John  as  accomplished  :  "  And  I  heard  a 
great  voice  out  of  heaven,  saying,  Behold,  the 
tabernacle  of  God  is  with  men,  and  he  will 
dwell  with  them,  and  they  shall  be  his  people, 
and  God  himself  shall  be  with  them,  and  bo 
their  God,"  Rev.  xxi,  3. 

7.  This  will  be  a  time  of  universal  peace, 
tranquillity  and  safety.  Persons  naturally  of 
the  most  savage,  ferocious,  and  cruel  disposi- 
tion, will  then  be  tame  and  harmless ;  so  it  is 
promised,  Isaiah  xi,  6-10.  Whether  we  con- 
sider the  persons  represented  by  these  hurtful 
animals  to  be  converted  or  not,  it  is  certain 
they  will  then  be  effectually  restrained  from 
doing  harm,  or  persecuting  the  saints.  There 
shall  be  no  war  nor  bloodshed  among  the  na- 
tions during  this  happy  period ;  for  we  are 
told,  that,  in  the  last  days,  when  the  mountain 
of  the  Lord's  house  shall  be  established  in  the 
top  of  the  mountains,  and  shall  be  exalted  above 
the  hills,  and  all  nations  shall  flow  unto  it ; 
the  Lord  "  shall  judge  a/nong  the  nations,  and 
shall  rebuke  many  people  ;  and  they  shall  beat 
their  swords  into  ploughshares,  and  their 
spears  into  pruning  hooks ;  nation  shall  not 
lift  up  sword  against  nation,  neither  shall  they 
learn  war  any  more,"  Isaiah  ii,  4.  The  same 
promise  is  repeated  word  for  word  in  the  pro- 
phecies of  Micah,  iv,  3.  Much  to  the  same 
purpose  is  that  promise  in  Hosea  ii,  18. 
Though  war  has  hitherto  deluged  the  world 
with  human  blood,  and  been  a  source  of  com- 
plicated calamities  to  mankind,  yet,  when 
Satan  is  bound,  his  influence  upon  wicked 
men  restrained,  and  the  saints  bear  rule,  it 
must  necessarily  cease. 

8.  The  civil  rulers  and  judges  shall  then  be 
all  maintainers  of  peace  and  righteousness. 
Though  Christ  will  put  down  all  that  rule, 
powder,  and  authority  which  opposeth  the 
peace  and  prosperity  of  his  kingdom;  yet  as 
rulers  are  the  ordinance  of  God,  and  his  mi- 
nisters for  good  ;  as  some  form  of  government 
seems  absolutely  necessary  to  the  order  and 
happiness  of  society  in  this  world  ;  it  is  thought 
that  when  the  kingdoms  of  this  world  are  be- 
come our  Lord's  and  his  Christ's,  the  promise 
will  be  accomplished,  "  I  will  also  make  thy 
officers  peace,  and  thine  exactors  righteous- 
ness;"  and  in  consequence  of  this,  "violence 
shall  no  more  be  heard  in  thy  land,  wasting 
nor  destruction  within  thy  borders ;  but  thou 
shalt  call  thy  walls  salvation,  and  thy  gates 
praise,"  Isaiah  lx,  17,  18.  Peace  and  righteous- 
ness are  the  two  great  ends  of  government : 
Christ  himself  is  king  of  righteousness,  and 
king  of  peace,  and  the  civil  rulers  during  that 
happy  period  will  resemble  him  in  their  cha- 
racter  and  administration  ;  for  then  shall  that 
promise  be  fulfilled :  "  In  righteousness  shalt 
thou  be  established  :  thou  shalt  be   far   from 


MIL 


653 


MIN 


oppression,  for  thou  shalt  not  fear  ;  and  from 
terror,  for  it  shall  not  come  near  thee,"  Isaiah 
liv,  14. 

9.  The  saints  shall  then  have  the  dominion, 
and  the  wicked  shall  be  in  subjection.  This 
is  clear  from  the  united  voice  of  prophecy : 
"  The  kingdom  and  dominion,  and  the  great- 
ness of  the  kingdom  under  the  wh  )le  heaven, 
shall  be  given  to  the  people  of  the  saints  of 
the  Most  High,"  Dan.  vii,  27.  "  Tho  saints 
of  the  Most  High  shall  take  the  kingdom,  and 
possess  the  kingdom  for  ever,"  Dan.  vii,  18. 
"The  meek  shall  inherit  the  earth,"  Matt,  v, 
5 ;  "  shall  reign  on  the  earth,"  Rev.  v,  10 ; 
shall  reign  "with  Christ  a  thousand  years," 
Rev.  xx,  4  ;  "  they  shall  be  priests  of  God,  and 
of  Christ,  and  shall  reign  with  him  a  thousand 
years,"  Rev.  xx,  G.  The  saints  are  at  present 
made  kings  and  priests  unto  God,  a  kingly 
priesthood,  1  Peter  ii,  9 ;  but  then  they  shall 
be  more  eminently  so,  when,  by  the  holiness 
of  their  lives,  the  purity  of  their  faith  and 
worship,  and  their  diligence  in  promoting  pure 
and  undefiled  religion,  the  earth  shall  be  filled 
with  the  knowledge  of  the  Lord.  Then  shall 
that  promise  be  fully  accomplished,  "Ye  shall 
be  named  the  priests  of  the  Lord ;  men  shall 
call  you  the  ministers  of  our  God,"  Isaiah 
lxi,  6.  With  regard  to  the  nature  of  their 
reign,  it  will  undoubtedly  correspond  in  all 
respects  with  the  spiritual  and  heavenly  na- 
ture of  Christ's  kingdom,  to  the  promotion  of 
which  all  their  power  will  be  subservient. 
Those  who  cannot  conceive  of  any  reign  upon 
earth,  but  such  as  consists  in  lordly  and  op- 
pressive dominion,  maintained  by  policy  and 
force,  and  made  subservient  to  the  purposes  of 
pride,  ambition,  avarice,  and  other  worldly 
lusts,  can  have  no  idea  at  all  of  this  reign  of 
the  6aints  with  Christ,  which  is  a  reign  of 
peace  on  earth  and  good  will  to  men ;  a  reign 
of  truth  and  righteousness,  of  true  godliness 
and  universal  humanity.  In  short,  it  is  the 
prevalence  and  triumph  of  the  cause  of  Christ 
in  this  world  over  that  of  Satan  and  all  his 
instruments.  How  delightful  then  the  pros- 
pects which  open  upon  the  eye  of  faith  in  the 
prophetic  vision  !  Christianity  prevails  univer- 
sally, and  the  consequences  are  most  blissful. 
Our  race  assumes  the  appearance  of  one  vast 
virtuous  and  peaceful  family.  Our  world  be- 
comes the  seat  of  one  grand  triumphant  ador- 
ing assembly.  At  length  the  scene  mingles 
with  the  heavens,  and,  rising  in  brightness,  is 
blended  with  the  glories  on  high.  The  mys- 
teries of  God  on  earth  are  finished,  the  times 
of  the  regeneration  are  fulfilled.  The  Son  of 
God  descends.  The  scene  closes  with  divine 
grandeur:  "And  I  heard  as  it  were  the  voice 
of  a  great  multitude,  and  as  the  voice  of  many 
waters,  and  as  the  voice  of  many  thunderings, 
saying,  Alleluia  ;  for  the  Lord  God  omnipotent 
reigneth.  The  kingdoms  of  this  world  are 
become  the  kingdoms  of  our  Lord  and  his 
Christ.  And  I  saw  a  new  heaven  and  a  new 
earth ;  for  the  first  heaven  and  the  first  earth 
were  passed  away ;  and  there  was  no  more 
sea.  And  I  saw  the  holy  city,  New  Jerusa- 
lem, coming  down  from  God  out  of  heaven. 


And  I  heard  a  great  voice  out  of  heaven,  say- 
ing, Behold,  the  tabernacle  of  God  is  with 
men,  and  he  will  dwell  with  them,  and  they 
shall  be  his  people,  and  God  himself  shall  be 
with  them,  and  be  their  God." 

MILLET,  jrn,  Ezek.  iv,  9,  a  kind  of  plant 
so  called  from  its  thrusting  forth  such  a 
quantity  of  grains.  Thus  in  Latin  it  is  called 
millium,  as  if  one  stalk  bore  a  thousand  seeds. 
It  has  been  supposed  that  the  dochan  means 
what  is  now  called  in  the  east  durra ;  which, 
according  to  Niebuhr,  is  a  sort  of  millet,  and 
when  made  into  bad  bread  with  camel's  milk, 
oil,  butter,  or  grease,  is  almost  the  only  food 
which  is  eaten  by  the  common  people  in 
Arabia  Felix.  "  I  found  it  so  disagreeable," 
says  he,  "  that  I  should  willingly  have  pre- 
ferred plain  barley  bread  to  it."  This  illus- 
trates the  appointment  of  it  to  the  Prophet 
Ezekiel  as  a  part  of  his  hard  fare.  Durra  is 
also  used  in  Palestine  and  Syria,  and  it  is 
generally  agreed  that  it  yields  much  more  than 
any  other  kind  of  grain.  Hiller  and  Celsius 
insist  that  the  dochan  is  the  panic;  but  For. 
skal  has  expressly  mentioned  the  dokn,  holcus 
dochna,  as  a  kind  of  maize,  of  considerable  use 
in  food ;  and  Brown,  in  his  Travels,  describes 
the  mode  of  cultivating  it. 

MILLO,  a  part  or  suburb  of  Jerusalem. 
"  David  built  round  about  from  Millo  and 
inward,"  2  Sam.  v,  9 ;  that  is,  he  built  round 
about  from  the  place  where  Millo  was  after- 
ward erected  by  Solomon,  or  where  more 
probably  the  senate  house,  or  Millo  of  the 
Jebusites,  had  stood,  which  was  pulled  down 
to  make  room  for  the  more  sumptuous  edifice 
of  Solomon,  to  his  own  house ;  so  that  David 
built  from  Mount  Zion,  quite  round  to  the 
opposite  point.  Hence,  the  residence  of 
David,  even  in  the  reign  of  that  renowned 
monarch,  began  to  assume  the  size  and  splen- 
dour of  a  city. 

MINISTER,  one  who  attends  or  waits  on 
another ;  so  we  find  Elisha  was  the  minister 
of  Elijah,  and  did  him  services  of  various  kinds, 
2  Kings  iii,  11.  So  Joshua  was  the  servant 
of  Moses,  Exod.  xxiv,  13;  xxxiii,  11.  And 
these  persons  did  not  by  any  means  feel  them- 
selves degraded  by  their  stations,  but  in  due 
time  they  succeeded  to  the  offices  of  their  mas- 
ters. In  like  manner  John  Mark  was  minister 
to  Paul  and  Barnabas,  Acts  xiii,  5.  Christ  is 
called  a  minister  of  the  true,  that  is,  the  hea- 
venly, sanctuary.  The  minister  of  the  syna- 
gogue was  appointed  to  keep  the  book  of  the 
law,  to  observe  that  those  who  read  it,  read  it 
correctly,  &c,  Luke  iv,  20.  The  rabbins  say 
he  was  the  same  as  the  angel  of  the  church, 
or  overseer.  Lightfoot  says,  Baal  Aruch  ex- 
pounds the  chazan,  or  minister  of  the  congre- 
gation, by  slieliach  hatzibbor,  or  angel  of  the 
congregation  ;  and  from  this  common  platform 
and  constitution  of  the  synagogue,  we  may 
observe  the  Apostle's  expression  of  some  eldera 
ruling  and  labouring  in  word  and  doctrine, 
others  in  the  general  affairs  of  the  synagogue. 
Ministers  were  servants,  yet  servants  not 
menial,  but  honourable  ;  those  who  explain 
the  word,   and  conduct  the  service  of  God  ; 


MIR 


654 


MIR 


those  who  dispense  the  laws  and  promote  the 
welfare  of  the  community ;  the  holy  angels 
who  in  obedience  to  the  divine  commands  pro- 
tect, preserve,  succour,  and  benefit  the  godly, 
are  all  ministers,  beneficial  ministers,  to  those 
who  are  under  their  charge,  Heb.  viii,  2  ;  Exod. 
xxx,  10;  Lev.  xvi,  15;  1  Cor.  iv,  1;  Romans 
xiii,  6 ;  Psalm  civ,  4. 

MINT,  Matt,  xxiii,  23  ;  Luke  xi,  42;  a  gar- 
den herb  well  known.  The  law  did  not  oblige 
the  Jews  to  give  the  tithe  of  this  sort  of  herbs  ; 
it  only  required  it  of  those  things  which  could 
be  comprehended  under  the  name  of  income 
or  revenue.  But  the  Pharisees,  desirous  of 
distinguishing  themselves  by  a  more  scrupu- 
lous and  literal  observance  of  the  law  than 
others,  gave  the  tithes  "  of  mint,  anise,  and 
cummin,"  Malt,  xxiii,  23.  Christ  reproved 
them  because  that,  while  they  were  so  precise 
in  these  lesser  matters,  they  neglected  the 
more  essential  commandments  of  the  law, 
and  substituted  observances,  frivolous  and 
insignificant,  in  the  place  of  justice,  mercy, 
and  truth. 

MIRACLES.  A  miracle,  in  the  popular 
sense,  is  a  prodigy,  or  an  extraordinary  event, 
which  surprises  us  by  its  novelty.  In  a  more 
accurate  and  philosophic  sense,  a  miracle  is 
an  effect  which  does  not  follow  from  any  of 
the  regular  laws  of  nature,  or  which  is  incon- 
sistent with  some  known  law  of  it,  or  contrary 
to  the  settled  constitution  and  course  of  things. 
Accordingly,  all  miracles  presuppose  an  esta- 
blished system  of  nature,  within  the  limits  of 
which  they  operate,  and  with  the  order  of 
which  they  disagree.  Of  a  miracle  in  the 
theological  sense  many  definitions  have  been 
given.  That  of  Dr.  Samuel  Clarke  is:  "A 
miracle  is  a  work  effected  in  a  manner  unusual, 
or  different  from  the  common  and  regular 
method  of  providence,  by  the  interposition  of 
God  himself,  or  of  some  intelligent  agent 
superior  to  man,  for  the  proof  or  evidence  of 
some  particular  doctrine,  or  in  attestation  of 
the  authority  of  some  particular  person."  Mr. 
Hume  has  insidiously  or  erroneously  main- 
tained that  a  miracle  is  contrary  to  experi- 
ence ;  but  in  reality  it  is  only  different  from 
experience.  Experience  informs  us  that  one 
event  has  happened  often  ;  testimony  informs 
us  that  another  event  has  happened  once  or 
more.  That  diseases  should  be  generally 
cured  by  the  application  of  external  causes, 
and  sometimes  at  the  mere  word  of  a  prophet, 
and  without  the  visible  application  of  causes, 
are  facts  not  inconsistent  with  each  other  in 
the  nature  of  things  themselves,  nor  irrecon- 
cilable  according  to  our  ideas.  Each  fact  may 
arise  from  its  own  proper  cause  ;  each  may 
exist  independently  of  the  other ;  and  each  is 
known  by  its  own  proper  proof,  whether  of 
sense  or  testimony.  As  secret  causes  often 
produce  events  contrary  to  those  we  do  expect 
from  experience,  it  is  equally  conceivable  that 
events  should  sometimes  be  produced  which 
we  do  not  expect.  To  pronounce,  therefore, 
a  miracle  to  be  false,  because  it  is  different 
from  experience  is  only  to  conclude  against 
its  general  existence  from  the  very  circum- 


stance which  constitutes  its  particular  nature  ; 
for  if  it  were  not  different  from  experience, 
where  would  be  its  singularity  ?  or  what 
particular  proof  could  be  drawn  from  it 
if  it  happened  according  to  the  ordinary 
train  of  human  events,  or  was  included  in  tho 
operation  of  the  general  laws  of  nature  ?  We 
grant  that  it  does  differ  from  experience ;  but 
we  do  not  presume  to  make  our  experience 
the  standard  of  the  divine  conduct.  He  that 
acknowledges  a  God  must,  at  least,  admit  the 
possibility  of  a  miracle.  The  atheist,  that 
makes  him  inseparable  from  what  is  called 
nature,  and  binds  him  to  its  laws  by  an  insur- 
mountable necessity;  that  deprives  him  of  will, 
and  wisdom,  and  power,  as  a  distinct  and  inde- 
pendent Being ;  may  deny  even  the  very  pos- 
sibility of  a  miraculous  interposition,  which 
can  in  any  instance  suspend  or  counteract 
those  general  laws  by  which  the  world  is 
governed.  But  he  who  allows  of  a  First 
Cause  in  itself  perfect  and  intelligent,  ab- 
stractedly from  those  effects  which  his  wis- 
dom and  power  have  produced,  must  at  the 
same  time  allow  that  this  cause  can  be  under 
no  such  restraints  as  to  be  debarred  the  liberty 
of  controlling  its  laws  as  often  as  it  sees  fit. 
Surely,  the  Being  that  made  the  world  can 
govern  it,  or  any  part  of  it,  in  such  a  manner 
as  he  pleases  ;  and  he  that  constituted  the  very 
laws  by  which  it  is  in  general  conducted,  may 
suspend  the  operation  of  those  laws  in  any 
given  instance,  or  impress  new  powers  on 
matter,  in  order  to  produce  new  and  extra- 
ordinary effects. 

In  judging  of  miracles  there  are  certain 
criteria,  peculiar  to  the  subject,  sufficient  to 
conduct  our  inquiries,  and  warrant  our  deter- 
mination. Assuredly  they  do  not  appeal  to 
our  ignorance,  for  they  presuppose  not  only 
the  existence  of  a  general  order  of  things,  but 
our  actual  knowledge  of  the  appearance  which 
that  order  exhibits,  and  of  the  secondary  ma- 
terial causes  from  which  it,  in  most  cases,  pro- 
ceeds. If  a  miraculous  event  were  effected  by 
the  immediate  hand  of  God,  and  yet  bore  no 
mark  of  distinction  from  the  ordinary  effects 
of  his  agency,  it  would  impress  no  conviction, 
and  probably  awaken  no  attention.  Our  know- 
ledge of  the  ordinary  course  of  things,  though 
limited,  is  real ;  and  therefore  it  is  essential  to 
a  miracle,  both  that  it  differ  from  that  course, 
and  be  accompanied  with  peculiar  and  une- 
quivocal sijrns  of  such  difference.  We  have 
been  told  that  the  course  of  nature  is  fixed 
and  unalterable,  and  therefore  it  is  not  con- 
sistent with  the  immutability  of  God  to  per- 
form miracles.  But,  surely,  they  who  reason 
in  this  manner  beg  the  point  in  question.  We 
have  no  right  to  assume  that  the  Deity  has 
ordained  such  general  laws  as  will  exclude  his 
interposition  ;  and  we  cannot  suppose  that  he 
would  forbear  to  interfere  where  any  important 
end  could  be  answered.  This  interposition, 
though  it  controls,  in  particular  cases,  the 
energy,  does  not  diminish  the  utility,  of  those 
laws.  It  leaves  them  to  fulfil  their  own  pro- 
per purposes,  and  effects  only  a  distinct  pur- 
pose, for  which  they  were  not  calculated.     If 


MIR 


655 


MIR 


the  course  of  nature  implies  the  general  laws 
of  matter  and  motion,  into  which  the  most 
oppopite  phenomena  may  be  resolved,  it  is 
certain  that  we  do  not  yet  know  them  in  their 
full  extent ;  and,  therefore,  that  events,  which 
are  related  by  judicious  and  disinterested  per- 
eons,  and  at  the  same  time  imply  no  gross 
contradiction,  are  possible  in  themselves,  and 
capable  of  a  certain  degree  of  proof.  If  the 
course  of  nature  implies  the  whole  order  of 
events  which  God  has  ordained  for  the  govern- 
ment of  the  world,  it  includes  both  his  ordinary 
and  extraordinary  dispensations,  and  among 
them  miracles  may  have  their  place,  as  a  part 
of  the  universal  plan.  It  is,  indeed,  consistent 
with  sound  philosophy,  and  not  inconsistent 
with  pure  religion,  to  acknowledge  that  they 
might  be  disposed  by  the  supreme  Being  at 
the  same  time  with  the  more  ordinary  effects 
of  his  power ;  that  their  causes  and  occasions 
might  be  arranged  with  the  same  regularity  ; 
and  that,  in  reference  chiefly  to  their  concomi- 
tant circumstances  of  persons  and  times,  to 
the  specific  ends  for  which  they  were  em- 
ployed, and  to  our  idea  of  the  immediate  ne- 
cessity there  is  for  a  divine  agent,  miracles 
would  differ  from  common  events,  in  which 
the  hand  of  God  acts  as  efficaciously,  though 
less  visibly.  On  this  consideration  of  the  sub- 
ject, miracles,  instead  of  contradicting  nature, 
might  form  a  part  of  it.  But  what  our  limited 
reason  and  scanty  experience  may  comprehend 
should  never  be  represented  as  a  full  and  exact 
view  of  the  possible  o»  actual  varieties  which 
exist  in  the  works  of  God. 

2.  If  we  be  asked  whether  miracles  are 
credible,  we  reply,  that,  abstractedly  consi- 
dered, they  are  not  incredible  ;  that  they  are 
capable  of  indirect  proof  from  analogy,  and 
of  direct,  from  testimony  ;  that  in  the  common 
and  daily  course  of  worldly  affairs,  events,  the 
improbability  of  which,  antecedently  to  all 
testimony,  was  very  great,  are  proved  to  have 
happened,  by  the  authority  of  competent  and 
honest  witnesses ;  that  the  Christian  miracles 
were  objects  of  real  and  proper  experience  to 
those  who  saw  them  ;  and  that  whatsoever  the 
senses  of  mankind  can  perceive,  their  report 
may  substantiate.  Should  it  be  asked  whether 
miracles  were  necessary,  and  whether  the  end 
proposed  to  be  effected  by  them  could  warrant 
so  immediate  and  extraordinary  an  interference 
of  the  Almighty,  as  such  extraordinary  opera- 
tions suppose  ;  to  this  we  might  answer,  that, 
if  the  fact  be  established,  all  reasonings  a  priori 
concerning  their  necessity  must  be  frivolous, 
and  may  be  false.  We  are  not  capable  of 
deciding  on  a  question  which,  however  simple 
in  appearance,  is  yet  too  complex  in  its  parts, 
and  too  extensive  in  its  object,  to  be  fully  com- 
prehended by  the  human  understanding.  Whe- 
ther God  could  or  could  not  have  effected  all 
the  ends  designed  to  be  promoted  by  the  Gos- 
pel, without  deviating  from  the  common  course 
of  his  providence,  and  interfering  with  its  gene- 
ral laws,  is  a  speculation  that  a  modest  inquirer 
would  carefully  avoid  ;  for  it  carries  on  the 
very  face  of  it  a  degree  of  presumption  totally 
unbecoming  the  state  of  a  mortal  being.     In- 


finitely safer  is  it  for  us  to  acquiesce  in  what 
the  Almighty  has  done,  than  to  embarrass  our 
minds  with  speculations  about  what  he  might 
have  done.  Inquiries  of  this  kind  are  generally 
inconclusive,  and  always  useless.  They  rest 
on  no  solid  principles,  are  conducted  by  no 
fixed  rules,  and  lead  to  no  clear  conviction. 
They  begin  from  curiosity  or  vanity,  they  are 
prosecuted  amidst  ignorance  and  error,  and 
they  frequently  terminate  in  impious  presump- 
tion or  universal  skepticism.  God  is  the  best 
and  indeed  the  only  judge  how  far  miracles 
are  proper  to  promote  any  particular  design  of 
his  providence,  and  how  far  that  design  would 
have  been  left  unaccomplished,  if  common  and 
ordinary  methods  only  had  been  pursued.  So, 
from  the  absence  of  miracles,  we  may  conclude, 
in  any  supposed  case,  that  they  were  not  ne- 
cessary ;  from  their  existence,  supported  by 
fair  testimony,  in  any  given  case,  we  may  infer 
with  confidence  that  they  are  proper.  A  view 
of  the  state  of  the  world  in  general,  and  of  the 
Jewish  nation  in  particular,  and  an  examina- 
tion of  the  nature  and  tendency  of  the  Chris- 
tian religion,  will  point  out  very  clearly  the 
great  expediency  of  a  miraculous  interposition ; 
and  when  we  reflect  on  the  gracious  and  im- 
portant ends  that  were  to  be  effected  by  it,  we 
shall  be  convinced  that  it  was  not  an  idle  and 
useless  display  of  divine  power  ;  but  that  while 
the  means  effected  and  confirmed  the  end,  the 
end  fully  justified  and  illustrated  the  means. 
If  we  reflect  on  the  almost  irresistible  force  of 
prejudice,  and  the  strong  opposition  it  uni- 
versally made  to  the  establishment  of  a  new 
religion  on  the  demolition  of  rites  and  cere- 
monies, which  authority  had  made  sacred,  and 
custom  had  familiarized  ;  if  we  reflect  on  the 
extent  and  importance,  as  well  as  the  singu- 
larity, of  the  Christian  plan  ;  what  was  its 
avowed  purpose  to  effect,  and  what  difficulties 
it  was  necessarily  called  to  struggle  with  be- 
fore that  purpose  could  be  effected  ;  how  much 
it  was  opposed  by  the  opinions  and  the  prac- 
tice of  the  generality  of  mankind,  by  philoso- 
phy, by  superstition,  by  corrupt  passions  and 
inveterate  habits,  by  pride  and  sensual'ty,  in 
short,  by  every  engine  of  human  influence, 
whether  formed  by  craft,  or  aided  by  power ; — 
if  we  seriously  reflect  on  these  things,  and  give 
them  their  due  force,  (and  experience  shows 
us  that  we  can  scarcely  give  them  too  much,) 
we  shall  be  induced  to  admit  even  the  necessity 
of  a  miraculous  interposition,  at  a  time  when 
common  means  must  inevitably,  in  our  appre- 
hensions, have  failed  of  success. 

The  revelation  of  the  divine  will  by  inspired 
persons  is,  as  such,  miraculous  ;  and  therefore, 
before  the  adversaries  of  the  Gospel  can  employ 
with  propriety  their  objections  to  the  particu- 
lar miracles  on  which  its  credibility  is  based, 
they  should  show  the  impossibility  of  any  reve- 
lation. In  whatever  age  the  revelation  is 
given,  succeeding  ages  can  know  it  only  from 
testimony ;  and,  if  they  admit,  on  the  report 
of  their  fellow  creatures,  that  God  had  inspired 
;iny  being  with  the  preternatural  knowledge 
of  his  will,  why  should  they  deny  that  he  had 
enabled  the  same  being  to  heal  the  sick,  or  to 


MIR 


656 


MIR 


cleanse  the  leprous  ?  How,  may  it  be  asked, 
should  the  divine  Teacher  give  a  more  direct 
and  consistent  proof  of  his  preternatural  com- 
mission, than  by  displaying  those  signs  and 
wonders  which  mark  the  finger  of  God  ?  That 
the  Apostles  could  not  be  deceived,  and  that 
they  had  no  temptation  to  deceive,  has  been 
repeatedly  demonstrated.  So  powerful,  indeed, 
is  the  proof  adduced  in  support  of  their  testi- 
mony, that  the  infidels  of  these  later  days 
have  been  obliged  to  abandon  the  ground  on 
which  their  predecessors  stood  ;  to  disclaim  all 
moral  evidences  arising  from  the  character 
and  relation  of  eye-witnesses  ;  and  to  maintain, 
upon  metaphysical,  rather  than  historical, 
principles,  that  miracles  are  utterly  incapable, 
in  their  own  nature,  of  existing  in  any  circum- 
stances, or  of  being  supported  by  any  evidence. 
Miracles  may  be  classed  under  two  heads  : 
those  which  consist  in  a  train  or  combination 
of  events,  which  distinguish  themselves  from 
the  ordinary  arrangements  of  Providence  ;  and 
those  particular  operations  which  are  perform- 
ed by  instruments  and  agents  incompetent  to 
effect  them  without  a  preternatural  power.  In 
the  conduct  of  Providence  respecting  the  Jew- 
ish people,  from  the  earliest  periods  of  their 
existence,  as  a  distinct  class  of  society,  to  the 
present  time,  we  behold  a  singularity  of  cir- 
cumstance and  procedure  which  we  cannot 
account  for  on  common  principles.  Compar- 
ing their  condition  and  situation  with  that  of 
other  nations,  we  can  meet  with  nothing  simi- 
lar to  it  in  the  history  of  mankind.  So  re- 
markable a  difference,  conspicuous  in  every 
revolution  of  their  history,  could  not  have  sub- 
sisted through  mere  accident.  There  must 
have  been  a  cause  adequate  to  so  extraordinary 
an  effect.  Now,  what  should  this  cause  be, 
but  an  interposition  of  Providence  in  a  man- 
ner different  from  the  course  of  its  general 
government  ?  For  the  phenomenon  cannot  be 
explained  by  an  application  of  those  general 
causes  and  effects  that  operate  in  other  cases. 
The  original  propagation  of  Christianity  was 
likewise  an  event  which  clearly  discovered  a 
miraculous  interposition.  The  circumstances 
which  attended  it  were  such  as  cannot  ration- 
ally be  accounted  for  on  any  other  postula- 
tum.  (See  the  article  Christianity.)  It  may 
now  be  observed,  that  the  institutions  of  the 
law  and  the  Gospel  may  not  only  appeal  for 
their  confirmation  to  a  train  of  events  which, 
taken  in  a  general  and  combined  view,  point 
out  an  extraordinary  designation,  and  vindi- 
cate their  claim  to  a  divine  authority  ;  but  also 
to  a  number  of  particular  operations  which, 
considered  distinctly,  or  in  a  separate  and  de- 
tached light,  evidently  display  a  supernatural 
power,  immediately  exerted  on  the  occasion. 
Since  Christ  himself  constantly  appealed  to 
these  works  as  the  evidences  of  his  divine  mis- 
sion and  character,  we  may  briefly  examine 
how  far  they  justified  and  confirmed  his  preten- 
sions. That  our  Lord  laid  the  greatest  stress  on 
the  evidence  they  afforded ;  nay,  that  he  con- 
sidered that  evidence  as  sufficient  to  authenti- 
cate his  claims  to  the  office  of  the  Messiah 
with  all  reasonable  and  well  disposed  inquirers, 


is  manifest  not  only  from  his  own  words,  John 
x,  25,  but  also  from  a  great  variety  of  other 
passages  in  the  evangelists.  Thus,  whtti  the 
disciples  of  John  were  sent  to  Christ,  to  re- 
ceive from  his  own  lips  the  most  satisfactory 
proofs  of  his  divine  mission,  he  referred  them 
to  his  miracles.  "Go,"  said  he,  "and  show 
to  John  again  those  things  which  ye  hear  and 
see :  the  blind  receive  their  sight,  the  lame 
walk,  the  lepers  are  cleansed,  the  deaf  hear, 
and  the  dead  are  raised  up,"  Matt,  xi,  4,  5. 
Again  :  "  If  I  do  not  the  works  of  my  Father, 
believe  me  not :  but  if  I  do,  though  ye  believe 
not  rne,  believe  the  works,"  John  x,  37.  This 
appeal  to  miracles  was  founded  on  the  follow- 
ing just  and  obvious  grounds  : — 

First :  That  they  are  visible  proofs  of  divine 
approbation,  as  well  as  of  divine  power  :  for  it 
would  have  been  quite  inconclusive  to  rest  an 
appeal  on  the  testimony  of  the  latter,  if  it  had 
not  at  the  same  time  included  an  evidence  of 
the  former ;  and  it  was,  indeed  a  natural  in- 
ference, that  working  of  miracles,  in  defence 
of  a  particular  cause,  was  the  seal  of  Heaven 
to  the  truth  of  that  cause.  To  suppose  the 
contrary,  would  be  to  suppose  that  God  not 
only  permitted  his  creatures  to  be  deceived, 
but  that  he  deviated  from  the  ordinary  course 
of  his  providence,  purposely  with  a  view  to 
deceive  them.  The  conclusion  which  the  man 
whom  our  Saviour  restored  to  sight  drew  from 
this  miracle  was  exceedingly  just,  and  founded 
on  the  common  sentiments  and  impressions  of 
the  human  heart.  "We  know,"  says  he,  "that 
God  heareth  not  sinners  :  but  if  any  man  be  a 
worshipper  of  God,  and  doeth  his  will,  him  he 
heareth.  Since  the  world  began  was  it  not 
heard  that  any  man  opened  the  eyes  of  one  that 
was  born  blind.  If  this  man  were  not  of  God, 
he  could  do  nothing,"  John  ix,  31-33.  If  the 
cause  which  our  Saviour  was  engaged  in  had 
not  been  approved  of  by  God,  it  would  not 
have  been  honoured  with  the  seal  of  miracles  : 
for  the  divine  power  can  never  be  supposed  to 
counteract  the  divine  will.  This  would  be  to 
set  his  nature  at  variance  with  itself;  and,  by 
destroying  his  simplicity,  would  destroy  his 
happiness,  and  terminate  in  confusion  and 
misery.  Hence  we  may  justly  reject,  as  incre- 
dible, those  miracles  which  have  been  ascribed 
to  the  interposition  of  wicked  spirits.  The 
possibility  of  their  interference  is  a  mere  hypo- 
thesis, depending  upon  gratuitous  assumption, 
and  leading  to  very  dangerous  consequences ; 
and  the  particular  instances  in  which  credulous 
superstition,  or  perverted  philosophy,  has  sup- 
posed them  to  interfere,  are,  as  facts,  destitute 
of  any  clear  and  solid  evidence  ;  or,  as  effects, 
often  resolvable  into  natural  causes. 

Secondly :  When  our  Lord  appealed  to  his 
miracles,  as  proofs  of  his  divine  mission,  it 
presupposed  that  those  miracles  were  of  such 
a  nature  as  would  bear  the  strictest  examina- 
tion;  that  they  had  all  those  criteria  which 
could  possibly  distinguish  them  from  the  delu- 
sions of  enthusiasm,  and  the  artifices  of  im- 
posture ;  else  the  appeal  would  have  been  fal- 
lacious and  equivocal.  He  appealed  to  them 
with  all  the  confidence  of  an  upright  mind, 


MIR 


657 


MIR 


totally  possessed  with  a  consciousness  of  their 
truth  and  reality.  This  appeal  was  not  drawn 
out  into  any  laboured  argument,  nor  adorned 
by  any  of  the  embellishments  of  language.  It 
was  short,  simple,  and  decisive.  He  neither 
reasoned  nor  declaimed  on  their  nature  or  their 
design  :  he  barely  pointed  to  them  as  plain  and 
indubitable  facts,  such  as  spoke  their  own 
meaning,  and  carried  with  them  their  own 
authority.  The  miracles  which  our  Lord  per- 
formed were  too  public  to  be  suspected  of  im- 
posture ;  and,  being  objects  of  sense,  they  were 
secured  against  the  charge  of  enthusiasm.  An 
impostor  would  not  have  acted  so  absurdly  as 
to  have  risked  his  credit  on  the  performance 
of  what,  he  must  have  known,  it  was  not  in 
his  power  to  effect ;  and  though  an  enthusi- 
ast, from  the  warmth  of  imagination,  might 
have  flattered  himself  with  a  full  persuasion 
of  his  being  able  to  perform  some  miraculous 
work  ;  yet,  when  the  trial  was  referred  to  an 
object  of  sense,  the  event  must  soon  have  ex- 
posed the  delusion.  The  impostor  would  not 
have  dared  to  say  to  the  blind,  Receive  thy 
sight ;  to  the  deaf,  Hear  ;  to  the  dumb,  Speak  ; 
to  the  dead,  Arise  ;  to  the  raging  of  the  sea, 
Be  still ;  lest  he  should  injure  the  credit  of  his 
cause,  by  undertaking  more  than  he  could  per- 
form ;  and  though  the  enthusiast,  under  the 
delusion  of  his  passions,  might  have  confident- 
ly commanded  disease  to  fly,  and  the  powers 
of  nature  to  be  subject  to  his  control ;  yet 
their  obedience  would  not  have  followed  his 
command. 

.The  miracles  of  Christ  then  were  such  as  an 
impostor  would  not  have  attempted,  and  such 
as  an  enthusiast  could  not  have  effected.  They 
had  no  disguise  ;  and  were  in  a  variety  of 
instances  of  such  a  nature  as  to  preclude  the 
very  possibility  of  collusion.  They  were  per- 
formed in  the  midst  of  his  bitterest  enemies  ; 
and  were  so  palpable  and  certain,  as  to  extort 
the  following  acknowledgment  even  from 
persons  who  were  most  eager  to  oppose  his 
doctrines,  and  to  discredit  his  pretensions  : 
"This  man  doeth  many  miracles.  If  we  let 
him  thus  alone,  all  men  will  believe  on  him," 
John  xi,  47,  48.  The  miracles  Christ  per- 
formed were  indeed  sufficient  to  alarm  the 
fears  of  those  whose  downfall  was  involved  in 
his  success.  And  it  was  impossible  for  them 
to  deny  the  facts,  which  so  many  thousands 
were  ready  to  attest  on  evidence  too  certain  to 
admit  even  the  possibility  of  mistake,  delusion, 
or  imposture.  But  his  enemies,  who  admitted 
their  reality  and  yet  resisted  their  design,  by 
not  acknowledging  the  person  who  wrought 
them  to  be  the  Messiah,  had  recourse  to  the 
most  impious  and  most  absurd  suppositions, 
in  order  to  evade  their  evidence.  The  Hea- 
then imputed  them  to  some  occult  power  of 
magic  :  and  thus  applied  what  has  no  exist- 
ence in  nature,  in  order  to  account  for  a  phe- 
nomenon that  existed  out  of  its  common 
course.  The  stories  of  the  Jew,  who  con- 
fessed the  miracles,  but  denied  what  they 
were  intended  to  establish,  arc  too  ridiculous 
to    be   mentioned.     We   must   not,   however, 

omit  to  take  notice  of  the  wicked  and  bias- 
43 


phemous  cavil  of  the  Pharisees,  and  the  noble 
reply  which  our  Lord  made  to  it.  They  could 
not  deny  the  fact,  but  they  imputed  it  to  the 
agency  of  an  infernal  spirit :  "  This  fellow," 
said  they,  "  doth  not  cast  out  devils,  but  by 
Beelzebub,  the  prince  of  the  devils.  And 
Jesus  knew  their  thoughts,  and  said  unto 
them,  Every  kingdom  divided  against  itself  is 
brought  to  desolation  ;  and  every  city  or  house 
divided  against  itself  shall  not  stand  :  and  if 
Satan  cast  out  Satan,  he  is  divided  against 
himself;  how  shall  then  his  kingdom  stand?" 
Matt,  xii,  24-26.  The  purity  of  the  doctrine 
which  was  taught  by  our  blessed  Lord  was 
totally  adverse  to  the  kingdom  of  darkness. 
It  tended  to  overthrow  it,  by  the  introduction 
of  principles  far  different  from  those  which 
Satan  would  inspire,  and  by  prosecuting  objects 
totally  opposite  to  those  which  that  wicked 
and  malignant  spirit  would  tempt  us  to  pursue  : 
so  that  in  proportion  to  the  prevalence  of  the 
kingdom  of  Christ,  the  kingdom  of  Satan 
would  of  course  be  diminished.  Now,  sup- 
posing miracles  to  be  in  the  power  of  an 
infernal  spirit,  can  it  be  imagined  that  he  would 
communicate  an  ability  of  performing  them 
to  persons  who  were  counteracting  his  designs  ? 
Would  he  by  them  give  credit  to  a  cause  that 
tended  to  bring  his  own  into  disgrace  ?  Thus, 
as  our  Saviour  appealed  to  miracles  as  proofs 
of  his  power ;  so  he  appealed  to  the  inherent 
worth  and  purity  of  the  doctrines  they  were 
intended  to  bear  witness  to,  as  a  proof  that  the 
power  was  of  God.  In  this  manner  do  the 
external  and  internal  evidences  give  and 
receive  mutual  confirmation  and  mutual  lustre. 
The  truth  of  the  Christian  religion  does 
not,  however,  wholly  depend  on  the  miracles 
wrought  by  its  divine  Founder,  though  suf- 
ficient in  themselves  Jo  establish  his  claims : 
but,  in  order  to  give  the  evidence  of  miracles 
the  strongest  force  they  could  possibly  acquire, 
that  evidence  was  extended  still  farther;  and 
the  same  power  that  our  Lord  possessed  was 
communicated  to  his  disciples,  and  their  more 
immediate  successors.  While  yet  on  earth  ho 
imparted  to  them  this  extraordinary  gift,  as 
the  seal  of  their  commission,  when  he  sent 
them  to  preach  the  Gospel :  and  after  his 
glorious  resurrection  and  ascension  into  hea- 
ven, they  were  endowed  with  powers  yet  more 
stupendous.  Sensible  of  the  validity  of  this 
kind  of  evidence,  the  Apostles  of  our  Lord, 
with  the  same  artless  simplicity,  and  the  same 
boldness  of  conscious  integrity,  which  distin- 
guished their  great  Master,  constantly  insisted 
upon  the  miracles  they  wrought,  as  strong  and 
undeniable  proofs  of  the  truth  of  their  doctrines. 
Thus  the  miracles  of  our  blessed  Lord  may  be 
justly  considered  as  the  evidence  of  his  divine 
mission  and  character.  If  we  consider  their 
nature,  their  greatness,  and  their  number  ;  and 
if  to  this  consideration  wc  add  that  which 
respects  their  end  and  design,  we  must  acknow- 
ledge that,  no  one  could  have  performed  them, 
unless  God  was  with  him.  They  were  too  public 
to  be  the  artifices  of  imposture  ;  too  substantial 
and  too  numerous  to  afford  the  slightest  sus- 
picion   of  undesigned   and    fortuitous   coinci- 


MIR 


658 


MIR 


dence.  In  a  word,  supposing  that  the  Most 
High  should  in  any  instance  so  far  counteract 
the  common  laws  of  nature,  as  to  produce  a 
miracle ;  and  should  design  that  miracle  as  a 
monument  to  future  times  of  the  truth  of  any 
peculiar  doctrine,  we  cannot  conceive  any 
mode  of  communicating  it  more  effectual  than 
that  which  he  has  chosen.  Stronger  proofs 
could  not  be  afforded,  consistently  with  the 
design  of  the  Gospel,  which  is  not  to  over- 
power our  understandings  by  an  irresistible 
and  compulsory  light,  but  to  afford  us  such 
rational  evidence  as  is  sufficient  to  satisfy 
moral  inquirers,  who  are  endowed  with  facul- 
ties to  perceive  the  truth ;  but  at  the  same 
time  who  also  have  power  totally  to  resist  it, 
and  finally  to  forfeit  all  its  blessings.  These 
miracles  were  of  a  nature  too  palpable  to  be 
mistaken.  They  were  the  objects  of  sense, 
and  not  the  precarious  speculations  of  reason 
concerning  what  God  might  do ;  or  the  chi- 
merical suggestions  of  fancy  concerning  what 
he  did.  The  facts  were  recorded  by  those  who 
must  have  known  whether  they  were  true  or 
false.  The  persons  who  recorded  them  were 
under  no  possible  temptations  to  deceive  the 
world.  We  can  only  account  for  their  conduct 
on  the  supposition  of  their  most  perfect  con- 
viction and  disinterested  zeal.  That  they 
should  assert  what  they  knew  to  be  false ; 
that  they  should  publish  it  with  so  much 
ardour  ;  that  they  should  risk  every  thing  dear 
to  humanity,  in  order  to  maintain  it;  and  at 
last  submit  to  death,  in  order  to  attest  their 
persuasion  of  its  truth  in  those  moments  when 
imposture  usually  drops  its  mask,  and  enthu- 
siasm loses  its  confidence ;  that  they  should 
act  thus  in  opposition  to  every  dictate  of  com- 
mon sense,  and  every  principle  of  common 
honesty,  every  restraint  of  shame,  and  every 
impulse  of  selfishness,  is  a  phenomenon  not 
less  irreconcilable  to  the  moral  state  of  things 
than  miracles  are  to  the  natural  constitution 
of  the  world.  Falsehood  naturally  entangles 
men  in  contradiction,  and  confounds  them 
with  dismay  :  but  the  love  of  truth  invigorates 
the  mind  ;  the  consciousness  of  integrity  anti- 
cipates the  approbation  of  God;  and  conscience 
creates  a  fortitude,  to  which  mere  unsupported 
nature  is  often  a  stranger. 

3.  How  long  miracles  were  continued  in 
the  church,  has  been  a  matter  of  keen  dispute, 
and  has  been  investigated  with  as  much  anxiety 
as  if  the  truth  of  the  Gospel  depended  upon  the 
manner  in  which  it  was  decided.  Assuming, 
as  we  are  here  warranted  to  do,  that  real 
miraculous  power  was  conveyed  in  the  way 
detailed  by  the  inspired  writers,  it  is  plain, 
that  it  may  have  been  exercised  in  different 
countries,  and  may  have  remained,  without,  any 
new  communication  of  it,  throughout  the  first, 
and  a  considerable  part  of  the  second  century. 
The  Apostles,  wherever  they  went  to  execute 
their  commission,  would  avail  themselves  of 
the  stupendous  gift  which  had  been  imparted 
to  them;  and  it  is  clear,  not  only  that  they 
were  permitted  and  enabled  to  convey  it  to 
others,  but  that  spiritual  gills,  including  the 
power  of  working  miracles,  were  actually  con- 


ferred on  many  of  the  primitive  disciples 
Allusions  to  this  we  find  in  the  epistles  of"  St. 
Paul ;  such  allusions,  too,  as  it  is  utterly  incon- 
ceivable that  any  man  of  a  sound  judgment 
could  have  made,  had  he  not  known  that  he 
was  referring  to  an  obvious  fact,  about  which 
there  could  be  no  hesitation.  Of  the  time  at 
which  several  of  the  Apostles  died,  we  have 
no  certain  knowledge.  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul 
suffered  at  Rome  about  A.  D.  66,  or  67 ;  and 
it  is  fully  established,  that  the  life  of  John  was 
much  longer  protracted,  he  having  died  a 
natural  death,  A.  D.  100,  or  101.  Supposing 
that  the  two  former  of  these  Apostles  imparted 
spiritual  gifts  till  the  time  of  their  suffering 
martyrdom,  the  persons  to  whom  they  were 
imparted  might,  in  the  course  of  nature,  have 
lived  through  the  earlier  part  of  the  second 
century ;  and  if  John  did  the  same  till  the  end 
of  his  life,  such  gifts  as  were  derived  from  him 
might  have  remained  till  more  than  the  half 
of  that  century  had  elapsed.  That  such  was 
the  fact,  is  asserted  by  ancient  ecclesiastical 
writers.  Whether,  after  the  generation  imme- 
diately succeeding  the  Apostles  had  passed 
away,  the  power  of  working  miracles  was 
anew  communicated,  is  a  question,  the  solu- 
tion of  which  cannot  be  nearly  so  satisfactory. 
The  probability  is,  that  there  was  no  such 
renewal ;  and  this  opinion  rests  upon  the 
ground  that  natural  causes  were  now  sufficient 
to  accomplish  the  end  for  which  miracles  were 
originally  designed  ;  and  it  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  any  part  of  the  scheme  of  the  blessed 
Author  of  our  religion,  that,  solely  for  the 
purpose  of  hastening  that  conversion  of  the 
nations  which  might  gradually  be  accom- 
plished, miracles  should  be  wrought,  when 
these  could  be  of  no  use  in  establishing  after 
ages  in  the  faith. 

MIRACULOUS  CONCEPTION.  By  this 
is  meant,  that  the  human  nature  of  Jesus 
Christ  was  formed,  not  in  the  ordinary  method 
of  generation,  but  out  of  the  substance  of  the 
Virgin  Mary,  by  the  immediate  operation  of 
the  Holy  Ghost.  The  evidence  upon  which 
this  article  of  the  Christian  faith  rests  is  found 
in  Matt,  i,  18-23,  and  in  the  more  particular 
narration  which  St.  Luke  has  given  in  the 
first  chapter  of  his  Gospel.  If  we  admit  this 
evidence  of  the  fact,  we  can  discern  the  em- 
phatical  meaning  of  the  appellation  given  to 
our  Saviour  when  he  is  called  "  the  seed  of 
the  woman,"  Gen.  iii,  15 ;  we  can  perceive 
the  meaning  of  a  phrase  which  St.  Luke  has 
introduced  into  the  genealogy  of  Jesus,  Luke 
iii,  23,  and  of  which,  otherwise,  it  is  not  pos- 
sible to  give  a  good  account,  &»,  cis  ivofil^cTo, 
bids  'Iwtr^;  [being,  as  was  supposed,  the  son 
of  Joseph;]  and  we  can  discover  a  peculiar 
significancy  in  an  expression  of  the  Apostle 
Paul,  Gal.  iv,  4,  "  God  sent  forth  his  Son, 
made  of  a  woman."  The  conception  of  Jesus 
is  the  point  from  which  we  date  the  union 
between  his  divine  and  human  nature;  and, 
this  conception  being  miraculous,  the  exist- 
ence of  the  person  in  whom  they  are  united. 
was  not  physically  derived  from  Adam.  But, 
as  Dr.  Horsley  speaks  in  his  sermon  on  the 


MIR 


659 


MIS 


incarnation,  the  union  with  the  uncreated 
Word  is  the  very  principle  of  personality  and 
individual  existence  in  the  son  of  Mary. 
According  to  this  view  of  the  matter,  the 
miraculous  conception  gives  a  completeness 
and  consistency  to  the  revelation  concerning 
Jesus  Christ.  Not  only  is  he  the  Son  of  God, 
but,  as  the  Son  of  man,  he  is  exalted  above 
his  brethren,  while  he  is  made  like  them.  He 
is  preserved  from  the  contamination  adhering 
to  the  race  whose  nature  he  assumed ;  and 
when  the  only  begotten  Son,  who  is  in  the 
bosom  of  the  Father,  was  made  flesh,  the 
intercourse  which,  as  man,  he  had  with  God, 
is  distinguished,  not  in  degree  only,  but  in 
kind,  from  that  which  any  prophet  ever  en- 
joyed, and  it  is  infinitely  more  intimate,  because 
it  did  not  consist  in  communications  occasion- 
ally made  to  him,  but  arose  from  the  manner 
in  which  his  human  nature  bad  its  existence. 

MIRIAM,  sister  of  Moses  and  Aaron,  and 
daughter  of  Amram  and  Jochebed,  was  born 
about  A.  M.  2424.  She  might  be  ten  or  twelve 
years  old  when  her  brother  Moses  was  exposed 
on  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  since  Miriam  was 
watching  there,  and  offered  herself  to  Pha- 
raoh's daughter  to  fetch  her  a  nurse.  The 
princess  accepting  the  offer,  Miriam  fetched 
her  own  mother,  to  whom  the  young  Moses 
was  given  to  nurse,  Exod.  ii,  4,  5,  &c.  It  is 
thought  that  Miriam  married  Hur,  of  the  tribe 
of  Judah ;  but  it  does  not  appear  that  she  had 
any  children  by  him,  Exod.  xvii,  10,  11.  Mi- 
riam had  the  gift  of  prophecy,  as  she  intimates, 
Num.  xii,  2 :  "  Hath  the  Lord  indeed  spoken 
only  by  Moses  ?  hath  he  not  spoken  also  by 
us  '?"  After  the  passage  of  the  Red  Sea, 
Miriam  led  the  choirs  and  dances  of  the  wo- 
men, and  sung  with  them  the  canticle,  "  Sing 
ye  to  the  Lord,  for  he  hath  triumphed  glori- 
ously ;  the  horse  and  his  rider  hath  he  thrown 
into  the  sea :"  while  Moses  led  the  choir  of 
men,  Exod*  xv,  21.  When  Zipporah,  the 
wife  of  Moses,  arrived  in  the  camp  of  Israel, 
Miriam  and  Aaron  disputed  with  her,  speaking 
against  Moses  on  her  account,  Num.  xii.  This 
conduct  the  Lord  punished  by  visiting  Miriam 
with  a  leprosy.  Aaron  interceded  with  Moses 
for  her  recovery,  and  besought  the  Lord,  who 
ordered  her  to  be  shut  out  of  the  camp  seven 
days.  We  are  acquainted  with  no  subsequent 
particulars  of  the  life  of  Miriam.  Her  death 
happened  in  the  first  month  of  the  fortieth 
year  after  the  exodus,  at  the  encampment  of 
Kadesh  in  the  wilderness  of  Zin,  Num.  xx,  1. 
The  people  mourned  for  her,  and  she  was  there 
buried. 

MIRRORS,  usually,  but  improperly,  ren- 
dered looking-  glasses.  The  eastern  mirrors 
were  made  of  polished  metal,  and  for  the  most 
part  convex.  So  Callimachus  describes  Venus 
as  "  taking  the  shining  brass,"  that  is*  to  adjust 
her  hair.  If  they  were  thus  made  in  the  coun- 
try of  Elihu,  the  image  made  use  of  by  him 
will  appear  very  lively  :  "  Hast  thou  with  him 
spread  out  the  sky,  which  is  strong,  and  as  a 
molten  looking  glass  ?"  Job  xxxvii,  18.  Shaw 
informs  us  that  "  in  the  Levant,  looking  glasses 
are   a   part   of  female   dress.     The    Moorish  | 


women  in  Barbary  are  so  fond  of  their  orna- 
ments, and  particularly  of  their  looking  glasses, 
which  they  hang  upon  their  breasts,  that  they 
will  not  lay  them  aside,  even  when,  after  the 
drudgery  of  the  day,  they  are  obliged  to  go 
two  or  three  miles  with  a  pitcher  or  a  goat's 
skin,  to  fetch  water."  The  Israelitish  women 
used  to  carry  their  mirrors  with  thein,  even  to 
their  most  solemn  place  of  worship.  The 
word  mirror  should  be  used  in  the  passages 
here  referred  to.  To  speak  of  "looking 
glasses  made  of  steel,"  and  "  glasses  molten," 
is  palpably  absurd  ;  whereas  the  term  mirror 
obviates  every  difficulty,  and  expresses  the  true 
meaning  of  the  original. 

MISHNA,  or  MISNA,  rUiPD,  signifies  repe. 
titio72,  and  is  properly  the  code  of  the  Jewish 
civil  law.  The  Mishna  contains  the  text ;  and 
the  Gemara,  which  is  the  second  part  of  the 
Talmud,  contains  the  commentaries :  so  that 
the  Gemara  is,  as  it  were,  a  glossary  on  the 
Mishna.  The  Mishna  consists  of  various  tra- 
ditions of  the  Jews,  and  of  explanations  of 
several  passages  of  Scripture.  These  tradi- 
tions, serving  as  an  explication  of  the  written 
law,  and  supplementary  to  it,  are  said  to  have 
been  delivered  to  Moses  during  the  time  of  hia 
abode  upon  the  mount ;  which  he  afterward 
communicated  to  Aaron,  Eleazar,  and  his  serv- 
ant Joshua.  By  these  they  were  transmitted 
to  the  seventy  elders  ;  by  them  to  the  prophets, 
who  communicated  them  to  the  men  of  the 
great  sanhedrim,  from  whom  the  wise  men 
of  Jerusalem  and  Babylon  received  them. 
According  to  Dr.  Prideaux,  they  passed  from 
Jeremiah  to  Baruch,  from  him  to  Ezra,  and 
from  Ezra  to  the  men  of  the  great  synagogue, 
the  last  of  whom  was  Simon  the  Just,  who 
delivered  them  to  Antigonus  of  Socho.  From 
him  they  came  down  in  regular  succession  to 
Simeon,  who  took  our  Saviour  in  his  arms ; 
to  Gamaliel,  at  whose  feet  St.  Paul  was  brought 
up ;  and  last  of  all  to  rabbi  Judah  the  holy, 
who  committed  them  to  writing  in  the  Mishna. 
Dr.  Prideaux,  rejecting  this  Jewish  fiction, 
observes,  that  after  the  death  of  Simon  the 
Just,  about  B.  C.  299,  arose  the  Tannaim  or 
Mishnical  doctors,  who  by  their  comments  and 
conclusions,  added  to  the  number  of  those 
traditions  which  had  been  received  and  allowed 
by  Ezra  and  the  men  of  the  great  synagogue. 
Hence  toward  the  middle  of  the  second  cen- 
tury after  Christ,  under  the  reign  of  the  Roman 
Emperor  Antoninus  Pius,  it  was  found  neces- 
sary to  commit  these  traditions  to  writing.  This 
was  requisite,  because  the  traditions  had  been 
so  much  increased  that  they  could  no  longer 
be  preserved  by  the  memory  of  mart ;  and  also 
because  their  country  had  suffered  considerably 
in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Adrian,  and  many 
of  their  schools  being  dissolved,  and  their 
learned  men  cut  off,  the  usual  method  of 
preserving  their  traditions  had  failed.  Lest, 
therefore,  the  traditions  should  be  forgotten 
and  lost,  it  was  resolved  that  they  should  be 
collected  and  committed  to  writing.  Rabbi 
Judah,  who  was  at  that  time  rector  of  tho 
school  at  Tiberias  in  Galilee,  and  president  of 
the   sanhedrim  at  that   place,   undertook  the 


MIZ 


660 


MIZ 


work.  He  compiled  it  in  six  books,  each  con- 
sisting of  several  tracts,  which  altogether  form 
the  number  of  sixty-three.  Dr.  Prideaux  com- 
putes, that  the  Mishna  was  composed  about 
A.  D.  150.  Dr.  Lightfoot,  however,  says,  that 
rabbi  Judah  compiled  the  Mishna  about  A.  D. 
190,  in  the  latter  end  of  the  reign  of  Commo- 
dus ;  or,  as  some  compute,  A.  D.  220.  Dr. 
Lardner  is  of  opinion,  that  this  work  could  not 
have  been  finished  before  A.  D.  190,  or  later. 
Thus  the  book  called  the  Mishna  was  formed  ; 
a  book  which  was  received  by  the  Jews  with 
great  veneration,  and  which  has  been  always 
held  in  high  esteem  among  them.  Their  opi- 
nion of  it  is,  that  all  the  particulars  which  it 
contains  were  dictated  by  God  himself  to  Mo- 
ses upon  Mount  Sinai,  as  well  as  the  written 
word  itself;  and,  consequently,  that  it  must 
be  of  the  same  divine  authority,  and  ought  to 
be  as  religiously  observed.  See  Cabbala,  Ge- 
maka.  Jews. 

MITE.     See  Money. 

MITYLENE,  the  capital  of  the  island  of 
Lesbos,  through  which  St.  Paul  passed  as  he 
went  from  Corinth  to  Jerusalem,  Acts  xx,  14. 

MIZPAH,  or  MIZPEH,  a  city  of  the  tribe 
of  Benjamin,  situated  in  a  plain,  about  eigh. 
teen  miles  west  of  Jerusalem.  Here  Samuel 
dwelt;  and  here  he  called  Israel  together,  to 
observe  a  solemn  fast  for  their  sins,  and  to 
supplicate  God  for  his  assistance  against  the 
Philistines ;  after  which  they  sallied  out  on 
their  enemies,  already  discomfited  by  the  thun- 
ders of  heaven,  and  gave  them  a  total  defeat, 
1  Sam.  vii.  Here,  also,  Saul  was  anointed 
king,  1  Sam.  x,  17-25.  It  appears  that  be- 
tween this  and  the  time  of  Asa,  king  of  Judah, 
Mizpah  had  suffered  probably  in  some  of  the 
intervening  wars,  as  we  are  told  that  Asa  built 
it  with  the  stones  and  timber  of  Rainah, 
1  Kings  xv,  22.  There  was  another  Mizpeh 
in  Gilead ;  on  the  spot  where  Jacob  set  up  the 
pillar  or  heap  of  stones,  to  commemorate  the 
covenant  there  made  between  him  and  Laban, 
Gen.  xxxi,  49.  (See  Gilead.)  There  was  also 
a  third  Mizpeh,  in  the  land  of  Moab,  where 
David  placed  his  father  and  mother,  while  he 
remained  in  his  retreat  at  Adullam,  1  Sam. 
xxii,  3.  It  is  to  be  observed,  that  Mizpeh 
implies  a  beacon  or  watch  tower,  a  pillar  or 
heap  of  commemoration ;  and  at  all  the  places 
hearing  this  name,  it  is  probable  that  a  single 
pillar,  or  a  rude  pile,  was  erected  as  the  witness 
and  t  ho  record  of  some  particular  event. 
These,  subsequently,  became  altars  and  places 
of  convocation  on  public  occasions,  religious 
and  civil. 

MIZRAIM,  or  MESRAIM,  son  of  Ham, 
and  father  of  Ludim,  Anamim,  Lehabim, 
Naphtuhim,  Pathrusim,  and  Casluhim,  Gen. 
x,  6.  Meser  or  Misor  was  father  of  the 
Mizraim,  the  Egyptians  ;  and  he  himself  is 
commonly  called  Mizraim,  although  there  is 
very  strong  probability  that  Mizraim,  being  of 
the  plural  number,  signifies  rather  the  Egyp. 
I  ians  themselves,  than  the  father  of  that  people. 
Mizraim  is  also  put  for  the  country  of  Egypt: 
thii6  it  has  three  significations,  which  are  per- 
:ly  confounded  and  used  promiscuously, 


sometimes  denoting  the  land  of  Egypt,  some- 
times him  who  first  peopled  Egypt,  and  some- 
times the  inhabitants  themselves.  Cairo,  the 
capital  of  Egypt,  and  even  Egypt  itself,  are  to 
this  day  called  Mezer  by  the  Arabians.  But 
the  natives  call  Egypt  Chemi,  that  is,  the  land 
of  Cham,  or  Ham,  as  it  is  also  sometimes  called 
in  Scripture,  Psalm  lxxviii,  12  ;  cv,  23 ;  cvi,  22. 
The  Prophet  Micah,  vii,  15,  gives  to  Egypt 
the  name  of  Mezor,  or  Matzor ;  and  rabbi 
Kimchi,  followed  in  this  by  several  learned 
commentators,  explains  by  Egypt  what  is  said 
of  the  rivers  of  Mezor,  2  Kings  xix,  24 ;  Isaiah 
xix,  G ;  xxxvii,  25. 

Moab  was  the  son  of  Lot,  and  of  his  eldest 
daughter,  Gen.  xix,  31,  &c.  He  was  born 
about  the  same  time  as  Isaac,  A.  M.  2108,  and 
was  father  of  the  Moabites,  whose  habitation 
lay  beyond  Jordan  and  the  Dead  Sea,  on  both 
sides  of  the  river  Anion.  Their  capital  city 
was  situated  on  that  river,  and  was  called  Ar 
or  Areopolis,  or  Ariol  of  Moab,  or  Rabbah 
Moab,  that  is,  the  capital  of  Moab,  or  Kir- 
haresh,  that  is,  a  city  with  brick  walls.  This 
country  was  originally  possessed  by  a  race  of 
giants  called  Emim,  Deut.  ii,  11,  12.  The 
Moabites  conquered  them,  and  afterward  the 
Amorites  took  a  part  from  the  Moabites,  Judges 
xi,  13.  Moses  conquered  that  part  which 
belonged  to  the  Amorites,  and  gave  it  to  the 
tribe  of  Reuben.  The  Moabites  were  spared 
by  Moses,  for  God  had  restricted  him,  Deut. 
ii,  9.  But  there  always  was  a  great  antipa- 
thy between  the  Moabites  and  the  Israel- 
ites, which  occasioned  many  wars  between 
them.  Balaam  seduced  the  Hebrews  to  idola- 
try and  uncleanness,  by  means  of  the  daughters 
of  Moab,  Num.  xxv,  1,  2;  and  Balak,  king  of 
this  people,  endeavoured  to  prevail  on  Balaam 
to  curse  Israel.  God  ordained  that  the  Moabites 
should  not  enter  into  the  congregation  of  his 
people,  because  they  had  the  inhumanity  to 
refuse  the  Israelites  a  passage  through  their 
country,  nor  would  they  supply  them  with 
bread  and  water  in  their  necessity.  Eglon, 
king  of  the  Moabites,  was  one  of  the  first  that 
oppressed  Israel  after  the  death  of  Joshua. 
Ehud  killed  Eglon,  and  Israel  expelled  the 
Moabites,  Judges  iii,  12,  &c.  Hanun  king  of 
the  Ammonites  having  insulted  David's  am- 
bassadors, David  made  war  against  him,  and 
subdued  Moab  and  Amnion  ;  under  which  sub- 
jection they  continued  till  the  separation  of 
the  ten  tribes.  The  Ammonites  and  the 
Moabites  continued  in  subjection  to  the  kings 
of  Israel  to  the  death  of  Ahab.  Presently 
after  the  death  of  Ahab  the  Moabites  began  to 
revolt,  2  Kings  iii,  4,  5.  Mesha,  king  of  Moab, 
refused  the  tribute  of  a  hundred  thousand 
lambs,  and  as  many  rams,  which  till  then  had 
been  customarily  paid,  either  yearly,  or  at  the 
beginning  of  every  reign  ;  which  of  these  two 
is  not  clearly  expressed  in  Scripture.  The 
reign  of  Ahaziah  was  too  short  to  make  war 
with  them;  but  Jehoram,  son  of  Ahab,  and 
brother  to  Ahaziah,  having  ascended  the 
throne,  thought  of  reducing  them  to  obedience. 
He  invited  Jehoshaphat,  king  of  Judah,  who, 
with  the  king  of  Edom,  then  his  vassal,  en- 


MOA 


661 


MOA 


tered  Moab,  where  they  were  near  perishing 
with  thirst,  but  were  miraculously  relieved, 
2  Kings  iii,  16,  &c. 

It  is  not  easy  to  ascertain  what  were  the 
circumstances  of  the  Moabites  from  this  time  ; 
but  Isaiah,  at  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of 
King  Hezekiah,  threatens  them  with  a  calami- 
ty, which  was  to  happen  three  years  after  his 
prediction,  and  which  probably  referred  to  the 
war  that  Shalmaneser,  king  of  Assyria,  made 
with  the  ten  tribes  and  the  other  people  be- 
yond Jordan.  Amos,  i,  13,  &c,  also  foretold 
great  miseries  to  them,  which,  probably,  they 
suffered  under  Uzziah  and  Jothan,  kings  of  Ju- 
dah,  or  under  Shalmaneser,  2  Chron.  xxvi,  7,  8 ; 
xxvii,  5 ;  or,  lastly,  in  the  war  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, five  years  after  the  destruction  of  Je- 
rusalem. This  prince  carried  them  captive 
beyond  the  Euphrates,  as  the  prophets  had 
threatened,  Jer.  ix,  20;  xii,  14,  15;  xxv,  11, 
12  ;  xlviii,  -17,  &c ;  xlix,  3,  6,  39 ;  1,  16 ;  and 
Cyrus  sent  them  home  again,  as  he  did  the  rest 
of  the  captives.  After  their  return  from  cap- 
tivity they  multiplied,  and  fortified  themselves, 
as  the  Jews  did,  and  other  neighbouring  peo- 
ple, still  in  subjection  to  the  kings  of  Persia. 
They  were  afterward  conquered  by  Alexander 
the  Great,  and  were  in  obedience  to  the  kings 
of  Syria  and  Egypt  successively,  and  finally  to 
the  Romans.  There  is  a  probability,  also,  that 
in  the  later  times  of  the  Jewish  republic  they 
obeyed  the  Asmonean  kings,  and  afterward 
Herod  the  Great.  The  principal  deities  of  the 
Moabites  were  Chemosh  and  Baal-peor. 

The  prophecies  concerning  Moab  are  nu- 
merous and  remarkable.  There  are,  says  Keith, 
abundant  predictions  which  refer  so  clearly  to 
its  modern  state,  that  there  is  scarcely  a  single 
feature  peculiar  to  the  land  of  Moab,  as  it  now 
exists,  which  was  not  marked  by  the  prophets 
in  their  delineation  of  the  low  condition  to 
which,  from  the  height  of  its  wickedness  and 
haughtiness,  it  was  finally  to  be  brought  down. 

The  land  of  Moab  lay  to  the  east  and  south- 
east of  Judea,  and  bordered  on  the  east,  north- 
east, and  partly  on  the  south  of  the  Dead  Sea. 
Its  early  history  is  nearly  analogous  to  that 
of  Amnion  ;  and  the  soil,  though  perhaps  more 
diversified,  is,  in  many  places  where  the  desert 
and  plains  of  salt  have  not  encroached  on  its 
borders,  of  equal  fertility.  There  are  manifest 
and  abundant  vestiges  of  its  ancient  greatness  : 
the  whole  of  the  plains  are  covered  with  the 
sites  of  towns,  on  every  eminence  or  spot  con- 
venient for  the  construction  of  one  ;  and  as  the 
land  is  capable  of  rich  cultivation,  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  the  country  now  so  deserted 
once  presented  a  continued  picture  of  plenty 
and  fertility.  The  form  of  fields  is  still  visible  ; 
and  there  are  the  remains  of  Roman  highways, 
which  in  some  places  are  completely  paved, 
and  on  which  there  are  mile  stones  of  the  times 
of  Trajan,  Marcus  Aurelius,  and  Severus,  with 
the  number  of  the  miles  legible  upon  them. 
Wherever  any  spot  is  cultivated  the  corn  is 
luxuriant ;  and  the  riches  of  the  soil  cannot 
perhaps  be  more  clearly  illustrated  than  by  the 
fact,  that  one  grain  of  Heshbon  wheat  exceeds 
in  dimensions  two  of  the  ordinary  sort,  and 


more  than  double  the  number  of  grains  grow 
on  the  stalk.     The  frequency,  and  almost,  in 
many  instances,  the  close  vicinity  of  the  sites 
of  the  ancient  towns,  prove  that  the  popula- 
tion of  the  country  was  formerly  proportioned 
to  its  natural  fertility.      Such  evidence  may 
surely  suffice  to  prove  that  the   country  was 
well  cultivated  and  peopled  at  a  period  so  long 
posterior  to  the  date  of  the  predictions,  that  no 
cause  less  than  supernatural  could  have  exist- 
ed at  the  time  when  they  were  delivered,  which 
could  have  authorized  the  assertion  with  the 
least  probability  or  apparent  possibility  of  its 
truth,  that  Moab  would  ever  have  been  reduced 
to  that  state  of  great  and  permanent  desolation 
in  which  it  has  continued  for  so  many  ages, 
and  which  vindicates  and  ratifies  to  this  hour 
the  truth  of  the  Scriptural  prophecies.      The 
cities  of  Moab  were  to  be  "  desolate  without 
any  to  dwell  therein  ;"  no  city  was  to  escape  : 
Moab  was  to  "  flee  away."     And  the  cities  of 
Moab  have  all  disappeared.     Their  place,  to- 
gether with  the  adjoining  part  of  idumea,  is 
characterized,  in  the  map  of  Volney's  Travels, 
by  the  ruins  of  towns.      His  information  re- 
specting these  ruins  was  derived  from  some  of 
the  wandering  Arabs ;    and  its   accuracy  has 
been  fully  corroborated  by  the  testimony  of 
different  European  travellers  of  high  respecta- 
bility and  undoubted  veracity,  who  have  since 
visited   this    devastated   region.      The  whole 
country  abounds  with  ruins ;  and  Burckhardt, 
who  encountered  many  difficulties  in  so  deso- 
late and  dangerous   a  land,  thus  records  the 
brief  history  of  a  few  of  them  :  "  The  ruins  of 
Eleale,  Heshbon,  Meon,  Medaba,  Dibon,  Aroer, 
still  subsist  to  illustrate  the  history  of  the  Beni 
Israel."     And  it  might  with  equal  truth  have 
been  added,  that  they  still  subsist  to  confirm 
the  inspiration  of  the  Jewish  Scriptures,  or  to 
prove  that  the  seers  of  Israel  were  the  prophets 
of  God ;  for  the  desolation  of  each  of  these 
very  cities  was  a  theme  of  a  prediction.    Every 
thing  worthy  of  observation  respecting  them 
has  been  detailed,    not  only  in  Burckhardt's 
"  Travels  in  Syria,"  but  also  by  Seetzen,  and, 
more  recently,  by  Captains  Irby  and  Mangles, 
who,  along  with  Mr.  Bankes  and  Mr.  Leigh, 
visited  this   deserted   district.     The  predicted 
judgment  has  fallen  witli  such  truth  upon  these 
cities,  and  upon  all  the  cities  of  the  land  of 
Moab  far  and  near,  and  they  are  so  utterly 
"broken  down,"  that  even  the  prying  curiosi- 
ty of  such  indefatigable  travellers  could  dis- 
cover among  a  multiplicity  of  ruins  only  a  few 
remains  so  entire  as  to  be  worthy  of  particular 
notice.      The  subjoined  description  is  drawn 
from  their  united  testimony  :  Among  the  ruins 
of  El  Aal  (Eleale)  are  a  number  of  large  cis- 
terns, fragments  of  buildings,  and  foundations 
of  houses.     At  Heshban,  (Heshbon,)  are  the 
ruins  of  a  large  ancient  town,  together  with 
the  remains  of  a  temple,  and  some  edifices. 
A  few  broken  6hafts  of  columns  are  si  ill  stand- 
ing ;  and  there  are  a  number  of  deep  wells  cut 
in  the  rock.     The  ruins  of  Medeba  are  about 
two  miles  in  circumference.     There  are  many 
remains  of  the  walls  of  private  houses  con- 
structed with  blocks  of  silex,  but  not  a  single 


MOA 


662 


MOA 


edifice  is  standing.  The  chief  object  of  inte- 
rest is  an  immense  tank  or  cistern  of  hewn 
stones,  "  which,  as  there  is  no  stream  at  Me- 
deba,"  Burckhardt  remarks,  "  might  still  be 
of  use  to  the  Bedouins,  were  the  surrounding' 
ground  cleared  of  the  rubbish  to  allow  the  wa- 
ter to  flow  into  it ;  but  such  an  undertaking  is 
far  beyond  the  views  of  the  wandering  Arabs." 
There  is  also  the  foundation  of  a  temple  built 
with  large  stones,  and  apparently  of  great  an- 
tiquity, with  two  columns  near  it.  The  ruins 
of  Diban,  (Dibon,)  situated  in  the  midst  of  a 
fine  plain,  are  of  considerable  extent,  but  pre- 
sent nothing  of  interest.  The  neighbouring 
hot  wells,  and  the  similarity  of  the  name, 
identify  the  ruins  of  Myoun  with  Meon,  or 
Beth  Meon  of  Scripture.  Of  this  ancient  city, 
as  well  as  of  Araayr,  (Areor,)  nothing  is  now 
remarkable  but  what  is  common  to  them  with 
all  the  cities  of  Moab,  their  entire  desolation. 
The  extent  of  the  ruins  of  Rabba,  (Rabbath 
Moab,)  formerly  the  residence  of  the  kings  of 
Moab,  sufficiently  proves  its  ancient  import- 
ance ;  though  no  other  object  can  be  particular- 
ized among  the  ruins,  than  the  remains  of  a 
palace  or  temple,  some  of  the  walls  of  which 
are  still  standing,  a  gate  belonging  to  another 
building,  and  an  insulated  altar.  There  are 
many  remains  of  private  buildings,  but  none 
of  them  is  entire.  There  being  no  springs  on 
the  spot,  the  town  had  two  birkets,  the  largest 
of  which  js  cut  entirely  out  of  the  rocky 
ground,  together  with  many  cisterns.  Mount 
Nebo  was  completely  barren  when  Burckhardt 
passed  over  it,  and  the  site  of  the  ancient  city 
had  not  been  ascertained.  "  Nebo  is  spoiled." 
While  the  ruins  of  all  these  cities  still  retain 
their  ancient  names,  and  are  the  most  conspi- 
cuous amidst  the  wide  scene  of  general  desola- 
tion, and  while  each  of  them  was  in  like  man- 
ner particularized  in  the  visions  of  the  prophet, 
they  yet  formed  but  a  small  number  of  the 
cities  of  Moab  ;  and  the  rest  are  also,  in  simi- 
lar verification  of  the  prophecies,  "  desolate, 
without  any  to  dwell  therein."  None  of  the 
ancient  cities  of  Moab  now  remain  as  tenanted 
by  men.  Kerek,  which  neither  bears  any  re- 
semblance in  name  to  any  of  the  cities  of  Moab 
which  are  mentioned  as  existing  in  the  time 
of  the  Israelites,  nor  possesses  any  monuments 
which  denote  a  very  remote  antiquity,  is  the 
only  nominal  town  in  the  whole  country,  and, 
in  the  words  of  Seetzen,  who  visited  it,  "  in 
its  present  ruined  state  it  can  only  be  called  a 
hamlet ;  and  the  houses  have  only  one  floor." 
But  the  most  populous  and  fertile  province  in 
Europe,  especially  any  situated  in  the  interior 
of  a  country  like  Moab,  is  not  covered  so 
thickly  with  towns  as  Moab  is  plentiful  in 
ruins,  deserted  and  desolate  though  now  it  be. 
Burckhardt  enumerates  about  fifty  ruined  sites 
within  its  boundaries,  many  of  them  extensive. 
In  general  they  are  a  broken  down  and  undis- 
tinguishable  mass  of  ruins  ;  and  many  of  them 
have  not  been  closely  inspected.  But,  in  some 
instances,  there  are  the  remains  of  temples, 
sepulchral  monuments ;  the  ruins  of  edifices 
constructed  of  very  large  stones,  in  one  of 
which  buijldings  some  of  the  stones  are  twenty 


feet  in  length,  and  so  broad  that  one  consti. 
tutes  the  thickness  of  the  wall ;  traces  of  hang- 
ing gardens ;  entire  columns  lying  on  the 
ground,  three  feet  in  diameter,  and  fragments 
of  smaller  columns  ;  and  many  cisterns  out  of 
the  rock.  When  the  towns  of  Moab  existed  in 
their  prime,  and  were  at  ease ;  when  arro. 
gance,  and  haughtiness,  and  pride  prevailed 
among  them ;  the  desolation,  and  total  deser- 
tion and  abandonment  of  them  all,  must  have 
utterly  surpassed  all  human  conception.  And 
that  such  numerous  cities  which  subsisted  for 
many  ages,  some  of  them  being  built  on  emi- 
nences, and  naturally  strong  ;  others  on  plains, 
and  surrounded  by  the  richest  soil ;  some  situ- 
ated in  valleys  by  the  side  of  a  plentiful 
stream ;  and  others  where  art  supplied  the  de- 
ficiencies of  nature,  and  where  immense  cis- 
terns were  excavated  out  of  the  rock,  and 
which  exhibit  in  their  ruins  many  monuments 
of  ancient  prosperity,  and  many  remains  easily 
convertible  into  present  utility  ;  should  have 
all  fled  away,  all  met  the  same  indiscriminate 
fate,  and  be  all  "  desolate,  without  any  to  dwell 
therein,"  notwithstanding  all  these  ancient  in- 
dications of  permanent  durability,  and  their 
existing  facilities  and  inducements  for  becom- 
ing the  habitations  of  men,  is  a  matter  of  just 
wonder  in  the  present  day.  "  They  shall  cry 
of  Moab,  How  is  it  broken  down  !" 

The  strong  contrast  between  the  ancient 
and  the  actual  state  of  Moab  is  exemplified  in 
the  condition  of  the  inhabitants  as  well  as  of 
the  land ;  and  the  coincidence  between  the 
prediction  and  the  fact  is  as  striking  in  the  one 
case  as  in  the  other.  "  The  days  come,  saith 
the  Lord,  that  I  will  send  unto  him  (Moab) 
wanderers  that  shall  cause  him  to  wander,  and 
shall  empty  his  vessels."  The  Bedouin  (wan- 
dering) Arabs  are  now  the  chief  and  almost 
the  only  inhabitants  of  a  country  once  studded 
with  cities.  Traversing  the  country,  and  .fix- 
ing their  tents  for  a  short  time  in  one  place, 
and  then  decamping  to  another,  depasturing 
every  part  successively,  and  despoiling  the 
whole  land  of  its  natural  produce,  they  are 
wanderers  wTho  have  come  up  against  it,  and 
who  keep  it  in  a  state  of  perpetual  desolation. 
They  lead  a  wandering  life ;  and  the  only  re- 
gularity they  know  or  practise,  is  to  act  upon 
a  systematic  schemo  of  spoliation.  They  pre- 
vent any  from  forming  a  fixed  settlement  who 
are  inclined  to  attempt  it;  for  although  the 
fruitfulness  of  the  soil  would  abundantly  repay 
the  labour  of  settlers,  and  render  migration 
wholly  unnecessary,  even  if  the  population 
were  increased  more  than  tenfold  ;  yet  the  Be- 
douins forcibly  deprive  them  of  the  means  of 
subsistence,  compel  them  to  search  for  it  else- 
where, and,  in  the  words  of  the  prediction, 
literally  "  cause  them  to  wander."  "  It  may 
be  remarked  generally  of  the  Bedouins,"  says 
Burckhardt,  in  describing  their  extortions  in 
this  very  country,  "that  wherever  they  are 
the  masters  ofthe  cultivators,  the  latter  are 
soon  reduced  to  beggary  by  their  unceasing 
demands."  "O  ye  that  dwell  in  Moab,  leave 
the  cities  and  dwell  in  the  rock,  and  be  like 
the  dove  that  maketh  her  nest  in  the  sides  of 


MOL. 


663 


MON 


the  hole's  mouth."  In  a  general  description 
of  the  condition  of  the  inhabitants  of  that  ex- 
tensive  desert  which  now  occupies  the  place  of 
these  ancient  flourishing  states,  Volney  in 
plain  but  unmeant  illustration  of  this  predic- 
tion, remarks,  that  the  "  wretched  peasants 
live  in  perpetual  dread  of  losing  the  fruit  of 
their  labours  ;  and  no  sooner  have  they  gather- 
ed in  their  harvest,  than  they  hasten  to  secrete 
it  in  private  places,  and  retire  among  the  rocks 
which  border  on  the  Dead  Sea."  Toward  the 
opposite  extremity  of  the  land  of  Moab,  and  at 
a  little  distance  from  its  borders,  Seetzen  re- 
lates, that  "  there  are  many  families  living  in 
caverns ;"  and  he  actually  designates  them  "  the 
inhabitants  of  the  rocks."  And  at  the  distance 
of  a  few  miles  from  the  ruined  site  of  Hesh- 
bon,  according  to  Captains  Irby  and  Mangles, 
"  there  are  many  artificial  caves  in  a  large 
range  of  perpendicular  cliffs,  in  some  of  which 
are  chambers  and  small  sleeping  apartments." 
While  the  cities  are  desolate,  without  any  to 
dwell  therein,  the  rocks  are  tenanted.  But 
whether  flocks  lie  down  in  the  city  without 
any  to  make  them  afraid,  or  whether  men  are 
to  be  found  dwelling  in  the  rocks,  and  are 
"  like  the  dove  that  maketh  her  nest  in  the 
sides  of  the  hole's  mouth,"  the  wonderfid  tran- 
sition, in  either  case,  and  the  close  accordance, 
in  both,  of  the  fact  to  the  prediction,  assuredly 
mark  it  in  characters  that  may  be  visible  to  the 
purblind  mind,  as  the  word  of  that  God  before 
whom  the  darkness  of  futurity  is  as  light,  and 
without  whom  a  sparrow  cannot  fall  unto  the 
ground. 

MOLE.  This  word,  in  our  version  of  Lev. 
xi,  30,  answers  to  the  word  DDB'jn,  which 
Bochart  has  shown  to  be  the  cameleon ;  but 
he  conjectures,  with  great  propriety,  that 
l1?!"!,  translated  "  weasel,"  in  the  preceding 
verse,  is  the  true  word  for  the  mole.  The 
present  name  of  the  mole  in  the  east  is  khuld, 
which  is  undeniably  the  same  word  as  the 
Hebrew  choled.  The  import  of  the  Hebrew 
word  is,  "  to  creep  into,"  and  the  same  Syriac 
word  implies,  "  to  creep  underneath,"  to  creep 
into  by  burrowing ;  which  are  well  known 
characteristics  of  the  mole. 

MOLOCH,  -|SD,  signifies  king.  Moloch, 
Molech,  Milcom,  or  Melchom,  was  a  god  of 
the  Ammonites.  The  word  Moloch  signifies 
"  king,"  and  Melchom  signifies  "  their  king." 
Moses  in  several  places  forbids  the  Israelites, 
under  the  penalty  of  death,  to  dedicate  their 
children  to  Moloch,  by  making  them  pass 
through  the  fire  in  honour  of  that  god,  Lev. 
xviii,  21 ;  xx,  2-5.  God  himself  threatens  to 
pour  out  his  wrath  against  such  offenders. 
There  is  great  probability  that  the  Hebrews 
were  addicted  to  the  worship  of  this  deity, 
even  before  their  coming  out  of  Egypt;  since 
the  Prophet  Amos,  v,  26,  and  after  him  St. 
Stephen,  reproach  them  with  having  carried 
in  the  wilderness  the  tabernacle  of  their  god 
Moloch,  Acts  vii,  43.  Solomon  built  a  temple 
to  Moloch  upon  the  Mount  of  Olivos,  1  Kings 
xi,  7;  and  Manasseh  along  time  after  imitated 
his  impiety,  making  his  son  pass  through  the 
fire  in  honour  of  Moloch,  2  Kings  xxi,  3-6. 


It  was  chiefly  in  the  valley  of  Tophet  and 
Hinnom,  east  of  Jerusalem,  that  this  idolatrous 
worship  was  paid,  Jer.  xix,  5,  6,  &c.  Some 
are  of  opinion  that  they  contented  themselves 
with  making  their  children  leap  over  a  fire 
sacred  to  Moloch,  by  which  they  consecrated 
them  to  some  false  deity :  and  by  this  lustra- 
tion purified  them ;  this  being  a  usual  cere- 
mony among  the  Heathens  on  other  occasions. 
Some  believe  that  they  made  them  pass 
through  two  fires  opposite  to  each  other,  for 
the  same  purpose.  But  the  word  "vajjn,  "to 
cause  to  pass  through,"  and  the  phrase  "  to 
cause  to  pass  through  the  fire,"  are  used  in 
respect  to  human  sacrifices  in  Deut.  xii,  31  ; 
xviii,  10;  2  Kings  xvi,  3;  xxi,  6;  2  Chron. 
xxviii,  3 ;  xxxiii,  6.  These  words  are  not  to 
be  considered  as  meaning  in  these  instances 
literally  to  pass  through,  and  that  alone. 
They  are  rather  synonymous  with  rpe>,  to 
burn,  and  ror,  to  immolate,  with  which  they 
are  interchanged,  as  may  be  seen  by  an  exami- 
nation of  Jer.  vii,  31 ;  xix,  5 ;  Ezek.  xvi,  20, 
21 ;  Psalm  cvi,  38.  In  the  later  periods  of 
the  Jewish  kingdom,  this  idol  was  erected  in 
the  valley  south  of  Jerusalem,  namely,  in  the 
valley  of  Hinnom,  and  in  the  part  of  that 
valley  called  Tophet,  ncn,  so  named  from  the 
drums,  r|n  CJiDn,  which  were  beaten  to  prevent 
the  groans  and  cries  of  children  sacrificed  from 
being  heard,  Jer.  vii,  31,  32  ;  xix,  6-14 ;  Isaiah 
xxx,  33  ;  2  Kings  xxiii,  10.  The  place  was  so 
abhorrent  to  the  minds  of  the  more  recent 
Jews,  that  they  applied  the  name  ge  hinnom 
or  gehenna  to  the  place  of  torments  in  a  future 
life.  The  word  gehenna  is  used  in  this  way, 
namely,  for  the  place  of  punishment  beyond 
the  grave,  very  frequently  in  oriental  writers, 
as  far  as  India.  There  are  various  sentiments 
about  the  relation  that  Moloch  had  to  the 
other  Pagan  divinities.  Some  believe  that 
Moloch  was  the  same  as  Saturn,  to  whom 
it  is  well  known  that  human  sacrifices  were 
offered ;  others  think  it  was  the  same  with 
Mercury ;  others,  Venus ;  others,  Mars,  or 
Mithra.  Calmet  has  endeavoured  to  prove 
that  Moloch  signified  the  sun,  or  the  king  of 
heaven. 

MONEY.  Scripture  often  speaks  of  gold, 
silver,  brass,  of  certain  sums  of  money,  of 
purchases  made  with  money,  of  current  money, 
of  money  of  a  certain  weight ;  but  we  do  not 
observe  coined  or  stamped  money  till  a  late 
period;  which  makes  it  probable  that  the  an. 
cient  Hebrews  took  gold  and  silver  only  by 
weight ;  that  they  only  considered  the  purity 
of  the  metal,  and  not  the  stamp.  The  most 
ancient  commerce  was  conducted  by  barter, 
or  exchanging  one  sort  of  merchandise  for 
another.  One  man  gave  what  he  could  spare 
to  another,  who  gave  him  in  return  part  of 
his  superabundance,  Afterward,  the  more 
precious  metals  were  used  in  traffic,  as  a  value 
more  generally  known  and  fixed.  Lastly,  they 
gave  this  metal,  by  public  authority,  a  certain 
mark,  a  certain  weight,  and  a  certain  degree 
of  alloy,  to  fix  its  value,  and  to  save  buyers 
and  sellers  the  trouble  of  weighing  and  exam- 
ining the  coins.     At  the  siege  of  Troy  in  Ho. 


MON 


664 


MOK 


mer,  no  reference  is  made  to  gold  or  silver 
coined ;  but  the  value  of  things  is  estimated 
by  the  number  of  oxen  they  were  worth.  For 
instance  :  they  bought  wine,  by  exchanging 
oxen,  slaves,  skins,  iron,  &c,  for  it.  When 
the  Greeks  first  used  money,  it  was  only  little 
pieces  of  iron  or  copper,  called  oboli  or  spits, 
of  which  a  handful  was  a  drachma,  says  Plu- 
tarch. Herodotus  thinks  that  the  Lydians 
were  the  first  that  stamped  money  of  gold  or 
silver,  and  introduced  it  into  commerce. 
Others  say  it  was  Ishon,  king  of  Thessaly,  a 
son  of  Deucalion.  Others  ascribe  this  honour 
to  Erichthonius,  who  had  been  educated  by 
the  daughters  of  Cecrops,  king  of  Athens : 
others,  again,  to  Phidori,  king  of  Argos. 
Among  the  Persians  it  is  said  Darius,  son  of 
Hystaspes,  first  coined  golden  money.  Lycur- 
gus  banished  gold  and  silver  from  his  common- 
wealth of  Lacedaemon,  and  only  allowed  a 
rude  sort  of  money,  made  of  iron.  Janus,  or 
rather  the  kings  of  Rome,  made  a  kind  of 
gross  money  of  copper,  having  on  one  side 
the  double  face  of  Janus,  on  the  other  the 
prow  of  a  ship.  We  find  nothing  concerning 
the  money  of  the  Egyptians,  Phenicians,  Ara- 
bians, or  Syrians,  before  Alexander  the  Great. 
In  China,  to  this  day,  they  stamp  no  money 
of  gold  or  silver,  but  only  of  copper.  Gold 
and  silver  pass  as  merchandise.  If  gold  or 
silver  be  offered,  they  take  it  and  pay  it  by 
weight,  as  other  goods :  so  that  they  are 
obliged  to  cut  it  into  pieces  with  shears  for 
that  purpose,  and  they  carry  a  steel  yard  at 
their  girdles  to  weigh  it. 

But  to  return  to  tho  Hebrews.  Abraham 
weighed  out  lour  hundred  shekels  of  silver,  to 
purchase  Sarah's  tomb,  Genesis  xxiii,  15,  16 ; 
and  Scripture  observes  that  he  paid  tnis  in 
"current  money  with  the  merchant."  Joseph 
was  sold  by  his  brethren  to  the  Midianites  for 
twenty  pieces  (in  Hebrew  twenty  shekels)  of 
silver,  Gen.  xxxvii,  28.  The  brethren  of  Jo- 
seph bring  back  with  them  into  Egypt  the 
money  they  found  in  their  sacks,  in  the  same 
weight  as  before,  Gen.  xliii,  21  The  brace- 
lets that  Eliezer  gave  Rebekah  weighed  ten 
shekels,  and  the  ear  rings  two  shekels,  Gen. 
xxiv,  22.  Moses  ordered  that  the  weight  of 
five  hundred  shekels  of  myrrh,  and  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty  shekels  of  cinnamon,  of  the 
weight  of  the  sanctuary,  should  be  taken,  to 
make  the  perfume  which  was  to  be  burnt  to 
the  Lord  on  the  golden  altar,  Exod.  xxx,  2-1. 
He  acquaints  us  that  the  Israelites  offered  for 
the  works  of  the  tabernacle  seventy-two  thou- 
sand talents  of  brass,  Exod.  xxxviii,  29.  We 
read,  in  the  books  of  Samuel,  that  the  weight 
of  Absalom's  hair  was  two  hundred  shekels  of 
the  ordinary  weight,  or  of  the  king's  weight, 
2  Sam.  xiv,  26.  Isaiah,  xlvi,  6,  describes  the 
wicked  as  weighing  silver  in  a  balance,  to 
make  an  idol  of  it;  and  Jeremiah,  xxxii,  10, 
weighs  seventeen  pieces  of  silver  in  a  pair  of 
scales,  to  pay  for  a  field  he  had  bought.  Isaiah 
Bays,  "  Come,  buy  wine  and  milk  without 
money  and  without  price.  Wherefore  do  ye 
weigh  monoy  for  that  which  is  not  bread?' 
Amos,  viii,  5,  represents  the  merchants  as  en- 


couraging one  another  to  make  i,he  ephah 
small,  wherewith  to  sell,  and  the  shekel  great, 
wherewith  to  buy,  and  to  falsify  the  balances 
by  deceit. 

In  all  these  passages  three  things  only  are 
mentioned :  1.  The  metal,  that  is,  gold  or 
silver,  and  never  copper,  that  not  being  used 
in  traffic  as  money.  2.  The  weight,  a  talent, 
a  shekel,  a  gerah  or  obolus,  the  weight  of  the 
sanctuary,  and  the  king's  weight.  3.  Tho 
alloy  (standard)  of  pure  or  fine  gold  and  silver, 
and  of  good  quality,  as  received  by  the  mer- 
chant. The  impression  of  the  coinage  is  not 
referred  to ;  but  it  is  said  they  weighed  the 
silver,  or  other  commodities,  by  the  shekel 
and  by  the  talent.  This  shekel,  therefore,  and 
this  talent,  were  not  fixed  and  determined 
pieces  of  money,  but  weights  applied  to  things 
used  in  commerce.  Hence  those  deceitful 
balances  of  the  merchants,  who  would  increase 
the  shekel,  that  is,  would  augment  the  weight 
by  which  they  weighed  the  gold  and  silver 
they  were  to  receive,  that  they  might  have  a 
greater  quantity  than  was  their  due ;  hence 
the  weight  of  the  sanctuary,  the  standard  of 
which  was  preserved  in  the  temple  to  prevent 
fraud ;  hence  those  prohibitions  in  the  law, 
"Thou  shalt  not  have  in  thy  bag  divers 
weights,"  in  Hebrew,  stones,  '.'  a  great  and  a 
small,"  Deut.  xxv,  13  ;  hence  those  scales  that 
the  Hebrews  wore  at  their  girdles,  Hosea  xii, 
7,  and  the  Canaanites  carried  in  their  hands, 
to  weigh  the  gold  and  silver  which  they  re- 
ceived in  payment.  It  is  true  that  in  the 
Hebrew  we  find  Jacob  bought  a  field  for  a 
hundred  kesitahs,  Gen.  xxxiii,  19 ;  and  that 
the  friends  of  Job,  after  his  recovery,  gave  to 
that  model  of  patience  each  a  kesitah,  and  a 
golden  pendant  for  the  ears,  Job  xlii,  11.  We 
also  find  there  darics,  (in  Hebrew,  darcmonim 
or  adarcmonim,)  and  mince,  staterce,  oboli;  but 
this  last  kind  of  money  was  foreign,  and  is  put 
for  other  terms,  which  in  the  Hebrew  only 
signifies  the  weight  of  the  metal.  The  kesitah 
is  not  well  known  to  us :  some  take  it  for  a 
sheep  or  a  lamb ;  others,  for  a  kind  of  money, 
having  the  impression  of  a  lamb  or  a  sheep  : 
but  it  was  more  probably  a  purse  of  money. 
The  darcmonhn  or  darics  are  money  of  the 
kings  of  Persia  ;  and  it  is  agreed  that  Darius, 
son  of  Hystaspes,  first  coined  golden  money. 
Ezekiel,  xlv,  12,  tells  us  that  the  mina  makes 
fifty  shekels :  he  reduces  this  foreign  money 
to  the  weight  of  the  Hebrews  The  mina 
might  probably  be  a  Persian  money  originally, 
and  adopted  by  the  Greeks  and  by  the  Hebrews. 
But  under  the  dominion  of  the  Persians,  the 
Hebrews  were  hardly  at  liberty  to  coin  money 
of  their  own,  being  in  subjection  to  those 
princes,  and  very  low  in  their  own  country. 
They  were  still  less  able  under  the  Chaldeans, 
during  the  Babylonish  captivity  ;  or  afterward 
under  the  Grecians,  to  whom  they  were  sub- 
ject till  the  time  of  Simon  Maccabreus,  to 
whom  Antiochus  Sidetes,  king  of  Syria,  grant- 
ed the  privilege  of  coining  monoy  in  Judea, 
1  Mac.  xv,  6.  And  this  is  the  first  Hebrew 
money,  properly  so  called,  that  we  know  of 
There  were  shekels  and  demi-shekels,  also  the 


MON 


665 


MON 


third  part  of  a  shekel,  and  a  quarter  of  a 
shekel,  of  silver. 

The  shekel  of  silver,  or  the  silverlmg,  Isa. 
vii,  23,  originally  weighed  three  hundred  and 
twenty  barleycorns ;  but  it  was  afterward  in- 
creased  to  three  hundred  and  eighty-four  bar- 
leycorns, its  value,  being  considered  equal  to 
four  Roman  denarii,  was  two  shillings  and 
seven  pence,  or,  according  to  Bishop  Cumber- 
land, two  shillings  and  four  pence  farthing. 
It  is  said  to  have  had  Aaron's  rod  on  the  one 
side,  and  the  pot  of  manna  on  the  other.  The 
bekah  was  equal  to  half  a  shekel,  Exod.  xxxviii, 
26.  The  denarius  was  one-fourth  of  a  shekel, 
seven  pence  three  farthings  of  our  money. 
The  gerah,  or  meah,  Exod.  xxx,  13,  was  the 
sixth  part  of  the  denarius,  or  diner,  and  the 
twenty-fourth  part  of  the  shekel.  The  assar, 
or  assarion,  Matt,  x,  29,  was  the  ninety-sixth 
part  of  a  shekel :  its  value  was  rather  more 
than  a  farthing.  The  farthing,  Matt,  v,  26, 
was  in  value  the  thirteenth  part  of  a  penny 
sterling.  The  mite  was  the  half  of  a  farthing, 
or  the  twenty-sixth  part  of  a  penny  sterling. 
The  mina,  or  maneh,  Ezek.  xlv,  12,  was  equal 
to  sixty  shekels,  which,  taken  at  two  shillings 
and  seven  pence,  was  seven  pounds  fifteen 
shillings.  The  talent  was  fifty  minas  ;  and 
its  value,  therefore,  three  hundred  and  eighty- 
seven  pounds  ten  shillings.  The  gold  coins 
were  as  follows  :  a  shekel  of  gold  was  about 
fourteen  and  a  half  times  the  value  of  silver, 
that  is,  one  pound  seventeen  shillings  and  five 
pence  halfpenny.  A  talent  of  gold  consisted 
of  three  thousand  shekels.  The  drachma  was 
equal  to  a  Roman  denarius,  or  seven  pence 
three  farthings  of  our  money.  The  didrachma, 
or  tribute  money,  Matt,  xvii,  24,  was  equal  to 
fifteen  pence  halfpenny.  It  is  said  to  have 
been  stamped  with  a  harp  on  one  side,  and  a 
vine  on  the  other.  The  stater,  or  piece  of 
money  which  Peter  found  in  the  fish's  mouth, 
Matt,  xvii,  27,  was  two  half  shekels.  A  daric, 
dram,  1  Chron.  xxix,  7 ;  Ezra  viii,  27,  was  a 
gold  coin  struck  by  Darius  the  Mede.  Ac- 
cording to  Parkhurst  its  value  was  one  pound 
five  shillings.  A  gold  penny  is  stated  by 
Lightfoot  to  have  been  equal  to  twenty-five 
silver  pence. 

Hug  derives  a  satisfactory  argument  for  the 
veracity  of  the  Gospels  from  the  different  kinds 
of  money  mentioned  in  them  : — The  admixture 
of  foreign  manners  and  constitutions  proceeded 
through  numberless  circumstances  of  life. 
Take,  for  example,  the  circulation  of  coin  ; 
at  one  time  it  is  Greek  coin  ;  at  another, 
Roman  ;  at  another  time  ancient  Jewish. 
But  how  accurately  is  even  this  stated  ac- 
cording to  history,  and  the  arrangement  of 
things '.  The  ancient  imposts  which  were 
introduced  before  the  Roman  dominion  were 
valued  according  to  the  Greek  coinage  ;  for 
example,  the  taxes  of  the  temple,  the  iiSpaxnov, 
Matt,  xvii,  24.  The  offerings  were  paid  in 
these,  Mark  xii,  42  ;  Luke  xxi,  2.  A  payment 
which  proceeded  from  the  temple  treasury  was 
made  according  to  the  ancient  national  pay- 
ment by  weight,  Matt,  xxvi,  15 ;  but  in  com- 
mon business,  trade,  wages,  sale,  &c,  the  assis 


and  denarius  and  Roman  coin  were  usual,  Matt, 
x,  29  ;  xx,  3 ;  Luke  xii,  6  ;  Mark  xiv,  5  ;  John 
xii,  5 ;  vi,  7.  The  more  modern  state  taxes 
are  likewise  paid  in  the  coin  of  the  nation 
which  exercises  at  the  iime  the  greatest  au. 
thority,  Matthew  xxii,  19  ;  Mark  xii,  15;  Luke 
xx,  24.  Writers,  who,  in  each  little  circum- 
stance, which  otherwise  would  pass  by  un- 
noticed, so  accurately  describe  the  period  of 
time,  must  certainly  have  had  a  personal 
knowledge  of  it. 

MONEY-CHANGERS,  in  the  Gospels, 
were  persons  who  exchanged  native  for 
foreign  coin,  to  enable  those  who  came  to 
Jerusalem  from  distant  countries  to  purchase 
the  necessary  sacrifices.  In  our  Lord's  time 
they  had  established  themselves  in  the  court 
of  the  temple ;  a  profanation  which  had  pro- 
bably grown  up  with  the  influence  of  Roman 
manners,  which  allowed  the  argentarii  [money- 
dealers]  to  establish  their  usurious  mensas, 
tables,  by  the  statues  of  the  gods,  even  at  the 
feet  of  Janus,  in  the  most  holy  places,  in  por- 
ticibus  Basilicarum,  or  in  the  temples,  pone 
adem  Castoris.  The  following  extract  from 
Buckingham's  Travels  among  the  Arabs,  is 
illustrative  : — "  The  mosque  at  the  time  of 
our  passing  through  it  was  full  of  people, 
though  these  were  not  worshipper's,  nor  was 
it  at  either  of  the  usual  hours  of  public  prayers. 
Some  of  the  parties  were  assembled  to  smoke, 
others  to  play  at  chess,  and  some  apparently 
to  drive  bargains  of  trade,  but  certainly  none 
to  pray.  It  was,  indeed,  a  living  picture  of 
what  we  might  believe  the  temple  at  Jerusa- 
lem to  have  been,  when  those  who  sold  oxen, 
and  sheep,  and  doves,  and  the  changers  of 
money  sitting  there,  were  driven  out  by  Jesus, 
with  a  scourge  of  cords,  and  their  tables  over- 
turned. It  was,  in  short,  a  place  of  public 
resort  and  thoroughfare,  a  house  of  merchan- 
dise, as  the  temple  of  the  Jews  had  become  in 
the  days  of  the  Messiah." 

MONK  anciently  denoted  a  person  who 
retired  from  the  world  to  give  himself  up 
wholly  to  God,  and  to  live  in  solitude  and 
abstinence.  The  word  is  derived  from  the 
Latin  monachus,  and  that  from  the  Greek 
jxovaxbs,  solitary.  The  original  of  monks  seems 
to  have  been  this :  The  persecutions  which 
attended  the  first  ages  of  the  Gospel  forced 
some  Christians  to  retire  from  the  world,  and 
live  in  deserts  and  places  more  private  and 
unfrequented,  in  hopes  of  finding  that  peace 
and  comfort  among  beasts  which  were  denied 
them  among  men ;  and  this  being  the  case  of 
some  very  extraordinary  persons,  their  example 
gave  such  reputation  to  retirement,  that  the 
practice  was  continued  when  the  reason  of  its 
commencement  ceased.  After  the  empire  be- 
came Christian,  instances  of  this  kind  were 
numerous  ;  and  those  whose  security  had 
obliged  them  to  live  separately  and  apart  be- 
came afterward  united  into  societies.  We  may 
also  add,  that  the  mystic  theology,  which 
gained  ground  toward  the  close  of  the  third 
century,  contributed  to  produce  the  same 
effect,  and  to  drive  men  into  solitude,  for  the 
purposes   of  devotion.      The  monks,  at  least 


MON 


666 


MON 


the  ancient  ones,  were  distinguished  into 
solitaries,  coenobites,  and  sarabaites.  The  first 
were  those  who  lived  in  places  remote  from 
all  towns  and  habitations  of  men,  as  do  still 
some  of  the  hermits.  The  coenobites  were 
those  who  lived  in  community  with  several 
others  in  the  same  house,  and  under  the  same 
superiors.  The  sarabaites  were  strolling  monks, 
having  no  fixed  rule  of  residence.  Those  who 
are  now  called  monks  are  canobites,  who  live 
together  in  a  convent  or  monastery,  who  make 
vows  of  living  according  to  a  certain  rule 
established  by  the  founder^  and  wear  a  habit 
which  distinguishes  their  order.  Those  that 
are  endowed,  or  have  a  fixed  revenue,  are 
most  properly  called  monks,  monachi;  as  the 
Chartereux,  Benedictines,  Bernardines,  &c. 
The  Mendicants,  or  those  that  beg,  as  the 
Capuchins  and  Franciscans,  are  more  properly 
called  religious,  and  friars,  though  the  names 
are  frequently  confounded. 

The  first  monks  were  those  of  St.  Anthony, 
who,  toward  the  close  of  the  fourth  century, 
formed  them  into  a  regular  body,  engaged 
them  to  live  in  society  with  ench  other,  and 
prescribed  to  them  fixed  rules  for  the  direction 
of  their  conduct.  These  regulations,  which 
Anthony  had  made  in  Egypt,  were  soon  intro- 
duced into  Palestine  and  Syria  by  his  disciple 
Hilarion.  Almost  about  the  same  time,  Aones, 
or  Eugenius,  with  their  companions,  Gaddanus 
and  Azyzas,  instituted  the  monastic  order  in 
Mesopotomia,  and  the  adjacent  countries  ;  and 
their  example  was  followed  with  such  rapid 
success,  that  in  a  short  time  the  whole  east 
was  filled  with  a  lazy  set  of  mortals,  who, 
abandoning  all  human  connections,  advan- 
tages, pleasures,  and  concerns,  wore  out  a 
languishing  and  miserable  existence  amidst 
hardships  of  want,  and  various  kinds  of  suffer- 
ing, in  order  to  arrive  at  a  more  close  and 
rapturous  communication  with  God  and  angels. 
From  the  east  this  gloomy  institution  passed 
into  the  west,  and  first  into  Italy  and  its  neigh- 
bouring islands,  though  it  is  uncertain  who 
transplanted  it  thither.  St.  Martin,  the  cele- 
brated bishop  of  Tours,  erected  the  first  monas- 
teries in  Gaul,  and  recommended  this  religious 
solitude  with  such  power  and  efficacy,  botli  by 
his  instruction  and  example,  that  his  funeral 
is  said  to  have  been  attended  by  no  less  than 
two  thousand  monks.  From  hence  the  mo- 
nastic discipline  extended  its  progress  gradu- 
ally through  the  other  provinces  and  countries 
of  Europe.  There  were  beside,  the  monks  of 
St.  Basil,  called  in  the  east  calogeri,  from  ica\6s 
yipmv,  a  /rood  old  man,  and  those  of  St.  Jcrom, 
the  hermits  of  St.  Augustine,  and  afterward 
those  of  St.  Benedict  and  St.  Bernard  :  at 
length  came  those  of  St.  Francis  and  St.  Do- 
minic, with  a  legion  of  others. 

Toward  the  close  of  the  fifth  century,  the 
monks  who  had  formerly  lived  only  for  them- 
selves in  .solitary  retreats,  and  had  never 
thought  of  assuming  any  rank  among  the 
sacerdotal  order,  were  gradually  distinguished 
from  the  populace,  and  endowed  with  such 
opulence  and  honourable  privileges  that  they 
found  themselves  in  a  condition  to  claim  an 


eminent  station  among  the  pillaia  and  sup- 
porters of  the  Christian  community.  The 
fame  of  their  piety  and  sanctity  was  so  gre&t, 
that  bishops  and  presbyters  were  often  chosen 
out  of  their  order  ;  and  the  passion  of  erecting 
edifices  and  convents,  in  which  the  monks  and 
holy  virgins  might  serve  God  in  the  most  com- 
modious manner,  was  at  this  time  carried  be- 
yond all  bounds.  However,  their  licentiousness, 
even  in  this  century,  was  become  a  proverb ; 
and  they  are  said  to  have  excited  the  most 
dreadful  tumults  and  seditions  in  various 
places.  The  monastic  orders  were  at  first  un- 
der the  immediate  jurisdiction  of  the  bishops, 
from  which  they  were  exempted  by  the  Roman 
pontiff"  about  the  end  of  the  seventh  century  ; 
a.id  the  monks  in  return  devoted  themselves 
wholly  to  advance  the  interest  and  to  main- 
tain the*  dignity  of  the  bishop  of  Rome.  This 
immunity  which  they  obtained  was  a  fruitful 
source  of  licentiousness  and  disorder,  and  oc- 
casioned the  greatest  part  of  the  vices  with 
which  they  were  afterward  so  justly  charged. 

In  the  eighth  century  the  monastic  discipline 
was  extremely  relaxed,  both  in  the  eastern  and 
western  provinces,  and  all  efforts  to  restore  it 
were  ineffectual.  Nevertheless,  this  kind  of 
institution  was  in  the  highest  esteem ;  and 
nothing  could  equal  the  veneration  that  was 
paid  about  the  close  of  the  ninth  century  to 
such  as  devoted  themselves  to  the  sacred  gloom 
and  indolence  of  a  convent.  This  veneration 
caused  several  kings  and  emperors  to  call  them 
to  their  courts,  and  to  employ  them  in  civil 
affairs  of  the  greatest  moment.  Their  reform- 
ation was  attempted  by  Louis  the  meek,  but 
the  effect  was  of  short  duration.  In  the 
eleventh  century,  they  were  exempted  by  the 
popes  from  the  authority  of  their  sovereigns, 
and  new  orders  of  monks  were  continually 
established,  insomuch  that  in  the  council  of 
Lateran,  that  was  held  A.  D.  1215,  a  decree 
was  passed,  by  the  advice  of  Innocent  III.,  to 
prevent  any  new  monastic  institutions  ;  and 
several  were  entirely  suppressed.  In  the  fif- 
teenth and  sixteenth  centuries,  it  appears,  from 
the  testimony  of  the  best  writers,  that  the 
monks  were  generally  lazy,  illiterate,  profligate, 
and  licentious  epicures,  whose  views  in  life 
were  confined  to  opulence,  idleness,  and  plea- 
sure. However,  the  reformation  had  a  mani- 
fest influence  in  restraining  their  excesses,  and 
rendering  them  more  circumspect  and  cautious 
in  their  external  conduct. 

Monks  are  distinguished  by  the  colour  of 
their  habits,  into  black,  white,  gray,  &c. 
Among  the  monks,  some  are  called  monks  of 
the  choir,  others,  professed  monks,  and  others, 
lay  monks  ;  which  last  arc  destined  for  the  ser- 
vice of  the  convent,  and  have  neither  clericate 
nor  literature.  Cloistered  monks  are  those 
who  actually  reside  in  the  house,  in  opposition 
to  extra  monks,  who  have  benefices  depend- 
ing on  the  monastery.  Monks  are  also  dis- 
tinguished into  reformed,  whom  the  civil  and 
ecclesiastical  authority  have  made  masters  of 
ancient  convents,  and  empowered  to  retrieve 
the  ancient  discipline,  which  had  been  relaxed  ; 
and  ancient,  who  remain  in  the  convent,  to 


koR 


667 


MOR 


live  in  it  according  to  its  establishment  at  the 
time  when  they  made  their  vows,  without 
obliging  themselves  to  any  new  reform.  An- 
ciently the  monks  were  all  laymen,  and  were 
only  distinguished  from  the  rest  of  the  people 
by  a  peculiar  habit  and  an  extraordinary  piety 
or  devotion.  Not  only  the  monks  were  pro- 
hibited the  priesthood,  but  even  priests  were 
expressly  prohibited  from  becoming  monks, 
as  appears  from  the  letters  of  St.  Gregory. 
Pope  Syricius  was  the  first  who  called  them  to 
the  clericate,  on  account  of  some  great  scarcity 
of  priests  that  the  church  was  supposed  to  la- 
bour under  ;  and  since  that  time  the  priesthood 
has  been  usually  united  to  the  monastical  pro- 
fession. 


1.  ID^J,  Nisan,  from  the  new  moon 

2.  vj,  Zif  or  Ziv,  also  called  "vx, 

3.  JVD,  Sivan, 

4.  ncn,  Tammuz, 

5.  3«,  Ab, 

6.  ^Y?*,  EM, 

7.  i*wn,  Tishri,  also  crjruNn  m\ 

8.  "?i3,  Bui,  also  |n?mD, 

9.  V?D3,  Kislev, 

10.  nao,  Tebeth, 

11.  B3tt>,  Shebat, 

12.  tin,  Adar, 
The  first  month  here  mentioned,  Nisan,  was  originally  called  Abib. 

month  is  denominated  in  Hebrew  tin. 


MONOPHYSITES.        See      Hypostatic 

Union. 

MONOTHELITES,  a  denomination  in 
the  seventh  century.  See  Hypostatic 
Union. 

MONTHS,  DW,  sometimes  also  called 
DiBHn,  new  moons,  from  the  circumstance  of 
their  commencing  with  the  new  moon,  an- 
ciently had  no  separate  names,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  first,  which  was  called  Abib,  that 
is,  "  the  month  of  the  young  ears  of  corn," 
Exod.  xiii,  4 ;  xxiii,  15 ;  xxxiv,  18;  Deut.  xvi,  1. 
During  the  captivity,  the  Hebrews  adopted  the 
Babylonian  names  for  their  months  ;  which 
were  as  follows,  and  they  were  reckoned 
thus : — 

of  April,  Neh.  ii,  1. 
of  May,  1  Kings  vi,  1. 
of  June,  Esther  viii,  9. 
of  July. 
of  August. 

of  September,  Neh.  vi,  15. 
of  October,  1  Kings  viii,  2. 
of  November,  1  Kings  vi,  38. 
of  December,  Neh.  i,  1. 
of  January,  Esther  ii,  16. 
of  February,  Zech.  i,  7. 
of  March,  Esther  iii,  7. 


The  intercalary 


MOON.  Particular  sacrifices  were  enjoined 
by  Moses  at  every  new  moon,  which  day  was 
also  celebrated  as  a  feast.  It  is  promised  in 
Psalm  cxxi,  6,  "  The  sun  shall  not  smite  thee 
by  day,  nor  the  moon  by  night."  The  effect 
of  a  coup  de  soleil,  or  stroke  of  the  sun,  is  well 
known  ;  and  in  some  climates  the  beams  of  the 
moon  are  reputed  hurtful.  Anderson,  in  his 
"  Description  of  the  East,"  says,  "  One  must 
here  (in  Batavia)  take  great  care  not  to  sleep 
in  the  beams  of  the  moon  uncovered.  I  have 
seen  many  people  whose  neck  has  become 
crooked,  so  that  they  look  more  to  the  side 
than  forward.  I  will  not  decide  whether  it  is 
to  be  ascribed  to  the  moon,  as  people  imagine 
here."  In  some  of  the  southern  parts  of  Eu- 
rope the  same  opinions  are  entertained  of  the 
pernicious  influence  of  the  moon  beams.  An 
English  gentleman  walking  in  the  evening  in 
the  garden  of  a  Portuguese  nobleman  at  Lis- 
bon, was  most  seriously  admonished  by  the 
owner  to  put  on  his  hat,  to  protect  him  from 
the  moon  beams.  The  fishermen  in  Sicily  are 
said  to  cover,  during  the  night,  the  fish  which 
they  expose  to  dry  on  the  sea  shore,  alleging 
that  the  beams  of  the  moon  cause  them  to 
putrefy. 

MORAL  OBLIGATION.  Different  opi- 
nions have  been  held  as  to  the  ground  of  moral 
obligation.  Grotius,  Balguy,  and  Dr.  Samuel 
Clarke,  place  it  in  the  eternal  and  necessary 
fitness  of  things.  To  this  there  are  two  ob- 
jections. The  first  is,  that  it  leaves  the  dis- 
tinction between  virtue  and  vice,  in  a  great 
measure,  arbitrary  and  indefinite,  dependent 
upon  our  perception  of  fitness  and  unfitness, 
which,    in    different    individuals    will    greatly 


differ.  The  second  is,  that  when  a  fitness  or 
unfitness  is  proved,  it  is  no  more  than  the 
discovery  of  a  natural  essential  difference  or 
congruity,  which  alone  cannot  constitute  a 
moral  obligation  to  choose  what  is  fit,  and  to 
reject  what  is  unfit.  When  we  have  proved  a 
fitness  in  a  certain  course  of  action,  we  have 
not  proved  that  it  is  obligatory.  A  second 
step  is  necessary  before  we  can  reach  this  con- 
clusion. Cudworth,  Butler,  Price,  and  others, 
maintain,  that  virtue  carries  its  own  obligation 
in  itself;  that  the  understanding  at  once  per- 
ceives a  certain  action  to  be  right,  and  there- 
fore it  ought  to  be  performed.  Several  ob- 
jections lie  to  this  notion  :  1.  It  supposes  the 
understandings  of  men  to  determine  precisely 
in  the  same  manner  concerning  all  virtuous 
and  vicious  actions  ;  which  is  contrary  to  fact. 
2.  It  supposes  a  previous  rule,  by  which  the 
action  is  determined  to  be  right ;  but  if  the  re- 
vealed will  of  God  is  not  to  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration, what  common  rule  exists  among 
men  ?  There  is  evidently  no  such  rule,  and 
therefore  no  means  of  certainly  determining 
what  is  right.  3.  If  a  common  standard  were 
known  among  men,  and  if  the  understandings 
of  men  determined  in  the  same  manner  as  to 
the  conformity,  or  otherwise,  of  an  action  to 
that  standard ;  what  renders  it  a  matter  of 
obligation  that  any  one  should  perform  it  ? 
The  rule  must  be  proved  to  be  binding,  or  no 
ground  of  obligation  is  established. 

An  action  is  obligatory,  say  others,  because 
it  is  agreeable  to  the  moral  sense.  This  is  the 
theory  of  Lord  Shaftesbury  and  Dr.  Hutch- 
eson.  By  moral  sense  appears  to  be  meant  an 
instinctive  approbation  of  right,    and   abhor. 


MOK 


668 


ftlQR 


rence  of  wrong,  prior  to  all  reflection  on  their 
nature,  or  their  consequences.  If  any  thing 
else  were  understood  by  it,  then  the  moral 
sense  must  be  the  same  with  conscience,  which 
we  know  to  vary  with  the  judgment,  and  can- 
not therefore  be  the  basis  of  moral  obligation. 
If  conscience  be  not  meant,  then  the  moral 
sense  must  be  considered  as  instinctive :  a 
notion,  certainly,  which  is  disproved  by  the 
whole  moral  history  of  man.  It  may,  indeed, 
be  conceded,  that  such  is  the  constitution  of 
the  human  soul,  that  when  those  distinctions 
between  actions,  which  have  been  taught  by 
religious  tradition  or  direct  revelation,  are 
known  in  their  nature,  relations,  and  conse- 
quences, the  calm  and  sober  judgments  of  men 
will  approve  of  them  ;  and  that  especially  when 
they  are  considered  abstractedly,  that  is,  as 
not  affecting  and  controlling  their  own  inte- 
rests and  passions  immediately,  virtue  may 
command  complacency,  and  vice  provoke 
abhorrence  :  but  that,  independent  of  reflection 
on  their  nature  or  their  consequences,  there  is 
an  instinctive  principle  in  man  which  abhors 
evil,  and  loves  good,  is  contradicted  by  that 
variety  of  opinion  and  feeling  on  the  vices  and 
virtues,  which  obtains  among  all  uninstructed 
nations.  We  applaud  the  forgiveness  of  an 
injury  as  magnanimous  ;  a  savage  despises  it 
as  mean.  We  think  it  a  duty  to  support  and 
cherish  aged  parents ;  many  nations,  on  the 
contrary,  abandon  them  as  useless,  and  throw 
them  to  the  beasts  of  the  field.  Innumerable 
instances  of  this  contrariety  might  be  adduced, 
which  are  all  contrary  to  the  notion  of  in- 
stinctive sentiment.  Instincts  operate  uni- 
formly, but  this  assumed  moral  sense  does  not. 
Beside,  if  it  be  mere  matter  of  feeling,  inde- 
pendent of  judgment,  to  love  virtue,  and  abhor 
vice,  the  morality  of  the  exercise  of  this  prin- 
ciple is  questionable  ;  for  it  would  be  difficult 
to  show,  that  there  is  any  more  morality,  pro- 
perly speaking,  in  the  affections  and  disgusts 
of  instinct  than  in  those  of  the  palate.  If 
judgment,  the  knowledge  and  comparison  of 
things,  be  included,  then  this  principle  sup- 
poses a  uniform  and  universal  individual  re- 
velation as  to  the  nature  of  things  to  every 
man,  or  an  intuitive  faculty  of  determining 
their  moral  quality ;  both  of  which  are  too 
absurd  to  he  maintained. 

The  only  satisfactory  conclusion  on  this 
subject,  is  that  which  refers  moral  obligation 
to  the  will  of  God.  "Obligation,"  says  War- 
burton,  "necessarily  implies  an  obliger,  and 
the  obliger  must  be  different  from,  and  not  one 
and  the  same  with,  the  obliged.  Moral  obli- 
gation, that  is,  the  obligation  of  a  free  agent, 
farther  implies  a  law,  which  enjoins  and  for- 
bids ;  but  a  law  is  the  imposition  of  an  intelli- 
gent superior,  who  hath  power  to  exact  con- 
tinuity thereto."  This  lawgiver  is  God  ;  and 
whatever  may  he  the  reasons  which  have  led 
liini  to  enjoin  this,  and  to  prohibit  that,  it  is 
plain  that  the  obligation  to  obey  lies  not  merely 
in  the  fitness  and  propriety  of  a  creature  obey- 
ing an  infinitely  wise  and  good  Creator, 
(though  such  a  fitness  exists,)  but  in  that 
obedience    being    enjoined.       For,    since    the 


question  respects  the  duty  of  a  coated  being 
with  reference  to  his  Creator,  nothing  can  be- 
more  conclusive  than  that  the  Creator  ha*  an 
absolute  right  to  the  obedience  of  his  crea- 
tures ;  and  that  the  creature  is  in  duty  obliged 
to  obey  him  from  whom  it  not  only  has  received 
being,  but  by  whom  that  being  is  constantly 
sustained.  It  has,  indeed,  been  said,  that  even 
if  it  be  admitted,  that  I  am  obliged  to  obey  the 
will  of  God,  the  question  is  still  open,  "  Why 
am  I  obliged  to  obey  his  will  ?"  and  that  this 
brings  us  round  to  the  former  answer  ;  because 
he  can  only  will  what  is  upon  the  whole  best 
for  his  creatures.  But  this  is  confounding  that 
which  may  be,  and  doubtless  is,  a  rule  to  God 
in  the  commands  which  he  issues,  with  that 
which  really  obliges  the  creature.  Nov/,  that 
which  in  truth  obliges  the  creature  is  not  the 
nature  of  the  commands  issued  by  God ;  but 
the  relation  in  which  the  creature  itself  stands 
to  God.  If  a  creature  can  have  no  existence, 
nor  any  power  or  faculty  independently  of 
God,  it  can  have  no  right  to  employ  its  facul- 
ties independently  of  him  ;  and  if  it  have  no 
right  to  employ  its  faculties  in  an  independent 
manner,  the  right  to  rule  its  conduct  must  rest 
with  the  Creater  alone ;  and  from  this  results 
the  obligation  of  absolute  and  universal  obe- 
dience. 

MORAVIANS,  or  UNITED  BRETHREN. 
The  name  of  Moravians,  or  Moravian  Brethren, 
was  in  England  given  to  the  members  of  a 
foreign  Protestant  church,  calling  itself  the 
Unitas  Fratrum,  or  United  Brethren.  This 
church  formerly  consisted  of  three  branches, 
the  Bohemian,  Moravian,  and  Polish.  After 
its  renovation  in  the  year  1722,  some- of  its 
members  came  to  England  in  1723,  who  being 
of  the  Moravian  branch,  became  known  by 
that  appellation ;  and  all  those  who  joined 
them,  and  adopted  their  doctrines  and  disci- 
pline, have  ever  since  been  called  Moravians. 
Strictly  speaking,  however,  that  name  is  not 
applicable  to  them,  nor  generally  admitted, 
either  by  themselves,  or  in  any  public  docu- 
ments, in  which  they  are  called  by  their  proper 
names,  the  Unitas  Fratrum,  or  United  Brethren. 

The  few  remaining  members  of  the  ancient 
church  of  the  United  Brethren  in  Bohemia, 
Moravia,  and  Poland,  being  much  persecuted 
by  the  popish  clergy,  many  of  them  left  all 
their  possessions,  and  fled  with  their  families 
into  Silesia  and  Saxony.  In  Saxony  they 
found  protection  from  a  Saxon  nobleman, 
Nicholas  Lewis,  count  of  Zinzendorff,  who 
gave  them  some  waste  land  on  one  of  his 
estates,  on  which,  in  1722,  they  built  a  village 
at  the  foot  of  a  hill,  called  the  Hut-3erg,  or 
Watch. Hill.  This  occasioned  them  to  call 
their  settlement  Herrnhut,  "  the  watch  of  the 
Lord."  Hence  their  enemies  designated  them 
in  derision  by  the  name  of  Herrnhuters,  which 
is  altogether  improper,  but  by  it  they  are 
known  in  some  countries  abroad.  By  their 
own  account,  the  community  derive  their  origin 
from  the  ancient  Bohemian  and  Moravian 
Brethren,  who  existed  as  a  distinct  people 
ever  since  the  year  1457,  when,  separating 
from  those  who  took  up  arms  in  defence  of 


MOP 


669 


MOR 


their  protestati^  against  popish  errors,  they 
formed  a  rJ«»n  f°r  church  fellowship  and  dis- 
cipline* agreeable  to  their  insight  into  the 
Secures,  and  called  themselves  at  first, 
Fratres  Legis  Christi,  or  Brethren  after  the 
Law  of  Christ;  and  afterward,  on  being  joined 
by  others  of  the  same  persuasion  in  other 
places,  Unitas  Fratrum,  or  Fratres  Unitatis. 
By  degrees,  they  established  congregations 
in  various  places,  and  spread  themselves  into 
Moravia  and  other  neighbouring  states.  Being 
anxious  to  preserve  among  themselves  regular 
episcopal  ordination,  and,  at  a  synod  held  at 
Lhota  in  1467,  taking  into  consideration  the 
scarcity  of  ministers  regularly  ordained  among 
them,  they  chose  three  of  their  priests  ordained 
by  Calixtine  bishops,  and  sent  them  to  Stephen, 
bishop  of  the  Waldenses,  then  residing  in 
Austria,  by  whom  they  were  consecrated 
bishops ;  co-bishops  and  conseniores  being 
appointed  from  the  rest  of  their  presbyters. 
In  1468  a  great  persecution  arose  against 
them,  and  many  were  put  to  death.  In  1481 
they  were  banished  from  Moravia,  when  many 
of  them  fled  as  far  as  Mount  Caucasus,  and 
established  themselves  there,  till  driven  away 
by  subsequent  troubles. 

In  the  mean  time,  disputes  respecting  points 
of  doctrine,  the  enmity  of  the  papists,  and 
other  causes,  raised  continual  disturbances 
and  great  persecutions  at  various  periods,  till 
the  Reformation  by  Luther,  when  they  opened 
a  correspondence  with  that  eminent  reformer 
and  his  associates,  and  entered  into  several 
negotiations,  both  with  him  and  Calvin,  con- 
cerning the  extension  of  the  Protestant  cause. 
But  their  strict  adherence  to  the  discipline  of 
their  own  church,  founded,  in  their  view,  on 
that  of  the  primitive  churches,  and  the  acknow- 
ledged impossibility  of  its  application  among 
the  mixed  multitude,  of  which  the  Lutheran 
and  Calvinist  churches  consisted,  occasioned 
a  cessation  of  cooperation,  and,  in  the  sequel, 
the  Brethren  were  again  left  to  the  mercy  of 
their  persecutors,  by  whom  their  churches 
were  destroyed,  and  their  ministers  banished, 
till  the  year  1575,  when  they  obtained  an  edict 
from  the  emperor  of  Germany,  for  the  public 
exercise  of  their  religion.  This  toleration  was 
renewed  in  1609,  and  liberty  granted  them  to 
erect  new  churches.  But  a  civil  war,  which 
broke  out  in  Bohemia  in  1612,  and  a  violent 
persecution  which  followed  it  in  1621,  again 
occasioned  the  dispersion  of  their  ministers, 
and  brought  great  distress  upon  the  Brethren 
in  general.  Some  fled  into  England,  others 
to  Saxony  and  Brandenburg ;  while  many, 
overcome  by  the  severity  of  the  persecution, 
conformed  to  the  rites  of  the  church  of  Rome. 

About  the  year  1640,  by  incessant  persecu- 
tion, and  the  most  oppressive  measures,  this 
ancient  church  was  brought  to  so  low  an  ebb, 
that  it  appeared  nearly  extinct.  The  persecu- 
tions which  took  place  at  the  beginning  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  were  the  occasion  that 
many  of  the  scattered  descendants  of  the  Bohe- 
mian and  Moravian  Brethren  at  length  resolved 
to  quit  their  native  land,  and  seek  liberty  of 
conscience  in   foreign  countries.     Some  emi- 


grated into  Silesia,  and  others  into  Upper 
Lusatia,  a  province  of  Saxony,  adjoining  to 
Bohemia.  The  latter,  as  before  observed, 
found  a  protector  in  Nicholas  Count  Zinzen- 
dorff,  a  pious,  zealous  man,  and  a  Lutheran 
by  education.  He  hoped  that  the  religious 
state  of  the  Lutherans  in  his  neighbourhood 
would  be  greatly  improved  by  the  conversation 
and  example  of  these  devout  emigrants  ;  and 
he  therefore  sought  to  prevail  upon  the  latter 
to  join  the  Lutheran  church  altogether.  To 
this  the  Brethren  objected,  being  unwilling  to 
give  up  their  ancient  discipline,  and  would 
rather  proceed  to  seek  an  asylum  in  another 
place ;  when  the  count,  struck  with  their 
steadfast  adherence  to  the  tenets  of  their  fore- 
fathers, began  more  maturely  to  examine  their 
pretensions  ;  and  being  convinced  of  the  just- 
ness of  them,  he  procured  for  the  Brethren  the 
renovation  of  their  ancient  constitution,  and 
ever  after  proved  a  most  zealous  promoter  of 
their  cause.  He  is,  therefore,  very  justly 
esteemed  by  them  as  the  chief  instrument,  in 
the  hand  of  God,  in  restoring  the  sinking 
church,  and,  in  general,  gratefully  remembered 
for  his  disinterested  and  indefatigable  labours 
in  promoting  the  interests  of  religion,  both  at 
home  and  abroad.  In  1735,  having  been 
examined  and  received  into  the  clerical  order, 
by  the  theological  faculty  at  Tuebingen,  in 
the  duchy  of  Wurtemburg,  he  was  consecrated 
a  bishop  of  the  Brethren's  church. 

After  the  establishment  of  a  regular  con- 
gregation of  the  United  Brethren  at  Herrnhut, 
multitudes  of  pious  persons  from  various  parts 
nocked  to  it,  many  of  whom  had  private 
opinions  in  religious  matters,  to  which  they 
were  strongly  attached.  This  occasioned  great 
disputes,  which  even  threatened  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  society ;  but,  by  the  indefatigable 
exertions- of  Count  ZinzendorlF,  these  disputes 
were  allayed,  and  the  statutes  being  drawn 
up,  and  agreed  to  in  1727,  for  better  regula- 
tion, brotherly  love  and  union  were  reesta- 
blished, and  no  schism  whatever,  in  point  of 
doctrine,  has  since  that  period  disturbed  the 
peace  of  the  church. 

Though  the  Brethren  acknowledge  no  other 
standard  of  truth  than  the  sacred  Scriptures, 
they  in  general  profess  to  adhere  to  the  Augs- 
burg Confession  of  Faith.  Their  church  is 
episcopal ;  but  though  they  consider  episcopal 
ordination  as  necessary  to  qualify  the  servants 
of  the  church  for  their  respective  functions, 
they  allow  to  their  bishops  no  elevation  of 
rank  or  preeminent  authority.  The  Moravian 
church,  from  its  first  establishment,  has  been 
governed  by  synods,  consisting  of  deputies 
from  all  the  congregations,  and  by  other  subor- 
dinate bodies,  which  they  call  conferences. 
According  to  their  regulations,  episcopal  ordi- 
nation, of  itself,  does  not  confer  any  power  to 
preside  over  one  or  more  congregations;  and 
a  bishop  can  discharge  no  office  except  b\  the 
appointment  of  a  synod,  or  of  its  delegate,  tho 
elders'  conference  of  the  unity.  Presbyters 
among  them  can  perform  every  function  of 
the  bishop,  except  ordination.  Deacons  ars 
assistants   to    presbyters,   much   in    the   sams 


MOR 


670 


"OS 


way  as  in  the  church  of  England.  Deacon- 
esses are  retained  for  the  purpose  of  privately 
admonishing  their  own  sex,  and  visiting  them 
in  their  sickness  ;  but  they  are  not  permitted 
to  teach  in  public,  and,  far  less,  to  administer 
the  sacraments.  They  have  also  seniores  civiles, 
or  lay  elders,  in  contradistinction  to  spiritual 
elders  or  bishops,  who  are  appointed  to  watch 
over  the  constitution  and  discipline  of  the 
unity  of  the  Brethren,  &.c.  The  synods  are 
generally  held  once  in  seven  years  ;  and  beside 
all  the  bishops,  and  the  deputies  sent  by  each 
congregation,  those  women  who  have  appoint- 
ments as  above  described,  if  on  the  spot,  are 
also  admitted  as  hearers,  and  may  be  called 
upon  to  give  their  advice  in  what  relates  to 
the  ministerial  labour  among  their  own  sex; 
but  they  have  no  decisive  vote  in  the  synod. 
The  votes  of  all  the  other  members  are  equal. 
In  questions  of  importance,  or  of  which  the 
consequence  cannot  be  foreseen,  neither  the 
majority  of  votes,  nor  the  unanimous  consent 
of  all  present,  can  decide  :  but  recourse  is  had 
to  the  lot,  which,  however,  is  never  made  use 
of  except  after  mature  deliberation  and  prayer  ; 
nor  is  any  tiling  submitted  to  its  decision  which 
does  not,  after  being  thoroughly  weighed,  appear 
to  the  assembly  eligible  in  itself. 

MORDECAI  was  the  son  of  Jair,  of  the 
race  of  Saul,  and  a  chief  of  the  tribe  of  Ben- 
jamin.   He  was  carried  captive  to  Babylon  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,   with   Jehoiachin,    or   Jeco- 
niuli,  king  of  Judah,  A.M. 3405,  Esther  ii,  5,  6. 
He  settled  at  Shushan,  and  there  lived  to  the 
first  year   of  Cyrus,  when   it  is   thought    he 
returned    to    Jerusalem,    with    several    other 
captives;  but  he  afterward  returned  to  Shu- 
shan.   There  is  great  probability  that  Mordecai 
was  very  young  when  taken   into  captivity. 
The  book  of  Esther  gives  the  whole  history  of 
Mordecai's   elevation,  the  punishment  of  Ha. 
man,    and  the   wonderful  deliverance   of  the 
Jews,  in  clear  and  regular  narrative.     But  it 
may  bo  asked,  For  what  reason  did  Mordecai 
refuse    to    pay    that    respect   to    Haman,    the 
neglect   of  which  incensed  him    against  the 
Jews  ?  Esther  iii,  1-6.    Some  think  the  reason 
was,   because   Haman   was  an   Amalekite ;    a 
people  whom  the  Israelites  had  been  commis- 
sioned from  God   to  destroy,   because  of  the 
injuries  they  hud  formerly  done  them,   Deut. 
xxv,    17-19.     But  this    scarcely  seems  to  be 
a    sufficient   account    of  Mordecai's    refusing 
civil  respect  to  Hainan,  who  was  first  minister 
of  state ;  especially  when  by  so  doing  he  ox- 
posed  his  whale   nation  to  imminent  danger. 
Beside,  if  nothing  but  civil  respect  had  been 
intend    1  to  Hainan,  the  king  need  not  have 
enjoined  it  on  Ills  servants  after  he  had  made 
him    his    first    minister    and    chief   favourite, 
Esther  iii,  1,  2;  they  would  have  been  ready 
enough  to  show  it  on  all  occasions.    Probabty, 
therefore,  the  reverence  ordered  to  be  done  to 
this  jrreat  man  was  a  kind  of  divine  honour, 
such  as  was  sometimes  addressed  to  the  Per- 
monarohs   themselves;   which,   being  a 
species  of  idolatry,  Mordecai  refused  for  the 
sake  of  a  good  conscience.     And  perhaps  it 
was  because  Haman  knew  thai  his  refusal  was 


the  result  of  his  Jewish  pnn^Qies  tnat  he 
determined  to  attempt  the  destrucvj,'-,^  0f  the 
Jews  in  general,  knowing  they  were  all  *f  the 
same  mind.  As  to  another  question,  wiw 
Haman  cast  lots,  in  order  to  fix  the  day  for 
the  massacre  of  the  Jews,  Esther  iii,  7 ;  from 
whence  the  feast  of  purim,  which  is  a  Persic 
wTord,  and  signifies  lots,  took  its  name,  Esther 
ix,  26  ;  it  was  no  doubt  owing  to  the  supersti- 
tious conceit  which  anciently  prevailed,  of 
some  days  being  more  fortunate  than  others 
for  any  undertaking ;  in  short,  he  endeavoured 
to  find  out,  by  this  way  of  divining,  what 
month,  and  what  day  of  the  month,  was  most 
unfortunate  to  the  Jews,  and  most  fortunate 
for  the  success  of  his  bloody  design  against 
them.  It  is  very  remarkable,  that  while  Ha- 
man sought  for  direction  in  this  affair  from 
the  Persian  idols,  the  God  of  Israel  so  over- 
ruled the  lot  as  to  fix  the  intended  massacre  to 
almost  a  year's  distance,  from  Nisan  the  first 
month  to  Adar  the  last  of  the  year-,  in  order  to 
give  time  and  opportunity  to  Mordecai  and 
Esther  to  defeat  the  conspiracy. 

MORIAH,   Mount.     A  hill  on  the  north- 
east side  of  Jerusalem,  once   separated  from 
that  of  Acra  by  a  broad  valley,  which,  accord- 
ing to  Josephus,  was  filled  up  by  the  Asmo- 
neans,  and  the  two  hills  converted  into  one. 
In  the  time  of  David  it  stood  apart  from  the 
city,  and  was  under  cultivation ;  for  here  was 
the  threshing  floor  of  Araunah,  the  Jebusite, 
which   David  bought,   on  which  to  erect  an 
altar  to  God,  2  Sam.  xxiv,  15-25.     On  the 
same  spot  Solomon  afterward  built  the  temple, 
2  Chron.  iii,  1 ;  when  it  was  included  within 
the  walls  of  the  city.     Here,  also,  Abraham  is 
supposed  to  have  been  directed  to  offer  his  son 
Isaac,  Gen.  xxii,  1,  2.     Moriah  implies  "  vi- 
sion;"  and  the  "land  of  Moriah,"  mentioned 
in  ,the  above  passage  in  the  history  of  Abra- 
ham, was  probably  so  called  from  being  seen 
"  afar  -off."     It  included  the  whole   group  of 
hills  on  which  Jerusalem  was  afterward  built, 
MOSES.     This  illustrious  legislator  of  the 
Israelites  was  of  the  tribe  of  Levi,  in  the  line 
of  Koath  and  of  Amram,  whose  eon  he  was, 
and   therefore   in   the   fourth  generation  after 
the  settlement  of  the  Israelites  in  Egypt.    The 
time  of  his  birtli  is  ascertained  by  the  exode 
of  the  Israelites,  when  Moses  was  eighty  years 
old,  Exod.  vii,  7.     By  a  singular  providence, 
the  infant  Moses,  when  exposed  on  the  river 
Nile,  through  fear  of  the  royal  decree,  after 
his  mother  had  hid  him  three  months,  because 
he   was   a  goodly   child,    was    taken   up    and 
adopted  by  Pharaoh's  daughter,  and  nursed  by 
his  own  mother,  whom  she  hired  at  the  sug- 
gestion  of  his  sister   Miriam.     Thus   did   he 
find  an  asylum  in  the  very  palace  of  his  in- 
tended destroyer ;  while  his  intercourse  with 
his   own    family   and    nation   was    still    most 
naturally,  though  unexpectedly,  maintained: 
so  mysterious  are  the  ways  of  Heaven.     And 
while  he  was  instructed  "  in  all  the  wisdom  of 
the  Egyptians,"  and  bred  up  in  the  midst  of  a 
luxurious  court,  he  acquired  at  home  the  know- 
ledge of  the  promised  redemption   of  Israel ; 
and,  "  by  faith"  in  the  Redeemer  Christ,  "  re- 


MOS 


671 


MOS 


fused  to  be  0"ied  the  eon  of  Pharaoh's 
daughter-  posing  rather  to  suffer  affliction 
with  t^'  people  of  God,  than  to  enjoy  the 
plesdures  of  sin  for  a  season ;  esteeming  the 
reproach  of  Christ,"  or  persecution  for  Christ's 
sake,  "  greater  riches  than  the  treasures  of 
Egypt :  for  he  had  respect  to  the  recompense 
of  reward,"  Exodus  ii,  1-10  ;  Acts  vii,  20-22  ; 
Heb.  xi,  23-26 ;  or  looked  forward  to  a  future 
state. 

When  Moses  was  grown  to  manhood,  and 
•was  full  forty  years  old,  he  was  moved  by  a 
divine  intimation,  as  it  seems,  to  undertake 
the  deliverance  of  his  countrymen ;  "  for  he 
supposed  that  his  brethren  would  have  under- 
stood how  that  God,  by  his  hand,  would  give 
them  deliverance ;  but  they  understood  not." 
For  when,  in  the  excess  of  his  zeal  to  redress 
their  grievances,  he  had  slain  an  Egyptian, 
who  injured  one  of  them,  in  which  he  proba- 
bly went  beyond  his  commission,  and  after- 
wftd  endeavoured  to  reconcile  two  of  them 
that  were  at  variance,  they  rejected  his  media- 
tion ;  and  "  the  man  who  had  done  wrong 
said,  Who  made  thee  a  judge  and  a  ruler  over 
us  ?  lntendest  thou  to  kill  me,  as  thou  kill- 
edst  the  Egyptian  yesterday  ?"  So  Moses, 
finding  it  was  known,  and  that  Pharaoh 
sought  to  slay  him,  fled  for  his  life  to  the  land 
of  Midian,  in  Arabia  Petrsea,  where  he  married 
Zipporah,  the  daughter  of  Jethro,  or  Reuel, 
prince  and  priest  of  Midian ;  and,  as  a  shep- 
herd, kept  his  flocks  in  the  vicinity  of  Mount 
Horeb,  or  Sinai,  for  forty  years,  Exodus  ii, 
11-21 ;  iii,  1 ;  xviii,  5 ;  Num.  x,  29  ;  Acts  vii, 
23-30.  During  this  long  exile  Moses  was 
trained  in  the  school  of  humble  circumstances 
for  that  arduous  mission  which  he  had  prema- 
turely anticipated  ;  and,  instead  of  the  unthink- 
ing zeal  which  at  first  actuated  hirer,  learned 
to  distrust  himself.  His  backwardness,  after- 
ward, to  undertake  that  mission  for  which  he 
was  destined  from  the  womb,  was  no  less  re- 
markable than  his  forwardness  before,  Exod. 
iv,  10-13. 

At  length,  when  the  oppression  of  the 
Israelites  was  come  to  the  full,  and  they  cried 
to  God  for  succour,  and  the  king  was  dead, 
and  all  the  men  in  Egypt  that  sought  his  life, 
"  the  God  of  glory"  appeared  to  Moses  in  a 
flame  of  fire,  from  the  midst  of  a  bush,  and 
announced  himself  as  "the  God  of  Abraham, 
of  Isaac,  and  of  Jacob,"  under  the  titles  of 
Jahok  and  JEhjeh,  expressive  of  his  unity  and 
sameness ;  and  commissioned  him  first  to  make 
known  to  the  Israelites  the  divine  will  for 
their  deliverance ;  and  next  to  go  with  the 
elders  of  Israel  to  Pharaoh,  requiring  him,  in 
the  name  of  "the  Lord,  the  God  of  the  He- 
brews, to  suffer  the  people  to  go  three  days' 
journey  into  the  wilderness,  to  sacrifice  unto 
the  Lord  their  God,"  after  such  sacrifices  had 
been  long  intermitted  during  their  bondage  ; 
for  the  Egyptians  had  sunk  into  bestial  poly- 
theism, and  would  have  stoned  them,  had  they 
attempted  to  sacrifice  to  their  principal  divini- 
ties, the  apis,  or  bull,  &c,  in  the  land  itself: 
foretelling,  also,  the  opposition  they  would 
meet  with  from  the  king,  the  mighty  signs  and 


wonders  that  would  finally  compel  his  assent, 
and  their  spoiling  of  the  Egyptians,  by  asking 
or  demanding  of  them  (not  borrowing)  jewels 
of  silver,  and  jewels  of  gold,  and  raiment,  (by 
way  of  wages  or'  compensation  for  their  ser- 
vices,) as  originally  declared  to  Abraham,  that 
"they  should  go  out  from  thence  with  great 
substance,"  Gen.  xv,  14 ;  Exod.  ii,  23-25 ;  iii 
2-22 ;  viii,  25,  26. 

To  vouch  his  divine  commission  to  the 
Israelites,  God  enabled  Moses  to  work  three 
signal  miracles :  1.  Turning  his  rod  into  a 
serpent,  and  restoring  it  again :  2.  Making 
his  hand  leprous  as  snow,  when  he  first  drew 
it  out  of  his  bosom,  and  restoring  it  sound  as 
before  when  he  next  drew  it  out :  and,  3. 
Turning  the  water  of  the  river  into  blood. 
And  the  people  believed  the  signs,  and  the 
promised  deliverance,  and  worshipped.  To 
assist  him,  also,  in  his  arduous  mission,  where 
Moses  had  represented  that  he  was  "not 
eloquent,  but  slow  of  speech,"  and  of  a  slow 
or  stammering  tongue,  God  inspired  Aaron, 
his  elder  brother,  to  go  and  meet  Moses  in  the 
wilderness,  to  be  his  spokesman  to  the  people, 
Exod.  iv,  1-31,  and  his  prophet  to  Pharaoh; 
while  Moses  was  to  be  a  god  to  both,  as  speak- 
ing to  them  in  the  name,  or  by  the  authority, 
of  God  himself,  Exod.  vii,  1,  2.  At  their  first 
interview  with  Pharaoh,  they  declared,  "  Thus 
saith  the  Lord,  the  God  of  Israel,  Let  my  peo- 
ple go,  that  they  may  hold  a  feast  unto  me  in 
the  wilderness.  And  Pharaoh  said,  Who  is 
the  Lord,  that  I  should  obey  his  voice  to  let 
Israel  go  ?  I  know  not,"  or  regard  not,  "  the 
Lord,  neither  will  I  let  Israel  go."  In  answer 
to  this  haughty  tyrant,  they  styled  the  Lord 
by  a  more  ancient  title,  which  the  Egyptians 
ought  to  have  known  and  respected,  from 
Abraham's  days,  when  he  plagued  them  in  the 
matter  of  Sarah:  "The  God  of  the  Hebrews 
hath  met  with  us :  Let  us  go,  we  pray  thee, 
three  days'  journey  into  the  desert,  and  sacri- 
fice unto  the  Lord  our  God,  lest  he  fall  upon 
us  with  pestilence  or  with  the  sword :"  plainly 
intimating  to  Pharaoh,  also,  not  to  incur  his 
indignation,  by  refusing  to  comply  with  his 
desire.  But  the  king  not  only  refused,  but  in- 
creased the  burdens  of  the  people,  Exod.  v, 
1—19 ;  and  the  people  murmured,  and  heark- 
ened not  unto  Moses,  when  he  repeated  from 
the  Lord  his  assurances  of  deliverance  and 
protection,  for  anguish  of  spirit,  and  for  cruel 
bondage,  Exod.  v,  20-23  ;  vi,  1-9. 

At  their  second  interview  with  Pharaoh,  ire 
obedience  to  the  divine  command,  again  re- 
quiring him  to  let  tiie  children  of  Israel  go 
out  of  his  land;  Pharaoh,  as  foretold,  demand- 
ed of  them  to  show  a  miracle  for  themselves, 
in  proof  of  their  commission,  when  Aaron 
cast  down  his  rod,  and  it  became  a  serpent 
before  Pharaoh  and  before  his  servants,  or 
officers  of  his  court.  The  king  then  called 
upon  his  wise  men  and  magicians,  to  know  if 
they  could  do  as  much  by  the  power  of  their 
gods,  "and  they  did  so  with  their  enchant- 
ments ;  for  they  cast  down  every  man  his  rod, 
and  they  became  serpents;  but  Aaron's  rod 
swallowed  up  their  serpents."     Here  the  origi 


MOS 


672 


MOS 


nai  phrase,  p  HfjlM,  "  and  they  did  so,"  or  "  in 
like  manner,"  may  only  indicate  the  attempt, 
and  not  the  deed ;  as  afterward,  in  the  plague 
of  lice,  "  when  they  did  so  with  their  enchant- 
ments, but  could  not,"  Exod.  viii,  18.  And, 
indeed,  the  original  term,  Dn'Bn%  rendered 
'•their  enchantments,"  as  derived  from  the 
root  bnV,  or  By},  to  hide  or  cover,  fitly  expresses 
the  secret  deceptions  of  legerdemain,  or  sleight- 
of-hand,  to  impose  on  spectators  :  and  the  re- 
mark of  the  magicians,  when  unable  to  imitate 
the  production  of  lice,  which  was  beyond  their 
skill  and  dexterity,  on  account  of  their  minute- 
ness,— "This  is  the  finger  of  a  God!" — seems 
to  strengthen  the  supposition  ;  especially  as 
the  Egyptians  were  famous  for  legerdemain 
and  for  charming  serpents  :  and  the  magicians, 
having  had  notice  of  the  miracle  they  were 
!cd  to  imitate,  might  make  provision 
accordingly,  and  bring  live  serpents,  which 
they  might  have  substituted  for  their  rods. 
And  though  Aaron's  serpent  swallowed  up  their 
its,  showing  the  superiority  of  the  true 
miracle  over  the  false,  2  Thess.  ii,  9,  it  might 
only  lead  the  king  to  conclude,  that  Moses 
and  Aaron  were  more  expert  jugglers  than 
Jannes  and  Jambres,  who  opposed  them, 
2  Timothy  iii,  8.  And  the  heart  of  Pharaoh 
was  hardened,  so  that  he  "  hearkned  not  unto 
them,  as  the  Lord  had  said,"  or  foretold, 
Exod.  vi,  10,  11 ;  vii,  8-13.  For  the  conduct 
of  Moses  as  the  deliverer  and  lawgiver  of  the 
Israelites,  see  Plagues  of  Egypt,  Red  Sea, 
and  Law. 

At  Mount  Sinai  the  Lord  was  pleased  to 
make  Moses,  the  redeemer  of  Israel,  an  emi- 
nent type  of  the  Redeemer  of  the  world.  "I 
will  raise  them  up  a  prophet  from  among  their 
brethren,  like  unto  thee,  and  will  put  my  words 
in  his  mouth  ;  and  he  shall  speak  unto  them 
all  that  I  shall  command  him  :  and  it  shall 
come  to  pass,  that  whosoever  will  not  hearken 
unto  my  words,  which  he  shall  speak  in  my 
name,  I  will  require  it  of  him :"  which  Moses 
communicated  to  the  people.  "  The  Lord 
thy  God  will  raise  up  unto  thee  a  prophet,  from 
the  midst  of  thee,  of  thy  brethren,  like  unto 
me :  unto  him  shall  ye  hearken,"  Dcut.  xviii, 
15-19.  This  prophet  like  unto  Moses  was 
our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  who  was  by  birth  a 
Jew,  of  the  middle  class  of  the  people,  and  re- 
sembled his  predecessor,  in  personal  inter- 
course with  God,  miracles,  and  legislation, 
which  no  other  prophet  did,  Deut.  xxxiv, 
10-12 ;  and  to  whom  God,  at  his  transfigura- 
tion, required  the  world  to  hearken,  Matt, 
xvii,  5.  Whence  our  Lord's  frequent  admoni- 
tion to  the  Jewish  church,  "He  that  hath 
cars  to  hear,  let  him  hear,"  Matthew  xiii,  9, 
&-c ;  which  is  addressed,  also,  by  the  Spirit  to 
the  Christian  churches  of  Asia  Minor,  Rev. 
iii,  22. 

In  the  affair  of  the  Golden  Calf,  (  see  Calf,) 
tin  conduct  of  Moses  showed  the  greatest  zeal 
for  God's  honour,  and  a  holy  indignation 
against  the  sin  of  Aaron  and  the  people.  And 
when  Moses  drew  nigh,  and  saw  their  proceed- 
ings, his  anger  waxed  hoi,  and  he  cast,  away 
bios  of  tho  covenant,  or  stone  tablets  on 


which  were  engraven  the  ten  ^mmandments 
by  the  finger  of  God  himself,  and  v,„  jje  them 
beneath  the  mount,  in  the  presence  of  r.^,  peo. 
pic  ;  in  token  that  the  covenant  between  cv,d 
and  them  was  now  rescinded  on  his  part,  in 
consequence  of  their  transgression.  He  then 
took  the  golden  calf,  and  burned  it  in  the  fire,, 
and  ground  it  to  powder,  and  mixed  it  with 
water,  and  made  the  children  of  Israel  drink 
of  it.  After  thus  destroying  their  ido\,  he  in- 
flicted punishment  on  the  idolaters  themseWes  ; 
for  he  summoned  all  that  were  on  the  LorA'q 
side  to  attend  him ;  and  all  the  Levites  having 
obeyed  the  call,  he  sent  them,  in  the  name  of 
the  Lord,  to  slay  all  the  idolaters,  from  one 
end  of  the  camp  to  the  other,  without  favour 
or  affection  either  to  their  neighbour  or  to  their 
brother ;  and  they  slew  about  three  thousand 
men.  The  Lord  also  sent  a  grievous  plague 
among  them  for  their  idolatry,  Exodus  xxxii, 
2-35,  on  which  occasion  Moses  gave  a  signal 
proof  of  his  love  for  his  people,  by  interceding 
for  them  with  the  Lord ;  and  of  his  own  dis- 
interestedness, in  refusing  the  offer  of  the 
Almighty  to  adopt  his  family  in  their  room, 
and  make  of  them  "  a  great  nation."  He 
prayed  that  God  would  blot  him  out  of  his 
book,  that  is,  take  away  his  life,  if  he  would 
not  forgive  "  the  great  sin  of  his  people  ;"  and 
prevailed  with  God  to  alter  his  determination 
of  withdrawing  his  presence  from  them,  and 
sending  an  inferior  angel  to  conduct  them  to 
the  land  of  promise.  So  wonderful  was  the 
condescension  of  God  to  the  voice  of  a  man, 
and  so  mighty  the  power  of  prayer. 

When  the  Lord  had  pardoned  the  people, 
and  taken  them  again  into  favour,  he  com- 
manded Moses  to  hew  two  tablets  of  stone, 
like  the  former  which  were  broken,  and  to  pre- 
sent  them  to  him  on  the  top  of  the  mount ; 
and  on  these  the  Lord  wrote  again  the  ten 
commandments,  for  a  renewal  of  the  covenant 
between  him  and  his  people.  To  reward  and 
strengthen  the  faith  of  Moses,  God  was  pleased, 
at  his  request,  to  grant  him  a  fuller  view  of 
the  divine  glory,  or  presence,  than  he  had 
hitherto  done.  And,  to  confirm  his  authority 
with  the  people  on  his  return,  after  the  second 
conference  of  forty  days,  he  imparted  to  him 
a  portion  of  that  glory  or  light  by  which  his 
immediate  presence  was  manifested :  for  the 
face  of  Moses  shone  so  that  Aaron  and  all  the 
people  were  afraid  to  come  nigh  him,  until  ho 
had  put  a  veil  on  his  face,  to  hide  its  bright- 
ness. This  was  an  honour  never  vouchsafed  to 
mortal  before  nor  afterward  till  Christ,  the 
Prophet  like  Moses,  in  his  transfiguration  also, 
appeared  arrayed  in  a  larger  measure  of  the 
same  lustre.  Then  Moses  again  beheld  the 
glory  of  the  Word  made  flesh,  and  ministered 
thereto  in  a  glorified  form  himself,  Exod. 
xxxiv,  1-35  ;  Matt,  xvii,  1-8. 

At  Kibroth  Hataavah,  when  the  people 
loathed  the  manna,  and  longed  for  flesh, 
Moses  betrayed  great  impatience,  and  wished 
for  death.  He  was  also  reproved  for  unbelief. 
At  Kadesh-barnea,  Moses  having  encouraged 
the  people  to  proceed,  saying,  "Behold,  the 
Lord  thy  God  hath  set  the  land  before  thee , 


MOS 


673 


MOS 


go  up  and  possess  it,  as  the  Lord  God  of  thy 
fathers  hath  said  unto  you  :  fear  not,"  Deut. 
i,  19-21 ;  they  betrayed  great  diffidence,  and 
proposed  to  Moses  to  send  spies  to  search  out 
the  land,  and  point  out  to  them  the  way  they 
should  enter,  and  the  course  they  should  take. 
And  the  proposal  "pleased  him  well,"  and 
with  the  consent  of  the  Lord  he  sent  twelve 
men,  one  out  of  each  tribe,  to  spy  out  the  land, 
Deut.  i,  22,  23 ;  Num.  xiii,  1-20.  All  these, 
except  Caleb  and  Joshua,  having  brought  "  an 
evil  report,"  so  discouraged  the  people,  that 
they  murmured  against  Moses  and  against 
Aaron,  and  said  unto  them,  "  Would  God  that 
we  had  died  in  the  land  of  Egypt ;  or  would 
God  that  we  had  died  in  the  wilderness !  And 
wherefore  hath  the  Lord  brought  us  unto  this 
land  to  fall  by  the  sword,  that  our  wives  and 
our  children  shall  be  a  prey  ?  Were  it  not 
better  for  us  to  return  into  Egypt  ?  And  they 
said  one  to  another,  Let  ns  make  a  captain, 
and  return  into  Egypt."  They  even  went  so 
far  as  to  propose  to  stone  Joshua  and  Caleb, 
because  they  exhorted  the  people  not  to  rebel 
against  the  Lord,  nor  to  fear  the  people  of  the 
land,  Num.  xiv,  1-10;  Deut.  i,  26-28.  Here 
again  the  noble  patriotism  of  Moses  was  sig- 
nally displayed.  He  again  refused  the  divine 
offer  to  disinherit  the  Israelites,  and  make  of 
him  and  his  family  a  "greater  and  mightier 
nation  than  they."  He  urged  the  most  persua- 
sive motives  with  their  offended  God,  not  to 
destroy  them  with  the  threatened  pestilence, 
lest  the  Heathen  might  say,  "  that  the  Lord 
was  not  able  to  bring  them  into  the  land  which 
he  sware  unto  them."  He  powerfully  appealed 
to  the  long-tried  mercies  and  forgivenesses 
they  had  experienced  ever  since  their  depart- 
ure from  Egypt ;  and  his  energetic  supplica- 
tion prevailed ;  for  the  Lord  graciously  said, 
"  I  have  pardoned,  according  to  thy  word  :  but 
verily,  as  I  live,  all  the  earth  shall  be  filled 
with  the  glory  of  the  Lord  ;"  or  shall  adore  him 
for  his  righteous  judgments ;  "  for  all  these 
men  which  have  seen  my  glory  and  my  mira- 
cles which  I  did  in  Egypt,  and  in  the  wilder- 
ness, and  have  tempted  me  these  ten  times,  and 
have  not  hearkened  to  my  voice,  surely  shall 
not  see  the  land  which  I  sware  unto  their 
fathers :  neither  shall  any  of  them  that  pro- 
voked me  see  it.  As  ye  have  spoken  in  my 
ears,  so  will  I  do  unto  you,"  by  a  righteous 
retaliation:  "your  carcasses  shall  fall  in  this 
wilderness.  But  your  little  ones,  which  ye 
said  should  be  a  prey,  them  will  I  bring  in  ; 
and  they  shall  wander  in  the  wilderness  forty 
years,  and  bear  your  whoredoms,  after  the 
number  of  the  days  in  which  ye  searched  the 
land,  each  day  for  a  year,  until  your  carcasses 
be  wasted  in  the  wilderness."  And  imme- 
diately after  this  sentence,  as  the  earnest  of  its 
full  accomplishment,  all  the  spies,  except  Ca- 
leb and  Joshua,  were  cut  off,  and  died  by  the 
plague  before  the  Lord,  Num.  xiv,  11-37 ; 
Deut.  i,  34-39. 

The  people  now,  to  repair  their  fault,  con- 
trary to  the  advice  of  Moses,  presumptuously 
went  to  invade  the  Amalekites  and  Canaanites 
cf  Mount  Seir,  or  Hor ;    who  defeated  them, 
44 


and  chased  them  as  bees  to  Hormah,  Num. 
xiv,  39-45 ;  Deut.  i,  41-44.  On  the  morrow 
they  were  ordered  to  turn  away  from  the  pro- 
mised land,  and  to  take  their  journey  south- 
westward,  toward  the  way  of  the  Red  Sea : 
and  they  abode  in  the  wilderness  of  Kadesh 
many  days,  or  years,  Num.  xiv,  25;  Deut. 
i,  40-46.  The  ill  success  of  the  expedition 
against  the  Amalekites,  according  to  Josephus, 
occasioned  the  rebellion  of  Korah,  which  broke 
out  shortly  after,  against  Moses  and  Aaron, 
with  greater  violence  than  any  of  the  fore- 
going, under  Korah,  the  ringleader,  who  drew 
into  it  Dathan  and  Abiram,  the  heads  of  the 
senior  tribe  of  Reuben,  and  two  hundred  and 
fifty  princes  of  the  assembly,  among  whom 
were  even  several  of  the  Levites.  (See  Korah.) 
But  although  "  all  Israel  round  about  had  fled 
at  the  cry  of  the  devoted  families  of  Dathan 
and  Abiram,  for  fear  that  the  earth  should 
swallow  them  up  also ;"  yet,  on  the  morrow, 
they  returned  to  their  rebellious  spirit,  and 
murmured  against  Moses  and  Aaron,  saying, 
"  Ye  have  killed  the  people  of  the  Lord."  On 
this  occasion  also,  the  Lord  threatened  to  con- 
sume them  as  in  a  moment ;  but,  on  the  inter- 
cession of  Moses,  only  smote  them  with  a 
plague,  which  was  stayed  by  an  atonement 
made  by  Aaron,  after  the  destruction  of  four- 
teen thousand  seven  hundred  souls,  Num. 
xvi,  41-50. 

On  the  return  of  the  Israelites,  after  many 
years'  wandering,  to  the  same  disastrous  sta- 
tion of  Kadesh-barnea,  even  Moses  himself 
was  guilty  of  an  offence,  in  which  his  brother 
Aaron  was  involved,  and  for  which  both  were 
excluded,  as  a  punishment,  from  entering  the 
promised  land.  At  Meribah  Kadesh  the  con- 
gregation murmured  against  Moses,  for  bring- 
ing them  into  a  barren  wilderness  without 
water ;  when  the  Lord  commanded  Moses  to 
take  his  rod,  which  had  been  laid  up  before  the 
Lord,  and  with  Aaron  to  assemble  the  congre- 
gation together,  and  to  speak  to  the  rock  before 
their  eyes  ;  which  should  supply  water  for  the 
congregation  and  their  cattle.  "  But  Moses 
said  unto  the  congregation,  when  they  were 
assembled,  Hear  now,  ye  rebels,  must  we  fetch 
you  water  out  of  this  rock  ?  And  he  smote 
the  rock  twice  with  his  rod,  and  the  water 
came  out  abundantly ;  and  the  congregation 
drank,  and  their  cattle  also.  And  the  Lord 
spake  unto  Moses  and  Aaron,  Because  ye 
believed  me  not,  to  sanctify  me  in  the  eyes  of 
the  children  of  Israel ;  therefore  ye  shall  not 
bring  this  congregation  into  the  land  which  I 
have  given  them,"  Num.  xx,  1-13;  and  after- 
ward in  stronger  terms  :  "Because  ye  rebelled 
against  my  commandment,"  &c,  Numbers 
xxvii,  14. 

The  offence  of  Moses,  as  far  as  may  be  col- 
lected from  so  concise  an  account,  seems  to 
have  been,  1.  He  distrusted  or  disbelieved  that 
water  could  be  produced  from  the  rock  only  by 
speaking  to  it/;  which  was  a  higher  miracle 
than  lie  had  performed  before  at  Rephidim, 
Exod.  xvii,  6.  2.  He  unnecessarily  smote  the 
rock  twice  ;  .thereby  betraying  an  unwarrant- 
able, impatience.    3.  He  did  not,  at  least  in  the 


MOS 


674 


MOS 


phrase  he  used,  ascribe  the  glory  of  the  mira- 
cle wholly  to  God,  but  rather  to  himself  and 
his  brother :  "  Must  we  fetch  you  water  out 
of  this  rock  ?"  And  he  denominated  them 
"  rebels"  against  his  and  his  brother's  autho- 
rity, which,  although  an  implied  act  of  rebellion 
against  God,  ought  to  have  been  stated,  as  on 
a  former  occasion,  "  Ye  have  been  rebels 
against  the  Lord,  from  the  day  that  I  knew 
you,"  Dent,  ix,  24,  which  he  spake  without 
blame.  For  want  of  more  caution  on  this 
occasion,  "  he  spake  unadvisedly  with  his  lips, 
because  they  provoked  his  spirit,"  Psalm  cvi,  33. 
Thus  "was  God  sanctified  at  the  waters  of 
Meribah,"  by  his  impartial  justice,  in  punishing 
his  greatest  favourites  when  they  did  amiss, 
Num.  xx,  13.  How  severely  Moses  felt  his 
deprivation,  appears  from  his  humble,  and  it 
should  seem  repeated,  supplications  to  the 
Lord  to  reverse  the  sentence  :  "  O  Lord  of 
gods,  thou  hast  begun  to  show  thy  servant  thy 
greatness,  and  thy  mighty  hand  ;  for  what  god 
is  there  in  heaven  or  in  earth  that  can  do  ac- 
cording to  thy  works,  and  according  to  thy 
might  ?  I  pray  thee  let  me  go  over  and  see  the 
good  land  beyond  Jordan,  even  that  goodly 
mountain  Lebanon,"  or  the  whole  breadth  of 
the  land.  "  But  the  Lord  was  wroth  with  me 
for  your  sakes,  and  would  not  hear  me  :  and  he 
said  unto  me,  Let  it  suffice  thee  ;  speak  no  more 
unto  me  of  this  matter.  Get  thee  up  unto  the 
top  of  Pisgah,  and  lift  up  thine  eyes  westward, 
and  northward,  and  southward,  and  eastward, 
and  behold  it  with  thine  eyes :  for  thou  shalt 
not  go  over  this  Jordan,"  Deut.  iii,  23-27. 

The  faculties  of  this  illustrious  legislator, 
both  of  mind  and  body,  were  not  impaired  at 
the  age  of  a  hundred  and  twenty  years,  when 
he  died.     "  His  eye  was  not  dim,  nor  his  na- 
tural strength  abated,"  Deut.  xxxiv,   7 :  and 
the   noblest  of  all  his  compositions  was  his 
Song,  or  the  Divine  Ode,  which  Bishop  Lowth 
elegantly  styles,   Cijcnea  Oratio,   "  the  Dying 
Swan's  Oration."     His  death  took  place  after 
the   Lord  had   shown   him,   from   the   top  of 
Pisgah,  a  distant  view  of  the  promised  land, 
throughout  its  whole  extent.   "  He  then  buried 
his  body  in  a  valley  opposite  Beth-peor,  in  the 
land  of  Moab  ;  but  no  man  knowcth  his  sepul- 
chre unto  this  day,"  observes  the  sacred  his- 
torian, who  annexed  the  circumstances  of  his 
death  to  the  book  of  Deuteronomy,  xxxiv,  6. 
From  an  obscure  passage  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, in  which  Michael  the  archangel  is  said 
to  have   contended  with  the  devil  about  the 
body  of  Moses,  Jude  9,   some  have  thought 
that  ho  was  buried  by  the  ministry  of  angels, 
near  the  scene  of  the  idolatry  of  the  Israelites  ; 
but  that  the  spot  was  purposely  concealed,  lest 
his  tomb  might  also  be  converted  into  an  object 
of  idolatrous   worship   ;i nioit nr  the   Israelites, 
like  the  brazen  serpent,     Beth-peor  lay  in  the 
lot  of  the  Reubenites,  Joshua  xiii,  20.     But  on 
ibseure  a  passage   nothing  can  be  built. 
'I'll--  "  body  of  M«. srs,"  may  figuratively  mean 
the  Jewish  Church;  or  the  whole   may  be  an 


Josephus,  who  frequently  attempts  to  em- 
bellish the  simple  narrative  of  Holy  Writ,  repre- 
sents Moses  as  attended  to  the  top  of  Pisgah  by 
Joshua,  his  successor,  Eleazar,  the  high  priest, 
and  the  whole  senate  ;  and  that,  after  he  had 
dismissed  the  senate,  while  he  was  conversing 
with  Joshua  and  Eleazar,  and  embracing  them, 
a  cloud  suddenly  came  over  and  enveloped 
him  ;  and  he  vanished  from  their  sight,  and  he 
was  taken  away  to  a  certain  valley.  "  In  the 
sacred  books,"  says  he,  "  it  is  written,  that  he 
died  ;  fearing  to  say  that  on  account  of  his 
transcendent  virtue,  he  had  departed  to  the 
Deity."  The  Jewish  historian  has  here,  per- 
haps, imitated  the  account  of  our  Lord's  as- 
cension, furnished  by  the  evangelist,  Luke 
xxiv,  50 ;  Acts  i,  9  ;  wishing  to  raise  Moses 
to  a  level  with  Christ.  The  preeminence  of 
Moses's  character  is  briefly  described  by  the 
sacred  historian,  Samuel  or  Ezra  :  "  And  there 
arose  not  a  prophet  since,  in  Israel,  like  unto 
Moses,  whom  the  Lord  knew  face  to  face  ;  in 
all  the  signs  and  the  wonders  which  the  Lord 
sent  him  to  do  in  the  land  of  Egypt,  to  Pha- 
raoh, and  all  his  servants,  and  all  his  land ; 
and  in  all  that  mighty  hand,  and  in  all  the 
great  terror  which  Moses  showed  in  the  sight 
of  all  Israel,"  Deut.  xxxiv,  10-12. 

So  marked  and  hallowed  is  the  character  of 
this,  the  most  eminent  of  mere  men,  that  it 
has  often  been  successfully  made  the  basis  of 
an  irresistible  argument  for  the  truth  of  his 
divine  mission.  Thus  Cellerier  observes,  Every 
imposture  has  an  object  in  view,  and  an  aim 
more  or  less  selfish.  Men  practise  deceit  for 
money,  for  pleasure,  or  for  glory.  If,  by  a 
strange  combination,  the  love  of  mankind 
ever  entered  into  the  mind  of  an  impostor, 
doubtless,  even  then,  he  has  contrived  to 
reconcile,  at  least,  his  own  selfish  interests 
with  those  of  the  human  race.  If  men  de- 
ceive others,  for  the  sake  of  causing  their  own 
opinions  or  their  own  party  to  triumph,  they 
may  sometimes,  perhaps,  forget  their  own 
interests  during  the  struggle,  but  they  again 
remember  them  when  the  victory  is  achieved. 
It  is  a  general  rule,  that  no  impostor  forgets 
himself  long.  But  Moses  forgot  himself,  and 
forgot  himself  to  the  last.  Yet  there  is  no 
middle  supposition.  If  Moses  was  not  a 
divinely  inspired  messenger,  he  was  an  im- 
postor in  the  strongest  sense  of  the  term.  It 
is  not,  as  in  the  case  of  Numa,  a  slight  and 
single  fraud,  designed  to  secure  some  good 
end,  that  we  have  to  charge  him  with,  but  a 
series  of  deceits,  many  of  which  were  gross  ; 
a  profound,  dishonest,  perfidious,  sanguinary 
dissimulation,  continued  for  the  space  of  forty 
years.  If  Moses  was  not  a  divinely  commis- 
sioned prophet,  he  was  not  the  saviour  of  the 
people,  but  their  tyrant  and  their  murderer. 
Still,  we  repeat,  this  barbarous  impostor  always 
forgot  himself;  and  his  disinterestedness,  as 
regarded  himself  personally,  his  family,  and 
his  tribe,  is  one  of  the  most  extraordinary 
features  in  his  administration.     As  to  himself 


alrusiorj  to  a  received  tradition  which, "without  personally  :  He  is  destined  to  die  in  the  wil- 
affirming  or  denying  its  truth,  might  be  made  derness ;  he  is  never  to  taste  the  tranquillity, 
the  basis;  of  a  moral  lesson.  |  the  plenty,  and  the  delight,  the  possession  of 


MOS 


675 


MOS 


which  he  promises  to  his  countrymen  ;  he 
shares  with  them  only  their  fatigues  and  pri- 
vations ;  he  has  more  anxieties  than  they,  on 
their  account,  in  their  acts  of  disobedience, 
and  in  their  perpetual  murmurings.  As  to  his 
family :  He  does  not  nominate  his  sons  as  his 
successors  ;  he  places  them,  without  any  privi- 
leges or  distinctions,  among  the  obscure  sons 
of  Levi ;  they  are  not  even  admitted  into  the 
sacerdotal  authority.  Unlike  all  other  fathers, 
Moses  withdraws  them  from  public  view,  and 
deprives  them  of  the  means  of  obtaining  glory 
and  favour.  Samuel  and  Eli  assign  a  part  of 
their  paternal  authority  to  their  sons,  and  per- 
mit them  even  to  abuse  it ;  but  the  sons  of 
Moses,  in  the  wilderness,  are  only  the  simple 
servants  of  the  tabernacle  ;  like  all  the  other 
sons  of  Kohath,  if  they  even  dare  to  raise  the 
veil  which  covers  the  sacred  furniture,  the 
burden  of  which  they  carry,  death  is  denounced 
against  them.  Where  can  we  find  more  com- 
plete disinterestedness  than  in  Moses  ?  Is  not 
his  the  character  of  an  upright  man,  who  has 
the  general  good,  not  his  own  interests,  at 
heart ;  of  a  man  who  submissively  acquiesces 
in  the  commands  of  God,  without  resistance 
and  without  demur  ?  When  we  consider  these 
several  tilings  ;  when  we  reflect  on  all  the 
ministry  of  Moses,  on  his  life,  on  his  death, 
on  his  character,  on  his  abilities,  and  his  suc- 
cess ;  we  are  powerfully  convinced  that  he 
was  the  messenger  of  God.  If.  we  consider 
him  only  as  an  able  legislator,  as  a  Lycurgus, 
as  a  Numa,  his  actions  are  inexplicable  :  we 
find  not  in  him  the  affections,  the  interests, 
the  views  which  usually  belong  to  the  human 
heart.  The  simplicity,  the  harmony,  the 
verity  of  his  natural  character  are  gone  ;  they 
give  place  to  an  incoherent  union  of  ardour 
and  imposture ;  of  daring  and  of  timidity,  of 
incapacity  and  genius,  of  cruelty  and  sensi- 
bility. No  !  Moses  was  inspired  by  God  :  he 
received  from  God  the  law  which  he  left  his 
countrymen. 

To  Moses  we  owe  that  important  portion  of 
Holy  Scripture,  the  Pentateuch,  which  brings 
us  acquainted  with  the  creation  of  the  world, 
the  entrance  of  sin  and  death,  the  first  promises 
of  redemption,  the  flood,  the  peopling  of  the 
postdiluvian  earth,  and  the  origin  of  nations, 
the  call  of  Abraham,  and  the  giving  of  the  law. 
We  have,  indeed,  in  it  the  early  history  of 
religion,  and  a  key  to  all  the  subsequent  dis- 
pensations of  God  to  man.  The  genuineness 
and  authenticity  of  these  most  venerable  and 
important  books  have  been  established  by 
various  writers  ;  but  the  following  remarks 
upon  the  veracity  of  the  writings  of  Moses 
have  the  merit  of  compressing  much  argu- 
ment into  few  words: — 1.  There  is  a  minute- 
ness in  the  details  of  the  Mosaic  writings, 
which  bespeaks  their  truth  ;  for  it  often  be- 
speaks the  eye-witness,  as  in  the  adventures 
of  the  wilderness  ;  and  often  seems  intended  to 
supply  directions  to  the  artificer,  as  in  the 
construction  of  the  tabernacle.  2.  There  are 
touches  of  nature  in  the  narrative  which  be- 
speak its  truth,  for  it  is  not  easy  to  regard 
them  otherwise  than  as  strokes  from  the  life ; 


as  where  "the  mixed  multitude,"  whether  half- 
castes  or  Egyptians,  are  the  first  to  sigh  for 
the  cucumbers  and  melons  of  Egypt,  and  to 
spread  discontent  through  the  camp,  Num. 
xi,  4;  as  the  miserable  exculpation  of  himself, 
which  Aaron  attempts,  with  all  the  cowardice 
of  conscious  guilt,  "  I  cast  into  the  fire,  and 
there  came  out  this  calf:"  the  fire,  to  be  sure, 
being  in  the  fault,  Exod.  xxxii,  24.  3.  There 
are  certain  little  inconveniences  represented  as 
turning  up  unexpectedly,  that  bespeak  truth 
in  the  story ;  for  they  are  just  such  accidents 
as  are  characteristic  of  the  working  of  a  new 
system  and  untried  machinery.  What  is  to 
be.  done  with  the  man  who  is  found  gathering 
sticks  on  the  Sabbath  day  ?  Num.  xv,  32. 
(Could  an  impostor  have  devised  such  a  trifle  ?) 
How  is  the  inheritance  of  the  daughters  of 
Zelophehad  to  be  disposed  of,  there  being  no 
heir  male  ?  Num.  xxxvi,  2.  Either  of  them 
inconsiderable  matters  in  themselves,  but  both 
giving  occasion  to  very  important  laws ;  the 
one  touching  life,  and  the  other  property. 
4.  There  is  a  simplicity  in  the  manner  of 
Moses,  when  telling  his  tale,  which  bespeaks 
its  truth  :  no  parade  of  language,  no  pomp  of 
circumstance  even  in  his  miracles,  a  modesty 
and  dignity  throughout  all.  Let  us  but  com- 
pare him  in  any  trying  6cene  with  Josephus ; 
his  description,  for  instance,  of  the  passage 
through  the  Red  Sea,  Exod.  xiv,  of  the  mur. 
muring  of  the  Israelites  and  the  supply  of 
quails  and  manna,  with  the  same  as  given  by 
the  Jewish  historian,  or  rhetorician  we  might 
rather  say,  and  the  force  of  the  observation 
will  be  felt.  5.  There  is  a  candour  in  the 
treatment  of  his  subject  by  Moses,  which  be- 
speaks his  truth  ;  as  when  he  tells  of  his  own 
want  of  eloquence,  which  unfitted  him  for  a 
leader,  Exod.  iv,  10  ;  his  own  want  of  faith, 
which  prevented  him  from  entering  the  pro- 
mised land,  Num.  xx,  12 ;  the  idolatry  of 
Aaron  his  brother,  Exod.  xxxii,  21 ;  the  pro- 
faneness  of  Nadab  and  Abihu,  his  nephews, 
Lev.  x ;  the  disaffection  and  punishment  of 
Miriam,  his  sister,  Num.  xii,  1.  6.  There  is  a 
disinterestedness  in  his  conduct,  which  be- 
speaks him  to  be  a  man  of  truth  ;  for  though 
he  had  sons,  he  apparently  takes  no  measures 
during  his  life  to  give  them  offices  of  trust  or 
profit ;  and  at  his  death  he  appoints  as  his  suc- 
cessor one  who  had  no  claims  upon  him,  either 
of  alliance,  of  clanship,  or  of  blood.  7.  There 
are  certain  prophetical  passages  in  the  writings 
of  Moses,  which  bespeak  their  truth;  as,  seve- 
ral respecting  the  future  Messiah,  and  the 
very  sublime  and  literal  one  respecting  the 
final  fall  of  Jerusalem,  Deut.  xxviii.  8.  There 
is  a  simple  key  supplied  by  these  writings,  to 
the  meaning  of  many  ancient  traditions  cur- 
rent among  the  Heathens,  though  greatly  dis- 
guised, which  is  another  circumstance  that 
bespeaks  their  truth :  as,  the  golden  age  ;  the 
garden  of  the  Hesperides  ;  the  fruit  tree  in  the 
midst  of  the  garden  which  the  dragon  guarded  ; 
the  destruction  of  mankind  by  a  flood,  all  ex- 
cept two  persons,  and  those  righteous  persons, 

Jnnocuos  ambos,  cultores  nu minis  ambos ; 

[Both  innocent,  both  worshippers  of  Deity ;] 


MOS 


676 


AtOS 


the  rainbow,  "  which  Jupiter  set  in  the  cloud, 
a  6ign  to  men ;"  the  seventh  day  a  sacred  day  ; 
with  many  others,  all  conspiring  to  establish 
the  reality  of  the  facts  which  Moses  relates, 
because  tending  to  show  that  vestiges  of  the 
like  present  themselves  in  the  traditional  his- 
tory  of  the  world  at  large.  9.  The  concurrence 
which  is  found  between  the  writings  of  Moses 
and  those  of  the  New  Testament  bespeaks 
their  truth  :  the  latter  constantly  appealing  to 
them,  being  indeed  but  the  completion  of  the 
system  which  the  others  are  the  first  to  put 
forth.  Nor  is  this  an  illogical  argument ;  for, 
though  the  credibility  of  the  New  Testament 
itself  may  certainly  be  reasoned  out  from  the 
truth  of  the  Pentateuch  once  established,  it  is 
still  very  far  from  depending  on  that  circum- 
stance exclusively,  or  even  principally.  The 
New  Testament  demands  acceptance  on  its  own 
merits,  on  merits  distinct  from  those  on  which 
the  books  of  Moses  rest,  therefore  (so  far  as  it 
does  so)  it  may  fairly  give  its  suffrage  for  their 
veracity,  valeat  quantum  valet :  [it  may  avail  as 
far  as  it  goes ;]  and  surely  it  is  a  very  impro- 
bable thing,  that  two  dispensations,  separated 
by  an  interval  of  some  fifteen  hundred  years, 
each  exhibiting  prophecies  of  its  own,  since  ful- 
filled ;  each  asserting  miracles  of  its  own,  on 
strong  evidence  of  its  own  ;  that  two  dispensa- 
tions, with  such  individual  claims  to  be  believed, 
should  also  be  found  to  stand  in  the  closest  rela- 
tion to  one  another,  and  yet  both  turn  out  im- 
postures after  all.  10.  Above  all,  there  is  a  com- 
parative purity  in  the  theology  and  morality  of 
the  Pentateuch,  which  argues  not  only  its  truth, 
but  its  high  original;  for  how  else  are  we  to 
account  for  a  system  like  that  of  Moses,  in 
6uch  an  age  and  among  such  a  people ;  that 
the  doctrine  of  the  unity,  the  self-existence, 
the  providence,  the  perfections  of  the  great 
God  of  heaven  and  earth,  should  thus  have 
blazed  forth  (how  far  more  brightly  than  even 
in  the  vaunted  schools  of  Athens  at  its  most 
refined  era !)  from  the  midst  of  a  nation,  of 
themselves  ever  plunging  into  gross  and 
grovelling  idolatry ;  and  that  principles  of 
social  duty,  of  benevolence,  and  of  self-restraint, 
extending  even  to  the  thoughts  of  the  heart, 
should  have  been  the  produce  of  an  age  which 
the  very  provisions  of  the  Levitical  law  itself 
show  to  have  been  full  of  savage  and  licen- 
tious abominations  ?  Exod.  iii,  14  ;  xx,  3-17  ; 
Lev.  xix,  2,  18  ;  Deut.  vi,  4  ;  xxx,  6.  Such 
are  some  of  the  internal  evidences  for  the 
veracity  of  the  books  of  Moses.  11.  Then 
the  situation  in  which  1  lie  Jews  actually  found 
themselves  placed,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  is  no 
slight  argument  for  the  truth  of  the  Mosaic 
accounts;  reminded,  as  they  were,  by  certain 
memorials  observed  from  year  to  year,  of  the 
great  events  of  their  curly  history,  just  as  they 
are  recorded  in  the  writings  of  Moses,  memo- 
rials universally  recognised  both  in  their  object 
and  In  their  authority.  The  passover,  for 
instance,  celebrated  by  all,  no  man  doubting 
its  meaning,  no  man  m  all  Israel  assigning  to 
it  any  othet  origin  than  one,  viz.  that  of  being 
a  contemporary  monument  of  a  miracle  dis- 
played in  favour  of  the  people  of  Israel ;  by 


right  of  which  credentials,  and  no  other,  it 
summoned  from  all  quarters  of  the  world,  at 
great  cost,  and  inconvenience,  and  danger, 
the  dispersed  Jews,  none  disputing  the  obliga- 
tion to  obey  the  summons.  12.  Then  the 
heroic  devotion  with  which  the  Israelites  con- 
tinued to  regard  the  law,  even  long  after  they 
had  ceased  to  cultivate  the  better  part  of  it, 
even  when  that  very  law  only  served  to  con- 
demn its  worshippers,  so  that  they  would  offer 
themselves  up  by  thousands,  with  their  chil- 
dren and  wives,  as  martyrs  to  the  honour  of 
their  temple,  in  which  no  image,  even  of  an 
emperor,  who  could  scourge  them  with  scor- 
pions for  their  disobedience,  should  be  suffered 
to  stand,  and  they  live  :  so  that  rather  than 
violate  the  sanctity  of  the  Sabbath  day,  the 
bravest  men  in  arms  would  lay  down  their 
lives  as  tamely  as  sheep,  and  allow  themselves 
to  be  burned  in  the  holes  where  they  had  taken 
refuge  from  their  cruel  and  cowardly  pursuers. 
All  this  points  to  their  law,  as  having  been  at 
first  promulgated  under  circumstances  too 
awful  to  be  forgotten  even  after  the  lapse  of 
ages.  13.  Then  again,  the  extraordinary  de- 
gree of  national  pride  with  which  the  Jews 
boasted  themselves  to  be  God's  peculiar  people, 
as  if  no  nation  ever  was  or  ever  could  be  so 
nigh  to  him  ;  a  feeling  which  the  early  teach- 
ers of  Christianity  found  an  insuperable  ob- 
stacle to  the  progress  of  the  Gospel  among 
them,  and  which  actually  did  effect  its  ultimate 
rejection,  this  may  well  seem  to  be  founded 
upon  a  strong  traditional  sense  of  uncommon 
tokens  of  the  Almighty's  regard  for  them 
above  all  other  nations  of  the  earth,  which 
they  had  heard  with  their  ears,  or  their  fathers 
had  declared  unto  them,  even  the  noble  works 
that  he  had  done  in  the  old  time  before  them. 
14.  Then  again,  the  constant  craving  after 
"  a  sign,"  which  beset  them  in  the  latter  days 
of  their  history,  as  a  lively  certificate  of  the 
prophet ;  and  not  after  a  sign  only,  but  after 
such  a  one  as  they  would  themselves  prescribe : 
"  What  sign  showest  thou,  that  we  may  see, 
and  believe  ?  Our  fathers  did  eat  manna  in  the 
desert,"  John  vi,  31.  This  desire,  so  frequently 
expressed,  and  with  which  they  are  so  frequently 
reproached,  looks  like  the  relic  of  an  appetite 
engendered  in  other  times,  when  they  had  en- 
joyed the  privilege  of  more  intimate  com- 
munion with  God ;  it  seems  the  wake,  as  it 
were,  of  miracles  departed.  15.  Lastly,  the 
vexy  onerous  nature  of  the  law  ;  so  studiously 
meddling  witli  all  the  occupations  of  life,  great 
and  small  ; — this  yoko  would  scarcely  have 
been  endured,  without  the  strongest  assurance, 
on  the  part  of  those  who  wore  frilled  by  it,  of 
the  authority  by  which  it  was  imposed.  For 
it  met  them  with  some  restraint  or  other  at 
every  turn.  Would  they  plough?  then  it  must 
not  be  with  an  ox  and  an  ass.  Would  they 
sow  ?  then  must  not  the  seed  he  mixed.  Would 
they  reap?  then  must  they  not  reap  clean 
Would  they  make  bread  ?  then  must  they  set 
apart  dough  enough  for  the  consecrated  loaf. 
Did  they  find  a  bird's  nest  ?  then  must  they 
let  the  old  bird  fly  away.  Did  they  hunt  ?  then 
they  must  shed  the  blood  of  their  game,  and 


MOT 


677 


MOT 


cover  it  with  dust.  Did  they  plant  a  fruit 
tree  1  for  three  years  was  the  fruit  to  be  un- 
circumcised.  Did  they  shave  their  Beards  ? 
they  were  not  to  cut  the  corners.  Did  they 
weave  a  garment  ?  then  must  it  be  only  with 
threads  prescribed.  Did  they  build  a  house ? 
they  must  put  rails  and  battlements  on  the 
roof.  Did  they  buy  an  estate  ?  at  the  year  of 
jubilee,  back  it  must  go  to  its  owner.  All 
these  (and  how  many  more  of  the  same  kind 
might  be  named  !)  arc  enactments  which  it 
must  have  required  extraordinary  influence  in 
the  lawgiver  to  enjoin,  and  extraordinary  reve- 
rence for  his  powers  to  perpetuate. 

Still,  after  all,  says  Mr.  Blunt,  unbelievers 
may  start  difficulties, — this  I  dispute  not ;  dif- 
ficulties, too,  which  we  may  not  always  be  able 
to  answer,  though  I  think  we  may  be  always 
able  to  neutralize  them.  It  may  be  a  part  of 
our  trial,  that  such  difficulties  should  exist  and 
be  encountered ;  for  there  can  be  no  reason 
why  temptations  should  not  be  provided  for 
the  natural  pride  of  our  understanding,  as  well 
as  for  the  natural  lusts  of  our  flesh.  To  many, 
indeed,  they  would  be  the  more  formidable  of 
the  two,  perhaps  to  the  angels  who  kept  not 
their  first  estate  they  proved  so.  With  such 
facts,  however,  before  me,  as  these  which  I 
have  submitted  to  my  readers,  I  can  Come  to 
no  conclusion  but  one, — tha't  when  we  read 
the  writings  of  Moses,  we  read  no  cunningly 
devised  fables,  but  solemn  and  safe  records  of 
great  and  marvellous  events,  which  court  ex- 
amination, and  sustain  it ;  records  of  such 
apparent  veracity  and  faithfulness,  that  I  can 
understand  our  Lord  to  have  spoken  almost 
without  a  figure,  when  he  said,  that  he  who 
believed  not  Moses,  neither  would  he  be  per- 
suaded though  one  rose  from  the  dead. 

MOTH,  V*$,  Job  iv,  19 ;  and  wy,  Job  xiii, 
28  ;  xxvii,  18 ;  Psalm  vi,  7  ;  xxxi,  9, 10  ;  xxxix, 
11;  Isaiah  1,  9;  Hosea  v,  12.  The  clothes 
moth  is  the  tinea  argentea  ;  of  a  white,  shining 
silver,  or  pearl  colour.  It  is  clothed  with  shells, 
fourteen  in  number,  and  these  are  scaly.  Albin 
asserts  this  to  be  the  insect  that  eats  woollen 
stuffs  ;  and  says  that  it  is  produced  from  a 
gray  speckled  moth,  that  flies  by  night,  creeps 
among  woollens,  and  there  lays  her  eggs, 
which,  after  a  little  time,  are  hatched  as 
worms,  and  in  this  state  they  feed  on  their 
habitation,  till  they  change  into  a  chrysalis, 
and  thence  emerge  into  moths.  "The  young 
moth,  or  moth  worm,"  says  the  Abbe  Pluche, 
"  upon  leaving  the  egg  which  a  papilio  had 
lodged  upon  a  piece  of  stuff  commodious  for 
her  purpose,  finds  a  proper  place  of  residence, 
grows  and  feeds  upon  the  nap,  and  likewise 
builds  with  it  an  apartment,  which  is  fixed~to 
the  groundwork  of  the  stuff  with  several  cords 
and  a  little  glue.  From  an  aperture  in  this 
habitation,  the  moth  worm  devours  and  de- 
molishes all  about  him ;  and,  when  he  has 
cleared  the  place,  he  draws  out  all  the  fasten- 
ings of  his  tent ;  after  which  he  carries  it  to 
some  little  distance,  and  then  fixes  it  with  the 
slender  cords  in  a  new  situation.  In  this  man- 
ner he  continues  to  live  at  our  expense,  till  he 
is  satisfied  with  his  food,  at  which  period  he 


is  first  transformed  into  the  nympha,  and  then 
changed  into  the  papilio." 

The  allusions  to  this  insect  in  the  sacred 
writings  are  very  striking  :  "  Fear  ye  not  the 
reproach  of  men,  neither  be  ye  afraid  of  their 
revilings.  For  the  moth  shall  eat  them  up  like 
a  garment,  and  the  worm  shall  eat  them  like 
wool."  They  shall  perish  with  as  little  noise 
as  a  garment  under  the  tooth  of  a  moth,  Isaiah 
li,  7,  8.  In  the  prophecies  of  Hosea,  God  him- 
self says,  "  I  will  be  as  a  moth  unto  Ephraim, 
and  as  a  lion ;"  that  is,  I  will  send  silent  and 
secret  judgments  upon  him,  which  shall  imper- 
ceptibly waste  his  beauty,  corrode  his  power, 
and  diminish  his  strength,  and  will  finish  his 
destruction  with  open  and  irresistible  calami- 
ties. Or  the  meaning  may  be,  As  the  moth 
crumbles  into  dust  under  the  slightest  pressure, 
or  the  gentlest  touch,  so  man  dissolves  with 
equal  ease,  and  vanishes  into  darkness,  under 
the  finger  of  the  Almighty.  Deeply  sensible 
of  this  affecting  truth,  the  royal  Psalmist  earn- 
estly deprecates  the  judgments  of  God,  humbly 
confessing  his  own  weakness,  and  the  inability 
of  every  man  to  endure  his  frown  :  "  Remove 
thy  stroke  away  from  me  :  I  am  consumed  by 
the  blow  of  thy  hand.  When  thou  with  re- 
bukes doth  correct  man  for  iniquity,  thou 
makest  his  beauty  to  consume  away  like  a 
moth :  surely  every  man  is  vanity.  Selah," 
Psalm  xxxix,  10,  11.  Such,  in  the  estimation 
of  Job,  is  the  fading  prosperity  of  a  wicked 
man  :  "  He  buildeth  his  house  as  a  moth,  and 
as  a  booth  that  the  keeper  maketh,"  Job 
xxvii,  18.  His  unrighteous  acquisitions  shall 
be  of  short  continuance  ;  they  shall  moulder 
insensibly  away,  returning  to  the  lawful  owner, 
or  pass  into  the  possession  of  others.  It  is  in 
this  sense  that  the  Lord  threatens  :  "  I  will  be 
unto  Ephraim  as  a  moth,"  Hosea  v,  12.  By 
the  secret  curse  of  God  he  shall  fade  away, 
and  whatever  is  most  precious  in  his  estima- 
tion shall  be  gradually  dissolved  and  consumed, 
as  a  garment  eaten  by  the  moth.  The  same  allu- 
sion is  involved  in  the  direction  of  our  Lord 
to  his  disciples  :  "  Lay  not  up  for  yourselves 
treasures  upon  the  earth,  where  moth  and  rust 
doth  corrupt,  and  where  thieves  break  through 
and  steal.  But  lay  up  for  yourselves  treasures 
in  heaven,  where  neither  moth  nor  rust  doth 
corrupt,  and  where  thieves  do  not  break 
through  nor  steal,"  Matthew  vi,  19,  20.  The 
word  treasure  commonly  suggests  to  our  minds 
the  idea  of  some  durable  substance,  as  precious 
stones,  gold,  and  silver,  upon  which  the  per- 
severing industry  of  a  moth  can  make  no 
impression ;  but,  in  the  language  of  inspi- 
ration, it  denotes  every  thing  collected  to- 
gether which  men  reckon  valuable.  The  Jews 
had  treasures  of  raiment,  as  well  as  of  corn, 
of  wine,  of  oil,  of  honey,  Jer.  xli,  8;  and  of 
gold,  silver,  and  brass,  Ezek.  xxxiii,  4 ;  Dan. 
xi,  43.  The  robes  of  princes  were  a  part  of 
their  treasure,  upon  which  they  often  set  a 
particular  value.  Rich  vestments  made  a  con- 
spicuous figure  in  the  treasury  of  Ulysses. 
These  were,  from  their  nature,  exposed  to  the 
depredations  of  the  moth ;  fabricated  of  perish- 
ing materials,  they  were  liable  to  be  prema- 


MUL 


678 


MUS 


turely  consumed,  or  taken  away  by  fraud  or 
violence  ;  but  tbe  favour  of  Cod,  and  the  graces 
of  his  Spirit,  and  the  enjoyment  of  eternal 
happiness,  are  neither  liable  to  internal  decay 
nor  external  violence,  and  by  consequence, 
are  the  proper  objects  of  our  highest  regard, 
chief  solicitude,  and  constant  pursuit.  It  is 
also  likely,  that,  by  "  moth"  our  Lord  meant  all 
the  kinds  of  small  insects  which  devour  or 
spoil  the  different  kinds  of  property,  such  as 
corn,  honey,  fruits,  &c,  which  were  treasured 
up  for  the  future.  These,  in  warm  countries, 
are  very  numerous  and  destructive. 

MOURNING.     See  Burial  and  Dead. 

MOUSE,  "«aj»,  in  Chaldee  acalbar,  proba- 
bly the  same  with  the  aliarbui  of  the  Arabians 
or  the^'erfcofl,  Leviticus  xi,  29  ;  1  Samuel  vi,  4, 
5,  11,  18;  Isaiah  xlvi,  17.  All  interpreters 
acknowledge  that  the  Hebrew  word  achbar 
signifies  a  "  mouse,"  and  more  especially  a 
"  field  mouse."  Moses  declares  it  to  be  un- 
clean, which  insinuates  that  it  was  sometimes 
eaten ;  and,  indeed,  it  is  affirmed  that  the 
Jews  were  so  oppressed  with  famine  during  the 
eiege  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Romans,  that,  not- 
withstanding this  prohibition,  they  were  com- 
pelled to  eat  dogs,  mice,  and  rats.  Isaiah, 
lxvi,  17,  justly  reproaches  the  Jews  with  eat- 
ing the  flesh  of  mice  and  other  things  that 
were  impure  and  abominable.  It  is  known 
what  spoil  was  made  by  mice  in  the  fields  of 
the  Philistines,  1  Sam.  vi,  5,  6,  &c,  after  this 
people  had  brought  into  the  country  the  ark 
of  the  Lord  ;  so  that  they  were  obliged  to  take 
the  resolution  to  send  it  back,  accompanied 
with  mice  and  emerods  of  gold,  as  an  atone, 
ment  for  the  irreverence  they  had  committed, 
and  to  avert  from  their  land  the  vengeance 
that  pursued  them.  Judea  has  suffered  by  these 
animals  in  other  times.  William,  archbishop 
of  Tyre,  records,  that  in  the  beginning  of  the 
twelfth  century  a  penitential  council  was  held 
at  Naplouse,  where  five  and  twenty  canons 
were  framed  for  the  correction  of  the  manners 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Christian  kingdom  of 
Jerusalem,  who,  they  apprehended,  had  pro- 
voked God  to  bring  upon  them  the  calamities 
of  earthquakes,  war,  and  famine.  .Tins  last  the 
archbishop  ascribes  to  locusts  and  devouring 
mice,  which  had  for  four  years  together  so  de- 
stroyed the  fruits  of  the  earth,  as  seemed  to 
cause  almost  a  total  failure  in  their  crops. 
Bochart  has  collected  many  curious  accounts 
relative  to  the  terrible  devastation  made  by 
these  animals. 

MULBERRY  TREE,  mm,  2  Sam.  v,  23, 
24  ;  1  Chronicles  xiv,  14,  15  ;  Psalm  lxxxiv,  7. 
The  LXa,  in  Chronicles,  render  the  word  by 
Mtav,  •■  pear  trees ;"  so  Aquila  and  the  Vulgate, 
both  in  Samuel  and  Chronicles,  " pyrorum." 
Others  translate  it  the  "  mulberry  tree."  More 
probably  it  is  the  large  shrub  which  the  Arabs 
still  call  "  baca ;"  and  which  gave  name  to  the 
valley  where  it  abounded.  Of  this  valley  Cel- 
sius remarks,  that  it  was  "rugged  and  embar- 
rassed with  bushes  and  stones,  which  could  not 
be  passed  through  without  labour  and  tears ;" 
referring  to  Psalm  lxxxiv,  7 ;  and  the  "  rough 
valley,"  Deut.  xxi,  4  ;  and  he  quotes  from   a 


manuscript  of  Abu'l  Fideli  a  description  of  the 
tree  which  grew  there,  and  mentions  it  as  bear- 
ing a  fruit  of  an  acrid  taste. 

MULE,  -no,  2  Sam.  xiii,  29 ;  1  Kings  i,  33 ; 
x,  25,  &c.  A  mongrel  kind  of  quadruped,  be- 
tween the  horse  and  the  ass.  Its  form  bears 
a  considerable  resemblance  to  the  last  mention- 
ed animal  ;  but  in  its  disposition  it  is  rather 
vicious  and  intractable ;  so  that  its  obstinacy 
has  become  a  proverb.  With  this  creature  the 
early  ages  were  probably  unacquainted.  It  is 
very  certain  the  Jews  did  not  breed  mules,  be- 
cause it  was  forbidden  them  to  couple  together 
two  creatures  of  different  species,  Lev.  xix,  19. 
But  they  were  not  prohibited  the  making  use 
of  them :  thus  we  find  in  David's  time  that 
they  had  become  very  common,  and  made  up 
a  considerable  part  of  the  equipage  of  princes, 
2  Sam.  xiii,  29  ;  xviii,  9 ;  1  Kings  i,  33,  38, 
44 ;  x,  25 ;  2  Chron.  ix,  24. 

MURDER.  Among  the  Hebrews  murder 
was  always  punished  with  death  ;  but  involun- 
tary homicide,  only  by  banishment.  Cities  of 
refuge  were  appointed  for  involuntary  man- 
slaughter, whither  the  slayer  might  retire  and 
continue  in  safety  till  the  death  of  the  high 
priest,  Num.  xxxv,  28.  Then  the  offender  was 
at  liberty  to  return  to  his  own  house,  if  he 
pleased."  A  murderer  was  put  to  death  with- 
out remission,  arid  the  kinsman  of  the  mur. 
dered  person  might  kill  him  with  impunity. 
Money  could  not  redeem  his  life  :  he  was  drag- 
ged away  from  the  altar,  if  he  had  there  taken 
refuge.  When  a  dead  body  was  found  in  the 
fields  of  a  person  slain  by  a  murderer  unknown, 
Moses  commanded  that  the  elders  and  judges 
of  the  neighbouring  places  should  resort  to  the 
spot,  Deut.  xxi,  1-8.  The  elders  of  the  city 
nearest  to  it  were  to  take  a  heifer  which  had 
never  yet  borne  the  yoke,  and  were  to  lead  it 
into  some  rude  and  uncultivated  place,  which 
had  not  been  ploughed  or  sowed,  where  they 
were  to  cut  its  throat.  The  priests  of  the 
Lord,  with  the  elders  and  magistrates  of  the 
city,  were  to  come  near  the  dead  body,  and, 
washing  their  hands  over  the  heifer  that  had 
been  slain,  were  to  say,  "  Our  hands  have  not 
shed  this  blood,  nor  have  our  eyes  seen  it  shed. 
Lord,  be  favourable  to  thy  people  Israel,  and 
impute  not  to  us  this  blood,  which  has  been 
shed  in  the  midst  of  our  country."  This  ce- 
remony may  inform  us  how  much  horror  they 
conceived  at  the  crime  of  murder ;  and  it 
shows  their  fear  that  God  might  avenge  it  on 
the  whole  country ;  which  was  supposed  to 
contract  pollution  by  the  blood  spilt  in  it,  un- 
less it  were  expiated,  and  avenged  on  him  who 
had  occasioned  it,  if  he  could  be  discovered. 

MUSIC  is  probably  nearly  coeval  with  our 
race,  or,  at  least,  with  the  first  attempts  to 
preserve  the  memory  of  transactions.  Before 
the  invention  of  writing,  the  history  of  remark- 
able events  was  committed  to  memory,  and 
handed  down  by  oral  tradition.  The  know- 
ledge of  laws  and  of  useful  arts  was  preserved 
in  the  same  way.  Riiythin  and  song  were 
probably  soon  found  important  helps  to  the 
memory  ;  and  thus  the  muses  became  the  early 
instructers  of  mankind.     Nor  was  it  long,  we 


MUS 


679 


MUS 


may  conjecture,  before  dancing  and  song 
united  contributed  to  festivity,  or  to  the  so- 
lemnities of  religion.  The  first  instruments 
of  music  were  probably  of  the  pulsatile  kind  ; 
and  rhythm,  it  is  likely,  preceded  the  observa- 
tion of  those  intervals  of  sound  which  are  so 
pleasing  to  the  ear.  The  first  mention  of 
stringed  instruments,  however,  precedes  the 
deluge.  Tubal,  the  sixth  descendant  from 
Cain,  was  "  the  father  of  all  such  as  handle 
the  harp  and  the  organ."  About  five  hundred 
and  fifty  years  after  the  deluge,  or  B.  C.  1800, 
according  to  the  common  chronology,  botli 
vocal  and  instrumental  music  are  spoken  of 
as  things  in  general  use  :  "  And  Laban  said, 
What  hast  thou  done,  that  thou  hast  stolen 
away  unawares  to  me,  and  carried  away  my 
daughters,  as  captives  taken  with  the  sword  ? 
Wherefore  didst  thou  flee  away  secretly,  and 
steal  away  from  me ;  and  didst  not  tell  me, 
that  I  might  have  sent  thee  away  with  mirth 
and  with  songs,  with  tabret  and  with  harp  ?" 
Gen.  xxxi,  26,  27. 

Egypt  has  been  called  the  cradle  of  the  arts 
and  sciences,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the 
very  early  civilization  of  that  country.  To 
the  Egyptian  Mercury,  or  Thotk,  who  is  call- 
ed Trismcgistos,  or  "  thrice  illustrious,"  is 
ascribed  the  invention  of  the  lyre,  which  had 
at  first  only  three  strings.  It  would  be  idle  to 
mention  the  various  conjectures  how  these 
strings  were  tuned,  or  to  try  to  settle  the 
chronology  of  this  invention.  The  single  flute, 
which  they  called  photinx,  is  also  ascribed  to 
the  Egyptians.  Its  shape  was  that  of  a  horn, 
of  which,  no  doubt,  it  was  originally  made. 
Before  the  invention  of  these  instruments,  as 
Dr.  Burney  justly  observes,  "music  could  have 
been  little  more  than  metrical,  as  no  other  in- 
struments except  those  of  percussion  were 
known.  When  the  art  was  first  discovered 
of  refining  and  sustaining  tones,  the  power  of 
music  over  mankind  was  probably  irresistible, 
from  the  agreeable  surprise  which  soft  and 
lengthened  sounds  must  have  occasioned." 
The  same  learned  writer  has  given  a  drawing, 
made  under  his  own  eye,  of  an  Egyptian 
musical  instrument,  represented  on  a  very  an- 
cient obelisk  at  Rome,  brought  from  Egypt  by 
Augustus.  This  obelisk  is  supposed  to  have 
been  erected  at  Heliopolis,  by  Sesostris,  near 
four  hundred  years  before  the  Trojan  war. 
The  most  remarkable  thing  in  this  instrument 
is,  that  it  is  supplied  with  a  neck,  so  that  its 
two  strings  were  capable  of  furnishing  a  great 
number  of  sounds.  This  is  a  contrivance 
which  the  Greeks,  with  all  their  ingenuity, 
never  hit  upon.  "I  have  never  been  able," 
says  the  doctor,  "  to  discover  in  any  remains  of 
Greek  sculpture,  an  instrument  furnished  with 
a  neck ;  and  Father  Montfaucon  says  that  in 
examining  the  representations  of  near  five 
hundred  ancient  lyres,  harps,  and  citharas,  he 
never  met  with  one  in  which  there  was  any  con- 
trivance for  shortening  the  strings  during  the 
time  of  performance,  as  by  a  neck  and  finger 
board."  From  the  long  residence  of  the  He- 
brews in  Egypt,  it  is  no  improbable  conjecture 
that  their  music  was  derived  from  that  source. 


However  that  may  be,  music,  vocal  and  instru- 
mental, made  one  important  part  of  their  reli- 
gious service.  If  the  excellence  of  the  music 
was  conformable  to  the  sublimity  of  the  poetry 
which  it  accompanied,  there  would  be  no  in- 
justice in  supposing  it  unspeakably  superior 
to  that  of  every  other  people  ;  and  the  pains 
that  were  taken  to  render  the  tabernacle  and 
temple  music  worthy  of  the  subjects  of  their 
lofty  odes,  leaves  little  doubt  that  it  was  so. 
That  the  instruments  were  loud  and  sonorous, 
will  appear  from  what  follows ;  but  as  the 
public  singing  was  performed  in  alternate 
responses,  or  the  chorus  of  all  succeeded  to 
those  parts  of  the  psalm  which  were  sung  only 
by  the  appointed  leaders,  instruments  of  this 
kind  were  necessary  to  command  and  control 
the  voices  of  so  great  a  number  as  was  usually 
assembled  on  high  occasions. 

The  Hebrews  insisted  on  having  music  at 
marriages,  on  anniversary  birth  days,  on  the 
days  which  reminded  them  of  victories  over 
their  enemies,  at  the  inauguration  of  their 
kings,  in  their  public  worship,  and  when  they 
were  coming  from  afar  to  attend  the  great 
festivals  of  their  nation,  Isaiah  xxx,  29.  In 
the  tabernacle  and  the  temple,  the  Levites  were 
the  lawful  musicians  ;  but  on  other  occasions 
any  one  might  use  musical  instruments  who 
chose.  There  was  this  exception,  however  : 
the  holy  silver  trumpets  were  to  be  blown  only 
by  the  priests,  who,  by  the  sounding  of  them, 
proclaimed  the  festival  days,  assembled  the 
leaders  of  the  people,  and  gave  the  signal  for 
the  battle  and  for  the  retreat,  Num.  x,  1-10. 
David,  in  order  to  give  the  best  effect  to  the 
music  of  the  tabernacle,  divided  the  four  thou- 
sand Levites  into  twenty-four  classes,  who 
sung  psalms,  and  accompanied  them  with  mu- 
sic. Each  of  these  classes  was  superintended 
by  a  leader,  placed  over  it ;  and  they  perform- 
ed the  duties  which  devolved  upon  them,  each 
class  a  week  at  a  time  in  succession,  1  Chron. 
xvi,  5  ;  xxiii,  4,  5  ;  xxv,  1-31 ;  2  Chron.  v, 
12,  13.  The  classes  collectively,  as  a  united 
body,  were  superintended  by  three  directors. 
This  arrangement  was  subsequently  continued 
by  Solomon  after  the  erection  of  the  temple, 
and  was  transmitted  till  the  time  of  the  over- 
throw of  Jerusalem.  It  was  indeed  sometimes 
interrupted,  during  the  reign  of  the  idolatrous 
kings,  but  was  restored  by  their  successors, 
2  Chron.  v,  12-14 ;  xxix,  27 ;  xxxv,  15.  It 
was  even  continued  after  the  captivity,  Ezra 
iii,  10;  Neh.  xii,  45-47  ;  1  Mac.  iv,  54  ;  xiii,  51. 
It  should  be  remarked,  however,  that  neither 
music  nor  poetry  attained  to  the  same  excel- 
lence after  the  captivity  as  before  that  period. 

There  were  women  singers  as  well  as  men 
in  the  temple  choir ;  for  in  the  book  of  Ezra, 
among  those  who  returned  from  the  Baby- 
lonish captivity,  there  are  said  to  have  been 
two  hundred,  Ezra  ii,  65 ;  and  in  Nehemiah 
vii,  67,  we  read  of  two  hundred  and  forty-five 
singing  men  and  women.  The  Jewish  doctors 
will,  indeed,  by  no  means  admit  there  were 
any  female  voices  in  the  temple  choir ;  and  as 
for  those  hvywd,  meshoreroth,  as  they  are  call- 
ed in  the  Hebrew,  they  suppose  them  to  be  the 


MUS 


680 


MUS 


wives  of  those  who  sung.  Nevertheless,  the 
following  passage  makes  it  evident  that  wo- 
men, likewise,  were  thus  employed  :  "  God 
fave  to  Heman  fourteen  sons  and  three 
aughters  ;  and  all  these  were  under  the  hands 
of  their  father  for  song  in  the  house  of  the 
Lord,  with  cymbals,  psalteries,  and  harps,  for 
the  service  of  the  house  of  God,"  1  Chron. 
xxv,  5,  (J.  Instrumental  music  was  first  intro- 
duced into  the  Jewish  service  by  Moses;  and 
afterward,  by  the  express  command  of  God, 
was  very  much  improved  with  the  addition  of 
several  instruments  in  the  reign  of  David. 
When  Hezekiah  restored  the  temple  service, 
which  had  been  neglected  in  his  predecessor's 
reign,  "he  set  the  Levites  in  the  house  of  the 
Lord,  with  cymbals,  with  psalteries,  and  with 
harps,  according  to  the  commandment  of 
David,  and  of  Gad  the  king's  seer,  and  Nathan 
the  prophet ;  for  so  was  the  commandment  of 
the  Lord  by  bis  prophets,"  2  Chron.  xxix,  25. 
The  harp,  nj:,  k'uiuor,  was  the  most  ancient 
of  the  class  of  stringed  instruments,  Gen.  iv, 
21.  It  \\  as  sometimes  called  nWBB>,  or  "  eight 
stringed,"  1  Chron.  xv,  21;  Psalm  vi,  1;  xii, 
1 ;  although,  as  we  may  gather  from  the  coins 
or  medajs  of  the  Maccabean  age,  there  were 
some  harps  which  were  furnished  with  only 
three  strings.  The  nablum  or  psaltery,  vaiXiov, 
Muftjka,  ^i),  is  first  mentioned  in  the  Psalms  of 
David.  In  Psalms  xxxiii,  2,-  and  cxliv,  9,  it  is 
called  nit:';',  "  a  ten-stringed  instrument ;"  but 
in  Psalm  xcii,  3,  it  is  distinguished  from  it. 
Josephus  assigns  to  it  twelve  strings,  which,, 
taken  in  connection  with  the  fact  above  stated, 
leaves  us  to  conclude  that  it  sometimes  had 
ten  and  sometimes  twelve  strings.  It  was  not 
played  with  a  bow  or  fret,  but  with  the  fingers  : 
the  act  of  playing  it  is  expressed  in  Hebrew 
by  the  word  -ijd-  It  resembled  in  form  a  right- 
angled  triangle,  or  the  Greek  delta,  v,  inverted. 
The  body  of  it  wras  of  wood  and  hollow,  and 
was  enclosed  with  a  piece  of  leather  tensely 
drawn.  The  chords  were  extended  on  the  out- 
side of  the  leather,  and  were  fixed  at  one  end 
into  the  transverse  part  of  the  triangular  body 
of  the  instrument.  Such  is  its  form  at  the 
present  day  in  the  east ;  but  it  has  only  five 
strings  in  its  modern  shape,  2  Sam.  vi,  5; 
1  Kings  x,  12.  There  was  another  instru- 
ment of  this  kind  used  in  Babylonia :  it  was 
triangular  in  form.  In  Greek  it  is  called 
oa)i6i>Kii ;  in  Hebrew,  ndjd  and  N33ii>.  It  had 
originally  only  four,  but  subsequently  twenty, 
strings,  Dan.  iii,  5,  7,  10,  15.  Among  their 
wind  instruments  was  the  organ,  so  called  in 
the  English  version,  in  Hebrew,  3Jip,  Gen. 
iv,  31.  It  may  be  styled  the  ancient  shep- 
herd's pipe,  corresponding  most  nearly  to 
the  aiuiyi,  or  the  pipe  of  Pan  among  the 
Greeks.  It  consisted  at  first  of  only  one  or 
two,  but  afterward  of  about  seven,  pipes  made 
of  reeds,  and  differing  from  each  other  in 
length.  The  instrument  called  Kn'pilVQ,  used 
in  Babylon,  Dan.  iii,  5,  was  of  a  similar  con- 
struction. i)in,  niS>nj,  and  apj,  chalil,  nechi- 
loth,  and  uekeb,  are  wind  instruments  made  of 
various  materials,  such  as  wood,  reeds,  horns, 
and  bones.     As  far  as  we  may  be  permitted  to 


judge  from  the  three  kinds  of  pipes  now  used 
in  the  east,  the  Hebrew  instrument  called 
nechiloth  is  the  one  that  is  double  in  its  struc- 
ture ;  chalil  is  perhaps  the  one  of  simpler  form, 
having  a  single  stem  with  an  orifice  through 
it ;  while  nekeb  answers  to  the  one  without  an 
orifice,  Isaiah  v,  12 ;  xxx,  29  ;  Jer.  xlviii,  36 ; 
Psalm  v,  1 ;  Ezek.  xxviii,  13.  ppjicdid,  or, 
according  to  the  marginal  reading,  nijqid,  Dan. 
iii,  5,  10,  was  a  wind  instrument  made  of 
reeds,  by  the  Syrians  called  sambonja,  by  the 
Greeks  samponja,  and  by  the  Italians  zam- 
pogna.  According  to  Servius,  it  was  of  a 
crooked  shape,  pp,  the  horn  or  crooked  trumpet, 
was  a  very  ancient  instrument  It  wras  made 
of  the  horns  of  oxen,  which  were  cut  off  at 
the  smaller  extremity,  and  thus  presented  an 
orifice  which  extended  through.  In  progress 
of  time,  rams'  horns  were  hollowed  and  em- 
ployed for  the  same  purpose.  It  is  probable 
that  in  some  instances  it  was  made  of  brass, 
fashioned  so  as  to  resemble  a  horn.  It  was 
greatly  used  in  war,  and  its  sound  resembled 
thunder,  mxixn,  chatsoteroth,  the  silver  trumpet, 
was  straight,  a  cubit  in  length,  hollow  through- 
out, and  at  the  larger  extremity  shaped  so  as 
to  resemble  the  mouth  of  a  small  bell.  In 
times  of  peace,  when  the  people  or  the  rulers 
were  to  be  assembled  together,  this  trumpet 
was  blown  softly.  When  the  camps  were  to 
move  forward,  or  the  people  to  march  to  war, 
it  was  sounded  with  a  deeper  note. 

There  were  several  sorts  of  drums.  The 
f|n  o>cn,  toph,  rendered  in  the  English  version 
tabret  and  timbrel,  Gen.  xxxi,  27,  consisted  of 
a  circular  hoop,  either  of  wood  or  brass,  three 
inches  and  six-tenths  wide,  was  covered  with 
a  skin  tensely  drawn,  and  hung  round  with 
small  bells.  It 'was  held  in  the  left  hand,  and 
beaten  to  notes  of  music  with  the  right.  The 
ladies  through  all  the  east,  even  to  this  day, 
dance  to  the  sound  of  this  instrument,  Exod. 
xv,  20;  Job  xvii,  6;  xxi,  12;  2  Sam.  vi,  5. 
The  cymbals,  qi'js'k,  tseltselim,  nV?SD,  were 
of  two  kinds  formerly,  as  there  are  to  this  day, 
in  the  east.  The  first  consisted  of  two  flat 
pieces  of  metal  or  plates :  the  musician  held 
one  of  them  in  his  right  hand,  the  other  in  his 
left,  and  smote  them  together,  as  an  accom- 
paniment to  other  instruments.  This  cymbal 
and  the  mode  of  using  it  may  be  often  seen  in 
modern  armies.  The  second  kind  of  cymbals, 
consisted  of  four  small  plates  attached,  two  to 
each  hand,  which  the  ladies,  as  they  danced, 
smote  together.  But  nv«D,  Zech.  xiv,  20, 
rendered  in  the  English  version  bells,  are  not 
musical  instruments,  as  some  suppose,  nor  in- 
deed bells,  but  concave  pieces  or  plates  of 
brass,  which  were  sometimes  attached  to 
horses  for  the  sake  of  ornament. 

MUSTARD,  aham,  Matt,  xiii,  32 ;  xvii,  20 ; 
Mark  iv,  31;  Luke  xiii,  19;  xvii,  6;  a  well 
known  garden  herb.  Christ  compares  the 
kingdom  of  heaven  to  "  a  grain  of  mustard 
seed,  which  a  man  took  and  sowed  in  the 
earth,  which  indeed,"  said  he,  "is  the  least  of 
all  seeds ;  but  when  it  is  grown  is  the  greatest 
among  herbs,  and  becometh  a  tree,  so  that  the 
birds  of  the  air  come  and  lodge  in  the  branches 


MYR 


681 


MYS 


thereof,"  Matt,  xiii,  31,  32.  "  This  expression 
will  not  appear  strange,"  says  Sir  Thomas 
Browne,  "  if  we  recollect  that  the  mustard 
seed,  though  it  be  not  simply  and  in  itself  the 
smallest  of  seeds,  yet  may  be  very  well  believ- 
ed to  be  the  smallest  of  such  as  are  apt  to 
grow  unto  a  ligneous  substance,  and  become 
a  kind  of  tree."  The  expression,  also,  that  it 
might  grow  into  such  dimensions  that  birds 
might  lodge  on  its  branches,  may  be  literally 
conceived,  if  we  allow  the  luxuriancy  of  plants 
in  India  above  our  northern  regions.  And  he 
quotes  upon  this  occasion  what  is  recorded  in 
the  Jewish  story,  of  a  mustard  tree  that  was 
to  be  climbed  like  a  fig  tree.  The  Talmud  also 
mentions  one  whose  branches  were  so  exten- 
sive as  to  cover  a  tent.  Without  insisting  on 
the  accuracy  of  this,  we  may  gather  from  it 
that  we  should  not  judge  of  eastern  vegeta- 
bles by  those  which  are  familiar  to  ourselves. 
Scheuchzer  describes  a  species  of  mustard 
which  grows  several  feet  high,  with  a  taper- 
ing stalk,  and  spreads  into  many  branches. 
Of  this  arborescent  or  treelike  vegetable,  he 
gives  a  print ;  and  Linnasus  mentions  a  spe- 
cies whose  branches  were  real  wood,  which  he 
names  sinapi  erucoides.  But  whatever  kind  of 
tree  our  Lord  meant,  it  is  clear,  from  the  fact 
that  he  never  takes  his  illustrations  from  any 
objects  but  such  as  were  familiar,  and  often 
present  in  the  scene  around  him,  that  he  spoke 
of  one  which  the  Jews  well  knew  to  have 
minute  seeds,  and  yet  to  be  of  so  large  growth 
as  to  afford  shelter  for  the  birds  of  the  air. 

MYRRH,  -i)D,  Exod.  xxx,  23;  Esther  ii, 
12  ;  Psalm  xlv,  8  ;  Prov.  vii,  17  ;  Cant,  i,  13 ; 
iii,  G ;  iv,  6,  14 ;  v,  1,  5,  13 ;  a/ivpva,  Ecclus. 
xxiv,  15;  Matt,  ii,  11;  Mark  xv,  23;  John 
xix,  39  ;  a  precious  kind  of  gum  issuing  by  in- 
cision, and  sometimes  spontaneously,  from  the 
trunk  and  larger  branches  of  a  tree  growing 
in  Egypt,  Arabia,  and  Abyssinia.  Its  taste  is 
extremely  bitter,  but  its  smell,  though  strong, 
is  not  disagreeable ;  and  among  the  ancients 
it  entered  into  the  composition  of  the  most 
costly  ointments.  As  a  perfume,  it  appears  {o 
have  been  used  to  give  a  pleasant  fragrance  to 
vestments,  and  to  be  carried  by  females  in 
little  caskets  in  the  bosoms.  The  magi,  who 
came  from  the  east  to  worship  our  Saviour  at 
Bethlehem,  made  him  a  present  of  myrrh 
among  other  things,  Matt,  ii,  11. 

MYRTLE,  Din,  Neh.  viii,  15;  Isaiah  xli, 
19;  lv,  13;  Zech.  i,  8-10;  a  shrub,  sometimes 
growing  to  a  small  tree,  very  common  in  Ju- 
dea.  It  has  a  hard  woody  root  that  sends  forth 
a  great  number  of  small  flexible  branches, 
furnished  with  leaves  like  those  of  box,  but 
much  le^s,  and  more  pointed  :  they  are  soft  to 
the  touch,  shining,  smooth,  of  a  beautiful 
green,  and  have  a  sweet  smell.  The  flowers 
grow  among  the  leaves,  and  consist  of  five 
white  petals  disposed  in  the  form  of  a  rose  : 
they  have  an  agreeable  perfume,  and  orna- 
mental appearance.  Savary,  describing  a 
scene  at  the  end  of  the  forest  of  Platanea, 
says,  "  Myrtles,  intermixed  with  laurel  roses, 
grow  in  the  valleys  to  the  height  of  ten  feet. 
Their   snow-white   flowers,   bordered  with   a 


purple  edging,  appear  to  peculiar  advantage 
under  the  verdant  foliage.  Each  myrtle  is 
loaded  with  them,  and  they  emit  perfumes 
more  exquisite  than  those  of  the  rose  itself. 
They  enchant  every  one,  and  the  soul  is  filled 
with  the  softest  sensations."  The  myrtle  is 
mentioned  in  Scripture  among  lofty  trees,  not 
as  comparing  with  them  in  size,  but  as  contri- 
buting with  them  to  the  beauty  and  richness 
of  the  scenery.  Thus  Isaiah,  xli,  19,  intend- 
ing to  describe  a  scene  of  varied  excellence : 
"  I  will  plant  in  the  wilderness  the  cedar,  and 
the  shittah  tree,  and  the  myrtle,  and  the  oil 
tree  ;"  that  is,  I  will  adorn  the  dreary  and  bar- 
ren waste  with  trees  famed  for  their  stature 
and  the  grandeur  of  their  appearance,  the 
beauty  of  their  form,  and  also  the  fragrance 
of  their  odour.  The  apocryphal  Baruch,  v,  8, 
speaking  of  the  return  from  Babylon,  expresses 
the  protection  afforded  by  God  to  the  people 
by  the  same  image :  "  Even  the  woods  and 
every  sweet-smelling  tree  shall  overshadow 
Israel  by  the  commandment  of  God." 

MYSIA,  a  country  of  Asia  Minor,  having 
the  Propontis  on  the  north,  Bithynia  on  the 
north-east  and  east,  Phrygia  on  the  south-east, 
Lydia  (from  which  it  was  separated  by  the 
river  Hermus)  on  the  south,  the  iEgean  Sea 
on  the  west,  and  the  narrow  strait,  called  the 
Hellespont,  on  the  north-west.  Mysia  was 
visited  by  St.  Paul  in  his  circuit  through  Asia 
Minor ;  but  he  was  not  suffered  by  the  Spirit 
to  remain  there,  being  directed  to  pass  over 
into  Macedonia,  Acts  xvi,  7-10.  In  this 
country  stood  the  ancient  city  Troy ;  as 
also  that  of  Pergamus,  one  of  the  seven 
churches  of  Asia.  Under  the  Romans  it  was 
made  a  province  of  the  empire,  and  called 
Hellespontus ;  and  its  inhabitants  are  repre- 
sented by  Cicero  as  base  and  contemptible  to 
a  proverb. 

MYSTERY.  The  Greek  word  pvtfpiov  de- 
notes, 1.  Something  hidden,  or  not  fully  mani- 
fest. Thus,  2  Thess.  ii,  7,  we  read  of  the 
"mystery  of  iniquity,"  which  began  to  work 
in  secret,  but  was  not  then  completely  dis- 
closed or  manifested.  2.  Some  sacred  thing 
hidden  or  secret,  which  is  naturally  unknown 
to  human  reason,  and  is  only  known  by  the 
revelation  of  God.  Thus,  "Great  is  the  mys- 
tery of  godliness  ;  God  was  manifest  in  the 
flesh,  justified  by  the  Spirit,"  &c,  1  Tim.  iii, 
16.  The  mystery  of  godliness,  or  of  true  re- 
ligion, consisted  in  the  several  particulars 
here  mentioned  by  the  Apostle  ;  particulars, 
indeed,  which  it  would  never  have  "  entered 
into  the  heart  of  man  to  conceive,"  1  Cor.  ii,  9, 
had  not  God  accomplished  them  in  fact,  and 
published  them  by  the  preaching  of  his  Gos- 
pel ;  but  which,  being  thus  manifested,  are 
intelligible,  as  facts,  to  the  meanest  under- 
standing. In  like  manner,  the  term  mystery, 
Rom.  xi,  25;  1  Cor.  xv,  51,  denotes  what  was 
hidden  or  unknown,  till  revealed  ;  and  thus 
the  Apostle  speaks  of  a  man's  "  understanding 
all  mysteries,"  1  Cor.  xiii,  2 ;  that  is,  all  the 
revealed  truths  of  the  Christian  religion, 
which  is  elsewhere  called  the  "  mystery  of 
faith,"    1    Tim.    iii,    9.     And  when    he   who 


MYS 


682 


MYS 


spake  in  an  unknown  tongue  is  said  to  "  speak 
mysteries,"  1  Cor.  xiv,  2,  it  is  plain,  that  these 
mysteries,  however  unintelligible  to  others  on 
account  of  the  language  in  whicli  they  were 
spoken,  were  yet  understood  by  the  person 
himself,  because  he  hereby  "  edified  himself," 
1  Cor.  xiv,  4 ;  Acts  ii,  11 ;  x,  46.  And  though 
in  1  Cor.  ii,  7,  8,  we  read  of  the  "  wisdom  of 
God  in  a  mystery,  even  the  hidden  wisdom, 
which  none  of  the  princes  of  this  world  knew  ;" 
yet,  says  the  Apostle,  we  speak  or  declare  this 
wisdom ;  and  he  observes,  verse  10,  that  God 
had  revealed  the  particulars  of  which  it  con- 
sisted to  them  by  his  Spirit.  So  when  the 
Apostles  are  called  "  stewards  of  the  mysteries 
of  God,"  1  Cor.  iv,  1,  these  mysteries  could 
not  mean  what  were,  as  facts,  unknown  to 
them ;  (because  to  them  it  was  "  given  to 
know  the  mysteries  of  the  kingdom  of  God," 
Matt,  xiii,  11 ;)  yea,  the  character  here  ascribed 
to  them  implies  not  only  that  they  knew  these 
mysteries  themselves,  but  that  as  faithful  stew- 
ards they  were  to  dispense  or  make  them  known 
to  others,  Luke  xii,  42  ;  1  Pet.  iv,  10.  In  Col. 
ii,  2,  St.  Paul  mentions  his  praying  for  his 
converts,  that  their  hearts  might  be  comforted 
"  to  the  knowledge  of  the  mystery  of  God, 
even  of  the  Father,  and  of  Christ ;"  for  thus 
the  passage  should  be  translated.  But  if,  with 
our  translators,  we  render  iiriyvuxriv,  acknow- 
ledgment, still  the  word  fiv^fipiov  can  by  no 
means  exclude  knowledge  ;  "  for  this  is  life 
eternal,"  saith  our  Lord,  John  xvii,  3,  "that 
they  may  know  thee,  the  only  true  God,  and 
Jesus  Christ,  whom  thou  hast  sent."  And, 
lastly,  whatever  be  the  particular  meaning  of 
the  "  mystery  of  God,"  mentioned  Rev.  x,  7, 
yet  it  was  something  he  had  declared  "to  (or 
rather  by)  his  servants  the  prophets."  3.  The 
word  mystery  is  sometimes  in  the  writings  of 
St.  Paul  applied  in  a  peculiar  sense  to  the  call- 
ing of  the  Gentiles,  which  he  styles  "  the 
mystery,"  Eph.  iii,  3-6;  and  "the  mystery  of 
Christ,  which  in  other  generations  was  not 
made  known  to  the  sons  of  men,  as  it  is  now 
revealed  to  his  holy  Apostles  and  prophets  by 
the  Spirit,  that  the  Gentiles  should  be  fellow 
heirs,  and  of  the  same  body,  and  partakers  of 
Christ  by  the  Gospel,"  Rom.  xvi,  25 ;  Eph. 
i,  9 ;  iii,  9  ;  vi,  19  ;  Col.  i,  26,  27  ;  iv,  3.  4.  It 
denotes  a  spiritual  truth  couched  under  an 
external  representation  or  similitude,  and  con- 
cealed or  hidden  thereby,  unless  some  expla- 
nation of  it  be  otherwise  given.  Thus,  Rev. 
i,  20,  "  The  mystery,"  that  is,  the  spiritual 
meaning,  "  of  the  seven  stars  :  The  seven 
stars  are  the  angels  of  the  seven  churches." 
So  Rev.  xvii,  5,  "  And  upon  her  forehead  a 
name  written,  Mystery,  Babylon  the  Great," 
that  is,  Babylon  in  a  spiritual  sense,  "  the 
mother  of  idolatry  and  abominations  ;"  and, 
verse  7,  "I  will  tell  thee  the  mystery"  or 
spiritual  signification  "of  the  woman."  Com- 
pare Matt,  xiii,  11;  Mark  iv,  11;  Luke  viii, 
10  ;  Eph.  v,  32  ;  and  their  respective  contexts. 
MYSTICS,  who  have  also  been  sometimes 
called  Quietists,  are  those  who  profess  a  pure 
and  sublime  devotion,  accompanied  with  a 
disinterested  love  of  God,  free  from  all  selfish 


considerations ;  and  who  believe  that  the  Scrip, 
tures  have  a  mystic  and  hidden  sense,  which 
must  be  sought  after,  in  order  to  understand 
their  true  import.  Under  this  name  some  com- 
prehend all  those  who  profess  to  know  that 
they  are  inwardly  taught  of  God.  The  sys- 
tem of  the  Mystics  proceeded  upon  the  known 
doctrine  of  the  Platonic  school,  which  was 
also  adopted  by  Origen  and  his  disciples,  that 
the  divine  nature  was  diffused  through  all 
human  souls  ;  or  that  the  faculty  of  reason, 
from  which  proceed  the  health  and  vigour  of 
the  mind,  was  an  emanation  from  God  into 
the  human  soul,  and  comprehended  in  it  the 
principles  and  elements  of  all  truth,  human 
and  divine.  They  denied  that  men  could,  by 
labour  or  study,  excite  this  celestial  flame  in 
their  breasts  ;  and,  therefore,  they  disapproved 
highly  of  the  attempts  of  those  who,  by  defi- 
nitions, abstract  theorems,  and  profound  specu- 
lations, endeavoured  to  form  distinct  notions  of 
truth,  and  discover  its  hidden  nature.  On  the 
contrary,  they  maintained  that  silence,  tran- 
quillity, repose,  and  solitude,  accompanied  with 
such  acts  as  might  tend  to  attenuate  and  ex- 
haust the  body,  were  the  means  by  which  the 
hidden  and  internal  word  was  excited  to  pro- 
duce its  latent  virtues,  and  to  instruct  men  in 
the  knowledge  of  divine  things.  They  rea- 
soned as  follows:  "Those  who  behold,  with 
a  noble  contempt,  all  human  affairs,  who  turn 
away  their  eyes  from  terrestrial  vanities,  and 
shut  all  the  avenues  of  the  outward  senses 
against  the  contagious  influence  of  a  material 
world,  must  necessarily  return  to  God,  when 
the  spirit  is  thus  disengaged  from  the  impedi- 
ments which  prevented  that  happy  union. 
And,  in  this  blessed  frame,  they  not  only 
enjoy  inexpressible  raptures  from  that  com- 
munion with  the  supreme  Being,  but  also  are 
invested  with  the  inestimable  privilege  of  con- 
templating truth  undisguised  and  uncorrupted 
in  its  native  purity,  while  others  behold  it  in 
a  vitiated  and  delusive  form."  The  number 
of  the  Mystics  increased  in  the  fourth  century, 
under  the  influence  of  the  Grecian  fanatic,  who 
gave  himself  out  for  Dionysius  the  Areopagite, 
a  disciple  of  St.  Paul,  and  who  probably  lived 
about  this  period  ;  and,  by  pretending  to  higher 
degrees  of  perfection  than  other  Christians, 
and  practising  great  austerities,  their  cause 
gained  ground,  especially  in  the  eastern  pro- 
vinces, in  the  fifth  century.  A  copy  of  the 
pretended  works  of  Dionysius  was  sent  by 
Balbus  to  Lewis  the  meek,  A.  D.  824,  which 
kindled  the  holy  flame  of  Mysticism  in  the 
western  provinces,  and  filled  the  Latins  with 
the  most  enthusiastic  admiration  of  this  new 
system.  In  the  twelfth  century,  these  Mys- 
tics took  the  lead  in  their  method  of  expound- 
ing the  Scriptures.  In  the  thirteenth,  they 
were  the  most  formidable  antagonists  of  the 
schoolmen  ;  and,  toward  the  close  of  the  four- 
teenth, many  of  them  resided  and  propagated 
their  tenets  in  almost  every  part  of  Europe. 
They  had,  in  the  fifteenth  century,  many  per- 
sons of  distinguished  merit  in  their  number. 
In  the  sixteenth,  previously  to  the  reforma- 
tion, if  any  sparks  of  real  piety  subsisted  under 


MYS 


683 


NAA 


the  despotic  empire  of  superstition,  they  were 
chiefly  to  be  found  among  the  Mystics  ;  and  in 
the  seventeenth,  the  radical  principle  of  Mys- 
ticism was  adopted  by  the  Behmists,  Bourig- 
nonists,  and  Quietists. 

The  Mystics  propose  a  disinterestedness  of 
love,  without  other  motives,  and  profess  to 
feel,  in  the  enjoyment  of  the  temper  itself,  an 
abundant  reward ;  and  passive  contemplation 
in  the  state  of  perfection  to  which  they  aspire. 
They  lay  little  or  no  stress  upon  the  outward 
ceremonies  and  ordinances  of  religion,  but 
dwell  chiefly  upon  the  inward  operations  of 
the  mind.  It  is  not  uncommon  for  them  to 
allegorize  certain  passages  of  Scripture  ;  at  the 
same  time  they  do  not  deny  the  literal  sense, 
as  having  an  allusion  to  the  inward  experience 
of  believers.  Thus,  according  to  them,  the 
word  Jerusalem,  which  is  the  name  of  the 
capital  of  Judea,  signifies,  allegorically,  the 
church  militant ;  morally,  a  believer  ;  and  mys- 
teriously, heaven.  That  sublime  passage  also 
in  Genesis,  "  Let  there  be  light,  and  there 
was  light,"  which  is,  according  to  the  letter, 
corporeal  light,  signifies,  allegorically,  the 
Messiah  ;  morally,  grace  ;  and  mysteriously, 
beatitude,  or  the  light  of  glory.  All  this  ap- 
pears to  be  harmless ;  yet  we  must  be  careful 
not  to  give  way  to  the  sallies  of  a  lively  imagi- 
nation in  interpreting  Scripture.  Woolston 
is  said  to  have  been  led  to  reject  the  Old 
Testament  by  spiritualizing  and  allegorizing 
the  New. 

The  Mystics  are  not  confined  to  any  par- 
ticular denomination  of  Christians,  but  may  be 
found  in  most  countries,  and  among  many 
descriptions  of  religionists.  Among  the  num- 
ber of  Mystics  may  be  reckoned  many  singular 
characters,  especially  Behmen,  a  shoemaker 
at  Gorlitz,  in  Germany  ;  Molinos,  a  Spanish 
priest,  in  the  seventeenth  century ;  Madam 
Guion,  a  French  lady  who  made  a  great  noise 
in  the  religious  world  ;  and  the  celebrated 
Madame  Bourignon,  who  wrote  a  work  en- 
titled, "  The  Light  of  the  World,"  which  is 
full  of  Mystic  extravagancies.  Fenelon,  also, 
the  learned  and  amiable  archbishop  of  Cam- 
bray,  favoured  the  same  sentiments,  for  which 
he  was  reprimanded  by  the  pope.  His  work, 
entitled,  "  An  Explication  of  the  Maxims  of 
the  Saints,"  which  abounds  with  Mystical 
sentiments  was  condemned  ;  and  to  the  pope's 
sentence  against  him,  the  good  archbishop 
quietly  submitted,  and  even  read  it  publicly 
himself  in  the  cathedral  of  Cambray.  In  this 
whole  affair,  his  chief  opponent  is  said  to  have 
been  the  famous  Bossuet,  bishop  of  Meaux. 
Mr.  William  Law,  author  of  the  "  Serious 
Call,"  &c,  degenerated  in  the  latter  part  of 
his  life,  into  all  the  singularities  of  Mysticism. 
In  the  best  sense,  Mysticism  is  to  be  regarded 
as  an  error  arising  out  of  partial  views  of  the 
truth,  or  truth  made  erroneous,  as  being  put 
out  of  its  proper  relation  to,  and  connection 
with,  other  truths.  As  it  respects  the  inward 
life  of  religion,  its  tendency  is  to  a  species  of 
fanaticism,  and  to  induce  a  contempt  for 
divinely  appointed  ordinances.  In  many, 
however,    it   has   been  happily  tempered  by 


good  principles;  and  too  frequently  has  all 
Scriptural  Christianity,  in  its  inward  influence, 
been  branded  with  the  name  of  Mysticism. 

NAAMAN,  general  of  the  army  of  Benha- 
dad,  king  of  Syria,  mentioned  2  Kings  v.     He 
appears  to  have  been  a  Gentile  idolater ;  but 
being  miraculously  cured  of  his  leprosy  by  the 
power  of  the  God  of  Israel,  and  the  direction 
of  his  Prophet  Elisha,  he  renounced  his  idola- 
try, and  acknowledged  this  God  to  be  the  only 
true  God  :  "  Behold,  now  I  know  that  there  is 
no  God  in  all  the  earth,  but  in  Israel,"  2  Kings 
v,  15,  and  promised,  for  the  time  to  come,  that 
he  would  worship  none   other  but  Jehovah, 
verse  17.     He  also  requested  the  prophet,  that 
he  might  have  two   mules'  load  of  earth  to 
carry  home  with  him  from  the  land  of  Israel, 
most  probably  intending  to  build  an  altar  with 
it  in  his  own  country ;  which  seems,  indeed, 
to  be  implied  in  the  reason  with  which  he  en- 
forces his  request :  "  Shall  there  not,  I  pray 
thee,  be  given  to  thy  servant  two  mules'  bur- 
den of  earth ;  for  thy  servant  will  henceforth 
offer   neither  burnt-offering  nor   sacrifice    to 
other  gods  but  unto  Jehovah."      He   farther 
says,  "  In  this  the  Lord  pardon  thy  servant, 
that  when  my  master  goes  into  the  house  of 
Rimmon,   to  worship   there,   and  he   leaneth 
upon  my  hand,  and  I  bow  myself  in  the  house 
of  Rimmon ;  when  I  bow  down  in  the  house 
of  Rimmon,  the  Lord  pardon  thy  servant  in 
this  thing,"  verse  18 ;  which  some  understand 
to  be  a  reserve,  denoting  that  he  would  re- 
nounce idolatry  no  farther  than  was  consist- 
ent with  his  worldly  interest,  with  his  prince's 
favour,  and  his  place  at  court.     But,  if  so,  the 
prophet  would  hardly  have  dismissed  him  with 
a  blessing,  saying,   "  Go  in  peace,"  verse  19. 
Others,  therefore,  suppose,  that  in  these  words 
he  begs  pardon  for  what  he  had  done  in  times 
past,  not  for  what  he  should  continue  to  do. 
They  observe,  that  TMnnUTI,  though  rendered 
in  the  future  tense  by  the  Targum,  and  by  all  the 
ancient  versions,  is  really  the  prcterperfect ;  and 
they,  therefore,  understand  it, — "  when  I  have 
bowed  myself,"  or,   "  because  I  have    bowed 
myself"  in  the  house  of  Rimmon,  the  Lord 
pardon    thy   servant.      With    this    sense    Dr. 
Lightfoot   agrees,    and  it  is  defended  by  the 
learned  Bochart  in  a  large  dissertation  on  the 
case  of  Naaman.     Yet  it  does  not  seem  very 
probable,  that,  if  he  meant  this  for  a  peniten- 
tial acknowledgment  of  his  former  idolatry,  he 
should  only  mention  what  he  had  done  as  the 
king's  servant,  and  omit  his   own  voluntary 
worship    of  the    idol.      The    more    probable 
opinion,  therefore,  is,    that  lie  consulted  the 
prophet,  whether  it  was  lawful  for  him,  having 
renounced  idolatry,  and  publicly  professed  the 
worship  of  the  true  God,  still,  in  virtue  of  his 
office,  to  attend  his  master  in  the  temple  of 
Rimmon,  in  order  that  he    might  lean  upon 
him,  either  out  of  state,  or  perhaps   out  of 
bodily  weakness  ;  because,  if  he  attended  him, 
as  he  had  formerly  done,  he  could  not  avoid 
bowing  down  when  he  did.     To  this  the  pro- 
phet returns   no   direct    answer ;   making  no 
other  reply  than,  "  Go  in  peace  ;"  putting  it. 


NAH 


684 


NAI 


probably,  upon  his  conscience  to  act  as  that 
should  dictate,  and  not  being  willing  to  relieve 
him  from  this  trial  of  his  recent  faith. 

After  this  we  have  no  farther  mention  of 
Naaman.  BuJ,  in  the  following  account  of  the 
wars  between  .Syria  and  Israel,  Benhadad  seems 
to  have  commanded  his  army  in  person ;  from 
whence  Mr.  Bedford  infers,  that  Naaman  was 
dismissed  from  the  command  for  refusing  to 
worship  Rimmon.  But  the  premises  are  not 
sufficient  to  support  the  conclusion ;  for  it 
appears  that  Benhadad  had  commanded  his 
army  in  person  twice  before ;  once  in  the 
siege  of  Samaria,  1  Kings  xx,  1,  and  once  at 
Aphek,  verse  26.  Yet,  from  the  total  silence 
concerning  Naaman,  it  is  probably  enough 
conjectured,  that  he  either  died,  or  resigned, 
or  was  dismissed,  soon  after  his  return. 

NABOTH,  an  Israelite  of  the  city  of  Jez- 
reel,  who  lived  under  Ahab,  king  of  the  ten 
tribes,  and  had  a  fine  vineyard  near  the  king's 
palace.  Ahab  coveted  his  property ;  but  Na- 
both, according  to  the  law,  Lev.  xxv,  23,  24, 
refused  to  sell  it :  and  beside,  it  was  a  disgrace 
for  a  Hebrew  to  alienate  the  inheritance  of  his 
ancestors.  Ahab,  returning  into  his  house, 
threw  himself  on  his  bed,  and  refused  to  eat, 
when  Jezebel,  his  wife,  took  upon  herself  to 
procure  the  vineyard.  She  wrote  letters  in 
Ahab's  name,  and  sealed  them  with  the  king's 
seal,  and  sent  them  to  the  elders  of  Jezreel, 
directing  them  to  publish  a  fast,  to  place 
Naboth  among  the  chief  of  the  people,  suborn 
against  him  two  sons  of  Belial,  or  two  false 
witnesses,  who  might  depose,  that  Naboth  had 
blasphemed  God  and  the  king.  Accordingly, 
Naboth  was  condemned  and  stoned  for  the 
supposed  crime,  which  brought  upon  Ahab 
and  Jezebel  the  severest  maledictions,  1  Kings 
xxi.   See  Ahab. 

NADAB,  son  of  Aaron,  and  brother  to 
Abihu.  He  offered  incense  to  the  Lord  with 
strange  fire,  that  is,  with  common  fire,  and 
not  with  that  which  had  been  miraculously 
lighted  upon  the  altar  of  burnt-offerings. 
Therefore,  he  was  slain  by  the  Lord,  together 
with  his  brother  Abihu,  Lev.  x,  1,  &c. 

NAHOR,  son  of  Terah,  and  brother  of 
Abraham,  Gen.  xi,  26.  Neither  the  year  of 
his  birth  nor  of  his  death  is  exactly  known. 
Nahor  married  Milcah,  the  daughter  of  Haran, 
by  whom  he  had  several  sons,  namely,  Huz, 
Buz,  Keinuel,  Chesed,  Hazo,  Pildash,  Jidlaph, 
and  Bethuel.  Nahor  fixed  his  habitation  at 
Haran,  which  is  therefore  called  the  city  of 
Nahor,  Gen.  xi,  29;  xxii,  20-22;  xxiv,  10. 

NAHUM  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  native 
of  Elcosh  or  Elcosha,  a  village  in  Galilee,  and 
to  have  been  of  the  tribe  of  Simeon.  There  is 
great  uncertainty  about  the  exact  period  in 
which  he  lived;  but  it  is  generally  allowed 
that  he  delivered  his  predictions  between  the 
Assyrian  and  Babylonian  captivities,  and  proba- 
bly about  B.  C.  715.  They  relate  solely  to  the 
destruction  of  Nineveh  by  the  Babylonians  and 
Medes,  and  are  introduced  by  an  animated 
display  of  the  attributes  of  God.  Of  all  the 
minor  prophets,  says  Bishop  Lowth,  none 
seems  to  equal  Nahum   in  sublimity,  ardour, 


and  boldness.  His  prophecy  forms  an  entire 
and  regular  poem.  The  exordium  is  magnifi- 
cent and  truly  august.  The  preparation  for 
the  destruction  of  Nineveh,  and  the  description 
of  that  destruction,  are  expressed  in  the  most 
glowing  colours ;  and  at  the  same  time  the 
prophet  writes  with  a  perspicuity  and  ele. 
gance  which  have  a  just  claim  to  our  highest 
admiration. 

NAIL.  The  nail  of  Jael's  tent  with  which 
she  killed  Sisera,  is  called  -iiv  ;  it  was  formed 
for  penetrating  earth,  or  other  hard  substances, 
when  driven  by  sufficient  force,  as  with  a 
hammer,  &c ;  it  includes  the  idea  of  strength. 
The  orientals,  in  fitting  up  their  houses,  were 
by  no  means  inattentive  to  the  comfort  and 
satisfaction  arising  from  order  and  method. 
Their  furniture  was  scanty  and  plain ;  but 
they  were  careful  to  arrange  the  few  house- 
hold utensils  they  needed,  so  as  not  to  encum- 
ber the  apartments  to  which  they  belonged. 
Their  devices  for  this  purpose,  which,  like 
every  part  of  the  structure,  bore  the  charac- 
ter of  remarkable  simplicty,  may  not  corres- 
pond with  our  ideas  of  neatness  and  propriety ; 
but  they  accorded  with  their  taste,  and  suffi- 
ciently answered  their  design.  One  of  these 
consisted  in  a  set  of  spikes,  nails,  or  large 
pegs  fixed  in  the  walls  of  the  house,  upon 
which  they  hung  up  the  movables  and  utensils 
in  common  use  that  belonged  to  the  room. 
These  nails  they  do  not  drive  into  the  walls 
with  a  hammer  or  mallet,  but  fix  them  there 
when  the  house  is  building ;  for  if  the  walls 
are  of  brick,  they  are  too  hard,  or  if  they 
consist  of  clay,  too  soft  and  mouldering,  to 
admit  the  action  of  the  hammer.  The  spikes, 
which  are  so  contrived  as  to  strengthen  the 
walls,  by  binding  the  parts  together,  as  well 
as  to  serve  for  convenience,  are  large,  with 
square  heads  like  dice,  and  bent  at  the  ends  so 
as  to  make  them  cramp  irons.  They  com- 
monly place  them  at  the  windows  and  doors, 
in  order  to  hang  upon  them,  when  they  choose, 
veils  and  curtains,  although  they  place  them 
in  other  parts  of  the  room,  to  hang  up  other 
things  of  various  kinds.  The  care  with  which 
they  fixed  these  nails,  may  be  inferred,  as  well 
from  the  important  purposes  they  were  meant 
to  serve,  as  from  the  promise  of  the  Lord  to 
Eliakim :  "And  I  will  fasten  him  as  a  nail  in 
a  sure  place,"  Isa.  xxii,  23.  It  is  evident  from 
the  words  of  the  prophet,  that  it  was  common 
in  his  time  to  suspend  upon  them  the  utensils 
belonging  to  the  apartment :  "  Will  men  take 
a  pin  of  it  to  hang  any  vessel  thereon  ?"  Ezek. 
xv,  3.  The  word  used  in  Isaiah  for  a  nail  of . 
this  sort,  is  the  same  which  denotes  the  stake, 
or  large  pin  of  iron,  which  fastened  down  to 
the  ground  the  cords  of  their  tents.  These 
nails,  therefore,  were  of  necessary  and  com- 
mon use,  and  of  no  small  importance  in  all 
their  apartments  ;  and  if  they  seem  to  us  mean 
and  insignificant,  it  is  because  they  are  un- 
known to  us,  and  inconsistent  with  our  notions 
of  propriety,  and  because  we  have  no  name  for 
them  but  what  conveys  to  our  ear  a  low  and 
contemptible  idea.  It  is  evident  from  the 
frequent  allusions  in  Scripture  to  these  instru- 


NAM 


685 


NAM 


ments,  that  they  were  not  regarded  with  con- 
tempt or  indifference  by  the  natives  of  Palestine. 
' '  Grace  has  been  shown  from  the  Lord  our  God," 
said  Ezra,  "to  leave  us  a  remnant  to  escape, 
and  to  give  us  a  nail  in  his  holy  place,"  Ezra 
ix,  8;  or,  as  explained  in  the  margin,  a  con- 
stant  and  sure  abode.  The  dignity  and  pro- 
priety of  the  metaphor  appear  from  the  use 
which  the  Prophet  Zechariah  makes  of  it : 
"Out  of  him  cometh  forth  the  corner,  out  of 
him  the  nail,  out  of  him  the  battle  bow,  out 
of  him  every  oppressor  together,"  Zech.  x,  4. 
The  whole  frame  of  government,  both  in 
church  and  state,  which  the  chosen  people  of 
God  enjoyed,  was  the  contrivance  of  his  wis- 
dom and  the  gift  of  his  bounty ;  the  founda- 
tions upon  which  it  rested,  the  bonds  which 
kept  the  several  parts  together,  its  means  of 
defence,  its  officers  and  executors,  were  all  the 
fruits  of  distinguishing  goodness :  even  the 
oppressors  of  his  people  were  a  rod  of  cor- 
rection in  the  hand  of  Jehovah,  to  convince 
them  of  sin,  and  restore  them  to  his  service. 

NAIN,  a  city  of  Palestine,  in  which  Jesus 
Christ  restored  the  widow's  son  to  life,  as  they 
were  carrying  him  out  to  be  buried.  Eusebius 
says,  that  this  was  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Endor,  and  Scythopolis,  two  miles  from  Tabor, 
toward  the  south. 

NAKEDNESS,  NUDITY.  These  terms, 
beside  their  ordinary  and  literal  meaning, 
sometimes  signify  void  of  succour,  disarmed. 
So,  after  worshipping  the  golden  calf,  the 
Israelites  found  themselves  naked  in  the  midst 
of  their  enemies.  "Nakedness  of  the  feet" 
was  a  token  of  respect.  Moses  put  off  his 
shoes  to  approach  the  burning  bush.  Most 
commentators  are  of  opinion,  that  the  priests 
served  in  the  tabernacle  with  their  feet  naked  ; 
and  afterward  in  the  temple.  In  the  enumera- 
tion that  Moses  makes  of  the  habit  and  orna- 
ments of  the  priests,  he  no  where  mentions 
any  dress  for  the  feet.  Also  the  frequent 
ablutions  appointed  them  in  the  temple  seem 
to  imply  that  their  feet  were  naked.  To  un- 
cover the  nakedness  of  any  one,  is  commonly 
put  for  a  shameful  and  unlawful  conjunction, 
or  an  incestuous  marriage,  Lev.  xx,  19  ;  Ezek. 
xvi,  37.  Nakedness  is  sometimes  put  for  being 
partly  undressed;  en  dtshabilU.  Saul  con- 
tinued naked  among  the  prophets ;  that  is, 
having  only  his  under  garments  on.  Isaiah 
received  orders  from  the  Lord  to  go  naked  ; 
that  is,  clothed  as  a  slave,  half  clad.  Thus  it 
is  recommended  to  clothe  the  naked;  that  is, 
such  as  are  ill  clothed.  St.  Paul  says,  that  he 
was  in  cold,  in  nakedness ;  that  is,  in  poverty 
and  want  of  raiment.  Naked  is  put  for  dis- 
covered, known,  manifest.  So  Job  xxvi,  6 : 
"  Hell  is  naked  before  him."  The  sepulchre, 
the  unseen  state,  is  open  to  the  eyes  of  God. 
St.  Paul  says,  in  the  same  sense,  "  Neither  is 
there  any  creature  that  is  not  manifest  in  his 
sight ;  but  all  things  are  naked  and  open  unto 
the  eyes  of  him  with  whom  we  have  to  do," 
Heb.  iv,  13. 

NAME.  A  name  was  given  to  the  male 
child  at  the  time  of  its  circumcision,  but  it  is 
probable,  previous  to  the  introduction  of  that 


rite,  that  the  name  was  given  immediately  after 
its  birth.  Among  the  orientals  the  appellations 
given  as  names  are  always  significant.  In  the 
Old  Testament,  we  find  that  the  child  was 
named  in  many  instances  from  the  circum- 
stances of  its  birth,  or  from  some  peculiarities  in 
the  history  of  the  family  to  which  it  belonged, 
Gen.  xvi,  11 ;  xix,  37 ;  xxv,  25,  26 ;  Exod.  ii,  10; 
xviii,  3,  4.  Frequently  the  name  was  a  com- 
pound one,  one  part  being  the  name  of  the 
Deity,  and  among  idolatrous  nations  the  name 
of  an  idol.  The  following  instances  may  be 
mentioned  among  others,  and  may  stand  as  spe- 
cimens of  the  whole,  namely,  VnioB',  Samuel, 
"hear  God;"  mix,  Adonijah,  "God  is  lord;" 
i"nxi.T,  Josedech,  "  God  is  just ;"  Vjjjj-in,  Ethbaal, 
a  Canaanitish  name,  the  latter  part  of  the  com- 
pound being  the  name  of  the  idol  deity,  Baal ; 
IStt&'fS,  Belshazzar,  "  Bel,"  a  Babylonish  deity, 
"is  ruler  and  king."  Sometimes  the  name 
had  a  prophetic  meaning,  Gen.  xvii,  15 ;  Isa. 
vii,  14 ;  viii,  3 :  Hos.  i,  4,  6,  9 ;  Matt,  i,  21 ; 
Luke  i,  13,  60,  63.  In  the  later  times  names 
were  selected  from  those  of  the  progenitors  of 
a  family;  hence  in  the  New  Testament  hardly 
any  other  than  ancient  names  occur,  Matt,  i, 
12 ;  Luke  i,  61 ;  iii,  23,  &c.  The  inhabitants 
of  the  east  very  frequently  change  their  names, 
and  sometimes  do  it  for  very  slight  reasons. 
This  accounts  for  the  fact  of  so  many  persons 
having  two  names  in  Scripture,  Ruth  i,  20,  21 ; 
1  Sam.  xiv,  49 ;  xxxi,  2 ;  1  Chron.  x,  2 ;  Judges 
vi,  32 ;  vii,  1 ;  2  Sam.  xxiii,  8.  Kings  and 
princes  very  often  changed  the  names  of  those 
who  held  offices  under  them,  particularly  when 
they  first  attracted  their  notice,  and  were  taken 
into  their  employ,  and  when  subsequently  they 
were  elevated  to  some  new  station,  and  crowned 
with  additional  honours,  Gen.  xli,  45;  xvii,  5; 
xxxii,  28 ;  xxxv,  10 ;  2  Kings  xxiii,  34,  35 ; 
xxiv,  17;  Dan.  i,  6;  John  i,  42;  Mark  iii,  17. 
Hence  a  name,  a  new  name,  occurs  tropically, 
as  a  token  or  proof  of  distinction  and  honour 
in  the  following  among  other  passages,  Phil, 
ii,  9;  Heb.  i,  4;  Rev.  ii,  17.  Sometimes  the 
names  of  the  dead  were  changed  ;  for  instance 
that  of  Abel,  ban,  a  word  which  signifies 
breath,  or  something  transitory  as  a  breath, 
given  to  him  after  his  death,  in  allusion  to  the 
shortness  of  his  life,  Gen.  ii,  8.  Sometimes 
proper  names  are  translated  into  other  lan- 
guages, losing  their  original  form,  while  they 
preserve  their  signification.  This  appears  to 
have  been  the  case  with  the  proper  names, 
which  occur  in  the  first  eleven  chapters  of 
Genesis,  and  which  were  translated  into  the 
Hebrew  from  a  language  still  more  ancient. 
The  orientals  in  some  instances,  in  order  to- 
distinguish  themselves  from  others  of  the  same 
name,  added  to  their  own  name  the  name  of 
their  father,  grandfather,  and  even  great  grand- 
father. The  name  of  God  often  signifies  God 
himself;  sometimes  his  attributes  collectively  ; 
sometimes  his  power  and  authority.  Of  the 
Messiah  it  is  said,  "  And  he  hath  on  his  vesture 
and  on  his  thigh  a  name  written,  King  of 
kings,  and  Lord  of  lords,"  Rev.  xix,  16.  In 
illustration  of  this  it  may  be  remarked,  that  it 
appears  to  have  been  an  ancient  custom  among 


NAM 


686 


NAT 


several  nations,  to  adorn  the  images  of  their 
deities,  princes,  victors  at  their  public  games, 
and  other  eminent  persons,  with  inscriptions 
expressive  of  their  names,  character,  titles,  or 
some  circumstance  which  might  contribute  to 
their  honour.  There  are  several  sucli  images 
yet  extant,  with  an  inscription  written  either 
on  the  garment,  or  one  of  the  thighs.  He- 
rodotus mentions  two  figures  of  Sesostris, 
king  of  Egypt,  cut  upon  rocks  in  Ionia,  after 
his  conquest  of  that  country,  with  the  follow- 
ing inscription  across  the  breast,  extending 
from  one  shoulder  to  the  other  :  "  I  conquered 
this  country  by  the  force  of  my  arms."  Gruter 
has  published  a  naked  statue  made  of  marble, 
and  supposed  to  represent  the  genius  either  of 
some  Roman  emperor,  or  of  Antinous,  who 
was  deified  by  Hadrian,  with  an  inscription  on 
the  inside  of  the  right  thigh,  written  perpendi- 
cularly in  Roman  letters,  and  containing  the 
names  of  three  persons.  Near  the  statue,  on 
the  same  side  of  it,  stands  an  oval  shield  with 
the  names  of  two  other  persons  written  round 
the  rim  in  letters  of  the  same  form.  In  the 
appendix  to  Dempster's  "  Etruria  Regalis"  is 
a  female  image  of  brass,  clothed  in  a  loose 
tunic  down  to  the  feet,  with  a  shorter  garment 
over  it,  on  the  right  side  of  which  is  a  perpen- 
dicular inscription  in  Etrurian  characters,  ex- 
tending partly  on  the  lower  garment.  This 
figure,  from  the  diadem  on  the  head,  and  other 
circumstances  which  accompany  it,  Philip 
Bonarota,  the  editor  of  that  work,  supposes  to 
have  been  designed  for  some  Etrurian  deity. 
Montfaucon  has  given  us  a  male  image  of  the 
same  metal,  dressed  in  a  tunic,  and  over  that 
another  vestment  something  like  a  Roman 
toga,  reaching  to  the  middle  of  the  legs,  on 
the  bottom  of  which  is  an  Etrurian  inscription 
written  horizontally.  There  are  likewise  in 
both  those  writers  two  male  figures  crowned 
with  laurel,  which  Montfaucon  calls  combat- 
ants, as  the  laurel  was  an  emblem  of  victory. 
But  Bonarota  takes  one  of  them  for  an  image 
of  Apollo,  which  has  a  chain  round  the  neck, 
a  garment  wrapped  over  the  right  arm,  and  a 
bracelet  on  the  left,  with  half  boots  on  the 
legs ;  the  rest  of  the  body  being  naked  has 
an  Etrurian  inscription  written  downward  in 
two  lines  on  the  inside  of  the  left  thigh.  The 
other  figure  has  the  lower  part V  of  the  body 
clothed  in  a  loose  vestment,  with  an  inscrip- 
tion upon  it  over  the  right  thigh,  perpendicu- 
larly written  in  Roman  letters,  which  Bonarota 
has  thus  expressed  in  a  more  distinct  manner 
than  they  appear  in  Montfaucon :  POMPONIO 
VIRIO  I.  To  these  may  be  added  from  Mont- 
faucon, a  marble  statue  of  a  naked  combatant, 
with  a  fillet  about  his  head  in  token  of  victory. 
It  is  drawn  in  two  views,  one  exhibiting  the 
back  and  the  other  the  fore  part  of  the  body, 
the  latter  of  which  has  in  Greek  letters,  KA- 
<J>I£OAOPO£  for  KA<l>ISOAiiPO£,  perpendicu- 
larly inscribed  on  the  outside  of  the  left  thigh  ; 
and  the  former  the  name  AlEXAAMIOT  in  the 
like  characters  and  situation  on  the  right 
thigh ;  these  together  make  one  inscription 
signifying  Caphisodorus  filius  jEschlamii.  [Ca- 
phisodorus tho  sou  of  jEschlamius.J 


NAOMI.     See  Ruth. 

NAPHTALI,  the  sixth  son  of  Jacob  by  Bil- 
hah,  Rachel's  handmaid.  The  word  Naphtali 
signifies  wrestling,  or  struggling.  When  Ra- 
chel gave  him  this  name,  she  said,  "  With 
great  wrestlings  have  I  wrestled  with  my  sis- 
ter, and  I  have  prevailed,"  Gen.  xxx,  8.  Naph- 
tali had  but  four  sons,  and  yet  at  the  coming 
out  of  Egypt  his  tribe  made  up  fifty-three 
thousand  four  hundred  men,  able  to  bear  arms. 
Moses,  in  the  blessing  he  gave  to  the  same 
tribe,  says,  "  O  Naphtali,  satisfied  with  favour, 
and  full  with  the  blessing  of  the  Lord,  possess 
thou  the  west  and  the  south,"  Deut.  xxxiii,  23. 
The  Vulgate  reads  it,  "  the  sea  and  the  south," 
and  the  Hebrew  will  admit  of  either  interpret- 
ation, that  is,  the  sea  of  Gennesareth,  which 
was  to  the  south  by  the  inheritance  of  this 
tribe.  His  soil  was  very  fruitful  in  corn  and 
oil.  His  limits  were  extended  into  upper  and 
lower  Galilee,  having  Jordan  to  the  east,  the 
tribes  of  Asher  and  Zebulun  to  the  west,  Li- 
banus  to  the  north,  and  the  tribe  of  Issachar 
to  the  south.  Under  Barak,  their  general,  they 
and  the  Zebulunites  fought  with  distinguished 
bravery  against  the  army  of  Jabin  the  younger  ; 
and  at  the  desire  of  Gideon  they  pursued  the 
Midianites,  Judges  iv,  10 ;  v,  18  ;  vii,  23.  A 
thousand  of  their  captains,  with  thirty-seven 
thousand  of  their  troops,  assisted  at  David's 
coronation,  and  brought  great  quantities  of 
provision  with  them,  1  Chron.xii,  34,  40.  We 
find  no  person  of  distinguished  note  among 
them,  save  Barak,  and  Hiram  the  artificer. 
Instigated  by  Asa,  Benhadad  the  elder,  king 
of  Syria,  terribly  ravaged  the  land  of  Naph- 
tali ;  and  what  it  suffered  in  after  invasions  by 
the  Syrians  we  are  partly  told,  1  Kings  xv,  20. 
The  Naphtalites  were,  many,  if  not  most  of 
them,  carried  captive  by  Tiglath-pileser,  Icing 
of  Assyria,  2  Kings  xv,  29.  Josiah  purged 
their  country  from  idols.  Our  Saviour  and 
his  disciples,  during  his  public  ministry,  re- 
sided much  and  preached  frequently  in  the 
land  of  Naphtali,  Isaiah  ix,  1 ;  Matt,  iv,  13, 15. 

NAPHTUHIM,  a  son,  or  rather  the  de- 
scendants of  a  son,  of  Mizraim,  whose  proper 
name  is  Naphtuch.  Naphtuch  is  supposed  to 
have  given  his  name  to  Naph,  Noph,  or  Mem- 
phis, and  to  have  been  the  first  king  of  that 
division  of  Egypt.  He  is,  however,  placed  by 
Bochart  in  Libya;  and  is  conjectured  to  be 
the  Aphtuchus,  or  Autuchus,  who  had  a  tem- 
ple somewhere  here.  He  is  farther  conjectured, 
and  not  without  reason,  to  be  the  original  of 
the  Heathen  god  Neptune  ;  who  is  represented 
to  have  been  a  Libyan,  and  whose  temples 
were  generally  built  near  the  sea  coast.  By 
others,  he  is  supposed  to  have  peopled  that 
part  of  Ethiopia  between  Syene  and  Meroe, 
the  capital  of  which  was  called  Napata. 

NATHAN,  a  prophet  of  the  Lord,  who 
appeared  in  Israel  in  the  time  of  King  David, 
and  had  a  great  share  in  the  confidence  of  this 
prince.  His  country  is  unknown,  as  also  the 
time  in  which  he  began  to  prophesy.  The  first 
time  we  find  him  mentioned,  is  when  David 
designed  to  build  the  temple,  2  Sam.  vii,  3, 
&c.     We  find   him  mentioned  again  in  tha 


NAT 


687 


NAZ 


affair  of  David  and  Bathsheba,  when  he  faith- 
fully reproved  the  king  for  his  wicked  conduct, 
2  Sara,  xii,  1-14.  And  when  Adonijah  began 
to  take  upon  him  the  state,  and  to  assume  the 
dignity,  of  a  sovereign,  and  to  form  a  party  in 
opposition  to  his  brother  Solomon,  Nathan 
repaired  to  Bathsheba,  and  sent  her  imme- 
diately to  the  king  with  instructions  what  to 
say  ;  and  while  she  was  yet  discoursing  with 
the  king,  Nathan  came  in,  reminded  David  of 
his  promise,  that  Solomon  should  be  his  suc- 
cessor, and  procured  Solomon  to  be  imme- 
diately anointed  king  of  Israel. 

NATHANAEL,  a  disciple  of  our  Lord.  He 
appears  to  have  been  a  pious  Jew  who  waited 
for  the  Messiah :  and  upon  Jesus  saying  to 
him,  "  Before  Philip  called  thee,  I  saw  thee 
under  the  fig  tree,"  Nathanael,  convinced,  by 
some  circumstance  not  explained,  of  his  om, 
niscience,  exclaimed,  "  Master,  thou  art  the 
Son  of  God,  and  the  King  of  Israel."  Many 
have  thought  that  Nathanael  was  the  same  as 
Bartholomew.  The  evangelists,  who  mention 
Bartholomew,  say  nothing  of  Nathanael ;  and 
St.  John,  who  mentions  Nathanael,  takes  no 
notice  of  Bartholomew.  We  read  at  the  end 
of  St.  John's  Gospel,  that  our  Saviour,  after 
his  resurrection,  manifested  himself  to  Peter, 
Thomas,  Nathanael,  and  the  sons  of  Zebedee, 
as  they  were  fishing  in  the  lake  of  Gennesareth. 
We  know  no  other  circumstances  of  the  life  of 
this  holy  man. 

NATURAL,  4«%"cof,  is  a  term  that  frequently 
occurs  in  the  apostolic  writings  :  "  The  natural 
man  receiveth  not  the  things  of  the  Spirit  of 
God,  neither  can  he  know  them,  because  they 
are  spiritually  discerned,"  1  Cor.  ii,  14.  Here 
it  is  plain  that  by  "  the  natural  man,"  is  not 
meant  a  person  devoid  of  natural  judgment, 
reason,  or  conscience,  in  which  sense  the 
expression  is  often  used  among  men.  Nor 
does  it  signify  one  who  is  entirely  governed  by 
his  fleshly  appetites,  or  what  the  world  calls  a 
voluptuary,  or  sensualist.  Neither  does  it  sig- 
nify merely  a  man  in  the  rude  state  of  nature, 
whose  faculties  have  not  been  cultivated  by 
learning  and  study,  and  polished  by  an  inter- 
course with  society.  The  Apostle  manifestly 
takes  his  "natural  man"  from  among  such  as 
the  world  hold  in  the  highest  repute  for  their 
natural  parts,  their  learning,  and  their  religion. 
He  selects  him  from  among  the  philosophers 
of  Greece,  who  sought  after  wisdom,  and  from 
among  the  Jewish  scribes,  who  were  instructed 
in  the  revealed  law  of  God,  1  Cor.  i,  22,  23. 
These  are  the  persons  whom  he  terms  the 
wise,  the  scribes,  the  disputers  of  this  world — 
men  to  whom  the  Gospel  was  a  stumbling 
block  and  foolishness,  1  Cor.  i,  20,  23.  The 
natural  man  is  here  evidently  opposed  to,  6 
Ttvev/jiaTiKbi,  "  him  that  is  spiritual,"  1  Cor.  ii,  15, 
even  as  the  natural  body  which  we  derive  from 
Adam  is  opposed  to  the  spiritual  body  which 
believers  will  receive  from  Christ  at  the  resur- 
rection, according  to  1  Cor.  xv,  44,  45.  Now 
the  spiritual  man  is  one  who  has  the  Spirit  of 
Christ  dwelling  in  him,  Rom.  viii,  9,  not  merely 
in  the  way  of  miraculous  gifts,  as  some  have 
imagined,  (for  these  were  peculiar  to  the  first 


age  of  the  Christian  church,  and  even  then  not 
common  to  all  the  saints,  nor  inseparably  con- 
nected with  salvation,  1  Cor.  xiii,  1-4 ;  Heb. 
vi,  4-7,)  but  in  his  saving  influences  of  light, 
holiness,  and  consolation,  whereby  the  subject 
is  made  to  discern  the  truth  and  excellency  of 
spiritual  things,  and  so  to  believe,  love,  and 
delight  in  them  as  his  true  happiness.  If  there- 
fore a  man  is  called  "  spiritual"  because  the 
Spirit  of  Christ  dwells  in  him,  giving  him  new 
views,  dispositions,  and  enjoyments,  then  the 
"natural  man,"  being  opposed  to  such,  must 
be  one  who  is  destitute  of  the  Spirit,  and  of  all 
his  saving  and  supernatural  effects,  whatever 
may  be  his  attainments  in  human  learning  and 
science.  It  is  obviously  upon  this  principle 
that  our  Lord  insists  upon  the  necessity  of  the 
new  birth  in  order  to  our  entering  into  the 
kingdom  of  heaven,  John  iii,  3,  5. 

NATURE.  In  Scripture  the  word  nature 
expresses  the  orderly  and  usual  course  of 
things  established  in  the  world.  St.  Paul  says, 
to  ingraft  a  good  olive  tree  into  a  wild  olive  is 
contrary  to  nature,  Rom.  xi,  24  ;  the  customary 
order  of  nature  is  thereby  in  some  measure  in- 
verted. Nature  is  also  put  for  natural  descent : 
"  We  who  are  Jews  by  nature,"  by  birth,  "  and 
not  Gentiles,"  Gal.  ii,  15.  "  We  were  by  na- 
ture the  children  of  wrath,"  Eph.  ii,  3.  Nature 
also  denotes  common  sense,  natural  instinct : 
"  Doth  not  even  nature  itself  teach  you,  that 
if  a  man  have  long  hair,  it  is  a  shame  to  him  V 
1  Cor.  xi,  14. 

NAZARENES,  or  NAZAR^ANS,  a  name 
originally  given  to  Christians  in  general,  on 
account  of  Jesus  Christ's  being  of  the  city  of 
Nazareth ;  but  was,  in  the  second  century, 
restrained  to  certain  judaizing  Christians,  who 
blended  Christianity  and  Judaism  together. 
They  held  that  Christ  was  born  of  a  virgin, 
and  was  also  in  a  certain  manner  united  to  the 
divine  nature.  They  refused  to  abandon  the 
ceremonies  prescribed  by  the  law  of  Moses ; 
but  were  far  from  attempting  to  impose  the 
observance  of  these  ceremonies  upon  Gentile 
Christians.  They  rejected  those  additions  that 
were  made  to  the  Mosaic  institutions  by  the 
Pharisees  and  doctors  of  the  law,  and  admitted 
the  Scriptures  both  of  the  Old  and  New  Tes- 
tament. The  fathers  frequently  mention  the 
Gospel  of  the  Nazarenes,  which  differs  nothing 
from  that  of  St.  Matthew,  but  was  afterward 
corrupted  by  the  Ebioniies.  These  Nazarenes 
preserved  this  first  Gospel  in  its  primitive 
purity.  Some  of  them  were  still  in  being  in 
the  time  of  St.  Jerome,  who  does  not  reproach 
them  with  any  errors. 

NAZARETH,  a  little  city  in  the  tribe  of 
Zebulun,  in  Lower  Galilee,  to  the  west  of 
Tabor,  and  to  the  east  of  Ptolemais.  This 
city  is  much  celebrated  in  the  Scriptures  for 
having  been  the  usual  place  of  the  residence 
of  Jesus  Christ,  during  the  first  thirty  years  of 
his  life,  Luke  ii,  51.  It  was  here  he  lived  in 
obedience  to  Joseph  and  Mary,  and  hence  he 
took  the  name  of  Nazarene.  After  he  had  be- 
gun to  execute  his  mission  he  preached  here 
sometimes  in  the  synagogue,  Luke  iv,  16,  But 
because  his  countrymen  had  no  faith  in  him, 


NAZ 


688 


NAZ 


and  were  offended  at  the  meanness  of  his 
original,  he  did  not  many  miracles  here,  Matt. 
xiii,  54,  58,  nor  would  he  dwell  in  the  city. 
So  he  fixed  his  habitation  at  Capernaum  lor 
the  latter  part  of  his  life,  Matt,  iv,  13.  The 
city  of  Nazareth  was  situated  upon  an  emi- 
nence, and  on  one  side  was  a  precipice,  from 
whence  the  Nazarenes  designed,  at  one  time, 
to  cast  Christ  down  headlong,  because  he  up- 
braided them  for  their  incredulity,  Luke  iv,  29. 
The  present  state  of  this  celebrated  place  is 
thus  described  by  modern  travellers : — Nas- 
sara,  or  Naszera,  is  one  of  the  principal  towns 
in  the  pashalic  of  Acre.  Its  inhabitants  are 
industrious,  because  they  are  treated  with  less 
severity  than  those  of  the  country  towns  in 
general.  The  population  is  estimated  at  three 
thousand,  of  whom  five  hundred  are  Turks ; 
the  remainder  are  Christians.  There  are  about 
ninety  Latin  families,  according  to  Burckhardt; 
but  Mr.  Connor  reports  the  Greeks  to  be  the 
most  numerous :  there  is,  beside,  a  congre- 
gation of  Greek  Catholics,  and  another  of 
Maronites.  The  Latin  convent  is  a  very  spa- 
cious and  commodious  building,  which  was 
thoroughly  repaired  and  considerably  enlarged 
in  1730.  The  remains  of  the  more  ancient 
edifice,  ascribed  to  the  mother  of  Constantine, 
may  be  observed  in  the  form  of  subverted 
columns,  with  fragments  of  capitals  and  bases 
of  pillars,  lying  near  the  modern  building. 
Pococke  noticed,  over  a  door,  an  old  alto-relief 
of  Judith  cutting  oft*  the  head  of  Holofernes. 
Within  the  convent  is  the  church  of  the  an- 
nunciation, containing  the  house  of  Joseph 
and  Mary,  the  length  of  which  is  not  quite  the 
breadth  of  the  church  ;  but  it  forms  the  prin- 
cipal part  of  it.  The  columns  and  all  the  inte- 
rior of  the  church  are  hung  round  with  damask 
silk,  which  gives  it  a  warm  and  rich  appearance. 
Behind  the  great  altar  is  a  subterranean  cavern, 
divided  into  small  grottoes,  where  the  virgin 
is  said  to  have  lived.  Her  kitchen,  parlour, 
and  bed  room,  are  shown,  and  also  a  narrow 
hole  in  the  rock,  in  which  the  child  Jesus  once 
hid  himself  from  his  persecutors.  The  pilgrims 
who  visit  these  holy  spots  are  in  the  habit  of 
knocking  off  small  pieces  of  stone  from  the 
walls,  which  are  thus  considerably  enlarging. 
In  the  church  a  miracle  is  still  exhibited  to  the 
faithful.  In  front  of  the  altar  are  two  granite 
columns,  each  two  feet  one  inch  in  diameter, 
and  about  three  feet  apart.  They  are  supposed 
to  occupy  the  very  places  where  the  angol  and 
the  virgin  stood  at  the  precise  moment  of  the 
annunciation.  The  innermost  of  these,  that 
of  the  virgin,  has  been  broken  away,  some  say 
by  the  Turks,  in  expectation  of  finding  treasure 
under  it;  "so  that,"  as  Maundrell  states, 
"  eighteen  inches'  length  of  it  is  clean  gone 
between  the  pillar  and  the  pedestal."  Never- 
theless, it  remains  erect,  suspended  from  the 
roof,  as  if  attracted  by  a  loadstone.  It  has 
evidently  no  support  below ;  and,  though  it 
touches  the  roof,  the  bierophant  protests  that 
it  has  none  above.  "  All  the  Christians  of 
Nazareth,"  says  Burckhardt,  "with  the  friars, 
of  course,  at  their  head,  affect  to  believe  in  this 
miracle ;   though  it  is  perfectly  evident   that 


the  upper  part  of  the  column  is  connected  with 
the  roof."  "  The  fact  is,"  says  Dr.  E.  D. 
Clarke,  "that  the  capital  and  a  piece  of  the 
shaft  of  a  pillar  of  gray  granite  have  been 
fastened  on  to  the  roof  of  the  cave ;  and  so 
clumsily  is  the  rest  of  the  hocus  pocus  con- 
trived, that  what  is  shown  for  the  lower  frag- 
ment of  the  same  pillar  resting  upon  the  earth, 
is  not  of  the  same  substance,  but  of  Cipolino 
marble.  About  this  pillar,  a  different  story 
has  been  related  by  almost  every  traveller  since 
the  trick  was  devised.  Maundrell,  and  Eg- 
mont  and  Heyman,  were  told  that  it  was 
broken,  in  search  of  hidden  treasure,  by  a 
pasha,  who  was  struck  with  blindness  for  his 
impiety.  We  were  assured  that  it  was  sepa- 
rated in  this  manner  when  the  angel  announced 
to  the  virgin  the  tidings  of  her  conception. 
The  monks  had  placed  a  rail,  to  prevent  per- 
sons infected  with  the  plague  from  coming  to 
rub  against  these  pillars:  this  had  been,  for 
many  years,  their  constant  practice,  whenever 
afflicted  with  any  sickness.  The  reputation 
of  the  broken  pillar,  for  healing  every  kind  of 
disease,  prevails  all  over  Galilee." 

Burckhardt  says  that  this  church,  next  to 
that  of  the  holy  sepulchre,  is  the  finest  in 
Syria,  and  contains  two  tolerably  good  organs. 
Within  the  walls  of  the  convent  are  two  gar- 
dens, and  a  small  burying  ground  :  the  walls 
are  very  thick,  and  serve  occasionally  as  a 
fortress  to  all  the  Christians  in  the  town. 
There  are,  at  present,  eleven  friars  in  the  con- 
vent :  they  are  chiefly  Spaniards.  The  yearly 
expenses  of  the  establishment  are  stated  to 
amount  to  upward  of  nine  hundred  pounds; 
a  small  part  of  which  is  defrayed  by  the  rent 
of  a  few  houses  in  the  town,  and  by  the  pro- 
duce of  some  acres  of  corn  land  :  the  rest  is 
remitted  from  Jerusalem.  The  whole  annual 
expenses  of  the  Terra  Santa  convents  are 
about  fifteen  thousand  pounds  ;  of  which  the 
pasha  of  Damascus  receives  about  twelve 
thousand  pounds.  The  Greek  convent  of  Je- 
rusalem, according  to  Burckhardt's  authority, 
pays  much  more,  as  well  to  maintain  its  own 
privileges,  as  with  a  view  to  encroach  upon 
those  of  the  Latins.  To  the  north-west  of  the 
convent  is  a  small  church,  built  over  Joseph's 
work  shop.  Both  Maundrell  and  Pococke 
describe  it  as  in  ruins ;  but  Dr.  E.  D.  Clarke 
says,  "  This  is  now  a  small  chapel,  perfectly 
modern,  and  neatly  whitewashed."  To  the 
west,  of  this  is  a  small  arched  building,  which, 
they  say,  is  the  synagogue  where  Christ  exas- 
perated the  Jews,  by  applying  the  language  of 
Isaiah  to  himself.  It  once  belonged  to  the 
Greeks;  but,  Hasselquist  Bays,  was  taken  from 
them  by  the  Arabs,  who  intended  to  convert  it 
into  a  mosque,  but  afterward  sold  it  to  the 
Latins.  This  was  then  so  late  a  transaction 
that  they  had  not  had  time  to  embellish  it. 
The  "  Mountain  of  the  Precipitation"  is  at 
least  two  miles  oft';  so  thai,  according  to  this 
authentic  tradition,  the  Jews  must  have  led 
our  Lord  a  marvellous  way.  But  the  said 
precipice  is  shown  as  that  which  the  Messiah 
leaped  down  to  escape  from  the  Jews  ;  and  as 
the  monks  could  not  pitch  upon  any  other 


NAZ 


689 


NEB 


place  frightful  enough  for  the  miracle,  they 
contend  that  Nazareth  formerly  stood  eastward 
of  its  present  situation,  upon  a  more  elevated 
spot.  Dr.  E.  D.  Clarke,  however,  remarks 
that  the  situation  of  the  modern  town  answers 
exactly  to  the  description  of  St.  Luke.  "  In- 
duced,  by  the  words  of  the  Gospel,  to  examine 
the  place  more  attentively  than  we  should 
otherwise  have  done,  we  went,  as  it  is  written, 
out  of  the  city,  '  to  the  brow  of  the  hill  whereon 
the  city  is  built,'  and  came  to  a  precipice  cor- 
responding to  the  words  of  the  evangelist. 
It  is  above  the  Maronite  church,  and,  probably, 
the  precise  spot  alluded  to  by  the  text." 

NAZARITES,  those  under  the  ancient  law 
who  engaged  by  a  vow  to  abstain  from  wine 
and  all  intoxicating  liquors,  to  let  their  hair 
grow,  not  to  enter  any  house  polluted  by 
having  a  dead  corpse  in  it,  nor  to  be  present  at 
any  funeral.  If,  by  accident,  any  one  should 
have  died  in  their  presence,  they  recommenced 
the  whole  of  their  consecration  and  Nazarite- 
ship.  This  vow  generally  lasted  eight  days, 
sometimes  a  month,  and  sometimes  their  whole 
lives.  When  the  time  of  their  Nazariteship 
was  expired,  the  priest  brought  the  person  to 
the  door  of  the  temple,  who  there  offered  to 
the  Lord  a  he-lamb  for  a  burnt-offering,  a  she- 
lamb  for  an  expiatory  sacrifice,  and  a  ram  for 
a  peace-offering.  They  offered,  likewise,  loaves 
and  cakes,  with  wine,  for  libations.  After  all 
was  sacrificed  and  offered,  the  priest,  or  some 
other,  shaved  the  head  of  the  Nazarite  at  the 
door  of  the  tabernacle,  and  burned  his  hair  on 
the  fire  of  the  altar.  Then  the  priest  put  into 
the  hands  of  the  Nazarite  the  shoulder  of  the 
ram  roasted,  with  a  loaf  and  a  cake,  which 
the  Nazarite  returning  into  the  hands  of  the 
priest,  he  offered  them  to  the  Lord,  lifting 
them  up  in  the  presence  of  the  Nazarite.  And 
from  this  time  he  might  again  drink  wine,  his 
Nazariteship  being  accomplished. 

Perpetual  Nazarites,  as  Samson  and  John 
the  Baptist,  were  consecrated  to  their  Naza- 
riteship by  their  parents,  and  continued  all 
their  lives  in  this  state,  without  drinking  wine 
or  cutting  their  hair.  Those  who  made  a  vow 
of  Nazariteship  out  of  Palestine,  and  could  not 
come  to  the  temple  when  their  vow  was  ex- 
pired, contented  themselves  with  observing 
the  abstinence  required  by  the  law,  and  cutting 
off  their  hair  in  the  place  where  they  were  : 
the  offerings  and  sacrifices  prescribed  by  Moses, 
to  be  offered  at  the  temple,  by  themselves  or 
by  others  for  them,  they  deferred  till  a  con- 
venient opportunity.  Hence  it  was  that  St. 
Paul,  being  at  Corinth,  and  having  made  the 
vow  of  a  Nazarite,  had  his  hair  cut  off  at 
Cenchrea,  a  port  of  Corinth,  and  deferred  the 
rest  of  his  vow  till  he  came  to  Jerusalem, 
Acts  xviii,  18.  When  a  person  found  he  was 
not  in  a  condition  to  make  avow  of  Nazarite- 
ship, or  had  not  leisure  fully  to  perform  it,  he 
contented  himself  by  contributing  to  the  ex- 
pense of  sacrifices  and  offerings  of  those 
who  had  made  and  were  fulfilling  this  vow; 
and  by  this  means  he  became  a  partaker 
in  such  Nazariteship.  When  St.  Paul  came 
to  Jerusalem,  A.  D.  58,  St.  James,  with  other 
45 


brethren,  said  to  him,  that  to  quiet  the  minds 
of  the  converted  Jews  he  should  join  himself 
to  four  persons  who  had  a  vow  "of  Nazarite- 
ship, and  contribute  to  their  charges  and  cere- 
monies ;  by  which  the  new  converts  would 
perceive  that  he  did  not  totally  disregard  the 
law,  as  they  had  been  led  to  suppose,  Acts 
xxi,  23,  24.  The  institution  of  Nazaritism  is 
involved  in  much  mystery  ;  and  no  satisfactory 
reason  has  ever  been  given  of  it.  This  is  cer- 
tain, that  it  had  the  approbation  of  God,  and 
may  be  considered  as  affording  a  good  example 
of  self-denial  in  order  to  be  given  up  to  the 
study  of  the  law,  and  the  practice  of  exact 
righteousness. 

NEBO,  the  name  of  an  idol  of  the  Baby- 
lonians :  "  Bel  boweth  down,  Nebo  stoopeth," 
Isaiah  xlvi,  1.  The  word  Nebo  comes  from  a 
root  that  signifies  "to  prophesy,"  and  there- 
fore may  stand  for  an  oracle.  There  is  some 
probability  in  the  opinion  of  Calmet,  that  Bel 
and  Nebo  are  but  one  and  the  same  deity,  and 
that  Isaiah  made  use  of  these  names  as  sy- 
nonymous. The  god  Bel  was  the  oracle  of 
the  Babylonians.  The  name  Nebo,  or  Nabo, 
is  found  in  the  composition  of  the  names  of 
several  princes  of  Babylon  ;  as  Nabonassar, 
Nabopolassar,  Nebuchadnezzar,  Nebuzar-adan, 
Nebushasban,  &c. 

NEBUCHADNEZZAR  THE  GREAT, 
son  and  successor  of  Nabopolassar,  succeeded 
to  the  kingdom  of  Chaldea,  A.  M.  3399.  Some 
time  previously  to  this,  Nabopolassar  had  as- 
sociated him  in  the  kingdom,  and  sent  him  to 
recover  Carchemish,  which  had  been  con- 
quered from  him  four  years  before  by  Necho, 
king  of  Egypt.  Nebuchadnezzar,  having  been 
successful,  marched  against  the  governor  of 
Phenicia,  and  Jehoiakim,  king  of  Judah,  who 
was  tributary  to  Necho,  king  of  Egypt.  He 
took  Jehoiakim,  and  put  him  in  chains  in  order 
to  carry  him  captive  to  Babylon  ;  but  after- 
ward left  him  in  Judca,  on  condition  of  pay- 
ing a  large  tribute.  He  took  away  several 
persons  from  Jerusalem  ;  among  others  Daniel, 
Hananiah,  Mishael,  and  Azariah,  all  of  the 
royal  family,  whom  the  king  of  Babylon 
caused  to  be  carefully  instructed  in  the  lan- 
guage and  in  the  learning  of  the  Chaldeans, 
that  they  might  bo  employed  at  court,  Dan.  i. 
Nabopolassar  dying  about  the  end  of  A.  M. 
3399,  Nebuchadnezzar,  who  was  then  either 
in  Egypt  or  in  Judea,  hastened  to  Babylon, 
leaving  to  his  generals  the  care  of  bringing  to 
Chaldea  the  captives  whom  he  had  taken  in 
Syria,  Judca,  Phenicia,  and  Egypt  ;  for,  ac- 
cording to  Bcrosus,  lie  had  subdued  all  those 
countries.  He  distributed  these  captives  into 
several  colonics  ;  and  deposited  the  sacred 
vessels  of  the  temple  of  Jerusalem,  and  other 
rich  spoils  in  the  temple  of  Belus.  Jehoiakim, 
king  of  Judah,  continued  three  years  in  fealty 
to  King  Nebuchadnezzar ;  but  being  then 
weary  of  paying  tribute,  he  threw  off  the  yoke. 
The  king  of  Chaldea  sent  troops  of  Chaldeans, 
Syrians,  Moabites,  and  Ammonites,  who  ha- 
rassed Judea  during  three  or  four  years,  and 
at  last  JeKoiakim  was  besieged  and  taken  in 
Jerusalem,  put  to  death,  and  his  body  thrown 


NEB 


690 


NEB 


to  the  birds  of  the  air,  according  to  tho  pre- 
dictions of  Jeremiah.     See  Jehoiakim. 

In  the  mean  time,  Nebuchadnezzar  being  at 
Babylon  in  the  second  year  of  his  reign,  had 
a  mysterious  dream,  in  which  he  saw  a  statue 
composed  of  several  metals,  a  head  of  gold,  a 
breast  of  silver,  belly  and  thighs  of  brass,  legs 
of  iron,  and  feet  half  of  iron  and  half  clay ; 
and  a  little  stone  rolling  by  its  own  impulse 
from  the  mountain  struck  the  statue  and  broke 
it.  This  dream  gave  him  great  uneasiness, 
yet  it  faded  away  from  his  memory,  and  he 
could  not  recover  more  than  the  general  im- 
pression of  it.  He  ordered  all  his  diviners  and 
interpreters  of  dreams  to  be  sent  for  ;  but  none 
could  tell  him  the  dream  or  the  interpretation  : 
and,  in  wrath,  he  sentenced  them  all  to  death, 
which  was  about  to  bo  put  in  execution,  when 
Daniel  was  informed  of  it.  He  went  imme- 
diately to  the  king,  and  desired  him  to  respite 
the  sentence  a  little,  and  he  would  endeavour 
to  satisfy  his  desire.  God  in  the  night  re- 
vealed to  li i in  the  king's  dream,  and  also  the 
interpretation:  "Thou,"  said  Daniel,  "art 
represented  by  the  golden  head  of  the  statue. 
After  thee  will  arise  a  kingdom  inferior  to 
thine,  represented  by  the  breast  of  silver;  and 
after  this,  another,  still  inferior,  denoted  by 
the  belly  and  thighs  of  brass.  After  these 
three  empires,"  which  are  the  Chaldeans,  Per- 
sians, and  Greeks,  "  will  arise  a  fourth,  de- 
noted by  the  legs  of  iron,"  the  Romans. 
"  Under  this  last  empire  God  will  raise  a  new 
one,  of  greater  strength,  power,  and  extent, 
than  all  the  others.  This  last  is  that  of  the 
Messiah,  represented  by  the  little  stone  com- 
ing out  from  the  mountain  and  overthrowing 
the  statue."  Then  the  king  raised  Daniel  to 
great  honour,  set  him  over  all  the  wise  men 
of  Babylon,  and  give  him  the  government  of 
that  province.  At  his  request  he  granted  to 
Shadrach,  Meshach,  and  Abednego,  the  over- 
tight  of  tho  works  of  the  same  province  of 
Babylon. 

In  the  Bame  year,  as  Dr.  Hales  thinks,  in 
which  he  had  this  dream,  he  erected  a  golden 
statue,  whose  height  was  sixty  cubits,  and 
breadth  six  cubits,  in  the  plains  of  Dura,  in 
the  province  of  Babylon.  Having  appointed 
a  day  for  the  dedication  of  this  statue,  he  as- 
sembled the  principal  officers  of  his  kingdom, 
and  published  by  a  herald,  that  all  should 
adore  this  image,  at  the  sound  of  music,  on 
penalty  of  being  cast  into  a  burning  fiery 
furnace.  The  result,  as  to  the  three  Jews, 
companions  of  Daniel,  who  would  not  bend 
the  knee  to  the  image,  is  stated  in  Dan.  iii. 
Daniel  probably  wan  absent.  The  effect  of 
the  miracle  wis  bo  greal  that  Nebuchadnezzar 
gave  glory  to  (he  God  of  Shadrach,  Meshach, 
and  Abednego.;  and  he  exalted  the  throe  He- 
brewi  to  greal  dignity  in  the  province  of 
Babylon,  1  Fan.  iv. 

Jehoiachio,  king  of  Judah,  halting  revolted. 
i  Nebuchadnezzar!  this  prince  besieged 
him  in  Jerusalem,  and  forced  him  to  surren- 
der. ^  Nebuchadnezzar  took  him,  with  his 
Chief  officers,  captive  to  Babylon,  with  his 
mother,  his  wives  and  the  best  workmen  of 


Jerusalem,  to  the  number  of  ten  thousand 
men.  Among  the  captives  were  Mordecai, 
the  uncle  of  Esther,  and  Ezekiel  the  prophet. 
He  took,  also,  all  the  vessels  of  gold  which 
Solomon  made  for  the  temple,  and  the  king's 
treasury,  and  he  setup  Mattaniah,  Jehoiachin's 
uncle  by  his  father's  side,  whom  he  named 
Zedekiah.  This  prince  continued  faithful  to 
Nebuchadnezzar  nine  years  :  being  then  weary 
of  subjection,  he  revolted,  and  confederated 
with  the  neighbouring  princes.  The  king  of 
Babylon  came  into  Judea,  reduced  the  chief 
places  of  the  country,  and  besieged  Jerusalem  : 
but  Pharaoh-Hophra  coming  out  of  Egypt  to 
assist  Zedekiah,  Nebuchadnezzar  overcame 
him  in  battle,  and  forced  him  to  retire  into  his 
own  country.  After  this  he  returned  to  the 
siege  of  Jerusalem,  and  was  three  hundred  and 
ninety  days  before  the  place  before  he  could 
take  it.  But  in  the  eleventh  year  of  Zede- 
kiah, A.  M.  3416,  the  city  was  taken.  Zede- 
kiah attempted  to  escape,  but  was  taken  and 
brought  to  Nebuchadnezzar,  who  was  then  at 
Riblah  in  Syria.  The  king  of  Babylon  con- 
demned him  to  die,  caused  his  children  to  be 
put  to  death  in  his  presence,  and  then  bored 
out  his  eyes,  loaded  him  with  chains,  and  sent 
him  to  Babylon. 

Three  years  after  the  Jewish  war  Nebuchad- 
nezzar besieged  the  city  of  Tyre,  which  siege 
held  thirteen  years.  But  during  this  interval, 
he  made  war,  also,  on  the  Sidonians,  Moabites, 
Ammonites,  and  Idumeans ;  and  these  he 
treated  in  nearly  the  same  manner  as  the  Jews. 
Josephus  says  these  wars  happened  five  years 
after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  conse- 
quently in  A.  M.  3421.  The  city  of  Tyre  was 
taken  in  A.  M.  3432.  Ithobaal,  who  was  then 
king,  was  put  to  death,  and  Baal  succeeded  him. 
The  Lord,  as  a  reward  to  the  army  of  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, which  had  lain  so  long  before  Tyre, 
gave  up  to  them  Egypt  and  its  spoils.  Nebu- 
chadnezzar made  an  easy  conqnest  of  it,  be- 
cause the  Egyptians  were  divided  by  civil 
wars  among  themselves  :  he  enriched  himself 
with  booty,  and  returned  in  triumph  to  Baby- 
lon, with  a  great  number  of  captives.  Being 
now  at  peace,  he  applied  himself  to  the  adorn- 
ing, aggrandizing,  and  enriching  of  Babylon 
with  magnificent  buildings.  To  him  some 
ascribe  those  famous  gardens,  supported  by 
arches,  reckoned  among  the  wonders  of  the 
world;  and  also  the  walls  of  Babylon,  though 
many  give  the  honour  of  this  work  to  Semi- 
ramis. 

About  this  time  Nebuchadnezzar  had  a 
dream  of  a  great  tree,  loaded  with  fruit.  Sud- 
denly, an  angel  descending  from  heaven,  com- 
manded that  the  tree  should  he  cut  down,  but. 
that  the  root  should  be  preserved  in  the  earth, 
Dan.  iv.  The  king  sent  for  all  the  diviners 
in  the  country,  but  none  could  explain  his 
dream,  till  Daniel,  by  divine  revelation, 
showed  that  it  represented  his  present,  great- 
ness, his  signal  approaching  humiliation,  and 
his  restoration  to  reason  and  dignity.  A  year 
after,  as  Nebuchadnezzar  was  walking  on  his 
palace  at  Babylon,  he  began  to  say,  "Is  not 
this  great  Babylon,  which  I  have  built  for  thu 


NEC 


691 


NEC 


house  of  the  kingdom,  by  the  might  of  my 
power,  and  for  the  honour  of  my  majesty  ?" 
and  scarcely  had  he  pronounced  these  words, 
when  he  fell  into  a  distemper  or  distraction, 
which  so  altered  his  imagination  that  he  fled 
into  the  fields  and  assumed  the  manners  of 
an  ox.  After  having  been  seven  years  in  this 
state,  God  opened  his  eyes,  his  understanding 
was  restored  to  him,  and  he  recovered  his 
royal  dignity. 

Nebuchadnezzar  died,  A.  M.  3442,  after 
having  reigned  forty-three  years.  Megasthe- 
nes,  quoted  by  Eusebius,  says,  that  this  prince 
having  ascended  to  the  top  of  his  palace,  was 
there  seized  with  a  fit  of  divine  enthusiasm, 
and  cried  out,  "  O  Babylonians,  I  declare  to 
you  a  misfortune,  that  neither  our  father  Belus, 
nor  Queen  Baltis  has  been  able  to  prevent. 
A  Persian  mule  shall  one  day  come  into  this 
country,  who,  supported  by  the  power  of  your 
gods,  shall  bring  you  into  slavery.  He  shall 
be  assisted  by  the  Mode,  the  glory  of  the  As- 
syrians." This  Persian  mule  is  Cyrus,  whose 
mother  was  a  Mede,  and  whose  father  was  a 
Persian.  The  Mede  who  assisted  Cyrus  was 
Cyaxares,  or  Darius  the  Mede.  This  story  at 
least  shows  that  the  Heathens  had  traditions 
of  an  extraordinary  kind  respecting  this  mo- 
narch, and  that  the  fate  of  Babylon  had  been 
the  subject  of  prophecy. 

NEBUZAR-ADAN,  a  general  of  Nebu- 
chadnezzar's army,  and  the  chief  officer  of  his 
household.  He  managed  the  siege  of  Jerusa- 
lem, and  made  himself  master  of  the  city, 
while  his  sovereign  was  at  Riblah  in  Syria, 
2  Kings  xxv  ;  Jer.  xxxix  ;  xl ;  lii. 

NECESSITARIANS.  The  doctrine  of 
necessity  regards  the  origin  of  human  actions, 
and  the  specific  mode  of  the  divine  government; 
and  it  seems  to  be  the  immediate  result  of  the 
materiality  of  man  ;  for  mechanism  is  the  un- 
doubted consequence  of  materialism.  Hence  all 
materialists  are  of  course  necessitarians  ;  but 
it  does  not  follow  that  all  necessitarians  are  or 
must  be  materialists.  Whatever  is  done  by  a 
cause  or  power  that  is  irresistible,  is  by  neces. 
sity  ;  in  which  sense  this  term  is  opposed  to 
freedom,  Man  is,  therefore,  a  necessary  agent, 
if  all  his  actions  be  so  determined  by  the  causes 
preceding  each  action,  that  not  one  past  action 
could  possibly  not  have  come  to  pass,  or  have 
been  otherwise  than  it  hath  been  ;  and  not  one 
future  action  can  possibly  not  come  to  pass, 
or  be  otherwise  than  it  shall  be.  But  man  is 
a  free  agent,  if  he  be  able  at  any  time,  in  the 
circumstances  in  which  he  is  placed,  to  do 
different  things  ;  or,  in  other  words,  if  he  be 
not  unavoidably  determined  in  every  point  of 
time  by  the  circumstances  he  is  in,  and  the 
causes  he  is  under,  to  do  that  one  thing  he 
does,  and  not  possibly  to  do  any  other  thing. 
This  abstruse  subject  has  occasioned  much 
controversy,  and  has  been  debated  by  writers 
of  the  first  eminence,  from  Hobbes  and  Clarke, 
to  Priestley  and  Gregory.  The  anti.necessita- 
rians  allege,  that  the  doctrine  of  necessity 
charges  God  as  the  author  of  sin  ;  that  it  takes 
away  the  freedom  of  the  will ;  renders  man 
unaccountable  to  his  Maker ;  makes  sin  to  be 


no  evil,  and  morality  or  virtue  to  be  no  good  ; 
and  that  it  precludes  the  use  of  means,  and  is 
of  the  most  gloomy  tendency.  The  necessita- 
rians, on  the  other  hand,  deny  these  to  be  legiti- 
mate consequences  of  their  doctrine,  which 
they  declare  to  be  the  most  consistent  mode  of 
explaining  the  divine  government ;  and  they 
observe,  that  the  Deity  acts  no  more  immorally 
in  decreeing  vicious  actions,  than  in  permitting 
all  those  irregularities  which  he  could  so  easily 
have  prevented.  All  necessity,  say  they,  doth 
not  take  away  freedom.  The  actions  of  a 
man  may  be  at  one  and  the  same  time  both 
free  and  necessary.  Tims,  it  was  infalliby 
certain  that  Judas  would  betray  Christ,  yet  he 
did  it  voluntarily  ;  Jesus  Christ  necessarily  be- 
came man,  and  died,  yet  he  acted  freely.  A 
good  man  doth  naturally  and  necessarily  love 
his  children,  yet  voluntarily.  They  insist  that 
necessity  doth  not  render  actions  less  morally 
good  ;  for,  if  necessary  virtue  be  neither  moral 
nor  praiseworthy,  it  will  follow  that  God  him- 
self is  not  a  moral  being,  because  he  is  a  ne- 
cessary one;  and  the  obedience  of  Christ  can- 
not be  good,  because  it  was  necessary.  Farther, 
say  they,  necessity  does  not  preclude  the  use 
of  means  ;  for  means  are  no  less  appointed  than 
the  end.  It  was  ordained  that  Christ  should 
be  delivered  up  to  death  ;  but  he  could  not 
have  been  betrayed  without  a  betrayer,  nor 
crucified  without  crucifiers.  That  it  is  not  a 
gloomy  doctrine  they  allege,  because  nothing 
can  be  more  consolatory  than  to  believe,  that 
all  things  are  under  the  direction  of  an  all- 
wise  Being,  that  his  kingdom  ruleth  over  all, 
and  that  he  doeth  all  things  well.  They  also 
urge,  that  to  deny  necessity,  is  to  deny  the 
foreknowledge  of  God,  and  to  wrest  the  scep- 
tre from  the  hand  of  the  Creator,  and  to  place 
that  capricious  and  undefinable  principle,  the 
self-determining  power  of  man,  upon  the  throne 
of  the  universe.  In  these  statements  there  ia 
obviously  a  confused  use  of  terms  in  different 
meanings,  so  as  to  mislead  the  unwary.  For 
instance :  necessity  is  confounded  with  cer- 
tainty;  but  an  action  may  be  certain,  though 
free ;  that  is  to  say,  certain  to  an  omniscient 
Being,  who  knows  how  a  free  agent  will  finally 
resolve  ;  but  this  certainty  is,  in  fact,  a  quality 
of  the  prescient  Being,  not  that  of  the  action, 
to  which,  however;  men  delusively  transfer  it. 
Again :  God  is  called  a  necessary  Being,  which, 
if  it  mean  any  thing,  signifies,  as  to  his  moral 
acts,  that  he  can  only  act  right.  But  then 
this  is  a  wrong  application  of  the  term  neces- 
sity, which  properly  implies  such  a  constraint 
upon  actions,  exercised  ab  extra,  as  renders 
choice  or  will  impossible.  But  such  necessity 
cannot  exist  as  to  the  supreme  Being.  Again  : 
the  obedience  of  Christ  unto  death  was  neces- 
sary, that  is  to  say,  unless  he  had  died  guilty 
man  could  not  have  been  forgiven ;  but  this 
could  not  make  the  act  of  the  Jews  who  put 
him  to  death  a  necessary  act,  that  is  to  say,  a 
forced  and  constrained  one  ;  nor  did  this  ne- 
cessity affect  the  act  of  Christ  himself,  who 
acted  voluntarily,  and  might  have  left  man 
without  salvation.  That  the  Jews  acted  freely, 
is  evident  from  their  being  held  liable  to  punish- 


NEC 


692 


NEH 


ment,  although  unconsciously  they  accom- 
plished the  great  designs  of  Heaven,  which, 
however,  was  no  excuse  for  their  crime. 
Finally  :  as  to  the  allegation,  that  the  doctrine 
of  free  agency  puts  man's  self-determining 
power  upon  the  throne  of  the  universe,  that 
view  proceeds  upon  notions  unworthy  of  God, 
as  though  ho  could  not  accomplish  his  plans 
without  compelling  and  controlling  all  things 
by  a  fixed  fate  ;  whereas  it  is  botli  more  glo- 
rious to  him,  and  certainly  more  in  accordance 
witli  the  Scriptures,  to  say  that  he  has  a  per- 
fect foresight  of  the  manner  in  which  all  crea- 
tures will  act,  and  that  he,  by  a  profound  and 
infinite  wisdom,  subordinates  every  thing  with- 
out  violence  to  the  evolution  and  accomplish- 
ment of  his  own  glorious  purposes. 

The  doctrine  of  necessity  is  nearly  connect- 
ed with  that  of  predestination,  which,  of  late 
years,  has  assumed  a  form  very  different  from 
Lh&t  which  it  formerly  possessed;  for,  instead 
of  being  considered  as  a  point  to  be  determin- 
ed almost  entirely  by  the  sacred  writings,  it 
has,  in  the  hands  of  a  number  of  able  writers, 
in  a  great  measure  resolved  itself  into  a  ques- 
tion of  natural  religion,  under  the  head  of  the 
philosophical  liberty  or  necessity  of  the  will ; 
or,  whether  all  human  actions  are,  or  are  not, 
necessarily  determined  by  motives  arising  from 
the  character  which  God  has  impressed  on  our 
minds,  and  the  train  of  circumstances  amidst 
which  his  providence  has  placed  us?  The 
Calvinistic  doctrine  of  predestination  is,  that 
"  God  for  his  own  glory,  hath  foreordained 
whatsoever  comes  to  pass."  The  scheme  of 
philosophical  necessity,  as  stated  by  the  most 
celebrated  necessitarian  of  the  age,  is,  "that 
every  thing  is  predetermined  by  the  divine 
Being;  that  whatever  has  been,  must  have 
been  ;  and  that  whatever  will  be,  must  be  ; 
that  all  events  are  preordained  by  infinite  wis- 
dom and  unlimited  goodness ;  that  the  will,  in 
all  its  determinations,  is  governed  by  the  state 
of  mind  ;  that  the  state  of  mind  is,  in  every 
instance,  determined  by  the  Deity;  and  thai 
there  is  a  continued  chain  of  causes  and  effects, 
of  motives  and  actions,  inseparably  connected, 
and  originating  from  the  condition  in  which 
we  arc  brought  into  existence  by  the  Author 
of  our  being."  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  justly 
remarked,  thai  "those  who  believe  the  being 
and  perfections  of  God,  and  a  state  of  retribu- 
tion, in  which  he  will  reward  and  punish  man- 
kind according  to  the  diversity  of  their  art  ions, 
will  find  it  difficult  to  reconcile  the  just  if.  of 
punk  hroent  with  the  necessity  of crimes  punish- 
"'  Vi"l  thej  thai  believe  all  that  the  Scrip- 
'■  the  one  hand,  Of  the  eternity  of 
punuhmi  ats,  and  on  the  other,  ofGod's 

kSfliou   to  sinners,   and  his  solemn  assur- 
es aol  their  death,  will  find 

1 lifficwltj  greatly  increased."     It  is  doubt- 

leu  an  article  of  *he  Christian  faith,  that  God 
wijl  reward  Qr  punish  every  man  hereafter  nc- 

~r   to   his  actions  in  tins  life.     But  we 

1  maintain  hie  justice  in  this  particular,  if 

■11  v  either  in  their  own 

nature,  or  by  Lhe  divine  decrees.   Activity  and 

•  termining  powers  are  the  foundation  of 


all  morality ;  and  to  prove  that  euch  powers 
belong  to  man,  it  is  urged  that  we  ourselves 
are  conscious  of  possessing  them.  We  blame 
and  condemn  ourselves  when  we  do  amiss ;  but 
guilt,  and  inward  sense  of  shame,  and  remorse 
of  conscience,  are  feelings  which  are  incon- 
sistent with  the  scheme  of  necessity.  It  is 
also  agreed  that  some  actions  deserve  praise, 
and  afford  an  inward  satisfaction ;  but  for 
this,  there  would  be  no  foundation,  if  we  were 
invincibly  determined  in  every  volition  :  so 
that  approbation  and  blame  are  consequent  on 
free  actions  only.  Nor  is  the  matter  at  all 
relieved  by  bringing  in  a  chain  of  circum- 
stances as  motives  necessarily  to  determine 
the  will.  This  comes  to  the  same  result  in 
sound  argument,  as  though  there  was  an  im- 
mediate enaction  of  omnipotent  power  compel- 
ling one  kind  of  volitions  only ;  which  is 
utterly  irreconcilable  to  all  just  notions  of  the 
nature  and  operations  of  will,  and  to  all  ac- 
countability. Necessity,  in  the  sense  of  irre- 
sistible control,  and  the  doctrine  of  Scripture, 
cannot  coexist. 

NECROMANCY,  viKpopavrcia,  is  the  art  of 
raising  up  the  ghosts  of  deceased  persons,  to 
get  information  from  them  concerning  future 
events.  This  practice,  no  doubt,  the  Israelites 
brought  with  them  from  Egypt,  which  affect- 
ed to  be  the  mother  of  such  occult  sciences ; 
and  from  thence  it  spread  into  the  neighbour- 
ing countries,  and  soon  infected  all  the  east. 
The  injunction  of  the  law  is  very  express  against 
this  vice ;  and  the  punishment  to  be  inflicted 
on  the  practisers  of  it  was  stoning  to  death, 
Lev.  xx,  27.  What  forms  of  enchantment  were 
used  in  the  practice  of  necromancy  we  are  at 
a  loss  to  know,  because  we  read  of  none  that 
the  pythoness  of  Endor  employed  ;  however, 
that  there  were  several  rites,  spells,  and  invoca- 
tions used  upon  these  occasions,  we  may  learn 
from  almost  every  ancient  author,  but  from 
none  more  particularly  than  from  Lucan  in 
his  1'harsalia.  Whether  the  art  of  conversing 
with  the  dead  was  mere  imposture,  or  ground- 
ed upon  diabolical  agency,  is  a  question  which 
has  been  disputed  in  all  ages. 

NEHEMIAH  professes  himself  the  author 
of  the  book  which  bears  his  name,  in  the  very 
beginning  of  it,  and  he  uniformly  writes  in  the 
first  person.  He  was  of  the  tribe  of  Judah, 
and  was  probably  born  at  Babylon  during  the 
captivity.  He  was  so  distinguished  for  his 
family  and  attainments,  as  to  be  selected  for 
the  office  of  cup  bearer  to  the  king  of  Persia, 
8  situation  of  great  honour  and  emolument. 
lie  was  made  governor  of  Judea,  upon  his  own 
application,  by  Artaxerxes  Longimanus ;  and 
his  hook,  which  in  the  Hebrew  canon  was 
joined  to  that  of  Ezra,  gives  an  account  of  his 
appointment  and  administration  through  a 
space  of  about  thirty-six  years  to  A.  M.  3595, 
at  which  time  the  Scripture  history  closes;  and, 
consequently,  the  historical  books,  from  Joshua 
to  Nehemiah  inclusive,  contain  the  history  of 
the  Jewish  people  from  the  death  of  Moses, 
A.  M.  2553,  to  the  reformation  established  by 
Nehemiah,  after  the  return  from  captivity,  being 
a  period  of  one  thousand  and  forty-two  years. 


NEO 


693 


NEO 


NEOLOGY.      This  term,  which  signifies 
new  doctrine,  has  been  used  to  designate  a  spe. 
cies  of  theology  and  Biblical  criticism  which 
has  of  late  years  much  prevailed  among  the 
Protestant  divines  of  Germany,  and  the  pro- 
fessors of  their  universities.     It  is  now,  how- 
ever, more  frequently  termed  rationalism,  and 
is  supposed  to  occupy  a  sort  of  middle  place 
between  the  orthodox  system  and  pure  deism. 
The  German  divines  themselves  speak  of  na- 
turalism,   rationalism,    and    supernaturalism. 
The  term    naturalism  arose   first  in  the   six- 
teenth century,  and  was  spread  in  the  seven- 
teenth.   It  was  understood  to  be  the  system  of 
those  who  allowed  no  other  knowledge  of  re- 
ligion than  the  natural,  which  man  could  shape 
out  by  his  own  strength,  and,  consequently, 
excluded  all  supernatural   revelation.      As  to 
the  different  forms  of  naturalism,  theologians 
say  there  are  three  :  the  first,  which  they  call 
Pelagianism,  and  which  considers  human  dis- 
positions and  notions  as  perfectly  pure,  and  the 
religious  knowledge  derived  from  them  as  suf- 
ficiently explicit.      A  grosser  kind  denies  all 
particular  revelation  ;  and  the  grossest  of  all 
considers  the  world  as  God.     Rationalism  has 
been  thus  explained:  "Those  who  are  gene- 
rally  termed  rationalists,"   says   Dr.  Bretsch- 
neider,  "  admit  universally  in  Christianity,  a 
divine,  benevolent,  and  positive  appointment 
for  the  good  of  mankind,  and  Jesus  as  a  mes- 
senger of  Divine  Providence,  believing  that  the 
true  and  everlasting  word  of  God  is  contained 
in  the  Holy  Scripture,  and  that  by  the  same 
the  welfare  of  mankind  will  be  obtained  and 
extended.     But  they  deny  therein  a  superna- 
tural   and  miraculous   working    of  God,    and 
consider  the  object  of  Christianity  to  be  that 
of  introducing  into  the  world  such  a  religion 
as  reason  can  comprehend ;  and  they  distin- 
guish the  essential  from  the  unessential,  and 
what  is  local  and  temporary  from  that  which 
is  universal   and  permanent  in  Christianity." 
There   is,   however,   a   third  class   of  divines 
who  in  fact  differ  very  little  from  this,  though 
very  widely  in  profession.   They  affect  to  allow 
a  revealing  operation  of  God,  but  establish  on 
internal  proofs   rather  than   on  miracles  the 
divine   nature  of  Christianity.      They  allow 
that  revelation  may  contain  much  out  of  the 
power   of  reason   to  explain,   but  say  that  it 
should  assert  nothing  contrary  to  reason,  but 
rather  what  may  be  proved  by  it.   Supernatural, 
ism  consists  in  general  in  the  conviction  that 
God  has  revealed  himself  supernaturally  and 
immediately.    The  notion  of  a  miracle  cannot 
well    be    separated    from    such    a    revelation, 
whether  it  happens  out  of,    on,   or  in   men. 
What  is  revealed  may  belong  to  the  order  of 
nature,  but  an  order  higher  and  unknown  to 
us,  which  we  could  never  have  known  without 
miracles,  and  cannot  bring  under  the  laws  of 
nature. 

The  difference  between  the  naturalists  and 
the  rationalists,  as  Mr.  Rose  justly  remarks,  is 
not  quite  so  wide  either  as  it  would  appear  to 
be  at  first  sight,  or  as  one  of  them  assuredly 
wishes  it  to  appear.  For  if  I  receive  a  system, 
be  it  of  religion,  of  morals,  or  of  politics,  only 


so  far  as  it  approves  itself  to  my  reason,  what- 
ever be  the  authority  that  presents  it  to  me, 
it  is  idle  to  say  that  I  receive  the  system  out 
of  any  respect  to  that  authority.  I  receive  it 
only  because  my  reason  approves  it ;  and  I 
should,  of  course,  do  so  if  an  authority  of  far 
inferior  value  were  to  present  the  system  to 
me.  This  is  what  that  division  of  rationalists, 
which  professes  to  receive  Christianity,  and  at 
the  same  time  to  make  reason  the  supreme 
arbiter  in  matters  of  faith,  has  done.  Their 
system,  in  a  word,  is  this :  They  assume  cer- 
tain general  principles,  which  they  maintain 
to  be  the  necessary  deductions  of  reason  from 
an  extended  and  unprejudiced  contemplation 
of  the  natural  and  moral  order  of  things,  and 
to  be  in  themselves  immutable  and  universal. 
Consequently,  any  thing  which,  on  however 
good  authority,  may  be  advanced  in  apparent 
opposition  to  them  must  either  be  rejected  as 
unworthy  of  rational  belief,  or,  at  least,  ex- 
plained away  till  it  is  made  to  accord  with  the 
assumed  principles  ;  and  the  trutli  or  falsehood 
of  all  doctrines  proposed  is  to  be  decided  ac- 
cording to  their  agreement  or  disagreement 
with  those  principles. 

It   is   easy,    then,  to  anticipate  how,  with 
such    principles,    the    Biblical  critics  of  Ger- 
many, distinguished  as  many   of  them   have 
been  for  learning,  would  proceed  to  interpret 
the   Scriptures.      Many  of  the  sacred   books 
and  parts  of  others  have,  of  course,  been  re- 
jected  by   them    as    spurious,    the    strongest 
external  evidence  being  thought  by  them  in- 
sufficient to  prove  the  truth  of  what  was  de- 
termined to  be  contradictory  to  their  reason  ; 
and  the  inspiration  of  the  rest  was  understood 
in  no   higher  a  sense,  to  use  the  language  of 
one  of  their  professors,  than  the  expressions  of 
Cicero  as  to  the  inspiration  of  the  poets,  or 
those  of  Quintilian  respecting  Plato.    It  would 
be    disgusting,   says  Rose,  to  go  through  all 
the  strange  fancies  which  were  set  afloat,  and 
which  tended   only  to  set   Scripture    on    the 
same  footing  as  an  ingenious  but  improbable 
romance.     They  all  proceeded  from  the  deter- 
mination that  whatever  was   not   intelligible 
was  incredible,  that  only  what  was  of  familiar 
and  easy  explanation  deserved  belief,  and  that 
all  which  was  miraculous  and  mysterious  in 
Scripture  must  be   rejected ;  and  they  rested 
perpetually  on  notions  and  reasonings  which 
were  in  themselves  miracles  of  incredibility. 
But  there  were  many  of  the  German  divines 
of  this  rationalist  period  who  went  much  far- 
ther,   and  who    imputed  a  deception    to   our  ; 
Lord  and  his  disciples,   not  for  evil    but  for 
good  purposes.     In  reading  or  in  hearing  of 
these  wretched  productions,  the  mind  is  divided 
between  disgust  at   folly,  and  indignation  at 
wickedness.     What  can  be  said  for  the  heart 
which    could    suppose    that    the    founders    of 
Christianity  could   have    taught   the    sublime 
and  holy  doctrines  of  the  Gospel  with  a  lie  in 
their  hearts  and  on  their  lips  ?  or  for  the  intel- 
lect which   could  believe  that  ambitious  and 
designing    men   would    encounter    years    of 
poverty,  and  shame,  and  danger,  with  no  pros, 
pect  but  that  of  an  ignominious  death?     But 


NEO 


694 


NEO 


where  the  supernatural  and  miraculous  ac- 
counts were  not  rejected,  they  were,  by  many 
of  the  most  eminent  of  these  writers,  explain, 
ed  away  by  a  monstrous  ingenuity,  which,  on 
any  other  subject,  and  applied  to  any  ancient 
classic  or  other  writer,  would  provoke  the 
most  contemptuous  ridicule.  When  Korah, 
Dathan,  and  Abiram  were  swallowed  up, 
Moses  had  previously  "  secretly  undermined 
the  earth."  Jacob  wrestled  with  the  angel  "  in 
a  dream;"  and  a  rheumatic  pain  in  his  thigh 
during  sleep  suggested  the  incident  in  his 
dream  of  the  angel  touching  the  sinew  of  his 
thigh.  Professor  Paulus  gravely  explains  the 
miracle  of  the  tribute  money  thus  :  That  Christ 
only  meant  to  give  a  moral  lesson,  that  is,  that 
we  are  not,  if  we  can  avoid  it  by  trifling  sacri- 
fices, to  give  offence  to  our  brethren  ;  that 
he  probably  reasoned  thus  with  -St.  Peter : 
"  Though  there  is  no  real  occasion  for  us  to 
pay  the  tribute,  yet,  as  we  may  be  reckoned 
as  enemies  of  the  temple,  and  not  attended  to 
when  we  wish  to  teach  what  is  good,  why 
should  not  you  who  are  a  fisherman,"  a  remark 
which  might  very  properly  be  made  at  a  place 
where  St.  Peter  had  been  engaged  in  a  fishery 
for  two  years,  "  and  can  easily  do  it,  go  and 
get  enough  to  pay  the  demand  ?  Go,  then,  to 
the  sea,  cast  your  hook,  and  take  up  vfHrov 
fy9ui<,  the  first  and  best  fish."  .St.  Peter  was 
not  to  stay  longer  at  his  work  this  time  than 
to  gain  the  required  money  :  -p&ros  often  refers 
not  to  number  but  to  time  ;  and  i%8vv  may  un- 
doubtedly be  taken  as  a  collective.  St.  Peter 
must  either  have  caught  so  many  fish  as  would 
be  reckoned  worth  a  stater  at  Capernaum,  (so 
near  to  a  sea  rich  in  fish,)  or  one  so  large  and 
fine  as  would  have  been  valued  at  that  sum. 
As  it  was  uncertain  whether  one  or  more 
would  be  necessary,  the  expression  is  indefi- 
nite,   tov   avuBdvra   dpurov   i^Ouv ;    [the    fish   first 

coming  up;]  but  it  would  not  be  ambiguous  to 
St.  Peter,  as  the  necessity  and  the  event  would 
give  it  a  fixed  meaning.  'Avoi'£aj  to  fdpa. 
[Opening  the  mouth.]  This  opening  of  tho 
mouth  might  have  different  objects,  which 
must  be  fixed  by  the  context.  If  the  fisher- 
man opens  the  mouth  of  a  fish  caught  with  a 
hook,  he  does  it  first  to  release  him  from  the 
hook  ;  for  if  he  hangs  long  he  is  less  saleable  : 
he  soon  decays.  The  circumstantiality  in  the 
account  is  picturesque.  "Take  the  hook  out 
his  mouth  !"  'Evprjcets  ivpicKav  is  used  in  Greek 
in  a  more  extended  sense  than  the  German 
find  en }  as  in  Xenophon,  where  it  is  "to  get  by 
selling."  When  such  a  word  is  used  of  sale- 
able articles,  like  fish,  and  in  a  connection 
which  requires  the  getting  a  piece  of  money, 
it  is  clear  that  getting  by  sale  and  not  by  find- 
ing is  referred  to.  "  And  this  from  a  profess- 
or's chair !"  In  like  manner  the  miracle  of 
feeding  the  five  thousand  in  the  desert  is  re- 
solved  into  the  opportune  passing  by  of  a  cara- 
van with  provisions,  of  which  the  hungry 
multitude  were  allowed  to  partake,  according 
to  eastern  hospitality ;  and  the  Apostles  were 
merely  employed  in  conveying  it  out  in  basi 
kets.  Christ's  walking  upon  the  sea  is  explain- 
ed by  his  walking  upon  the  sea  shore,  and  St. 


Peter's  walking  on  the  sea  is  resolved  into 
swimming.  The  miracles  of  healing  were  the 
effect  of  fancy  operating  favourably  upon  the 
disorders;  and  Ananias  and  Sapphira  died  of 
a  fright ;  with  many  other  absurdities,  half 
dreams  and  half  blasphemies ;  and  of  which 
the  above  are  given  but  as  a  specimen. 

The  first  step  in  this  sorrowful  gradation 
down  to  a  depth  of  falsehood  and  blasphemy, 
into  which  certainly  no  body  of  Christian 
ministers,  so  large,  so  learned,  and  influential, 
in  any  age  or  period  of  the  church  ever  before 
fell,  was,  contempt  for  the  authority  of  the 
divines  of  the  Reformation,  and  of  the  subse- 
quent age.  They  were  about  to  set  out  on  a 
voyage  of  discovery ;  and  it  was  necessary  to 
assume  that  truth  still  inhabited  some  terra 
incognita,  [unknown  region,]  to  which  neithe- 
Luther,  Melancthon,  nor  their  early  disciples, 
had  ever  found  access.  One  of  this  school  is 
pleased,  indeed,  to  denominate  the  whole  even 
of  the  seventeenth  and  the  first  half  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  the  age  of  theological 
barbarism ;  an  age,  notwithstanding,  which 
produced  in  the  Lutheran  church  alone  Calo- 
vius,  Schmidt,  Hackspan,  Walther,  Glass,  and 
the  Carpzoffs,  and  others,  as  many  and  as 
great  writers  as  any  church  can  boast  in  an 
equal  space  of  time  ;  writers  whose  works  are, 
or  ought  to  be,  in  the  hands  of  the  theological 
student.  The  general  statements  of  the  inno- 
vators amount  to  this,  that  the  divines  of  the 
age  of  which  we  speak  had  neither  the  inclina- 
tion nor  the  powrer  to  do  any  thing  but  fortify 
their  own  systems,  which  were  dogmatical, 
and  not  to  search  out  truth  for  themselves 
from  Scripture ;  that  theology,  as  a  science, 
was  left  from  the  epoch  of  the  Reformation  as 
it  had  been  received  from  the  schoolmen  ;  that 
the  interpretation  of  the  Bible  was  made  the 
slave,  not  the  mistress,  of  dogmatical  theology, 
as  it  ought  to  be. 

The  vain  conceit  that  the  doctrines  of  re- 
ligion were  capable  of  philosophic  demonstra* 
tion,  which  obtained  among  the  followers  of 
Wolf,  is  considered  by  Mr.  Rose  as  having 
hastened  onward  the  progress  of  error.  We 
find  some  of  them  not  content  with  applying 
demonstration  to  the  truth  of  the  system,  but 
endeavouring  to  establish  each  separate  dog- 
ma, the  Trinity,  the  nature  of  the  Redeemer, 
tho  incarnation,  the  eternity  of  punishment, 
on  philosophical  and,  strange  as  it  may  appear, 
some  of  these  truths  on  mathematical,  grounds. 
We  have  had  instances  of  this  in  our  own 
country ;  and  the  reason  why  they  have  done 
little  injury  is,  that  none  of  those  who  thus 
presumed,  whether  learned  or  half  learned, 
had  success  enough  to  form  a  school.  So  far 
as  such  a  theory  does  obtain  influence,  it  must 
necessarily  be  mischievous.  The  first  authors 
may  hold  the  mysteries  of  Christianity  sacred  ; 
they  may  fancy  that  they  can  render  faith  in 
them  more  easy  by  affecting  demonstrative 
evidence,  which,  indeed,  were  the  subjects 
capable  of  it,  would  render  faith  unnecessary  ; 
but  they  are  equally  guilty  of  a  vain  presump- 
tion in  their  own  powers,  and  of  a  want  of 
real  reverence  to  God,  and  to  his  revelation. 


NEO 


695 


NEO 


With  them,  this  boast  of  demonstration  gene- 
rally ends  in  the  rejection  of  some  truth,  or 
the  adoption  of  some  positive  error ;  while 
their  followers  fail  not  to  bound  over  the  limits 
at  which  they  have  stopped.  The  fallacy  of 
the  whole  lies  in  assuming  that  divine  things 
are  on  the  same  level  with  those  which  the 
human  mind  can  grasp,  and  may  therefore  be 
compared  with  them.  One  of  these  conse- 
quences must  therefore  follow  :  either  that  the 
mind  is  exalted  above  its  own  sphere,  or  that 
divine  things  are  brought  down  below  theirs. 
In  the  former  case,  a  dogmatical  pride  is  the 
result ;  in  the  latter,  the  scheme  of  revelation 
is  stripped  of  its  divinity,  and  sinks  gradually 
into  a  system  of  human  philosophy,  with  the 
empty  name  of  a  revelation  still  appended  to 
it  to  save  appearances.  What  can  bear  the 
test  of  the  philosophical  standard  is  retained, 
and  what  cannot  be  thus  proved  is,  by  degrees, 
rejected ;  so  that  the  Scripture  is  no  longer 
the  ground  of  religious  truth  ;  but  a  sort  of 
witness  to  be  compelled  to  assent  to  any  con- 
clusions at  which  this  philosophy  may  arrive. 
The  effect  in  Germany  was  speedily  de- 
veloped, though  Wolf,  the  founder  of  this 
school,  and  most  of  his  followers,  were  pious 
and  faithful  Christians.  By  carrying  demon- 
strative evidence  beyond  its  own  province, 
they  had  nurtured  in  their  followers  a  vain 
confidence  in  human  reason;  and  the  next 
and  still  more  fatal  step  was,  that  it  was  the 
province  of  human  reason  in  an  enlightened 
and  intellectual  age  to  perfect  Christianity, 
which,  it  was  contended,  had  hitherto  existed 
in  a  low  and  degraded  state,  and  to  perfect 
that  system  of  which  the  elements  only  were 
contained  in  the  Scripture.  All  restraint  was 
broken  by  this  principle.  Philosophy,  good 
and  bad,  was  left  to  build  up  these  "  elements" 
according  to  its  own  views ;  and  as,  after  all, 
man}'  of  these  elements  were  found  to  be  too 
untractable  and  too  rudely  shaped  to  accord 
with  the  plans  of  these  manifold  constructions, 
formed  according  to  every  "  pattern,"  except 
that  "in  the  mount;"  when  the  stone  could 
not  be  squared  and  framed  by  any  art  which 
these  builders  possessed,  it  was  "  rejected," 
even  to  "  the  head  stone  of  the  corner."  Sem- 
ler  appears  to  have  been  the  author  of  that 
famous  theory  of  accommodation,  which,  in 
the  hands  of  his  followers,  says  Mr.  Rose, 
became  "  the  most  formidable  weapon  ever 
devised  for  the  destruction  of  Christianity." 
As  far  as  Germany  is  concerned,  this  language 
is  not  too  strong ;  and  we  may  add,  that  it  was 
the  most  impudent  theory  ever  advocated  by 
men  professing  still  to  be  Christians,  and  one, 
the  avowal  of  which  can  scarcely  be  accounted 
for,  except  on  the  ground,  that  as,  because  of 
their  interests,  it  was  not  convenient  for  these 
teachers  of  theology  and  ministers  of  the 
German  churches  to  disavow  Christianity  alto- 
gether ;  it  was  devised  and  maintained,  in  order 
to  connect  the  profits  of  the  Christian  profes- 
sion with  substantial  and  almost  undisguised 
deism.  This  theory  was,  that  we  are  not  to 
take  all  the  declarations  of  Scripture  as  ad- 
dressed to  us;   but  to  consider  them  as,  in 


many  points,  purposely  adapted  to  the  feelings 
and  dispositions  of  the  age  when  they  origin- 
ated ;  but  by  no  means  to  be  received  by 
another  and  more  enlightened  period ;  that,  in 
fact,  Jesus  himself  and  his  Apostles  had  accom- 
modated themselves  in  their  doctrines  to  the 
barbarism,  ignorance,  and  prejudices  of  the 
Jews ;  and  that  it  was  therefore  our  duty  to 
reject  the  whole  of  this  temporary  part  of 
Christianity,  and  retain  only  what  is  substan- 
tial and  eternal.  In  plain  words  they  assumed, 
as  the  very  basis  of  their  Scriptural  interpreta- 
tions, the  blasphemous  principle,  that  our  Lord 
and  his  Apostles  taught,  or,  at  least,  connived 
at  doctrines  absolutely  false,  rather  than  they 
would  consent  to  shock  the  prejudices  of  their 
hearers  !  This  principle  is  shown  at  length  by 
Mr.  Rose,  to  run  through  the  whole  maze  of 
error  into  which  this  body  of  Protestant  divines 
themselves  wandered,  and  led  their  flocks. 
Thus  the  chairs  of  theology  and  the  very 
pulpits  were  turned  into  "  tho  seats  of  the 
scornful ;"  and  where  doctrines  were  at  all 
preached,  they  were  too  frequently  of  this 
daring  and  infidel  character.  It  became  even, 
at  Jeast,  a  negative  good,  that  the  sermons  de- 
livered were  often  discourses  on  the  best  modes 
of  cultivating  corn  and  wine,  and  the  preachers 
employed  the  Sabbath  and  the  church  in  in- 
structing their  flocks  how  to  choose  the  best 
kinds  of  potatoes,  or  to  enforce  upon  them  the 
benefits  of  vaccination.  Undisguised  infidelity 
has  in  no  country  treated  the  grand  evidences 
of  the  truth  of  Christianity  with  greater  con- 
tumely, or  been  more  offensive  in  its  attacks  upon 
the  prophets,  or  more  ridiculous  in  its  attempts 
to  account,  on  natural  principles,  for  the  mira- 
cles. Extremes  of  every  kind  were  produced, 
philosophic  mysticism,  pantheism,  and  atheism. 
We  have  hitherto  referred  chiefly  to  Mr. 
Rose's  work  on  this  awful  declension  in  the 
Lutheran  and  other  continental  churches.  In 
a  work  on  the  same  subject  by  Mr.  Pusey, 
the  stages  of  the  apostasy  are  more  carefully 
marked,  and  more  copiously  and  deeply  inves- 
tigated. Our  limits  will,  however,  but  allow 
us  to  advert  to  two  or  three  points.  In  Mr. 
Pusey's  account  of  the  state  of  German  theo- 
logy in  the  seventeenth  century,  he  opens  to 
us  the  sources  of  the  ftvil.  Francke,  he  ob- 
serves, assigns  as  a  reason  for  attaching  the 
more  value  to  the  opportunities  provided  at 
Halle  for  the  study  of  Scripture,  that  "  in* 
former  times,  and  in  those  which  are  scarcely 
past,  one  generally  found  at  universities  op- 
portunities for  every  thing  rather  than  a  solid 
study  of  God's  word."  "  In  all  my  university 
years,"  says  Knapp,  "  I  was  not  happy  enough 
to  hear  a  lecture  upon  the  whole  of  Scripture  ; 
we  should  have  regarded  it  as  a  great  blessing 
which  came  down  from  heaven."  It  is  said  to 
be  one  only  of  many  instances,  that  at  Leipzig, 
Carpzoff,  having  in  his  lectures  for  one  half 
year  completed  the  first  chapter  of  Isaiah,  did 
not  again  lecture  on  the  Bible  for  twenty 
years,  while  Olearius  suspended  his  for  ten. 
Yet  Olearius,  as  well  as  Alberti,  Spener  says, 
"  were  diligent  theologians,  but  that  most 
pains  were  employed  on  doctrinal   theology 


NEO 


696 


NEO 


and  controversy."  It  is,  moreover,  a  painful 
speaking  tact,  which  is  mentioned  by  Francke, 
(1709,)  that  in  Leipzig,  the  great  mart  of 
literature  as  well  as  of  trade,  "twenty  years 
ago,  in  no  bookseller's  shop  was  either  Bible 
or  Testament  to  be  found."  Of  the  passages 
in  Francke,  which  prove  the  same  si 
things,  I  will  select  one  or  two  only:  "Youth 
are  sent  to  the  universities  with  a  moderate 
knowledge  of  Latin;  but  of  Greek,  and  es- 
pecially of  Hebrew  next  to  none.  And  it 
would  even  then  have  been  well,  if  what  had 
been  neglected  before  had  been  made  up  in 
tho  universities.  There,  however,  most  are 
borne,  as  by  a  torrent,  with  the  multitude ; 
they  flock  to  logical,  metaphysical,  ethical, 
polemical,  physical,  pncumatical  lectures,  and 
what  not;  treating  least  of  all  those  things 
whose  benefit  is  most  permanent  in  their  future 
office,  especially  deferring,  and  at  last  neglect- 
ing, the  study  of  the  sacred  languages."  "To 
this  is  added",  that,  they  comfort  themselves, 
that  in  examinations  for  orders  these  things 
are  not  generally  much  attended  to.  Hence 
most  who  are  anxious  about  a  maintenance, 
hurry  to  those  things  which  may  hasten  their 
promotion,  attend  above  all  things  a  lecture 
on  the  art  of  preaching,  and  if  they  can  remain 
so  long  at  the  university,  one  on  doctrinal 
theology,  (would  that  all  were  anxious  about 
a  salutary  knowledge  of  the  sacred  doctrines,) 
and  having  committed  these  things  to  paper 
and  memory,  return  home,  as  if  excellently 
armed  against  Satan,  arc  examined,  preach,  are 
promoted,  provide  for  their  families."  And 
having  spoken  farther  on  the  superficial  know- 
ledge, pedantry,  and  other  faults  of  those  few 
who  acquired  knowledge  of  these  subjects,  he 
sums  up:  "  As  the  vernacular  Scriptures  are 
ordinarily  neglected  or  ill  employed  by  the 
illiterate,  so  arc  the  original  by  the  lettered  : 
whence  there  cannot  but  arise  either  ignorance 
in  matters  of  faith,  or  an  unfruitful  and  vain 
knowledge  ;  a  pleasurable  fancy  is  substituted 
for  the  substance  of  the  faith  ;  impiety  daily 
increases.  In  a  word,  from  the  neglect  of 
Scripture  all  impiety  is  derived;  and  so  again 
from  i  In-  impiety  or  unbelief  of  men,  there  is 
derived  a  contempt  of  Scripture,  or  at  all 
events  an  abuse,  and  an  absurd  and  perverted 
employment  of  it :  and  hence  follows  either  a 
neglect  of  the  original  languages,  or  a  sense- 
less method,  or  an  unfitting  employment  of 
them  ;  which  evils,  since  they  are  continued 
from  the  teachers  to  the  disciples,  the  corrupted 
state  of  the  schools  and  universities  continually 
increases  :  ami  these  we  cannot  remedy,  unless 
we  can  prevail  upon  ourselves  to  make  the 
word  of  God  our  first  object,  to  look  for  ( 'hrist 
in  it,  him,  when   found,  with 

eringly  to  follow 
him."  Pfaff  thus  describes  the  previous  state 
of  doctrinal  theology:  "All  the  compendia  of 
holy  doctrine.'',  which  have  hitherto  appeared, 
arc  of  such  a  character,  that,  though  their  ex- 
cellence has  been  hitherto  extolled  by  the  com- 
mon praise  of  our  countrymen,  and  they  still 
enjoy  considerable  reputation,  isu\  utique  luce 
r.iteat,,  they  Cdn  even  on  this  ground  not  be 


satisfactory  to  our  age, — that  since  one  system 
was  extracted  and  worked  out  of  the  other,  with 
a  very  few  variations,  they  dwell  uniformly 
on  the  same  string;  and  that  metaphysical 
clang  of  causes,  which  sounds  somewhat 
harshly  and  unpleasantly  to  well  cultivated 
oars,  constantly  reverberates  in  them,  the 
same  terms  uniformly  recurring  in  all.  To 
this  is  added,  that  a  certain  coldness  appears 
to  prevail  in  the  common  mode  of  treating 
these  subjects,  especially  in  the  practical  topics 
of  theologv  ;  these  being  set  forth  as  theoreti- 
cal propositions,  so  that  scarcely  any  life  or 
any  religious  influence  finds  its  way  into  the 
minds  of  readers ;  and  the  edification  of  mind, 
(though  it  should  be  the  principal  object  in 
sacred  theology,)  derived  from  them  is  very 
slight.  Nor  does  it  appear  less  a  subject  of 
blame,  that  various  theological  roVoi,  and  those 
the  very  chief,  are  here  altogether  omitted ; 
that  every  thing  is  choked  with  the  thorns  of 
scholasticism  ;  and  that  divine  truths  are  often 
made  secondary  to  the  zeal  for  authority  :  nor 
is  there  sufficient  reference  to  the  language  of 
the  symbolical  books,  to  the  promotion  of  the 
peace  of  the  church,  to  the  exhibition  of  what 
is  of  real  importance  in  controverted  points, 
and  of  the  unreality  of  the  mere  logomachies, 
with  which  all  theology  abounds  ;  nor  again, 
to  destroy  theological  pedantry  and  a  sectarian 
spirit,  or  to  treat  the  subjects  themselves  in  a 
style  becoming  to  them  :  but  most  of  all,  suffi- 
cient pains  are  not  bestowred  upon  that  which 
is  of  chief  importance,  the  building  up  the 
kingdom  of  God  in  the  hearts  of  men,  and  the 
influencing  their  hearts  more  thoroughly  with 
vivid  conceptions  of  true  Christianity." 

Yet  these  were  but  effects  of  a  still  higher 
cause, — the  rapid  decay  of  piety  in  this  cen- 
tury, of  which  the  statements  of  Mr.  Pusey, 
and  the  authorities  he  quotes,  present  a  me- 
lancholy picture.  Speaking  of  J.  V.  Andrea, 
he  sa}Ts,  the  want  of  practical  religious  instruc- 
tion in  the  early  schools,  the  perverted  state  of 
all  education,  the  extravagance  and  dissolute- 
ness of  the  universities,  the  total  unfitness  of 
the  teachers  whom  the}7  sent  forth  and  au- 
thorized, the  degraded  state  of  general  as  well 
as  of  theological  science,  the  interested  mo- 
tives for  entering  into  holy  orders,  the  can- 
vassing for  benefices,  the  simony  in  obtaining 
them,  the  especial  neglect  of  the  poorer,  the 
bad  lives,  the  carelessness  and  bitter  contro- 
versies of  the  preachers,  and  the  general  cor- 
ruption of  manners  in  all  ranks,  are  again  and 
again  the  subjects  of  his-  deep  regrets  or  of  his 
censure.  "  After  the  evangelic  church,"  he 
says,  in  an  energetic  comparison  of  the  evils 
which  reigned  in  the  beginning  of  this  period 
with  those  which  had  occasioned  the  yoke  of 
Rome  to  be  broken,  "after  the  evangelic  church 
had  thrown  off  the  yoke  of  human  inventions, 
houtd  have  bowed  their  neck  under  the 
easj  yoke  of  the  Lord.  But  now  one  set 
of  human  inventions  are  but  exchanged  for 
another,  equally,  or  indeed  very  little,  human  ; 
and  these  are  called  the  word  of  God,  though 
in  reality  things  are  nothing  milder  than  be- 
fore.   Idols  were  cast  out,  but  the  idols  of  sins 


NEO 


697 


NEO 


are  worshipped.  The  primacy  of  the  pope  is 
denied,  but  we  constitute  lesser  popes.  The 
bishops  are  abrogated,  but  ministers  are  still 
introduced  or  cast  out  at  will ;  simony  came 
into  ill  repute,  but  who  now  rejects  a  hand 
laden  with  gold  ?  the  monks  were  reproached 
for  indolence, — as  if  there  were  too  much 
study  at  our  universities ;  the  monasteries 
were  dissolved, — to  stand  empty,  or  to  be  stalls 
for  cattle  ;  the  regularly  recurring  prayers  are 
abolished,  yet  so  that  now  most  pray  not  at  all ; 
the  public  fasts  were  laid  aside,  now  the  com- 
mand of  Christ  is  held  to  be  but  useless  words  ; 
not  to  say  any  thing  of  blasphemers,  adulter- 
ers, extortioners,"  &c.  After  many  testimo- 
nies of  a  similar  and  even  stronger  kind  from 
other  pious  divines,  who  lifted  up  their  voice 
strongly  but  almost  ineffectually  against  the 
growing  corruption  of  the  universities,  the 
clergy,  and  the  people,  Mr.  Pusey  adds  the 
following  passages  from  Francke  :  "  The  works 
of  the  flesh  are  done  openly  and  unrestrainedly, 
with  so  little  shame,  that  one  who  does  not 
approve  of  many  things  not  consistent  with 
the  truth  which  is  in  Jesus,  would  almost  be  en- 
rolled among  heretics.  Ambition,  pride,  love  of 
pleasure,  luxury,  impurity,  wantonness,  and  all 
the  crop  of  foulest  wickednesses  which  spring 
from  these  ;  injustice  also,  avarice,  and  a  spe- 
cies of  rivalry  among  all  vices  every  where 
sensibly  increases,  atheism  joining  itself  with 
epicurism  and  libertinism.  Thus  while  Christ 
is  held  to,  while  orthodoxy  is  presented  as  a 
shield,  all  imitation  of  Christ,  all  anxiety  for 
true  and  spiritual  holiness,  '  without  which  no 
one  shall  see  the  Lord,'  nay,  all  the  decorum 
befitting  a  Christian,  is  banished,  is  extermi- 
nated, tbat  it  may  not  disturb  the  societies  of 
perverse  men."  Into  the  state  of  the  clergy 
he  enters  more  fully  in  another  work.  "  I 
remember,"  he  says,  "  that  a  theologian  of  no 
common  learning,  piety,  and  practical  know- 
ledge, yvv  lu  uyiuis,  told  me,  that  a  certain 
monarch,  at  his  suggestion,  applied  to  a  uni- 
versity, where  there  was  a  large  concourse  of 
students  of  theology,  for  two  candidates  for 
holy  orders,  who,  by  the  excellence  and  purity 
of  their  doctrine,  and  by  holiness  of  life,  might 
serve  as  an  example  to  the  congregation  com- 
mitted to  their  charge  ;  the  professors  candidly 
answered  that  there  was  no  such  student  of 
theology  among  them.  Nor  is  this  surprising. 
I  remember  that  Kortholt  used  to  say  with 
pain,  that  in  the  disgraceful  strifes,  disturb- 
ances, and  tumuli s  in  the  universities,  which 
were,  alas,  but  too  frequent,  it  scarcely  ever 
happened  that  theological  students  were  not 
found  to  be  accomplices,  nay,  the  chiefs.  I 
remember  that  another  theologian  often  la- 
mented, that  there  was  such  a  dearth  in  the 
church  of  such  persons  as  the  Apostle  would 
alone  think  worthy  of  the  ministerial  func- 
tions, that  it  was  to  be  regarded  as  a  happiness 
if,  of  many  applicants,  some  one  of  outwardly 
decent  life  could  at  length  be  found." 

With  several  happy  exceptions,  and  the 
raising  up  of  a  few  pious  people  in  some 
places,  and  a  partial  revival  of  evangelical  doc- 
trines, which,  however,  often  ran  at  length  into 


mysticism  and  antinomianism,  the  evil,  botli 
doctrinally  and  morally,  continued  to  increase 
to  our  own  day ;  for  if  any  ask  what  has  been 
the  moral  effect  of  the  appalling  apostasy  of 
the  teachers  of  religion,  above  described,  upon 
the  people  of  Germany,  the  answer  may  be 
given  from  one  of  these  rationalizing  divines 
themselves,  whose  statement  is  not  therefore 
likely  to  be  too  highly  coloured.  It  is  from  a 
pamphlet  of  Bretschneider,  published  in  1822, 
and  the  substance  is,  "  Indifference  to  religion 
among  all  classes ;  that  formerly  the  Bible 
used  to  be  in  every  house,  but  now  the  people 
either  do  not  possess  it,  or,  as  formerly,  read 
it;  that  few  attend  the  churches,  which  are 
now  too  large,  though  fifty  years  ago  they 
were  too  small ;  that  few  honour  the  Sabbath  ; 
that  there  are  now  few  students  of  theology, 
compared  with  those  in  law  and  medicine  ; 
that  if  things  go  on  so,  there  will  shortly  not 
be  persons  to  supply  the  various  ecclesiastical 
offices  ;  that  preaching  had  fallen  into  con- 
tempt ;  and  that  distrust  and  suspicion  of  the 
doctrines  of  Christianity  prevailed  among  all 
classes."  Melancholy  as  this  picture  is,  nothing 
in  it  can  surprise  any  one,  except  that  the  very 
persons  who  have  created  ths  evil  should  them 
selves  be  astonished  at  its  existence,  or  even 
affect  to  be  so.  But  the  mercy  of  God  has  be- 
gun to  answer  the  prayers  of  the  few  faithful 
who  are  left  as  the  gleanings  of  grapes  after 
the  vintage ;  and  to  revive,  in  some  active, 
learned,  and  influential  men,  the  spirit  of  pri. 
mitive  faith  and  zeal.  The  effect  of  the  exer- 
tions of  these  excellent  men,  both  from  the 
professor's  chair,  the  pulpit,  and  the  press,  has 
been  considerable ;  and  it  is  remarked  by  Mr. 
Rose,  that  no  small  degree  of  disgust  at  the 
past  follies  of  the  rationalists  prevails ;  that  the 
cold  and  comfortless  nature  of  their  system 
has  been  perceived  ;  that  a  party  of  truly  Chris- 
tian views  has  arisen ;  and  that  there  is  a  dis- 
position alike  in  the  people,  the  better  part  of 
the  divines,  and  the  philosophers,  to  return  to 
that  revealed  religion  which  alone  can  give 
them  comfort  and  peace.  It  is  equally  clear 
that  some  at  least  of  the  governments  perceive 
the  dangerous  tendency  of  the  rationalist 
opinions,  and  that  they  are  sincerely  desirous 
of  promoting  a  better  state  of  religious  feeling. 
We  close  this  article  with  the  excellent  re- 
marks of  Dr.  Tittman  of  Dresden,  on  the  neo- 
logical  interpreters:  "What  is  the  interpreta- 
tion of  the  Scriptures,  if  it  relies  not  on  words, 
but  things,  not  on  the  assistance  of  languages, 
but  on  the  decrees  of  reason  that  is,  of  modern 
philosophy  ?  What  is  all  religion,  what  the 
knowledge  of  divine  things,  what  are  faith  and 
hope  placed  in  Christ,  what  is  all  Christianity,  if 
human  reason  and  philosophy  is  the  only  fount- 
ain of  divine  wisdom,  and  the  supremo  judge  in 
the  matter  of  religion  ?  What  is  the  doctrine  of 
Christ  and  the  Apostles  more  than  some  philo- 
sophical system  ?  But  what,  then,  I  pray  you, 
is,  to  deny,  to  blaspheme  Jesus  the  Lord,  to 
render  his  divine  mission  doubtful,  nay  vain 
and  useless,  to  impugn  his  doctine,  to  disfigure 
it  shamefully,  to  attack  it,  to  expose  it  to  ridi- 
cule, and,  if  possible,  to  suppress  it,  to  remove 


NEO 


698 


NEO 


all  Christianity  out  of  religion,  and  to  bound  re- 
ligion within  the  narrow  limits  of  reason  alone, 
to  deride  miracles,  and  hold  them  up  to  deri- 
sion, to  accuse  them  as  vain,  to  bring  them 
into  disrepute,  to  torture  sacred  Scripture  into 
Beaming  agreement  with  the  fancies  of  human 
wisdom,  to  alloy  it  with  human  conjectures, 
to  bring  it  into  contempt,  and  to  break  down 
its  divine  authority,  to  undermine,  to  shake,  to 
overthrow  utterly  the  foundations  of  Christian 
faith  ?  What  eke  can  be  the  event  than  this, 
as  all  history,  a  most  weighty  witness  in  this 
matter,  informs  us,  namely,  that  when  sacred 
Scripture,  its  grammatical  interpretation  and  a 
sound  knowledge  of  languages  are,  as  it  were, 
despised  and  banished,  all  religion  should  be 
contemned,  shaken,  corrupted,  troubled,  under- 
mined, utterly  overturned,  and  should  be  en- 
tinlv  removed  and  reduced  to  natural  religion  ; 
or  that  it  should  end  in  a  mystical  theology, 
than  which  nothing  was  ever  more  pernicious 
to  the  Christian  doctrine,  and  be  converted 
into  an  empty  pvQo\oyta,  or  even  into  a  poetical 
system,  hiding  every  thing  in  figures  and  fic- 
tions, to  which  latter  system  not  a  few  of  the 
sacred  orators  and  theologians  of  our  time 
seem  chiefly  inclined." 

NEOMENIA,  veopivia,  new  moon,  Col.ii,  16, 
a  Greek  word,  signifying  the  first  day  of  the 
moon  or  month.  The  Hebrews  had  a  particu- 
lar veneration  for  the  first  day  of  every  month  ; 
and  Moses  appointed  peculiar  sacrifices  for  the 
day,  Num.  xxviii,  11,  12;  but  he  gave  no  or- 
ders that  it  should  be  kept  as  a  holy  day,  nor 
can  it  be  proved  that  the  ancients  observed  it 
so:  it  was  a  festival  of  merely  voluntary  devo- 
tion. It  appears  that  even  from  the  time  of 
Saul  they  made,  on  this  day,  a  sort  of  family 
entertainment,  since  David  ought  then  to 
have  been  at  the  king's  table;  and  Saul  took 
his  absence  amiss,  1  Sum.  xx,  5,  18.  Moses 
insinuates  that,  beside  the  national  sacri- 
fices then  regularly  offered,  every  private  per. 
son  had  his  particular  sacrifices  of  devotion, 
Num.  x,  10.  The  beginning  of  the  month  was 
proclaimed  by  sound  of  trumpet,  at  the  offering 
of  the  solemn  sacrifices.  But  the  most  cele- 
brated neomenia  was  that  at  t lie  beginning  of 
the  civil  year,  or  first  day  of  the  month  Tizri, 
Lev.  xxiii,  24.  This  was  a  sacred  day,  on 
which  no  servile  labour  was  performed  ;  on  this 
they  offered  public  or  national  burnt-sacrifices, 
and  sounded  the  trumpets  in  the  temple.  In 
the  kingdom  of  the  ten  tribes,  the  serious 
among  the  people  used  to  assemble  at  the 
houses  of  the  prophets,  to  hear  their  instruc- 
tions. The  Shunamite,  who  entertained  Eli- 
sha,  proposing  lo  visit  that  prophet,  her  hus- 
band said  to  her,  ".Why  do  you  go  to-day, 
since  it  is  neither  Sabbath  nor  new  moon?" 
'J  Kings  iv.  23.  Isaiah  declares  that  the  Lord 
abhors  the  Dew  moons,  the  Sabbaths,  and  other 
days  of  festival  and  assembly  of  those  Jews 
wh..  m  other  things  neglected  hia  laws,  [saian 
i.  13,  II.  K/ekiel  says  that  the  burnt-offer- 
ing* offend  on  the  day  of  the  new  moon  were 
provided  at  the  king's  expense,  and  that  on  this 
day  was  to  be  opened  the  eastern  gate  of  the 
court  of  the  priests,  Ezek.  xlv,  17;  xlvi,  1,  2; 


1  Chron.  xxiii,  31  ;  2  Chron.  viii,  13.  Judith 
kept  no  fast  on  festival  days,  or  on  the  new 
moon,  Judith  viii,  6.  The  modern  Jews  keep 
the  neomenia  only  as  a  feast  of  devotion,  to  be 
observed  or  not  at  pleasure.  They  think  it 
rather  belongs  to  the  women  than  to  the  men. 
The  women  forbear  work,  and  indulge  a  little 
more  on  this  day  than  on  others.  In  the  prayers 
of  the  synagogue,  they  read  from  Psalm  cxiii, 
to  cxviii.  They  bring  forth  the  roll  of  the  law, 
and  read  therein  to  four  persons.  They  call 
to  remembrance  the  sacrifice  that  on  this  day 
used  to  be  offered  in  the  temple.  On  the  eve- 
ning of  the  Sabbath  which  follows  the  new 
moon,  or  some  other  evening  following,  when 
the  new  moon  first  appears,  they  assemble  and 
pray  to  God,  as  the  Creator  of  the  planets, 
and  the  restorer  of  the  new  moon ;  raising 
themselves  toward  heaven,  they  entreat  of  God 
to  be  preserved  from  misfortune ;  then,  after 
mentioning  David,  they  salute  each  other,  and 
separate.     See  Moon. 

NEONOMIANISM,  so  called  from  the 
Greek  vios,  new,  and  vfyof,  law.  This  is  not 
the  appellation  of  a  separate  sect,  but  of  those 
both  among  Arminians  and  Calvinists  who 
regard  Christianity  as  a  new  law,  mitigated  in 
its  requisitions  lor  the  sake  of  Christ.  This 
opinion  has  many  modifications,  and  has  been 
held  by  persons  very  greatly  differing  from 
each  other  in  the  consequences  to  which  they 
carry  it,  and  in  the  principles  from  which  they 
deduce  it.  One  opinion  is,  that  the  new  cove- 
nant of  grace  which,  through  the  medium  of 
Christ's  death,  the  Father  made  with  men, 
consists,  according  to  this  system,  not  in  our 
being  justified  by  faith,  as  it  apprehends  the 
righteousness  of  Christ ;  but  in  this,  that  God, 
abrogating  the  exaction  of  perfect  legal  obe- 
dience, reputes  or  accepts  of  faith  itself,  and 
the  imperfect  obedience  of  faith,  instead  of  the 
perfect  obedience  of  the  law,  and  graciously 
accounts  them  worthy  of  the  reward  of  eternal 
life.  Toward  the  close  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  a  controversy  was  agitated  among 
the  English  Dissenters,  in  which  the  one  side, 
who  were  partial  to  the  writings  of  Dr.  Crisp, 
were  charged  with  antinomianism,  and  the 
other,  who  favoured  those  of  Mr.  Baxter,  were 
accused  of  neonomianism.  Dr.  Daniel  Wil- 
liams was  a  principal  writer  on  what  was  called 
the  neonomian  side. 

The  following  objection,  among  others,  was 
made  by  several  ministers  in  1692,  against  Dr. 
Williams's  "  Gospel  Truth  Stated,"  &c  :  "  To 
supply  the  room  of  the  moral  law,  vacated  by 
him,  he  turns  the  Gospel  into  a  new  law,  in 
keeping  of  which  we  shall  be  justified  for  the 
sake  of  Christ's  righteousness,  making  qualifi- 
cations and  acts  of  ours  a  disposing  subordi- 
nate righteousness,  whereby  we  become  capable 
of  being  justified  by  Christ's  righteousness." 
To  this,  among  other  things,  he  answers : 
"  The  difference  is  not,  1.  Whether  the  Gospel 
be  a  new  law  in  the  Socinian,  popish,  or  Ar- 
minian  sense.  This  I  deny.  Nor,  2.  Is  faith, 
or  any  other  grace  or  acts  of  ours,  any  atone- 
ment for  sin,  satisfaction  to  justice,  meriting 
qualification,  or  any  part  of  that  righteousness 


NEO 


699 


NES 


for  which  we  are  justified  at  God  our  Creator's 
bar.  This  I  deny  in  places  innumerable.  Nor, 
3.  Whether  the  Gospel  be  a  law  more  new  than 
is  implied  in  the  first  promise  to  fallen  Adam, 
proposed  to  Cain,  and  obeyed  by  Abel,  to  the 
differencing  him  from  his  unbelieving  brother. 
This  I  deny.  4.  Nor  whether  the  Gospel  be  a 
law  that  allows  sin,  when  it  accepts  such 
graces  as  true,  though  short  of  perfection,  to 
be  the  conditions  of  our  personal  interest  in 
the  benefits  purchased  by  Christ.  This  I  deny. 
5.  Nor  whether  the  Gospel  be  a  law,  the  pro- 
mises  whereof  entitle  the  performers  of  its 
conditions  to  the  benefits  as  of  debt.  This  I 
deny.  The  difference  is,  1.  Is  the  Gospel  a  law 
in  this  sense ;  namely,  God  in  Christ  thereby 
commandeth  sinners  to  repent  of  sin,  and  re- 
ceive Christ  by  a  true  operative  faith,  promising 
that  thereupon  they  shall  be  united  to  him, 
justified  by  his  righteousness,  pardoned,  and 
adopted ;  and  that,  persevering  in  faith  and 
true  holiness,  they  shall  be  finally  saved ;  also 
threatening  that  if  any  shall  die  impenitent, 
unbelieving,  ungodly,  rejecters  of  his  grace, 
they  shall  perish  without  relief,  and  endure 
sorer  punishments  than  if  these  offers  had  not 
been  made  to  them  ?  2.  Hath  the  Gospel  a 
sanction,  that  is,  doth  Christ  therein  enforce 
his  commands  of  faith,  repentance,  and  perse- 
verance, by  the  foresaid  promises  and  threat- 
enings,  as  motives  to  our  obedience  ?  Both 
these  I  affirm,  and  they  deny ;  saying,  the 
Gospel  in  the  largest  sense  is  an  absolute  pro- 
mise without  precepts  and  conditions,  and  a 
Gospel  threat  is  a  bull.  3.  Do  the  Gospel  pro- 
mises of  benefits  to  certain  graces,  and  its 
threats  that  those  benefits  shall  be  withheld, 
and  the  contrary  evils  inflicted  for  the  neglect 
of  such  graces,  render  these  graces  the  condi- 
tion of  our  personal  title  to  those  benefits  ? 
This  they  deny,  and  I  affirm,"  &c. 

It  does  not  appear  to  have  been  a  question 
in  this  controversy,  whether  God  in  his  word 
commands  sinners  to  repent,  and  believe  in 
Christ,  nor  whether  he  promises  life  to  be- 
lievers, and  threatens  death  to  unbelievers ; 
but  whether  it  be  the  Gospel  under  the  form  of 
a  new  law  that  thus  commands  or  threatens, 
or  the  moral  law  on  its  behalf,  and  whether  its 
promises  to  believing  render  such  believing  a 
condition  of  the  things  promised.  In  another 
controversy,  however,  which  arose  about  forty 
years  afterward  among  the  same  people,  it 
became  a  question  whether  God  did  by  his  word, 
call  it  law  or  Gospel,  command  unregenerate 
sinners  to  repent  and  believe  in  Christ,  or  do 
any  thing  also,  which  is  spiritually  good.  Of 
those  who  took  the  affirmative  side  of  this 
question,  one  party  maintained  it  on  the  ground 
of  the  Gospel  being  a  new  law,  consisting  of 
commands,  promises,  and  threatenings,  the 
terms  or  conditions  of  which  were  repentance, 
faith,  and  sincere  obedience.  But  those  who 
first  engaged  in  the  controversy,  though  they 
allowed  the  encouragement  to  repent  and  be- 
lieve to  arise  merely  from  the  grace  of  the 
Gospel,  yet  considered  the  formal  obligation  to 
do  so  as  arising  merely  from  the  moral  law, 
which,  requiring  supreme  love  to  God,  requires 


acquiescence  in  any  revelation  which  he  shall 
at  any  time  make  known. 

NERO.     The  Emperor  Nero  is  not  named 
in  Scripture  ;  but  he  is  indicated  by  his  title 
of  emperor,  and  by  his  surname  Caesar.     To 
him  St.  Paul  appealed  after  his  imprisonment 
by  Felix,  and  his  examination  by  Festus,  who 
was  swayed  by  the  Jews.    St.  Paul  was  there- 
fore carried  to  Rome,  where  he  arrived  A.  D. 
61.    Here  he  continued  two  years,  preaching 
the  Gospel  with  freedom,  till  he  became  famous 
even  in  the  emperor's  court,  in  which  were 
many  Christians  ;  for  he  salutes  the  Philippians 
in  the  name  of  the  brethren  who  were  of  the 
household  of  Caesar,  that  is,  of  Nero's  court, 
Phil,  i,  12,  13 ;  iv,  22.    We  have  no  particular 
information  how  he  cleared  himself  from  the 
accusations  of  the  Jews,  whether  by  answering 
before  Nero,  or  whether  his  enemies  dropped 
their  prosecutions,  which  seems  probable,  Acts 
xxviii,  21.    However,  it  appears  that  he  was 
liberated  in  the  year  63.    Nero  is  reckoned  the 
first  persecutor  of  the  Christian  church:  his 
persecution  was  A.  D.  64.      Nero,  the  most 
cruel  and  savage  of  all  men,  and  also  the  most 
wicked  and  depraved,  began  his  persecution 
against  the   Christian  church,   A.  D.  64,   on 
pretence  of  the  burning  of  Rome,   of  which 
some  have  thought  himself  to  be  the  author. 
He  endeavoured  to  throw  all  the  odium  on  the 
Christians :  those  were  seized  first  that  were 
known  publicly  as  such,  and  by  their  mean3 
many    others    were    discovered.      They   were 
condemned  to  death,  and  were  even  insulted 
in  their  sufferings.     Some  were  sewed  up  in 
skins    of  beasts,    and   then  exposed    to    dogs 
to    be  torn  in    pieces ;    some  were   nailed   to 
crosses ;  others   perished  by  fire.     The  latter 
were  sewed  up  in  pitched  coverings,  which, 
being  set  on  fire,    served  as  torches    to   the 
people,  and  were  lighted  up  in  the  night.    Nero 
gave   leave  to  use   his   own    gardens,  as  the 
scene  of  all  these  cruelties.     From  this  time 
edicts  were  published  against  the  Christians, 
and  many  martyrs  suffered,  especially  in  Italy. 
St.  Peter  and  St.   Paul   are  thought  to  have 
suffered  martyrdom,  consequent  on  this  perse- 
cution, A.  D.  65.    The  revolt  of  the  Jews  from 
the  Romans  happened  about  A.  D.  65  and  66, 
in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  of  Nero.     The 
city  of  Jerusalem  making  an  insurrection,  A.  D. 
66,  Floras  there  slew  three  thousand  six  hun- 
dred persons,  and  thus  began  the  war.    A  little 
while  afterward,  those  of  Jerusalem  killed, the 
Roman  garrison.     Cestius  on  this  came  to  Je- 
rusalem to  suppress  the  sedition  ;  but  he  was 
forced  to  retire,  after  having  besieged  it  about 
six  weeks,  and  was  routed  in  his  retreat,  A.  D. 
66.   About  the  end  of  the  same  year,  Nero  gave 
Vespasian  the  command  of  his  troops  against 
the  Jews.    This  general  carried  on  the  war  in 
Galilee  and  Judea  during  A.  D.  67  and  68,  the 
thirteenth  and  fourteenth  of  Nero.     But  Nero 
killing  himself  in  the  fourteenth  year  of  his 
reign,  Jerusalem  was  not  besieged   till   after 
his  death,  A.  D.  70,  the  first  and  second  of 
Vespasian. 

NESTORIANS,  adenomination  which  arose 
in  the  fifth  century,  from  Nestorius,  bishop  of 


NES 


700 


NET 


Constantinople  ;  a  man  of  considerable  learn, 
ing  and  eloquence,  and  of  an  independent  spirit. 
The  Catholic  clergy  were  fond  of  calling  the 
Virgin  Mary  "  Mother  of  God,"  to  which  Nes- 
torius  objected,  as  implying  that  she  was  mother 
of  the  divine  nature,  which  he  very  properly 
denied  ;  and  this  raked  against  him,  from  Cyril 
and  others,  tho  cry  of  heresy,  and  perhaps  led 
him  into  some  improper  forme  of  expression 
and  explication.  It  is  generally  agreed,  how- 
ever, by  the  moderns,  that  Nestorius  showed 
a  much  better  spirit  in  controversy  than  his 
antagonist,  St.  Cyril.  As  to  the  doctrine  of 
the  trinity,  it  does  not  appear  that  Nestorius 
differed  from  his  antagonists,  admitting  the 
coeijuality  of  the  divine  Persons ;  but  he  was 
charged  with  maintaining  two  distinct  persons, 
as  well  as  natures,  in  tho  mysterious  character 
of  Christ.  This,  however,  he  solemnly  and 
constantly  denied ;  and  from  this,  as  a  foul 
reproach,  lie  lias  heon  cleared  by  the  moderns, 
and  particularly  by  Martin  Luther,  who  lays 
the  whole  blame  of  this  controversy  on  the 
turbulent  and  angry  Cyril.  (See  Hypostatical 
L'nion.)  The  discordancy  not  only  between  the 
Nestorians  and  other  Christians,  but  also  among 
themselves,  arose,  no  doubt,  in  a  great  measure, 
from  the  ambiguity  of  the  Greek  terms  hypos- 
tasis and  prosopon.  The  councils  assembled  at 
Seleucia  on  this  occasion  decreed  that  in  Christ 
there  were  two  hypostases.  But  this  word,  un- 
happily, was  used  both  for  person  and  subsist- 
ence, or  existence  ;  hence  the  difficulty  and 
ambiguity :  and  of  these  hypostases  it  is  said 
the  one  was  divine,  and  the  other  human; — 
the  divine  Word,  and  the  man  Jesus.  Now  of 
these  two  hypostases  it  is  added,  they  had  only 
one  barsopa,  the  original  term  used  by  Nesto- 
rius, and  usually  translated  by  the  Greeks, 
"person;"  but  to  avoid  the  appearance  of  an 
express  contradiction,  Dr.  Mosheim  translates 
this  barbarous  word  "aspect,"  as  meaning  a 
union  of  will  and  affection,  rather  than  of  na- 
ture or  of  person.  And  thus  the  Nestorians 
are  charged  with  rejecting  the  union  of  two 
natures  in  one  person,  from  their  peculiar 
manner  of  expressing  themselves,  though  they 
absolutely  denied  the  charge. 

In  the  earliest  ages  of  Nestorianism,  the 
various  branches  of  that  numerous  and  power- 
ful sect  were  under  the  spiritual  jurisdiction 
of  the  Catholic  patriarch  of  Babylon, — a  vague 
appellation  which  has  been  successively  applied 
to  the  sees  of  Seleucia,  Ctesiphon,  and  Bag- 
dad, — but  who  now  resides  at  Mousul.  In  the 
■  ixteenth  century  the  Nestorians  were  divided 
into  two  sects;  for  in  1551  a  warm  dispute 
among  them  about  the  creation  of  a  new 
patriarch,  Simeon  Barmamas,  or  Barmana, 
being  proposed  by  one  party,  and  Sulaka, 
otherwise  named  Siud,  earnestly  desired  by 
tie-  other  ;  when  the  latter,  to  support  his  pre- 
tensions the  more  effectually,  repaired  to  Rome, 
and  v.  £ed  patriarch  in  1553,  by  Pope 

Julius  III.,  whose  jurisdiction  lie  had  acknow- 
ledged, and  to  whose  commands  lie  had  pro- 
mised unlimited  submission  and  obedience. 
Upon  this  new  Chaldean  patriarch's  return  to 
his  own  country,  Julius  sent  with  him  several 


persons  skilled  in  the  Syriac  language,  to  assist 
him  in  establishing  and  extending  the  papal 
empire  among  the  Nestorians ;  and  from  that 
time,  that  unhappy  people  have  been  divided 
into  two  factions,  and  have  often  been  involved 
in  the  greatest  dangers  and  difficulties,  by  the 
jarring  sentiments  and  perpetual  quarrels  of 
their  patriarchs.  In  1555,  Simeon  Denha, 
archbishop  of  Gelu,  adopted  the  party  of  the 
fugitive  patriarch,  who  had  embraced  the  com- 
munion of  the  Latin  church;  and,  being  after- 
ward chosen  patriarch  himself,  he  fixed  his 
residence  in  the  city  of  Van,  or  Ormia,  in  the 
mountainous  parts  of  Persia,  where  his  suc- 
cessors still  continue,  and  are  all  distinguished 
by  the  name  of  Simeon  ;  but  they  seem  of  late 
to  have  withdrawn  themselves  from  their  com- 
munion with  the  church  of  Rome.  The  great 
Nestorian  pontiffs  who  form  the  opposite  party, 
and  who  have,  since  1559,  been  distinguished 
by  the  general  denomination  of  Elias,  and 
reside  constantly  at  Mousul,  look  with  a  hostile 
eye  on  this  little  patriarch ;  but  since  1617  the 
bishops  of  Ormus  have  been  in  so  low  and 
declining  a  state,  both  in  opulence  and  credit, 
that  they  are  no  longer  in  a  condition  to  excite 
the  envy  of  their  brethren  at  Mousul,  whose 
spiritual  dominion  is  very  extensive,  taking  in 
great  part  of  Asia,  and  comprehending  within 
its  circuit  the  Arabian  Nestorians,  as  also  the 
Christians  of  St.  Thomas,  who  dwell  along  the 
coast  of  Malabar. 

NETHINIMS.  The  Nethinims  were  ser- 
vants  who  had  been  given  up  to  the  service 
of  the  tabernacle  and  temple,  to  perform  the 
meanest  and  most  laborious  services  therein, 
in  supplying  wood  and  water.  At  first  the 
Gibeonites  were  appointed  to  this  service, 
Joshua  ix,  27.  Afterward  the  Canaanites 
who  surrendered  themselves,  and  whose  lives 
were  spared,  were  consigned  to  the  perform- 
ance of  the  same  duties.  We  read,  Ezra  viii, 
20,  that  the  Nethinims  were  slaves  devoted  by 
David  and  the  other  princes  to  the  ministry 
of  the  temple  ;  and  elsewhere,  that  they  were 
slaves  given  by  Solomon ;  the  children  of 
Solomon's  servants,  Ezra  ii,  58  ;  and  we  see, 
in  1  Kings  ix,  20,  21,  that  this  prince  had  sub- 
dued the  remains  of  the  Canaanites,  and  had 
constrained  them  to  several  servitudes ;  and, 
it  is  very  probable,  he  gave  a  good  number  of 
them  to  the  priests  and  Levites  for  the  service 
of  the  temple.  The  Nethinims  were  carried 
into  captivity  with  the  tribe  of  Judah,  and 
there  were  great  numbers  of  them  near  the 
coast  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  from  whence  Ezra 
brought  some  of  them  back,  Ezra  viii,  17. 
After  the  return  from  the  captivity,  they  dwelt 
in  the  cities  appointed  them,  Ezra  ii,  17. 
There  were  some  of  them  also  at  Jerusalem, 
who  inhabited  that  part  of  the  city  called 
Ophcl,  Neh.  iii„26.  Those  who  returned  with 
Ezra  were  to  the  number  of  two  hundred  and 
twenty,  Ezra  viii,  20  ;  and  those  who  followed 
Zerubbabel  made  up  three  hundred  and  ninety- 
two,  Ezra  ii,  58.  This  number  was  but  small 
in  regard  to  the  offices  that  were  imposed  on 
them ;  so  that  we  find  them  afterward  insti- 
tuting a  solemnity  called  Xylophoria,  in  which 


NIC 


701 


NIC 


the  people  carried  wood  to  the  temple  with 
great  ceremony,  to  keep  up  the  fire  on  the 
altar  of  burnt  sacrifices. 

NETTLES.  We  find  this  name  given  to 
two  different  words  in  the  original.  The  first 
is  Sin,  Job  xxx,  7  ;  Proverbs  xxiv,  31  ;  Zeph. 
ii,  9.  It  is  not  easy  to  determine  what  species 
of  plant  is  here  meant.  From  the  passage  in 
Job,  the  nettle  could  not  be  intended ;  for  a 
plant  is  referred  to  large  enough  for  people  to 
take  shelter  under.  The  following  extract 
from  Denon's  Travels  may  help  to  illustrate 
the  text,  and  show  to  what  an  uncomfortable 
retreat  those  vagabonds  must  have  resorted. 
"  One  of  the  inconveniences  of  the  vegetable 
thickets  of  Egypt  is,  that  it  is  difficult  to  re- 
main in  them  ;  as  nine-tenths  of  the  trees  and 
the  plants  are  armed  with  inexorable  thorns, 
which  suffer  only  an  unquiet  enjoyment  of  the 
shadow  which  is  so  constantly  desirable,  from 
the  precaution  necessary  to  guard  against 
them."  The  B'iD'p,  Prov.  xxiv,  31 ;  Isaiah 
xxxiv,  13;  Hosea  ix,  G;  is  by  the  Vulgate 
rendered  "urlica"  which  is  well  defended  by 
Celsius,  and  very  probably  means  "  the  nettle." 

NICE  or  NICENE  CREED  is  so  denomi- 
nated, because  the  greater  part  of  it,  namely, 
as  far  as  the  words,  "  Holy  Ghost,"  was 
drawn  up  and  agreed  to  at  the  council  of  Nice, 
or  Nicoea,  in  Bithynia,  A.  D.  325.  This  coun- 
cil was  assembled  against  Arius,  who,  though 
he  brought  down  the  Son  to  the  condition  of 
a  creature,  inferior,  for  that  reason,  in  nature 
to  the  Father,  yet  acknowledged  his  personal 
subsistence  before  the  world,  and  his  superiority 
in  nature  to  all  the  things  that  were  created 
by  him.  So  that  there  was  need  of  some 
higher  expression  in  this  case  than  the  other, 
to  import  his  equal  dignity  of  nature  with  the 
Father  and  Creator  of  all ;  and  nothing  was 
found  to  answer  the  purpose  so  well  as  the 
term  bpooiato<;.  The  rest  of  this  creed  was 
added  at  the  council  of  Constantinople,  A.  D. 
581,  except  the  words,  "and  the  Son,"  which 
follow  the  words,  "who  proceedeth  from  the 
Father,"  and  they  were  inserted  A.  D.  447. 
The  addition  made  at  Constantinople  was 
caused  by  the  denial  of  the  divinity  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  by  Macedonius  and  his  followers  ; 
and  the  creed,  thus  enlarged,  was  immediately 
received  by  all  orthodox  Christians.  The  in- 
sertion of  the  words,  "and  the  Son,"  was 
made  by  the  Spanish  bishops  ;  and  they  were 
soon  after  adopted  by  the  Christians  in  France. 
The  bishops  of  Rome  for  some  time  refused  to 
admit  these  words  into  the  creed ;  but  at  last, 
A.  D.  883,  when  Nicholas  the  First  was  pope, 
they  were  allowed,  and  from  that  time  they 
have  stood  in  the  Nicene  creed,  in  all  the 
western  churches ;  but  the  Greek  church  has 
never  received  them.     See  Arius. 

NICODEMUS,  a  disciple  of  Jesus  Christ, 
a  Jew  by  nation,  and  a  Pharisee,  John  hi,  1, 
&c.  At  the  time  when  the  priests  and  Pha- 
risees had  sent  officers  to  seize  Jesus,  Nicode- 
mus  declared  himself  openly  in  his  favour, 
John  vii,  45,  &c  ;  and  still  more  so  when  he 
went  with  Joseph  of  Arimathea  to  pay  the 
last  duties  to  his  body,  which  they  took  down 


from  the  cross,  embalmed,  and  laid  in  a  sepul- 
chre. 

NICOLAITANS.  St.  John  says  in  his 
Revelation,  to  the  angel  of  the  church  of 
Ephesus,  "  But  this  thou  hast,  that  thou  hatest 
the  deeds  of  the  Nicolaitans,  which  I  also 
hate,"  Rev.  ii,  6  ;  and  again,  to  the  angel  of  the 
church  of  Pergamos  :  "  So  hast  thou  also  them 
that  hold  the  doctrine  of  the  Nicolaitans,  which 
thing  I  hate,"  Rev.  ii,  15.  These  are  the  only 
two  places  where  the  Nicolaitans  are  mention- 
ed in  the  New  Testament :  and  it  might  appear 
at  first,  that  little  could  be  inferred  from  these 
concerning  either  their  doctrine  or  their  prac- 
tice. It  is  asserted,  however,  by  all  the  fa- 
thers, that  the  Nicolaitans  were  a  branch  of 
the  Gnostics :  and  the  epistles,  which  were 
addressed  by  St.  John  to  the  seven  Asiatic 
churches,  may  perhaps  lead  us  to  the  same 
conclusion.  Thus  to  the  church  at  Ephesus 
he  writes  :  "Thou  hast  tried  them  which  say 
they  are  Apostles  and  are  not,  and  hast  found 
them  liars,"  Rev.  ii,  2.  This  may  be  under- 
stood of  the  Gnostic  teachers,  who  falsely 
called  themselves  Christians,  and  who  would 
be  not  unlikely  to  assume  also  the  title  of 
Apostles.  It  appears  from  this  and  other  pas- 
sages, that  they  had  distinguished  themselves 
at  Ephesus ;  and  it  is  when  writing  to  that 
church,  that  St.  John  mentions  the  Nicolai- 
tans. Again,  when  writing  to  the  church  at 
Smyrna,  he  says  :  "  I  know  the  blasphemy  of 
them  which  say  they  are  Jews,  and  are  not, 
but  are  the  synagogue  of  Satan,"  Rev.  ii,  9. 
The  Gnostics  borrowed  many  doctrines  from 
the  Jews,  and  thought  by  this  means  to  attract 
both  the  Jews  and  Christians.  We  might 
therefore  infer,  even  without  the  testimony  of 
the  fathers,  that  the  Gnostic  doctrines  were 
prevalent  in  these  churches,  where  St.  John 
sgeaks  of  the  Nicolaitans:  and  if  so,  we  have 
a  still  more  specific  indication  of  their  doctrine 
and  practice,  when  we  find  St.  John  saying  to 
the  church  in  Pergamos,  "  I  have  a  few  things 
against  thee,  because  thou  hast  there  them  that 
hold  the  doctrine  of  Balaam,  who  taught  Ba- 
lak  to  cast  a  stumbling  block  before  the  child- 
ren of  Israel,  to  eat  things  sacrificed  unto  idols, 
and  to  commit  fornication,"  Rev.  ii,  14.  Then 
follow  the  words  already  quoted,  "  So  hast 
thou  also  them  that  hold  the  doctrine  of  the 
Nicolaitans,  which  thing  I  hate."  There 
seems  here  to  be  some  comparison  between 
the  doctrine  of  Balaam  and  that  of  the  Nico- 
laitans :  and  I  would  also  point  out,  that  to 
the  church  in  Thyatira  the  Apostle  writes, 
"  I  have  a  few  things  against  thee,  because 
thou  sufferest  that  woman  Jezebel,  which  call, 
eth  herself  a  prophetess,  to  teach  and  to  se- 
duce my  servants  to  commit  fornication,  and 
to  eat  things  sacrificed  unto  idols,"  Rev.  ii,  20. 
The  two  passages  are  very  similar,  and  may 
enable  us  to  throw  some  light  upon  the  history 
of  the  Nicolaitans.  Tertullian  has  preserved 
a  tradition,  that  the  person  here  spoken  of  as 
Jezebel  was  a  female  heretic,  who  taught  what 
she  had  learned  from  the  Nicolaitans :  and 
whether  the  tradition  be  true  or  not,  it  seems 
certain,    that    to    eat    things    sacrificed    unto 


NIC 


702 


NIG 


idols,  and  to  commit  fornication,  was  part  of 
the  practice  of  the  Nicolaitans. 

These  two  sins  are  compared  to  the  doctrine 
of  Balaam  :  and  though  the  Bible  tells  us  little 
of  Balaam's  history,  beyond  his  prophecies  and 
his  death,  vet  we  can  collect  enough  to  enable 
us  to  explain  this  allusion  of  St.  John.  We 
read,  lhat  "when  Israel  abode  in  Shittim,  the 
people  began  to  commit  whoredom  with  the 
daughters  of  Moab:  and  they,"  that  is,  the 
women,  "  railed  the  people  unto  the  sacrifices 
of  their  gods  :  and  the  people  did  eat,  and  bow- 
ed down  to  their  gods,"  Num.  xxv,  1,  2.  But 
we  read  farther,  that  when  the  Midianites 
were  spoiled  and  Balaam  slain,  Moses  said  of 
the  women  who  were  taken,  "  Behold,  these 
caused  the  children  of  Israel,  through  the 
counsel  of  Balaam,  to  commit  trespass  against 
the  Lord  in  the  matter  of  Peor,"  Num.  xxxi, 
16.  This,  then,  was  the  insidious  policy  and 
advice  of  Balaam.  When  he  found  that  he 
was  prohibited  by  God  from  cursing  Israel,  he 
advised  Balak  to  seduce  the  Israelites  by  the 
women  of  Moab,  and  thus  to  entice  them  to 
the  sacrifices  of  their  gods.  This  is  what  St. 
John  calls  "  the  doctrine  of  Balaam,"  or  the 
wicked  artifice  which  he  taught  the  king  of 
Moab :  and  so  he  says,  that  in  the  church  of 
Pergamos  there  were  some  who  held  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Nicolaitans.  We  have  therefore 
the  testimony  of  St.  John,  as  well  as  of  the 
fathers,  that  the  lives  of  the  Nicolaitans  were 
profligate  and  vicious ;  to  which  we  may  add, 
that  they  ate  things  sacrificed  to  idols.  This 
is  expressly  said  of  Basilides  and  Valentinus, 
two  celebrated  leaders  of  Gnostic  sects :  and 
we  perhaps  are  not  going  too  far,  if  we  infer 
from  St.  John,  that  the  Nicolaitans  were  the 
first  who  enticed  the  Christians  to  this  impious 
practice,  and  obtained  from  thence,  the  distinc- 
tion of  their  peculiar  celebrity.  Their  motive 
for  6uch  conduct  is  very  evident.  They  wished 
to  gain  proselytes  to  their  doctrines  ;  and  they 
therefore  taught  that  it  was  lawful  to  indulge 
the  passions,  and  that  there  was  no  harm  in 
partaking  of  an  idol  sacrifice.  This  had  now 
become  the  test  1o  which  Christians  must  sub- 
mit, if  they  wished  to  escapo  persecution  :  and 
the  Nicolaitans  sought  to  gain  converts  by 
telling  them  that  they  might  still  believe  in 
Jesus  though  "  they  ate  of  things  sacrificed 
unto  idols."  The  fear  of  death  would  shake 
the  faith  of  some  ;  others  would  be  gained  over 
by  sensual  arguments:  and  thus  many  un- 
happy Christians  of  the  Asiatic  churches  were 
found  by  St.  John  in  the  ranks  of  the  Nico- 
laitans. 

We  might  wisli  perhaps  to  know  at  what 
time  (lie  sect  of  t lie.  Nicolaitans  began;  but 
we  cannot  define  it  accurately.  If  Irenccus  is 
correct  in  saying  that  it  preceded  by  a  con- 
siderate time  i lie  heresy  of  Cerinthus,  and 
that  the  Corinthian  heresy  was  a  principal 
of  Si.  John  writing  his  Gospel,  it  fol- 
lows, that  the  Nicolaitans  were  in  existence 
at  least  somo  year.-  before  the  time  of  their 
being  mentioned  in  the  Revelation;  and  the 
'  '  initiaii,  which  was  the 
John  being  sent  to  Patmos,  may 


have  been  the  time  which  enabled  the  Nico- 
laitans to  exhibit  their  principles.  Irenseus 
indeed  adds,  that  St.  John  directed  his  Gospel 
against  the  Nicolaitans  as  well  as  against 
Cerinthus  :  and  the  comparison  which  is  made 
between  their  doctrine  and  that  of  Balaam, 
may  perhaps  authorize  us  to  refer  to  this  sect 
what  is  said  in  the  second  Epistle  of  St.  Peter. 
The  whole  passage  contains  marked  allusions 
to  Gnostic  teachers.  There  is  another  question 
concerning  the  Nicolaitans,  which  has  excited 
much  discussion.  It  is  a  question  entirely  of 
evidence  and  detail ;  and  the  two  points  to  be 
considered  are,  1.  Whether  the  Nicolaitans 
derived  their  name  from  Nicolas  of  Antioch, 
who  was  one  of  the  seven  deacons :  2.  Sup- 
posing this  to  be  the  fact,  whether  Nicolas 
had  disgraced  himself  by  sensual  indulgence. 
Those  writers  who  have  endeavoured  to  clear 
the  character  of  Nicolas  have  generally  tried 
also  to  prove  that  he  was  not  the  man  whom 
the  Nicolaitans  claimed  as  their  head.  But 
the  one  point  may  be  true  without  the  other : 
and  the  evidence  is  so  overwhelming,  which 
states  that  Nicolas  the  deacon  was  at  least  the 
person  intended  by  the  Nicolaitans,  that  it  is 
difficult  to  come  to  any  other  conclusion  upon 
the  subject.  We  must  not  deny  that  some  of 
the  fathers  have  also  charged  him  with  falling 
into  vicious  habits,  and  thus  affording  too  true 
a  support  to  the  heretics  who  claimed  him  as 
their  leader.  These  writers,  however,  are  of 
a  late  date ;  and  some,  who  are  much  more 
ancient,  have  entirely  acquitted  him,  and  fur- 
nished an  explanation  of  the  calumnies  which 
attach  to  his  name.  We  know  that  the  Gnos- 
tics were  not  ashamed  to  claim  as  their  found- 
ers the  Apostles,  or  friends  of  the  Apostles. 
The  same  may  have  been  the  case  with  Nico- 
las the  deacon ;  and  though  we  allow,  that  if 
the  Nicolaitans  were  distinguished  as  a  sect 
some  time  before  the  end  of  the  century,  the 
probability  is  lessened  that  his  name  was  thus 
abused  ;  yet  if  his  career  was  a  short  one,  his 
history,  like  that  of  the  other  deacons,  would 
soon  be  forgotten  :  and  the  same  fertile  in- 
vention, which  gave  rise  in  the  two  first  cen- 
turies to  so  many  apocryphal  Gospels,  may 
also  have  led  the  Nicolaitans  to  give  a  false 
character  to  him  whose  name  they  had  as- 
sumed. 

NICOPOLIS,  a  city  of  Epirus,  on  the  gulf 
of  Ambracia,  whither,  as  some  think,  St.  Paul 
wrote  to  Titus,  then  in  Crete,  to  come  to  him, 
Titus  iii,  12;  but  others,  with  greater  proba- 
bility, are  of  opinion,  that  the  city  of  Nicopo- 
lis,  where  St.  Paul  was,  was  not  that  of  Epirus, 
but  that  of  Thrace,  on  the  borders  of  Mace- 
donia, near  the  river  Nessus.  Emmaus  in 
Palestine  was  also  called  Nicopoiis  by  the  Ro- 
mans. 

NIGHT.  The  ancient  Hebrews  began  their 
artificial  day  in  the  evening,  and  ended  it  the 
next  evening ;  so  that  the  night  preceded  the 
day,  whence  it  is  said,  "evening  and  morning 
ono  day,"  Gen.  i,  5.  They  allowed  twelve 
hours  to  the  night,  and  twelve  to  the  day. 
Night  is  put  for  a  time  of  affliction  and  adver- 
sity :    "  Thou  hast   proved  mine  heart,  thou 


NIL 


703 


NIM 


hast  visited  me  in  the  night,  thou  hast  tried 
me,"  Psalm  xvii,  3 ;  that  is,  by  adversity  and 
tribulation.  And  "the  morning  cometh,  and 
also  the  night,"  Isaiah  xxi,  12.  Night  is  also 
put  for  the  time  of  death  :  "  The  night  cometh, 
wherein  no  man  can  work,"  John  ix,  4.  Chil- 
dren of  the  day,  and  children  of  the  night,  in 
a  moral  and  figurative  sense,  denote  good  men 
and  wicked  men,  Christians  and  Gentiles. 
The  disciples  of  the  Son  of  God  are  children 
of  light :  they  belong  to  the  light,  they  walk 
in  the  light  of  truth  ;  while  the  children  of  the 
night  walk  in  the  darkness  of  ignorance  and 
infidelity,  and  perform  only  works  of  darkness. 
••  Ye  are  all  the  children  of  the  light,  and  the 
children  of  the  day  ;  we  are  not  of  the  night, 
nor  of  darkness,"  1  Thess.  v,  5. 

NIGHT-HAWK,  Dnnn,  Lev.  xi,  16;  Deut. 
xiv,  15.  That  this  is  a  voracious  bird  seems 
clear  from  the  import  of  its  name  ;  and  inter- 
preters are  generally  agreed  to  describe  it  as 
flying  by  night.  On  the  whole,  it  should  seem 
to  be  the  strix  orientalis,  which  Hasselquist 
thus  describes  :  It  is  of  the  size  of  the  common 
owl,  and  lodges  in  the  large  buildings  or  ruins 
of  Egypt  and  Syria,  and  sometimes  even  in 
the  dwelling  houses.  The  Arabs  settled  in 
Egypt  call  it  "  massasa,"  and  the  Syrians 
"  banu."  It  is  extremely  voracious  in  Syria  ; 
to  such  a  degree,  that  if  care  is  not  taken  to 
shut  the  windows  at  the  coming  on  of  night, 
he  enters  the  houses  and  kills  the  children : 
the  women,  therefore,  are  very  much  afraid  of 
him. 

NILE,  the  river  of  Egypt,  whose  fountain 
is  in  the  Upper  Ethiopia.  After  having  wa- 
tered several  kingdoms,  the  Nile  continues  its 
course  far  into  the  kingdom  of  Goiam.  Then 
it  winds  about  again,  from  the  east  to  the 
north.  Having  crossed  several  kingdoms  and 
provinces,  it  falls  into  Egypt  at  the  cataracts, 
which  are  waterfalls  over  steep  rocks  of  the 
length  of  two  hundred  feet.  At  the  bottom  of 
these  rocks  the  Nile  returns  to  its  usual  pace, 
and  thus  flows  through  the  valley  of  Egypt. 
Its  channel,  according  to  Villamont,  is  about 
a  league  broad.  At  eight  miles  below  Grand 
Cairo,  it  is  divided  into  two  arms,  which  make 
a  triangle,  whose  base  is  at  the  Mediterranean 
Sea,  and  which  the  Greeks  call  the  Delta,  be- 
cause of  its  figure  A.  These  two  arms  are 
divided  into  others,  which  discharge  themselves 
into  the  Mediterranean,  the  distance  of  which 
from  the  top  of  the  Delta  is  about  twenty 
leagues.  These  branches  of  the  Nile  the 
ancients  commonly  reckoned  to  be  seven. 
Ptolemy  makes  them  nine,  some  only  four, 
some  eleven,  some  fourteen.  Homer,  Xeno- 
phon,  and  Diodorus  Siculus  testify,  that  the 
ancient  name  of  this  river  was  Egyptus ;  and 
the  latter  of  these  writers  says,  that  it  took  the 
name  Nilus  only  since  the  time  of  a  king  of 
Egypt  called  by  that  name.  The  Greeks  gave 
it  the  name  of  Melas ;  and  Diodorus  Siculus 
observes,  that  the  most  ancient  name  by  which 
the  Grecians  have  known  the  Nile  was  Oceanus. 
The  Egyptians  paid  divine  honours  to  this 
river,  and  called  it  Jupiter  Nilus. 

Very  little  rain  ever  falls  in  Egypt,  never 


sufficient  to  fertilize  the  land ;  and  but  for  the 
provision  of  this  bountiful  river,  the  country 
would  be  condemned  to  perpetual  sterility.  As 
it  is,  from  the  joint  operation  of  the  regularity 
of  the  flood,  the  deposit  of  mud  from  the  water 
of  the  river  and  the  warmth  of  the  climate,  it 
is  the  most  fertile  country  in  the  world ;  the 
produce  exceeding  all  calculation.  It  has  in 
consequence  been,  in  all  ages,  the  granary  of 
the  east;  and  has  on  more  than  one  occasion, 
an  instance  of  which  is  recorded  in  the  history 
of  Joseph,  saved  the  neighbouring  countries 
from  starvation.  It  is  probable,  that,  while  in 
these  countries,  on  the  occasion  referred  to, 
the  seven  years'  famine  was  the  result  of  the 
absence  of  rain,  in  Egypt  it  was  brought  about 
by  the  inundation  being  withheld :  and  the 
consternation  of  the  Egyptians,  at  witnessing 
this  phenomenon  for  seven  successive  years, 
may  easily  be  conceived.  The  origin  and 
course  of  the  Nile  being  unknown  to  the 
ancients,  its  stream  was  held,  and  is  still  held 
by  the  natives,  in  the  greatest  veneration  ;  and 
its  periodical  overflow  was  viewed  with  mys- 
terious wonder.  But  both  of  these  are  now, 
from  the  discoveries  of  the  moderns,  better  un- 
derstood. It  is  now  known,  that  the  sources, 
or  permanent  springs,  of  the  Nile  are  situated 
in  the  mountains  of  Abyssinia,  and  the  unex- 
plored regions  to  the  west  and  south-west  of 
that  country  ;  and  that  the  occasional  supplies, 
or  causes  of  the  inundation,  are  the  periodical 
rains  which  fall  in  those  districts.  For  a  cor- 
rect knowledge  of  these  facts,  and  of  the  true 
position  of  the  source  of  that  branch  of  the 
river,  which  has  generally  been  considered  to 
be  the  continuation 'of  the  true  Nile,  we  are 
indebted  to  our  countryman,  the  intrepid  and 
indefatigable  Bruce.  Although  the  Nile,  by 
way  of  eminence,  has  been  called  "  the  river 
of  Egypt,"  it  must  not  be  confounded  with 
another  stream  so  denominated  in  Scripture, 
an  insignificant  rivulet  in  comparison,  which 
falls  into  the  Mediterranean  below  Gaza. 

NIMROD.  He  is  generally  supposed  to 
have  been  the  immediate  son  of  Cush,  and  the 
youngest,  or  sixth,  from  the  Scriptural  phrase, 
"  Cush  begat  Nimrod,"  after  the  mention  of 
bis  five  sons,  Gen.  x,  8.  But  the  phrase  is 
used  with  considerable  latitude,  like  "  father" 
and  "  son,"  in  Scripture.  "  And  the  beginning 
of  his  kingdom  was  Babel,  and  Erech,  and 
Accad,  and  Calnch,  in  the  land  of  Shinar : 
out  of  that  land  he  went  forth  to  invade 
Assyria ;  and  built  Nineveh,  and  the  city 
Rehoboth,  and  Calah,  and  Resin,  between 
Nineveh  and  Calah  :  the  same  is  a  great  city," 
Gen.  x,  8-12.  Though  the  main  body  of  the 
Cushites  was  miraculously  dispersed,  and  sent 
by  Providence  to  their  destinations  along  the 
sea  coasts  of  Asia  and  Africa,  yet  Nimrod 
remained  behind,  and  founded  an  empire  in 
Babylonia,  according  to  Berosus,  by  usurping 
the  property  of  the  Arphaxadites  in  the  land 
of  Shinar  ;  where  "  the  beginning  of  his  king- 
dom was  Babel,"  or  Babylon,  and  other  towns  : 
and,  not  satisfied  with  this,  he  next  invaded 
Assur,  or  Assyria,  east  of  the  Tigris,  where 
he   built   Nineveh,    and  several   other  towns. 


MM 


704 


NIN 


The  marginal  reading  of  our  English  Bible, 
"He  went  out  into  Assyria,"  or  to  invade 
Assyria,  is  hero  adopted  in  preference  to  that 
in  the  text :  "  And  out  of  that  land  went  forth 
Ashur,  and  builded  Nineveh,"  &c.  The  mean- 
ing  of  the  word  Nineveh  may  lead  us  to  his 
origins]  name,  S'm,  signifying  "a  son,"  the 
most  celebrated  of  the  sons  of  Cush.  That  of 
Nimrod,  or  "Rebel,"  was  probably  a  parody, 
<>r  nickname,  given  him  by  the  oppressed 
Shemitee,  of  which  we  have  several  instances 
in  Scripture.  Thus  nahash,  the  brazen  "ser- 
pent" in  t lie  wilderness,  was  called  by  Heze- 
kiah,  in  contempt,  nchushtan,  "a  piece  of 
braes,"  when  he  broke  it  in  pieces,  because  it 
was  perverted  into  an  object  of  idolatrous  wor- 
ship by  the  Jews,  2  Kings  xviii,  4.  Nimrod, 
that  arch  rebel,  who  first  subverted  the  patri- 
archal government,  introduced  also  the  Zabian 
idolatry,  or  worship  of  the  heavenly  host ;  and, 
after  his  death,  was  deified  by  his  subjects,  and 
supposed  to  be  translated  into  the  constella- 
tions of  Orion,  attended  by  his  hounds,  Sirius 
and  Canicula,  and  still  pursuing  his  favourite 
game,  the  great  bear ;  supposed  also  to  be 
translated  into  vrsa  major,  near  the  north  pole  ; 
as  admirably  described  by  Homer, — 

"ApKTov  §',  r}v  Kai  a^a^av  (■nUXriuiv  Ka\(ovatv, 
"H  t  airov  e^piipCTat,  (cat  t'  'JZptuiva  Bokcvu. 
Iliad  xviii,  485. 
"  And  the  bear,  surnamed  also  the  wain,  by 
the  Egyptians,  who  is  turning  herself  about 
there,    and    watching   Orion."       Homer    also 
introduces  the  shade  of  Orion,  as  hunting  in 
the  Elysian  fields, — 

TeV  Si  fier ',   ilpi'uiva  irt\<ipiov  cioevSriaa 
Qrjpa$  bfiou  ctXcwvra,  nar'  ao<pooc\dv  Xci^zwva' 
Tuii  airdi  KaT[Trt<j>vtv  tv  o\oit6\oiaiv  apical 
Xtpo'tv  c%iiiv  'pdiroiXov  vay\a\Ktov,  aliv  aayis. 
Odyss.  xi,  571. 
"  Next,  I  observed  the  mighty  Orion 
Chasing  wild  beasts  through  an  asphodel  mead, 
Which  himself  had  slain  on  the  solitary  mountains  : 
Holding  in  his  hands  a  solid  brazen  mace,  ever  un- 
broken." 

The  Grecian  name  of  this  "  mighty  hunter" 
may  furnish  a  satisfactory  clue  to  the  name 
given  him  by  the  impious  adulation  of  the 
Babylonians  and  Assyrians.  'Slp(u>v  nearly 
ibles  'OuptW,  the  obliquo  caso  of  'Ovptaf, 
which  is  the  Scptuagint  rendering  of  Uriah,  a 
proper  name  in  Scripture,  2  Sam.  xi,  6-21. 
But  Uriah,  signifying  "the  light  of  the  Lord," 
was  an  appropriate  appellation  of  that  most 
brilliant  constellation.  He  was  also  called 
Baal,  Becl,  Bel,  or  Belus,  signifying  "lord," 
or  " master,"  by  the  Phenicians,  Assyrians, 
and  Greeks ;  and  Bala  Rama,  by  the  Hindus. 
At  a  village  called  Bala-deva,  or  Baldco  in  the 
vulgar  dialect,  thirteen  miles  east  by  south 
froiu  M ultra,  in  Hindustan,  there  is  a  very 
ancient  statue  of  Bala  Rama,  in  which  he  is 
represented  with  a  ploughshare  in  his  left 
hand,  and  a  thick  cudgel  in  his  right,  and  his 
lera  covered  with  the  skin  of  a  tiger. 

tin  Willbrd  supposes  that  the  ploughshare 

i  'I  to  hook  bis  enemies;  but  may  it 
not  more  naturally  denote  the  constellation  of 
th<»  great  bear,  which  strikingly  represents  the 


figure  of  a  plough  in  its  seven  bright  stars ; 
and  was  probably  so  denominated  by  the  ear- 
liest astronomers,  before  the  introduction  of 
the  Zabian  idolatry,  a6  a  celestial  symbol  of 
agriculture  ?  The  thick  cudgel  corresponds 
to  the  brazen  mace  of  Homer.  And  it  is  highly 
probable  that  the  Assyrian  Nimrod,  or  Hindu 
Bala,  was  also  the  prototype  of  the  Grecian 
Hercules,  witli  his  club  and  lion's  skin. 

Nimrod  is  said  to  have  been  "  a  mighty 
hunter  before  the  Lord ;"  which  the  Jerusa- 
lem paraphrast  interprets  of  a  sinful  hunting 
after  the  sons  of  men  to  turn  them  off  from 
the  true  religion.  But  it  may  as  well  be  taken 
in  a  more  literal  sense,  for  hunting  of  wild 
beasts ;  inasmuch  as  the  circumstance  of  his 
being  a  mighty  hunter  is  mentioned  with  great 
propriety  to  introduce  the  account  of  his  set- 
ting up  his  kingdom  ;  the  exercise  of  hunting 
being  looked  upon  in  ancient  times  as  a  means 
of  acquiring  the  rudiments  of  war  ;  for  which 
reason  the  principal  heroes  of  Heathen  anti- 
quity, as  Theseus,  Nestor,  &c,  were,  as  Xeno- 
phon  tells  us,  bred  up  to  hunting.  Beside,  it 
may  be  supposed,  that  by  this  practice  Nimrod 
drew  together  a  great  company  of  robust  young 
men  to  a'ttend  him  in  his  sport,  and  by  that 
means  increased  his  power.  And  by  destroy- 
ing the  wild  beasts,  which,  in  the  compara- 
tively defenceless  state  of  society  in  those 
early  ages,  were  no  doubt  very  dangerous  ene- 
mies, he  might,  perhaps,  render  himself  farther 
popular ;  thereby  engaging  numbers  to  join 
with  him,  and  to  promote  his  chief  design  of 
subduing  men,  and  making  himself  master  of 
many  nations. 

NINEVEH.  This  capital  of  the  Assyrian 
empire  could  boast  of  the  remotest  antiquity. 
Tacitus  styles  it,  "  Vetustissima  sedes  Assy- 
ria ;"  [the  most  ancient  seat  of  Assyria  ;]  and 
Scripture  informs  us  that  Nimrod,  after  he 
had  built  Babel,  in  the  land  of  Shinar,  invaded 
Assyria,  where  he  built  Nineveh,  and  several 
other  cities,  Genesis  x,  11.  Its  name  denotes 
"the  habitation  of  Nin,"  which  seems  to  have 
been  the  proper  name  of  "  that  rebel,"  as  Nim- 
rod signifies.  And  it  is  uniformly  styled  by 
Herodotus,  Xenopbon,  Uiodorus,  Lucian,  &c, 
'H  NiVof,  "the  city  of  Ninus."  And  the  village 
of  Nunia,  opposite  Mosul,  in  its  name,  and  the 
tradition  of  the  natives,  ascertains  the  site  of 
the  ancient  city,  which  was  near  the  castle  of 
Arbela,  according  to  Tacitus,  so  celebrated  for 
the  decisive  victory  of  Alexander  the  Great 
over  the  Persians  thero ;  the  site  of  which  is 
ascertained  by  the  village  of  Arhil,  about  ten 
German  miles  to  the  east  of  Nunia,  according 
to  Niebuhr's  map.  Nineveh  at  first  seems 
only  to  have  been  a  small  city,  and  less  than 
Resen,  in  its  neighbourhood;  which  is  con- 
jectured by  Bochart,  and  not  without  reason, 
to  have  been  the  same  as  Larissa,  which  Xeno. 
phon  describes  as  "the  ruins  of  a  great  city, 
formerly  inhabited  by  the  Medes,"  and  which 
the  natives  might  have  described  as  belonging 
lu  Resen,  "to  Resen."  Nineveh  did  not  rise 
to  greatness  for  many  ages  after,  until  its 
second  founder,  Ninus  II.,  about  B.  C.  1230, 
enlarged  and  made  it  the  greatest  city  in  the 


NIN 


705 


NIN 


world.  According  to  Diodorus,  it  was  of  an 
oblong  form,  a  hundred  and  fifty  stadia  long, 
and  ninety  broad,  and,  consequently,  four 
hundred  and  eighty  in  circuit,  or  forty-eight 
miles,  reckoning  ten  stadia  to  an  English  mile, 
with  Major  Rennel.  And  its  walls  were  a 
hundred  feet  high,  and  so  broad  that  three 
chariots  could  drive  on  them  abreast ;  and  on 
the  walls  were  fifteen  hundred  towers,  each 
two  hundred  feet  high.  We  are  not,  how- 
ever, to  imagine  that  all  this  vast  enclosure 
was  built  upon :  it  contained  great  parks  and 
extensive  fields,  and  detached  houses  and  build- 
ings, like  Babylon,  and  other  great  cities  of 
the  east  even  at  the  present  day,  as  Bussorah, 
&c.  And  this  entirely  corresponds  with  the 
representations  of  Scripture.  In  the  days  of 
the  Prophet  Jonah,  about  B.  C.  800,  it  seems 
to  have  been  a  "  great  city,  an  exceeding  great 
city,  of  three  days'  journey,"  Jonah  i,  2 ;  iii,  3  ; 
perhaps  in  circuit.  The  population  of  Nine- 
veh, also,  at  that  time  was  very  great.  It  con- 
tained "more  than  sixscore  thousand  persons 
that  could  not  discern  between  their  right  hand 
and  their  left,  beside  much  cattle,"  Jonah  iv,  11. 
Reckoning  the  persons  to  have  been  infants  of 
two  years  old  and  under,  and  that  these  were 
a  fifth  part  of  the  whole,  according  to  Bochart, 
the  whole  population  would  amount  to  six 
hundred  thousand  souls.  The  same  number 
Pliny  assigns  for  the  population  of  Seleucia, 
on  the  decline  of  Babylon.  This  population 
shows  that  a  great  part  of  the  city  must  have 
been  left  open  and  unbuilt. 

The  threatened  overthrow  of  Nineveh  within 
three  days,  was,  by  the  general  repentance  and 
humiliation  of  the  inhabitants,  from  the  highest 
to  the  lowest,  suspended  for  near  two  hundred 
years,  until  "  their  iniquity  came  to  the  full ;" 
and  then  the  prophecy  was  literally  accom- 
plished, in  the  third  year  of  the  siege  of  the 
city,  by  the  combined  Medes  and  Babylonians; 
the  king,  Sardanapalus,  being  encouraged  to 
hold  out  in  consequence  of  an  ancient  pro- 
phecy, that  Nineveh  should  never  be  taken  by 
assault,  till  the  river  became  its  enemy ;  when 
a  mighty  inundation  of  the  river,  swollen  by 
continual  rains,  came  up  against  a  part  of  the 
city,  and  threw  down  twenty  stadia  of  the  wall 
in  length ;  upon  which,  the  king,  conceiving 
that  the  oracle  was  accomplished,  burned  him- 
self, his  concubines,  eunuchs,  and  treasures  ; 
and  the  enemy,  entering  by  the  breach,  sacked 
and  rased  the  city,  about  B.  C.  606.  Diodo- 
rus, also,  relates  that  Belesis,  the  governor  of 
Babylon,  ohtained  from  Arbaces,  the  king  of 
Media,  the  ashes  of  the  palace,  to  erect  a 
mount  with  them  near  the  temple  of  Belus  at 
Babylon  ;  and  that  he  forthwith  prepared  ship- 
ping, and,  together  with  the  ashes,  carried 
away  most  of  the  gold  and  silver,  of  which  he 
had  private  information  given  him  by  one  of 
the  eunuchs  who  escaped  the  fire.  Dr.  Gil- 
lies thinks  it  incredible  that  these  could  be 
transported  from  Nineveh  to  Babylon,  three 
hundred  miles  distant ;  but  likely  enough,  if 
Nineveh  was  only  fifty  miles  from  Babylon, 
with  a  large  canal  of  communication  between 
them,  Ihe  Nahar  Malka,  or  Royal  River.  But 
46         • 


we  learn  from  Niebuhr,  that  the  conveyance 
of  goods  from  Nosul  to  Bagdat  by  the  Tigris 
is  very  commodious,  in  the  very  large  boats 
called  helleks;  in  which,  in  spring,  when  the 
river  is  rapid,  the  voyage  may  be  made  in  three 
or  four  days,  which  would  take  fifteen  by  land. 
The  complete  demolition  of  such  immense  piles 
as  the  walls  and  towers  of  Nineveh  may  seem 
matter  of  surprise  to  those  who  do  not  con- 
sider the  nature  of  the  materials  of  which  they 
were  constructed,  that  is,  of  bricks,  dried  or 
baked  in  the  sun,  and  cemented  with  bitumen, 
which  were  apt  to  be  "dissolved"  by  water, 
or  to  moulder  away  by  the  injuries  of  the 
weather.  Beside,  in  the  east,  the  materials 
of  ancient  cities  have  been  often  employed  in 
the  building  of  new  ones  in  the  neighbour- 
hood. Thus  Mosul  was  built  with  the  spoils 
of  Nineveh.  Tauk  Kesra,  or  the  Palace  of 
Chosroes,  appears  to  have  been  built  of  bricks 
brought  from  the  ruins  of  Babylon  ;  and  so 
was  Hellah,  as  the  dimensions  are  nearly  the 
same,  and  the  proportions  so  singular.  And 
when  such  materials  could  conveniently  be 
transported  by  inland  navigations,  they  are  to 
be  found  at  very  great  distances  from  their 
ancient  place,  much  farther,  indeed,  than 
are  Bagdat  and  Seleucia,  or  Ctesiphon,  from 
Babylon. 

The  book  of  Nahum  was  avowedly  prophetic 
of  the  destruction  of  Nineveh  ;  and  it  is  there 
foretold  that  "  the  gates  of  the  river  shall  be 
opened,  and  the  palace  shall  be  dissolved. 
Nineveh  of  old,  like  a  pool  of  water,  with  an 
overflowing  flood  he  will  make  an  utter  end 
of  the  place  thereof,"  Nahum  ii,  6 ;  i,  8,  9. 
The  historian  describes  the  facts  by  which  the 
other  predictions  of  the  prophet  were  as  lite, 
rally  fulfilled.  He  relates  that  the  king  of 
Assyria,  elated  with  his  former  victories,  and 
ignorant  of  the  revolt  of  the  Bactrians,  had 
abandoned  himself  to  scandalous  inaction  ; 
had  appointed  a  time  of  festivity,  and  supplied 
his  soldiers  with  abundance  of  wine  ;  and  that 
the  general  of  the  enemy,  apprised  by  desert- 
ers, of  their  negligence  and  drunkenness, 
attacked  the  Assyrian  ,army  while  the  whole 
of  them  were  fearlessly  giving  way  to  indul- 
gence, destroyed  great  part  of  them,  and  drove 
the  rest  into  the  city.  The  words  of  the  pro- 
phet were  hereby  verified  :  "  While  they  be 
folden  together  as  thorns,  and  while  they  are 
drunken  as  drunkards,  they  shall  be  devoured 
as  stubble  fully  dry,"  Nahum  i,  10.  The  pro- 
phet promised  much  spoil  to  the  enemy:  "Take 
the  spoil  of  silver,  take  the  spoil  of  gold;  for 
there  is  no  end  of  the  store  and  glory  out  of 
all  the  pleasant  furniture,"  Nahum  ii,  9.  And 
the  historian  affirms  that  many  talents  of  gold 
and  silver,  preserved  from  the  fire,  were  car- 
ried to  Ecbatana.  According  to  Nahum,  iii, 
15,  the  city  was  not  only  to  be  destroyed  by 
an  overflowing  flood,  but  the  fire,  also,  was  to 
devour  it;  and,  as  Diodorus  relates,  partly  by 
water,  partly  by  fire,  it  was  destroyed. 

The  utter  and  perpetual  destruction  and 
desolation  of  Nineveh  were  foretold  :  "  The 
Lord  will  make  an  utter  end  of  the  place  thereof. 
Affliction  shall  not   ri:e  up  the  second  time. 


NIN 


706 


NOA 


She  is  empty,  void,  and  waste, "  Nahum  i,  8,  9  ; 
ii,  10  ;  iii,  17-19.    "  The  Lord  will  stretch  out 
his  hand  against  the  north,  and  destroy  Assy- 
ria, and  will  make  Nineveh  a  desolation,  and 
drwlike  a  wilderness.     How  is  she  become  a 
desolation,  a  place  for  beasts  to  lie  down  in," 
ZeplL  ii,  13-15.      In  the  second  century,  Lu- 
tiau»a  native  of  a  city  on  the  banks  of  the 
Euph^^es,  testified  that  Nineveh  was  utterly 
that  there  was  no  vestige  of  it  re- 
;id  that  none  could  tell  where  once 
it  was  situated.    This  testimony  of  Lucian,  and 
the  lapse  of  many  ages  during  which  the  place 
was  not  knq\v-u  where  it,  stood,  render  it  at 
least  eomewha^Tfcubtful  whether  the  remains 
of  an  ancient  city,  opposite  to  Mosul,  which 
have  been  described  as  such  by  travellers,  be 
indeed  those  of  ancient  Nineveh.     It  is,  per- 
haps, probable  that  they  are  the  remains  of  the 
city  which  succeeded  Nineveh,  or  of  a  Persian 
city  of  the  same  name,  which  was  built  on  the 
banks  of  the  Tigris    by  the  Persians  subse- 
quently to  A.  D.  230,  and  demolished  by  the 
Saracens,  A.  D.  632.     In  contrasting  the  then 
existing  great  and  increasing  population,  and 
the  accumulating  wealth  of  the  proud  inhabit- 
ants of  the  mighty  Nineveh,  with  the  utter 
ruin  that  awaited  it,  the  word  of  God  by  the 
Prophet  Nahum,  was,  "  Make  thyself  many  as 
the  canker  worm,  make  thyself  many  as  the 
locusts.     Thou  hast  multiplied  thy  merchants 
above  the  stars  of  heaven :  the  canker  worm 
spoileth  and  flieth  away.     Thy  crowned  are 
as  the  locusts,   and  thy  captains  as  the  great 
grasshoppers  which  camp  in  the  hedges  in  the 
cold  day  :  but  when  the  sun  riseth,  they  flee 
away  ;  and  their  place  is  not  known  where  they 
are,"  or  were.     Whether  these  words  imply 
that  even  the  site  of  Nineveh  would  in  future 
ages  be  uncertain  or  unknown ;  or,   as  they 
rather  seem  to  intimate,  that  every  vestige  of 
the  palaces  of  its  monarchs,  of  the  greatness 
of  its  nobles,  and  of  the  wealth  of  its  nume- 
rous merchants,  would  wholly  disappear  ;  the 
truth  of  the  prediction  cannot  be  invalidated 
under  either  interpretation.   The  avowed  igno- 
ranco   respecting  Nineveh,   and  the   oblivion 
which  passed  over  it,  for  many  an  age,  con- 
joined with  the    meagreness   of  evidence  to 
identify  it,  still  prove  that  the  place  where  it 
stood  was  long  unknown,  and  that,  even  now, 
it  c;m  scurci-ly  with  certainty  be  determined. 
And  if  the  only  spot  that  bears  its  name,  or  that 
can  be  said  to  be  the  place  where  it  was,  be  in- 
deed tlic  site  of  one  of  the  most  extensive  of  cities 
OB  which  the  sun  ever  shone,  and  which  con- 
tinued for  many  centuries  to  be  the  capital  of 
Assyria, — the  principal  mounds,  few  in  num- 
ber,  which   show  neither  bricks,  stones,  nor 
other  materials  of  building, — but  are  in  many 
placet    overgrown  with   grass,    and  resemble 
the  mounds  left  by  intrenchmenta  and  fortifi- 
cations of  ancient  Roman  camps,  and  the  ap- 
oces    of  other   mounds   and   ruins   less 
marked  than  even  these,   extending  for  ten 
miles,  and  widely  spread,   and  seeming  to  be 
wrack   of  former   buildings, — show  that 
■••■b    is    lefl    without    one    monument   of 
royalty,  without   any  token   whatever   of  its 


splendour  or  wealth ;  that  their  place  is  not 
known  where  they  were  ;  and  that  it  is  indeed 
a  desolation,  "empty,  void,  and  waste,"  its 
very  ruins  perished,  and  less  than  the  wreck 
of  what  it  was.  Such  an  utter  ruin,  in  every 
view,  has  been  made  of  it ;  and  such  is  the 
truth  of  the  divine  predictions  ! 

NISAN,  a  month  of  the  Hebrews,  answer- 
ing to  our  March,  and  which  sometimes  takes 
from  February  or  April,  according  to  the  course, 
of  the  moon.  It  was  made  the  first  month  of 
the  sacred  year,  at  the  coming  out  of  Egypt, 
Exod.  xii,  2 ;  and  it  was  the  seventh  month 
of  the  civil  year.  By  Moses  it  is  called  Abib. 
The  name  Nisan  was  introduced  only  since  the 
time  of  Ezra,  and  the  return  from  the  captivity 
of  Babylon. 

NISROCH,  a  god  of  the  Assyrians.  Sen- 
nacherib was  killed  by  two  of  his  sons,  while 
he  was  paying  his  adorations  in  the  temple  of 
this  deity,  2  Kings  xix,  37  ;  Isaiah  xxxvii,  38. 
It  is  uncertain  who  this  god  was. 

NITRE,  in.),  Prov.  xxv,  20;  Jer.  ii,  22. 
This  is  not  the  same  that  we  call  nitre,  or  salt- 
petre, but  a  native  salt  of  a  different  kind,  dis- 
tinguished among  naturalists  by  the  name  of 
natrum.  The  natrum  of  the  ancients  was  an 
earthy  alkaline  salt.  It  was  found  in  abund- 
ance separated  from  the  water  of  the  lake  Na- 
tron in  Egypt.  It  rises  from  the  bottom  of 
the  lake  to  the  top  of  the  water,  and  is  there 
condensed  by  the  heat  of  the  sun  into  the  hard 
and  dry  form  in  which  it  is  sold.  This  salt 
thus  scummed  off  is  the  same  in  all  respects 
with  the  Smyrna  soap  earth.  Pliny,  Matthio- 
lus,  and  Agricola,  have  described  it  to  us : 
Hippocrates,  Galen,  Dioscorides,  and  others, 
mention  its  uses.  It  is  also  found  in  great 
plenty  in  Sindy,  a  province  in  the  inner  part 
of  Asia,  and  in  many  other  parts  of  the  east ; 
and  might  be  had  in  any  quantities.  The  learn- 
ed Michaelis  plainly  demonstrates,  from  the 
nature  of  the  thing  and  the  context,  that  this 
fossil  and  natural  alkali  must  be  that  which 
the  Hebrews  called  nether.  Solomon  must 
mean  the  same  when  he  compares  the  effect 
which  unseasonable  mirth  has  upon  a  man  in 
affliction  to  the  action  of  vinegar  upon  nitre, 
Prov.  xxv,  20 ;  for  vinegar  has  no  effect  upon 
what  we  call  nitre,  but  upon  the  alkali  in  ques- 
tion has  a  great  effect,  making  it  rise  up  in 
bubbles  with  much  effervescence.  It  is  of  a 
soapy  nature,  and  was  used  to  take  spots  from 
clothes,  and  even  from  the  face.  Jeremiah 
alludes  to  this  use  of  it,  ii,  22. 

NO,  or  NO-AMMON,  a  city  of  Egypt,  sup- 
posed to  be  Thebes. 

NOAH,  the  son  of  Lamech.  Amidst  the 
general  corruption  of  the  human  race,  Noah 
only  was  found  righteous,  Gen.  vi,  9.  He 
therefore  "  found  grace  in  the  sight  of  the 
Lord,"  and  was  directed  for  his  preservation 
to  make  an  ark,  the  shape  and  dimensions  of 
which  were  prescribed  by  the  Lord.  In  A.  M. 
1G56,  and  in  the  six  hundredth  year  of  his  age, 
Noah,  by  divine  appointment,  entered  the  ark 
with  his  family,  and  all  the  animals  collected 
for  the  renewal  of  the  world.  (See  Deluge.) 
After  the  ark  had  stranded,  and  the  earth  was 


NOD 


707 


NON 


in  a  measure  dried,  Noah  offered  a  burnt-sacri- 
fice to  the  Lord,  of  the  pure  animals  that  were 
in  the  ark  ;  and  the  Lord  was  pleased  to  accept 
of  his  offering,  and  to  give  him  assurance  that 
he  would  no  more  destroy  the  world  by  water, 
Genesis  ix.     He  gave  Noah    power    over  all 
the  brute  creation,  and  permitted  him  to  kill 
and  eat  of  them,  as  of  the  herbs  and  fruits  of 
the  earth,  except  the  blood,  the  use  of  which 
was  prohibited.     After  the  deluge  Noah  lived 
three  hundred  and  fifty  years  ;  and  the  whole 
time  of  his  life  having  been  nine  hundred  and 
fifty  years,  he  died,  A.  M.  2006.   According  to 
common  opinion,  he  divided  the  earth  among 
his  three  sons,  Shem,  Ham,  and  Japhelh.     To 
Shem  he  gave  Asia,  to  Ham  Africa,   and  to 
Japheth  Europe.     Some  will  have  it,  that  be- 
side  these   three  sons  he  had  several  others. 
St.  Peter  calls  Noah  a  preacher  of  righteous- 
ness, because  before  the  deluge  he  was  inces- 
santly preaching   and  declaring  to  men,  not 
only  by  his  discourses,  but  by  the  building  of 
the  ark,  in  which  he  was  employed  a  hundred 
and  twenty  years,  that  the  cloud  of  divine  ven- 
geance was  about  to  burst  upon  them.     But 
his  faithful  ministry  produced  no  effect,  since, 
when  the  deluge  came,  it  found  mankind  prac- 
tising their  usual  enormities,  Matt,  xxiv,  37. 
Several  learned  men  have   observed  that  the 
Heathens  confounded  Saturn,  Deucalion,  Ogy- 
ges,  the  god  Ccelus  or  Ouranus,  Janus,  Pro- 
theus,  Prometheus,  &c,  with  Noah.    The  fable 
of  Deucalion  and  his  wife  Pyrrha  is  manifestly 
drawn  from  the  history  of  Noah.     The  rab- 
bins pretend  that  God  gave  Noah  and  his  sons 
certain  general   precepts,  which  contain,  ac- 
cording to  them,  the  natural  duties  which  are 
common  to  all  men  indifferently,  and  the  ob- 
servation of  which  alone  will  be  sufficient  to 
save  them.     After  the  law  of  Moses  was  given, 
the  Hebrews  would  not  suffer  any  stranger  to 
dwell  in  their  country,  unless  he  would  con- 
form to  the  precepts  of  Noah.     In  war,  they 
put  to  death  without  quarter  all   who  were 
ignorant  of  them.     These  precepts  are  seven 
in  number  :  the  first  was  against  the  worship 
of  idols  ;  the  second,  against  blasphemy,  and 
required  to  bless  the  name  of  God  ;  the  third, 
against  murder  ;  the  fourth,  against  incest  and 
all  uncleanness  ;  the  fifth,  against  theft  and  ra- 
pine ;  the  sixth  required  the  administration  of 
justice ;  the  seventh  was  against  eating  flesh 
with  life.     But  the  antiquity  of  these  precepts 
is  doubted,  since  no  mention  of  them  is  made 
in  the  Scripture,  or  in  the  writings  of  Jose- 
phus,  or  in  Philo ;    and  none   of  the   ancient 
fathers  knew  any  thing  of  them. 

NOD,  Land  of,  the  country  to  which  Cain 
withdrew  after  the  murder  of  Abel.  As  the 
precise  situation  of  this  country  cannot  possibly 
be  known,  so  it  has  given  rise  to  much  inge- 
nious speculation.  All  that  we  are  told  of  it 
is,  that  it  was  "  on  the  east  of  Eden,"  or,  as  it 
may  be  rendered,  "  before  Eden  ;"  which  very 
country  of  Eden  is  no  sure  guide  for  us,  as  the 
situation  of  that  also  is  disputed.  But,  be  it 
on  the  higher  or  lower  Euphrates,  (see  Eden,) 
the  land  of  Nod  which  stood  before  it  with 
respect  to  the  place  where  Mo6es  wrote,  may 


still  preserve  the  curse  of  barrenness  passed  on 
it  for  Cain's  sake,  namely,  in  the  deserts  of 
Syria  or  Arabia.  The  Chaldee  interpreters 
render  the  word  Nod,  not  as  the  proper  name 
of  a  country,  but  as  an  appellative  applied  to 
Cain  himself,  signifying  a  vagabond  or  fugi 
tive,  and  read,  "  He  dwelt  a  fugitive  in  the 
land."  But  the  Hebrew  reads  expressly,  "  Ho 
dwelt  in  the  land  of  Nod." 

NONCONFORMISTS,  dissenters  from  the 
church  of  England  ;  but  the  term  applies  more 
particularly  to  those  ministers  who  were  eject- 
ed from  their  livings  by  the  Act  of  Uniformity 
in  1662;  the  number  of  whom,  according  to 
Dr.  Calamy,  was  nearly  two  thousand  ;  and  to 
the  laity  who  adhered  to  them.  The  celebrated 
Mr.  Locke  says,  "  Bartholomew-day  (the  day 
fixed  by  the  Act  of  Uniformity')  was  fatal  to 
our  church  and  religion,  by  throwing  out  a 
very  great  number  of  worthy,  learned,  pious, 
and  orthodox  divines,  who  could  not  come  up 
to  this  and  other  things  in  that  act.  And  it  is 
worth  your  knowledge,  that  so  great  was  the 
zeal  in  carrying  on  this  church  affair,  and  so 
blind  was  the  obedience  required,  that  if  you 
compare  the  time  of  passing  the  act  with  the 
time  allowed  for  the  clergy  to  subscribe  the 
book  of  Common  Prayer  thereby  established, 
you  shall  plainly  find,  it  could  not  be  printed 
and  distributed,  so  as  one  man  in  forty  could 
have  seen  and  read  the  book  before  they  did  so 
perfectly  assent  and  consent  thereto." 

By  this  act,  the  clergy  were  required  to  sub- 
scribe, ex  animo,  [sincerely,!  their  "  assent  and 
consent  to  all  and  every  thing  contained  in 
the  book  of  Common  Prayer,"  which  had  never 
before  been  insisted  on,  so  rigidly  as  lo  deprive 
them  of  their  livings  and  livelihood.  Several 
other  acts  were  passed  about  this  time,  very 
oppressive  botli  to  the  clergy  and  laity.  In  the 
preceding  year  1661,  the  Corporation  Act  in- 
capacitated all  persons  from  offices  of  trust 
and  honour  in  a  corporation,  who  did  not  re- 
ceive the  sacrament  in  the  established  church. 
The  Conventicle  Act,  in  1663  and  1670,  for- 
bade the  attendance  at  conventicles ;  that  is, 
at  places  of  worship  other  than  the  establish- 
ment, where  more  than  five  adults  were  present 
beside  the  resident  family ;  and  that  under 
penalties  of  fine  and  imprisonment  by  the 
sentence  of  magistrates  without  a  jury.  The 
Oxford  Act  of  1665  banished  nonconforming 
ministers  five  miles  from  any  corporate  town 
sending  members  to  parliament,  and  prohibit- 
ed them  from  keeping  or  teaching  schools. 
The  Test  Act  of  the  same  year  required  all 
persons,  accepting  any  office  under  govern- 
ment, to  receive  the  sacrament  in  the  establish- 
ed church. 

Such  were  the  dreadful  consequences  of 
this  intolerant  spirit,  that  it  is  supposed  that 
near  eight  thousand  died  in  prison  in  the  reign 
of  Charles  II.  It  is  said  that  Mr.  Jeremiah 
White  had  carefully  collected  a  list  of  those 
who  had  suffered  between  Charles  II.  and  the 
revolution,  which  amounted  to  sixty  thousand. 
The  same  persecutions  were  carried  on  in 
Scotland  ;  and  there,  as  well  as  in  England, 
numbers,  to  avoid  the  persecution,  left  their 


NUM 


708 


OAK 


country.  But,  notwithstanding  all  these  dread, 
ful  and  furious  attacks  upon  the  dissenters, 
they  were  not  extirpated.  Their  very  perse, 
cution  was  in  their  favour.  The  infamous 
character  of  their  informers  and  persecutors  ; 
their  piety,  zeal,  and  fortitude,  no  doubt,  had 
influence  on  considerate  minds  ;  and,  indeed, 
they  had  additions  from  the  established  church, 
which  several  clergymen  in  this  reign  deserted 
as  a  persecuting  church,  and  took  their  lot 
among  them.  King  William  coming  to  the 
throne,  the  famous  Toleration  Act  passed,  by 
which  they  were;  exempted  from  suffering  the 
penalties  .above  mentioned,  and  permission 
was  given  them  to  worship  God  according  to 
the  dictates  of  their  own  consciences.  In  the 
reign  of  George  III.,  the  Act  for  the  Protec- 
tion of  Religious  Worship  superseded  the  Act 
of  Toleration,  by  still  more  liberal  provisions 
in  favour  of  religious  liberty ;  and  in  the  last 
reign  the  Test  and  Corporation  Acts  were  re- 
pealed. 

NOPII,  Memphis,  a  celebrated  city  of  Egypt, 
and,  till  the  time  of  the  Ptolemies,  who  re- 
moved to  Alexandria,  the  residence  of  the  an. 
cient  kings  of  Egypt.  It  stood  above  the 
dividing  of  the  river  Nile,  where  the  Delta  be- 
gins. Toward  the  south  of  this  city  stood  the 
tanious  pyramids,  two  of  which  were  esteemed 
the  wonders  of  the  world  ;  and  in  this  city  was 
fed  the  ox  Apis,  which  Cambyses  slew,  in  con- 
tempt of  the  Egyptians  who  worshipped  it  as 
a  deity.  The  kings  of  Egypt  took  much  plea- 
sure in  adorning  this  city ;  and  it  continued  in 
all  its  beauty  till  the  Arabians  made  a  conquest 
of  Egypt  under  the  Caliph  Omar.  The  gene- 
ral who  took  it  built  another  city  near  it, 
named  Fustal,  merely  because  his  tent  had 
been  a  long  time  set  up  in  that  place  ;  and  the 
Fatimite  caliphs,  when  they  became  masters  of 
Egypt,  added  another  to  it,  which  is  known 
to  us  at  this  day  by  the  name  of  Grand  Cairo. 
This  occasioned  the  utter  decay  of  Memphis, 
and  led  to  the  fulfilment  of  the  prophecy,  that 
it  should  be  "  waste  and  without  inhabitant." 
The  prophets  often  speak  of  this  city,  and 
forctel  the  miseries  it  was  to  suffer  from  the 
kings  of  Chaldea  and  Persia,  Isaiah  xix,  13 ; 
Jer.  xliv,  1 ;  xlvi,  14,  19 ;  Hosea  ix,  6 ;  Ezek. 
txx,  13,  16. 

NOVATIANS,  the  followers  of  Novatian, 
a  priest  of  Rome,  and  of  Novatus,  a  priest  of 
Carthage,  in  the  third  century.  They  were 
distinguished  merely  by  their  discipline;  for 
their  religious  and  doctrinal  tenets  do  not  ap- 
pear to  be  at  all  different  from  those  of  the 
church.  They  condemned  second  marriages, 
and  for  ever  excluded  from  their  communion 
•ill  those  who  after  baptism  had  fallen  into 
sin.  They  affected  very  superior  purity  ;  and, 
though  they  conceived  I  hat  the  worst  might 
possibly  hop.,  for  eternal  life,  they  absolutely 
refused  to  readmit  into  their  communion  any 
who  had  lapsed  into  sin.  They  separated  from 
the  church  of  Rome,  because  the  members  of 
it  admitted  into  their  communion  many  who 
\u]-  '  oason  qf  persecution,  rejected 

thn  f  hriMinn  faith. 

NUMBERS,   n  canonical  book   of  the   Old 


Testament,  being  the  fourth  of  the  Penta. 
teuch,  or  five  books  of  Moses ;  and  receives 
its  denomination  from  the  numbering  of  the 
families  of  Israel  by  Moses  and  Aaron,  who 
mustered  the  tribes,  and  marshalled  the  army, 
of  the  Hebrews  in  their  passage  through  the 
wilderness.  A  great  part  of  this  book  is  his- 
torical, relating  several  remarkable  events 
which  happened  in  that  journey,  and  also 
mentioning  various  of  their  journeyings  in  the 
wilderness.  This  book  comprehends  the  his- 
tory of  about  thirty-eight  years,  though  the 
greater  part  of  the  things  recorded  fell  out  in 
the  first  and  last  of  those  years ;  and  it  does 
not  appear  when  those  things  were  done 
which  are  recorded  in  the  middle  of  the  book. 
See  Pentateuch. 

NURSE.  The  nurso  in  an  eastern  family 
is  always  an  important  personage.  Modern 
travellers  inform  us,  that  in  Syria  she  is  con. 
sidered  as  a  sort  of  second  parent,  whether 
she  has  been  foster-mother  or  otherwise.  She 
always  accompanies  the  bride  to  her  husband's 
house,  and  ever  remains  there  an  honoured 
character.  Thus  it  was  in  ancient  Greece. 
This  will  serve  to  explain  Genesis  xxiv,  59 : 
"  And  they  sent  away  Rebekah  their  sister, 
and  her  nurse."  In  Hindostan  the  nurse  is 
not  looked  upon  as  a  stranger,  but  becomes 
one  of  the  family,  and  passes  the  remainder 
of  her  life  in  the  midst  of  the  children  she  has 
suckled,  by  whom  she  is  honoured  and  che- 
rished as  a  second  mother.  In  many  parts  of 
Hindostan  are  mosques  and  mausoleums,  built 
by  the  Mohammedan  princes,  near  the  sepul- 
chres of  their  nurses.  They  are  excited  by  a 
grateful  affection  to  erect  these  structures  in 
memory  of  those  who  with  maternal  anxiety 
watched  over  their  helpless  infancy :  thus  it 
has  been  from  time  immemorial. 

OAK.  The  religious  veneration  paid  to 
this  tree,  by  the  original  natives  of  our  island 
in  the  time  of  the  Druids,  is  well  known  to 
every  reader  of  British  history.  We  have  rea- 
son to  think  that  this  veneration  was  brought 
from  the  east ;  and  that  the  Druids  did  no 
more  than  transfer  the  sentiments  their  pro 
genitors  had  received  in  oriental  countries.  It 
should  appear  that  the  Patriarch  Abraham  re- 
sided under  an  oak,  or  a  grove  of  oaks,  which 
our  translators  render  the  plain  of  Mamre  ; 
and  that  he  planted  a  grove  of  this  tree,  Gen- 
xiii,  18.  In  fact,  since  in  hot  countries 
nothing  is  more  desirablo  than  shade,  nothing 
more  refreshing  than  the  shade  of  a  tree,  we 
may  easily  suppose  the  inhabitants  would  re- 
sort for  such  enjoyment  to 

Where'er  the  oak's  thick  branches  ^picad 
A  deeper,  darker  shade. 
Oaks,  and  groves  of  oaks,  were  esteemed  pro. 
per  places  for  religious  services ;  altars  were 
set  up  under  them,  Joshua  xxiv,  26;  and, 
probably,  in  the  east  as  well  as  in  the  west, 
appointments  to  meet  at  conspicuous  oaks 
were  made,  and  many  affairs  were  transacted 
or  treated  of  under  their  shade,  as  we  read  in 
Homer,  Theocritus  and  other  ports.  1 1  was 
common  anion;'  the  Hebrew  s  to  sit  under  oaks. 


OAT 


709 


OAT 


Judges  vi,  11;  1  Kings  xiii,  14.  Jacob  buried 
idolatrous  images  under  an  oak,  Gen.  xxxv,  4; 
and  Deborah,"  Rebekah's  nurse,  was  buried 
under  one  of  these  trees,  Genesis  xxxv.  8. 
See  1  Chron.  x,  12.  Abimelech  was  made 
king  under  an  oak,  Judges  ix,  6.  Idolatry 
was  practised  under  oaks,  Isaiah  i,  29  ;  lvii,  5  ; 
Hosea  iv,  13.  Idols  were  made  of  oaks,  Isa. 
xliv,  14. 

OATH,  a  solemn  invocation  of  a  superior 
power,  admitted  to  be  acquainted  with  all  the 
secrets  of  our  hearts,  with  our  inward  thoughts 
as  well  as  our  outward  actions,  to  witness  the 
truth  of  what  we  assert,  and  to  inflict  his  ven- 
geance upon  us  if  we  assert  what  is  not  true, 
or  promise  what  we  do  not  mean  to  perform. 
Almost  all  nations,  whether  savage  or  civilized, 
whether  enjoying  the  light  of  revelation  or  led 
only  by  the  light  of  reason,  knowing  the  im- 
portance of  truth,  and  willing  to  obtain  a 
barrier  against  falsehood,  have  had  recourse 
to  oaths,  by  which  they  have  endeavoured  to 
make  men  fearful  of  uttering  lies,  under  the 
dread  of  an  avenging  Deity.  Among  Chris- 
tians, an  oath  is  a  solemn  appeal  for  the  truth 
of  our  assertions,  the  sincerity  of  our  promises, 
and  the  fidelity  of  our  engagements,  to  the  one 
only  God,  the  Judge  of  the  whole  earth,  who 
is  every  where  present,  and  sees,,  and  hears, 
and  knows,  whatever  is  said,  or  done,  or 
thought  in  any  part  of  the  world.  Such  is 
that  Being  whom  Christians,  when  they  take 
an  oath,  invoke  to  bear  testimony  to  the  truth 
of  their  words,  and  the  integrity  of  their  hearts. 
Surely,  then,  if  oaths  be  a  matter  of  so  much 
moment,  it  well  behoves  us  not  to  treat  them 
with  levity,  nor  ever  to  take  them  without  due 
consideration.  Hence  we  ought,  with  the  ut- 
most vigilance,  to  abstain  from  mingling  oaths 
in  our  ordinary  discourse,  and  from  associating 
the  name  of  God  with  low  or  disgusting  images, 
or  using  it  on  trivial  occasions,  as  not  only  a 
profane  levity  in  itself,  but  tending  to  destroy 
that  reverence  for  the  supreme  Majesty  which 
ought  to  prevail  in  society,  and  to  dwell  in  our 
own  hearts. 

"The  forms  of  oaths,"  says  Dr.  Paley,  "like 
other  religious  ceremonies,  have  in  all  ages 
been  various ;  consisting,  however,  for  the 
most  part  of  some  bodily  action,  and  of  a  pre- 
scribed form  of  words."  Among  the  Jews, 
the  juror  held  up  his  right  hand  toward  heaven, 
Psalm  cxliv,  8  ;  Rev.  x,  5.  The  same  form  is 
retained  in  Scotland  still.  Among  the  Jews, 
olso,  an  oath  of  fidelity  was  taken  by  the  ser- 
vant's putting  his  hand  under  the  thigh  of  his 
lord,  Genesis  xxiv,  2.  Among  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  the  form  varied  with  the  subject  and 
occasion  of  the  oath  :  in  private  contracts,  the 
parties  took  hold  of  each  other's  hands,  while 
they  swore  to  the  performance  ;  or  they 
touched  the  altar  of  the  god  by  whose 
divinity  they  swore :  upon  more  solemn  occa- 
sions, it  was  the  custom  to  slay  a  victim ;  and 
the  beast  being  struck  down  with  certain  cere- 
monies  and  invocations,  gave  birth  to  the  ex- 
pression, ferire  pactum;  and  to  our  English 
phrase,  translated  from  this,  of  "  striking  a 
bargain."      The  form  of  oaths  in  Christian 


countries  is  also  very  different ;  but  in  no 
country  in  the  world  worse  contrived,  either 
to  convey  the  meaning  or  impress  the  obliga- 
tion of  an  oath,  than  in  our  own.  The  juror 
with  us,  after  repeating  the  promise  or  affirm- 
ation which  the  oath  is  intended  to  confirm, 
adds,  "  So  help  me  God  ;"  or,  more  frequently, 
the  substance  of  the  oath  is  repeated  to  the 
juror  by  the  magistrate,  who  adds  in  the  con- 
clusion, "  So  help  you  God."  The  energy  of 
this  sentence  resides  in  the  particle  so  :  So, 
that  is,  hac  lege,  upon  condition  of  my  speak- 
ing the  truth,  or  performing  this  promise,  and 
not  otherwise,  may  God  help  me  !  The  juror, 
while  he  hears  or  repeats  the  words  of  the 
oath,  holds  his  right  hand  upon  a  Bible,  or 
other  book  containing  the  Gospels,  and  at  the 
conclusion  kisses  the  book.  This  obscure  and 
elliptical  form,  together  with  the  levity  and 
frequency  of  them,  has  brought  about  a  gene- 
ral inadvertency  to  the  obligation  of  oaths, 
which,  both  in  a  religious  and  political  view, 
is  much  to  be  lamented  ;  and  it  merits  public 
consideration,  whether  the  requiring  of  oaths 
upon  so  many  frivolous  occasions,  especially 
in  the  customs,  and  in  the  qualification  for 
petty  offices,  has  any  other  effect  than  to  make 
such  sanctions  cheap  in  the  minds  of  the  peo- 
ple. A  pound  of  tea  cannot  travel  regularly 
from  the  ship  to  the  consumer,  without  cost- 
ing half  a  dozen  oaths  at  least ;  and  the  same 
security  for  the  due  discharge  of  their  office, 
namely,  that  of  an  oath,  is  required  from  a 
churchwarden  and  an  archbishop ;  from  a 
petty  constable  and  the  chief  justice  of  Eng- 
land. Oaths,  however,  are  lawful ;  and,  what- 
ever be  the  form,  the  signification  is  the  same. 
Historians  have  justly  remarked,  that  when 
the  reverence  for  an  oath  began  to  diminish 
among  the  Romans,  and  the  loose  epicurean 
system,  which  discarded  the  belief  of  provi- 
dence, was  introduced,  the  Roman  honour 
and  prosperity  from  that  period  began  lo  de- 
cline. The  Quakers  refuse  to  swear  upon  any 
occasion,  founding  their  scruples  concerning 
the  lawfulness  of  oaths  upon  our  Saviour's 
prohibition,  "  Swear  not  at  all,"  Matt,  v,  34. 
But  it  seems  our  Lord  there  referred  to  the 
vicious,  wanton,  and  unauthorized  swearing 
in  common  discourse,  and  not  to  judicial 
oaths  ;  for  he  himself  answered,  when  interro- 
gated, upon  oath,  Matt,  xxvi,  C3,  64 ;  Mark 
xiv,  61.  The  Apostle  Paul  a."so  makes  use 
of  expressions  which  contain  the  nature  of 
oaths,  Romans  i,  9 ;  1  Cor.  xv,  31 ;  2  Cor.  i, 
18 ;  Gal.  i,  20  ;  Heb.  vi,  13-17.  The  adminis- 
tration of  oaths  supposes  that  God  will  punish 
false  swearing  with  more  severity  than  a  simple 
lie,  or  breach  of  promise  ;  for  which  belief  there 
are  the  following  reasons:  1.  Perjury  is  a  sin 
of  greater  deliberation.  2.  It  violates  a  su- 
perior confidence:  3.  God  directed  the  Israel- 
ites to  swear  by  his  name,  Deut.  vi,  13  ;  x,  20  ; 
and  was  pleased  to  confirm  his  covenant  with 
that  people  by  an  oath ;  neither  of  which,  it  is 
probable,  he  would  have  done,  had  he  not  in- 
tended to  represent  oaths  as  having  some 
meaning  and  effect  beyond  the  obligation  of  u 
bare  promise. 


OFF 


710 


OFF 


BADIAII  the  prophet  is  thought  to  have 
been  tho  same  as  the  governor  of  Ahah's  house, 
1  Kings  xviii,  3,  &c  ;  and  some  are  of  opinion, 
he  was  that  Ubadiah  whom  Josiah  made  over- 
seer of  the  works  of  the  temple,  2  Chron. 
xxxiv,  12.  In.Kiil,  the  age  in  which  this 
prophet  lived  is  very  uncertain.  Some  think 
that  be  was  contemporary  with  Hosea,  Amos, 
and  Joel;  while  others  are  of  opinion  that  he 
lived  in  the  time  of  Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel, 
and  that  lie  delivered  his  prophecy  about  B.  C. 
ifter  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem 
by  Nebuchadnezzar.  His  book,  which  con- 
sists of  a  single  chapter,  is  written  with  great 
beauty  and  elegance,  and  contains  predictions 
of  the  utter  destruction  of  the  Edomites,  and 
of  the  future  restoration  and  prosperity  of  the 
Jews. 

OBED-EDOM,  son  of  Jeduthun,  a  Levite, 

1  Chron.  xvi,  38,  and  the  father  of  Shemaiah 
and  others,  1  Chron.  xvi,  5.  We  learn  that 
the  Lord  blessed  this  man  exceedingly,  on 
account    of  the    ark    resting  under  his  roof, 

2  Sam.  vi,  10,  11.  David  having  removed  the 
ark  to  the  place  he  had  previously  prepared 
for  its  reception,  Obed-Edom  and  his  sons 
were  appointed  to  be  keepers  of  the  doors  of 
the  temple,  1  Chron.  xv,  18,  21.  Obed-Edom 
is  called  the  Gittite,  probably  because  he  was 
of  Gathrjminon,  a  city  of  the  Levites  beyond 
Jordan,  Joshua  xxi,  24,  25. 

ODED,  a  prophet  of  the  Lord,  who,  being 
at  Samaria  when  the  Israelites  of  the  ten  tribes 
returned  from  the  war  with  their  King  Pekah, 
together  with  two  hundred  thousand  of  the 
people  of  Judah,  whom  they  had  taken  captive, 
went  out  to  meet  them  ;  and  through  his  re- 
monstrances the  captives  were  liberated, 
2  Chron.  xxviii.  This  circumstance  is  all 
that  is  recorded  concerning  Oded. 

OFFERINGS,  Among  the  Jews,  under 
the  Mosaic  law,  a  variety  of  offerings  of  dif- 
ferent kinds  were  appointed,  which  are  accu- 
rately and  fully  described  in  the  beginning  of 
the  book  of  Leviticus. 

Burnt-offerings,  or  holocausts,  sacrifices  in 
which  the  victims  were  wholly  consumed, 
were  expiatory,  and  more  ancient  than  any 
others,  and  were,  for  that  reason,  held  in 
special  honour.  It  was  in  consideration  of 
these  circumstances  that  Moses  gave  precepts 
in  rep-.ird  to  this  kind  of  sacrifices  first,  Lev. 
i,  3.  Holocausts  might  be  offered  by  means 
of  the  Uubrew  priests,  when  brought  by  the 
Heathen,  or  those  who  had  originated  from 
another  nation  ;  such  persons  being  unable  to 
offer  sin  or  trespass-offerings,  since  this  sort 
of  sacrifices  had  particular  reference  to  some 
neglect  or  violation  of  the  Mosaic  law,  by 
whose  authority  they  did  not  acknowledge 
themselves  bound.  Holocausts  were  expiatory, 
,ind  we  accordingly  find  that  they  were  offer- 
ed lometimes  for  the  whole  people ;  for  Lo- 
st .nice,  t  be  morning  and  the  evening  sacrifices  ; 
and  sometimes  by  an  individual  for  himself 
alone,  either  from  the  free  impulse  of  his  feel- 
ings, or  in  fulfilment  of  a  vow,  Psalm  li,  19 ; 
lxvi,  13,  14.  They  were  required  to  be  offered 
under  certain  combinations  of  circumstances 


pointed  out  in  the  Mosaic  laws ;  namely,  by 
a  Nazarite,  who  had  been  unexpectedly  ren- 
dered unclean,  or  who  had  completed  the  days 
of  his  separation,  Num.  vi,  11-16;  by  those 
who  had  been  healed  of  leprosy ;  and  by  wo- 
men  after  child-birth,  Lev.  xii,  6,  8.  The 
victims  immolated  at  a  holocaust  were  bullocks 
of  three  years  old,  goats  and  lambs  of  a  year 
old,  turtle  doves,  and  young  pigeons.  Not 
only  the  parts  which  were  expressly  destined 
for  the  altar,  but  also  the  other  parts  of  the 
victims,  were  burned.  A  libation  of  wine  was 
poured  out  upon  the  altar.  It  was  the  practice 
among  the  Gentile  nations,  (an  allusion  to 
which  occurs  in  Phil,  ii,  17,  and  2  Tim.  iv, 
6,)  to  pour  the  wine  out  between  the  horns  of 
the  victims  which  they  immolated  to  their  idols. 
The  priest  partially  wrung  or  cut  off  the  heads 
of  the  turtle  doves  and  young  pigeons,  sprinkled 
the  blood  on  the  side  of  the  altar,  plucked  out 
the  feathers  and  the  crop,  and  cast  them  to 
the  east  of  the  altar  into  the  place  for  the  re- 
ception of  ashes,  and  placed  the  remainder, 
after  having  cleft  or  broken  the  wings,  upon 
the  fire,  Lev.  i,  3-17. 

Drink-offerings.  With  a  bullock,  halfahin 
of  wine,  with  three-tenth  deals  of  flour,  and 
half  a  hin  of  oil.  With  a  ram,  one-third  of  a 
hin  of  wine,  with  two-tenth  deals  of  flour,  and 
one-third  of  a  hin  of  oil.  With  a  lamb  or  a 
kid  of  the  goats,  one  quarter  of  a  hin  of  wine, 
one-tenth  deal  of  flour,  and  one  quarter  of  a 
hin  of  oil.  With  a  sheaf  of  the  first-fruits, 
one  quarter  of  a  hin  of  wine,  one-tenth  deal 
of  flour,  with  oil. 

Meat-offerings.  These,  like  the  drink-offer- 
ings, were  appendages  to  the  sacrifices.  They 
were  of  thin  cakes  or  wafers.  In  some  in- 
stances they  were  offered  alone. 

Heave-offerings.  So  called  from  the  sacri- 
fice being  lifted  up  toward  heaven,  in  token  of 
its  being  devoted  to  Jehovah. 

Peace-offerings.  Bullocks,  heifers,  goats, 
rams,  and  sheep,  were  the  only  animals  sacri- 
ficed on  these  occasions,  Lev.  iii,  1-17  ;  vii, 
23-27.  These  sacrifices,  which  were  offered 
as  an  indication  of  gratitude,  were  accompa- 
nied with  unleavened  cakes,  covered  with  oil, 
by  pouring  it  upon  them ;  with  thin  cakes  or 
wafers,  likewise  unleavened,  and  besmeared 
with  oil ;  also  with  another  kind  of  cakes, 
made  of  fine  meal,  and  kneaded  with  oil.  The 
priest,  who  sprinkled  the  blood,  presented  one 
of  each  of  these  kinds  of  cakes  as  an  offering, 
Lev.  vii,  11-14,  28-35.  The  remainder  of  the 
animal  substance  and  of  the  cakes  was  con 
verted  by  tho  person  who  made  the  offering 
into  an  entertainment,  to  which  widows, 
orphans,  the  poor,  slaves,  and  Levites  were 
invited.  What  was  not  eaten  on  tho  day  of 
the  offering  might  be  reserved  till  the  succeed- 
ing ;  but  that  which  remained  till  the  third 
was  to  be  burned :  a  regulation  which  was 
mado  in  order  to  prevent  the  omission  or  put- 
ting off  of  the  season  of  this  benevolence  and 
joy,  Lev.  vii,  15-21 ;  Deut.  xii,  18.  This  feast 
could  be  celebrated  beyond  the  limits  of  the 
tabernacle,  or  temple,  but  not  beyond  the  city. 

Sin-offerings  were  for  expiation  of  particular 


OIL 


711 


OLI 


Bins,  or  legal  imperfections,  called  therefore 
sin-offerings :  the  first  sort  were  for  sins  of 
ignorance  or  surprise,  either  from  the  high 
priest,  or  body  of  the  community,  from  the 
rulers,  or  any  one  of  the  common  people. 
The  other  sort  of  sin-offerings  were  for  volun- 
tary sins  ;  but  as  to  the  more  capital  violations 
of  the  moral  law,  as  murder,  adultery,  or  the 
worship  of  idols,  no  expiatory  sacrifice  was 
admitted. 

Trespass-offerings  were  not  required  of  the 
people  as  a  body.  They  were  to  be  offered  by 
individuals,  who,  through  ignorance,  mistake, 
or  want  of  reflection,  had  neglected  some  of 
the  ceremonial  precepts  of  Moses,  or  some  of 
those  natural  laws,  which  had  been  introduced 
into  his  code,  and  sanctioned  with  the  penalty 
of  death ;  and  who  were  subsequently  con- 
scious of  their  error.  The  person  who,  being 
sworn  as  a  witness,  concealed  the  truth  by 
keeping  silent ;  the  man  who,  having  become 
contaminated  without  knowing  it,  had  omit- 
ted purification,  but  had  afterward  become 
acquainted  with  the  fact ;  the  person  who  had 
rashly  sworn  to  do  a  thing,  and  had  not  done 
it ;  all  these  delinquents  offered  a  lamb  or  kid, 
or,  in  case  of  poverty,  two  doves  or  young 
pigeons,  the  one  for  a  trespass,  the  other  for  a 
sin-offering.  In  case  the  person  was  unusually 
poor,  he  was  required  to  offer  merely  the  tenth 
part  of  an  ephah  of  fine  meal,  without  oil  or 
frankincense,  Lev.  iii,  1-16.  Whoever  appro- 
priated to  himself  any  thing  consecrated,  or 
any  thing  that  was  promised,  or  found,  or 
stolen,  or  deposited  in  his  possession  for  keep- 
ing ;  whoever  swore  falsely,  or  omitted  to  re- 
store the  goods  that  belonged  to  another,  or 
injured  him  in  any  other  way,  presented  for 
his  trespass  a  ram,  which  had  been  submitted 
to  the  estimation  of  the  priest,  and  not  only 
made  restitution,  but  allowed  an  additional 
amount  of  a  fifth  part  by  way  of  indemnifica- 
tion. He  who  had  committed  fornication  with 
a  betrothed  bondmaid,  previously  to  her  being 
redeemed  from  servitude,  offered  a  ram  for  the 
trespass,  Lev.  xix,  20-22.  Nazarites,  who  had 
been  unexpectedly  rendered  unclean,  presented 
a  lamb  of  a  year  old,  Num.  vi,  11.  Finally, 
lepers,  when  restored  to  health,  and  purified, 
sacrificed  a  ram,  Lev.  xiv,  10-14.  The  cere- 
monies were  the  same  as  in  the  sin-offerings. 

Wave-offering.  It  was  so  called,  because 
it  was  waved  up  and  down,  and  toward  the 
east,  west,  north,  and  south,  to  signify,  that 
he  to  whom  it  was  offered  was  Lord  of  the 
universe,  the  God  who  fills  all  space,  and  to 
whom  all  things  of  right  belong.  See  Sacri- 
fices. 

OG,  a  king  of  Bashan  ;  being  a  giant  of  the 
race  of  the  Rephaim.  Moses  records  the  con- 
quest of  Og,  and  his  destruction.  After  which 
his  country  was  given  to  the  tribe  of  Reuben, 
Gad,  and  the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh,  Num. 
xxi,  33.     See  Giants. 

OIL,  }D&>.  The  invention  and  use  of  oil  is 
of  the  highest  antiquity.  It  is  said  that  Jacob 
poured  oil  upon  the  pillar  which  he  erected  at 
Bethel,  Gen.  xxviii,  18.  The  earliest  kind  was 
that  which  is  extracted  from  olives.     Before 


the  invention  of  mills,  this  was  obtained  by 
pounding  them  in  a  mortar,  Exod.  xxvii,  20 , 
and  sometimes  by  treading  them  with  the  feet 
in  the  same  manner  as  were  grapes,  Deut. 
xxxiii,  24;  Micah  vi,  15.  The  Hebrews  used 
common  oil  with  their  food,  in  their  meat- 
offerings, for  burning  in  their  lamps,  &c.  As 
vast  quantities  of  oil  were  made  by  the  ancient 
Jews,  it  became  an  article  of  exportation. 
The  great  demand  for  it  n  Egypt  led  the  Jews 
to  send  it  thither.  The  Prophet  Hosea  thus 
upbraids  his  degenerate  nation  with  the  ser- 
vility and  folly  of  their  conduct :  "  Ephraim 
feedeth  on  wind,  and  followeth  after  the  east 
wind ;  he  daily  increaseth  falsehood  and 
vanity  :  and  a  league  is  made  with  Assyria, 
and  oil  carried  into  Egypt,"  Hosea  xii,  1. 
The  Israelites,  in  the  decline  of  their  national 
glory,  carried  the  produce  of  their  olive  plant- 
ations into  Egypt  as  a  tribute  to  their  ancient 
oppressors,  or  as  a  present  to  conciliate  their 
favour,  and  obtain  their  assistance  in  the  san- 
guinary wars  which  they  were  often  compelled 
to  wage  with  the  neighbouring  states.  There 
was  an  unguent,  very  precious  and  sacred, 
used  in  anointing  the  priests,  the  tabernacle, 
and  furniture.  This  was  compounded  of  spicy 
drugs  ;  namely,  myrrh,  sweet  cinnamon,  sweet 
calamus,  and  cassia,  mixed  with  oil  olive. 

OLIVE  TREE,  n>i,  tXala,  Matt,  xxi,  1; 
Rom.  xi,  17,  24;  James  iii,  12;  aypiiXaios, 
oleaster,  the  wild  olive,  Rom.  xi,  17,  24.  Tour- 
nefort  mentions  eighteen  kinds  of  olives;  but 
in  the  Scripture  we  only  read  of  the  cultivated 
and  wild  olive.  The  cultivated  olive  is  of  a 
moderate  height,  and  thrives  best  in  a  sunny 
and  warm  soil.  Its  trunk  is  knotty ;  its  bark 
is  smooth,  and  of  an  ash  colour ;  its  wood  is 
solid,  and  yellowish ;  its  leaves  are  oblong, 
and  almost  like  those  of  the  willow,  of  a  dark 
green  colour  on  the  upper  side,  and  a  whitish 
below.  In  the  month  of  June  it  puts  forth 
white  flowers,  growing  in  bunches,  each  of 
one  piece,  and  widening  toward  the  top,  and 
dividing  into  four  parts.  After  this  flower 
succeeds  the  fruit,  which  is  oblong  and  plump. 
It  is  first  green,  then  pale,  and,  when  quite 
ripe,  becomes  black.  Within  it  is  enclosed  a 
hard  stone,  filled  with  oblong  seeds.  The  wild 
olives  were  of  a  less  kind.  Canaan  much 
abounded  with  olives.  It  seems  almost  every 
proprietor,  whether  kings  or  subjects,  had  their 
olive  yards.  The  olive  branch  was,  from  most 
ancient  times,  used  as  the  symbol  of  recon- 
ciliation and  peace. 

OLIVES.  The  Mount  of  Olives  was  situ- 
ated to  the  east  of  Jerusalem,  and  divided  from 
the  city  only  by  the  brook  Kidron,  and  by  the 
valley  of  Jehoshaphat,  which  stretches  out 
from  the  north  to  the  south.  It  was  upon  this 
mount  that  Solomon  built  temples  to  the  gods 
of  the  Ammonites,  1  Kings  xi,  7,  and  the 
Mo^bites,  out  of  complaisance  to  his  wives  of 
those  nations.  Hence  it  is  that  the  Mount  of 
Olives  is  called  the  mountain  of  corruption, 
2  Kings  xxiii,  13.  The  Mount  of  Olives  forms 
part  of  a  ridge  of  limestone  hills,  extending  to 
the  north  and  the  south-west.  Pococke  de- 
scribes  it   as  having  four  summits.     On  the 


OLI 


712 


OMN 


lowest  niid  most  northerly  of  these,  wluch,  he 
telle  us,  is  called  Sulman  Tashy,  the  stone  of 
Solomon,  there  is  a  large  domed  sepulchre, 
and  several  other  Mohammedan  tombs.  The 
ascent  to  this  point,  which  is  to  the  north-east 
of  the  city,  he  describes  as  wry  gradual, 
through  pleasant  corn  fields,  planted  with  olive 
trees.  The  second  summit  is  that  which 
overlooks  the  city :  the  path  to  it  rises  from 
the  ruined  gardens  of  Gethsemane,  which 
occupy  part  of  the  valley.  About  halfway  up 
the  ascent  is  a  ruined  monastery,  built,  as  the 
monks  tell  us,  on  the  spot  where  our  Saviour 
wept  over  Jerusalem.  From  this  point,  the 
spectator  enjoys,  perhaps,  the  bost  view  of  the 
holy  city.  On  reaching  the  summit,  an  ex- 
tensive view  is  obtained  toward  the  east,  em- 
bracing the  fertile  plain  of  Jericho,  watered 
by  the  Jordan,  and  the  Dead  Sea,  enclosed  by 
mountains  of  considerable  grandeur.  Here 
there  is  a  small  village,  surrounded  by  some 
tolerable  corn  land.  This  summit  is  not  rela- 
tively high,  and  would  more  properly  be  term- 
ed a  hill  than  a  mountain  :  it  is  not  above 
two  miles  distant  from  Jerusalem.  At  a  short 
distance  from  the  summit  is  shown  the  sup- 
posed print  of  our  Saviour's  left  foot ;  Cha- 
teaubriand says  the  mark  of  the  right  was 
once  visible,  and  Bernard  de  Breidenbach  saw 
it  in  14S3 !  This  is  the  spot  fixed  upon  by  the 
mother  of  Constantine,  as  that  from  which  our 
Lord  ascended,  and  over  which  she  accord- 
ingly erected  a  church  and  monastery,  the 
ruins  of  which  still  remain.  Pococke  describes 
the  building  which  was  standing  in  his  time, 
as  a  small  Gothic  chapel,  round  within,  and 
octagonal  without,  and  tells  us  that  it  was  con- 
verted into  a  mosque.  The  Turks,  for  a 
stipulated  sum,  permit  th°  Christian  pilgrims 
to  take  an  impression  of  the  foot  print  in  wax 
or  plaster,  to  carry  home.  "  Twice,"  says 
Dr.  Richardson,  "  I  visited  this  memorable 
«pot ;  and  each  time  it  was  crowded  with  do- 
vout  pilgrims,  taking  casts  of  the  holy  vestige. 
They  had  to  purchase  permission  of  the  Turks  ; 
but,  had  it  not  been  in  the  possession  of  the 
Turks,  they  would  have  had  to  purchase  it 
from  the  moro  mercenary  and  not  less  merci- 
less Romans  or  Greeks."  On  ascension  eve, 
the  Christians  come  and  encamp  in  the  court, 
and  that  night  they  perforin  the  offices  of  the 
ascension.  Here,  "however,  as  with  regard  to 
Calvary  and  almost  all  the  supposed  sacred 
places,  superstition  has  blindly  followed  the 
blind.  That  this  is  not  the  place  of  the  ascen- 
sion, is  certain  from  the  words  of  St.  Luke, 
who  says  that  our  Lord  led  out  his  disciples 
"as  far  as  Bethany,  and  lifted  up  his  hands, 
and  blessed  them.  And  it  came  to  pass,  while 
he  blessed  them,  he  was  parted  from  them, 
and  carried  up  to  heaven,"  Acts  i.  Bethany 
is  a  small  village  to  the  east  of  the  Mount  of 
Olives,  on  the  road  to  Jericho,  not  farther  from 
Jerusalem  than  the  pinnacle  of  the  hill.  There 
urn  two  roads  to  it ;  one  passes  over  the  Mount 
of  Olives;  ihe  other,  which  is  the  shorter  and 
cosier,  winds  round  the  eastern  end,  having 
the  grtttef  pari  of  the  hiM  on  the  north  or  left 
miml.  and  on  the  right  tlio  elevation  called  by 


some  writers  the  Mount  of  Offence,  which  is, 
however,  very  little  above  the  valley  of  Jeho- 
shaphat.  The  village  of  Bethany  is  small  and 
poor,  and  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  is  much 
neglected  ;  but  it  is  a  pleasant  and  somewhat 
romantic  spot,  sheltered  by  Mount  Olivet  on 
the  north,  and  abounding  with  trees  and  long 
grass.     The  inhabitants  are  Arabs. 

The  olive  is  still  found  growing  in  patches 
at  the  foot  of  the  mount  to  which  it  gives  its 
name  ;  and  "  as  a  spontaneous  produce,  unin- 
terruptedly resulting  from  the  original  growth 
of  this  part  of  the  mountain,  it  is  impossible," 
says  Dr.  E.  D.  Clarke,  "  to  view  even  these 
trees  with  indifference."  Titus  cut  down  all  the 
wood  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Jerusalem ;  but 
there  would  seem  to  have  been  constantly 
springing  up  a  succession  of  these  hardy  trees. 
"  It  is  truly  a  curious  and  interesting  fact," 
adds  the  learned  traveller,  "that,  during  a 
period  of  little  more  than  two  thousand  years, 
Hebrews,  Assyrians,  Romans,  Moslems,  and 
Christians,  have  been  successively  in  posses- 
sion of  the  rocky  mountains  of  Palestine  ;  yet, 
the  olive  still  vindicates  its  paternal  soil,  and^ 
is  found,  at  this  day,  upon  the  same  spot  which 
was  called  by  the  Hebrew  writers  Mount  Olivet 
and  the  Mount  of  Olives,  eleven  centuries  before 
the  Christian  era,"  2  Sam.  xv,  30 ;  Zech.  xiv,  4. 

OMEGA,  the  last  letter  in  the  Greek  alpha- 
bet, Rev.  i,  8 ;  a  title  of  Christ. 

OMNIPOTENCE.     See  Almighty. 

OMNIPRESENCE,  that  attribute  of  God 
by  which  he  is  present  in  all  places.  The 
statement  of  this  doctrine  in  the  inspired  re- 
cords, like  that  of  all  the  other  attributes  of 
God,  is  made  in  their  own  peculiar  tone  and 
emphasis  of  majesty  and  sublimity.  "  Whither 
shall  I  go  from  thy  Spirit,  or  whither  shall  I 
flee  from  thy  presence  ?  If  I  ascend  up  to 
heaven,  thou  art  there;  if  I  make  my  bed  in 
hell,  behold  thou  art  there  ;  if  I  take  the  wings 
of  the  morning,  and  dwell  in  the  uttermost 
parts  of  the  sea,  even  there  shall  thy  hand 
lead  me,  and  thy  right  hand  shall  hold  me. 
Can  any  hide  himself  in  secret  places  that  I 
shall  not  see  him  ?  Do  not  I  fill  heaven  and 
earth,  saith  the  Lord  ?  Am  I  a  God  at  hand, 
saith  the  Lord,  and  not  a  God  afar  off-?"  "  Thus 
saith  the  Lord,  Behold,  heaven  is  my  throne, 
and  the  earth  is  my  footstool."  "Behold, 
heaven,  and  the  heaven  of  heavens  cannot 
contain  thee."  "  Though  he  dig  into  hell, 
thence  shall  my  hand  take  him ;  though  he 
climb  up  into  heaven,  thence  will  I  bring  him 
down ;  and  though  he  hide  himself  in  the  ton 
of  Carniel,  I  will  search  and  take  him  out  from 
thence."  "  In  him  we  live,  and  move,  and  have 
our  being."    "  He  filleth  all  things." 

Some  striking  passages  on  the  ubiquity  of 
the  divine  presence  may  be  found  in  the  wait- 
ings of  some  of  the  Greek  philosophers,  arising 
out  of  this  notion,  that  God  was  the  soul  of  the 
world  ;  but  their  very  connection  with  this  spe- 
culation, notwithstanding;  the  imposing  phrase 
occasionally  adopted,  strikingly  marks  the  dif- 
ference between  their  most  exalted  views,  and 
those  of  the  Hebrew  prophets  on  this  subject. 
To  a  large  proportion  of  those  who  hold  a  (Lis, 


OMN 


713 


OMN 


tinguished  rank  among  the  ancient  theistical 
philosophers,  the  idea  of  the  personality  of  the 
Deity  was  in  a  great  measure  unknown.  The 
Deity  by  them  was  considered  not  so  much  an 
intelligent  Being,  as  an  animating  power,  dif- 
fused throughout  the  world,  and  was  introduced 
into  their  speculative  system  to  account  for  the 
motion  of  that  passive  mass  of  matter,  which 
was  supposed  coeval,  and  indeed  coexistent, 
with  himself.  These  defective  notions  are 
confessed  by  Gibbon,  a  writer  not  disposed  to 
undervalue  their  attainments:  "The  philoso- 
phers of  Greece  deduced  their  morals  from  the 
nature  of  man,  rather  than  from  that  of  God. 
They  meditated,  however,  on  the  divine  nature, 
as  a  very  curious  and  important  speculation ; 
and,  in  the  profound  inquiry,  they  displayed 
the  strength  and  weakness  of  the  human  under- 
standing. Of  the  four  most  considerable  sects, 
the  Stoics  and  the  Platonicians  endeavoured  to 
reconcile  the  jarring  interests  of  reason  and 
piety.  They  have  left  us  the  most  sublime 
proofs  of  the  existence  and  perfections  of  the 
First  Cause  ;  but  as  it  was  impossible  for  them 
to  conceive  the  creation  of  matter,  the  work- 
man, in  the  Stoic  philosophy,  was  not  suffi- 
ciently distinguished  from  the  work  ;  while,  on 
the  contrary,  the  spiritual  god  of  Plato  and 
his  disciples  resembled  more  an  idea  than  a 
substance." 

Similar  errors  have  been  revived  in  the 
mndel  philosophy  of  modern  times,  from  Spi- 
noza down  to  the  later  offspring  of  the  German 
and  French  schools.  The  same  remark  applies 
;ilso  to  the  oriental  philosophy,  which  presents 
at  this  day  a  perfect  view  of  the  boasted  wis- 
dom of  ancient  Greece,  which  was  "brought 
to  nought"  by  "the  foolishness"  of  apostolic 
I 'reaching.  But  in  the  Scriptures  there  is 
nothing  confused  in  the  doctrine  of  the  divine 
ubiquity.  God  is  every  where,  but  he  is  not 
every  thing.  All  things  have  their  being  in 
him,  but  he  is  distinct  from  all  things ;  he  fills 
the  universe,  but  is  not  mingled  with  it.  He 
is  the  intelligence  which  guides,  and  the  power 
which  sustains ;  but  his  personality  is  preserved, 
and  he  is  independent  of  the  works  of  his  hands, 
however  vast  and  noble.  So  far  is  his  presence 
from  being  bounded  by  the  universe  itself,  that, 
as  we  are  taught  in  the  passage  above  quoted 
from  the  Psalms,  were  it  possible  for  us  to  wing 
our  way  into  the  immeasurable  depths  and 
breadths  of  space,  God  would  there  surround 
as,  in  as  absolute  a  sense  as  that  in  which  he 
is  said  to  be  about  our  bed  and  our  path  in  that 
part  of  the  world  where  his  will  has  placed  us. 
On  this,  as  on  all  similar  subjects,  the  Scrip- 
tures use  terms  which  are  taken  in  their  com- 
mon-sense acceptation  among  mankind  ;  and 
though  the  vanity  of  the  human  mind  disposes 
many  to  seek  a  philosophy  in  the  doctrine  thus 
announced  deeper  than  that  which  its  popular 
terms  convey,  we  are  bound  to  conclude,  if  we 
would  pay  but  a  common  respect  to  an  admit- 
ted revelation,  that,  where  no  manifest  figure 
of  speech  occurs,  the  truth  of  the  doctrine  lies 
in  the  tenor  of  the  terms  by  which  it  is  ex- 
pressed.  Otherwise  there  would  be  no  revela- 
tion, we  do  not  say  of  the  modus,  [manner,] 


(for  that  is  confessedly  incomprehensible,)  but 
of  the  fact.  In  the  case  before  us,  the  terms 
presence  and  place  are  used  according  to  com- 
mon notions;  and  must  be  so  taken,  if  the 
Scriptures  are  intelligible.  Metaphysical  re- 
finements are  not  Scriptural  doctrines,  when 
they  give  to  the  terms  chosen  by  the  Holy 
Spirit  an  acceptation  out  of  their  general  and 
proper  use,  and  make  them  the  signs  of  a  per- 
fectly distinct  class  of  ideas  ;  if,  indeed,  all  dis- 
tinctness of  idea  is  not  lost  in  the  attempt.  It 
is  therefore  in  the  popular  and  just,  because 
Scriptural,  manner,  that  we  are  to  conceive 
of  the  omnipresence  of  God.  If  we  reflect 
upon  ourselves,  we  may  observe  that  we  fill 
but  a  small  space,  and  that  our  knowledge  or 
power  reaches  but  a  little  way.  We  can  act  at 
one  time  in  one  place  only,  and  the  sphere  of 
our  influence  is  narrow  at  largest.  Would  we 
be  witnesses  to  what  is  done  at  any  distance 
from  us,  or  exert  there  our  active  powers,  we 
must  remove  ourselves  thither.  For  this  rea- 
son we  are  necessarily  ignorant  of  a  thousand 
things  which  pass  around  us,  incapable  of 
attending  and  managing  any  great  variety  of 
affairs,  or  performing  at  the  same  time  any 
number  of  actions,  for  our  own  good,  or  for 
the  benefit-of  others.  Although  we  feel  this 
to  be  the  present  condition  of  our  being,  and 
the  limited  state  of  our  intelligent  and  active 
powers,  yet  we  can  easily  conceive  there  may 
exist  beings  more  perfect,  and  whose  presence 
may  extend  far  and  wide:  any  one  of  whom, 
present  in  what  are  to  us  various  places,  at  the 
same  time,  may  know  at  once  what  is  done  in 
all  these,  and  act  in  all  of  them ;  and  thus  be 
able  to  regard  and  direct  a  variety  of  affairs  at 
the  same  instant :  and  who  farther  being  qua- 
lifted,  by  the  purity  and  activity  of  their  nature, 
to  pass  from  one  place  to  another,  with  great 
ease  and  swiftness,  may  thus  fill  a  large  sphere 
of  action,  direct  a  great  variety  of  affairs,  con- 
fer a  great  number  of  benefits,  and  observe  a 
multitude  of  actions  at  the  same  time,  or  in  so 
swift  a  succession  as  to  us  would  appear  but 
one  instant.  Thus  perfect  we  may  readily 
believe  the  angels  of  God. 

We  can  farther  conceive  this  extent  of 
presence,  and  of  ability  for  knowledge  and 
action,  to  admit  of  degrees  of  ascending  per- 
fection approaching  to  infinite.  And  when 
we  have  thus  raised  our  thoughts  to  the  idea 
of  a  being,  who  is  not  only  present  throughout, 
a  large  empire,  but  throughout  our  world  ;  and 
not  only  in  every  part  of  our  world,  but  in  every 
part  of  all  the  numberless  suns  and  worlds 
which  roll  in  the  starry  heavens, — who  is  not 
only  able  to  enliven  and  actuate  the  plants, 
animals,  and  men  who  live  upon  this  globe,  but 
countless  varieties  of  creatures  every  where  in 
an  immense  universe, — yea,  whose  presence  is 
not  confined  to  the  universe,  immeasurable  as 
that  is  by  any  finite  mind,  but  who  is  present 
every  where  in  infinite  space  ;  and  who  is 
therefore  able  to  create  still  new  worlds,  ;nul 
fill  them  with  proper  inhabitants,  attend,  sup- 
ply, and  govern  them  all, — when  we  have  thus 
gradually  raised  and  enlarged  our  conceptions, 
we  have  the  best  idea  we  can  form  of  the  uni 


OMN 


714 


OMN 


veraal  presence  of  the  great  Jehovah,  who 
filleth  heaven  and  earth.  There  is  no  part  of 
the  universe,  no  portion  of  space,  uninhabited 
by  God;  none  wherein  this  Being  of  perfect 
power,  wisdom,  and  benevolence  is  not  essen- 
tially present.  Could  we  with  the  swiftness 
of  a  sun  beam  dart  ourselves  beyond  the  limits 
of  the  creation,  and  for  ages  continue  our 
progress  in  infinite  space,  we  should  still  be 
surrounded  with  the  divine  presence  ;  nor  ever 
be  able  to  reac"h  that  space  where  God  is  not. 
His  presence  also  penetrates  every  part  of 
our  world ;  the  most  solid  parts  of  the  earth 
cannot  exclude  it ;  for  it  pierces  as  easily  the 
centre  of  the  globe  as  the  empty  air.  All 
creatures  live  and  move  and  have  their  being 
in  him.  And  the  inmost  recesses  of  the  human 
heart  can  no  more  exclude  his  presence,  or 
conceal  a  thought  from  his  knowledge,  than 
the  deepest  caverns  of  the  earth. 

The  illustrations  and  confirmatory  proofs  of 
this  doctrine  which  the  material  world  fttr- 
nislns,  arc  numerous  and  striking.  It  is  a 
most  evident  and  acknowledged  truth  that  a 
being  cannot  act  where  it  is  not :  if,  therefore, 
actions  and  effects,  which  mani?est  the  highest 
wisdom,  power,  and  goodness  in  the  author  of 
thern,  are  continually  produced  every  where, 
the  author  of  these  actions,  or  God,  must  be 
continually  present  with  us,  and  wherever  he 
thus  acts.  The  matter  which  composes  the 
world  is  evidently  lifeless  and  thoughtless  :  it 
must  therefore  be  incapable  of  moving  itself, 
or  designing  or  producing  any  effects  which 
require  wisdom  or  power.  The  matter  of  our 
world,  or  the  small  parts  which  constitute  the 
air,  the  earth,  and  the  waters,  is  yet  continu- 
ally moved,  so  as  to  produce  effects  of  this 
kind ;  such  are  the  innumerable  herbs,  and 
trees,  and  fruits  which  adorn  the  earth,  and 
support  the  countless  millions  of  creatures 
who  inhabit  it.  There  must  therefore  be  con- 
stantly present,  all  over  the  earth,  a  most 
wise,  mighty,  and  good  Being,  the  author 
and  director  of  these  motions. 

We  cannot,  it  is  true,  see  him  with  our 
bodily  eyes,  because  he  is  a  pure  Spirit ;  yet 
this  is  not  any  proof  that  he  is  not  present. 
A  judicious  discourse,  a  series  of  kind  actions, 
convince  us  of  the  presence  of  a  friend,  a  per- 
son of  prudence  and  benevolence.  We  cannot 
sec  the  present  mind,  the  seat  and  principle  of 
these  qualities;  yet  the  constant  regular  mo- 
tion of  the  tongue,  the  hand,  and  the  whole 
body,  (which  are  the  instruments  of  our  souls, 
as  the  material  universe  and  all  the  various 
bodies  in  it  are  the  instruments  of  the  Deity,) 
will  not  suffer  us  to  doubt  that  there  is  an 
intelligent  and  benevolent  principle  within  the 
body  which  produces  all  these  skilful  motions 
and  kind  actions.  The  sun,  the  air,  the  earth, 
and  the  waters,  are  no  more  able  to  move 
thomselves,  and  produce  all  that  beautiful  and 
useful  variety  of  plants,  and  fruits,  and  trees, 
witli  which  our  earth  is  covered,  than  the 
body  of  a  man,  when  the  soul  hath  left  it,  is 
able  to  move  itself,  form  an  instrument,  plough 
a  field,  or  build  a  house.  If  the  laying  out 
judiciously  and  well  cultivating  a  small  estate, 


sowing  it  with  proper  grain  at  the  best  time  of 
the  year,  watering  it  in  due  season  and  quan- 
tities, and  gathering  in  the  fruits  when  ripe, 
and  laying  them  up  in  the  best  manner, — if 
all  these  effects  prove  the  estate  to  have  a 
manager,  and  the  manager  possessed  of  skill 
and  strength, — certainly  the  enlightening  and 
wanning  the  whole  earth  by  the  sun,  and  so 
directing  its  motion  and  the  motion  of  the 
earth  as  to  produce  in  a  constant  useful  suc- 
cession day  and  night,  summer  and  winter, 
seed  time  and  harvest ;  the  watering  the  earth 
continually  by  the  clouds,  and  thus  bringing 
forth  immense  quantities  of  herbage,  grain, 
and  fruits, — certainly  all  these  effects  continu- 
ally produced,  must  prove  that  a  Being  of  the 
greatest  power,  wisdom,  and  benevolence  is 
continually  present  throughout  our  world, 
which  he  thus  supports,  moves,  actuates,  and 
makes  fruitful. 

The  fire  which  warms  us  knows  nothing  of 
its  serviceableness  to  this  purpose,  nor  of  the 
wise  laws  according  to  which  its  particles  are 
moved  to  produce  this  effect.  And  that  it  is 
placed  in  such  a  part  of  the  house,  where  it 
may  be  greatly  beneficial  and  no  way  hurtful, 
is  ascribed  without  hesitation  to  the  contriv- 
ance and  labour  of  a  person  who  knew  its 
proper  place  and  uses.  And  if  we  came  daily 
into  a  house  wherein  we  saw  this  was  regu- 
larly done,  though  we  never  saw  an  inhabitant 
in  it,  we  could  not  doubt  that  the  house  was 
occupied  by  a  rational  inhabitant.  That  huge 
globe  of  fire  in  the  heavens,  which  we  call  the 
sun,  and  on  the  light  and  influences  of  which 
the  fertility  of  our  world,  and  the  life  and 
pleasure  of  all  animals,  depend,  knows  nothing 
of  its  serviceableness  to  these  purposes,  nor  of 
the  wise  laws  according  to  which  its  beams 
are  dispensed,  nor  what  place  or  motions  were 
requisite  for  these  beneficial  purposes.  Yet  its 
beams  are  darted  constantly  in  infinite  num- 
bers, every  one  according  to  those  well  chosen 
laws,  and  its  proper  place  and  motion  are 
maintained.  Must  not,  then,  its  place  be 
appointed,  its  motion  regulated,  and  beams 
darted,  by  almighty  wisdom  and  goodness, 
which  prevent  the  sun's  ever  wandering  in  the 
boundless  spaces  of  the  heavens,  so  as  to  leave 
us  in  disconsolate  cold  and  darkness,  or  coming 
so  near,  or  emitting  his  rays  in  such  a  manner, 
as  to  burn  us  up  ?  Must  not  the  great  Being 
who  enlightens  and  warms  us  by  the  sun,  his 
instrument,  who  raises  and  sends  down  the 
vapours,  brings  forth  and  ripens  the  grain  and 
fruits,  and  who  is  thus  ever  acting  around  us 
for  our  benefit,  be  always  present  in  the  sun, 
throughout  the  air,  and  all  over  the  earth, 
which  he  thus  moves  and  actuates  ? 

This  earth  is  in  itself  a  dead,  motionless 
mass,  and  void  of  all  counsel ;  yet  proper  parts 
of  it  are  continually  raised  through  the  small 
pipes  which  compose  the  bodies  of  plants  and 
trees,  and  are  made  to  contribute  to  their 
growth,  to  open  and  shine  in  blossoms  and 
leaves,  and  to  swell  and  harden  into  fruit. 
Could  blind,  thoughtless  particles  thus  con- 
tinually keep  on  their  way,  through  numberless 
windings,   without  once  blundering,  if  they 


OMN 


71i 


OMN 


were  not  guided  by  an  unerring  hand  ?  Can 
the  most  perfect  human  skill  from  earth  and 
water  form  one  grain,  much  more  a  variety  of 
beautiful  and  relishing  fruits  ?  Must  not  the 
directing  mind,  who  does  all  this  constantly, 
be  most  wise,  mighty,  and  benevolent  ?  Must 
not  the  Being  who  thus  continually  exerts  his 
skill  and  energy  around  us,  for  our  benefit,  be 
confessed  to  be  always  present  and  concerned 
for  our  welfare  ?  Can  these  effects  be  ascribed 
to  any  thing  below  an  all-wise  and  almighty 
cause  ?  And  must  not  this  cause  be  present 
wherever  he  acts  ?  Were  God  to  speak  to  us 
every  month  from  heaven,  and  with  a  voice 
loud  as  thunder  declare  that  he  observes,  pro- 
vides  for,  and  governs  us  ;  this  would  not  be  a 
proof,  in  the  judgment  of  sound  reason,  by 
many  degrees  so  valid :  since  much  less  wis- 
dom  and  power  are  required  to  form  such 
sounds  in  the  air,  than  to  produce  these 
effects;  and  to  give,  not  merely  verbal  decla- 
rations, but  substantial  evidences  of  his  pre- 
sence and  care  over  us.  In  every  part  and 
place  of  the  universe,  with  which  we  are  ac- 
quainted, we  perceive  the  exertion  of  a  power, 
which  we  believe,  mediately  or  immediately, 
to  proceed  from  the  Deity.  For  instance  :  in 
what  part  or  point  of  space,  that  has  ever  been 
explored,  do  we  not  discover  attraction  ?  In 
what  regions  do  we  not  find  light  ?  In  what 
accessible  portion  of  our  globe  do  we  not  meet 
with  gravity,  magnetism,  electricity  ;  together 
with  the  properties  also  and  powers  of  organ- 
ized substances,  of  vegetable  or  of  animated 
nature  '  Nay,  farther,  what  kingdom  is  there 
of  nature,  what  corner  of  space,  in  which  there 
is  any  thing  that  can  be  examined  by  us,  where 
we  do  not  fall  upon  contrivance  and  design  ? 
The  only  reflection,  perhaps,  which  arises  in 
our  minds  from  this  view  of  the  world  around 
us,  is,  that  the  laws  of  nature  every  where  pre- 
vail ;  that  they  are  uniform  and  universal. 
But  what  do  we  mean  by  the  laws  of  nature, 
or  by  any  law  ?  Effects  are  produced  by  power, 
not  by  laws.  A  law  cannot  execute  itself. 
A  law  refers  us  to  an  agent. 

The  usual  argument  a  priori,  on  this  at- 
tribute of  the  divine  nature,  has  been  stated  as 
follows ;  but,  amidst  such  a  mass  of  demon- 
stration of  a  much  higher  kind,  it  cannot  be 
of  any  great  value  : — The  First  Cause,  the  su- 
preme all-perfect  Mind,  as  he  could  not  derive 
his  being  from  any  other  cause,  must  be  inde- 
pendent of  all  other,  and  therefore  unlimited. 
He  exists  by  an  absolute  necessity  of  nature  ; 
and  as  all  the  parts  of  infinite  space  are  exactly 
uniform  and  alike,  for  the  same  reason  that  he 
exists  in  any  one  part  he  must  exist  in  all. 
No  reason  can  be  assigned  for  excluding  him 
from  one  part,  which  would  not  exclude  him 
from  all.  But  that  he  is  present  in  some 
parts  of  space,  the  evident  effects  of  his  wis- 
dom, power,  and  benevolence  continually  pro- 
duced, demonstrate  beyond  all  rational  doubt. 
He  must  therefore  be  alike  present  every  where, 
and  fill  infinite  space  with  his  infinite  Being. 

Among  metaphysicians,  it  has  been  matter 
of  dispute,  whether  God  is  present  every  where 
ty  an  infinite  extension  of  his  essence.     This 


is  the  opinion  of  Newton,  Dr.  S.  Clarke,  and 
their  followers  ;  others  have  objected  to  this 
notion,  that  it  might  then  be  said,  God  is 
neither  in  heaven  nor  in  earth,  but  only  a  part 
of  God  in  each.  The  former  opinion,  how- 
ever, appears  most  in  harmony  with  the  Scrip- 
tures ;  though  the  term  extension,  through 
the  inadequacy  of  language,  conveys  too  ma- 
terial an  idea.  The  objection  just  stated  is 
wholly  grounded  on  notions  taken  from  ma- 
terial objects,  and  is  therefore  of  little  weight, 
because  it  is  not  applicable  to  an  immaterial 
substance.  It  is  best  to  confess  with  one  who 
had  thought  deeply  on  the  subject,  "  There  is 
an  incomprehensibleness  in  the  manner  of 
every  thing  about  which  no  controversy  can 
or  ought  to  be  concerned."  That  we  cannot 
comprehend  how  God  is  fully,  and  completely, 
and  undividedly  present  every  where,  need  not 
surprise  us,  when  we  reflect  that  the  manner 
in  which  our  own  minds  are  present  with  our 
bodies  is  as  incomprehensible  as  the  manner 
in  which  the  supreme  Mind  is  present  with 
every  thing  in  the  universe. 

OMNISCIENCE.  This  attribute  of  God 
is  constantly  connected  in  Scripture  with  his 
omnipresence,  and  forms  a  part  of  almost, 
every  description  of  that  attribute ;  for,  as 
God  is  a  Spirit,  and  therefore  intelligent,  if 
he  is  every  where,  if  nothing  can  exclude  him, 
not  even  the  most  solid  bodies,  nor  the  minds 
of  intelligent  beings,  then  are  all  things  naked 
and  opened  to  the  eyes  of  him  with  whom  we 
have  to  do.  Where  he  acts,  he  is  ;  and  where, 
he  is,  he  perceives.  He  understands  and  con- 
siders things  absolutely,  and  as  they  are  in  their 
own  natures,  powers,  properties,  differences, 
together  with  all  the  circumstances  belonging 
to  them.  "  Known  unto  him  are  all  his  works 
from  the  beginning  of  the  world,"  rather,  arr 
aiwvos,  from  all  eternity;  known,  before  they 
were  made,  in  their  possible,  and  known,  now 
they  are  made,  in  their  actual,  existence. 
"  Lord,  thou  hast  searched  me  and  known  me  ; 
thou  knowest  my  down-sitting  and  mine  up- 
rising, thou  understandest  my  thought  afar 
off.  Thou  compassest  my  path  and  my  lying 
down,  and  art  acquainted  with  all  my  ways. 
For  there  is  not  a  word  in  my  tongue,  but  lo, 
O  Lord,  thou  knowest  it  altogether.  The 
darkness  hideth  not  from  thee ;  but  the  night 
shineth  as  the  day.  The  ways  of  man  are 
before  the  eyes  of  the  Lord,  and  he  pondereth 
all  his  goings ;  he  searcheth  their  hearts,  and 
understandeth  every  imagination  of  then- 
thoughts."  Nor  is  this  perfect  knowledge  to 
be  confined  to  men  or  angels ;  it  reaches 
into  the  state  of  the  dead,  and  penetrates 
the  regions  of  the  damned.  "  Hell,"  hades, 
"  is  naked  before  him  ;  and  destruction,"  the 
seats  of  destruction,  "  hath  no  covering." 
No  limits  at  all  are  to  be  set  to  this  perfec- 
tion :  "  Great  is  the  Lord,  his  understanding 
is  infinite." 

In  Psalm  xciv,  the  knowledge  of  God  is 
argued  from  the  communication  of  it  to  men  : 
"  Understand,  ye  brutish  among  the  people  ; 
and,  ye  fools,  when  will  ye  be  wise  ?  He  that 
planted  the  ear,  shall  he  not  hear  ?    He  that 


OMN 


716 


OMN 


formed  the  eye,  shall  he  not  see  ?  He  that 
ohaBtimth  the  Heathen,  shall  not  he  correct  ? 
Be  thai  teacheth  man  knowledge,  .shall  not 
he  know  ?"  This  argument  is  as  easy  as  it  is 
conclusive,  obliging  all  who  acknowledge  a 
First  Cause,  to  admit  his  perfect  intelligence, 
ur  to  take  refuge  in  atheism  itself.  It  fetches 
not  tho  proof  from  a  distance,  but  refers  us  to 
our  bosoms  for  the  constant  demonstration 
that  the  Lord  is  a  Clod  of  knowledge,  and  that 
by  him  actions  are  weighed.  We  find  in  our- 
selves such  qualities  as  thought  and  intelli- 
gence, power  and  freedom,  &c,  for  which  we 
lave  the  evidence  of  consciousness  as  much 
as  for  our  own  existence.  Indeed,  it  is  only 
by  our  consciousness  of  these,  that  our  exist- 
ence is  known  to  ourselves.  We  know,  like- 
wise, that  these  are  perfections,  and  that  to 
have  them  is  better  than  to  be  without  them. 
We  find  also  that  they  have  not  been  in  us 
from  eternity.  They  must,  therefore,  have  had 
a  beginning,  and  consequently  some  cause,  for 
the  very  same  reason  that  a  being  beginning 
to  exist  in  time  requires  a  cause.  Now  this 
cause,  as  it  must  be  superior  to  its  effect,  must 
have  those  perfections  in  a  superior  degree ; 
and  if  it  be  the  First  Cause  it  must  have  them 
in  an  infinite  or  unlimited  degree,  since  bounds 
or  limitations,  without  a  limiter,  would  be  an 
effect  without  a  cause.  If  God  gives  wisdom 
to  the  wise,  and  knowledge  to  men  of  under- 
standing; if  he  communicates  this  perfection 
to  his  creatures,  the  inference  must  be  that  he 
himself  is  possessed  of  it  in  a  much  more  emi- 
nent degree  than  they ;  that  his  knowledge 
is  deep  and  intimate,  reaching  to  the  very 
essence  of  things,  theirs  but  slight  and  super- 
ficial ;  his  clear  and  distinct,  theirs  confused 
and  dark  ;  his  certain  and  infallible,  theirs 
doubtful  and  liable  to  mistake  ;  his  easy  and 
permanent,  theirs  obtained  with  much  pains, 
and  soon  lost  again  by  the  defects  of  memory 
or  age  ;  his  universal  and  extending  to  all  ob- 
t  heirs  short  and  narrow,  reaching  only 
to  some  few  things,  while  that  which  is 
wanting  cannot,  be  numbered  ;  and  therefore, 
as  the  heavens  arc  higher  than  the  earth,  so, 
as  the  prophet  has  told  us,  are  his  ways 
above  our  ways,  and  his  thoughts  above  our 
thoughts. 

But  his  understanding  is  infinite  ;  a  doctrine 
which  the  sacred  writers  not  only  authorita- 
tively announce,  but  confirm  by  referring  to 
the  wisdom  displayed  in  his  works.  The  only 
difference  between  wisdom  and  knowledge  is, 
that  the  former  always  supposes  action,  and 
action  directed  to  an  end.  But  wherever  there 
is  wisdom  there  must  be  knowledge;  and  as  the 
wisdom  of  Cod  in  the  creation  consists  in  the 
formation  of  things  which,  by  themselves,  or  in 
combination  with  others,  shall  produce  certain 
effects,  and  that  in  a  variety  of  operation  which 
is  t.,  iis  boundless,  the  previous  knowledge  of 
the  possible  qualities  and  effects  inevitably 
supposes  a  knowledge  which  can  have  no 
limit.  For  as  creation  out  of  nothing  argues 
a  power  which  is  omnipotent  ;  so  the  know- 
ledge of  the  possibilities  of  things  which  are 
uot,  (a  knowledge  which,   from  tho  effect,  we 


are  sure  must  exist  in  God,)  argues  that  such 
a  Being  must  be  omniscient.  For  all  things 
being  not  only  present  to  him,  but  also 
entirely  depending  upon  him,  and  having  re- 
ceived both  their  being  itself,  and  all  their 
powers  and  faculties  from  him ;  it  is  manifest 
that,  as  he  knows  all  things  that  are,  so  he 
must  likewise  know  all  possibilities  of  things, 
that  is,  all  effects  that  can  be.  For,  being 
himself  alone  self-existent,  and  having  alone 
given  to  all  things  all  the  powers  and  faculties 
they  are  endued  with  ;  it  is  evident  he  must  of 
necessity  know  perfectly  what  all  and  each  of 
those  powers  and  faculties,  which  are  derived 
wholly  from  himself,  can  possibly  produce : 
and  seeing,  at  one  boundless  view,  all  the  pos- 
sible  compositions  and  divisions,  variations 
and  changes,  circumstances  and  dependencies 
of  things ;  all  their  possible  relations  one  to 
another,  and  their  dispositions  or  fitnesses  to 
certain  and  respective  ends,  he  must,  without 
possibility  of  error,  know  exactly  what  is  best 
and  properest  in  every  one  of  the  infinite  pos- 
sible cases  or  methods  of  disposing  things  ; 
and  understand  perfectly  how  to  order  and 
direct  the  respective  means,  to  bring  about 
what  he  so  knows  to  be,  in  its  kind,  or  in  the 
whole,  the  best  and  fittest  in  the  end.  This  is 
what  we  mean  by  infinite  wisdom. 

On  the  subject  of  the  divine  omniscience, 
many  fine  sentiments  are  to  be  found  in  the 
writings  of  Pagans;  for  an  intelligent  First 
Cause  being  in  any  sense  admitted,  it  was  most 
natural  and  obvious  to  ascribe  to  him  a  perfect 
knowledge  of  all  things.  They  acknowledge 
that  nothing  is  hid  from  God,  who  is  intimate 
to  our  minds,  and  mingles  himself  with  our 
very  thoughts  ;  nor  were  they  all  unaware  of 
the  practical  tendency  of  such  a  doctrine,  and 
of  the  motive  it  affords  to  a  cautious  and  vir- 
tuous conduct.  But  among  them  it  was  not 
held,  as  by  the  sacred  writers,  in  connection 
with  other  right  views  of  the  divine  nature, 
which  are  essential  to  give  to  this  its  full  moral 
effect.  Not  only  on  this  subject  does  the  man- 
ner in  which  the  Scriptures  state  the  doctrine 
far  transcend  that  of  the  wisest  Pagan  theists  ; 
but  the  moral  of  the  sentiment  is  infinitely 
more  comprehensive  and  impressive.  With 
them  it  is  connected  with  man's  state  of  trial  ; 
with  a  holy  law,  all  the  violations  of  which,  in 
thought,  word,  and  deed,  are  both  infallibly 
known,  and  strictly  marked ;  with  promises  of 
grace,  and  of  a  mild  and  protecting  government 
as  to  all  who  have  sought  and  found  the  mercy 
of  God  in  forgiving  their  sins  and  admitting 
them  into  his  family.  The  wicked  are  thus 
reminded,  that  their  hearts  are  searched,  and 
their  sins  noted  ;  that  the  eyes  of  the  Lord  are 
upon  their  ways ;  and  that  their  most  secret 
works  will  be  brought  to  light  in  the  day  when 
God  the  witness  shall  become  God  the  judge. 
But  as  to  the  righteous,  the  eyes  of  the  Lord 
are  said  to  be  over  them;  that  they  are  kept 
by  him  who  never  slumbers  or  sleeps;  that  he 
is  never  far  from  them  ;  that  his  eyes  run  to 
and  fro  throughout  the  whole  earth,  to  show 
himself  strong  in  their  behalf;  that  foes,  to 
them    invisible,    are    seen    by    his    oye,    and 


ON 


717 


ONI 


controlled  by  his  arm ;  and  that  this  great 
attribute,  so  appalling  to  wicked  men,  affords 
to  them,  not  only  the  most  influential  reason 
for  a  perfectly  holy  temper  and  conduct,  but 
the  strongest  motive  to  trust,  and  joy,  and 
hope,  amidst  the  changes  and  afflictions  of  the 
present  life.  Socrates,  as  well  as  other  philo- 
sophers, could  express  themselves  well,  so 
long  as  they  expressed  themselves  generally, 
on  this  subject.  The  former  could  say,  "  Let 
your  own  frame  instruct  you.  Does  the  mind 
inhabiting  your  body  dispose  and  govern  it 
with  ease  ?  Ought  you  not  then  to  conclude, 
that  the  universal  Mind  with  equal  ease  actu- 
ates and  governs  universal  nature  ;  and  that, 
when  you  can  at  once  consider  the  interest  of 
the  Athenians  at  home,  in  Egypt,  and  in  Sici- 
ly, it  is  not  too  much  for  the  divine  wisdom  to 
take  care  of  the  universe  ?  These  reflections 
will  soon  convince  you,  that  the  greatness  of 
the  divine  mind  is  such,  as  at  once  to  see  all 
things,  hear  all  things,  be  present  every  where, 
and  direct  all  the  affairs  of  the  world."  These 
views  are  just,  but  they  wanted  that  connection 
with  others  relative  both  to  the  divine  nature 
and  government,  which  we  see  only  in  the 
Bible,  to  render  them  influential ;  they  neither 
gave  correct  moral  distinctions  nor  led  to  a 
virtuous  practice,  no,  not  in  Socrates,  who,  on 
some  subjects,  and  especially  on  the  person- 
ality of  the  Deity,  and  his  independence  on 
matter,  raised  himself  far  above  the  rest  of  his 
philosophic  brethren,  but  in  moral  feeling  and 
practice  was  perhaps  as  censurable  as  they. 
See  Prescience. 

ON,  or  AVEN,  a  city  of  Egypt,  situated  in 
the  land  of  Goshen,  on  the  east  of  the  Nile, 
and  about  five  miles  from  the  modern  Cairo. 
It  was  called  Heliopolis  by  the  Greeks,  and 
Bethshemeth  by  the  Hebrews,  Jer.  xliii,  13 ; 
both  of  which  names,  as  well  as  its  Egyptian 
one  of  On,  imply  the  city  or  house  of  the  sun. 
The  inhabitants  of  this  city  are  represented  by 
Herodotus  as  the  wisest  of  the  Egyptians ;  and 
here  Moses  resided,  and  received  that  education 
which  made  him  "  learned  in  all  the  wisdom 
of  the  Egyptians."  But  notwithstanding  its 
being  the  seat  of  the  sciences,  such  were  its 
egregious  idolatries,  that  it  was  nicknamed 
Aven,  or  Beth-Aven,  "the  house  of  vanity," 
or  idolatry,  by  the  Jews.  A  village  standing 
on  part  of  its  site,  at  the  present  day,  is  called 
Matarea ;  while  the  spring  of  excellent  water, 
or  fountain  of  the  sun,  which  is  supposed  to 
have  given  rise  to  the  city,  is  still  called  Ain 
Shems,  or  fountain  of  the  sun,  by  the  Arabs. 
This  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  cities  of  the 
world  of  which  any  distinct  vestige  can  now  be 
traced.  It  was  visited  eighteen  hundred  and 
fifty  years  ago  by  Strabo,  whose  description 
proves  it  to  have  been  nearly  as  desolate  then 
as  now.  Most  of  the  ruins  of  this  once  famous 
city,  described  by  that  geographer,  are  buried 
in  the  accumulation  of  the  soil :  but  that  which 
marks  its  site,  and  is,  perhaps,  the  most  an- 
cient work  at  this  time  existing  in  the  world, 
in  a  perfect  state,  is  a  column  of  red  granite, 
seventy  feet  high,  and  covered  with  hierogly- 
phics.     Dr.  E.  D.  Clarke  has  given   a  very 


good  representation  of  this  column  ;  to  whom, 
also,  the  curious  reader  is  referred  for  a  learn- 
ed dissertation  on  the  characters  engraved 
upon  it. 

The  city  On,  according  to  Josephus,  was 
given  to  the  Israelites  to  dwell  in,  when  they 
first  went  into  Egypt ;  and  it  was  a  daughter 
of  a  priest  of  the  temple  of  the  sun  at  this 
place,  who  was  given  in  marriage  to  Joseph 
by  Pharaoh.  Here,  also,  in  the  time  of  Pto- 
lemy Philadelphus,  leave  was  obtained  of  that 
king  by  Onias,  high  priest  of  the  Jews,  to  build 
a  temple,  when  dispossessed  of  his  office  by 
Antiochus ;  which  was  long  used  by  the  Hel- 
lenist Jews.  It  was  predicted  by  Jeremiah, 
xliii,  13,  and  by  Ezekiel,  xxx,  17,  that  this 
place,  with  its  temples  and  inhabitants,  should 
be  destroyed  ;  which  was  probably  fulfilled  by 
Nebuchadnezzar.     See  Noph. 

ONESIMUS  was  a  Phrygian  by  nation,  a 
slave  to  Philemon,  and  a  disciple  of  the  Apostle 
Paul.  Onesimus  having  run  away  from  his 
master,  and  also  having  robbed  him,  Philemon 
v,  18,  went  to  Rome  while  St.  Paul  was  there 
in  prison  the  first  time.  As  Onesimus  knew 
him  by  repute,  (his  master  Philemon  being  a 
Christian,)  he  sought  him  out.  St.  Paul 
brought  him  to  a  sense  of  the  greatness  of  his 
crime,  instructed  him,  baptized  him,  and  sent 
him  back  to  his  master  Philemon  with  a  letter, 
inserted  among  St.  Paul's  epistles,  which  is 
universally  acknowledged  as  canonical.  This 
letter  had  all  the  good  success  he  could  desire. 
Philemon  not  only  received  Onesimus  as  a 
faithful  servant,  but  rather  as  a  brother  and  a 
friend.  A  little  time  after,  he  sent  him  back 
to  Rome  to  St.  Paul,  that  he  might  continue 
to  be  serviceable  to  him  in  his  prison.  And 
wo  see  that  after  this  Onesimus  was  employed 
to  carry  such  epistles  as  the  Apostle  wrote  at 
that  time.  He  carried,  for  example,  that  which 
was  written  to  the  Colossians,  while  St.  Paul 
was  yet  in  his  bonds. 

ONESIPHORUS  is  mentioned,  2  Tim.  l, 
16,  17,  and  highly  commended  by  St.  Paul. 

ONION,  buz,  Num.  xi,  5 ;  a  well  known 
garden  plant  with  a  bulbous  root.  Onions 
and  garlics  were  highly  esteemed  in  Egypt ; 
and  not  without  reason,  this  country  being 
admirably  adapted  to  their  culture.  The  allium 
cepa,  called  by  the  Arabs  basal,  Hasselquist 
thinks  one  of  the  species  of  onions  for  which 
the  Israelites  longed.  He  would  infer  this 
from  the  quantities  still  used  in  Egypt,  and 
their  goodness.  "  Whoever  has  tasted  onionu 
in  Egypt,"  says  he,  "must  allow  that  none 
can  be  had  better  in  any  part  of  the  universe. 
Here  they  are  sweet ;  in  other  countries  they 
are  nauseous  and  strong.  Here  they  are  soft ; 
whereas  in  the  northern  and  other  parts  they 
are  hard,  and  their  coats  so  compact  that  they 
are  difficult  of  digestion.  Hence  they  cannot 
in  any  place  be  eaten  with  less  prejudice, 
and  more  satisfaction,  than  in  Egypt."  The 
Egyptians  are  reproached  with  swearing  by 
the  leeks  and  onions  of  their  gardens.  Juvenal 
ridicules  some  of  these  superstitious  people  who 
did  not  dare  to  cat  leeks,  garlic,  or  onions,  for 
fear  of  injuring  their  gods : — 


ONY 


718 


ORA 


Qtu's  nescil,  Volusi  Bythynice,  qualia  demens 
^Egyptus  portenta  colit  .> 

Porrum  et  cepe  fief  as  violare  aut  frangere  morsu  ; 
O  sanctas  gentes  quibus  hac  nascuntur  i?i  horlis 
Numina!  Sat.  xv. 

"  How  Egypt,  mad  with  superstition  grown, 
Makes  gods  of  monsters,  but  too  well  is  known. 
'Tis  mortal  sin  an  onion  to  devour ; 
Each  clove  of  garlic  has  a  sacred  power. 
Religious  nation,  sure  !  and  blest  abodes, 
Where  ev'ry  garden  is  o'errun  with  gods!" 
So  Lucian  in  his  Jupiter,  where  he  is  giving 
an  account  of  the  different  deities  worshipped 
by  the   several  inhabitants   of  Egypt,   says, 
llrj\v,olb>Tais  &i  xpdnfivov,    "  those   of  Pelusiuin 
worship  the  onion."     Hence  arises  a  question, 
how  the  Israelites  durst  venture  to  violate  the 
national  worship,  by  eating  those  sacred  plants. 
We  may  answer,  in  the  first  place,  that  what- 
ever might  be  the  case  of  the  Egyptians  in 
later  ages,  it  is  not  probable  that  they  were 
arrived  at  such  a  pitch  of  superstition  in  the 
time  of  Moses ;  for  we  find  no  indications  of 
this  in  Herodotus,    the    most  ancient   of  the 
Greek  historians :  secondly,  the  writers  here 
quoted  appear  to  be    mistaken  in  imagining 
these  plants  to  have  been  generally  the  objects 
of  religious'  worship.      The   priests,    indeed, 
abstained  from  the  use  of  them,  and  several 
other  vegetables ;  and  this  might  give  rise  to 
the  opinion  of  their  being  reverenced  as  divini- 
ties :  but  the  use  of  them  was  not  prohibited 
to  the  people,  as  is  plain  from  the  testimonies 
of  ancient  authors,  particularly  of  Diodorus 
Siculus. 

ONYX,  one-,  Gen.  ii,  12;  Exod.  xxv,  7; 
xxviii,  9,  20 ;  xxxv,  27 ;  xxxix,  6 ;  1  Chron. 
xxix,  2;  Job  xxviii,  16;  Ezekiel  xxviii,  13. 
A  precious  stone,  so  called  from  the  Greek 
6w\,  the  nail,  to  the  colour  of  which  it  nearly 
approaches.  It  is  first  mentioned  with  the 
gold  and  bdellium  of  the  river  Pison  in  Eden; 
but  the  meaning  of  the  Hebrew  word  is  not 
easily  determined.  The  Septuagint  render  it, 
in  different  places,  the  sardius,  beryl,  sapphire, 
emerald,  &c.  Such  names  are  often  ambigu- 
ous, even  in  Greek  and  Latin,  and  no  wonder 
if  they  are  more  so  in  Hebrew.  In  Exodus 
xxviii,  9,  10,  a  direction  is  given  that  two 
onyx  stones  should  be  fastened  on  the  ephod 
of  the  high  priest,  on  which  were  to  be  graven 
the  names  of  the  children  of  Israel,  like  the 
engravings  on  a  6ignet ;  six  of  the  names  on 
one  stone,  and  six  on  the  other.  In  1  Chron. 
xxix,  2,  onyx  stones  are  among  the  things 
prepared  by  David  for  the  temple.  The  ait- 
thor  of  "  Scripture  Illustrated"  observes,  upon 
this  passage,  that  "the  word  onyx  is  equivocal ; 
signifying,  first,  a  precious  stone  or  gem  ;  and, 
secondly,  a  marble  called  in  Greek  onychites, 
which  Pliny  mentions  as  a  stone  of  Caramania. 
Antiquity  gave  both  these  stones  this  name, 
because  of  their  resemblance  to  the  nail  of  the 
fingers.  The  onyx  of  the  high  priest's  pectoral 
was,  no  doubt,  the  gem  onyx  ;  the  stone  pre- 
pared by  David  was  the  marble  onyx,  or  rather 
onychus;  for  one  would  hardly  think  that  gems 
of  any  kind  were  used  externally  in  such  a 
building,  but  variegated  marble  may  readily  be 
admitted." 


OPHIR,  a  place  or  country  remote  from 
Judea,  to  which  the  ships  of  Solomon  traded. 
There  has  been  much  discussion  respecting 
the  situation  of  this  place  ;  some  supposing  it 
to  have  been  the  island  of  Socotora,  without 
the  straits  of  Babelmandel ;  others,  that  an- 
ciently called  Tabrobana,  which  is  supposed 
by  some  to  have  been  Ceylon,  and  by  others 
Sumatra  ;  while  others  fix  its  situation  on  the 
continent  of  India.  M.  Huet  and,  after  him, 
Bruce,  place  Ophir  at  Sofala,  in  South  Africa, 
where  mines  of  gold  and  silver  have  been 
found,  which  show  marks  of  having  been  very 
anciently  and  extensively  worked.  The  latter 
says,  also,  that  the  situation  of  this  place  ex- 
plains the  period  of  three  years  whicli  the 
Ophir  ships  were  absent,  from  the  different 
courses  of  the  monsoons  and  trade  winds, 
which  they  would  have  to  encounter  going 
and  returning.  Ruins  of  ancient  buildings 
have  also  been  found  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
these  mines.  In  confirmation  of  this  opinion, 
Bruce  says  there  was  a  place  called  Tarshish 
near  Melinda. 

In  the  same  direction  with  Ophir  lay  Tar- 
shish ;  the  voyage  to  both  places  being  accom- 
plished under  one,  and  always,  as  it  would 
seem,  in  the  same  space  of  time,  three  years  ; 
by  which  it  may  be  inferred  that,  notwith- 
standing the  imperfect  navigation  of  the  times, 
they  must  be  at  a  considerable  distance  from 
the  ports  of  Judea.  But  the  true  situation  of 
these  places  must  ever  remain  matter  of  con- 
jecture ;  and  all  that  can  be  considered  as  cer- 
tain respecting  them  is,  that  from  the  articles 
imported  from  them,  namely,  gold,  silver, 
ivory,  apes,  peacocks,  and  precious  stones, 
they  must  have  been  situated  in  the  tropical 
parts  of  either  Africa  or  Asia. 

ORACLE  denotes  something  delivered  by 
supernatural  wisdom ;  and  the  term  is  also 
used  in  the  Old  Testament  to  signify  the  most 
holy  place  from  whence  the  Lord  revealed  his 
will  to  ancient  Israel,  1  Kings  vi,  5,  19-21,  23. 
But  when  the  word  occurs  in  the  plural  num- 
ber, as  it  mostly  does,  it  denotes  the  revela- 
tions contained  in  the  sacred  writings  of 
which  the  nation  of  Israel  were  the  deposita- 
ries. So  Moses  is  said  by  Stephen  to  have 
received  the  "  lively  oracles"  to  give  unto  the 
Israelites.  These  oracles  contained  the  law, 
both  moral  and  ceremonial,  with  all  the  types 
and  promises  relating  to  the  Messiah  which 
are  to  be  found  in  the  writings  of  Moses. 
They  also  contained  all  the  intimations  of  the 
divine  mind  which  be  was  pleased  to  com- 
municate by  means  of  the  succeeding  prophets 
who  prophesied  beforehand  of  the  coming  and 
of  the  sufferings  of  the  Messiah  with  the  glory 
that  should  follow.  The  Jews  were  a  highly 
privileged  people  in  many  and  various  respects, 
Rom.  ix,  4,  5;  but  the  Apostle  Paul  mentions 
it  as  their  chief  advantage  that  "  unto  them 
were  committed  the  oracles  of  God,"  Romans 
iii,  2.  "  What  nation,"  says  Moses,  "is  there 
that  bath  statutes  and  judgments  so  righteous 
as  all  this  law'  which  I  set  before  you  this 
day  ?"  Deut.  iv,  8.  The  psalmist  David  enu- 
merates their  excellent  properties  under  various 


ORA 


719 


ORA 


epithets ;  such  as  the  law  of  the  Lord,  his 
testimony,  his  statutes,  his  commandments, 
his  judgments,  &c.  Their  properties  are  ex- 
tolled as  perfect,  sure,  right,  pure,  clean,  true, 
and  righteous  altogether ;  more  to  be  desired 
than  much  fine  gold  ;  sweeter  than  honey  and 
the  honey  comb.  Their  salutary  effects  are 
all  mentioned ;  such  as  their  converting  the 
soul,  making  wise  the  simple,  rejoicing  the 
heart,  enlightening  the  eyes  ;  and  the  keeping 
of  them  is  connected  with  a  great  reward, 
Psalm  xix.  The  hundred  and  nineteenth 
Psalm  abounds  with  praises  of  the  lively 
oracles,  the  word  of  the  living  God  ;  it 
abounds  with  the  warmest  expressions  of  love 
to  it,  of  delight  in  it,  and  the  most  fervent 
petitions  for  divine  illumination  in  the  know- 
ledge of  it.  Such  was  the  esteem  and  vene- 
ration which  the  faithful  entertained  for  the 
lively  oracles  under  the  former  dispensation, 
when  they  had  only  Moses  and  the  prophets ; 
how,  then,  ought  they  to  be  prized  by  Chris- 
tians, who  have  also  Christ  and  his  Apostles  ! 
Among  the  Heathen  the  term  oracle  is 
usually  taken  to  signify  an  answer,  generally 
couched  in  very  dark  and  ambiguous  terms, 
supposed  to  be  given  by  demons  of  old,  either 
by  the  mouths  of  their  idols,  or  by  those  of 
their  priests,  to  the  people,  who  consulted 
them  on  things  to  come.  Oracle  is  also  used 
for  the  demon  who  gave  the  answer,  and  the 
place  where  it  was  given.  Seneca  defines 
oracles  to  be  enunciations  by  the  mouths  of 
men  of  the  will  of  the  gods  ;  and  Cicero  simply 
calls  them,  deorum  oratio,  the  language  of  the 
gods.  Among  the  Pagans  they  were  held  in 
high  estimation ;  and  they  were  consulted  on 
a  variety  of  occasions  pertaining  to  national 
enterprises  and  private  life.  When  they  made 
peace  or  war,  enacted  laws,  reformed  states, 
or  changed  the  constitution,  they  had  in  all 
these  cases  recourse  to  the  oracle  by  public 
authority.  Also,  in  private  life,  if  a  man 
wished  to  marry,  if  he  proposed  to  take  a 
journey,  or  to  engage  in  any  business  of  im- 
portance, he  repaired  to  the  oracle  for  counsel. 
Mankind  have  had  always  a  propensity  to  ex- 
plore futurity ;  and  conceiving  that  future 
events  were  known  to  their  gods,  who  pos- 
sessed the  gift  of  prophecy,  they  sought  in- 
formation and  advice  from  the  oracles,  which, 
in  their  opinion,  were  supernatural  and  divine 
communications.  The  institution  of  oracles 
seemed  to  gratify  the  prevalent  curiosity  of 
mankind,  and  proved  a  source  of  immense 
wealth,  as  well  as  authority  and  influence,  to 
those  who  had  the  command  of  them.  Ac- 
cordingly, every  nation,  in  which  idolatry  has 
subsisted,  had  its  oracles,  by  me  an  6  of  which 
imposture  practised  on  superstition  and  cre- 
dulity. The  principal  oracles  of  antiquity  are, 
that  of  Abte,  mentioned  by  Herodotus  ;  that 
of  Ampliiaraus,  at  Oropus  in  Macedonia;  that 
of  the  Branchidae  at  Didymeum ;  that  of  the 
camps  at  Lacedaemon ;  that  of  Dodona ;  that 
of  Jupiter  Ammen  ;  that  of  Nabarca  in  the 
country  of  the  Anariaci,  near  the  Caspian  Sea; 
that  of  Trophonius,  mentioned  by  Herodotus  ; 
that  of  Chrysopolis  ;  that  of  Claros,  in  Ionia; 


that  of  Amphilochus  at  Mallos ;  that  of  Pe 
tarea ;  that  of  Pella  in  Macedonia  •  that  of 
Phaselides  in  Cilicia ;  that  of  Sinope  in  Paph- 
lagonia ;  that  of  Orpheus's  head  at  Lesbos, 
mentioned  by  Philostratus.  But  of  all  oracles, 
the  oracle  of  Apollo  Pythius  at  Delphi  was 
the  most  celebrated  ;  this  was  consulted  in  the 
dernier  resort  by  most  of  the  princes  of  those 
ages. 

Most  of  the  Pagan  deities  had  their  appro- 
priate oracles.  Apollo  had  the  greatest  num- 
ber :  such  as  those  of  Claros,  of  the  Branchidae, 
of  flie  suburbs  of  Daphne  at  Antioch,  of  Delos, 
of  Argos,  of  Troas,  -<Eolis,  &c,  of  Baiae  in 
Italy,  and  others  in  Cilicia,  in  Egypt,  in  the 
Alps,  in  Thrace,  at  Corinth,  in  Arcadia,  in 
Laconia,  and  in  many  other  places  enumerated 
by  Van  Dale.  Jupiter,  beside  that  of  Dodona 
and  some  others,  the  honour  of  which  he 
shared  with  Apollo,  had  one  in  Bceotia  under 
the  name  of  Jupiter  the  Thunderer,  and  another 
in  Elis,  one  at  Thebes  and  at  Meroe,  one  near 
Antioch,  and  several  others.  jEsculapius  was 
consulted  in  Cilicia,  at  Apollonia,  in  the  isle 
of  Cos,  at  Epidaurus,  Pergamos,  Rome,  and 
elsewhere.  Mercury  had  oracles  at  Patras, 
upon  Hoemon,  and  in  other  places ;  Mars,  in 
Thrace,  Egypt,  and  elsewhere  ;  Hercules,  at 
Cadiz,  Athens,  in  Egypt,  at  Tivoli,  in  Meso- 
potamia, where  he  issued  his  oracles  by  dreams, 
whence  he  was  called  Somnialis.  Isis,  Osiris, 
and  Serapis  delivered  in  like  manner  their 
oracles  by  dreams,  as  we  learn  from  Pausa- 
nias,  Tacitus,  Arrian,  and  other  writers ;  that 
of  Amphilochus  was  also  delivered  by  dreams  ; 
the  ox  Apis  had  also  his  oracle  in  Egypt.  The 
gods,  called  Cabiri,  had  their  oracle  in  Bceotia. 
Diana,  the  sister  of  Apollo,  had  several  oracles 
in  Egypt,  Cilicia,  Ephesus,  &c.  Those  of 
fortune  at  Praaneste,  and  of  the  lots  at  An- 
tium  are  well  known.  The  fountains  also 
delivered  oracles,  for  to  each  of  them  a  divinity 
was  ascribed :  such  was  the  fountain  of  Cas. 
talia  at  Delphi,  another  of  the  same  name  in 
the  suburbs  of  Antioch,  and  the  prophetic 
fountain  near  the  temple  of  Ceres  in  Achaia. 
Juno  had  several  oracles  :  one  near  Corinth, 
one  at  Nysa,  and  others  at  different  places. 
Latona  had  one  at  Butis  in  Egypt ;  Leucothea 
had  one  in  Colchis ;  Menmon  in  Egypt ;  Ma. 
chaon  at  Gerania  in  Laconia ;  Minerva  had 
one  in  Egypt,  in  Spain,  upon  mount  .Etna,  at 
Mycenae  and  Colchis,  and  in  other  places. 
Those  of  Neptune  were  at  Delphos,  at  Calauria, 
near  Neocesarea,  and  elsewhere.  The  nymphs 
had  theirs  in  the  cave  of  Corycia.  Pan  had 
several,  the  most  famous  of  which  was  that  in 
Arcadia.  That  of  the  Palici  was  in  Sicily. 
Pluto  had  one  at  Nysa.  Saturn  had  oracles  in 
several  places,  but  the  most  famous  wrere  those 
of  Cumas  in  Italy,  and  of  Alexandria  in  Egypt. 
Those  of  Venus  were  dispersed  in  several 
places,  at  Gaza,  upon  Mount  Libanus,  at  Pa- 
phos,  in  Cyprus,  &c.  Serapis  had  one  at 
Alexandria,  consulted  by  Vespasian.  Venus 
Aphacite  had  one  at  Aphaca  between  Hel'opo- 
lis  and  Byblus.  Geryon,  the  three-headed 
monster  slain  by  Hercules,  had  an  oracle  in 
Italy  near  Padua,  consulted  by  Tiberius ;  that 


ORA 


720 


ORA 


of  Hercules  was  at  Tivoli,  and  was  given  by 
lots,  like  those  of  Prameste  and  Antium.  Tho 
demi-gods  and  heroes  had  likewise  their  oracles, 
such  were  those  of  Castor  and  Pollux  at  La- 
eediemon,  of  Amphiaraus,  of  Mopsus  in  Cilicia, 
of  Ulysses,  Amphilochus,  Sarpedon  in  Troas, 
Hermionc  in  Macedonia,  Pasiphae  in  Laconia, 
Chalcas  in  Italy,  Aristneus  in  Bceotia,  Auto- 
lycus  at  Sinope,  Phryxus  among  the  Colchi, 
Zamolxis  among  the  Getaj,  Hephrestion  the 
minion  of  Alexander,  and  Antinous,  &c. 

The  responses  of  oracles  were  delivered  in  a 
variety  of  ways :  at  Delphi,  they  interpreted 
and   put    into   verse  what  the    priestess    pro- 
nounced in  the  time  of  her  furor.     Mr.  Bayle 
observes  that  at  first  this  oracle  gave  its  an- 
swers  in  verse ;  and  that  it  fell  at  length  to 
prose,  upon  the  people's  beginning  to  laugh  at 
the  poorness  of  its  versification.     The  Epicu- 
reans made  this  the  subject  of  their  jests,  and 
said,  in  raillery,  it  was  surprising  enough,  that 
Apollo,  the  god  of  poetry,  should  be  a  much 
worse  poet  than  Homer,  whom  he  himself  had 
inspired.     By  the   railleries  of  these  philoso- 
phers, and  particularly  by  those  of  the  Cynics 
and  Peripatetics,   the   priests  were  at.  length 
obliged  to  desist  from  the  practice  of  versifying 
the  responses  of  the  Pythia,  which,  according 
to  Plutarch,  was  one  of  the  principal  causes  of 
the  declension  of  the  oracle  of  Delphos.     At 
the  oracle  of  Amnion,  the  priests  pronounced 
the    response   of  their    god;  at   Dodona,   the 
response  was    issued   from  the   hollow  of  an 
oak ;  at  the  cave  of  Trophonius,  the  oracle 
was   inferred    from    what    the    suppliant  said 
before  he  recovered  his  senses  ;  at  Memphis, 
they  drew  a  good  or  bad  omen,  according  as 
the  ox  Apis  received  or  rejected  what  was  pre- 
sented to  him,  which  was  also  the  case  with 
the   fishes   of  tho   fountain   of  Limyra.     The 
suppliants,  who  consulted  the  oracles,  were 
not   allowed  to  enter  the   sanctuaries  where 
they  were  given;  and,  accordingly,  care  was 
taken  that  neither  the  Epicureans  nor  Chris- 
tians   should    come    near   them.      In    several 
places,  the  oracles  were  given  by  letters  sealed 
up,   as  in  that  of  Mopsus,  and  at  Mallus  in 
Cilicia.    Oracles  were  frequently  given  by  lot, 
the  mode  of  doing  which  was  as  follows  :  the 
lots  were  a  kind  of  dice,  on  which  were  en- 
graven  certain    characters  or   words,   whose 
explanations  they  were  to  seek  on  tables  made 
for  the  purpose.     The  way  of  using  these  dice 
for  knowing  futurity,  was  different,  according 
to  the  places  where  they  were  used.     In  some 
temples,  the  person  threw  them  himself;   in 
others,  they  were  dropped  from  a  box  ;  whence 
came  the  proverbial  expression,  "  The  lot  is 
fallen."    This  playing  with  dice  was   always 
preceded    by   sacrifices  and    other    customary 
•  riciiionies.     The  ambiguity  of  the  oracles  in 
their    responses,    and    their   double    meaning, 
contributed  to  their  support. 

Ablancourt  observes,  that  the  study  or  rc- 
arch    of  the  meaning  of  oracles  \v;is  but   a 
fruitless  thing;  and  that  they  were  never  un- 
•"'1  till  after  their  accomplishment.     His- 
torians relate,  that  Cl  I  ricked  by  the 
ambiguity  and  equivocation  of  the  oracle: 


Kpolaot  "A\vv  cia6a$  ^tyd\>iv  afX',v  ""T^Wf- 
Thus  rendered  in  Latin : 
"  Cnvmis    Halym  supi:rans  magnam   pervertet 
opum  rim." 

|  If  Croesus  cross  die  Halys  lie  will  overthrow  a  great 
empire.] 

Thus,  if  the  Lydian  monarch  had  conquered 
Cyrus,  he  overthrew  the  Assyrian  empire ;  if 
he  himself  was  routed,  he  overturned  his  own. 
That  delivered  to  Pyrrhus,  which  is  comprised 
in  this  Latin  verse, 

"  Credo  equidem  jEacidas  llomanos  vinccrc  posse," 

[I  believe  indeed  that  the  sons  of  JEacus  die  Romans 
will  conquer,] 

had  the  same  advantage;  for,  according  to  the 
miles  of  syntax,  either  of  the  two  accusatives 
may  be  governed  by  the  verb,  and  the  verse  be 
explained,  cither  by  saying  the  Romans  shall 
conquer  the  ^Eacidas,  of  whom  Pyrrhus  was 
descended,  or  those  shall  conquer  the  Romans. 
When  Alexander  fell  sick  at  Babylon,  some 
of  his  courtiers  who  happened  to  be  in  Egypt, 
or  who  went  thither  on  purpose,  passed  the 
night  in  the  temple  of  Serapis,  to  inquire  if  it 
would  not  be  proper  to  bring  Alexander  to  be 
cured  by    him.     The    god    answered,    it   was 
better  that  Alexander  should  remain  where  he 
was.    This  in  all  events  was  a  very  prudent 
and  safe  answer.     If  the  king  recovered  his 
health,  what  glory  must  Serapis  have  gained 
by  saving  him  the  fatigue  of  the  journey  !     If 
he  died,  it  was  but  saying  he  died  in  a  favour- 
able juncture  after  so  many  conquests;  which, 
had  he  lived,  he  could  neither  have  enlarged 
nor  preserved.     This  is  actually  the  construc- 
tion they  put  upon  the  response  ;  whereas  had 
Alexandor  undertaken  the  journey,  and  died  in 
the  temple,  or  by  the  way,  nothing  could  have 
been  said  in  favour  of  Serapis.     When  Trajan 
had  formed  the  design  of  his  expedition  against 
the  Parthians,  he  was  advised  to  consult  the 
oracle  of  Heliopolis,  to  which  he  had  no  more 
to  do  but  send   a   note  under  a   seal.     That 
prince,  who  had  no  great  faith  in  oracles,  sent 
thither  a  blank  note;  and  they  returned  him 
another  of  the  same  kind.    By  this  Trajan  was 
convinced  of  the  divinity  of  the  oracle.     He 
sent  back  a  second  note  to  the  god,  in  which 
he  inquired  whether  he  should  return  to  Rome 
after  finishing  tho  war  he  had   in  view.     The 
god,  as  Macrobius  tells  the   story,  ordered  a 
Tune,  which    was   among  the  offerings  of  his 
temple,  to  be  divided  into  pieces,  and  brought 
to  Trajan.     The  event,  justified    the    oracle; 
for  the  emperor  dying  in  that  w.ir.  bis  bones 
were  carried  to  Rome,  which  had  been  repre- 
sented by  thai  broken  vine.     As  the  priests  of 
that  oracle  knew  Trajan's  design,  which  was 
no  secret,  they  happily  devised  that,  response, 
which,  in  all  events,  was  capable  of  a  favour 
able  interpretation,  whether  he  routed  and  cut 
the    Parthians  in    pieces,  or  if  bis  army  met 
with  the  same  fate.     Sometimes  the  response;; 
of  the  oracles  were  mere  banter,  as  in  the  case 
of  the.  man  who  wished  to  know  by  what  means 
he  might,  become  rich,  and  who  received  for 
answer  from  the  god,  that  he  had  only  to  make 
himself  master  of  all  that  lay  between  Sicyon 


ORA 


721 


ORA 


and  Corinth.  Another,  wanting  a  cure  for  the 
gout,  was  answered  by  the  oracle,  that  he  was 
to  drink  nothing  but  cold  water. 

There  are  two  points  in  dispute  on  the  sub. 
ject  of  oracles ;   namely,   whether  they  were 
human,  or  diabolical  machines ;  and  whether 
or  not  they  ceased  upon   the    publication   or 
preaching  of  the  Gospel.     Most  of  the  fathers 
of  the  church  supposed  that  the  devil  issued 
oracles  ;  and  looked  on  it  as  a  pleasure  he  took 
to    give    dubious    and  equivocal    answers,    in 
order  to  have  a  handle  to  laugh  at  them.    Vos- 
sius  allows  that  it  was  the  devil  who  spoke  in 
oracles ;  but  thinks  that  the  obscurity  of  his 
answers  was  owing  to  his  ignorance  as  to  the 
precise  circumstances  of  events.     That  artful 
and  studied   obscurity  in  which  the   answers 
were  couched,  says  he,  showed  the  embarrass- 
ment the  devil  was   under;    as  those    double 
meanings  they  usually  bore  provided  for  their 
accomplishment.     Where  the    thing    foretold 
did  not  happen  accordingly,  the  oracle,  for- 
sooth, was  misunderstood.     Eusebius  has  pre- 
served some  fragments  of  a  philosopher,  called 
CEnomaus ;  who,  out  of  resentment  for  his  hav- 
ing been  so  often  fooled  by  the  oracles,  wrote  an 
ample  confutation  of  all  their  impertinencies  : 
"  When  we  come  to  consult  thee,"  says  he  to 
Apolro,  "  if  thou  seest  what  is  in  futurity,  why 
dost  thou  use  expressions  that  will  not  be  un- 
derstood ?    Dost  thou  not  know,  that  they  will 
not  be  understood?     If  thou  dost,  thou  takest 
pleasure  in  abusing  us ;  if  thou  dost  not,  be 
informed  of  us,  and  learn  to  speak  more  clearly. 
I  tell  thee,  that  if  thou  intendest  an  equivoque, 
the  Greek  word  whereby  thou  affirmedst  that 
Croesus  should  overthrow  a  great  empire  was 
ill  chosen ;  and  that  it  could  signify  nothing 
but   Croesus's    conquering   Cyrus.      If  things 
must  necessarily  come  to  pass,  why  dost  thou 
amuse  us  with  thy  ambiguities  ?     What  doest 
thou,  wretch  as  thou  art,  at  Delphi  ?  employed 
in  muttering  idle  prophecies  1"    But  OEnoinaus 
is  still  more  out  of  humour  with  the  oracle,  for 
the  answer  which  Apollo  gave  the  Athenians, 
when  Xerxes  was  about  to  attack  Greece  with 
all  the  strength  of  Asia.    The  Pythian  declared, 
that  Minerva,  the  protectress  of  Athens,  had  en- 
deavoured in  vain   to  appease  the  wrath   of 
Jupiter;  yet  that  Jupiter,  in  complaisance  to 
his  daughter,  was  willing  the  Athenians  should 
save  themselves  within  wooden  walls  ;  and  that 
Salamis  should  behold  the  loss  of  a  great  many 
children,  dear  to  their  mothers,  either  when 
Ceres  was  spread  abroad,  or  gathered  together. 
Here  Gihiomaus  loses  all  patience  with  the  god 
of  Delphi.    "  This  contest,"  says  he,  "between 
father    and   daughter    is   very    becoming    the 
deities!     It  is  excellent,  that  there  should  be 
contrary  inclinations  and  interests  in  heaven. 
Poor   wizard,    thou    art   ignorant   whose   the 
children   are  that   Salamis    shall   see    perish; 
whether    Greeks    or    Persians.     It   is   certain 
they  must  be  either  one  or  the  other ;  but  thou 
needest  not  to  have  told  so  openly,  that  thou 
knewest  not  which.    Thou  concealest  the  time 
of  the  battle  under  those  line  poetical  expres- 
sions, '  either  when  Ceres  is  spread  abroad,  or 
gathered  together ;'  and  wouldest  thou  cajole 
47 


us  with  such  pompous  language  ?  Who  knows 
not,  that  if  there  be  a  sea  fight,  it  must  either 
be  in  seed  time  or  harvest  ?  It  is  certain  it 
cannot  be  in  winter.  Let  things  go  how  they 
will,  thou  wilt  secure  thyself  by  this  Jupiter 
whom  Minerva  is  endeavouring  to  appease 
If  the  Greeks  lose  the  battle,  Jupiter  proved 
inexorable  to  the  last ;  ^f  they  gain  it,  why 
then  Minerva  at  length  prevailed." 

It  is  a  very  general  opinion  among  the  more 
learned,  that  oracles  weie  all  mere  cheats  and 
impostures ;    either    calculated    to    serve    the 
avaricious  ends  of  the  Heathen  priests,  or  the 
political  views  of  the  princes.    Bayle  says  posi- 
tively,  they  were  mere   human  artificers,   in 
which  the  devil  had  no  hand.    He  was  strong- 
ly supported  by  Van  Dale  and  Fontenelle,  who 
have  written  expressly  on  the  subject.    Father 
Balthus,  a  Jesuit,  wrote  a  treatise  in  defence 
of  the  fathers  with  regard  to  the  origin  of  ora- 
cles ;  but  without   denying  the  imposture  of 
the   priests,    often  blended  with   the   oracles. 
He  maintains  the  intervention  of  the  devil  in 
some  predictions,  which  could  not  be  ascribed 
to  the  cheats  of  the  priests  alone.     The  Abbd 
Banier  espouses  the  same  side  of  the  question, 
and  objects  that  oracles  would  not  have  lasted 
so  long,    and    supported  themselves  with    so 
much  splendour  and    reputation,  if  they  had 
been   merely  owing   to  the   forgeries    of  the 
priests.     Bishop  Sherlock,  in  his  "  Discourses 
concerning  the  Use  and  Intent  of  Prophecy," 
expresses  his  opinion,  that  it  is  impious  to  dis- 
believe the  Heathen  oracles,  and  to  deny  them 
to  have  been  given  out  by  the  devil ;  to  which 
assertion,    Dr.  Middleton,   in  his   "  Examina- 
tion," &c,  replies,  that  he  is  guilty  of  this  im- 
piety, and  that  he  thinks  himself  warranted  to 
pronounce  from  the  authority  of  the  best  and 
wisest  of  the  Heathens  themselves,   and   the 
evidence  of  plain  facts,  which  are  recorded  of 
those  oracles,  as  well  as  from  the  nature  of  the 
thing  itself,  that  they  were  all  mere  imposture, 
wholly  invented  and  supported  by  human  craft, 
without  any  supernatural  aid  or  interposition 
whatsoever.    He  alleges,  that  Cicero,  speaking 
of  the  Delphic  oracle,  the  most  revered  of  any 
in  the  Heathen  world,  declares,  that  nothing 
was  become  more  contemptible,  not  only  in 
his  days,  but  long  before  him;   that  Demos- 
thenes, who  lived  about  three  hundred  years 
earlier,  affirmed  of  the  same  oracle,  in  a  public 
speech  to  the  people  of  Athens,  that  it  was 
gained  to  the  interests  of  King  Philip,  an  ene- 
my to  that  city ;  that  the  Greek  historians  tell 
us,   how,   on  several  other  occasions,  it  had 
been  corrupted  by  money,  to  serve  the  views 
of  particular  persons  and  parties,  and  the  pro- 
phetess sometimes  had  been  deposed  for  bribe- 
ry and  lewdness  ;  that  there  were  some  great 
sects  of  philosophers,  who,  on  principle,  dis- 
avowed the  authority  of  all  oracles  ;  agreeably 
to  all  which  Strabo  tells  us,  that  divination  in 
general  and  oracles  had  been  in  high  credit 
among  the  ancients,  but  in  his  days  were  treat- 
ed with  much  contempt ;  lastly,  that  Eusebius 
also,  the  great  historian  of  the  primitive  church, 
declares,  that  there  were  six  hundred  writers 
among  the  Heathens  themselves  who  had  pub- 


ORA 


722 


ORD 


licly  written  against  the  reality  of  tliem.  Plu- 
tarch has  a  treatise  on  the  ceasing  of  some 
oracles  ;  and  Van  Dale,  a  Dutch  physician, 
has  a  volume  to  prove  they  did  not  cease  at 
the  coining  of  Christ ;  but  that  many  of  them 
ceased  long  before,  and  that  others  held  till  the 
fall  of  Paganism,  under  the  empire  of  Theodo- 
sius  tho  Great,  when  Paganism  being  dissi- 
pated, these  institutions  could  no  longer  sub- 
sist. Van  Dale  was  answered  by  a  German, 
one  Mocbius,  professor  of  theology  at  Leipsic, 
in  1685.  Fontenelle  espoused  Van  Dale's  sys- 
tem, and  improved  upon  it  in  his  "  History  of 
Oracles ;"  and  showed  the  weakness  of  the 
argument  used  by  many  writers  in  behalf  of 
Christianity,  drawn  from  the  ceasing  of  ora- 
cles. Cicero  says,  the  oracles  became  dumb 
in  proportion  as  people,  growing  less  credu- 
lous, began  to  suspect  them  for  cheats.  Plu- 
tarch alleges  two  reasons  for  the  ceasing  of 
oracles  :  the  one  was  Apollo's  chagrin  ;  who, 
it  seems,  took  it  in  dudgeon  to  be  interrogated 
about  so  many  trifles.  The  other  was,  that  in 
proportion  as  the  genii,  or  demons';,  who  had 
the  management  of  the  oracles,  died,  and  be- 
came extinct,  the  oracles  must  n&essarily 
cease.  He  adds  a  third  and  more  natural  cause 
for  the  ceasing  of  oracles  ;  namely,  the  forlorn 
state  of  Greece,  ruined  and  desolated  by  wars  ; 
for,  hence,  the  smallness  of  the  gains  let\the 
priests  sink  into  a  poverty  and  contempt  too 
bare  to  cover  the  fraud.  That  the  oracles 
were  silenced  about  or  soon  after  the  time  on 
our  Saviour's  advent,  may  be  proved,  says  Dr. 
Leland,  in  the  first  volume  of  his  learned  work 
on  "  The  Necessity  and  Advantage  of  Revela- 
tion," &c,  from  express  testimonies,  not  only 
of  Christian  but  of  Heathen  authors.  Lucan, 
who  wrote  his  "  Pharsalia"  in  the  reign  of 
Nero,  scarcely  thirty  years  after  our  Lord's 
crucifixion,  laments  it  as  one  of  the  greatest 
misfortunes  of  that  age,  that  the  Delphian  ora- 
cle, which  he  represents  as  one  of  the  choicest 
gifts  of  the  gods,  was  become  silent. 

Non  ullo  sizcula  dono 
Nostra  carcnl  majorc  Dcum,  quam  Delphica  sedes 
Quod silcal.  Pharsal.  lib.  v,  11). 

"  Of  all  the  wants:  with  which  the  age  is  curst, 
The  Delphic  silence  surely  is  the  worst."      Rowe. 

In  like  manner,  Juvenal  says, 

l) i  'phis  oracula  ccssant, 
El  genus  humunum  damnat  caligo  futuri. 

Sat.  vi,  554. 
"  Since  Delphi  now,  if  we  may  credit  fame, 
Gives  no  responses,  ami  a  long  dark  night 
Conceals  the  future  hour  from  mortal  sight." 

GlFFORD. 

Lucian  says,  that  when  ho  was  at  Delphi,  the 
oracle  gave  no  answer,  nor  was  the  priestess  in- 
spired. This  likewise  appears  from  Plutarch's 
treatise,  why  the  oracles  cease  to  give  answers, 
already  cited  ;  whence  it  is  also  manifest,  that 
the  most  learned  Heathens  were  very  much  at 
b  loss  how  to  give  a  tolerable  account  of  it. 
Porphyry,  in  a  passage  cited  from  him  by  Eu- 
Krhins,  says,  "The  city  of  Rome  was  overrun 
with  sickness,  yEsculapius  and  the  rest  of  the 
gods  having  withdrawn  their  converse  with 
men ;  because  since  Jesus  began  to  be  wor- 


shipped, no  man  had  received  any  public  help 
or  benefit  from  the  gods."  With  respect  to  the 
origin  of  oracles,  they  were  probably  imita- 
tions, first,  of  the  answers  given  to  the  holy 
patriarchs  from  the  divine  presence  or  She- 
chinah,  and  secondly,  of  the  responses  to  the 
Jewish  high  priest  from  the  mercy  seat:  for 
all  Paganism  is  a  parody  of  the  true  religion. 

ORDINATION,  the  act  of  conferring  holy 
orders,  or  of  initialing  a  person  into  the  minis- 
try of  the  Gospel,  by  prayer  and  with  or  with- 
out the  laying  on  of  hands.  In  the  church  of 
England,  ordination  has  always  been  esteemed 
the  principal  prerogative  of  bishops ;  and 
bishops  still  retain  the  function  as  a  mark  of 
their  spiritual  sovereignty  in  their  diocess. 
Without  ordination  no  person  can  receive  any 
benefice,  parsonage,  vicarage,  &c.  A  person 
must  be  twenty-three  years  of  age,  or  near  it, 
before  he  can  be  ordained  deacon,  or  have  any 
share  in  the  ministry  ;  and  full  twenty-four 
before  he  can  be  ordained  priest,  and  by  that 
means  be  permitted  to  administer  the  holy 
communion.  A  bishop,  on  the  ordination  of 
clergymen,  is  to  examine  them  in  the  presence 
of  the  ministers,  who  in  the  ordination  of  priests, 
but  not  of  deacons,  assist  him  at  the  imposi- 
tion of  hands  ;  but  this  is  only  done  as  a  mark 
of  assent,  not  because  it  is  thought  necessary. 
In  case  any  crime,  as  drunkenness,  perjury, 
forgery,  &c,  is  alleged  against  any  one  that 
is  to  be  ordained,  either  priest  or  deacon,  the 
bishop  ought  to  desist  from  ordaining  him. 
i,The  person  to  be  ordained  is  to  bring  a  testi- 
monial of  his  life  and  doctrine  to  the  bishop, 
and  to  giv«  an  account  of  his  faith  in  Latin  ; 
ahd  both  priests  and  deacons  are  obliged  to 
subscribe  to  the  thirty-nine  articles.  In  the 
ancient  discipline  there  was  no  such  thing  as  a 
vague  and  absolute  ordination  ;  but  every  one 
was  to  have  a  church,  whereof  he  was  to  be 
ordained  clerk  or  priest.  In  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury the  bishops  grew  more  remiss,  and  ordain- 
ed without  any  title  or  benefice.  The  council 
of  Trent,  however,  restored  the  ancient  disci- 
pline, and  appointed  that  none  should  be  or- 
dained but  those  who  were  provided  with  a 
benefice ;  which  practice  still  obtains  in  the 
church  of  England. 

The  reformed  held  the  call  of  the  people  the 
only  thing  essential  to  the  validity  of  the 
ministry  ;  and  teach,  that  ordination  is  only  a 
ceremony,  which  renders  the  call  more  august 
and  authentic.  Accordingly  the  Protestant 
churches  of  Scotland,  France,  Holland,  Swit- 
zerland, Germany,  Poland,  Hungary,  Den- 
mark, &c,  have  no  episcopal  ordination.  For 
Luther,  Calvin,  Bucer,  Melanclhon,  &o,  and 
all  the  first  reformers  and  founders  of  these 
churches,  who  ordained  ministers  among  them, 
were  themselves  presbyters,  and  no  other. 
And  though  in  some  of  these  churches  there 
are  ministers  called  superintendents,  or 
bishops,  yet  these  arc  on\y  jirimi  inter  pints, 
the  first  among  equals ;  not  pretending  to  any 
superiority  of  orders.  Having  themselves  no 
other  orders  than  what  either  presbyters  gave 
them,  or  what  was  given  them  as  presbyters, 
they  can  convey  no  other  to  those  they  ordain. 


ORD 


723 


OSS 


On  this  giound  the  Protestant  Dissenters  plead 
that  their  ordination,  though  not  episcopal,  is 
the  same  with  that  of  all  the  illustrious  Pro- 
testant churches  abroad  ;  and  object,  that  a 
priest  ordained  by  a  popish  bishop  should  be 
received  into  the  church  of  England  as  a  valid 
minister,  rightfully  ordained  ;  while  the  orders 
of  another,  ordained  by  the  most  learned  reli- 
gious presbyter,  which  any  foreign  country 
can  boast,  are  pronounced  not  valid,  and  he  is 
required  to  submit  to  be  ordained  afresh.  In 
opposition  to  episcopal  ordination,  they  urge 
that  Timothy  was  ordained  by  the  laying  on 
of  the  hands  of  the  presbytery,  1  Tim.  iv,  14  ; 
that  Paul  and  Barnabas  were  ordained  by  cer- 
tain prophets  and  teachers  in  the  church  of 
Antioch,  and  not  by  any  bishop  presiding  in 
that  city,  Acts  xiii,  1-3 ;  and  that  it  is  a  well 
known  fact,  that  presbyters  in  the  church  of 
Alexandria  ordained  even  their  own  bishops 
for  more  than  two  hundred  years  in  the  earliest 
ages  of  Christianity.  They  farther  argue,  that 
bishops  and  presbyters  are  in  Scripture  the 
same,  and  not  denominations  of  distinct  ortters 
or  offices  in  the  church,  referring  to  Phil, 
i,  1  ;  Titus  i,  5,  7  ;  Acts  xx,  27,  28 ;  1  Peter 
v,  1,  2.  To  the  same  purpose  they  maintain, 
that  the  superiority  of  bishops  to  presbyters  is 
not  pretended  to  be  of  divine,  but  of  human, 
institution ;  not  grounded  on  Scripture,  but 
only  upon  the  custom  or  ordinances  of  this 
realm,  by  the  first  reformers  and  founders  of 
the  church  of  England ;  nor  by  many  of  its 
most  learned  and  eminent  doctors  since.  See 
Stillingfleet's  henicum,  in  which  the  learned 
author  affirms  and  shows  this  to  be  the  senti- 
ment of  Cranmer,  and  other  chief  reformers 
both  in  Edward  VI.  and  Queen  Elizabeth's 
reign,  of  Archbishop  Whitgift,  Bishop  Bridges, 
Lee,  Hooker,  Sutcliff,  Hales,  Chillingworth, 
&c.  Moreover,  the  book  entitled,  the  "  Insti- 
tution of  a  Christian  Man,"  subscribed  by  the 
clergy  in  convocation,  and  confirmed  by  par- 
liament, owns  bishops  and  presbyters  by  Scrip- 
ture to  be  the  same.  Beside,  the  Protestant 
Dissenters  allege,  that  if  episcopal  ordination 
be  really  necessary  to  constitute  a  valid  minis- 
ter, it  does  not  seem  to  be  enjoined  by  the 
constitution  of  the  church  of  England;  because 
the  power  of  ordination  which  the  bishops  ex- 
ercise in  this  kingdom,  is  derived  entirely  and 
only  from  the  civil  magistrate ;  and  he  autho- 
ritatively prescribes  how,  and  to  whom  ordina- 
tion is  to  be  given  :  that  if  an  ordination  should 
be  conducted  in  other  manner  and  form  than 
tbat  prescribed  by  him,  such  ordination  would 
be  illegal,  and  of  no  authority  in  the  church. 
Accordingly  the  bishop  at  the  ordination  of 
the  candidate  asks,  "  Are  you  called  according 
to  the  will  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  the 
due  order  of  this  realm?"  The  constitution 
and  law  of  England  seem  to  know  nothing  of 
uninterrupted  lineal  descent,  but  considers  the 
king  vested,  by  act  of  parliament,  or  the  suf- 
frage of  the  people,  with  a  fulness  of  all  power 
ecclesiastical  in  these  realms,  as  empowering 
and  authorizing  bishops  to  ordam  :  and  this 
power  of  ordination  was  once  delegated  to 
Cromwell,  a  layman,  as  vicegerent  to  the  king. 


They  farther  think  it  strange,  that  the  validity 
of  orders  and  ministrations  should  be  derived, 
as  some  have  contended,  from  a  succession  of 
popish  bishops ;  bishops  of  a  church,  which, 
by  the  definition  of  the  nineteenth  article  of 
the  church,  can  be  no  part  of  the  true  visible 
church  of  Christ,  and  bishops,  likewise,  who 
consider  the  Protestant  clergy,  although  or- 
dained by  Protestant  bishops,  as  mere  common 
unconsecrated  laymen. 

On  reviewing  the  whole  of  this  controversy, 
says  Dr.  Watts,  that  since  there  are  some  texts 
in  the  New  Testament,  wherein  single  persons, 
either  Apostles,  as  Paul  and  Barnabas,  ordained 
ministers  in  the  churches,  or  evangelists,  as 
Timothy  and  Titus ;  and  since  other  missions 
or  ordinations  are  intimated  to  be  performed  by 
several  persons,  namely,  prophets,  teachers, 
elders,  or  a  presbytery,  Acts  xiii,  1  ;  1  Timothy 
iv,  14  ;  since  there  is  sometimes  mention  made 
of  the  imposition  of  hands  in  the  mission  of  a 
minister,  and  sometimes  no  mention  is  made 
of  it ;  and  since  it  is  evident  that  in  some  cases 
popular  ordinations  are  and  must  be  valid  with- 
out any  bishop  or  elder, — I  think  none  of  these 
differences  should  be  made  a  matter  of  violent 
contest  among  Christians ;  nor  ought  any  words 
to  be  pronounced  against  each  other  by  those 
of  the  episcopal,  presbyterian,  or  independent 
way.  Surely  all  may  agree  thus  far,  that  va- 
rious forms  or  modes,  seeming  to  be  used  in 
the  mission  or  ordination  of  ministers  in  pri- 
mitive times,  may  give  a  reasonable  occasion 
or  colour  for  sincere  and  honest  searchers  after 
truth  to  follow  different  opinions  on  this  head, 
and  do  therefore  demand  our  candid  and  chari- 
table sentiments  concerning  those  who  differ 
from  us.  Among  the  Wesleyan  Methodists, 
the  ordination  of  their  ministers  is  in  the 
annual  conference,  with  a  president  at  its 
head,  and  is  by  prayer  without  imposition  of 
hands.  The  latter  they  hold  to  be  a  circum- 
stance of  ordination,  not  an  essential.  They 
sometimes  therefore  use  it,  and  at  others  omit 
it.  The  missionaries  sent  out  by  that  body,  if 
not  previously  ordained  by  the  conference, 
are  set  apart  by  a  few  senior  ministers ;  and 
ordinarily  in  this  case,  the  service  of  the  church 
of  England,  with  some  alterations,  is  used, 
with  imposition  of  the  hands  of  the  ministers 
present. 

OSSIFRAGE,  D13,  Lev.  xi,  13;  Deut. 
xiv,  12.  Interpreters  are  not  agreed  on  this 
bird;  some  read  "vulture,"  others  "the  black 
eaodc,"  others  "the  falcon."  The  name  percs, 
by  which  it  is  called  in  Hebrew,  denotes  "  to 
crush,  to  break  ;"  and  this  name  agrees  with 
our  version,  which  implies  "  the  bone-breaker," 
which  name  is  given  to  a  kind  of  eagle,  from 
the  circumstance  of  its  habit  of  breaking  the 
bones  of  its  prey,  after  it  has  eaten  the  flesh  : 
some  say  also,  that  he  even  swallows  the  bones 
thus  broken.  Onkelos  uses  a  woril  which  sig- 
nifies "naked,"  and  leads  us  to  the  vulture: 
indeed,  if  we  were  to  take  the  classes  of  birds 
in  any  thing  .like  a  natural  order  in  the  pas- 
sages here  referred  to,  the  vulture  should  follow 
the  eagle  as  an  unclean  bird.  The  Septu- 
agint   interpreter  also    renders    vulturo;    and 


OST 


724 


OWL 


so  do  Munster,  Schindler,  and  the  Zurick  ver- 
sions. 

OSTRICH,  n}p> ;  in  Arabic  neamak ;  in 
Greek  spvQoKdpriXos,  the  camel  bird;  and  still  in 
the  east,  says  Niebuhr,  it  is  called  thar  edsjam- 
mel,  "  the  camel  bird,"  Lev.  xi,  16 ;  Deut. 
xiv,  15  ;  Job  xxx,  29  ;  Isaiah  xiii,  21 ;  xxxiv,  13  ; 
xliii,  20 ;  Jer.  1,  39 ;  Lam.  iv,  3 ;  Micah  i,  8 ; 
Dvjji,  Job  xxxix,  13.  The  first  name  in  the 
places  above  quoted  is,  by  our  own  translators, 
generally  rendered  "  owls."  "  Now  it  should 
be  recollected,"  says  the  author  of  "  Scripture 
Illustrated,"  "  that  the  owl  is  not  a  desert  bird, 
but  rather  resides  in  places  not  far  from  habita- 
tions, and  that  it  is  not  the  companion  of  ser- 
pents ;  whereas,  in  several  of  these  passages, 
the  joneh  is  associated  with  deserts,  dry,  exten- 
sive, thirsty  deserts,  and  with  serpents,  which 
are  their  natural  inhabitants.  Our  ignorance 
of  the  natural  history  of  the  countries  which 
the  ostrich  inhabits  has  undoubtedly  perverted 
the  import  of  the  above  passages ;  but  let  any 
one  peruse  them  afresh,  and  exchange  the  owl 
for  the  ostrich,  and  he  will  immediately  discover 
a  vigour  of  description,  and  an  imagery  much 
beyond  what  he  had  formerly  perceived."  The 
Hebrew  phrase  njjpn  na,  means  "the  daughter 
of  vociferation,"  and  is  understood  to  be  the 
female  ostrich,  probably  so  called  from  the 
noise  which  this  bird  makes.  It  is  affirmed  by 
travellers  of  good  credit,  that  ostriches  make 
a  fearful,  screeching,  lamentable  noise. 

Ostriches  are  inhabitants  of  the  deserts  of 
Arabia,  where  they  live  chiefly  upon  vegetables; 
lead  a  social  and  inoffensive  life,  the  male  as- 
sorting  with  the  female  with  connubial  fidelity. 
Their  eggs  are  very  large,  some  of  them  mea- 
suring above  five  inches  in  diameter,  and  weigh- 
ing twelve  or  fifteen  pounds.  These  birds  are 
very  prolific,  laying  forty  or  fifty  eggs  at  a 
clutch.  They  will  devour  leather,  grass,  hair, 
stones,  metals,  or  any  thing  that  is  given  to 
them ;  but  those  substances  which  the  coats 
of  the  stomach  cannot  act  upon  pass  whole. 
It  is  so  unclean  an  animal  as  to  eat  its  own 
ordure  as  soon  as  it  voids  it.  This  is  a  suffi- 
cient reason,  were  others  wanting,  why  such 
a  fowl  should  be  reputed  unclean,  and  its  use 
as  an  article  of  diet  prohibited.  "  The  ostrich," 
6ays  M.  Buffon,  "  was  known  in  the  remotest 
ages,  and  mentioned  in  the  most  ancient  books. 
How  indeed  could  an  animal  so  remarkably 
large,  and  so  wonderfully  prolific,  and  pecu- 
liarly suited  to  the  climate  as  is  the  ostrich, 
remain  unknown  in  Africa,  and  part  of  Asia, 
countries  peopled  from  the  earliest  ages,  full 
of  deserts  indeed,  but  where  there  is  not  a  spot 
which  has  not  been  traversed  by  the  foot  of 
man  ?  The  family  of  the  ostrich,  therefore,  is 
of  great  antiquity.  Nor  in  the  course  of  ages 
has  it  varied  or  degenerated  from  its  native 
purity.  It  has  always  remained  on  its  pater- 
n  i!  <.>tate;  and  its  lustre  has  been  transmitted 
unsullied  by  foreign  intercourse.  In  short,  it 
is  among  the  birds  what  the  elephant  is  among 
the  quadrupeds,  a  distinct  race,  widely  separated 
from  all  the  others  by  characters  as  striking 
as  they  are  invariable."  "  On  the  least  noise," 
snys  Dr.  Shaw,  "or  trivial  occasion,  she  for- 


sakes her  eggs,  or  her  young  ones ;  to  which 
perhaps  she  never  returns ;  or  if  she  does,  it 
may  be  too  late  either  to  restore  life  to  the  one, 
or  to  preserve  the  lives  of  the  others.  Agree- 
ably to  this  account  the  Arabs  meet  sometimes 
with  whole  nests  of  these  eggs  undisturbed : 
some  of  them  are  sweet  and  good,  others  are 
addle  and  corrupted;  others  again  have  their 
young  ones  of  different  growth,  according  to 
the  time,  it  may  be  presumed,  they  have  been 
forsaken  of  the  dam.  The  Arabs  often  meet 
with  a  few  of  the  little  ones  no  bigger  .than 
well  grown  pullets,  half  starved,  straggling  and 
moaning  about  like  so  many  distressed  orphans 
for  their  mother.  In  this  manner  the  ostrich 
may  be  said  to  be  hardened  against  her  young 
ones  as  though  they  were  not  hers ;  her  labour, 
in  hatching  and  attending  thern  so  far,  being 
vain,  without  fear,  or  the  least  concern  of  what 
becomes  of  them  afterward.  This  want  of 
affection  is  also  recorded,  Lam.  iv,  3,  'the 
daughter  of  my  people  is  become  cruel,  like 
ostriches  in  the  wilderness ;'  that  is,  by  ap- 
parently deserting  their  own,  and  receiv- 
ing others  in  return."  Natural  affection  and 
sagacious  instinct  are  the  grand  instruments 
by  which  providence  continues  the  race  of 
other  animals :  but  no  limits  can  be  set  to  the 
wisdom  and  power  of  God.  He  preserveth 
the  breed  of  the  ostrich  without  those  means, 
and  even  in  a  penury  of  all  the  necessaries  of 
life.  Notwithstanding  the  stupidity  of  this 
animal,  its  Creator  hath  amply  provided  for  its 
safety,  by  endowing  it  with  extraordinary  swift- 
ness, and  a  surprising  apparatus  for  escaping 
from  its  enemy.  They,  when  they  raise  them- 
selves up  for  flight,  "  laugh  at  the  horse  and 
his  rider."  They  afford  him  an  opportunity 
only  of  admiring  at  a  distance  the  extraordinary 
agility  and  the  stateliness  likewise  of  their 
motions,  the  richness  of  their  plumage,  and 
the  great  propriety  there  was  in  ascribing  to 
them  an  expanded  quivering  wing.  Nothing 
certainly  can  be  more  entertaining  than  such 
a  sight,  the  wings,  by  their  rapid  but  unwearied 
vibrations,  equally  serving  them  for  sails  and 
oars ;  while  their  feet,  no  less  assisting  in  con- 
veying them  out  of  sight,  seem  to  be  insensible 
of  fatigue. 

OWL.  There  are  several  varieties  of  this 
species,  all  too  well  known  to  need  a  particular 
description.  They  are  nocturnal  birds  of  prey, 
and  have  their  eyes  better  adapted  for  discern- 
ing objects  in  the  evening  or  twilight  than  in 
the  glare  of  day.  1.  w\2,  Lev.  xi,  17;  Deut. 
xiv,  16  ;  Psalm  cii,  6,  is  in  our  version  rendered 
"the  little  owl."  Aquila,  Theodotion,  Jerom, 
Kimchi,  and  most  of  the  older  interpreters,  are 
quoted  to  justify  this  rendering.  Michaelis,  at 
some  length,  supports  the  opinion  that  it  is 
the  horned  owl.  Bochart,  though  with  some 
hesitation,  suspected  it  to  be  the  onocrotalus,  a 
kind  of  pelican,  because  the  Hebrew  name 
signifies  cup,  and  the  pelican  is  remarkable  for 
a  pouch  or  bag  under  the  lower  jaw  ;  but  "'ore 
are  good  reasons  for  supposing  that  bird  to  be 
the  pNp  of  the  next  verse.  Dr.  Geddes  thinks 
this  bird  the  cormorant ;  and  as  it  begins  the  • 
list  of  water  fowl,  and  is  mentioned  always  in 


ox 


725 


PAL 


the  same  contexts  with  n^P,  con 
water  bird,  his  opinion  maybe  adopted.  2.  c\w}*, 
Lev.  xi,  17;  Deut.  xiv,  16;  Isaiah  xxxiv,  11. 
In  the  two  first  places  our  translators  render 
this  "  the  great  owl,"  which  is  strangely  placed 
after  the  little  owl,  and  among  water  birds. 
"  Our  translators,"  says  the  author  of  "  .Scrip- 
ture Illustrated,"  "  seem  to  have  thought  the 
owl  a  convenient  bird,  as  we  have  three  owls 
in  two  verses."  Some  critics  think  it  means 
a  species  of  night  bird,  because  the  word  may 
be  derived  from  typs,  which  signifies  the  twi- 
light, the  time  when  owls  fly  about.  But  this 
interpretation,  says  Parkhurst,  seems  very 
forced ;  and  since  it  is  mentioned  among 
water  fowls,  and  the  LXX.  have,  in  the  first 
and  last  of  those  texts,  rendered  it  by  i6ts,  the 
ibis,  we  are  disposed  to  adopt  it  here,  and 
think  the  evidence  strengthened  by  this,  that 
in  a  Coptic  version  of  Lev.  xi,  17,  it  is  called 
ip  or  hip,  which,  with  a  Greek  termination, 
would  very  easily  make  (6<s.  3.  pop,  which 
occurs  only  in  Isaiah  xxxiv,  15,  is  in  our  ver- 
sion rendered  "the  great  owl."  4.  n^iV,  Isa. 
xxxiv,  14,  in  our  version  "  the  screech  owl." 
The  root  signifies  night ;  and  as  undoubtedly 
a  bird  frequenting  dark  places  and  ruins  is 
referred  to,  we  must  admit  some  kind  of  owl. 

A  place  of  lonely  desolation,  where 

The  screeching  tribe  and  pelicans  abide, 

And  the  dun  ravens  croak  mid  ruins  drear, 
And  moaning  owls  from  man  the  farthest  hide. 
OX,  -\pj,  in  Arabic  bmkerre  and  bykar,  the 
male  of  horned  cattle  of  the  beeve  kind,  at  full 
age,  when  fit  for  the  plough.  Younger  ones 
are  called  bullocks.  Michaelis,  in  his  elabo- 
rate work  on  the  laws  of  Moses,  has  proved 
that  castration  was  never  practised.  The 
rural  economy  of  the  Israelites  led  them  to 
value  the  ox  as  by  far  the  most  important  of 
domestic  animals,  from  the  consideration  of 
his  great  use  in  all  the  operations  of  farming. 
In  the  patriarchal  ages,  the  ox  constituted  no 
inconsiderable  portion  of  their  wealth.  Thus 
Abraham  is  said  to  be  very  rich  in  cattle,  Gen. 
xxiv,  35.  Men  of  every  age  and  country  have 
been  much  indebted  to  the  labours  of  this  ani- 
mal. So  early  as  in  the  days  of  Job,  who  was 
probably  contemporary  with  Isaac,  "the  oxen 
were  ploughing,  and  the  asses  were  feeding 
beside  them,"  when  the  Sabeans  fell  upon 
them,  and  took  them  away.  In  times  long 
posterior,  when  Elijah  was  commissioned  to 
anoint  Elisha,  the  son  of  Shaphat,  prophet  in 
his  stead,  he  found  him  ploughing  with  twelve 
yoke  of  oxen,  1  Kings  xix,  19.  For  many  ages 
the  hopes  of  oriental  husbandmen  depended 
entirely  on  their  labours.  This  was  so  much 
the  case  in  the  time  of  Solomon,  that  he  ob- 
serves, in  one  of  his  proverbs,  "Where  no 
oxen  are,  the  crib  is  clean,"  or  rather  empty ; 
"but  much  increase  is  by  the  strength  of  the 
ox,"  Prov.  xiv,  4.  The  ass,  in  the  course  of 
ages  was  compelled  to  bend  his  stubborn  neck 
to  the  yoke,  and  share  the  labours  of  the  ox  ; 
but  still  the  preparation  of  the  ground  in  the 
time  of  spring  depended  chiefly  on  the  more 
powerful  exertions  of  the  latter.  When  this 
animal  was   employed  in   bringing  home  the 


produce  of  the  harvest,  he  was  regaled  with  a 
mixture  of  chaff,  chopped  straw,  and  various 
kinds  of  grain,  moistened  with  acidulated 
water.  But  among  the  Jews,  the  ox  was  best 
fed  when  employed  in  treading  out  the  corn  ; 
for  the  divine  law,  in  many  of  whose  precepts 
the  benevolence  of  the  Deity  conspicuously 
shines,  forbad  to  muzzle  him,  and,  by  conse- 
quence,  to  prevent  him  from  eating  what  he 
would  of  the  grain  he  was  employed  to  sepa- 
rate from  the  husks.  The  ox  was  also  com- 
pelled to  the  labour  of  dragging  the  cart  or 
wagon.  The  number  of  oxen  commonly 
yoked  to  one  cart  appears  to  have  been  two, 
Num.  vii,  3,  7,  8 ;  1  Sam.  vi,  7  ;  2  Sam.  vi,  3,  6. 
The  wild  ox,  wn,  Deut.  xiv,  5,  is  supposed 
to  be  the  oryx  of  the  Greeks,  which  is  a  species 
of  large  stag. 

PADAN-ARAM,  called  also  Sedan-Aram 
in  Hosea ;  both  names  denoting  Aram  or  Syria 
the  fruitful,  or  cultivated,  and  apply  to  the 
northern  part  of  Mesopotamia,  in  which  Ha- 
ran  or  Charran  was  situated.  See  Mesopo- 
tamia. 

PAGANS,  Heathens,  and  particularly  those 
who  worship  idols.  The  term  came  into  use 
after  the  establishment  of  Christianity,  the 
cities  and  great  towns  affording  the  first  con- 
verts. The  Heathens  were  called  Pagans, 
from  pagus,  "  a  village,"  because  they  were 
then  found  chiefly  in  remote  country  places  ; 
but  we  use  the  term  commonly  for  all  who  do 
not  receive  the  Jewish,  Christian,  or  Moham- 
medan religions. 

PAINTING  THE  FACE,  2  Kings  ix,  30. 
See  Eyes. 

PALESTINE,  taken  in  a  limited  sense,  de 
notes  the  country  of  the  Philistines  or  Pales- 
tines,  including  that  part  of  the  land  of  promise 
which  extended  along  the  Mediterranean  Sea, 
from  Gaza  south  to  Lydda  north.  The  LXX 
were  of  opinion  that  the  word  Philistiim 
which  they  generally  translate  Allophyli,  sig 
nified  "  strangers,"  or  men  of  another  tribe 
Palestine,  taken  in  a  more  general  sense,  sig 
nifies  the  whole  country  of  Canaan,  the  whole 
land  of  promise,  as  well  beyond  as  on  this  side 
Jordan,  though  pretty  frequently  it  is  restrained 
to  the  country  on  this  side  that  river ;  so  that 
in  later  times  the  words  Judea  and  Palestine 
were  synonymous.  We  find,  also,  the  name 
of  Syria  Palestina  given  to  the  land  of  promise, 
and  even  sometimes  this  province  is  compre- 
hended in  Coelo-Syria,  or  the  Lower  Syria. 
Herodotus  is  the  most  ancient  writer  we 
know  that  speaks  of  Syria  Palestina.  He 
places  it  between  Phenicia  and  Egypt.  See 
Canaan. 

PALM  TREE,  nnn,  Exodus  xv,  27,  &c. 
This  tree,  sometimes  called  the  date  tree, 
grows  plentifully  in  the  east.  It  rises  to  a 
great  height.  The  stalks  are  generally  full 
of  rugged  knots,  which  are  the  vestiges  of  the 
decayed  leaves ;  for  the  trunk  of  this  tree  is 
not  solid,  like  other  trees,  but  its  centre  is 
filled  with  pith,  round  which  is  a  tough  bark 
full  of  strong  fibres  when  young,  which,  as 
the  tree  grows  old,  hardens  and  becomes  lig- 


PAL 


72G 


PAL 


neous.  To  this  bark  the  leaves  are  closely 
joined,  which  in  the  centre  rise  erect ;  but, 
after  they  are  advanced  above  the  vagina 
which  surrounds  them,  they  expand  very  wide 
on  every  side  the  stem  ;  and,  as  the  older 
leaves  decay,  the  stalk  advances  in  height. 
The  leaves,  when  the  tree  has  grown  to  a  size 
for  bearing  fruit,  arc  six  or  eight  feet  long, 
are  very  broad  when  spread  out,  and  are  used 
for  covering  the  tops  of  houses,  &c.  The  fruit, 
which  is  called  date,  grows  below  the  leaves 
in  clusters  and  is  of  a  sweet  and  agreeable 
taste.  The  learned  Krempfer,  as  a  botanist, 
an  antiquary,  and  a  traveller,  has  exhausted 
the  whole  subject  of  palm  trees.  "  The  dili- 
gent natives,"  says  Mr.  Gibbon,  "  celebrated, 
either  in  verse  or  prose,  the  three  hundred  and 
sixty  uses  to  which  the  trunk,  the  branches, 
the  leaves,  the  juice,  and  the  fruit,  were  skil- 
fully applied."  "The  extensive  importance 
of  the  date  tree,"  says  Dr.  E.  D.  Clarke,  "is 
one  of  the  most  curious  subjects  to  which  a 
traveller  can  direct  his  attention.  A  consider- 
able part  of  the  inhabitants  of  Egypt,  of  Ara- 
bia, and  Persia,  subsist  almost  entirely  upon 
its  fruit.  They  boast  also  of  its  medicinal  vir- 
tues. Their  camels  feed  upon  the  date  stone. 
From  the  leaves  they  make  couches,  baskets, 
bags,  mats,  and  brushes ;  from  the  branches, 
cages  for  their  poultry,  and  fences  for  their 
gardens;  from  the  fibres  of  the  boughs,  thread, 
ropes,  and  rigging ;  from  the  sap  is  prepared 
a  spirituous  liquor;  and  the  body  of  the  tree 
furnishes  fuel.  It  is  even  said  that  from  one 
variety  of  the  palm  tree,  the  phoenix fariniferd, 
meal  has  been  extracted,  which  is  found  among 
the  fibres  of  the  trunk,  and  has  been  used  for 
food." 

In  the  temple  of  Solomon  were  pilasters 
mado  in  the  form  of  palm  trees,  1  Kings  vi,  -20. 
It  was  under  a  Iree  of  this  kind  that  Deborah 
dwelt  between  Ramah  and  Bethel,  Judges  iv,  5. 
To  the  fair,  flourishing,  and  fruitful  condition 
of  this  tree,  the  psalmist  very  aptly  compares 
the  votary  of  virtue,  Psalm  xcii,  12,  13,  14: — 

The  righteous  shall  flourish  like  a  palm  tree. 
Tlio.se  that  are  planted  in  the  house  of  Jehovah, 
In  ilie  courts  of  our  ( rod,  shall  flourish ; 
In  old  age  they  shall  still  put  forth  buds, 

They  shall  lie  full  of  sap  and  vigorous. 

The  palm  tree  is  crowned  at  its  top  with  a 
large  tuft  of  spiring  leaves  about  four  feet 
long,  which  never  fall  otV,  hut  always  continue 
in  the  same  flourishing  verdure.  The  tree,  as 
l>r.  Shaw  was  informed,  is  in  its  greatest 
vigour  about  thirty  years  after  it  is  planted, 
and  continues  in  full  vigour  seventy  years 
longer;  bearing  all  this  while,  every  year, 
about  throe  or  four  hundred  pounds'  weight 
of  dates.  The  trunk  of  the  tree  is  remarkably 
straighl  and  lofty.  Jeremiah,  speaking  of  the 
idols  that  were  carried  in  procession,  says  they 
were  upright  as  the  palm  tree,  .lev.  k,  8.  And 
for  ereri  Mature  and  slenderness  of  form,  the 
spouse,  in  Canticles  vii,  7,  is  compared  to  this 
tree  : — 

How  framed,  O  my  love,  for  delights  ' 
Lo  thy  stature  is  lute  a  palm  tree, 
And  toy  bosom  like' clusters  of  dates. 


On  this  passage  Mr.  Good  observes,  that  "the 
very  word  tamar,  here  used  for  the  palm  tree, 
and  whose  radical  meaning  is  '  straight,'  or 
'upright,'  (whence  it  was  afterward  applied  to 
pillars  or  columns,  as  well  as  to  the  palm,) 
was  also  a  general  name  among  the  ladies  of 
Palestine,  and  unquestionably  adopted  in  ho- 
nour of  the  stature  they  had  already  acquired, 
or  gave  a  fair  promise  of  attaining." 

A  branch  of  palm  was  a  signal  of  victory, 
and  was  carried  before  conquerors  in  the 
triumphs.  To  this,  allusion  is  made,  Rev. 
vii,  9  :  and  for  this  purpose  were  they  borne 
before  Christ  in  his  way  to  Jerusalem,  John 
xii,  1 3.  From  the  inspissated  sap  of  the  tree, 
a  kind  of  honey,  or  dispse,  as  it  is  called,  is 
produced,  little  inferior  to  that  of  bees.  The 
same  juice,  after  fermentation,  makes  a  sort 
of  wine  much  used  in  the  east.  It  is  once 
mentioned  as  wine,  Num.  xxviii,  7 ;  Exodus 
xxix,  4(1 ;  and  by  it  is  intended  the  strong 
drink,  fsaiah  v,  11;  xxiv,  9.  Theodoret  and 
Chrysostom,  on  these  places,  both  Syrians, 
and  unexceptionable  witnesses  in  what  belongs 
to  their  own  country,  confirm  this  declaration. 
"  This  liquor,"  says  Dr.  Shaw,  "  which  has  n 
more  luscious  sweetness  than  honey,  is  of  the 
consistence  of  a  thin  syrup,  but  quickly  grows 
tart  and  ropy,  acquiring  an  intoxicating  quality, 
and  giving  by  distillation  an  agreeable  spirit, 
or  arltky,  according  to  the  general  name  of 
these  people  for  all  hot  liquors,  extracted  by 
the  alembic."  Its  Hebrew  name  is  "oip,  the 
atKtpa  of  the  Greeks;  and  from  its  sweetness,  pro- 
bably, the  saccharum  of  the  Romans.  Jerom  in- 
forms us  that  in  Hebrew  "any  inebriating  liquor 
is  called  siccra,  whether  made  of  grain,  the  juice 
of  apples,  honey,  dates,  or  any  other  fruit." 

This  tree  was  formerly  of  great  value  and 
esteem  among  the  Israelites,  and  so  very 
much  cultivated  in  Judea,  that,  in  after  times, 
it  became  the  emblem  of  that  country,  as  may 
be  seen  in  a  medal  of  the  Emperor  Vespasian 
upon  the  conquest  of  Judea.  It  represents  a 
captive  woman  sitting  under  a  palm  tree,  with 
this  inscription,  "  Judett-eapta ;"  [Judea  capti- 
vated ;]  and  upon  a  Greek  coin,  likewise,  of 
his  son  Titus,  struck  upon  the  like  occasion", 
we  see  a  shield  suspended  upon  a  palm  tree, 
with  a  Victory  writing  upon  it.  Pliny  also 
calls  Judea  palmis  inch/la,  "  renowned  for 
palms."  Jericho,  in  particular,  was  called 
"the  city  of  palms,"  Dent,  xxxiv,  3;  2  Chron. 
xxviii,  15;  because,  as  Joscphus,  Strabo,  and 
Pliny,  have  remarked,  it  anciently  abounded 
in  palm  trees.  And  so  Dr.  Shaw  remarks, 
that,  though  these  trees  arc  not  now  either 
plentiful  or  fruitful  in  other  parts  of  the  holy 
land,  yet.  there  are  several  of  them  at  Jericho, 
where  there  is  the  eonveniency  they  require 
of  being  often  watered;  where,  likewise,  the 
eliiuate  is  warm,  and  the  soil  sandy,  such  as 
they  thrive  and  delight  in.  Tamar,  a  city 
built  iu  the  desert  by  Solomon,  1  Kings  ix,  16; 
Bzekiel  xlvii,  is*;  xlviii,  28,  was  probably  so 
named  from  the  palm  trees  growing  about  it; 
as  it  was  afterward  by  the  Romans  called 
Palmyra,  or  rather  Palmira,  on  the  same  ac- 
count, from  palm  a    '.'n  palm  tree" 


PAP 


727 


PAR 


PALMER  WORM,  DM,  Joel  i,  4;  Amos 
iv,  9.  Bochart  says  that  it  is  a  kind  of  locust, 
furnished  witli  very  sharp  teeth,  with  which  it 
gnaws  off  grass,  corn,  leaves  of  trees,  and  even 
their  bark.  The  Jews  support  this  idea  by 
deriving  the  word  from  tu  or  JM,  to  cut,  to 
shear,  or  miner.  Notwithstanding  the  unani- 
mous sentiments  of  the  Jews  that  this  is  a 
locust,  yet  the  LXX.  read  «:«>*■>;,  and  the  Vul- 
gate eruca,  "a  caterpillar;"  which  rendering 
is  supported  by  Fuller.  Michaelis  agrees  with 
this  opinion,  and  thinks  that  the  sharp  cutting 
teeth  of  the  caterpillar,  wh  ich,  like  a  sickle,  clear 
away  all  before  them,  might  give  name  to  this 
insect.  Caterpillars  also  begin  their  ravages 
before  the  locust,  which  seems  to  coincide  with 
the  nature  of  the  creature  here  intended. 

PALSY.     See  Diseases. 

PAMPHYLIA,  a  province  of  Asia  Minor 
which  gives  name  to  that  part  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea  which  washes  its  coast,  Acts  xxvii, 
5.  To  the  south  it  is  bounded  by  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  to  the  north  by  Pisidia ;  having 
Lycia  to  the  west,  and  Cilicia  to  the  east. 
Paul  and  Barnahas  preached  at  Perga,  in 
Pamphylia,  Acts  xiii,  13;  xiv,  24. 

PANTHEISM,  a  doctrine  into  which  some 
of  the  sages  of  antiquity  fell  by  revolting  at 
the  monstrous  ahsurdities  of  Polytheism.  Not 
knowing  the  true  God  as  an  infinite  and  per- 
sonal subsistence,  a  cause  above  and  distinct 
from  all  effects,  they  believed  that  God  was 
every  thing,  and  every  thing  God.  This 
monstrous,  and  in  its  effects  immoral,  notion, 
is  still  held  by  the  Brahmins  of  India. 

PAPER  REED,  ndj,  Exod.  ii,  3 ;  Job  viii, 
11 ;  Isaiah  xviii,  2  ;  xxxv,  7.  When  the  outer 
skin,  or  bark,  is  taken  off,  there  are  several 
films,  or  inner  pellicles,  one  within  another. 
These,  when  separated  from  the  stalk,  were 
laid  on  a  table  artfully  matched  and  flatted 
together,  and  moistened  with  the  water  of  the 
Nile,  which,  dissolving  the  glutinous  juices  of 
the  plant,  caused  them  to  adhere  closely  to- 
gether. They  were  afterward  pressed,  and 
then  dried  in  the  sun,  and  thus  were  prepared 
sheets  or  leaves  for  writing  upon  in  characters 
marked  by  a  coloured  liquid  passing  through 
a  hollow  reed.  The  best  papyrus  was  called 
IcpariKti,  or  paper  of  the  priests.  On  this  the 
sacred  documents  of  Egypt  were  written. 
Ancient  books  were  written  on  papyrus,  and 
those  of  the  New  Testament  among  the  rest. 
In  the  fourth  century  however  these  sacred 
writings  are  found  on  skins.  This  was  pre- 
ferred for  durability  ;  and  many  decayed  copies 
of  the  New  Testament,  belonging  to  libraries, 
were  early  transferred  to  parchment.  Finally 
came  paper,  the  name  of  which  was  taken  from 
the  Egyptian  reed  ;  but  the  materials  of  which 
it  was  fabricated  were  cotton  and  linen.  See 
Bulrush  and  Book. 

PAPIIOS,  a  celebrated  city  of  Cyprus,  lying 
on  the  western  coast  of  the  island,  where 
Venus  (who  from  hence  took  the  name  of 
Papliia)  had  her  most  ancient  and  most  famous 
temple ;  and  here  the  Roman  proconsul,  Ser- 
gius  Paulus,  resided,  whom  St.  Paul  converted 
to  Christianity,  Acts  xiii,  6, 


PARABLE,  zsapaSu\!i,  formed  from  aapa6d\- 
Xeiv,  to  oppose  or  compare,  an  allegorical  in- 
struction, founded  on  something  real  or  appa- 
rent in  nature  or  history,  from  which  a  moral 
is  drawn,  by  comparing  it  with  some  other 
thing  in  which  the  people  are  more  immedi- 
ately concerned.  (See  Allegory.)  Aristotle 
defines  parable,  a  similitude  drawn  from  form 
to  form.  Cicero  calls  it  a  collation  ;  others,  a 
simile.  F.  de  Colonia  calls  it  a  rational  fable  ; 
but  it  may  be  founded  on  real  occurrences,  as 
many  parables  of  our  Saviour  were.  The 
Hebrews  call  it  bwo,  from  a  word  which  signi- 
fies either  to  predominate  or  to  assimilate;  the 
Proverbs  of  Solomon  are  by  them  also  called 
□^CD,  parables,  or  proverbs. 

Parable,  according  to  the  eminently  learned 
Bishop  Lowth,  is  that  kind  of  allegory  which 
consists  of  a  continued  narration  of  a  fictitious 
or  accommodated  event,  applied  to  the  illustra- 
tion of  some  important  truth.  The  Greeks 
call  these  alvoi,  allegories,  or  apologues;  the 
Latins,  fabulai,  or  "  fables ;"  and  the  writings 
of  the  Phrygian  sage,  or  those  composed  in 
imitation  of  him,  have  acquired  the  greatest 
celebrity.  Nor  has  our  Saviour  himself  dis- 
dained to  adopt  the  same  method  of  instruc- 
tion ;  of  whose  parables  it  is  doubtful  whether 
they  excel  most  in  wisdom  and  utility,  or  in 
sweetness,  elegance,  and  perspicuity.  As  the 
appellation  of  parable  has  been  applied  to  his 
discourses  of  this  kind,  the  term  is  now  re- 
stricted from  its  former  extensive  signification 
to  a  more  confined  sense.  But  this  species  of 
composition  occurs  very  frequently  in  the  pro- 
phetic poetry,  and  particularly  in  that  of 
Ezekiel.  If  to  us  they  should  sometimes  ap- 
pear obscure,  we  must  remember,  that,  in  those 
early  times  when  the  prophetical  writings 
were  indited,  it  was  universally  the  mode 
throughout  all  the  eastern  nations  to  convey 
sacred  truths  under  mysterious  figures  and 
representations.  In  order  to  our  forming  a 
more  certain  judgment  upon  this  subject,  Dr. 
Lowth  has  briefly  explained  some  of  the  pri 
mary  qualities  of  the  poetic  parables ;  so  that, 
by  considering  the  general  nature  of  them,  we 
may  decide  more  accurately  on  the  merits  of 
particular  examples. 

It  is  the  first  excellence  of  a  parable  to  turn 
upon  an  image  well  known  and  applicable  to 
the  subject,  the  meaning  of  which  is  clear  and 
definite ;  for  this  circumstance  will  give  it 
perspicuity,  which  is  essential  to  every  species 
of  allegory.  If  the  parables  of  the  sacred  pro- 
phets are  examined  by  this  rule,  they  will  not 
be  found  deficient.  They  are  in  general 
founded  upon  such  imagery  as  is  frequently 
used,  and  similarly  applied  by  way  of  metaphor 
and  comparison  in  the  Hebrew  poetry.  Ex- 
amples of  this  kind  occur  in  the  parable  of  the 
deceitful  vineyard,  Isaiah  v,  1-7,  and  of  the 
useless  vine,  Ezek.  xv;  xix,  10-14;  for  under 
this  imagery  the  ungrateful  people  of  God  are 
more  than  once  described;  Ezek.  xix,  1-9; 
xxxi ;  xvi ;  xxiii.  Moreover,  the  image  must 
not  only  be  apt  and  familiar,  but  it  must  bo 
also  elegant  and  beautiful  in  itself;  since  jt  is 
the  purpose  of  a  poetic  parable,  not  only  to 


PAR 


728 


PAS 


explain  more  perfectly  some  proposition,  but 
frequently  to  give  it  soino  animation  and 
splendour.  As  the  imagery  from  natural  ob- 
jects is  in  this  respect  superior  to  all  others, 
the  parables  of  the  sacred  poets  consist  chiefly 
of  this  kind  of  imagery.  It  is  also  essential 
to  the  elegance  of  a  parable,  that  the  imagery 
should  not  only  be  apt  and  beautiful,  but  that 
all  its  parts  and  appendages  should  be  per- 
spicuous and  pertinent.  Of  all  these  excel- 
lencies, there  cannot  be  more  perfect  examples 
than  the  parables  that  have  been  just  specified  ; 
to  which  we  may  add  the  well  known  parable 
of  Nathan,  2  Sam.  xii,  1-4,  although  written 
in  prose,  as  well  as  that  of  Jotham,  Judges  ix, 
7-15,  which  appears  to  be  the  most  ancient 
extant,  and  approaches  somewhat  nearer  to 
the  poetical  form.  It  is  also  the  criterion  of 
a  parable,  that  it  be  consistent  throughout, 
and  that  the  literal  be  never  confounded  with 
the  figurative  sense ;  and  in  this  respect  it 
materially  differs  from  that  species  of  allegory, 
called  the  continued  metaphor,  Isaiah  v,  1-7. 
It  should  be  considered,  that  the  continued 
metaphor  and  the  parable  have  a  very  differ- 
ent view.  The  sole  intention  of  the  former  is 
to  embellish  a  subject,  to  represent  it  more 
magnificently,  or  at  the  most  to  illustrate  it, 
that,  by  describing  it  in  more  elevated  lan- 
guage, it  may  strike  the  mind  more  forcibly ; 
but  the  intent  of  the  latter  is  to  withdraw  the 
truth  for  a  moment  from  our  sight,  in  order  to 
conceal  whatever  it  may  contain  ungrateful 
or  reproving,  and  to  enable  it  secretly  to  in- 
sinuate itself,  and  obtain  an  ascendency  as  it 
were  by  stealth.  There  is,  however,  a  species 
of  parable,  the  intent  of  which  is  only  to  illus- 
trate the  subject ;  such  is  that  remarkable  one 
of  the  cedar  of  Lebanon,  Ezek.  xxxi;  than 
which,  if  we  consider  the  imagery  itself,  none 
was  ever  more  apt  or  more  beautiful ;  or  the 
description  and  colouring,  none  was  ever 
more  elegant  or  splendid ;  in  which,  however, 
the  poet  has  occasionally  allowed  himself  to 
blend  the  figurative  with  the  literal  descrip- 
tion, verses  11,  14-17;  whether  he  has  done 
this  because  the  peculiar  nature  of  this  kind 
of  parable  required  it,  or  whether  his  own  fer- 
vid imagination  alone,  which  disdained  the 
stricter  rules  of  composition,  was  his  guide, 
our  learned  author  can  scarcely  presume  to 
determine. 

In  the  New  Testament,  the  word  parable  is 
used  variously:  in  Luke  iv,  23,  for  a  proverb, 
or  adage ;  in  Matt,  xv,  15,  for  a  thing  darkly 
and  figuratively  expressed;  in  Hob.  ix,  9,  &c, 
for  a  type  ;  in  Luke  xiv,  7,  &c,  for  a  special 
instruction  ;  in  Matt,  xxiv,  32,  for  a  similitude 
or  comparison. 

PARADISE,  according  to  the  original 
meaning  of  the  term,  whether  it  be  of  Hebrew, 
1  Idee,  or  Persian  derivation,  signifies,  "a 
place  enclosed  for  pleasure  and  delight."  The 
LXX.,  or  Greek  translators  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, make  use  of  the  word  paradise,  when 
they  speak  of  the  garden  of  Eden,  which  Je- 
hovah planted  at  the  creation,  and  in  which 
he  placed  our  first  parents.  There  are  three 
places  in  the  Hebrew  text  of  the  Old  Testa- 


ment where  this  word  is  found,  namely,  Neh. 
ii,  8;  Cant,  iv,  13;  Eccles.  ii,  5.  The  term 
paradise  is  obviously  used  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, as  another  word  for  heaven ;  by  our 
Lord,  Luke  xxiii,  43;  by  the  Apostle  Paul, 
2  Cor.  xii,  4 ;  and  in  the  Apocalypse,  ii,  7. 
See  Eden. 

PAR  AN,  Desert  of,  a  "  great  and  terrible 
wilderness"  which  the  children  of  Israel  en- 
tered after  leaving  Mount  Sinai,  Num.  x,  12 ; 
Deut.  i,  19  ;  and  in  which  thirty-eight  of  their 
forty  years  of  wandering  were  spent.  It  ex- 
tended from  Mount  Sinai  on  the  south,  to  the 
southern  border  of  the  land  of  Canaan  on  the 
north ;  having  the  desert  of  Shur,  with  its 
subdivisions,  the  deserts  of  Etham  and  Sin, 
on  the  west,  and  the  eastern  branch  of  the 
Red  Sea,  the  desert  of  Zin  and  Mount  Seir, 
on  the  east.  Burckhardt  represents  this  desert, 
which  he  entered  from  that  of  Zin,  or  valley 
of  El  Araba,  about  the  parallel  of  Suez,  as  a 
dreary  expanse  of  calcareous  soil,  covered  with 
black  flints. 

PARTRIDGE,  Vftp,  1  Samuel  xxvi,  20  ;  Jer. 
xvii,  11 ;  niplii-,  Ecclus.  xi,  30.  In  the  first  of 
these  places  David  says,  "The  king  of  Israel 
is  come  out  to  hunt  a  partridge  on  the  mount- 
ains ;"  and  in  the  second,  "The  partridge  sit- 
teth,"  on  eggs,  "  and  produceth,"  or  hatcheth, 
"not;  so  he  that  getteth  riches,  and  not  by 
right,  shall  leave  them  in  the  midst  of  his 
days,  and  at  his  end  shall  be  contemptible." 
This  passage  does  not  necessarily  imply  that 
the  partridge  hatches  the  eggs  of  a  stranger, 
but  only  that  she  often  fails  in  her  attempts  to 
bring  forth  her  young.  To  such  disappoint- 
ments she  is  greatly  exposed  from  the  position 
of  her  nest  on  the  ground,  where  her  eggs  are 
often  spoiled  by  the  wet,  or  crushed  by  the 
foot.  So  he  that  broods  over  his  ill-gotten 
gains  will  often  find  them  unproductive ;  or, 
if  he  leaves  them,  as  a  bird  occasionally  driven 
from  her  nest,  may  be  despoiled  of  their  pos- 
session. As  to  the  hunting  of  the  partridge, 
which,  Dr.  Shaw  observes,  is  the  greater,  or 
red-legged  kind,  the  traveller  says:  "The 
Arabs  have  another,  though  a  more  laborious, 
method  of  catching  these  birds  ;  for,  observing 
that  they  become  languid  and  fatigued  after 
they  have  been  hastily  put  up  twice  or  thrice, 
they  immediately  run  in  upon  them,  and  knock 
them  down  with  their  zerwattys,  or  bludgeons 
as  we  should  call  them."  Precisely  in  this 
manner  Saul  hunted  David,  coming  hastily 
upon  him,  putting  him  up  incessantly,  in  hopes 
that  at  length  his  strength  and  resources 
would  fail,  and  he  would  become  an  easy  prey 
to  his  pursuer.  Forskal  mentions  a  partridge 
whose  name  in  Arabic  is  kurr ;  and  Latham 
says,  that,  in  the  province  of  Andalusia  in 
Spain,  the  name  of  the  partridge  is  churr; 
both  taken,  no  doubt,  like  the  Hebrew,  from 
its  note. 

PASSOVER,  DDD,  signifies  leap,  passage. 
The  passover  was  a  solemn  festival  of  the 
Jews,  instituted  in  commemoration  of  their 
coming  out  of  Egypt ;  because  the  night  before 
their  departure  the  destroying  angel  that  slew 
the  first-born  of  the  Egyptians  passed  over  the 


PAS 


729 


PAU 


houses  of  the  Hebrews  without  entering  them, 
because  they  were  marked  with  the  blood  of 
the  lamb,  which,  for  this  reason,  was  called 
the  paschal  lamb.  The  following  is  what  God 
ordained  concerning  the  passover :  the  month 
of  the  coming  out  of  Egypt  was  after  this  to 
be  the  first  month  of  the  sacred  or  ecclesiastical 
year ;  and  the  fourteenth  day  of  this  month, 
between  the  two  evenings,  that  is,  between  the 
sun's  decline  and  its  setting,  or  rather,  accord- 
ing to  our  reckoning,  between  three  o'clock  in 
the  afternoon  and  six  in  the  evening,  at  the 
equinox,  they  were  to  kill  the  paschal  lamb, 
and  to  abstain  from  leavened  bread.  The  day 
following,  being  the  fifteenth,  reckoned  from 
six  o'clock  of  the  preceding  evening,  was  the 
grand  feast  of  the  passover,  which  continued 
seven  days  ;  but  only  the  first  and  seventh  days 
were  peculiarly  solemn.  The  slain  lamb  was 
'to  be  without  defect,  a  male,  and  of  that  year. 
If  no  lamb  could  be  found,  they  might  take  a 
kid.  They  killed  a  lamb  or  a  kid  in  each  family  ; 
and  if  the  number  of  the  family  was  not  suffi- 
cient to  eat  the  lamb,  they  might  associate  two 
families  together.  With  the  blood  of  the  lamb 
they  sprinkled  the  door  posts  and  lintel  of  every 
house,  that  the  destroying  angel  at  the  sight  of 
the  blood  might  pass  over  them.  They  were 
to  eat  the  lamb  the  same  night,  roasted,  with 
unleavened  bread,  and  a  sallad  of  wild  lettuces, 
or  bitter  herbs.  It  was  forbid  to  eat  any  part 
of  it  raw,  or  boiled ;  nor  were  they  to  break  a 
bono  ;  but  it  was  to  be  eaten  entire,  even  with 
(he  head,  the  feet,  and  the  bowels.  If  any 
thing  remained  to  the  day  following  it  was 
thrown  into  the  fire,  Exod.  xii,  46;  Num.  ix,  12 ; 
John  xix,  36.  They  who  ate  it  were  to  be  in 
the  posture  of  travellers,  having  their  reins  girt, 
shoes  on  their  feet,  staves  in  their  hands,  and 
eating  in  a  hurry.  This  last  part  of  the  cere- 
mony was  but  little  observed ;  at  least,  it  was 
of  no  obligation  after  that  night  when  they 
came  out  of  Egypt.  During  the  whole  eight 
days  of  the  passover  no  leavened  bread  was  to 
be  used.  They  kept  the  first  and  last  day  of 
the  feast ;  yet  it  was  allowed  to  dress  victuals, 
which  was  forbidden  on  the  Sabbath  day.  The 
obligation  of  keeping  the  passover  was  so 
strict,  that  whoever  should  neglect  it  was  con- 
demned to  death,  Num.  ix,  13.  But  those  who 
iiad  any  lawful  impediment,  as  a  journey,  sick- 
ness, or  uncleanness,  voluntary  or  involuntary, 
for  example,  those  who  had  been  present  at  a 
funeral,  iic,  were  to  defer  the  celebration  of 
the  passover  till  the  second  month  of  the  eccle- 
siastical year,  the  fourteenth  day  of  the  month 
Jair,  which  answers  to  April  and  May.  We 
see  an  example  of  this  postponed  passover 
under  Hezekiah,  2  Chron.  xxx,  2,  3,  &c. 

The  modern  Jews  observe  in  general  the 
ceremonies  practised  by  their  ancestors  in  the 
celebration  of  the  passover.  While  the  temple 
was  in  existence,  the  Jews  brought  their  lambs 
thither,  and  there  sacrificed  them  ;  and  they 
offered  their  blood  to  the  priest,  who  poured  it 
out  at  the  foot  of  the  altar.  The  paschal  lamb 
was  an  illustrious  type  of  Christ,  who  became 
a  sacrifice  for  the  redemption  of  a  lost  world 
from  sin  and  misery ;  but  resemblances  between 


the  type  and  antitype  have  been  strained  by 
many  writers  into  a  great  number  of  fanciful 
particulars.  It  is  enougli  for  us  to  be  assured, 
that  as  Christ  is  called  "  our  passover ;"  and 
the  "  Lamb  of  God,"  without  "  spot,"  by  the 
"sprinkling  of  whose  blood"  we  are  delivered 
from  guilt  and  punishment ;  and  as  faith  in 
him  is  represented  to  us  as  "  eating  the  flesh 
of  Christ,"  with  evident  allusion  to  the  eating 
of  the  paschal  sacrifice ;  so,  in  these  leading 
particulars,  the  mystery  of  our  redemption  was 
set  forth.  The  paschal  lamb  therefore  pre- 
figured the  offering  of  the  spotless  Son  of  God, 
the  appointed  propitiation  for  the  sins  of  the 
whole  world  ;  by  virtue  of  which,  when  re- 
ceived by  faith,  we  are  delivered  from  the 
bondage  of  guilt  and  misery  ;  and  nourished 
with  strength  for  our  heavenly  journey  to  that 
land  of  rest,  of  which  Canaan,  as  early  as  the 
days  of  Abraham,  became  the  divinely  insti- 
tuted figure. 

PATMOS,  a  small  rocky  island  in  the 
jEgean  Sea,  about  eighteen  miles  in  circum- 
ference ;  which,  on  account  of  its  dreary  and 
desolate  character,  was  used  by  the  Roman 
emperors  as  a  place  of  confinement  for  crimi- 
nals. To  this  island  St.  John  was  banished 
by  the  Emperor  Domitian ;  and  here  he  had 
his  revelation,  recorded  in  the  Apocalypse. 

PATRIARCHS.  This  name  is  given  to  the 
ancient  fathers,  chiefly  those  who  lived  before 
Moses,  as  Adam,  Lamech,  Noah,  Shem,  &.c, 
Abraham,  Isaac,  Jacob,  the  sons  of  Jacob,  and 
heads  of  the  tribes.  The  Hebrews  call  them 
princes  of  the  tribes,  or  heads  of  the  fathers. 
The  name  patriarch  is  derived  from  the  Greek 
patriarcha,  "head  of  a  family." 

PAUL  was  born  at  Tarsus,  the  principal 
city  of  Cilicia,  and  was  by  birth  both  a  Jew 
and  a  citizen  of  Rome,  Acts  xxi,  39 ;  xxii,  25. 
He  was  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  and  of  the 
sect  of  the  Pharisees,  Phil,  iii,  5.  In  his 
youth  he  appears  to  have  been  taught  the  art 
of  tent  making,  Acts  xviii,  3 ;  but  we  must 
remember  that  among  the  Jews  of  those  days 
a  liberal  education  was  often  accompanied  by 
instruction  in  some  mechanical  trade.  It  is 
probable  that  St.  Paul  laid  the  foundation  of 
those  literary  attainments,  for  which  he  was 
so  eminent  in  the  future  part  of  his  life,  at  his 
native  city  of  Tarsus  ;  and  he  afterward  studied 
the  law  of  Moses,  and  the  traditions  of  the 
elders,  at  Jerusalem,  under  Gamaliel,  a  cele- 
brated rabbi,  Acts  xxii,  4.  St.  Paul  is  not 
mentioned  in  the  Gospels ;  nor  is  it  known 
whether  he  ever  heard  our  Saviour  preach,  or 
saw  him  perforin  any  miracle.  His  name  first 
occurs  in  the  account  given  in  the  Acts  of  the 
martyrdom  of  St.  Stephen,  A.  D.  34,  to  which 
he  is  said  to  have  consented,  Acts  viii,  1 :  he 
is  upon  that  occasion  called  a  young  man  ;  but 
we  are  no  where  informed  what  was  then  his 
precise  age.  The<death  of  St.  Stephen  was 
followed  by  a  severe  persecution  of  the  church 
at  Jerusalem,  and  St.  Paul  became  distinguished 
among  its  enemies  by  his  activity  and  violence, 
Acts  viii,  3.  Not  contented  with  displaying 
his  hatred  to  the  Gospel  in  Judea,  he  obtained 
authority  from  the  high  priest  to  go  to  Damas- 


PAU 


730 


PAU 


cos,  and  to  bring  back  with  him  bound  any 
Christians  whom  lie  might  find  in  thai  city. 
As  lie  was  upon  his  journey  thither,  A.  I).  3.~>. 
his  miraculous  conversion  took  place,  the  cir- 
cumstances of  which  are  recorded  in  Acts  ix, 
and  are  frequently  alluded  to  in  his  epistles, 
1  Cor.  xv,  9;  Gal.  i,  13;  1  Tim.  i,  12,  13. 

Soon  after  St.  Paul  was  baptized  at  Da- 
juascus,  he  went  into  Arabia;  but  we  are  not 
informed  how  long  he  remained  there,  lie  re- 
lumed to  Damascus  ;  and  being  supernaturally 
qualified  to  be  a  preacher  of  the  Gospel,  he 
immediately  entered  upon  his  ministry  in  that 
city.  The  boldness  and  success  with  which 
he  enforced  the  truths  of  Christianity  so  irri- 
tated the  unbelieving  Jews,  that  they  resolved 
to  put  him  to  death,  Acts  ix,  23 ;  but,  this 
design  being  known,  the  disciples  conveyed 
him  privately  out  of  Damascus,  and  he  went 
to  Jerusalem,  A.  D.  38.  The  Christians  of 
Jerusalem,  remembering  St.  Paul's  former  hos- 
tility to  the  Gospel,  and  having  no  authentic 
account  of  any  change  in  his  sentiments  or 
conduct,  at  first  refused  to  receive  him ;  but 
being  assured  by  Barnabas  of  St.  Paul's  real 
conversion,  and  of  his  exertions  at  Damascus, 
they  acknowledged  him  as  a  disciple,  Acts 
ix,  27.  He  remained  only  fifteen  days  among 
them,  Gal.  i,  18 ;  and  he  saw  none  of  the 
Apostles  except  St.  Peter  and  St.  James.  It 
is  probable  that  the  other  Apostles  were  at  this 
time  absent  from  Jerusalem,  exercising  their 
ministry  at  different  places.  The  zeal  with 
which  St.  Paul  preached  at  Jerusalem  had  the 
same  effect  as  at  Damascus :  he  became  so 
obnoxious  to  the  Hellenistic  Jews,  that  they 
began  to  consider  how  they  might  kill  him, 
Acts  ix,  2!);  which  when  the  brethren  knew, 
they  thought  it  right  that  he  should  leave  the 
city.  They  accompanied  him  to  Cresarca,  and 
thence  he  went  into  the  regions  of  Syria  and 
Cilicia,  whore  he  preached  the  faith  which 
once  he  destroyed,  Gal.  i,  21,  23. 

Hitherto  the  preaching  of  St.  Paul,  as  well 
as  of  the  other  Apostles  and  teachers,  had  been 
confined  to  the  Jews ;  hut  the  conversion  of 
Cornelius,  the  first.  Gentile  convert,  A.  D.  40, 
having  convinced  all  the  Apostles  that  "  to  the 
(.'entiles,  also,  Cod  had  granted  repentance 
unto  life,"  St..  Paul  was  soon  after  conducted 
by  Barnabas  from  Tarsus,  which  had  probably 
been  the  principal  place  of  his  residence  since 
he  left  Jerusalem,  and  they  both  began  to 
preach  the  Gospel  to  the  Gentiles  at  Antioch, 
\.  I'.  42,  Acts  xi,  25.  Their  preaching  was 
attended  with  great  success.  The  first  Gentile 
church  was  now  established  'at  Antioch ;  and 
in  that  city,  and  at  this  time,  the  disciples 
were  lirst  called  Christians,  Acts  xi,  26.  When 
these  two  Apostles  had  been  thus  employed 
about  a  year,  a.  prophet  called  Ajrabus  predicted 
an  approaching  famine,  which  would  affect 
the  whole  land  of  Judca.  Upon  the  prospect 
of  this  calamity,  the  Christians  of  Antioch 
made  a  contribution  for  their  brethren  in 
ludea,  and  sent  the  money  to  the  elders  at 
Jerusalem  by  St.  Paul  and  Barnabas,  A.  D.4-1, 
Vets  xi,  28,  &.c.  This  famine  happened  soon 
alter,  in  the  fourth  or  fifth  year  of  the  Empe- 


ror Claudius.  It  is  supposed  that  St.  Pan 
had  the  vision,  mentioned  in  Acts  xxii,  17, 
while  he  was  now  at  Jerusalem  this  second 
time  aficr  his  conversion. 

St.  Paul  and  Barnabas,  having  executed 
their  commission,  returned  to  Antioch  ;  and 
soon  after  their  arrival  in  that  city  they  were 
separated,  by  the  express  direction  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  from  the  other  Christian  teachers  and 
prophets,  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  the  glad 
tidings  of  the  Gospel  to  the  Gentiles  of  various 
countries,  Acts  xiii,  1.  Thus  divinely  appointed 
to  this  important  office,  they  set  out  from  An- 
tioch, A.  D.  45,  and  preached  the  Gospel  suc- 
cessively at  Salamis  and  Paphos,  two  cities  of 
the  isle  of  Cyprus,  at  Perga  in  Pamphylia, 
Antioch  in  Pisidia,  and  at  Iconium,  Lystra, 
and  Derbe,  three  cities  of  Lycaonia.  They 
returned  to  Antioch  in  Syria,  A.  D.  47,  nearly 
by  the  same  route.  This  first  apostolical 
journey  of  St.  Paul,  in  which  he  was  accom- 
panied and  assisted  by  Barnabas,  is  supposed 
to  have  occupied  about  two  years ;  and  in  the 
course  of  it  many,  both  Jews  and  Gentiles, 
were  converted  to  the  Gospel. 

Paul  and  Barnabas  continued  at  Antioch  a 
considerable  time  ;  and  while  they  were  there, 
a,  dispute  arose  between  them  and  some  Jewish 
Christians  of  Judea.  These  men  asserted,  that 
the  Gentile  converts  could  not  obtain  salvation 
through  the  Gospel,  unless  they  were  circum- 
cised ;  Paul  and  Barnabas  maintained  the  con- 
trary opinion,  Acts  xv,  1,  2.  This  dispute  was 
carried  on  for  some  time  with  great  earnest- 
ness ;  and  it  being  a  question  in  which  not. 
only  the  present  hut  all  future  Gentile  converts 
were  concerned,  it  was  thought  right  that  St. 
Paul  and  Barnabas,  with  some  others,  should 
go  up  to  Jerusalem  to  consult,  the  Apostles  and 
elders  concerning  it.  They  passed  through 
Phenicia  and  Samaria,  and  upon  their  arrival 
at  Jerusalem,  A.  D.  49,  a  council  was  assembled 
for  the  purpose  of  discussing  this  important 
point,  Gal.  ii,  1.  St.  Peter  and  St.  James  the 
less  were  present,  and  delivered  their  senti- 
ments, which  coincided  with  those  of  St.  Paul 
and  Barnabas;  and  after  much  deliberation  it 
was  agreed,  that  neither  circumcision,  nor 
conformity  to  any  part  of  the  ritual  law  of 
Moses,  was  necessary  in  Gentile  converts ;  but 
that  it  should  be  recommended  to  them  to  ab- 
stain from  certain  specified  things  prohibited 
by  that  law,  lest  their  indulgence  in  them 
should  give  offence  to  their  brethren  of  the 
circumcision,  who  were  still  very  zealous  for 
the  observance  of  the  ceremonial  part  of  their 
ancient  religion.  This  decision  which  was 
declared  to  have  the  sanction  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  was  communicated  to  the  Gentile 
Christians  of  Syria  and  Cilicia  by  a  letter 
written  in  the  name  of  the  Apostles,  elders,  and 
whole  church  at  Jerusalem,  and  conveyed  by 
Judas  and  Silas,  who  accompanied  St.  Paul 
and  Barnabas  to  Antioch  for  that  purpose. 

St.  Paul,  having  pieached  a  short  time  at 
Antioch,  proposed  to  Barnabas  that  they  should 
visit  the  churches  which  they  had  founded  in 
different  cities,  Acts  xv,  36.  Barnabas  readily 
consented;  but  while  they  wf:e  preparing  for 


PAU 


731 


PAU 


the  journey,   there  arose  a  disagreement  be- 
tween  them,  which  ended  in  their  separation. 
Fn  consequence  of  this  dispute  with  Barnabas, 
St.  Paul   chose   Silas  for  his  companion,  and 
they  set  out  together  from  Antioch,  A.  D.  50. 
They  travelled  through  Syria  and  Cilicia,  con- 
tinuing Ihe  churches,  and'  then  came  to  Derbe 
and   Lystra,    Acts   xvi.       Thence   they   went 
through  Phrygia  and  Galatia  ;  and,  being  de- 
sirous of  going  into  Asia  Propria,  or  the  Pro- 
consular Asia,    they  were    forbidden   by  the 
Holy  Ghost.    They  therefore  went  into  Mysia  ; 
and,  not  being  permitted  by  the  Holy  Ghost  to 
go  into  Bithynia  as  they  had  intended,  they 
went  to  Troas.     While  St.  Paul  was  there,  a 
vision  appeared  to  him  in  the  night :  "  There 
stood  a  man  of  Macedonia,   and  prayed  him, 
saying,  Come  over  into  Macedonia,  and  help  us." 
St.  Paul  knew  this  vision  to  be  a  command  from 
Heaven,  and  in  obedience  to  it  immediately  sail- 
ed from  Troas  to  Samothracia,  and  the  next  day 
to  Neapolis,  a  city  of  Thrace;  and  thence  he 
went  to  Philippi,  the  principal  city  of  that  part 
of  Macedonia.     St.  Paul  remained  some  time 
at  Philippi,  preaching  the  Gospel ;  and  several 
occurrences  which  took  place  in  that  city,  are 
recorded  in  Acts  xvii.  Thence  he  went  through 
Ainphipolis    and   Apollonia   to   Thessalonica, 
Acts  xvii,  where  he  preached  in  the  synagogues 
of  the  Jews  on  three  successive  Sabbath  days. 
Some  of  the  Jews,  and  many  of  the  Gentiles 
of  both  sexes,  embraced  the  Gospel ;  but  the 
unbelieving  Jews,  moved  with  envy  and  indig- 
nation at  the  success  of  St.  Paul's  preaching, 
excited  a  great  disturbance  in  the  city,  and 
irritated  the  populace  so  much  against  him, 
that    the    brethren,    anxious    for    his    safety, 
thought  it  prudent  to  send  him  to  Berea,  where 
he  met  with  a  better  reception  than  he  had 
experienced  at  Thessalonica.      The   Bereans 
heard  his  instructions  with  attention  and  can- 
dour, and  having  compared  his  doctrines  with 
flic  ancient  Scriptures,  and  being  satisfied  that 
Jesus,  whom  he  preached,  was  the  promised 
Messiah,  they  embraced  the  Gospel ;  but  his 
enemies  at  Thessalonica,  being  informed  of  his 
success  at  Berea,  came  thither,  and,  by  their 
endeavours  to  stir  up  the  people  against  him, 
compelled  him  to  leave  that  city  also.      He 
went  thence  to  Athens,  where  he  delivered  that 
discourse  recorded  in  Acts  xvii.  From  Athens, 
Paul  went  to  Corinth,   Acts  xviii,  A.  D.  51, 
and  lived  in  the  house  of  Aquila  and  Priscilla, 
two   Jews,    who,    being    compelled    to    leave 
Rome    in    consequence    of    Claudius's    edict 
against  the  Jews,  had  lately  settled  at  Corinth. 
Si.  Paul  was  induced  to  take  up  his  residence 
with  them,  because,  like  himself,  they  were 
tent  makers.    At  first  he  preached  to  the  Jews 
in  their  synagogue  ;  but  upon  their  violently 
opposing  his  doctrine,   he  declared  that  from 
thai  i  ime  lie  would  preach  to  the  Gentiles  only  ; 
and,  accordingly,   he  afterward  delivered    bis 
instructions  in  the  house  of  one  Justus,  who 
lived  near  the  synagogue.      Among  the   few 
Jews  who  embraced  the  Gospel,  were  Crispus, 
the  ruler   of  the  synagogue,  and   his  family; 
and  many  of  the  Gentile  Corinthians  "  hearing 
believed,  and  were  baptized  "      Sf,  Paul  was 


encouraged  in  a  vision  to  persevere  in  his  ex- 
ertions to  convert  the  inhabitants  of  Corinth  ; 
and  although  he  met  with  great  opposition  and 
disturbance  from  the  unbelieving  Jews,  and 
was  accused  by  them  before  Gallio,  the  Roman 
governor  of  Achaia,  he  continued  there  a  year 
and  six  months,  "teaching  the  word  of  God." 
During  this  time  he  supported  himself  by  work- 
ing at  his  trade  of  tent  making,  that  he  might 
not  be  burdensome  to  the  disciples.  From 
Corinth  St.  Paul  sailed  into  Syria,  and  thence 
he  went  to  Ephesus  :  thence  to  Cassarea ;  and  is 
supposed  to  have  arrived  at  Jerusalem  just  be- 
fore the  feast  of  pentecost.  After  the  feast  he 
went  to  Antioch,  A.  D.  53 ;  and  this  was  the 
conclusion  of  his  second  apostolical  journey, 
in  which  he  was  accompanied  by  Silas ;  and 
in  part  of  it,  Luke  and  Timothy  were  also 
with  him. 

Having  made  a  short  stay  at  Antioch,  St- 
Paul  set  out  upon  his  third  apostolical  jour 
ney.  He  passed  through  Galatia,  and  Phry- 
gia, A.  D.  54,  confirming  the  Christians  of 
those  countries  ;  and  thence,  according  to  his 
promise,  he  went  to  Ephesus,  Acts  xix.  He 
found  there  some  disciples,  who  had  only  been 
baptized  with  John's  baptism  :  he  directed  that 
they  should  be  baptized  in  the  name  of  Jesus, 
and  then  he  communicated  to  them  the  Holy 
Ghost.  He  preached  for  the  space  of  three 
months  in  the  synagogue  ;  but  the  Jews  being 
hardened  beyond  conviction,  and  speaking  re. 
proaclifully  of  the  Christian  religion  before  the 
multitude,  he  left  them ;  and  from  that  time 
he  delivered  his  instructions  in  the  school  of 
a  person  called  Tyrannus,  who  was  probably 
a  Gentile.  St.  Paul  continued  to  preach  in 
this  place  about  two  years,  so  that  all  the  in- 
habitants  of  that  part  of  Asia  Minor  "heard 
the  word  of  the  Lord  Jesus,  both  Jews  and 
Greeks."  He  also  performed  many  miracles  at 
Ephesus;  and  not  only  great  numbers  of  peo- 
ple were  converted  to  Christianity,  but  many 
also  of  those  who  in  this  superstitious  city 
used  incantations  and  magical  arts,  professed 
their  belief  in  the  Gospel,  and  renounced  their 
former  practices  by  publicly  burning  their 
books.  Previous  to  the  disturbance  raised  by 
Demetrius,  Paul  had  intended  to  continue  at 
Ephesus  till  Titus  should  return,  whom  he  had 
sent  to  inquire  into  the  state  of  the  church  at 
Corinth,  2  Cor.  xii,  18.  He  now  thought  it 
prudent  to  go  from  Ephesus  immediately,  Acts 
xx,  A.  D.  56;  and  having  taken  an  affection- 
ate  leave  of  the  disciples,  he  set  out  for  Troas, 
2  Cor.  ii,  12,  IS,  where  he  expected  to  meet 
Titus.  Titus,  however,  from  some  cause  which 
is  not  known,  did  not  come  to  Troas ;  and 
Paul  was  encouraged  to  pass  over  into  Mace 
donia,  with  the  hope  of  making  converts.  St. 
Paul,  after  preaching  in  Macedonia,  receiving 
from  the  Christians  of  that  country  liberal 
contributions  for  their  poor  brethren  in  Judea, 
2  Cor.  viii,  1,  went  to  Corinth,  A.  D.  57,  and 
remained  there  about  three  months.  The 
Christians  also  of  Corinth,  and  of  the  rest  of 
Achaia,  contributed  to  the  relief  of  their  bre- 
thren in  Judea.  St.  Paul's  intention  was  to 
have  sailed  from  Corinth  info  Syria  ;  but  be- 


PAU 


732 


PAU 


jng  informed  that  some  unbelieving  Jews,  who 
had  discovered  his  intention,  lay  in  wait  for 
him,  he  changed  his  plan,  passed  through  Ma- 
cedonia,  and  sailed  from  Philippi  to  Troas  in 
five  days,  A.  D.  58.  He  stayed  at  Troas  seven 
days,  and  preached  to  the  Christians  on  the 
first  day  of  the  week,  the  day  on  which  they 
were  accustomed  to  meet  for  the  purpose  of 
religious  worship.  From  Troas  he  went  by 
land  to  Assos  ;  and  thence  he  sailed  to  Mity- 
lene ;  and  from  Mitylcne  to  Miletus.  Being 
desirous  of  reaching  Jerusalem  before  the  feast 
of  pentecost,  he  would  not  allow  time  to  go 
to  Ephesus,  and  therefore  he  sent  for  the  elders 
of  the  Ephesian  church  to  Miletus,  and  gave 
them  instructions,  and  prayed  with  them.  He 
told  them  that  he  should  see  them  no  more, 
which  impressed  them  with  the  deepest  sorrow. 
From  Miletus  he  sailed  by  Cos,  Rhodes,  and 
Patara  in  Lycia,  to  Tyre,  Acts  xxi.  Finding 
some  disciples  at  Tyre,  he  stayed  with  them 
several  days,  and  then  went  to  Ptolemais,  and 
thence  to  Csesarea.  While  St.  Paul  was  at 
Caesarea,  the  Prophet  Agabus  foretold  by  the 
Holy  Ghost,  that  St.  Paul,  if  he  went  to  Jeru- 
salem, would  suffer  much  from  the  Jews.  This 
prediction  caused  great  uneasiness  to  St.  Paul's 
friends,  and  they  endeavoured  to  dissuade  him 
from  his  intention  of  going  thither.  St.  Paul, 
however,  would  not  listen  to  their  entreaties, 
but  declared  that  he  was  ready  to  die  at  Jeru- 
salem, if  it  were  necessary,  for  the  name  of  the 
Lord  Jesus.  Seeing  him  thus  resolute,  they 
desisted  from  their  importunities,  and  accom- 
panied him  to  Jerusalem,  where  he  is  supposed 
to  have  arrived  just  before  the  feast  of  pen- 
tecost, A.  D.  58.  This  may  be  considered  as 
the  end  of  St.  Paul's  third  apostolical  journey. 
St.  Paul  was  received  by  the  Apostles  and 
other  Christians  at  Jerusalem  with  great  joy 
and  affection;  and  his  account  of  the  success 
of  bis  ministry,  and  of  the  collections  which 
he  had  made  among  the  Christians  of  Macedo- 
nia and  Achaia,  for  the  relief  of  their  brethren 
in  Judua,  afforded  them  much  satisfaction  ;  but 
not  long  after  his  arrival  at  Jerusalem,  some 
Jews  of  Asia,  who  had  probably  in  their  own 
country  witnessed  St.  Paul's  zeal  in  spreading 
Christianity  among  the  Gentiles,  seeing  him 
one  day  in  the  temple,  endeavoured  to  excite 
a  tumult,  by  crying  out  that  he  was  the  man 
who  was  aiming  to  destroy  all  distinction  be- 
tween Jew  and  Gentile ;  who  taught  things 
contrary  to  the  law  of  Moses  ;  and  who  had 
polluted  the  holy  temple,  by  bringing  into  it 
uncircumcised  Heathens.  This  representation 
did  not  fail  to  enrage  the  multitude  against  St. 
Paul ;  they  seized  him,  dragged  him  out  of  the 
temple,  beat  him,  and  were  upon  the  point  of 
putting  him  to  death,  when  he  was  rescued  out 
of  their  hands  by  Lysias,  a  Roman  tribune,  and 
the  principal  military  officer  then  at  Jerusalem. 
What  followed, — his  defence  before  Felix  and 
Agrippa, — his  long  detention  at  Caasarea,  and 
his  appeal  to  the  emperor,  whioh  occasioned 
his  voyage  to  Rome,  are  all  circumstantially 
stated  in  the  latter  chapters  of  the  Acts.  Upon 
In  :  arrival  at  Rome,  St.  Paul  was  committed  to 
the  care  of  the  captain  of  the  guard,  A.  D.  61. 


The  Scriptures  do  not  inform  us  whether  he 
was  ever  tried  before  Nero,  who  was  at  this 
time  emperor  of  Rome  ;  and  the  learned  are 
much  divided  in  their  opinion  upon  that  point. 
St.  Luke  only  says,  "Paul  was  suffered  to  dwell 
by  himself  with  a  soldier  that  kept  him.  And 
Paul  dwelt  two  whole  years  in  his  own  hired 
house,  and  received  all  that  came  in  unto  him, 
preaching  the  kingdom  of  God,  and  teaching 
those  things  which  concern  the  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  with  all  confidence,  no  man  forbidding 
him."  During  his  confinement  he  converted 
some  Jews  resident  at  Rome,  and  many  Gen- 
tiles, and,  among  the  rest,  several  persons  be- 
longing to  the  emperor's  household,  Phil,  iv,  22. 

The  Scripture  history  ends  with  the  release 
of  St.  Paul  from  his  two  years'  imprisonment 
at  Rome,  A.  D.  63 ;  and  no  ancient  author 
has  left  us  any  particulars  of  the  remaining 
part  of  this  Apostle's  life.  It  seems  probable, 
that,  immediately  after  he  recovered  his  liber- 
ty, he  went  to  Jerusalem ;  and  that  afterward 
he  travelled  through  Asia  Minor,  Crete,  Mace- 
donia, and  Greece,  confirming  his  converts, 
and  regulating  the  affairs  of  the  different 
churches  which  he  had  planted  in  those  coun- 
tries. Whether  at  this  time  he  also  preached 
the  Gospel  in  Spain,  as  some  have  imagined, 
is  very  uncertain.  It  was  the  unanimous  tra- 
dition of  the  church,  that  St.  Paul  returned  to 
Rome,  that  he  underwent  a  second  imprison- 
ment there,  and  at  last  was  put  to  death  by  the 
Emperor  Nero.  Tacitus  and  Suetonius  have 
mentioned  a  dreadful  fire  which  happened  at 
Rome  in  the  time  of  Nero.  It  was  believed, 
though  probably  without  any  reason,  that  the 
emperor  himself  was  the  author  of  that  fire  ;  but 
to  remove  the  odium  from  himself,  he  chose  to 
attribute  it  to  the  Christians;  and,  to  give  some 
colour  to  that  unjust  imputation,  he  persecuted 
them  with  the  utmost  cruelty.  In  this  persecu- 
tion St.  Peter  and  Paul  suffered  martyrdom, 
probably,  A.  D.  65  ;  and  if  we  may  credit  Sulpi- 
tius  Severus,  a  writer  of  the  fifth  century,  the 
former  was  crucified,  and  the  latter  beheaded. 

St.  Paul  was  a  person  of  great  natural  abili- 
ties, of  quick  apprehension,  strong  feelings, 
firm  resolution,  and  irreproachable  life.  He 
was  conversant  with  Grecian  and  Jewish  lite- 
rature ;  and  gave  early  proofs  of  an  active  and 
zealous  disposition.  If  we  may  be  allowed  to 
consider  his  character  independent  of  his  su- 
pernatural endowments,  we  may  pronounce 
that  he  was  well  qualified  to  have  risen  to 
distinction  and  eminence,  and  that  he  was  by 
nature  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  high  office 
to  which  it  pleased  God  to  call  him.  As  a 
minister  of  the  Gospel,  he  displayed  the  most 
unwearied  perseverance  and  undaunted  cou- 
rage. He  was  deterred  by  no  difficulty  or 
danger,  and  endured  a  great  variety  of  perse- 
cutions with  patience  and  cheerfulness.  He 
gloried  in  being  thought  worthy  of  suffering 
for  the  name  of  Jesus,  and  continued  with 
unabated  zeal  to  maintain  the  truth  of  Chris- 
tianity against  its  bitterest  and  most  powerful 
enemies.  He  was  the  principal  instrument 
under  Providence  of  spreading  the  Gospel 
among  the  Gentiles  ;  and  we  have  seen  that 


PAU 


733 


PAU 


his  labours  lasted  through  many  years,  and 
reached  over  a  considerable  extent  of  country. 
Though  emphatically  styled  the  great  Apostle 
of  the  Gentiles,  he  began  his  ministry,  in 
almost  every  city,  by  preaching  in  the  syna- 
gogue of  the  Jews ;  and  though  he  owed  by 
far  the  greater  part  of  his  persecutions  to  the 
opposition  and  malice  of  that  proud  and  obsti- 
nate people,  whose  resentment  he  particularly 
incurred  by  maintaining  that  the  Gentiles  were 
to  be  admitted  to  an  indiscriminate  participa- 
tion of  the  benefits  of  the  new  dispensation, 
yet  it  rarely  happened  in  any  place,  that  some 
of  the  Jews  did  not  yield  to  his  arguments, 
and  embrace  the  Gospel.  He  watched  with 
paternal  care  over  the  churches  which  he  had 
founded  ;  and  was  always  ready  to  strengthen 
the  faith,  and  regulate  the  conduct  of  his  con- 
verts, by  such  directions  and  advice  as  their 
circumstances  might  require. 

The  exertions  of  St.  Paul  in  the  cause  of 
Christianity  were  not  confined  to  personal 
instruction  :  he  also  wrote  fourteen  epistles 
to  individuals  or  churches  which  are  now 
extant,  and  form  a  part  of  our  canon.  These 
letters  furnish  evidence  of  the  soundness  and 
sobriety  of  his  judgment.  His  caution  in  dis- 
tinguishing between  the  occasional  sugges- 
tions of  inspiration,  and  the  ordinary  exertions 
of  his  natural  understanding,  is  without  ex- 
ample in  the  history  of  enthusiasm.  His  mo- 
rality is  every  where  calm,  pure,  and  rational ; 
adapted  to  the  condition,  the  activity,  and  the 
business  of  social  life,  and  of  its  various  rela- 
tions ;  free  from  the  overscrupulousness  and 
austerities  of  superstition,  and  from,  what  was 
more  perhaps  to  be  apprehended,  the  abstrac- 
tions of  quietism,  and  the  soarings  or  extrava- 
gancies of  fanaticism.  His  judgment  con- 
cerning a  hesitating  conscience,  his  opinion 
of  the  moral  indifTerency  of  many  actions,  yet 
of  the  prudence  and  even  the  duty  of  com- 
pliance, where  non-compliance  would  produce 
evil  effects  upon  the  minds  of  the  persons  who 
observed  it,  are  all  in  proof  of  the  calm  and 
discriminating  character  of  his  mind  ;  and  the 
universal  applicability  of  his  precepts  affords 
strong  presumption  of  his  inspiration.  What 
Lord  Lyttleton  has  remarked  of  the  preference 
ascribed  by  St.  Paul  to  rectitude  of  principle 
above  every  other  religious  accomplishment, 
is  weighty  :  "  Though  I  speak  with  the  tongues 
of  men  and  of  angels,  and  have  not  charity,  I 
am  become  as  sounding  brass,  or  a  tinkling 
cymbal,"  &c,  1  Cor.  xiii,  1-3.  Did  ever  en- 
thusiast prefer  that  universal  benevolence, 
meant  by  charity  here,  (which,  we  may  add, 
is  attainable  by  every  man,)  to  faith,  and  to 
miracles,  to  those  religious  opinions  which  he 
had  embraced,  and  to  those  supernatural  graces 
and  gifts  which  he  imagined  he  had  acquired, 
nay,  even  to  the  merit  of  martyrdom  ?  Is  it 
not  the  genius  of  enthusiasm  to  set  moral 
virtues  infinitely  below  the  merit  of  faith  ;  and 
of  all  moral  virtues  to  value  that  least  which 
is  most  particularly  enforced  by  St.  Paul,  a 
spirit  of  candour,  moderation,  and  peace  ? 
Certainly,  neither  the  temper  nor  the  opinions 
of  a  man  subject  to  fanatic  delusions  are  to  be 


found  in  this  passage.  His  letters,  indeed, 
every  where  discover  great  zeal  and  earnest- 
ness in  the  cause  in  which  he  was  engaged  ; 
that  is  to  say,  he  was  convinced  of  the  truth 
of  what  he  taught ;  he  was  deeply  impressed, 
but  not  more  so  than  the  occasion  merited, 
with  a  sense  of  its  importance.  This  produces 
a  corresponding  animation  and  solicitude  in 
the  exercise  of  his  ministry.  But  would  not 
these  considerations,  supposing  them  to  have 
been  well  founded,  have  holden  the  same 
place,  and  produced  the  same  effect,  in  a  mind 
the  strongest  and  the  most  sedate  ?  Here, 
then,  we  have  a  man  of  liberal  attainments, 
and  in  other  respects  of  sound  judgment,  who 
had  addicted  his  life  to  the  service  of  the  Gos- 
pel. We  see  him  in  the  prosecution  of  his 
purpose,  travelling  from  country  to  country, 
enduring  every  species  of  hardship,  encoun- 
tering every  extremity  of  danger,  assaulted  by 
the  populace,  punished  by  the  magistrates, 
scourged,  beaten,  stoned,  left  for  dead ;  ex- 
pecting, wherever  he  came,  a  renewal  of  the 
same  treatment,  and  the  same  dangers ;  yet, 
when  driven  from  one  city,  preaching  in  the 
next ;  spending  his  whole  time  in  the  employ- 
ment ;  sacrificing  to  it  his  pleasures,  his  ease, 
his  safety  ;  persisting  in  this  course  to  old 
age,  unaltered  by  the  experience  of  perverse- 
ness,  ingratitude,  prejudice,  desertion  ;  unsub- 
dued by  anxiety,  want,  labour,  persecutions ; 
unwearied  by  long  confinement ;  undismayed 
by  the  prospect  of  death.  Such  was  St.  Paul; 
and  such  were  "  the  proofs  of  Apostleship 
found  in  him." 

The  following  remarks  of  Hug  on  the  cha- 
racter of  this  Apostle  are  equally  just  and  elo- 
quent :  This  most  violent  man,  having  such 
terrible  propensities,  whose  turbulent  impulses 
rendered  him  of  a  most  enterprising  character, 
would  have  become  nothing  better  than  a  John 
ofGishala,  a  blood-intoxicated  zealot,  epmiiwv 
dn-ciXij?  Kal  (pdrov,  breathing  out  threatenings  and 
slaughter,  Acts  ix,  1,  had  not  his  whole  soul 
been  changed.  The  harsh  tone  of  his  mind 
inclined  him  to  the  principles  of  Pharisaism, 
which  had  all  the  appearance  of  severity,  and 
was  the  predominant  party  among  the  Jews. 
Nature  had  not  withholden  from  him  the  ex- 
ternal endowments  of  eloquence,  although  he 
afterward  spoke  very  modestly  of  them.  At 
Lystra  he  was  deemed  the  tutelar  god  of  elo- 
quence. This  character,  qualified  for  great 
things,  but,  not  master  of  himself  from  excess 
of  internal  power,  was  an  extreme  of  human 
dispositions,  and,  according  to  the  natural 
course,  was  prone  to  absolute  extremities. 
His  religion  was  a  destructive  zeal,  his  anger 
was  fierceness,  his  fury  required  victims.  A 
ferocity  so  boisterous  did  not  psychologically 
qualify  him  for  a  Christian  nor  a  philanthropist; 
but,  least  of  all,  for  a  quietly  enduring  man. 
He,  nevertheless,  became  all  this  on  his  con- 
version to  Christianity,  and  each  bursting 
emotion  of  his  mind  subsided  directly  into  a 
well  regulated  and  noble  character.  Formerly 
hasty  and  irritable,  now  only  spirited  and  re- 
solved ;  formerly  violent,  now  full  of  energy 
and  enterprising :  once  ungovernably  refrac- 


PAU 


734 


i'EL 


i«m y  against  every  thing  which  obstructed 
linn,  now  only  persevering ;  once  fanatical 
and  morose,  now  only  serious ;  once  cruel, 
now  only  firm ;  once  a  harsh  zealot,  now 
(earing  God;  formerly  unrelenting,  deaf  lo 
.sympathy  and  commiseration,  now  himself 
acquainted  with  tears,  which  he  had  seen 
without  effect  in  others.  Formerly  the  friend 
of  none,  now  the  brother  of  mankind,  benevo- 
lent, compassionate,  sympathizing ;  yet  never 
weak,  always  great ;  in  the  midst  of  sadness 
and  sorrow  manly  and  noble;  so  he  showed 
himself  at  his  deeply  moving  departure  from 
Miletus,  Acts  xx  :  it  is  like  the  departure  of 
Moses,  like  the  resignation  of  Samuel,  sincere 
and  heart-felt,  full  of  self-recollection,  and  in 
the  midst  of  pain  full  of  dignity.  His  writ- 
ings are  a  true  expression  of  this  character, 
with  regard  to  the  tone  predominant  in  them. 
Severity,  manly  seriousness,  and  sentiments 
which  ennoble  the  heart,  are  interchanged 
with  mildness,  affability,  and  sympathy:  and 
their  transitions  aro  such  as  nature  begets  in 
the  heart  of  a  man  penetrated  by  his  subject, 
noble  and  discerning.  He  exhorts,  reproaches, 
and  consoles  again ;  he  attacks  with  energy, 
urges  with  impetuosily,  then  again  he  speaks 
kindly  to  the  soul ;  he  displays  his  finer  feel- 
ings for  the  welfare  of  others,  his  forbearance. 
and  his  fear  of  afflicting  any  body  :  all  as  the 
subject,  time,  opposite  dispositions,  and  cir- 
cumstances require.  There  prevails  through. 
out  in  them  an  importuning  language,  an 
earnest  and  lively  communication.  Rom.  i, 
26-32,  is  a  comprehensive  and  vigorous  de- 
scription of  morals.  His  antithesis,  Rom.  ii, 
21-24;  2  Cor.  iv,  8-12;  vi,  9-11;  ix,  22-30; 
his  enumerations,  1  Cor.  xiii,  4-10;  2  Cor.  vi, 
4-7 ;  2  Tim.  iii,  1-5  ;  Eph.  iv,  4-7  ;  v,  3-6 ; 
his  gradations,  Romans  viii,  29,  30  ;  Titus  iii, 
3,  4 ;  the  interrogations,  exclamations,  and 
comparisons,  sometimes  animate  his  language 
even  so  as  to  give  a  visible  existence  to  it. 
That,  however,  which  we  principally  perceive 
in  Paul,  and  from  which  his  whole  actions 
and  operations  become  intelligible,  is  the  pe- 
culiar impression  which  the  idea  of  a  universal 
religion  has  wrought  upon  his  mind.  This  idea 
of  establishing  a  religion  for  the  world  had  not 
so  profoundly  engrossed  any  soul,  no  where 
kindled  so  much  vigour,  and  projected  it  into 
such  a  constant  energy.  In  this  ho  was  no 
man's  scholar ;  this  he  had  immediately  re- 
ceived from  the  Spirit  of  his  Master;  it  was  a 
spark  of  the  divine  light  which  enkindled  him. 
It  was  this  which  never  allowed  bun  to  remain 
in  Palestine  and  in  Syria,  which  so  powerfully 
impelled  him  to  foreign  parts.  The  portion 
of  some  others  was  Judea  and  its  environs: 
but  his  mission  was  directed  to  the  nations, 
and  his  allotment  was  the  whole  of  the  Hea- 
then world.  Thus  he  began  his  career  among 
the  different  nations  of  Asia  Minor,  ami  when 
this  limit  also  became  too  conlined  for  him,  he 
went  uiili  equal  confidence  to  Europe,  among 
other  nations,  ordinances,  sciences,  and  cus- 
toma  ;  and  here  likewise  lie  finally  with  the 
:>aino  indefatigablo  spirit  ckculaled  his  plans, 
even  to  the  pillars  of  Hercules.     In  tins  man- 


ner Paul  prepared  the  overthrow  of  two  reli- 
gions, that  of  his  ancestors,  and  that  of  the 
Heathens. 

PEACOCK,  a>oin,  1  Kings  x,  22  ;  2Chron. 
ix,  21  ;  a  bird  distinguished  by  the  length  of  its 
tail,  and  the  brilliant  spots  with  which  it  is 
adorned  ;  which  displays  all  that  dazzles  in  the 
sparkling  lustre  of  gems,  and  all  that  astonishes 
in  the  rainbow.  The  peacock  is  a  bird  origin- 
ally of  India;  thence  brought  into  Persia  and 
Media.  Aristophanes  mentions  Persian  pea- 
cocks; and  Suidas  calls  the  peacock  the  Median 
bird.  Prom  Persia  it  was  gradually  dispersed 
into  Judea,  Egypt,  Greece,  and  Europe.  If 
the  fleet  of  Solomon  visited  India,  they, might 
easily  procure  this  bird,  whether  from  India 
itself,  or  from  Persia ;  and  certainly  the  bird 
by  its  beauty  was  likely  to  attract  attention, 
and  to  be  brought  among  other  rarities  of  na- 
tural history  by  Solomon's  servants,  who  would 
be  instructed  to  collect  every  curiosity  in  the 
countries  they  visited. 

PEARL,  a  hard,  white,  shining  body,  usually 
roundish,  found  in  a  shell  fish  resembling  an 
oyster.  The  oriental  pearls  have  a  fine  polished 
gloss,  and  are  tinged  with  an  elegant  blush  of 
red.  They  are  esteemed  in  the  east  beyond  all 
other  jewels. 

PELAGIANS,  a  sect  that  arose  in  the  fifth 
century.  Pelagius  was  a  British  monk,  of 
some  rank,  and  very  exalted  reputation.  He, 
with  his  friend  Celeslius,  travelled  to  Rome, 
where  they  resided  very  early  in  the  fifth  cen- 
tury, and  opposed  with  warmth  certain  received 
notions  respecting  original  sin,  and  the  neces- 
sity of  divine  grace.  What  reception  their 
doctrines  met  with  at  Rome  does  not  appear  , 
but  their  virtue  excited  general  approbation. 
On  the  approach  of  the  Goths,  they  retired  to 
Africa,  where  Celestius  remained,  with  a  view 
of  gaining  admittance  as  a  presbyter  into  the 
church  of  Carthage.  Pelagius  proceeded  to 
Palestine,  where  he  enjoyed  the  favour  and 
protection  of  John,  bishop  of  Jerusalem.  But 
his  friend  and  his  opinions  met  with  a  very 
different  reception  from  St.  Augustine,  the 
celebrated  bishop  of  Hippo.  Whatever  parti. 
were  visited  by  those  unorthodox  friends,  they 
still  asserted  their  peculiar  opinions ;  and  they 
were  gradually  engaged  in  a  warm  contest,  in 
the  course  of  which  they  were  probably  led  to 
advance  more  than  had  originally  occurred  to 
them.  In  contending  for  the  truth  of  their 
doctrines,  they  are  said  to  havo  asserted,  "  that 
mankind  derived  no  injury  from  the  sin  of 
Adam;  that  wo  are  now  as  capable  of  obe- 
dience lo  the  will  of  God  as  he  was;  thai, 
otherwise,  it  would  have  been  cruel  and  absurd 
to  propose  lo  mankind  the  performance  of 
certain  duties,  with  the  sanction  of  rewards, 
and  the  denunciation  of  punishments ;  and 
that,  consequently,  men  arc  born  without  vice, 
as  well  as  without  virtue."  Pelagius  is  charged 
also  with  having  maintained,  "that  it  is  possi- 
ble for  men,  provided  they  fully  employ  the 
powers  and  faculties  with  which  they  arc  en- 
dued, to  live  without  sin  ;"  and  though  he  did 
not  deny  that  external  grace,  or  the  doctrine 
and  motives  of  the  Gospel,  are  necessary,  yet 


PEL 


735 


PEL 


he  is  said  to  have  rejected  the  necessity  of 
internal  grace,  or  the  aids  of  the  divine  Spirit. 
He  acknowledged,  "  that  the  power  we  possess 
of  obeying  the  will  of  God,  is  a  divine  gift ;" 
but  asserted,  "that  the  direction  of  this  power 
depends  upon  ourselves ;  that  natural  death  is 
not  a  consequence  of  the  sin  of  Adam,  but  of 
the  frame  of  man  ;  and  that  Adam  would  have 
died,  though  he  had  not  sinned."  Isidore, 
Chrysostom,  and  Augustine  strenuously  op- 
posed these  opinions ;  and  the  latter  procured 
their  condemnation  in  a  synod  held  at  Carthage 
in  412.  They  were,  however,  favourably  re- 
ceived at  Rome,  and  Pope  Zozimus  was  at  the 
head  of  the  Pelagian  party :  but  his  decision 
against  the  African  bishops,  who  had  opposed 
Pelagianism,  was  disregarded  by  them,  and  the 
pontiff'  yielded  at  length  to  their  reasonings 
and  remonstrances,  and  condemned  the  men 
whom  he  had  before  honoured  with  his  appro- 
bation. The  council  of  Ephesus  likewise  con- 
demned the  opinions  of  Pelagius  andCelestius  ; 
and  the  Emperor  Honorius,  in  418,  published 
an  edict,  which  ordained  that  the  leaders  of 
the  sect  should  be  expelled  from  Rome,  and 
their  followers  exiled.  Some  of  the  Pelagians 
taught  that  Christ  was  a  mere  man,  and  that 
men  might  lead  sinless  lives,  because  Christ 
did  so ;  that  Jesus  became  Christ  after  his 
baptism,  and  God  after  his  resurrection  ;  the 
one  arising  from  his  unction,  the  other  from 
the  merit  of  his  passion.  The  Pelagian  con- 
troversy, which  began  with  the  doctrines  of 
grace  and  original  sin,  was  extended  to  pre- 
destination, and  excited  continual  discord  and 
division  in  the  church.  It  must  however  be 
recollected,  that  we  are  acquainted  with  the 
sentiments  of  Pelagius  only  through  the  me- 
dium of  his  opponents  ;  and  that  it  is  probable 
that  they  were  much  misrepresented.  See 
Augustine. 

The  followers  of  the  truly  evangelical  Ar- 
minius,  or  those  who  hold  the  tenet  of  general 
redemption  with  its  concomitants,  have  often 
been  greatly  traduced,  by  the  ignorant  among 
their  doctrinal  opponents,  as  Pelagians,  or  at 
least  as  Semi-Pelagians.  It  may  therefore 
serve  the  cause  of  truth  to  exhibit  the  appro- 
priate reply  which  the  Dutch  Arminians  gave 
to  this  charge  when  urged  against  them  at  the 
synod  of  Dort,  and  which  they  verified  and 
maintained  by  arguments  and  authorities  that 
were  unanswerable.  In  their  concluding  ob- 
servations they  say,  "  From  all  these  remarks 
a  judgment  may  easily  be  formed  at  what  an 
immense  distance  our  sentiments  stand  from 
the  dogmatical  assertions  of  the  Pelagians  and 
Semi. Pelagians  on  the  grace  of  God  in  the  con- 
version of  man.  Pelagius,  in  the  first  instance, 
attributed  all  things  to  nature  :  but  we  acknow- 
ledge nothing  but  grace.  When  Pelagius  was 
blamed  for  not  acknowledging  grace,  he  began 
indeed  to  speak  of  it,  but  it  is  evident  that  by 
grace  he  understood  the  power  of  nature  as 
created  by  Cod,  that,  is,  the  rational  will:  but 
by  grace  we  understand  a  supernatural  gift. 
Pelagius,  when  afterward  pressed  with  passages 
of  Scripture,  also  admitted  this  supernatural 
grace ;  but  he  placed  it  solely  in  the  external 


teaching  of  the  law :  though  we  affirm  that 
God  offers  his  word  to  men,  yet  we  likewise 
affirm  that  he  inwardly  causes  the  understand- 
ing to  believe.  Subsequently  Pelagius  joined 
to  this  external  grace  that  by  which  sins  arc 
pardoned :  we  acknowledge  not  only  the  grace 
by  which  sins  are  forgiven,  but  also  that  by 
which  men  are  assisted  to  refrain  from  the 
commission  of  sin.  In  addition  to  his  previous 
concessions  Pelagius  granted,  that  the  grace  of 
Christ  was  requisite  beside  the  two  kinds  which 
he  had  enumerated ;  but  he  attributed  it  en- 
tirely to  the  doctrine  and  example  of  Christ 
that  we  are  aided  in  our  endeavours  not  to 
commit  sin :  we  likewise  admit  that  the  doc- 
trine and  example  of  Christ  afford  us  some  aid 
in  refraining  from  sin,  but  in  addition  to  their 
influence  we  also  place  the  gift  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  with  which  God.  endues  us,  and  which 
enlightens  our  understandings,  and  confers 
strength  and  power  upon  our  will  to  abstain 
from  sinning.  When  Pelagius  afterward  owned 
the  assistance  of  divine  power  inwardly  work- 
ing in  man  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  he  placed  it 
solely  in  the  enlightening  of  the  understand- 
ing :  but  we  believe,  that  it  is  not  only  neces- 
sary for  us  to  know  or  understand  what  we 
ought  to  do,  but  that  it  is  also  requisite  for  us 
to  implore  the  aid  of  the  Holy  Spirit  that  we 
may  be  rendered  capable  of  performing,  and 
may  delight  in  the  performance  of,  that  which 
it  is  our  duty  to  do.  Pelagius  admitted  grace, — 
but  it  has  been  a  question  with  some  whether 
he  meant  only  illumination,  or,  beside  this,  a 
power  communicated  to  the  will ; — he  admitted 
grace,  but  he  did^this  only  to  show  that  by 
means  of  it  man  can  with  greater  ease  act 
aright :  we,  on  the  contrary,  affirm  that  grace 
is  bestowed,  not  that  we  may  be  able  with 
greater  ease  to  act  aright,  (which  is  as  though 
we  can  do  this  even  without  grace,)  but  that 
grace  is  absolutely  necessary  to  enable  us  to 
act  at  all  aright.  Pelagius  asserted,  that  man, 
so  far  from  requiring  the  aid  of  grace  for  the 
performance  of  good  actions,  is,  through  the 
powers  implanted  in  him  at  the  time  of  his 
creation,  capable  of  fulfilling  the  whole  law, 
of  loving  God,  and  of  overcoming  all  tempta- 
tions :  we,  on  the  contrary,  assert  that  the 
grace  of  God  is  required  for  the  performance 
of  every  act  of  piety.  Pelagius  declared,  that 
by  the  works  of  nature  man  renders  himself 
worthy  of  grace  :  but  we,  in  common  witli  the 
church  universal,  condemn  this  dogma.  When 
Pelagius  afterward  himself  condemned  this 
tenet,  he  understood  by  grace,  partly  natural 
grace,  which  is  antecedent  to  all  merit,  and 
partly  remission  of  sins,  which  he  acknow- 
ledged to  bo  gratuitous ;  but  he  added,  that 
through  works  performed  by  the  powers  of 
nature  alone,  at  least  through  the  desire  of 
good  and  the  imperfect  longing  after  it,  men 
merit  that  spiritual  grace  by  which  they  are 
assisted  in  good  works:  but  we  declare,  that 
mon  will  that  which  is  good  on  account,  of 
God's  prevenience  or  going  before  them  by  bis 
grace,  and  exciting  within  them  a  longing 
after  good;  otherwise  grace  would  no  longer 
be  grace,  because  it  would  not  be  gratuitously 


PEN 


736 


PEN 


bestowed,  but  only  on  account  of  the  merit  of 
man."  That  many  who  have  held  some  tenets 
in  common  with  the  true  Arminians  have 
been,  in  different  degrees,  followers  of  Pela- 
gius  is  well  known ;  but  tho  original  Armi- 
nians were  in  truth  as  far  from  Pelagian  or 
Semi-Pelagian  errors,  granting  the  opinions 
of  Pelagius  to  be  fairly  reported  by  his  adver- 
saries, as  the  Calvinists  themselves.  This  is 
also  the  case  with  the  whole  body  of  Wesleyan 
Methodists,  and  of  the  cognate  societies  to 
which  they  have  given  rise,  both  in  Great 
Britain  and  America. 

PELICAN,  mp,  Lev.  xi,  18;  Deut.  xiv,  17; 
Pea.  cii,  7  ;  Isa.  xxxiv,  11 ;  Zeph.  ii,  14 ;  a  very 
remarkable  aquatic  bird,  of  the  size  of  a  large 
goose.  Its  colour  is  a  grayish  white,  except 
that  the  neck  looks  a  little  yellowish,  and  the 
middle  of  the  back  feathers  are  blackish.  The 
bill  is  long,  and  hooked  at  the  end,  and  has 
under  it  a  lax  membrane,  extended  to  the 
throat,  which  makes  a  bag  or  sack,  capable 
of  holding  a  very  large  quantity.  Feeding  her 
young  from  this  bag  has  so  much  the  appear- 
ance of  feeding  them  with  her  own  blood,  that 
it  caused  this  fabulous  opinion  to  be  propa- 
gated, and  made  the  pelican  an  emblem  of 
paternal,  as  the  stork  had  been  before  chosen, 
more  justly,  of  filial  affection.  The  voice  of 
this  bird  is  harsh  and  dissonant,  which  some 
say  resembles  that  of  a  man  grievously  com- 
plaining. David  compares  his  groaning  to  it, 
Psalm  cii,  7. 

PENTATEUCH.  This  word,  which  is  de- 
rived from  the  Greek  ntiTurnj^o?,  from  tsbrc, 
five,  and  tjC^os,  a  volume,  signifies  the  collec- 
tion of  the  five  books  of  Moses,  which  are 
Genesis,  Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers,  and 
Deuteronomy.  That  the  Jews  have  acknow- 
ledged the  authenticity  of  the  Pentateuch, 
from  the  present  time  back  to  the  era  of  their 
return  from  the  Babylonish  captivity,  a  period 
of  more  than  two  thousand  three  hundred 
years,  admits  not  a  possibility  of  doubt.  The 
five  books  of  Moses  have  been  during  that 
period  constantly  placed  at  the  head  of  the 
Jewish  sacred  volume,  and  divided  into  fixed 
portions,  one  of  which  was  read  and  explained 
in  their  synagogues,  not  only  every  Sabbath 
With  the  other  Scriptures,  but  in  many  places 
twice  a  week,  and  not  unfrequently  every 
evening,  when  they  alone  were  read.  They 
have  been  received  as  divinely  inspired  by 
every  Jewish  sect,  even  by  the  Sadducees,  who 
questioned  the  divinity  of  the  remaining  works 
of  the  Old  Testament.  In  truth,  the  venera- 
tion of  the  Jews  for  their  Scriptures,  and  above 
all  for  the  Pentateuch,  seems  to  have  risen 
almost  to  a  superstitious  reverence.  Extracts 
from  the  Mosaic  law  were  written  on  pieces 
of  parchment,  and  placed  on  the  borders  of 
their  garments,  or  round  their  wrists  and  fore- 
heads :  nay,  they  at  a  later  period  counted, 
with  the  minutest  exactness,  not  only  the 
chapters  and  paragraphs,  but  the  words  and 
letters,  which  each  book  of  their  Scriptures 
contains.  Thus  also  the  translation,  first  of 
the  Pentateuch,  and  afterward  6f  the  remain- 
ing works  of  the  Old  Testament,  into  Greek, 


for  the  use  of  the  Alexandrian  Jews,  dissemi- 
nated this  sacred  volume  over  a  great  part  of 
the  civilized  world,  in  the  language  most  uni- 
versally understood,  and  rendered  it  accessible 
to  the  learned  and  inquisitive  in  every  coun- 
try ;  so  as  to  preclude  all  suspicion  that  it 
could  be  materially  altered  by  either  Jews  or 
Christians,  to  support  their  respective  opinions 
as  to  the  person  and  character  of  the  Messiah  ; 
the  substance  of  the  text  being,  by  this  trans- 
lation, fixed  and  authenticated  at  least  two 
hundred  and  seventy  years  before  the  appear- 
ance of  our  Lord. 

But,  long  previous  to  the  captivity,  two  par- 
ticular examples,  deserving  peculiar  attention, 
occur  in  the  Jewish  history,  of  the  public  and 
solemn  homage  paid  to  the  sacredness  of  the 
Mosaic  law  as  promulgated  in  the  Pentateuch  ; 
and  which,  by  consequence,  afford  the  fullest 
testimony  to  the  authenticity  of  the  Penta- 
teuch itself:  the  one  in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah, 
while  the  separate  kingdoms  of  Judah  and 
Israel  still  subsisted ;  and  the  other  in  the 
reign  of  his  great  grandson  Josiah,  subsequent 
to  the  captivity  of  Israel.  In  the  former  we 
see  the  pious  monarch  of  Judah  assembling 
the  priests  and  Levites  and  the  rulers  of  the 
people ;  to  deplore  with  him  the  trespasses  of 
their  fathers  against  the  divine  law,  to  acknow 
ledge  the  justice  of  those  chastisements  which, 
according  to  the  prophetic  warnings  of  that 
law,  had  been  inflicted  upon  them ;  to  open 
the  house  of  God  which  his  father  had  im- 
piously shut,  and  restore  the  true  worship 
therein  according  to  the  Mosaic  ritual,  2  Kings 
xviii ;  2  Chron.  xxix ;  xxx ;  with  the  minutest 
particulars  of  which  he  complied,  in  the  sin- 
offerings  and  the  peace-offerings  which,  in 
conjunction  with  his  people,  he  offered  for  the 
kingdom  and  the  sanctuary  and  the  people,  to 
make  atonement  to  God  for  them  and  for  all 
Israel ;  restoring  the  service  of  God  as  it  had 
been  performed  in  the  purest  times.  "And 
Hezekiah,"  say%  the  sacred  narrative,  "re- 
joiced, and  all  the  people,  that  God  had  pre- 
pared the  people;  for  the  thing  was  done 
suddenly,"  2  Chron.  xxix,  36  ;  immediately  on 
tho  king's  accession  to  the  throne,  on  tho  first 
declaration  of  his  pious  resolution.  How 
clear  a  proof  does  this  exhibit  of  the  previous 
existence  and  clearly  acknowledged  authority 
of  those  laws  which  the  Pentateuch  contains  ! 

But  a  yet  more  remarkable  part  of  this  trans- 
action still  remains.  At  this  time  Hoshea 
was  king  of  Israel,  and  so  far  disposed  to 
countenance  the  worship  of  the  true  God, 
that  lie  appears  to  have  made  no  opposition  to 
the  pious  zeal  of  Hezekiah;  who,  with  the 
concurrence  of  the  whole  congregation  which 
he  had  assembled,  sent  out  letters  and  made  a 
proclamation,  not  only  to  his  own  people  of 
Judah,  2  Chron.  xxx,  1,  "but  to  Ephraini  and 
Manasseh  and  all  Israel,  from  Beersheba  even 
unto  Dan,  that  they  should  come  to  the  house 
of  the  Lord  at  Jerusalem,  to  keep  the  passover 
unto  the  Lord  God  of  Israel;  saying,  Ye 
children  of  Israel,  turn  again  to  the  Lord  God 
of  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob,  and  he  will  re- 
turn to  the  remnant  of  you  who  are  escaped 


PEN 


737 


PER 


out  of  the  hands  of  the  kings  of  Assyria;  and 
be  not  ye  like  your  fathers  and  your  brethren, 
which  trespassed  against  the  Lord  God  of  their 
fathers,  who  therefore  gave  them  up  to  deso- 
lation as  ye  see.  Now  be  ye  not  Stiff-necked, 
as  your  fathers  weri ;  but  yield  yourselves  un- 
to the  Lord,  and  enter  into  his  sanctuary 
which  he  hath  sanctified  for  ever,  and  serve 
the  Lord  your  God,  that  the  fierceness  of  his 
wrath  may  turn  away  from  you.  So  the  posts 
passed  from  city  to  city  through  the  country 
of  Ephraim  and  Manasseh  even  unto  Zebu- 
lun,"  2  Cliron.  xxx,  6,  &c. 

Now,  can  we  conceive  that  such  an  attempt 
as  this  could  have  been  made,  if  the  Penta- 
teuch   containing   the    Mosaic  code  had  not 
been  as  certainly  recognized  through  the  ten 
tribes  of  Israel  as  in  the  kingdom  of  Judah? 
The  success  was  exactly   such   as  we  might 
reasonably  expect  if  it  were  so  acknowledged  ; 
for,  though  many  of  the  ten  tribes  laughed  to 
scorn  and  mocked  the  messengers  of  Hezekiah, 
who  invited  them  to  the  solemnity  of  the  pass- 
over,    from    the     impious     contempt    which 
through  long  disuse  they  had  conceived  for  it ; 
"  Nevertheless,"   says    the    sacred    narrative, 
"divers  of  Asher  and  Manasseh  and  of  Zebu- 
lun  humbled  themselves  and  came  to  Jerusa- 
lem ;  and  there  assembled  at  Jerusalem  much 
people,  to  keep  the  feast  of  unleavened  bread 
in  the  second  month,  a  very  great  congrega- 
tion ;    and  they  killed  the    passover,  and  the 
priests  and  Levites  stood  in  their  places  after 
their  manner,  according  to  the  law  of  Moses, 
the  man  of  God.     So  there  was  great  joy  in 
Jerusalem  ;  for  since  the  time  of  Solomon,  the 
son   of  David,   king  of  Israel,  there  was  not 
the  like  at  Jerusalem :  and  when  all  this  was 
finished,  all  Israel  that  were  present  went  out 
to  the  cities  of  Judah,  and  brake  the  images  in 
pieces,  and  cut  down  the  groves,  and  threw 
down  the  high  places  and  the  altars  out  of  all 
Judah    and  Benjamin,  in   Ephraim  also  and 
Manasseh,    until   they  had  utterly  destroyed 
them  all,"  2  Chronicles  xxx,  11 ;  xxxi.     Can 
any  clearer  proof  than  this  be  desired  of  the 
constant    and   universal    acknowledgment    of 
the  divine  authority  of  the  Pentateuch  through- 
out the  entire  nation  of  the  Jews,    notwith- 
standing the  idolatries  and  corruptions  which 
so  often  prevented  its  receiving  such  obedience 
as  that  acknowledgment  ought  to  have  pro- 
duced ?     The  argument  from  this  certain  an- 
tiquity of  the  Pentateuch,   a  copy  of  which 
existed  in  the  old  Samaritan  character  as  well 
as  in  the  modern  Hebrew,  is  most  conclusive 
as  to  the  numerous  prophecies  of  Christ,  and 
the  future  and  present  condition  of  the  Jews 
which  it  contains.     These  are  proved  to  have 
been  delivered  many  ages    before    they  were 
accomplished;  they  could  be  only  the  result 
of  divine  prescience,  and  the  uttering  of  them 
by  Moses  proves  therefore  the  inspiration  and 
the  authority  of  his  writings.     See  Law,  and 
Moses. 

PENTECOST,  IlevTCKo^ti,  a  solemn  festival 
of  the  Jews ;  so  called,  because  it  was  cele 


passover.  The  Hebrews  call  it  the  feast  of 
weeks,  because  it  was  kept  seven  weeks  after 
the  passover.  They  then  offered  the  first 
fruits  of  the  wheat  harvest,  which  was  then 
completed;  beside  which,  they  presented  at 
the  temple  seven  lambs  of  that  year,  one  calf, 
and  two  rams  for  a  burnt-offering  ;  two  lambs 
for  a  peace-offering  ;  and  a  goat  for  a  sin- 
offering,  Lev.  xxiii,  15,  16;  Exod.  xxxiv,  22; 
Deut.  xvi,  9,  10.  The  feast  of  pentecost  was 
instituted  among  the  Israelites,  first,  to  oblige 
them  to  repair  to  the  temple  of  the  Lord,  there 
to  acknowledge  his  absolute  dominion  over 
the  whole  country,  by  offering  him  the  first 
fruits  of  the  harvest ;  and,  secondly,  to  com- 
memorate and  give  thanks  to  God  for  the  law 
which  he  had  given  them  from  Sinai,  on  the 
fiftieth  day  after  their  coming  out  of  Egypt. 
The  modern  Jews  celebrate  the  pentecost  for 
two  days.  They  deck  the  synagogues,  where 
the  law  is  read,  and  their  own  houses,  with 
garlands  of  flowers.  They  hear  an  oration  in 
praise  of  the  law,  and  read  from  the  Penta- 
teuch and  prophets  lessons  which  have  a  rela- 
tion to  this  festival,  and  accommodate  their 
prayers  to  the  same  occasion.  It  was  on  the 
feast  of  pentecost  that  the  Holy  Ghost  de- 
scended in  the  miraculous  manner  related, 
Acts  ii. 

PERGAMUS,  a  city  of  Troas,  very  con- 
siderable  in  the  time  of  John  the  evangelist, 
Rev.  ii,  12,  13.     This  city  was,  for  the  space 
of  one  hundred  and  fifty  years,  the  capital  of 
a  kingdom  of  the  same  name  founded  by  Phi. 
letcerus,  B.  C.  283 ;  who  treacherously  made 
use  of  the  treasures  committed  to  his  care  by 
Lysimachus    after   the    battle   of  Ipsus,  and, 
seizing  on  Pergamus,  established  an  independ. 
ent  kingdom.    After  Philetaerus  were  five  kings 
of  the  same  race  ;  the  last  of  whom,  Attalus 
Philopater,  left  his  kingdom,  which  compre- 
hended Mysia,  yEolis,  Ionia,  Lydia,  and  Caria, 
to  the  Roman  empire ;  to  which  it  belonged 
when  the  first  Christian  church  was  established 
there.     This  church  early  became    corrupted 
by  the  Nicolaitans,  for  which  it  was  reproved 
by  St.  John,  and  charged  quickly  to  repent, 
Rev.  ii,  14-16.     Pergamus,  now  called    Ber- 
gamo, like  most  other  places  which  have  been 
cursed  by  the  presence  of  the  Turk6,  is  reduced 
to  comparative  decay,  containing  a  poor  popu- 
lation, who  are  too  indolent  or  too  oppressed 
to  profit  by  the  richness  of  their  soil  and  the 
beauty  of  the  climate.     The  number  of  inhabit- 
ants, however,  is  still  said  to  amount  to  thirty 
thousand,  of  whom  three  thousand  are  Greek 
Christians.     Many  remains  of  former  magnifi- 
cence are  still  to  be  found  ;  among  which  are 
those    of  several    Christian    churches.     It    is 
about   sixty   miles    north    of  Smyrna.      The 
celebrated    physician    Galen  was  a  native  of 
this  place. 

PERIZZITES.  The  ancient  inhabitants 
of  Palestine,  mingled  with  the  Canaanites. 
There  is  also  a  great  probability  that  they 
themselves  were  Canaanites,  but,  having  no 
fixed  habitations,  were  wandering  about  hero 


brated  on  the  fiftieth  day  after  the  sixteenth    and  there,  and  scattered  over  all  the  country, 
of  Nisan,  which  was   the  second  dav  of  the    Thus,  in  the  time  of  Abraham  and  Lot,  the 
48 


PER 


738 


PER 


Canaanite  and  Perizzite  were  in  the  land, 
Gen.  xiii,  7  ;  Josh,  xvii,  15.  Solomon  subdued 
the  remains  of  the  Canaanites  and  Perizzites, 
which  the  children  of  Israel  had  not  rooted 
out,  and  made  them  tributary  to  him,  1  Kings 
ix,  20,  21 ;  2  Chron.  viii,  7.  There  still  re. 
mained  some  of  this  people  as  late  as  the  time 
of  Ezra,  ix,  1. 

PERSECUTION  is  any  pain  or  affliction 
which  a  person  designedly  inflicts  upon  an- 
other; and,  in  a  more  restrained  sense,  the 
sufferings  of  Christians  on  account  of  their 
religion.  The  establishment  of  Christianity 
was  opposed  by  the  powers  of  the  world,  and 
occasioned  several  severe  persecutions  against 
Christians,  during  the  reigns  of  several  Ro- 
man emperors.  Though  the  absurdities  of 
polytheism  were  openly  derided  and  exposed 
by  the  Apostles  and  their  successors,  yet  it 
does  not  appear  that  any  public  laws  were 
enacted  against  Christianity  till  the  reign  of 
Nero,  A.  D.  64,  by  which  time  it  had  acquired 
considerable  stability  and  extent.  As  far  the 
greater  number  of  the  first  converts  to  Chris- 
tianity were  of  the  Jewish  nation,  one  second- 
ary cause  for  their  being  so  long  preserved 
from  persecution  may  probably  be  deduced 
from  their  appearing  to  the  Roman  governors 
only  as  a  sect  of  Jews,  who  had  seceded  from 
the  rest  of  their  brethren  on  account  of  some 
opinion,  trifling  in  its  importance,  and  perhaps 
difficult  to  be  understood.  Nor,  when  their 
brethren  were  fully  discovered  to  have  cast  off 
the  religion  of  the  synagogue,  did  the  Jews 
find  it  easy  to  infuse  into  the  breasts  of  the 
Roman  magistrates  that  rancour  and  malice 
which  they  themselves  experienced.  But  the 
steady  and  uniform  opposition  made  by  the 
Christians  to  Heathen  superstition  could  not 
long  pass  unnoticed.  Their  open  attacks  upon 
Paganism  made  them  extremely  obnoxious  to 
the  populace,  by  whom  they  were  represented 
as  a  society  of  atheists,  who,  by  attacking  the 
religious  constitution  of  the  empire,  merited 
the  severest  animadversion  of  the  civil  ma- 
gistrate. Horrid  tales  of  their  abominations 
were  circulated  throughout  the  empire ;  and 
the  minds  of  the  Pagans  were,  from  all  these 
circumstances,  prepared  to  regard  with  plea- 
sure or  indifference  every  cruelty  which  could 
be  inflicted  upon  this  despised  sect.  His- 
torians usually  reckon  ten  general  persecu- 
tions. 

First  general  persecution. — Nero  selected  the 
Christians  as  a  grateful  sacrifice  to  the  Roman 
people,  and  endeavoured  to  transfer  to  this 
hated  sect  the  guilt  of  which  he  was  strongly 
suspected  ;  that  of  having  caused  and  enjoyed 
the  fire  which  had  nearly  desolated  the  city. 
(See  Nero.)  This  persecution  was  not  con- 
fined to  Rome :  the  emperor  issued  edicts 
against  the  Christians  throughout  most  of  the 
provinces  of  the  empire.  He  was  far,  how- 
ever, from  obtaining  the  object  of  his  hopes 
and  expectations ;  and  the  virtues  of  the 
Christians,  their  zeal  for  the  truth,  and  their 
constancy  in  suffering,  must  have  considerably 
contributed  to  make  their  tenets  more  gene- 
rally known. 


Second  general  persecution. — From  the 
death  of  Nero  to  the  reign  of  Domitian,  the 
Christians  remained  unmolested  and  daily 
increasing ;  but  toward  the  close  of  the  first 
century,  they  were  again  involved  in  all  the 
horrors  of  persecution.  In  this  persecution 
many  eminent  Christians  suffered ;  but  the 
death  of  Domitian  soon  delivered  them  from 
this  calamity. 

Third  general  persecution.— -This  persecu- 
tion began  in  the  third  year  of  the  Emperor 
Trajan,  A.  D.  100.  Many  things  contributed 
toward  it ;  as  the  laws  of  the  empire,  the  em- 
peror's zeal  for  his  religion,  and  aversion  to 
Christianity,  and  the  prejudices  of  the  Pagans, 
supported  by  falsehoods  and  calumnies  against 
the  Christians.  Under  the  plausible  pretence 
of  their  holding  illegal  meetings  and  societies, 
they  were  severely  persecuted  by  the  governors 
and  other  officers  ;  in  which  persecution  great 
numbers  fell  by  the  rage  of  popular  tumult,  as 
well  as  by  laws  and  processes.  This  persecu- 
tion continued  several  years,  with  different 
degrees  of  severity  in  many  parts  of  the  em- 
pire ;  and  was  so  much  the  more  afflicting, 
because  the  Christians  generally  suffered  under 
the  notion  of  malefactors  and  traitors,  and 
under  an  emperor  famed  for  his  singular  jus- 
tice and  moderation.  The  most  noted  martyr 
in'  this  persecution  was  Clement,  bishop  of 
Rome.  After  some  time  the  fury  of  this  per- 
secution was  abated,  but  did  not  cease  during 
the  whole  reign  of  Trajan.  In  the  eighth 
year  of  his  successor  Adrian,  it  broke  out  with 
new  rage.  This  is  by  some  called  the  fourth 
general  persecution ;  but  is  more  commonly 
considered  as  a  revival  or  continuance  of  the 
third. 

Fourth  general  persecution. — This  took  place 
under  Antoninus  the  philosopher ;  and  at  dif- 
ferent places,  with  several  intermissions,  and 
different  degrees  of  severity,  it  continued  the 
greater  part  of  his  reign.  Antoninus  himself 
has  been  much  excused  as  to  this  persecution. 
As  the  character  of  the  virtuous  Trajan,  how- 
ever, is  sullied  by  the  martyrdom  of  Ignatius, 
so  the  reign  of  the  philosophic  Marcus  is  for 
ever  disgraced  by  the  sacrifice  of  the  venerable 
Polycarp,  bishop  of  Smyrna,  the  friend  and 
companion  of  St.  John.  A  few  days  previous 
to  his  death,  he  is  said  to  have  dreamed  that 
his  pillow  was  on  fire.  When  urged  by  the 
proconsul  to  renounce  Christ,  he  replied, 
"  Fourscore  and  six  years  have  I  served  him, 
and  he  has  never  done  me  an  injury :  can  I 
blaspheme  my  King  and  my  Saviour  ?"  Seve- 
ral miracles  are  reported  to  have  happened  at 
his  death.  The  flames,  as  if  unwilling  to  injure 
his  sacred  person,  are  said  to  have  arched  over 
his  head  ;  ;md  it  is  added,  that  at  length,  being 
despatched  with  a  sword,  a  dove  flew  out  of 
the  wound  ;  and  that  from  the  pile  proceeded 
a  most  fragrant  smell.  It  is  obvious  that  the 
arching  of  the  flames  might  be  an  accidental 
effect,  which  the  enthusiastic  veneration  of  his 
disciples  might  convert  into  a  miracle  ;  and  as 
to  the  story  of  the  dove,  &c,  Eusebius  himself 
apparently  did  not  credit  it ;  since  he  has  omit- 
ted it  in  his  narrative  of  the  transaction.  Amon 


PER 


739 


PER 


many  other  victims  of  persecution  in  this  phi- 
losophic reign,  we  must  also  record  that  of  the 
excellent  and  learned  Justin.  But  it  was  at 
Lyons  and  Vienne  in  Gaul,  that  the  most 
shocking  scenes  were  acted.  Among  many 
nameless  sufferers,  history  has  preserved  from 
oblivion  Pothinus,  the  respectable  bishop  of 
Lyons,  who  was  then  more  than  ninety  years 
of  age  ;  Sanctus,  a  deacon  of  Vienne  ;  Attalus, 
a  native  of  Pergamus ;  Maturus,  and  Alexan- 
der ;  some  of  whom  were  devoured  by  wild 
beasts,  and  some  of  them  tortured  in  an  iron 
chair  made  red  hot.  Some  females,  also,  and 
particularly  Biblias  and  Blandina,  reflected 
honour  both  upon  their  sex  and  religion  by 
their  constancy  and  courage. 

Fifth  general  persecution. — A  considerable 
part  of  the  reign  of  Severus  proved  so  far 
favourable  to  the  Christians,  that  no  additions 
were  made  to  the  severe  edicts  already  in  force 
against  them.  For  this  lenity  they  were  pro- 
bably indebted  to  Proculus,  a  Christian,  who, 
in  a  very  extraordinary  manner,  cured  the 
emperor  of  a  dangerous  distemper  by  the  ap- 
plication of  oil.  But  this  degree  of  peace, 
precarious  as  it  was,  and  frequently  interrupt- 
ed by  the  partial  execution  of  severe  laws,  was 
terminated  by  an  edict,  A.  D.  197,  which  pro- 
hibited every  subject  of  the  empire,  under 
severe  penalties,  from  embracing  the  Jewish 
or  Christian  faith.  This  law  appears,  upon  a 
first  view,  designed  merely  to  impede  the  far- 
ther progress  of  Christianity  ;  but  it  incited 
the  magistracy  to  enforce  the  laws  of  former 
emperors,  which  were  still  existing,  against 
the  Christians ;  and  during  seven  years  they 
were  exposed  to  a  rigorous  persecution  in 
Palestine,  Egypt,  the  rest  of  Africa,  Italy, 
Gaul,  and  other  parts.  In  this  persecution 
Leonidas,  the  father  of  Origen,  and  Irenams, 
bishop  of  Lyons,  suffered  martyrdom.  On  this 
occasion  Tertullian  composed  his  "  Apology." 
The  violence  of  Pagan  intolerance  was  most 
severely  felt  in  Egypt,  and  particularly  at 
Alexandria. 

Sixth  general  persecution. — This  persecution 
began  with  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Maxi- 
mums, A.  D.  235,  and  seems  to  have  arisen 
from  that  prince's  hatred  to  his  predecessor, 
Alexander,  in  whose  family  many  Christians 
had  found  shelter  and  patronage.  Though 
this  persecution  was  very  severe  in  some 
places,  yet  we  have  the  names  of  only  a  few 
martyrs.  Origen  at  this  time  was  very  indus- 
trious in  supporting  the  Christians  under  these 
fiery  trials. 

Seventh  general  persecution. — This  was  the 
most  dreadful  persecution  that  ever  had  been 
known  in  the  church.  During  the  short  reign 
of  Decius,  the  Christians  were  exposed  to 
greater  calamities  than  any  they  had  hitherto 
suffered.  It  lias  been  said,  and  with  some 
probability,  that  the  Christians  were  involved 
in  this  persecution  by  their  attachment  to  the 
family  of  the  Emperor  Philip.  Considerable 
numbers  were  publicly  destroyed  ;  several  pur- 
chased safety  by  bribes,  or  secured  it  by  flight ; 
and  many  deserted  from  the  faith,  and  will- 
ingly consented  to  burn  incense  on  the  altars  of 


the  gods.  The  city  of  Alexandria,  the  great 
theatre  of  persecution,  had  even  anticipated 
the  edicts  of  the  emperor,  and  had  put  to  death 
a  number  of  innocent  persons,  among  whom 
were  some  women.  The  imperial  edict  for 
persecuting  the  Christians  was  published  A.  D. 
249  ;  and  shortly  after,  P'abianus,  bishop  of 
Rome,  with  a  number  of  his  followers,' was  put 
to  death.  The  venerable  bishops  of  Jerusalem 
and  Antioch  died  in  prison,  the  most  cruel 
tortures  were  employed,  and  the  numbers  that 
perished  are  by  all  parties  confessed  to  have 
been  very  considerable. 

Eighth  general  persecution. — The  Emperor 
Valerian,  in  the  fourth  year  of  his  reign,  A.  D. 
257,  listening  to  the  suggestions  of  Macrinus, 
a  magician  of  Egypt,  was  prevailed  upon  to 
persecute  the  Christians,  on  pretence  that  by 
their  wicked  and  execrable  charms  they  hin- 
dered the  prosperity  of  the  emperor.  Macrinus 
advised  him  to  perform  many  impious  rites, 
sacrifices,  and  incantations  ;  to  cut  the  throats 
of  infants,  &c ;  and  edicts  were  published  in 
all  places  against  the  Christians,  who  were 
exposed  without  protection  to  the  common 
rage.  We  have  the  names  of  several  martyrs, 
among  whom  were  the  famous  St.  Laurence,' 
archdeacon  of  Rome,  and  the  great  St.  Cyp- 
rian, bishop  of  Carthage. 

Ninth  general  persecution. — This  persecution 
took  place  under  the  Emperor  Aurelian,  A.  D. 
274;  but  it  was  so  small  and  inconsiderable, 
that  it  gave  little  interruption  to  the  peace  of 
the  church. 

Tenth  general  persecution. — The  tenth  and 
last  genera]  persecution  of  the  Christians  began 
in  the  nineteenth  year  of  the  Emperor  Diocle- 
tian, A.  D.  303.  The  most  violent  promoters 
of  it  were  Hierocles  the  philosopher,  who 
wrote  against  the  Christian  religion,  and  Ga- 
lerius,  whom  Diocletian  had  declared  Caesar. 
This  latter  was  excited  not  only  by  his  own 
cruelty  and  superstition,  but  likewise  by  his 
mother,  who  was  a  zealous  Pagan.  Diocletian, 
contrary  to  his  inclination,  was  prevailed  upon 
to  authorize  the  persecution  by  his  edicts. 
Accordingly,  it  began  in  the  city  of  Nicomedia, 
whence  it  spread  into  other  cities  and  provinces, 
and  became  at  last  universal.  Great  numbers 
of  Christians  suffered  the  severest  tortures  in 
this  persecution,  though  the  accounts  given 
of  it  by  succeeding  historians  are  probably 
exaggerated.  There  is,  however,  sufficient 
of  well  authenticated  facts  to  assure  us  amply 
of  the  cruel  and  intolerant  disposition  of  the 
professors  of  Pagan  philosophy.  The  human 
imagination  was,  indeed,  almost  exhausted  in 
inventing  a  variety  of  tortures.  Some  were 
impaled  alive  ;  some  had  their  limbs  broken, 
and  in  that  condition  were  left  to  expire. 
Some  were  roasted  by  slow  fires ;  and  some 
suspended  by  their  feet  with  their  heads  down- 
ward, and,  a  fire  being  placed  under  them, 
were  suffocated  by  the  smoke.  Some  had 
melted  lead  poured  down  their  throats,  and 
the  flesh  of  some  was  torn  off  with  shells,  and 
others  had  splinters  of  reeds  thrust  under  the 
nails  of  their  fingers  and  toes.  The  few  who 
were  not  capitally  punished  had  their  limba 


PER 


740 


PER 


and  their  features  mutilated.  It  would  be 
endless  to  enumerate  the  victims  of  supersti- 
tion. The  bishops  of  Nicomedia,  of  Tyre,  of 
Sidon,  of  Emesa,  several  matrons  and  virgins 
of  the  purest  character,  and  a  nameless  num- 
ber of  plebians,  arrived  at  immortality  through 
the  flames  of  martyrdom.  At  last  it  pleased 
God  that  the  Emperor  Constantine,  who  him- 
self afterward  became  a  Christian,  openly  de- 
clared for  the  Christians,  and  published  the 
first  law  in  favour  of  them.  The  death  of 
Maximin,  emperor  of  the  east,  soon  after  put  a 
period  to  all  their  troubles  ;  and  this  was  the 
great  epoch  when  Christianity  triumphantly 
got  possession  of  the  thrones  of  princes. 

The  guilt  of  persecution  has,  however,  been 
attached  to  professing  Christians.  Had  men 
been  guided  solely  by  the  spirit  and  the  precepts 
of  the  Gospel,  the  conduct  of  its  blessed  Author, 
and  the  writings  and  example  of  his  immediate 
disciples,  we  might  have  boldly  affirmed  that 
among  Christians  there  could  be  no  tendency 
to  encroach  upon  freedom  of  discussion,  and 
no  approach  to  persecution.  The  Gospel,  in 
every  page  of  it,  inculcates  tenderness  and 
mercy ;  it  exhibits  the  most  unwearied  indul- 
gence to  the  frailties  and  errors  of  men ;  and 
it  represents  charity  as  the  badge  of  those  who 
in  sincerity  profess  it.  In  St.  Paul's  inimitable 
description  of  this  grace  he  has  drawn  a  picture 
of  mutual  forbearance  and  kindness  and  tole- 
ration, upon  which  it  is  scarcely  possible  to 
dwell,  without  being  raised  superior  to  every 
contracted  sentiment,  and  glowing  with  the 
most  diffusive  benevolence.  In  the  churches 
which  he  planted  he  had  often  to  counteract 
the  efforts  of  teachers  who  had  laboured  to 
subvert  the  foundation  which  he  had  laid,  to 
misrepresent  his  motives,  and  to  inculcate 
doctrines  which,  through  the  inspiration  that 
was  imparted  to  him,  he  discerned  to  proceed 
from  the  most  perverted  views,  and  to  be 
inconsistent  with  the  great  designs  of  the  Gos- 
pel. These  teachers  he  strenuously  and  con- 
scientiously opposed  ;  he  endeavoured  to  show 
the  great  importance  of  those  to  whom  he  wrote 
being  on  their  guard  against  them  ;  and  ho 
evinced  the  most  ardent  zeal  in  resisting  their 
insidious  purposes  :  but  he  never,  in  the  most 
distant  manner,  insinuated  that  they  should 
be  persecuted,  adhering  always  to  the  maxim 
which  he  had  laid  down,  that  the  weapons  of 
a  Christian's  warfare  are  not  carnal  but  spirit- 
ual. He  does,  indeed,  sometimes  speak  of 
heretics ;  and  he  even  exhorts  that,  after  ex- 
postulation with  him,  a  heretic  should  be  re- 
jected, and  not  acknowledged  to  be  a  member 
of  the  church  to  which  he  had  once  belonged. 
But  that  precept  of  the  Apostle  has  no  refer- 
ence to  the  persecution  which  it  has  sometimes 
been  conceived  to  sanction,  and  which  has 
been  generally  directed  against  men  quite  sin- 
cere in  their  belief,  however  erroneous  that 
belief  may  be  esteemed. 

Upon  a  subject  thus  enforced  by  precept  and 
example,  it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  the  first 
converts,  deriving  their  notions  of  Christianity 
immediately  from  our  Lord  or  his  Apostles, 
could  have  any  opinion  different  in  theory,  at 


least,  from  that  which  has  been  now  established. 
Accordingly,  we  find  that  the  primitive  fathers, 
although,  in  many  respects,  they  erred,  un- 
equivocally express  themselves  in  favour  of  the 
most  ample  liberty  as  to  religious  sentiment, 
and  highly  disapprove  of  every  attempt  to  con- 
trol it.  Passages  from  many  of  these  writers 
might  be  quoted  to  establish  that  this  was 
almost  the  universal  sentiment  till  the  age  of 
Constantine.  Lactantius  in  particular  has, 
with  great  force  and  beauty,  delivered  his 
opinion  against  persecution :  "  There  is  no 
need  of  compulsion  and  violence,  because 
religion  cannot  be  forced  ;  and  men  must  be 
made  willing,  not  by  stripes,  but  by  arguments. 
Slaughter  and  piety  are  quite  opposite  to  each 
other  ;  nor  can  truth  consist  with  violence,  or 
justice  with  cruelty.  They  are  convinced  that 
nothing  is  more  excellent  than  religion,  and 
therefore  think  that  it  ought  to  be  defended 
with  force ;  but  they  are  mistaken,  both  in  the 
nature  of  religion,  and  in  proper  methods  to 
support  it ;  for  religion  is  to  be  defended,  not 
by  murder,  but  by  persuasion  ;  not  by  cruelty, 
but  by  patience  ;  not  by  wickedness,  but  by 
faith.  If  you  attempt  to  defend  religion  by 
blood,  and  torments,  and  evil,  this  is  not  to 
defend,  but  to  violate  and  pollute  it ;  for  there 
is  nothing  that  should  be  more  free  than  the 
choice  of  religion,  in  which,  if  consent  be 
wanting,  it  becomes  entirely  void  and  inef- 
fectual." 

The  general  conduct  of  Christians  during 
the  first  three  centuries  was  in  conformity  with 
the  admirable  maxims  now  quoted.  Eusebius 
has  recorded  that  Polycarp,  after  in  vain 
endeavouring  to  persuade  Anicetus,  who  was 
bishop  of  Rome,  to  embrace  his  opinion  as  to 
some  point  with  respect  to  which  they  differed, 
gave  him,  notwithstanding,  the  kiss  of  peace, 
while  Anicetus  communicated  with  the  mar- 
tyr ;  and  Irena^us  mentions  that  although 
Polycarp  was  much  offended  with  the  Gnostic 
heretics,  who  abounded  in  his  days,  he  con- 
verted numbers  of  them,  not  by  the  application 
of  constraint  or  violence,  but  by  the  facts  and 
arguments  which  he  calmly  submitted  for  their 
consideration.  It  must  be  admitted,  however, 
that  even  during  the  second  century  some 
traces  of  persecution  are  to  be  found.  Victor, 
one  of  the  early  pontiff's,  because  the  Asiatic 
bishops  differed  from  him  about  the  rule  for 
the  observation  of  Easter,  excommunicated 
them  as  guilty  of  heresy;  and  he  acted  in  the 
same  manner  toward  a  person  who  held  what 
he  considered  as  erroneous  notions  respecting 
the  trinity.  This  stretch  of  authority  was, 
indeed,  reprobated  by  the  generality  of  Chris- 
tians, and  remonstrances  against  it  were  ac- 
cordingly presented.  There  was,  however,  in 
this  proceeding  of  Victor,  too  clear  a  proof 
that  the  church  was  beginning  to  deviate  from 
the  perfect  charity  by  which  it  had  been 
adorned,  and  too  sure  an  indication  that  the 
example  of  one  who  held  so  high  an  office, 
when  it  was  in  harmony  with  the  corruption 
or  with  the  worst  passions  of  our  nature,  would 
be  extensively  followed.  But  still  there  was, 
in   the  excommunication   rashly  pronounced 


PET 


741 


PET 


by  the  pope,  merely  an  exertion  of  ecclesiasti- 
cal power,  not  interfering  with  the  personal  se- 
curity, with  the  property,  or  with  the  lives  of 
those  against  whom  it  was  directed ;  and  we 
may,  notwithstanding  this  slight  exception, 
consider  the  first  three  centuries  as  marked  by 
the  candour  and  the  benevolence  implied  in 
the  charity  which  judgeth  not,  and  thinketh 
no  evil. 

It  was  after  Christianity  had  been  established 
as  the  religion  of  the  empire,  and  after  wealth 
and  honour  had  been  conferred  on  its  ministers, 
that  the  monstrous  evil  of  persecution  acquired 
gigantic  strength,  and  threw  its  blasting  influ- 
ence over  the  religion  of  the  Gospel.  The 
causes  of  this  are  apparent.  Men  exalted  in 
the  scale  of  society  were  eager  to  extend  the 
power  which  had  been  intrusted  to  them  ;  and 
they  sought  to  do  so  by  exacting  from  the  peo- 
ple acquiescence  in  the  peculiar  interpretations 
of  tenets  and  doctrines  which  they  chose  to 
publish  as  articles  of  faith.  The  moment  that 
this  was  attempted,  the  foundation  was  laid 
for  the  most  inflexible  intolerance ;  because 
reluctance  to  submit  was  no  longer  regarded 
solely  as  a  matter  of  conscience,  but  as  inter- 
fering with  the  interest  and  the  dominion  of 
the  ruling  party.  It  was  therefore  proceeded 
against  with  all  the  eagerness  which  men  so 
unequivocally  display  when  the  temporal  bless- 
ings that  gratify  their  ambition  or  add  to  their 
comfort  are  attempted  to  be  wrested  from  them. 
To  other  dictates  than  those  of  the  word  of 
God  the  members  of  the  church  now  listened; 
and  opinions  were  viewed,  not  in  reference  to 
that  word,  but  to  the  effect  which  they  might 
produce  upon  the  worldly  advancement  or 
prosperity  of  those,  by  whom  they  were  avowed. 
From  the  era,  then,  of  the  conversion  of  Con- 
stantine  we  may  date,  if  not  altogether  the 
introduction,  at  least  the  decisive  influence  of 
persecution. 

PERSIA,  an  ancient  kingdom  of  Asia, 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Media,  on  the  west 
by  Susiana,  on  the  east  by  Carmania,  and  on 
the  south  by  the  Persian  Gulf.  The  Persians 
became  very  famous  from  the  time  of  Cyrus, 
the  founder  of  the  Persian  monarchy.  Their 
ancient  name  was  Elamites,  and  in  the  time 
of  the  Roman  emperors  they  went  by  the  name 
of  Parthians  ;  but  now  Persians.  See  Cyrus  ; 
and  for  the  religion  of  the  ancient  Persians, 
Magi. 

PESTILENCE,  or  plague,  generally  is  used 
by  the  Hebrews  for  all  epidemic  or  contagious 
diseases.  The  prophets  usually  connect  to- 
gether sword,  pestilence,  and  famine,  being 
three  of  the  most  grievous  inflictions  of  the 
Almighty  upon  a  guilty  people.  See  Diseases. 
PETER,  the  great  Apostle  of  the  circum- 
cision, was  the  son  of  Jona,  and  born  at  Beth- 
saida,  a  town  situated  on  the  western  shore  of 
the  lake  of  Gennesareth,  but  in  what  particular 
year  we  are  not  informed,  John  i,  42,  43.  His 
original  name  was  Simon  or  Simeon,  which 
his  divine  Master,  when  he  called  him  to  the 
Apostleship,  changed  for  that  of  Cephas, 
a  Syriac  word  signifying  a  stone  or  rock; 
in  Latin,  petra,  from  whence  is  derived  the 


term  Peter.  He  was  a  married  man,  and  had 
his  house,  his  mother-in-law,  and  his  wife,  at 
Capernaum,  on  the  lake  of  Gennesareth, 
Matt,  viii,  14 ;  Mark  i,  29  ;  Luke  iv,  38.  He 
had  also  a  brother  of  the  name  of  Andrew,  who 
had  been  a  disciple  of  John  the  Baptist,  and 
was  called  to  the  knowledge  of  the  Saviour 
prior  to  himself.  Andrew  was  present  when 
the  venerable  Baptist  pointed  his  disciples  to 
Jesus,  and  added,  "  Behold  the  Lamb  of  God 
that  taketh  away  the  sin  of  the  world ;"  and, 
meeting  Simon  shortly  afterward,  said,  "We 
have  found  the  Messiah,"  and  then  brought 
him  to  Jesus,  John  i,  41.  When  the  two  bro- 
thers had  passed  one  day  with  the  Lord  Jesus, 
they  took  their  leave  of  him,  and  returned  to 
their  ordinary  occupation  of  fishing.  This 
appears  to  have  taken  place  in  the  thirtieth 
year  of  the  Christian  era.  Toward  the  end  of 
the  same  year,  as  Jesus  was  one  morning  stand- 
ing on  the  shore  of  the  lake  of  Gennesareth, 
he  saw  Andrew  and  Peter  engaged  about  their 
employment.  They  had  been  fishing  during 
the  whole  night,  but  without  the  smallest  suc- 
cess ;  and,  after  this  fruitless  expedition,  were 
in  the  act  of  washing  their  nets,  Luke  v,  1-3. 
Jesus  entered  into  their  boat,  and  bade  Peter 
throw  out  his  net  into  the  sea,  which  he  did ; 
and  now,  to  his  astonishment,  the  multitude 
of  fishes  was  so  immense  that  their  own  vessel, 
and  that  of  the  sons  of  Zebedee,  were  filled 
with  them.  Peter  evidently  saw  there  was 
something  supernatural  in  this,  and,  throwing 
himself  at  the  feet  of  Jesus,  he  exclaimed, 
"  Depart  from  me,  O  Lord,  for  I  am  a  sinful 
man."  The  miracle  was  no  doubt  intended 
for  a  sign  to  the  four  disciples  of  what  success 
should  afterward  follow  their  ministry  in 
preaching  the  doctrine  of  his  kingdom ;  and 
therefore  Jesus  said  unto  them,  "Follow  me, 
and  I  will  make  you  fishers  of  men  ;"  on  which 
they  quitted  their  boats  and  nets,  and  thence- 
forth became  the  constant  associates  of  the 
Saviour,  during  the  whole  of  his  public  minis- 
try, Luke  xviii,  28. 

From  the  instant  of  his  entering  upon  the 
apostolic  office,  we  find  St.  Peter  on  almost 
every  occasion  evincing  the  strength  of  his 
faith  in  Jesus  as  the  Messiah,  and  the  most 
extraordinary  zeal  in  his  service,  of  which 
many  examples  are  extant  in  the  Gospels. 
When  Jesus  in  private  asked  his  disciples,  first, 
what  opinion  the  people  entertained  of  him ; 
next,  what  was  their  own  opinion :  "  Simon 
Peter  answered  and  said,  Thou  art  the  Christ, 
the  Son  of  the  living  God,"  Matt,  xvi,  16. 
Having  received  this  answer,  Jesus  declared 
Peter  blessed  on  account  of  his  faith ;  and  in 
allusion  to  the  signification  of  his  name,  added, 
"  Thou  art  Peter,  and  upon  this  rock  I  will 
build  my  church  ;  and  I  will  give  thee  the  keys 
of  the  kingdom  of  heaven,  and  whatsoever 
thou  shalt  bind  on  earth,"  &c.  Many  think 
these  things  were  spoken  to  St.  Peter  alone, 
for  the  purpose  of  conferring  on  him  privileges 
and  powers  not  granted  to  the  rest  of  the 
Apostles.  But  others,  with  more  reason,  sup- 
pose that,  though  Jesus  directed  his  discourse 
to  St.  Peter,  it  was  intended  for  them  all ;  and 


PET 


742 


PET 


that  the  honours  and  powers  granted  to  St. 
Peter  by  name  were  conferred  on  them  all 
equally.  For  no  one  will  say  that  Christ's 
church  was  built  upon  St.  Peter  singly  :  it  was 
built  on  the  foundation  of  all  the  Apostles 
and  prophets,  Jesus  Christ  himself  being  the 
chief  corner  stone.  As  little  can  any  one  say 
that  the  power  of  binding  and  loosing  was 
confined  to  St.  Peter,  seeing  it  was  declared 
afterward  to  belong  to  all  the  Apostles,  Matt. 
xviii,  18  ;  John  xx,  23.  To  these  things  add 
this,  that  as  St.  Peter  made  his  confession  in 
answer  to  a  question  which  Jesus  put  to  all 
the  Apostles,  that  confession  was  certainly 
made  in  the  name  of  the  whole ;  and,  there- 
fore, what  Jesus  said  to  him  in  reply  was 
designed  for  the  whole  without  distinction ; 
excepting  this,  which  was  peculiar  to  him, 
that  he  was  to  be  the  first  who,  after  the  de- 
scent of  the  Holy  Ghost,  should  preach  the 
Gospel  to  the  Jews,  and  then  to  the  Gentiles : 
an  honour  which  was  conferred  on  St.  Pe- 
ter in  the  expression,  "  I  will  give  thee  the 
keys,"  &c. 

St.  Peter  was  one    of  the    three    Apostles 
whom  Jesus  admitted  to  witness  the  resurrec- 
tion of  Jairus's  daughter,  and  before  whom  he 
was  transfigured,  and  with  whom  he  retired  to 
pray  in  the  garden  the  night  before  he  suffer- 
ed.   He  was  the  person  who  in  the  fervour  of 
his  zeaj  for  his  Master  cut  off  the  ear  of  the 
high  priest's  slave,  when  the  armed  band  came 
to  apprehend  him.    Yet  this  same  Peter,  a  few 
hours  after  that,  denied  his  Master  three  differ- 
ent times  in  the  high  priest's  palace,  and  that 
with   oaths.      In  the   awful  defection  of  the 
Apostle  on  tins  occasion  we  have  melancholy 
proof  of  the  power  of  human  depravity  even 
in  regenerate  men,  and  of  the  weakness  of 
human  resolutions  when  left  to  ourselves.    St. 
Peter  was  fully  warned  by  his  divine  Master 
of  his  approaching  danger  ;  but  confident  in 
his  own  strength,  he  declared  himself  ready  to 
accompany  his  Lord  to   prison  and  even  to 
judgment.    After  the  third  denial  "  Jesus  turn- 
ed and  looked  upon  Peter;"  that  look  pierced 
him  to  the  heart ;  and,  stung  with  deep   re- 
morse, "  he  went  out,  and  wept  bitterly."    St. 
Peter,    however,    obtained  forgiveness ;    and, 
when  Jesus  had  risen  from  the  dead,  he  order- 
ed the  glad  tidings  of  his  resurrection  to  be 
conveyed  to  St.  Peter  by  name  :  "  Go  tell  my 
disciples  and  Peter,"  Mark  xvi,  8.     He  after- 
ward received  repeated  assurances  of  his  Sa- 
viour's  love,   and   from   that  time  uniformly 
showed  the  greatest  zeal  and  fortitude  in  his 
Master's  service. 

Soon  after  our  Lord's  ascension,  in  a  nume- 
rous assembly  of  the  Apostles  and  brethren, 
St.  Peter  gave  it  as  his  opinion,  that  one 
should  be  chosen  to  be  an  Apostle  in  the  room 
of  Judas.  To  this  they  all  agreed  ;  and,  by 
lot,  chose  Matthias,  whom  on  that  occasion 
they  numbered  with  the  eleven  Apostles.  On 
the  day  of  pentecost  following,  when  the  Holy 
Spirit  fell  on  the  Apostles  and  disciples,  St. 
Peter,  standing  up  with  the  eleven,  lifted  up  his 
voice  ;  that  is,  St.  Peter,  rising  up,  spake  with 
a  loud  voice,  in  the  name  of  the  Apostles,  as 


he  had  done  on  various  occasions  in  his  Mas- 
ter's lifetime,  and   gave  the  multitude  an  ac- 
count of  that  great  miracle,  Acts  ii,  14.     St. 
Peter  now  began  to  experience  the  fulfilment 
of  Christ's  promise  to  make  him  a  fisher  of . 
men,  and  also  that  he  would  give  him  the  keys 
of  the  kingdom  of  heaven.    His  sermon  on  this 
occasion   produced    an    abundant  harvest   of 
converts  to  Christ.      Three  thousand  of  his 
audience  were  pricked  to  the  heart,  and  cried 
out,  "  Men  and  brethren,  what  shall  we  do  ?" 
St.  Peter   proclaimed  to   them  the   riches  of 
pardoning  mercy  through  the  divine  blood  of 
the  Son  of  God  ;  and  they  that  gladly  received 
his  doctrine  were  baptized  and  added  to  the 
church,  Acts  ii,  37-43.     The  effects  produced 
on  the  mind  of  this  great  Apostle  of  the  cir 
cumcision  by  the  resurrection   of  his  divine 
Master,  and  the   consequent   effusion  of   the 
Holy  Spirit,  were  evidently  of  the  most  extra- 
ordinary kind,  and  such  as  it  is  impossible  to 
account  for  upon  natural  principles.     He  was 
raised  superior  to  all  considerations  of  personal 
danger  and  the  fear  of  man.     And  though  all 
the  Apostles  could  now  say,   "  God  hath  not 
given  us  the  spirit  of  fear,  but  of  power,  and 
of  love,  and  of  a  sound  mind  ;"  yet  an  attentive 
reader  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  cannot  fail 
to  perceive  that  upon  almost  every  occasion 
of  difficulty  St.  Peter  is  exhibited  to  our  view 
as  standing  foremost  in  the  rank  of  Apostles. 
When  St.  Peter  and  John  were  brought  before 
the  council  to  be   examined    concerning   the 
miracle  wrought  on  the  impotent  man,  St.  Pe- 
ter spake.     It  was  St.  Peter  who  questioned 
Ananias  and  Sapphira  about  the  price  of  their 
lands ;    and,   for  their  lying  in  that   matter, 
punished  them  miraculously  with  death.     It  is 
remarkable,  also,  that  although  by  the  hands 
of  the  Apostles  many  signs  and  wonders  were 
wrought,  it  was  by  St.  Peter's  shadow  alone 
that  the  sick,  who  were  laid  in  the  streets  of 
Jerusalem,  were  healed  as  he  passed  by.    Last- 
ly :  It  was  St.  Peter  who  replied  to  the  council 
in  the  name  of  the  Apostles,  not  obeying  their 
command  to  preach  no  more  in  the  name  of 
Jesus. 

St.  Peter's  fame  was  now  become  so  great, 
that  the  brethren  of  .Toppa,  hearing  of  his  be- 
ing in  Lydda,  and  of  his  having  cured  Eneas 
miraculously  of  a  palsy,  sent,  desiring  him  to 
come  and  restore  a  disciple  to  life,  named  Ta- 
bitha,  which  he  did.  During  his  abode  in  Jop- 
pa,  the  Roman  centurion,  Cornelius,  directed 
by  an  angel,  sent  for  him  to  come  and  preach 
to  him.  On  that  occasion  the  Holy  Ghost  fell 
on  Cornelius  and  his  company,  while  St.  Peter 
spake.  St.  Peter,  by  his  zeal  and  success  in 
preaching  the  Gospel,  having  attracted  the 
notice  of  the  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem,  Herod 
Agrippa,  who,  to  please  the  Jews,  had  killed 
St.  James,  the  brother  of  St.  John,  still  farther 
to  gratify  them,  cast  St.  Peter  into  prison. 
But  an  angel  brought  him  out ;  after  which  he 
concealed  himself  in  the  city,  or  in  some  neigh- 
bouring town,  till  Herod's  death,  which  hap- 
pened about  the  end  of  the  year.  Some  learn- 
ed men  think  St.  Peter  at  that  time  went  to 
Antioch  or  to  Rome.     But  if  he  had  gone  ta 


PHA 


743 


PHA 


any  celebrated  city,  St.  Luke,  as  L'Enfant  ob- 
serves, would  probably  have  mentioned  it. 
Beside,  we  find  him  in  the  council  of  Jerusa- 
lem, which  met  not  long  after  this  to  deter- 
mine the  famous  question  concerning  the  cir- 
cumcision of  the  Gentiles.  The  council  being 
ended,  St.  Peter  went  to  Antioch,  where  he 
gave  great  offence,  by  refusing  to  eat  with  the 
converted  Gentiles.  But  St.  Paul  withstood 
him  to  the  face,  rebuking  him  before  the  whole 
church  for  his  pusillanimity  and  hypocrisy, 
Gal.  ii,  11-21. 

In  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  no  mention  is 
made  of  St.  Peter  after  the  council  of  Jerusa- 
lem. But  from  Gal.  ii,  11,  it  appears  that  after 
that  council  he  was  with  St.  Paul  at  Antioch. 
He  is  likewise  mentioned  by  St.  Paul,  1  Cor. 
i,  12 ;  iii,  22.  It  is  generally  supposed  that 
after  St.  Peter  was  at  Antioch  with  St.  Paul, 
he  returned  to  Jerusalem.  What  happened  to 
him  after  that  is  not  told  in  the  Scriptures. 
But  Eusebius  informs  us  that  Origen  wrote  to 
this  purpose :  St.  Peter  is  supposed  to  have 
preached  to  the  Jews  of  the  dispersion  in  Pon- 
tus,  Galatia,  Bithynia,  Cappadocia,  and  Asia ; 
and  at  length,  coming  to  Rome,  was  crucified 
with  his  head  downward. 

We  are  indebted  to  this  Apostle  for  two 
epistles,  which  constitute  a  valuable  part  of 
the  inspired  writings.  The  first  epistle  of  St. 
Peter  has  always  been  considered  as  canonical ; 
and  in  proof  of  its  genuineness  we  may  observe 
that  it  is  referred  to  by  Clement  of  Rome, 
Hermas,  and  Polycarp  ;  that  we  are  assured 
by  Eusebius,  that  it  was  quoted  by  Papias  ;  and 
that  it  is  expressly  mentioned  by  Irenaeus,'  Cle- 
ment of  Alexandria,  Tertullian,  Origen,  and 
most  of  the  later  fathers.  The  authority  of 
the  second  epistle  of  St.  Peter  was  for  some 
time  disputed,  as  we  learn  from  Origen,  Eu- 
sebius, and  Jerom  ;  but  since  the  fourth  cen- 
tury it  has  been  universally  received,  except 
by  the  Syriac  Christians.  It  is  addressed  to 
the  same  persons  as  the  former  epistle,  and 
the  design  of  it  was  to  encourage  them  to  ad- 
here to  the  genuine  faith  and  practice  of  the 
Gospel. 

PETHOR,  a  city  of  Mesopotamia,  of  which 
the  Prophet  Balaam  was  a  native.  The  He- 
brews call  this  city  Pethura.  Ptolemy  calls  it 
Pachora  ;  and  Eusebius,  Pathara.  He  places 
it  in  the  Upper  Mesopotamia. 

PHARAOH,  a  common  name  of  the  kings 
of  Egypt.  We  meet  with  it  as  early  as  Gen. 
xii,  15.  Josephus  says,  that  all  the  kings  of 
Egypt,  from  Minaeus,  the  founder  of  Memphis, 
who  lived  several  ages  before  Abraham,  always 
had  the  name  of  Pharaoh,  down  to  the  time  of 
Solomon,  for  more  than  three  thousand  three 
hundred  years.  He  adds,  that,  in  the  Epyptian 
language,  the  word  Pharaoh  means  king,  and 
that  these  princes  did  not  assume  the  name 
until  they  ascended  the  throne,  at  which  time 
they  quitted  their  former  name. 

PHARISEES,  a  sect  of  the  Jews.  The  ear- 
liest mention  of  them  is  by  Josephus,  who  tells 
us  that  they  were  a  sect  of"  considerable  weight 
when  John  Hyrcanus  was  high  priest,  B.  C. 
108.     They  were  the  most  numerous,  distin- 


guished, and  popular  sect  among  the  Jews 
the  time  when  they  first  appeared  is  not 
known,  but  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  not 
long  after  the  institution  of  the  Sadducees,  if, 
indeed  the  two  sects  did  not  gradually  spring 
up  together.  They  derived  their  name  from 
the  Hebrew  word  pharash,  which  signifies 
"  separated,"  or  "  set  apart ;"  because  they 
separated  themselves  from  the  rest  of  the  Jews 
to  superior  strictness  in  religious  observances. 
They  boasted  that,  from  their  accurate  know- 
ledge of  religion,  they  were  the  favourites  of 
Heaven  ;  and  thus,  trusting  in  themselves  that 
they  were  righteous,  despised  others,  Luke 
xi,  52 ;  xviii,  9,  11.  Among  the  tenets  incul- 
cated by  this  sect,  we  may  enumerate  the  fol- 
lowing :  namely,  they  ascribed  all  things  to 
fate  or  providence  ;  yet  not  so  absolutely  as  to 
take  away  the  free  will  of  man  ;  for  fate  does 
not  cooperate  in  every  action,  Acts  v,  38,  39. 
They  also  believed  in  the  existence  of  angels 
and  spirits,  and  in  the  resurrection  of  the  dead  ; 
Acts  xxiii,  8.  Lastly  :  the  Pharisees  contend, 
ed  that  God  stood  engaged  to  bless  the  Jews, 
to  make  them  all  partakers  of  the  terrestrial 
kingdom  of  the  Messiah,  to  justify  them,  and 
make  them  eternally  happy.  The  cause  of 
their  justification  they  derived  from  the  merits 
of  Abraham,  from  their  knowledge  of  God, 
from  their  practising  the  rite  of  circumcision, 
and  from  the  sacrifices  they  offered.  And  as 
they  conceived  works  to  be  meritorious,  they 
had  invented  a  great  number  of  supererogatory 
ones,  to  which  they  attached  greater  merit 
than  to  the  observance  of  the  law  itself.  To 
this  notion  St.  Paul  has  some  allusions  in  those 
parts  of  his  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  in  which 
he  combats  the  erroneous  suppositions  of  the 
Jews,  Rom.  i-xi. 

The  Pharisees  were  the  strictest  of  the  three 
principal  sects  that  divided  the  Jewish  nation, 
Acts  xxvi,  5,  and  affected  a  singular  probity 
of  manners  according  to  their  system  ;  which, 
however,  was,  for  the  most  part,  both  lax  and 
corrupt.  Thus  many  things  which  Moses  had 
tolerated  in  civil  life,  in  order  to  avoid  a  greater 
evil,  the  Pharisees  determined  to  be  morally 
right :  for  instance,  the  law  of  divorce  from  a 
wife  for  any  cause,  Matt,  v,  31,  &c  ;  xix,  3-12. 
(See  Divorce.)  Farther :  they  interpreted  cer- 
tain of  the  Mosaic  laws  most  literally,  and  dis- 
torted their  meaning  so  as  to  favour  their  own 
selfish  system.  Thus,  the  law  of  loving  their 
neighbour,  they  expounded  solely  of  the  love  of 
their  friends,  that  is,  of  the  whole  Jewish  race  ; 
all  other  persons  being  considered  by  them  as 
natural  enemies,  whom  they  were  in  no  respect 
bound  to  assist,  Matt,  v,  43 ;  Luke  x,  31-33. 
They  also  trifled  with  oaths.  Dr.  Lightfoot 
has  cited  a  striking  illustration  of  this  from 
Maimonides.  An  oath,  in  which  the  name 
of  God  was  not  distinctly  specified,  they  taught 
was  not  binding,  Matt,  v,  33  ;  maintaining 
that  a  man  might  even  swear  with  his  lips, 
and  at  the  same  time  annul  it  in  his  heart ! 
And  yet  so  rigorously  did  they  understand  the 
command  of  observing  the  Sabbath  day,  that 
they  accounted  it  unlawful  to  pluck  ears  of 
corn*  and  heal  the  sick,  &c,  Matt,  xii ;  Luke 


PHA 


744 


PHE 


vi,  C,  &c ;  xiv.  Many  moral  rules  they  ac- 
counted inferior  to  the  ceremonial  laws,  to 
the  total  neglect  of  mercy  and  fidelity,  Matt, 
v,  19  ;  xv,  4;  xxiii,  23.  Hence  they  account- 
ed causeless  anger  and  impure  desires  as  trifles 
of  no  moment,  Matt,  v,  21,  22,  27-30  ;  they 
compassed  sea  and  land  to  make  proselytes  to 
the  Jewish  religion  from  among  the  Gentiles, 
that  they  might  rule  over  their  consciences 
and  wealth  ;  and  these  proselytes,  through  the 
influence  of  their  own  scandalous  examples 
and  characters,  they  soon  rendered  more  pro- 
fligate and  abandoned  than  ever  they  were  be- 
fore their  conversion,  Matt,  xxiii,  15.  Esteem- 
ing temporal  happiness  and  riches  as  the 
highest  good,  they  scrupled  not  to  accumulate 
wealth  by  every  means,  legal  or  illegal,  Matt. 
v,  1-12;  xxiii,  5;  Luke  xvi,  14;  James  ii, 
1-8  ;  vain  and  ambitious  of  popular  applause, 
they  offered  up  long  prayers  in  public  places, 
but  not  without  self-complacency  in  their  own 
holiness,  Matt,  vi,  2-5  ;  Luke  xviii,  1 1 ;  under 
a  sanctimonious  appearance  of  respect  for  the 
memories  of  the  prophets  whom  their  ancestors 
had  slain,  they  repaired  and  beautified  their 
sepulchres,  Matt,  xxiii,  29  ;  and  such  was  their 
idea  of  their  own  sanctity,  that  they  thought 
themselves  defiled  if  they  but  touched  or  con- 
versed with  sinners,  that  is,  with  publicans  or 
tax-gatherers,  and  persons  of  loose  and  irregu- 
lar lives,  Luke  vii,  39;  xv,  1. 

But,  above  all  their  other  tenets,  the  Phari- 
sees were  conspicuous  for  their  reverential 
observance  of  the  traditions  or  decrees  of  the 
elders :  these  traditions,  they  pretended,  had 
been  handed  down  from  Moses  through  every 
generation,  but  were  not  committed  to  writing; 
and  they  were  not  merely  considered  as  of 
equal  authority  with  the  divine  law,  but  even 
preferable  to  it.  "The  words  of  the  scribes," 
said  they,  "are  lovely  above  the  words  of  the 
law  ;  for  the  words  of  the  law  are  weighty  and 
light,  but  the  words  of  the  scribes  are  all 
weighty."  Among  the  traditions  thus  sancti- 
moniously observed  by  the  Pharisees,  wo  may 
briefly  notice  the  following :  the  washing  of 
hands  up  to  the  wrist  before  and  after  meat, 
Matthew  xv,  2 ;  Mark  vii,  3 ;  which  they  ac- 
counted not  merely  a  religious  duty,  but  con- 
sidered its  omission  as  a  crime  equal  to  forni- 
cation, and  punishable  by  excommunication  : 
the  purification  of  the  cups,  vessels,  and 
couches  used  at  their  meals  by  ablutions  or 
washings,  Mark  vii,  4;  for  which  purpose  the 
six  large  water  pots  mentioned  by  St.  John, 
ii,  6,  were  destined  :  their  fasting  twice  a 
week  with  great  appearance  of  austerity,  Luke 
xviii,  12;  Matt,  vi,  16;  thus  converting  that 
exercise  into  religion  which  is  only  a  help 
toward  the  performance  of  its  hallowed  duties : 
their  punctilious  payment  of  tithes,  (temple- 
offerings,)  even  of  the  most  trifling  things, 
Luke  xviii,  12 ;  Matt,  xxiii,  23.  And  their  wear- 
ing broader  phylacteries  and  larger  fringes  to 
their  garments  than  the  rest  of  the  Jews,  Matt, 
xxiii,  5.     See  Phylacteries. 

With  all  their  pretensions  to  piety,  the  Pha- 
risees entertained  the  most  sovereign  contempt 
for  the  people ;  whom,  being  ignorant  of  the 


law,  they  pronounced  to  be  accursed,  John 
vii,  49.     Yet  such  was  the  esteem  and  vene- 
ration in  which  they  were  held  by  the  popu- 
lace, that  they  may  almost  be   said  to  have 
given  what  direction  they  pleased  to   public 
affairs  ;  and  hence  the  great  men  dreaded  their 
power  and   authority.     It  is  unquestionable, 
as  Mosheim  has  well  remarked,  that  the  reli- 
gion of  the  Pharisees  was,  for  the  most  part, 
founded  in  consummate  hypocrisy  ;  and  that, 
at  the  bottom,  they  were  generally  the  slaves 
of  every  vicious  appetite,  proud,  arrogant,  and 
avaricious,   consulting  only  the   gratification 
of  their  lusts,  even  at  the  very  moment  when 
they  professed  themselves  to  be   engaged  in 
the    service  of  their  Maker.      These    odious 
features    in   the    character    of  the    Pharisees 
caused   them  to  be  reprehended   by  our  Sa- 
viour with  the  utmost  severity,  even  more  so 
than  the  Sadducees  ;  who,  although  they  had 
departed  widely  from  the  genuine  principles 
of  religion,  yet  did  not  impose  on  mankind  by 
a   pretended   sanctity,    or  devote    themselves 
with   insatiate   greediness  to  the    acquisition 
of  honours  and   riches.     A   few,   and   a  few 
only   of  the  sect    of  the  Pharisees  in  those 
times,    might   be    of  better    character, — men 
who,   though   self-righteous   and  deluded  and 
bigoted,  were  not  like  the  rest,  hypocritical. 
Of  this  number  was  Saul  of  Tarsus ;  but  as  a 
body  their  attachment  to  traditions  ;  their  pas- 
sionate expectation   of  deliverance  from   the 
Roman  yoke  by  the  Messiah,  and  the  splen- 
dour of  his  civil  reign,  their  pride,  and  above 
all  their  vices,   sufficiently  account   for  that 
unconquerable  unbelief  which  had  possessed 
their  minds   as  to  the  claims  of  Christ,  and 
their  resistance  to  the  evidence  of  his  miracles. 
The  sect  of  the  Pharisees  was  not  extinguished 
by  the  ruin  of  the  Jewish  commonwealth.   The 
greater  part  of  the  Jews  are  still  Pharisees,  be- 
ing as  much  devoted  to  traditions,  or  the  oral 
law,  as  their  ancestors  were. 
PHARPAR.     See  Abana. 
PHEBE,  a  deaconess  of  the  port  of  Corinth, 
called  Cenchrea.      St.  Paul  had  a  particular 
esteem  for  this  holy  woman  ;  and  Theodoret 
thinks  the  Apostle  lodged  at  her  house  for 
some    time,   while   he    continued   in    or  near 
Corinth.     It  is  thought  she  carried  the  epistle 
to  Rome,  which  he  wrote  to  the  church  of  that 
city,   in  which  she  is  so  highly  commended, 
Rom.  xvi,  1,  2.     It  is  thought  that,  in  quality 
of  deaconess,  she  was  employed  by  the  church 
in  some  ministrations  suitable  to  her  sex  and 
condition  ;  as  to  visit  and  instruct  the  Chris- 
tian women,  and  attend  them  in  their  sick- 
ness,   and  distribute    alms  to  them    in   their 
necessities. 

PHENICIA,  a  province  of  Syria,  the  limits 
of  which  have  been  differently  represented. 
Sometimes  it  has  been  defined  as  extending 
from  north  to  south,  from  Orthosia  as  far  as 
Pelusium.  At  other  times  its  southern  limit 
is  said  to  have  been  Mount  Carmel  and  Ptole- 
mais.  It  is  certain  that,  from  the  conquest  of 
Palestine  by  the  Hebrews,  its  limits  were  nar- 
row, containing  no  part  of  the  country  of  the 
Philistines,  which  occupied  all  the  coast  from 


PHI 


745 


PHI 


Mount  Carmel  along  the  Mediterranean,  as 
far  as  the  borders  of  Egypt.  It  had  also  very 
little  extent  on  the  land  side,  because  the 
Israelites,  who  possessed  all  Galilee,  confined 
it  to  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  The 
chief  cities  of  Phenicia  were  Sidon,  Tyre, 
Ptolemais,  Ecdippe,  Sarepta,  Berythe,  Biblos, 
Tripoli,  Orthosia,  Simira,  Aradus.  They 
formerly  had  possession  of  some  cities  in 
Libanus :  and  sometimes  the  Greek  authors 
comprehend  all  Judea  under  the  name  of  Phe- 
nicia. Phenicia  may  be  considered  as  the 
birthplace  of  commerce,  if  not  also  of  letters 
and  the  arts.  It  was  a  Phenician  who  intro- 
duced into  Greece  the  knowledge  and  the  use 
of  letters.  Phenician  workmen  built  the  temple 
of  Solomon  ;  Phenician  sailors  navigated  his 
ships  ;  Phenician  pilots  directed  them  ;  and 
before  other  nations  had  ventured  to  lose 
sight  of  their  own  shores,  colonies  of  Phe- 
nicians  were  established  in  the  most  distant 
parts  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa.  These 
early  advantages  were  owing,  doubtless,  in 
part  to  their  own  enterprising  character,  and 
in  part  also  to  their  central  situation,  which 
enabled  them  to  draw  into  their  own  narrow 
territory  all  the  commerce  between  the  east 
and  the  west.  Bochart  has  laboured  to  show 
that  they  sent  colonies  to  almost  all  the  isles 
and  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea ;  but  the 
most  famous  of  all  their  colonies  was  that  of 
Carthage. 

PHILADELPHIA,  a  city  of  Lydia,  in  Asia 
Minor,  and  one  of  the  seven  churches  of  Asia. 
It  derived  its  name  from  Attalus  Philadelphus, 
its  founder ;  and  was  seated  on  a  branch  of 
Mount  Tmolus,  about  twenty-five  miles  south- 
east of  Sardis,  and  seventy,  in  nearly  the 
same  direction,  from  Smyrna.  It  suffered 
greatly,  in  common  with  all  this  part  of  Asia, 
in  the  terrible  earthquake  during  the  reign  of 
Tiberius,  and  in  the  seventeenth  year  of  the 
Christian  era.  It  has,  however,  retained  a 
better  fate  than  most  of  its  neighbours ;  for 
under  the  name  of  Alahsher,  or  the  city  of 
God,  it  is  still  a  place  of  some  repute,  chiefly 
supported  by  trade,  it  being  in  the  route  of  the 
caravans  to  Smyrna.  "  Among  the  Greek 
colonies  and  churches  of  Asia,"  says  Gibbon, 
"Philadelphia  is  still  erect,  a  column  in  a 
scene  of  ruins."  Although  this  city  is  now 
in  the  possession  of  the  Turks,  it  has  about  a 
thousand  Christian  inhabitants,  chiefly  Greeks ; 
who  have  five  churches  with  a  resident  bishop, 
and  inferior  clergy. 

PHILEMON  was  an  inhabitant  of  Colosse; 
and  from  the  manner  in  which  he  is  addressed 
by  St.  Paul  in  his  epistle  to  him,  it  is  probable 
that  he  wis  a  person  of  some  consideration 
in  that  city.  St.  Paul  seems  to  have  been  the 
means  of  converting  him  to  the  belief  of  the 
Gospel,  Philemon  19.  He  calls  him  his  fellow- 
labourer  ;  and  from  that  expression  some  have 
thought  that  he  was  bishop  or  deacon  of  the 
church  at  Colosse ;  but  others  have  been  of 
opinion,  that  he  was  only  a  private  Christian, 
who  had  shown  a  zealous  and  active  disposi- 
tion in  the  cause  of  Christianity,  without 
holding  any  ecclesiastical  office.     We  learn 


from  this  epistle  itself,  that  it  was  written 
when  St.  Paul  wns  a  prisoner,  and  when  he 
had  hope  of  soon  recovering  his  liberty,  Phile- 
mon 1,  22;  and  thence  we  conclude  that  it" 
was  written  toward  the  end  of  his  first  con- 
finement at  Rome.  This  epistle  has  always 
been  deservedly  admired  for  the  delicacy  and 
address  with  which  it  is  written  ;  and  it  places 
St.  Paul's  character  in  a  very  amiable  point  of 
view.  He  had  converted  a  fugitive  slave  to 
the  Christian  faith ;  and  he  here  intercedes 
with  his  master  in  the  most  earnest  and  affec- 
tionate manner  for  his  pardon  ;  he  speaks  of 
Onesimus  in  terms  calculated  to  soften  Phile- 
mon's resentment,  engages  to  make  full  com- 
pensation for  any  injury  which  he  might  have 
sustained  from  him,  and  conjures  him  to  recon- 
ciliation and  forgiveness  by  the  now  endearing 
connection  of  Christian  brotherhood.  See 
Onesimus. 

PHILIP,  the  Apostle,  was  a  native  of  Beth- 
saida  in  Galilee.  Jesus  Christ  having  seen 
him,  sa'd  to  him,  "  Follow  me,"  John  i,  43,44. 
Philip  followed  him  ;  he  was  present  at  the 
marriage  of  Cana  in  Galilee.  Philip  was 
called  at  the  beginning  of  our  Saviour's  mis- 
sion. He  is  mentioned,  Luke  vi,  13  ;  Matt. 
x,  3;  John  vi,  5-7.  Some  Gentiles  having  a 
curiosity  to  see  Jesus,  a  little  before  his  pas- 
sion, addressed  themselves  to  Philip,  John  xii, 
21, 22,  who  mentioned  it  to  Andrew,  and  these 
two  to  Christ.  At  the  last  supper  Philip  de- 
sired the  Saviour  to  show  them  the  Father, 
John  xiv,  8-13.  This  is  all  that  we  find  con- 
cerning Philip  in  the  Gospel. 

2.  Philip,  the  second  of  the  seven  deacons, 
Acts  vi,  5,  was,  some  say,  of  Caesarea  in  Pales- 
tine. It  is  certain  his  daughters  lived  in  that 
city,  Acts  xxi,  8,  9.  After  the  death  of  Ste- 
phen all  the  Christians,  except  the  Apostles, 
having  left  Jerusalem,  md  being  dispersed  in 
several  places,  Philip  went  to  preach  at  Se- 
baste  or  Samaria,  where  he  performed  several 
miracles,  and  converted  many  persons,  Acts 
viii,  1-3,  &c.  He  baptized  them ;  but  informed 
the  Apostles  at  Jerusalem  that  Samaria  had 
received  the  word  of  God,  that  they  might 
come  and  communicate  the  Holy  Ghost  to 
them.  Peter  and  John  came  thither  for  that 
purpose.  Philip  was,  probably,  at  Samaria, 
when  an  angel  commanded  him  to  go  on  the 
road  that  leads  from  Jerusalem  to  old  Gaza. 
Philip  obeyed,  and  there  met  with  an  Ethio- 
pian eunach,  belonging  to  Candace,  queen  of 
Ethiopia,  whom  he  converted  and  baptized, 
Acts  vJii,  26.  Being  come  out  of  the  water, 
the  Spirit  of  the  Lord  took  away  Philip,  and 
the  eunuch  saw  him  no  more. 

PHILIPPI,  one  of  the  chief  cities  of  Mace- 
donia, lying  on  the  north-west  of  Neapolis, 
and  formerly  called  Datum  or  Datos,  but 
afterward  taking  its  name  from  Philip,  the 
celebrated  king  of  Macedon,  by  whom  it  was 
repaired  and  beautified.  In  process  of  time,  it 
became  a  Roman  colony.  It  was  the  first  place 
at  which  St.  Paul  preached  the  Gospel  upon 
the  continent  of  Europe,  A.  D.  51.  He  made 
many  converts  there,  who  soon  afterward 
gave  strong  proofs  of  their  attachment  to  him, 


PHI 


746 


PHI 


Phil,  iv,  15.  He  was  at  Philippi  a  second 
time,  but  nothing  which  then  occurred  is 
recorded.  The  Philippian  Christians  having 
heard  of  St.  Paul's  imprisonment  at  Rome, 
with  their  accustomed  zeal,  sent  Epaphroditus 
to  assure  him  of  the  continuance  of  their 
regard,  and  to  offer  him  a  supply  of  money. 
His  epistle  was  written  in  consequence  of  that 
act  of  kindness ;  and  it  is  remarkable  for  its 
strong  expressions  of  affection.  As  the  Apos. 
tie  tells  the  Philippians  that  he  hoped  to  see 
them  shortly,  Phil,  ii,  24,  and  there  are  plain 
intimations  in  this  epistle  of  his  having  been 
some  time  at  Rome,  Phil,  i,  12 ;  ii,  26,  it  is 
probable  that  it  was  written  A.  D.  62,  toward 
the  end  of  his  confinement. 

"  It  is  a  strong  proof,"  says  Chrysostom, 
"of  the  virtuous  conduct  of  the  Philippians, 
that  they  did  not  afford  the  Apostle  a  single 
subject  of  complaint ;  for,  in  the  whole  epistle 
which  he  wrote  to  them,  there  is  nothing  but 
exhortation  and  encouragement,  without  the 
mixture  of  any  censure  whatever." 

PHILISTIM,  or  PHILISTINES,  a  people 
who  are  commonly  said  to  have  descended 
from  Casluhim,  the  son  of  Mizraim  or  Mizr, 
who  peopled  Egypt.  The  Philistines,  it  is 
probable,  continued  with  their  progenitors  in 
Egypt  until  they  were  sufficiently  numerous 
and  powerful  to  stretch  themselves  along  the 
coast  of  Canaan  ;  doubtless  by  driving  out  that 
portion  of  the  family  of  Ham.  It  is  certain 
that,  in  the  time  of  Abraham,  the  Canaanites 
were  in  possession  of  the  rest  of  the  land,  to 
which  they  gave  their  name  :  but  the  extreme 
south  of  Philistia,  or  Palestine,  was  even  then 
possessed  by  the  Philistines,  whose  king,  Abi- 
melech,  reigned  at  Gerar.  After  this,  in  the 
time  of  Joshua,  we  find  their  country  divided 
into  five  lordships  or  principalities ;  namely, 
Gaza,  Askelon,  Ashdod,  Gath,  and  Ekron ; 
giving  sometimes  also,  as  it  appears,  the  title 
of  king  to  their  respectivt  rulers ;  Achish  being 
termed  king  of  Gath,  1  Sam.  xxi,  10.  The 
time  of  their  coming  to  Palestine  is  unknown  ; 
but  they  had  been  long  in  Canaan  when  Abra- 
ham came  thither,  in  the  year  of  the  world 
2083.  The  name  Philistine  is  not  Hebrew. 
The  Septuagint  generally  translate  it  'AXXo- 
(fiv\ot,  strangers.  The  Pelethites  and  Chere- 
thites  were  also  Philistines  ;  and  the  Septuagint 
sometimes  translate  Cherethim,  Kpijiai,  Cretes. 
They  were  not  of  the  cursed  seed  of  Canaan. 
However,  Joshua  did  not  forbear  to  give  their 
land  to  the  Hebrews,  and  to  attack  them  by 
command  from  the  Lord,  because  they  pos- 
sessed a  country  promised  to  Israel.  But  these 
conquests  of  Joshua  must  have  been  ill  main- 
tained, since,  under  the  Judges,  under  Saul, 
and  at  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  King 
David,  the  Philistines  had  their  kings,  and 
their  lords,  whom  they  called  Sazenim  ;  since 
their  state  was  divided  into  five  little  kingdoms, 
or  satrapies;  anil  since  they  oppressed  the 
Israelites  during  the  government  of  the  high 
priest  Eli,  and  of  Samuel,  and  during  the  reign 
of  Saul,  for  about  a  hundred  and  twenty  years, 
from  A.  M.  2848  to  A.  M.  2960.  True  it  is, 
that  Shamgar,  Samson,  Samuel,  and  Saul,  op. 


posed  them,  and  killed  some  of  their  people, 
but  did  not  reduce  their  power.  They  con- 
tinued independent  till  the  time  of  David,  who 
subdued  them,  2  Sam.  v,  17 ;  viii,  1,  2,  &c. 

They  continued  in  subjection  to  the  kings 
of  Judah  down  to  the  reign  of  Jehoram,  son  of 
Jehoshaphat,  about  two  hundred  and  forty-six 
years,  when  they  revolted  from  Jehoram, 
2  Chron.  xxi,  16.  Jehoram  made  war  against 
them,  and  probably  reduced  them  to  his  obe- 
dience again ;  because  it  is  observed  in  Scrip- 
ture, that  they  revolted  again  from  Uzziah, 
who  kept  them  to  their  duty  during  his  whole 
reign,  2  Chron.  xxvi,  6,  7.  Uzziah  began  to 
reign  A.  M.  3194.  During  the  unfortunate 
reign  of  Ahaz,  the  Philistines  made  great 
havoc  in  the  territory  of  Judah ;  but  his  son 
and  successor  Hezekiah  subdued  them  again, 
2  Chron.  xxviii,  18 ;  2  Kings  xviii,  8.  Lastly, 
they  regained  their  full  liberty  under  the  later 
kings  of  Judah  ;  and  we  may  see,  by  the  me- 
naces made  against  them  by  the  Prophets 
Isaiah,  Amos,  Zephaniah,  Jeremiah,  and  Eze- 
kiel,  that  they  brought  a  thousand  hardships 
and  calamities  on  the  children  of  Israel,  for 
which  God  threatened  to  punish  them  with 
great  misfortunes. 

Esar-haddon,  successor  to  Sennacherib,  be- 
sieged Ashdod,  or  Azoth,  and  took  it  by  the 
arms  of  his  general,  Thasthan,  or  Tartan. 
Psammetichus,  king  of  Egypt,  took  the  same 
city  after  a  siege  of  twenty-nine  years,  accord- 
ing to  Herodotus.  During  the  siege  of  Tyre, 
which  held  out  thirteen  years,  Nebuchadnezzar 
used  part  of  his  army  to  subdue  the  Ammon- 
ites, the  Moabites,  the  Egyptians,  and  other 
nations  bordering  on  the  Jews.  There  is  great 
probability  that  the  Philistines  could  not  with- 
stand him,  but  were  reduced  to  his  obedience, 
as  well  as  the  other  people  of  Syria,  Phenicia, 
and  Palestine.  Afterward  they  fell  under  the 
dominion  of  the  Persians  ;  then  under  that  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  who  destroyed  the  city 
of  Gazn,  the  only  city  of  the  Phenicians  that 
dared  to  oppose  him.  After  the  persecution 
of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  the  Asmoneans  took 
by  degrees  several  cities  from  the  country  of 
the  Philistines,  which  they  subjected.  Try- 
phon,  regent  of  the  kingdom  of  Syria,  gave  to 
Jonathan,  the  Asmonean,  the  government  of 
the  whole  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  from 
Tyre  to  Egypt ;  consequently,  all  the  country 
of  the  Philistines. 

The  land  of  the  Philistines  bordered  on  the 
west  and  south-west  of  Judea,  and  lies  on  the 
south-east  point  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 
The  country  to  the  north  of  Gaza  is  very  fer- 
tile ;  and,  long  after  the  Christian  era,  it 
possessed  a  very  numerous  population,  and 
strongly  fortified  cities.  No  human  probability, 
says  Keith,  could  have  existed,  in  the  time  of 
the  prophets,  or  at  a  much  more  recent  date, 
of  its  eventual  desolation.  But  it  has  belied, 
for  many  ages,  every  promise  whioh  the  fer- 
tility of  its  soil,  and  the  excellence  both  of  its 
climate  and  situation,  gave  for  many  preceding 
centuries  of  its  permanency  as  a  rich  and 
well  cultivated  region.  And  the  voice  of  pro- 
phecy,  which  was    not  silent   respecting    it, 


PHI 


747 


PHI 


proclaimed  the  fate  that  awaited  it,  in  terms  as 
contradictory,  at  the  time,  to  every  natural 
suggestion,  as  they  are  descriptive  of  what 
Philistia  now  actually  is.  "  I  will  stretch  out 
my  hand  upon  the  Philistines,  and  destroy  the 
remnant  of  the  sea  coasts,"  Ezek.  xxv,  16. 
"  Baldness  is  come  upon  Gaza ;  Ashkelon  is 
cut  off  with  the  remnant  of  their  valley,"  Jer. 
xlvii,  5.  "Thus  saith  the  Lord,  For  three 
transgressions  of  Gaza,  and  for  four,  I  will  not 
turn  away  the  punishment  thereof.  I  will  send 
a  fire  upon  the  wall  of  Gaza,  which  shall  de- 
vour the  palaces  thereof.  And  I  will  cut  oft* 
the  inhabitant  from  Ashdod,  and  him  that 
holdeth  the  sceptre  from  Ashkelon  ;  and  I  will 
turn  my  hand  against  Ekron ;  and  the  rem- 
nant of  the  Philistines  shall  perish,  saith  the 
Lord  God,"  Amos  i,  6,  7,  8.  "  For  Ashkelon 
shall  be  a  desolation  ;"  it  shall  be  cut  oft*  with 
the  remnant  of  the  valley;  "and  Ekron  shall 
be  rooted  up. — O  Canaan,  the  land  of  the  Phi- 
listines, I  will  even  destroy  thee,  that  there 
shall  be  no  inhabitant ;  and  the  sea  coast  shall 
be  dwellings  and  cottages  for  shepherds,  and 
folds  for  flocks,"  Zeph.  ii,  4,  5,  6.  "The  king 
shall  parish  from  Gaza,  and  Ashkelon  shall  not 
be  inhabited,"  Zech.  ix,  5. 

The  land  of  the  Philistines  was  to  be  de- 
stroyed. It  partakes  of  the  general  desolation 
common  to  it  with  Judea  and  other  neighbour- 
ing states.  While  ruins  are  to  be  found  in  all 
Syria,  they  are  particularly  abundant  along 
the  sea  coast,  which  formed,  on  the  south,  the 
realm  of  the  Philistines.  But  its  aspect  pre- 
sents some  existing  peculiarities,  which  travel- 
lers fail  not  to  particularize,  and  which,  in 
reference  both  to  the  state  of  the  country  and 
the  fate  of  its  different  cities,  the  prophets 
failed  not  to  discriminate  as  justly  as  if  their 
description  had  been  drawn  both  with  all  the 
accuracy  which  ocular  observation,  and  all  the 
certainty  which  authenticated  history,  could 
give.  Volney,  (though,  like  one  who  in  an- 
cient times  was  instrumental  to  the  fulfilment 
of  a  special  prediction,  "  he  meant  not  so,  nei- 
ther did  his  heart  think  so,")  from  the  manner 
in  which  he  generalizes  his  observations,  and 
marks  the  peculiar  features  of  the  different 
districts  of  Syria,  with  greater  acuteness  and 
perspicuity  than  any  other  traveller  whatever, 
is  the  ever  ready  purveyor  of  evidence  in  all 
the  cases  which  came  within  the  range  of  his 
topographical  description  of  the  wide  field  of 
prophecy :  while,  at  the  same  time,  from  his 
known,  open,  and  zealous  hostility  to  the  Chris- 
tian cause,  his  testimony  is  alike  decisive  and 
unquestionable :  and  the  vindication  of  the  truth 
of  the  following  predictions  may  safely  be  com- 
mittee1 to  this  redoubted  champion  of  infidelity. 
"  In  the  plain  between  Ramla  and  Gaza,"  the 
very  plain  of  the  Philistines  along  the  sea  coast, 
"  we  met  with  a  number  of  villages  badly  built, 
of  dried  mud,  and  which,  like  the  inhabitants, 
exhibit  every  mark  of  poverty  and  wretched- 
ness. The  houses,  on  a  nearer  view,  are  only 
so  many  huts,  (cottages,)  sometimes  detached, 
at  others  ranged  in  the  form  of  cells,  around  a 
court  yard,  enclosed  by  a  mud  wall.  In  win- 
ter, they  and  their  cattle  may  be  said  to  live 


together ;  the  part  of  the  dwelling  allotted  to 
themselves  being  only  raised  two  feet  above 
that  in  which  they  lodge  their  beasts:" — 
"dwellings  and  cottages  for  shepherds,  and 
folds  for  flocks." — "  Except  the  environs  of 
these  villages,  all  the  rest  of  the  country  is  a 
desert,  and  abandoned  to  the  Bedouin  Arabs, 
who  feed  their  flocks  on  it." — Thus  accom- 
plishing the  words  of  prophecy,  "  The  remnant 
shall  perish ;  the  land  of  the  Philistines  shall 
be  destroyed,  that  there  shall  be  no  inhabitant ; 
and  the  sea  coast  shall  be  dwellings  and  cot- 
tages for  shepherds,  and  folds  for  flocks." 
"  The  ruins  of  white  marble,  sometimes  found 
at  Gaza,  prove  that  it  was  formerly  the  abode 
of  luxury  and  opulence.  It  has  shared  in  the 
general  destruction ;  and,  notwithstanding  its 
proud  title  of  the  capital  of  Palestine,  it  is  now 
no  more  than  a  defenceless  village,"  (baldness 
has  come  upon  it,)  "  peopled  by,  at  most,  only 
two  thousand  inhabitants." — "  It  is  forsaken," 
says  the  prophet,  "and  bereaved  of  its  king." 
"The  sea  coast,  by  which  it  was  formerly 
washed,  is  every  day  removing  farther  from 
the  deserted  ruins  of  Ashkelon."  "Amidst, 
the  various  successive  ruins,  those  of  Edzoud," 
Ashdod,  "  so  powerful  under  the  Philistines, 
are  now  remarkable  for  their  scorpions." — 
Here  again  we  are  reminded  of  the  words  of 
inspiration  :  "  The  inhabitants  shall  be  cut  off 
from  Ashdod." 

Thus  Volney  becomes  an  unconscious  com- 
mentator upon  prophecy.  But  let  us  hear  a 
Christian  traveller.  "  Ashkelon,"  says  Rich- 
ardson, "was  one  of  the  proudest  satrapies  of 
the  lords  of  the  Philistines :  now  there  is  not 
an  inhabitant  within  its  walls ;  and  the  pro- 
phecy of  Zechariah  is  fulfilled  :  '  The  king 
shall  perish  from  Gaza,  and  Ashkelon  shall  not 
be  inhabited.'  When  the  prophecy  was  uttered, 
both  cities  were  in  an  equally  flourishing  con- 
dition ;  and  nothing  but  the  prescience  of 
Heaven  could  pronounce  on  which  of  the  two, 
and  in  what  manner,  the  vial  of  its  wrath 
should  be  poured  out.  Gaza  is  truly  without 
a  king.  The  lofty  towers  of  Ashkelon  lie 
scattered  on  the  ground,  and  the  ruins  within 
its  walls  do  not  shelter  a  human  being.  How 
is  the  wrath  of  man  made  to  praise  his  Creator  ! 
Hath  he  not  said,  and  shall  he  not  do  it  ?  The 
oracle  was  delivered  by  the  mouth  of  the  pro- 
phet more  than  five  hundred  years  before  the 
Christian  era,  and  we  beheld  its  accomplish- 
ment eighteen  hundred  years  after  that  event." 
There  is  yet  another  city  which  was  noted  by 
the  prophets,  the  very  want  of  any  information 
respecting  which,  and  the  absence  of  its  name 
from  several  modern  maps  of  Palestine,  while 
the  sites  of  other  ruined  cities  are  marked,  are 
really  the  best  confirmation  of  the  truth  of 
the  prophecy  that  could  possibly  be  given. 
"  Ekron  shall  be  rooted  up."  It,  is  rooted  up. 
It  was  one  of  the  chief  cities  of  the  Philistines  ; 
but,  though  Gaza  still  subsists,  rnd  while  Ash- 
kelon and  Ashdod  retain  their  names  in  their 
ruins,  the  very  name  of  Ekron  is  missing. 

PHILOSOPHY,  in  general,  is  defined,  "  the 
knowledge  and  study  of  nature  and  morality, 
founded  on  reason  and  experience."     Philoso. 


PHI 


743 


PHI 


phy  owes  its  name  to  the  modesty  of  Pythago- 
ras, who  refused  the  high  title  of  ao<p6q,  wise, 
given  to  his  predecessors,  Thales,  Pherecydes, 
&.c,  as  too  assuming ;  and  contented  himself 
with  the  simple  appellation  of  <pi\6oo(po$,  quasi 
(piXo;  t%  oofia;,  a  friend  or  lover  of  wisdom :  but 
Chauvin  rather  chooses  to  derive  the  name 
from  <pMa,  desire  to  study,  and  ootyia,  studium 
sapientice;  and  says  that  Pythagoras,  conceiv- 
ing that  the  application  of  the  human  mind 
ought  rather  to  be  called  study  than  science, 
set  aside  the  appellation  of  wise,  and,  in  lieu 
thereof,  took  that  of  philosopher. 

A  knowledge  of  the  animal,  vegetable,  and 
mineral  kingdoms,  or  the  science  of  natural 
history,  was  always  an  object  of  interest.  We 
are  informed  that  Solomon  himself  had  given 
a  description  of  the  animal  and  vegetable 
kingdoms,  1  Kings  iv,  33.  Traces  of  philoso- 
phy, strictly  so  called,  that  is,  the  system  of 
prevailing  moral  opinions,  may  be  found  in 
the  book  of  Job,  in  the  thirty-seventh,  thirty- 
ninth,  and  seventy-third  Psalms ;  also  in  the 
books  of  Proverbs  and  Ecclesiastes,  but  chiefly 
in  the  apocryphal  book  of  Wisdom,  and  the 
writings  of  the  son  of  Sirach.  During  the 
captivity,  the  Jews  acquired  many  new  no- 
tions, particularly  from  the  Mahestani,  and 
appropriated  them,  as  occasion  offered,  to 
their  own  purposes.  They  at  length  became 
acquainted  with  the  philosophy  of  the  Greeks, 
which  makes  its  appearance  abundantly  in  the 
book  of  Wisdom.  After  the  captivity,  the 
language  in  which  the  sacred  books  were 
written  was  no  longer  vernacular.  Hence 
arose  the  need  of  an  interpreter  on  the  sab- 
batic year,  a  time  when  the  whole  law  was 
read,  and  also  on  the  Sabbath  in  the  syna- 
gogues, which  some  think  had  been  recently 
erected,  in  order  to  make  the  people  under- 
stand what  was  read.  These  interpreters 
learned  the  Hebrew  language  at  the  schools. 
The  teachers  of  these  schools,  who,  for  the 
two  generations  preceding  the  time  of  Christ, 
had  maintained  some  acquaintance  with  the 
Greek  philosophy,  were  not  satisfied  with  a 
simple  interpretation  of  the  Hebrew  idiom,  as 
it  stood,  but  shaped  the  interpretation  so  as  to 
render  it  conformable  to  their  philosophy. 
Thus  arose  contentions,  which  gave  occasion 
for  the  various  sects  of  Pharisees,  Sadducees, 
and  Essenes.  In  the  time  of  our  Saviour, 
divisions  had  arisen  among  the  Pharisees  them- 
selves. No  less  than  eighteen  nice  questions, 
if  we  may  believe  the  Jewish  rabbins,  were 
contested  at  that  period  between  the  schools 
of  Hillel  and  Shammai ;  one  of  which  questions 
was  an  inquiry,  what  cause  was  sufficient  for 
a  bill  of  divorce.  If  the  Shammai  and  Hillel 
of  the  Talmud  are  the  samo  with  the  learned 
men  mentioned  in  Joscphus,  namely,  Sameas 
and  Pollio,  who  flourished  thirty-four  years 
before  Christ,  then  Shammai  or  Sameas  is 
undoubtedly  the  same  with  the  Simeon  who  is 
mentioned,  Luke  ii,  25-35  ;  and  his  son  Gama- 
liel, so  celebrated  in  the  Talmud,  is  the  same 
with  the  Gamaliel  mentioned,  Acts  v,  34; 
txii,  3. 

Anciently,  learned  men  were  denominated 


among  the  Hebrews  Q>D3n,  as  among  the 
Greeks  they  were  called  co<poi,  wise  men.  In 
the  time  of  Christ,  the  common  appellative  for 
men  of  that  description  was  ypa/^amij,  in  the 
Hebrew  ioid,  a  scribe.  They  were  addressed 
by  the  honorary  title  of  rabbi,  iji,  "  great,"  or 
"master."  The  Jews,  in  imitation  of  the 
Greeks,  had  their  seven  wise  men,  who  we're 
called  rabboni.  Gamaliel  was  one  of  the  num- 
ber. They  called  themselves  the  children  of 
wisdom ;  expressions  which  correspond  very 
nearly  to  the  Greek  <f>i\6<jo<j>o^,  Matthew  xi,  19 ; 
Luke  vii,  35.  The  heads  of  sects  were  called 
"fathers;"  the  disciples  were  denominated 
"sons,"  or  "children,"  Matt,  xii,  27;  xxiii, 
1-9.  The  Jewish  teachers,  at  least  some  of 
them,  had  private  lecture  rooms  ;  but  they  also 
taught  jand  disputed  in  synagogues,  in  temples, 
and,  in  fact,  wherever  they  could  find  an  au- 
dience. The  method  of  these  teachers  was 
the  same  with  that  which  prevailed  among  the 
Greeks.  Any  disciple  who  chose  might  pro- 
pose questions,  upon  which  it  was  the  duty  of 
the  teachers  to  remark  and  give  their  opinions, 
Luke  ii,  46.  The  teachers  were  not  invested 
with  their  functions  by  any  formal  act  of  the 
church,  or  of  the  civil  authority  :  they  were 
self-constituted.  They  received  no  other  salary 
than  some  voluntary  present  from  the  disciples, 
which  was  called  an  "  honorary,"  tijit],  honora- 
rium, 1  Tim.  v,  17.  They  acquired  a  subsist- 
ence, in  the  main,  by  the  exercise  of  some  art 
or  handicraft.  That  they  took  a  higher  seat 
than  their  auditors,  although  it  was  probably 
the  case,  does  not  follow,  as  is  sometimes  sup- 
posed, from  Luke  ii,  46.  According  to  the 
Talmudists,  they  were  bound  to  hold  no  con- 
versation with  women,  and  to  refuse  to  sit  at 
table  with  the  lower  class  of  people,  Matt,  ix, 
11  ;  John  iv,  27.  The  subjects  on  which  they 
taught  were  numerous,  commonly  intricate, 
and  of  no  great  consequence  ;  of  which  there 
are  abundant  examples  in  the  Talmud. 

St.  Paul  bids  the  Colossians  beware  lest  any 
man  should  spoil  them  "  through  philosophy 
and  vain  deceit ;"  that  is,  a  vain  and  deceitful 
philosophy,  such  as  was  popular  in  that  day, 
and  had  been  compounded  out  of  all  preceding 
systems,  Grecian  and  oriental.  An  explana- 
tion of  this  philosophy  is  given  under  Gnos- 
tics, and  Cabbala. 

On  these  ancient  systems  of  pretended  wis- 
dom, Dr.  Burton  justly  remarks:  "Philosophy 
is  indeed  the  noblest  stretch  of  intellect  which 
God  has  vouchsafed  to  man;"  and  it  is  only 
when  man  forgets  that  he  received  his  reason- 
ing powers  from  God,  that  he  is  in  danger  of 
losing  himself  in  darkness  when  he  sought  for 
light.  To  measure  that  which  is  infinite,  is 
as  impossible  in  metaphysics  as  in  physics.  If 
it  had  not  been  for  revelation,  we  should  have 
known  no  more  of  the  Deity  than  the  Heathen 
philosophers  knew  before:  and  to  what  did 
their  knowledge  amount  ?  They  felt  the  ne- 
cessity of  a  First  Cause,  and  they  saw  that  that 
Cause  must  be  intrinsically  good ;  but  when 
they  came  to  systems,  they  never  went  farther 
than  the  point  from  which  they  first  set  out, 
that   evil  is  not  good,  and  good  is  not  evil. 


PHY 


749 


PIE 


The  Gnostics  thought  to  secure  the  triumph 
of  their  scheme  by  veiling  its  weaker  points  in 
mystery,  and  by  borrowing  a  part  from  almost 
every  system.  But  popular,  and  even  success- 
ful, as  this  attempt  may  have  been,  we  may 
say  with  truth,  that  the  scheme  which  flattered 
the  vanity  of  human  wisdom,  and  which  strove 
to  conciliate  all  opinions,  has  died  away,  and 
is  forgotten  ;  while  the  Gospel,  the  unpresum- 
ing,  the  uncompromising  doctrine  of  the  Gos- 
pel, aided  by  no  human  wisdom,  and  address- 
ing itself  not  merely  to  the  head,  but  to. the 
heart,  has  triumphed  over  all  systems  and  all 
philosophers  ;  and  still  leads  its  followers  to 
that  true  knowledge  which  some  have  endea- 
voured to  teach  '  after  the  tradition  of  men, 
after  the  rudiments  of  the  world,  and  not  after 
Christ.'" 

PHINEHAS,  son  of  Eleazar,  and  grandson 
of  Aaron,  third  high  priest  of  the  Jews,  A.  M. 
2571  to  about  A.  M.  2590,  B.  C.  1414.  He  is 
particularly  commended  in  Scripture  for  zeal 
in  vindicating  the  glory  of  God,  when  the 
Midianites  had  sent  their  daughters  into  the 
camp  of  Israel,  to  tempt  the  Hebrews  to  forni- 
cation and  idolatry,  Num.  xxv,  7.  On  this 
account  the  Lord  promised  the  priesthood  to 
Phinehas  by  perpetual  covenant ;  evidently 
including  this  tacit  condition,  that  his  children 
should  continue  faithful  and  obedient :  for  we 
know  the  priesthood  passed  out  of  the  family 
of  Eleazar  and  Phinehas  to  that  of  Ithamar, 
and  that  it  returned  not  to  the  posterity  of 
Eleazar  until  after  about  a  hundred  and  fifty 
years. 

PHUT  or  PUT,  the  posterity  of  Phut,  the 
son  of  Ham,  Gen.  x,  6.  Calmet  is  of  opinion 
that  Phut,  the  third  son  of  Ham,  peopled 
either  the  canton  of  Phtemphu,  Phtemphti, 
Phtembuti,  of  Pliny  and  Ptolemy,  whose 
capital  was  Thara,  in  Lower  Egypt,  inclining 
toward  Libya  ;  or  the  canton  called  Phtenotes, 
of  which  Buthas  was  the  capital.  The  pro- 
phets often  speak  of  Phut.  In  the  time  of 
Jeremiah,  xlvi,  9,  Phut  was  under  the  obedi- 
ence of  Necho,  king  of  Egypt.  Nahum,  iii, 
9,  reckons  this  people  in  the  number  of  those 
who  ought  to  come  to  the  assistance  of  No- 
Ammon,  or  Diospolis. 

PHYLACTERIES,  called  by  the  Jews 
^Vdp,  are  little  scrolls  of  parchment,  in  whicli 
are  written  certain  sentences  of  the  law,  en- 
closed in  leather  cases,  and  bound  with  thongs 
on  the  forehead  and  on  the  left  arm.  They 
are  called  in  Greek  (pvXaKTtjpia,  from  <pv\d.TTu>, 
cuslodio,  either  because  they  were  supposed  to 
preserve  the  law  in  memory,  or  rather  because 
they  were  looked  upon  as  a  kind  of  amulets 
or  charms  to  keep  them  from  danger.  The 
making  and  wearing  these  phylacteries,  as  the 
Jews  still  do  in  their  private  devotions,  is 
owing  to  a  misinterpretation  of  those  texts,  on 
which  they  ground  the  practice,  namely,  God's 
commanding  them  "  to  bind  the  law  for  a  sign 
on  their  hands,  and  to  let  it  be  as  frontlets  be- 
tween their  eyes,"  &c,  Deut.  vi,  8.  The  com- 
mand ought  doubtless  to  be  understood  meta- 
phorically, as  a  charge  to  remember  it,  to 
meditate  upon  it,  to  have  it  as  it  were  con- 


tinually before  their  eyes,  and  to  conduct  their 
lives  by  it ;  as  when  Solomon  says,  concern- 
ing the  commandments  of  God  in  general, 
"  Bind  them  about  thy  neck,  write  them  upon 
the  table  of  thy  heart,"  Prov.  iii,  1,  3;  vi,  21. 
However,  the  Jews  understanding  the  precept 
literally,  wrote  out  the  several  passages 
wherever  it  occurs,  and  to  which  it  seems  to 
refer,  and  bound  them  upon  their  foreheads 
and  upon  their  arms.  It  seems  the  Pharisees 
used  to  "  make  broad  their  phylacteries."  This 
some  understand  of  the  knots  of  the  thongs 
by  which  they  were  fastened,  which  were  tied 
very  artificially  in  the  form  of  Hebrew  letters ; 
and  that  the  pride  of  the  Pharisees  induced 
them  to  have  these  knots  larger  than  ordinary, 
as  a  peculiar  ornament.  The  Pharisees  are 
farther  said  to  "enlarge  the  borders  of  their 
garments,"  rd  updoncSa  t5>v  'ipaTiw,  Matt,  xxiii, 
5.  These  Kpdamia  were  the  rwx,  the  fringes 
which  the  Jews  are  commanded  to  wear  upon 
the  borders,  of  their  garments,  Num.  xv,  38, 
39.  The  Targum  of  Onkelos  calls  them 
jnBDna,  which  has  so  near  an  affinity  with  the 
Greek  word  KpdoncSov,  that  there  is  no  doubt 
but  it  signifies  the  same  thing ;  which  is,  there- 
fore, an  evidence  that  the  Kpdontha  were  the 
h'S'X.  These  were  worn  by  our  Saviour,  as 
appears  from  the  following  passage  :  "  Behold, 
a  woman,  which  was  diseased  with  an  issue 
of  blood  twelve  years,  came  behind  him,  and 
touched  the  hem  of  his  garment,"  Kpdaxe&ov  tov 
IfxaTtov,  Matt,  ix,  20.  Again  :  the  inhabitants 
of  Gennesare*.  are  said  to  have  brought  unto 
him  their  diseased,  and  to  have  "  besought 
him,  that  they  might  only  touch  the  hem  of 
his  garment,"  Kpdo-xcSov  tov  \jxartov,  Matt,  xiv, 
36.  KpaatTiiov  tov  tyaTlov  is,  in  both  these  pas- 
sages, very  improperly  translated  the  "  hem 
of  his  garment."  It  should  have  been  render- 
ed "  the  fringe."  The  Pharisees  are  censured 
by  our  Saviour  for  enlarging  these  fringes  of 
their  garments,  which  we  may  suppose  they 
did  partly  from  pride,  and  partly  from  hy- 
pocrisy, as  pretending  thereby  an  extraor- 
dinary regard  for  the  precepts  of  the  law. 
It  is  reported  by  Jeroiu,  as  quoted  by  God- 
win, that  they  used  to  have  fringes  extrava, 
gantly  long ;  sticking  thorns  in  them,  that, 
by  pricking  their  legs  as  they  walked,  they 
might  put  them  in  mind  of  the  law.  See 
Frontlets. 

PIETISTS,  Protestant,  a  denomination  in 
the  seventeenth  century,  which  owed  its  origin 
to  "the  pious  and  learned  Spener,"  as  Dr. 
Mosheim  calls  him,  who  formed  private  devo- 
tional societies  at  Frankfort,  in  order  to  culti- 
vate vital  and  practical  religion ;  and  publish- 
ed a  book  entitled  "  Pious  Desires,"  which 
greatly  promoted  this  object.  His  followers 
laid  it  down  as  an  essential  maxim,  that  none 
should  be  admitted  into  the  ministry  but  those 
who  not  only  had  received  a  proper  education, 
but  were  also  distinguished  by  their  wisdom 
and  sanctity  of  manners,  and  had  hearts  filled 
with  divine  love.  Hence  they  proposed  an 
alteration  in  the  schools  of  divinity,  which 
embraced  the  following  points:  1.  That  the- 
scholastic  theology,  which  reigned  in  the  acade- 


PIH 


750 


PIL 


Mies,  and  was  composed  of  intricate  and  dis- 
putable doctrines,   and    obscure  and  unusual 
forms  of  expression,  should  be  totally  abolish- 
ed.    2.  That  polemical  divinity,  which  com- 
prehended the  controversies  subsisting  between 
Christians  of  different  communions,  should  be 
less  eagerly  studied,  and  less  frequently  treat- 
ed, though  not  entirely  neglected.    3.  That  all 
mixture  of  philosophy  and  human  science  with 
divine  wisdom,  was  to  be  most  carefully  avoid- 
ed; that  is,  that  Pagan  philosophy  and  classical 
learning  should  be  kept  distinct  from,  and  by 
no  means  supersede,  Biblical  theology.     But, 
4.  That,  on  the  contrary,  all  those  students, 
who  were  designed  for  the  ministry,  should  be 
accustomed    from   their    early    youth    to   the 
perusal  and  study  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and 
be  taught  a  plain  system  of  theology,  drawn 
from  these  unerring  sources  of  truth.    5.  That 
the  whole  course  of  their  education  was  to  be 
so  directed  as  to  render  them  useful  in  life,  by 
the  practical  power  of  their  doctrine,  and  the 
commanding  influence  of  their  example.  Such, 
in  substance,  is  Mosheim's  account  of  the  me- 
ditated reforms  in  the  public  schools.     But  it 
was  not  intended  to  confine  these  reforms  to 
students  and  the  clergy.    Religious  persons  of 
every  class  and  rank  were  encouraged  to  meet 
in  what  were  called  Biblical  colleges,  or  col- 
leges of  piety,    (we  might  call    them    prayer 
meetings,)  where  some  exercised  in   reading 
the  Scriptures,  singing,  and  prayer,  and  others 
engaged  in  the  exposition  of  the  Scriptures  ; 
not  in  a  dry  and  critical  way,  but  in  a  strain 
of  practical  and  experimental  piety,  by  which 
they  mutually  edified  each  other.     This  prac- 
tice, which  always  more  or  less  obtains  where 
religion  flourishes,  as,  for  instance,  at  the  Re- 
formation, raised  the  same  sort  of  outcry  as  at 
the  rise  of  Methodism  ;  and  those  who  entered 
not  into  the  spirit  of  the  design,  were  eager  to 
catch  at  every  instance  of  weakness  or  impru- 
dence, to  bring  disgrace  on  that  which,  in  fact, 
brought  disgrace   upon   themselves,    as   luke- 
warm and  formal  Christians.     "  In  so  saying, 
Master,  thou  reproachest  us  also."    This  work 
began   about   1670.      In  1691  Dr.  Spener  re- 
moved from  Dresden  to  Berlin,  where  he  propa- 
gated the  same  principles,  which  widely  spread, 
and  were  well  supported  in  many  parts  of  Ger- 
many by  the  excellent  Professor  Francke  and 
others,   until  the   general   decline  of  religion 
which  has  unhappily  prevailed  in  Germany  for 
the  last  half  century.     See  Neology. 

PI-HAHIROTH.  The  Hebrew  pi  answers 
to  the  modern  Arabic  word  fum,  signifying 
"mouth;"  and  is  generally  applied  to  the 
passes  in  the  mountains.  In  the  English  and 
Septuagint  versions,  Hahiroth  is  taken  as  a  pro- 
per name  ;  and  the  whole  word  would  imply  the 
mouth  or  pass  of  Hahiroth  or  Hiroth,  whatever 
particular  origin  or  signification  may  belong 
to  that  word.  The  name,  however,  sufficiently 
explains  the  situation  of  the  children  of  Israel ; 
who  were  hemmed  in  at  this  place,  between 
the  sea  in  front,  and  a  narrow  mountain  pass 
behind ;  which  no  doubt  encouraged  Pharaoh 
to  make  his  attack  upon  them  in  so  disadvan- 
tageous a  position  ;    thinking  that  they  must 


inevitably  fall  an  easy  prey  into  his  hands,  or  be 
cut  to  pieces  :  when  their  deliverance,  and  his 
own  destruction,  were  unexpectedly  wrought 
by  the  parting  of  the  waters  of  the  sea.  The 
place  where  this  miracle  is  supposed  to  have 
happened,  is  still  called  Bahral-Kolsum,  or  the 
Sea  of  Destruction ;  and  just  opposite  to  the 
situation  which  answers  to  the  opening  called 
Pi-hahiroth,  is  a  bay,  where  the  north  cape  is 
called  Ras  Musa,  or  the  Cape  of  Moses.  That 
part  of  tho  western  or  Heroopolitan  branch  of 
the  Red  Sea  where,  from  these  coincidences, 
the  passage  most  probably  took  place,  is  de- 
scribed by  Bruce  as  about  three  leagues  over, 
with  fourteen  fathoms  of  water  in  the  channel, 
nine  at  the  sides,  and  good  anchorage  every 
where.  The  farther  side  is  also  represented 
as  a  low  sandy  coast,  and  an  easy  landing 
place.     See  Red  Sea. 

PILATE.  It  is  not  known  of  what  coun- 
try or  family  Pontius  Pilate  was,  but  it  is  be- 
lieved that  he  was  of  Rome,  or,  at  least,  of 
Italy.  He  was  sent  to  govern  Judea  in  the  room 
of  Gratus,  A.  D.  26,  or  27.  He  presided  over 
this  province  for  ten  years,  from  the  twelfth 
or  thirteenth  year  of  Tiberius,  to  the  twenty- 
second  of  the  same  emperor.  He  is  represent- 
ed, both  by  Philo  and  Josephus,  as  a  man  of 
an  impetuous  and  obstinate  temper,  and,  as  a 
judge,  one  who  used  to  sell  justice,  and,  for 
money,  to  pronounce  any  sentence  that  was 
desired.  The  same  authors  make  mention  of 
his  rapines,  his  injuries,  his  murders,  the  tor- 
ments that  he  inflicted  upon  the  innocent,  and 
the  persons  he  put  to  death  without  any  form 
of  process.  Philo,  in  particular,  describes  him 
as  a  man  that  exercised  an  excessive  cruelty 
during  the  whole  time  of  his  government ; 
who  disturbed  the  repose  of  Judea ;  and  was 
the  occasion  of  the  troubles  and  revolt  that 
followed.  St.  Luke  acquaints  us,  that  Pilate 
had  mingled  the  blood  of  the  Galileans  with 
their  sacrifices  ;  and  that  the  matter,  having 
been  related  to  Jesus  Christ,  he  introduced  the 
subject  into  his  discourse,  Luke  xiii.  The 
reason  why  Pilate  treated  them  in  this  manner, 
while  sacrificing  in  the  temple,  is  not  known. 
At  the  time  of  our  Saviour's  passion,  Pilate 
made  some  attempts  to  deliver  him  out  of  the 
hands  of  the  Jews.  He  knew  the  reasons  of 
their  enmity  against  him,  Matthew  xxvii,  18. 
His  wile,  also,  having  had  a  dream  that 
alarmed  her,  requested  he  would  not  stain  his 
hands  witli  the  blood  of  that  just  person,  verse 
19.  He  therefore  attempted  to  appease  the 
wrath  of  the  Jews  by  scourging  Jesus,  John 
xix,  1  ;  Matt,  xxvii,  26  ;  and  also  tried  to  take 
him  out  of  their  hands  by  proposing  to  deliver 
him  or  Barabbas  on  the  day  of  the  passover. 
Lastly,  he  thought  to  discharge  himself  from 
pronouncing  judgment  against  him,  by  send- 
ing him  to  Herod,  king  of  Galilee,  Luke  xxiii, 
7,  8.  When  he  saw  all  this  would  not  satisfy 
the  Jews,  and  that  they  even  threatened  him 
in  some  manner,  saying,  he  could  be  no  friend 
to  the  emperor  if  he  suffered  Jesus  to  be  set  at 
liberty,  John  xix.  12-15,  he  caused  water  to 
be  brought,  and  washed  his  hands  before  all 
the  people,  and  publicly  declared  himself  inno- 


PIL 


751 


PIN 


cent  of  the  blood  of  that  just  person,  Matthew 
xxvii,  23,  24.  Yet  at  the  same  time  he  deliver- 
ed him  to  his  soldiers  that  they  might  crucify 
him.  This  was  enough  to  justify  Jesus  Christ, 
as  Calmet  observes,  and  to  prove  that  he  held 
him  as  innocent ;  but  it  was  not  enough  to 
vindicate  the  conscience  and  integrity  of  a 
judge,  whose  duty  it  was  as  well  to  assert  the 
cause  of  oppressed  innocence,  as  to  punish  the 
guilty.  He  ordered  the  inscription  to  be  placed 
over  the  head  of  our  Saviour,  John  xix,  19 ; 
and  when  requested  by  the  Jews  to  alter  it, 
peremptorily  refused.  He  also  gave  leave  for 
the  removal  of  our  Lord's  body,  and  to  place 
a  guard  over  the  sepulchre,  Matthew  xxvii,  65. 
These  are  all  the  particulars  that  we  learn 
concerning  Pilate  from  the  writers  of  the 
Gospels. 

The  extreme  reluctance  of  Pilate  to  con- 
demn Christ,  considering  his  merciless  charac- 
ter, is  signally  remarkable,  and  still  more  his 
repeated  protestations  of  the  innocence  of  his 
prisoner  ;  although,  on  occasions  of  massacre, 
he  made  no  scruple  of  confounding  the  inno- 
cent with  the  guilty.  But  he  was  unquestion- 
ably influenced  by  the  overruling  providence 
of  God,  to  make  the  righteousness  of  his  Son 
appear  as  clear  as  the  noon  day,  even  when 
condemned  and  executed  as  a  malefactor,  by 
the  fullest,  the  most  authentic,  and  the  most 
public  evidence  :  1.  By  the  testimony  even  of 
his  judges,  Pilate  and  Herod,  after  examina- 
tion of  evidence.  2.  By  the  message  of  Pilate's 
wife,  delivered  to  him  on  the  tribunal.  3.  By 
the  testimony  of  the  traitor  Judas,  who  hang- 
ed himself  in  despair,  for  betraying  the  inno- 
cent blood.  4.  By  the  testimony  of  the  Roman 
centurion  and  guard,  at  his  crucifixion,  to  his 
divinity  and  righteousness.  And,  5.  Of  his 
fellow  sufferer  on  the  cross.  Never  was  inno- 
cence so  attested  as  his  innocence. 

Justin  Martyr,  Tertullian,  Eusebius,  and 
after  them  several  others,  both  ancient  and 
modern,  assure  us  that  it  was  formerly  the 
custom  for  Roman  magistrates  to  prepare 
copies  of  all  verbal  processes  and  judical  acts, 
which  they  passed  in  their  several  provinces, 
and  to  send  them  to  the  emperor.  And  Pilate, 
in  compliance  with  the  custom,  having  sent 
word  to  Tiberius  of  what  had  passed  relating 
to  Jesus  Christ,  the  emperor  wrote  an  account 
of  it  to  the  senate,  in  a  manner  that  gave  rea- 
son to  judge  that  he  thought  favourably  of 
the  religion  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  showed  that 
he  should  be  willing  for  them  to  confer  divine 
honours  upon  him  ;  but  the  senate  was  not  of 
the  same  opinion,  and  so  the  matter  dropped. 
It  appears  by  what  Justin  says  of  these  acts, 
that  the  miracles  of  Christ  were  mentioned 
there,  and  even  that  the  soldiers  had  divided 
his  garments  among  them.  Eusebius  insinu- 
ates that  they  spoke  of  his  resurrection  and 
ascension.  Tertullian  and  Justin  refer  to  these 
acts  with  so  much  confidence,  as  would  make 
one  believe  they  had  read  and  handled  them. 
However,  neither  Eusebius  nor  Jerom,  who 
were  both  inquisitive  and  understanding  per- 
sons, nor  any  other  author  who  wrote  after- 
ward, seems  to  have  seen  them,  at  least  not 


the  true  and  original  acts.  For  as  to  what  we 
have  now  in  great  number,  they  are  not  au- 
thentic, being  neither  ancient  nor  uniform. 
There  are  also  some  pretended  letters  of  Pilate 
to  Tiberius,  giving  a  history  of  our  Saviour ; 
but  they  are  universally  allowed  to  be  spurious. 
Pilate  being  a  man  who,  by  his  excessive  cru- 
elties and  rapine,  had  disturbed  the  repose  of 
Judea,  during  the  whole  time  of  his  govern- 
ment, was  at  length  deposed  by  Vitellius,  the 
proconsul  of  Syria,  A.  D.  36,  and  sent  to  Rome 
to  give  an  account  of  his  conduct  to  the  em- 
peror. But,  though  Tiberius  died  before  Pi- 
late arrived  at  Rome,  yet  his  successor  Caligula 
banished  him  to  Vienne  in  Gaul,  where  he 
was  reduced  to  such  extremity  that  he  laid 
violent  hands  upon  himself.  The  evangelists 
call  him  governor,  though  in  reality  he  was 
nothing  more  than  procurator  of  Judea,  not 
only  because  governor  was  a  name  of  general 
use,  but  because  Pilate,  in  effect,  acted  as  one, 
by  taking  upon  him  to  judge  in  criminal  mat- 
ters, as  his  predecessors  had  done,  and  as  other 
procurators  in  the  small  provinces  of  the  em- 
pire, where  there  was  no  proconsul,  constantly 
did. 

PILLAR  properly  means  a  column  raised 
to  support  a  building ;  but  in  Scripture  the 
term  mostly  occurs  in  a  metaphorical  or  figu- 
rative sense.  Thus  we  have  a  pillar  of  cloud, 
a  pillar  of  fire,  a  pillar  of  smoke,  &c  ;  signify- 
ing a  cloud,  a  fire,  a  smoke  raised  up  toward 
heaven  in  the  form  or  shape  of  a  pillar,  Exod. 
xiii,  21  ;  Judges  xx,  40.  Job  speaks  of  the 
pillars  of  heaven  and  the  pillars  of  the  earth, 
Job  ix,  6;  xxvi,  11  ;  which  are  strong  meta- 
phorical expressions,  that  suppose  the  heavens 
and  the  earth  to  be  an  edifice  raised  by  the 
hand  of  the  almighty  Creator,  and  founded 
upon  its  basis.  St.  Paul  speaks  of  the  Chris- 
tian church  under  the  similitude  of  a  pillar  or 
column  on  which  the  truth,  or  doctrine  of  the 
glorious  Gospel  is  inscribed,  1  Tim.  iii,  15. 

PILLOWS.  The  prophet  speaks  of  "  sew- 
ing pillows  to  arm  holes."  There  is  here, 
probably,  an  allusion  to  the  easy  indulgence 
of  the  great.  To  this  day  in  the  east  they 
cover  the  floors  of  their  houses  with  carpets  : 
and  along  the  sides  of  the  wall  or  floor,  a 
range  of  narrow  beds  or  mattresses  is  often 
placed  upon  these  carpets ;  and,  for  their 
farther  ease  and  convenience,  several  velvet 
or  damask  bolsters  are  placed  upon  these 
carpets  or  mattresses, — indulgences  that  seem 
to  be  alluded  to  by  the  stretching  of  them- 
selves upon  couches,  and  by  "  the  sewing 
of  pillows  to  arm  holes,"  Ezekiel  xiii,  18  ; 
Amos  vi,  4. 

PINE  TREE.  The  pine  appears  in  our 
translation' three  times,  Neh.  viii,  15;  Isaiah 
xli,  19;  lx,  13.  Nehemiah,  viii,  15,  giving 
directions  for  observing  the  feast  of  taber- 
nacles, says,  "Fetch  olive  branches,  pine 
branches,  myrtle  branches,  and  branches  of 
thick  trees,  to  make  booths."  The  Hebrew 
phrase  jdb>  Yy,  means  literally  branches  of  oily 
or  gummy  plants.'"  The  LXX.  say  cypress. 
Scheuchzer  says  the  Turks  call  the  cypress 
Zemin.    The  author  of  "  Scripture  Illustrated"* 


PIT 


752 


PLA 


says,  "  I  should  prefer  the  whole  species  called 
jasmin,  on  account  of  its  verdure,  its  fragrance, 
and  its  flowers,  which  are  highly  esteemed. 
The  word  jasmin  and  jasemin  of  the  Turks, 
resembles  strongly  the  shemen  of  the  Hebrew 
original  here.  The  Persians  also  name  this 
plant  semen  and  simsyk."  The  authority, 
however,  of  the  Septuagint  must  prevail.  In 
Isa.  xli,  19  ;  Ix,  13,  the  Hebrew  word  is  -imn  ; 
a  tree,  says  Parkhurst,  so  called  from  the 
springiness  or  elasticity  of  its  wood.  Luther 
thought  it  the  elm,  which  is  a  lofty  and  spread- 
ing tree ;  and  Dr.  Stock  renders  it  the  ash. 
After  all,  it  may  be  thought  advisable  to  retain 
the  pine.  La  Roche,  describing,  a  valley  near 
to  Mount  Lebanon,  has  this  observation  :  "La 
continuelle  verdure  des  pins  et  des  chines  verds 
fait  toujours  sa  beauti."  [The  perpetual  ver- 
dure of  the  pines  and  the  live  oaks  makes  it 
ever  beautiful.] 

PISGAH,  a  part  of  Mount  Nebo,  so  called, 
being,  in  all  probability,  a  distinct,  and  most 
likely  the  highest,  summit  of  that  mountain. 
Here  Moses  climbed  to  view  the  land  of  Ca- 
naan ;  and  here  he  died. 

PISIDIA,  a  province  of  Asia  Minor,  hav- 
ing Lycaonia  to  the  north,  Pamphylia,.to  the 
south,  Cilicia  and  Cappadocia  to  the  east,  and 
the  province  of  Asia  to  the  west.  St.  Paul 
preached  at  Antioch  in  Pisidia,  Acts  xiii,  14 ; 
xiv,  24. 

PITCH,  rtfli,  Exod.  ii,  3;  Isaiah  xxxiv,  9; 
Septuagint  acrQaXros ;  a  fat,  combustible,  oily 
matter,  sometimes  called  asphaltos,  from  the 
lake  Asphaltites,  or  Dead  Sea,  in  Judea,  on 
the  surface  of  which  it  rises  in  the  nature  of 
liquid  pitch,  and  floats  like  other  oleaginous 
bodies ;  but  is  condensed  by  degrees,  through 
the  heat  of  the  sun,  and  grows  dry  and  hard. 
The  word  which  our  translators  have  rendered 
pitch  in  Gen.  vi,  14,  and  non,  slime,  Gen.  xi, 
3 ;  xiv,  10,  is  generally  supposed  to  be  bitu- 
men. In  the  first  of  these  places  it  is  men- 
tioned as  used  for  smearing  the  ark,  and 
closing  its  interstices.  It  was  peculiarly 
adapted  to  this  purpose.  Being  at  first  soft, 
viscous,  and  pliable,  it  might  be  thrust  into 
every  chasm  and  crevice  with  the  greatest 
ease ;  but  would  soon  acquire  a  tenacity  and 
hardness  superior  to  those  of  our  pitch.  A 
coat  of  it  spread  over  both  the  inside  and  out- 
side of  the  ark  would  make  it  perfectly  water 
proof.  The  longer  it  was  kept  in  the  water, 
the  harder  and  stronger  it  would  grow.  The 
Arabs  still  use  it  for  careening  their  vessels. 
In  the  second  passage  it  is  described  as  ap- 
plied for  cement  in  building  the  tower  of 
Babel.  It  was  much  used  in  ancient  build- 
ings in  that  region  ;  and,  in  the  ruins  of  Baby- 
lon, large  masses  of  brick  work  cemented  with 
it  are  discovered.  It  is  known  that  the  plain 
of  Shinar  did  abound  with  it,  both  in  its  liquid 
and  solid  state;  that  there  was  there  a  cave 
and  fountain  which  was  continually  casting  it 
out ;  and  that  the  famous  tower  and  no  less 
famous  walls  of  Babylon  were  built  by  this 
kind  of  cement,  is  confirmed  by  the  testimony 
of  several  ancient  authors.  The  slime  pits  of 
Siddim,  Gen.  xiv,  10,  were  holes  out  of  which 


issued  this  liquid  bitumen,  or  naphtha.  Bitu- 
men was  formerly  much  used  by  the  Egyp- 
tians and  Jews  in  embalming  the  bodies  of 
their  dead. 

PITHOM,  one  of  the  cities  that  the  Israel- 
ites built  for  Pharaoh  in  Egypt,  during  the 
time  of  their  servitude,  Exod.  i,  11. 

PLAGUES  OF  EGYPT.  The  design  of 
these  visitations,  growing  more  awful  and  tre- 
mendous  in  their  progress,  was  to  make  Pha- 
raoh know,  and  confess,  that  the  God  of  the 
Hebrews  was  the  supreme  Lord,  and  to  exhibit 
his  power  and  his  justice  in  the  strongest  light 
to  all  the  nations  of  the  earth,  Exod.  ix,  16 ; 
1  Sam.  iv,  8,  &c ;  to  execute  judgment  upon 
the  Egyptians  and  upon  all  their  gods,  inani- 
mate and  bestial,  for  their  cruelty  to  the  Israel- 
ites, and  for  their  grovelling  polytheism  and 
idolatry,  Exod.  vii,  14-17;  xii,  12.  The  Nile 
was  the  principal  divinity  of  the  Egyptians. 
According  to  Heliodorus,  they  paid  divine 
honours  to  this  river,  and  revered  it  as  the 
first  of  their  gods.  They  declared  him  to  be 
the  rival  of  heaven,  since  he  watered  the 
country  without  the  aid  of  the  clouds  and 
rain.  His  principal  festival  was  at  the  summer 
solstice,  when  the  inundation  commenced ; 
at  which  season,  in  the  dog  days,  by  a  cruel 
idolatrous  rite,  they  sacrificed  red-haired  per- 
sons, principally  foreigners,  to  Typhon,  or  the 
power  that  presided  over  tempests,  at  Busiris, 
Heliopolis,  &c,  by  burning  them  alive,  and 
scattering  their  ashes  in  the  air,  for  the  good 
of  the  people,  as  we  learn  from  Plutarch. 
Hence  Bryant  infers  the  probability,  that  these 
victims  were  chosen  from  among  the  Israelites, 
during  their  residence  in  Egypt.  The  judg- 
ment then  inflicted  upon  the  river,  and  all  the 
waters  of  Egypt,  in  the  presence  of  Pharaoh 
and  of  his  servants,  as  foretold, — when,  as 
soon  as  Aaron  had  smitten  the  waters  of  the 
river,  they  were  turned  into  blood,  and  con- 
tinued in  that  state  for  seven  days,  so  that  all 
the  fish  died,  and  the  Egyptians  could  not 
drink  of  the  waters  of  the  river,  in  which  they 
delighted  as  the  most  wholesome  of  all  waters, 
but  were  forced  to  dig  wells  for  pure  water  to 
drink — was  a  significant  sign  of  God's  dis- 
pleasure for  their  senseless  idolatry  in  wor- 
shipping the  river  and  its  fish,  and  also  "  a 
manifest  reproof  of  that  bloody  edict  whereby 
the  infants  were  slain,"  Wisdom  xi,  7. 

In  the  plague  of  frogs,  their  sacred  river 
itself  was  made  an  active  instrument  of  their 
punishment,  together  with  another  of  their 
gods.  The  frog  was  one  of  their  sacred  ani- 
mals, consecrated  to  the  sun,  and  considered 
as  an  emblem  of  divine  inspiration  in  its  in- 
flations. 

The  plague  of  lice,  which  was  produced 
without  any  previous  intimation  to  Pharaoh, 
was  peculiarly  offensive  to  a  people  so  super- 
stitiously  nice  and  cleanly  as  the  Egyptians ; 
and,  above  all,  to  their  priests,  who  used  to 
shave  their  whole  body  every  third  day,  that 
neither  louse,  nor  any  other  vermin,  might  be 
found  upon  them  while  they  were  employed 
in  serving  their  gods,  as  we  learn  from  Hero- 
dotus ;    and  Plutarch  informs  us,   that  they 


PLA 


753 


PLA 


never  wore  woollen  garments,  but  linen  only, 
because  linen  is  least  apt  to  produce  lice.  This 
plague,  therefore,  was  particularly  disgraceful 
to  the  magicians  themselves ;  and  when  they 
tried  to  imitate  it,  but  failed,  on  account  of 
the  minuteness  of  the  objects,  (not  like  ser- 
pents, water,  or  frogs,  of  a  sensible  bulk  that 
could  be  handled,)  they  were  forced  to  confess 
that  this  was  no  human  feat  of  legerdemain, 
but  rather  "the  finger  of  God."  Thus  were 
"  the  illusions  of  their  magic  put  down,  and 
their  vaunting  in  wisdom  reproved  with  dis. 
grace,"  Wisdom  xvii,  7.  "  Their  folly  was 
manifest  unto  all  men,"  in  absurdly  and  wick- 
edly attempting  at  first  to  place  the  feats  of 
human  art  on  a  level  with  the  stupendous 
operations  of  divine  power,  in  the  first  two 
plagues ;  and  being  foiled  in  the  third,  by 
shamefully  miscarrying,  they  exposed  them- 
selves to  the  contempt  of  their  admirers. 
Philo,  the  Jew,  has  a  fine  observation  on  the 
plagues  of  Egypt :  "  Some,  perhaps,  may 
inquire,  Why  did  God  punish  the  country  by 
such  minute  and  contemptible  animals  as 
frogs,  lice,  flies,  rather  than  Ly  bears,  lions, 
leopards,  or  other  kinds  of  savage  beasts 
which  prey  on  human  flesh  ?  Or,  if  not  by 
these,  why  not  by  the  Egyptian  asp,  whose  bite 
is  instant  death  ?  But  let  him  learn,  if  he  be 
ignorant,  first,  that  God  chose  rather  to  cor- 
rect than  to  destroy  the  inhabitants  ;  for,  if  he 
desired  to  annihilate  them  utterly,  he  had  no 
need  to  have  made  use  of  animals  as  his  aux- 
iliaries, but  of  the  divinely  inflicted  evils  of 
famine  and  pestilence.  Next,  let  him  farther 
learn  that  lesson  so  necessary  for  every  state 
of  life,  namely,  that  men,  when  they  war,  seek 
the  most  powerful  aid  to  supply  their  own 
weakness  ;  but  God,  the  highest  and  the  great- 
est power,  who  stands  in  need  of  nothing,  if 
at  any  time  he  chooses  to  employ  instruments, 
as  it  were,  to  inflict  chastisement,  chooses  not 
the  strongest  and  greatest,  disregarding  their 
strength,  but  rather  the  mean  and  the  minute, 
whom  he  endues  with  invincible  and  irresistible 
power  to  chastise  offenders."  The  first  three 
plagues  were  common  to  the  Egyptians  and 
the  Israelites,  to  convince  both  that  "  there 
was  none  like  the  Lord  ;"  and  to  wean  the 
latter  from  their  Egyptian  idolatries,  and 
induce  them  to  return  to  the  Lord  their  God. 
And  when  this  end  was  answered,  the  Israel- 
ites were  exempted  from  the  ensuing  plagues  ; 
for  the  Lord  severed  the  land  of  Goshen  from 
the  rest  of  Egj'pt;  whence  the  ensuing  plagues, 
confined  to  the  latter,  more  plainly  appeared 
to  have  been  inflicted  by  the  God  of  the  He- 
brews, Exodus  viii,  20-23,  to  convince 'both 
more  clearly  of  "the  goodness  and  severity  of 
God,"  Rom.  xi,  22  ;  that  "  great  plagues  re- 
main for  the  ungodly,  but  mercy  embraceth 
the  righteous  on  every  side,"  Psalm  xxxii,  10. 
The  visitation  of  flies,  of  the  gad  fly,  or 
hornet,  was  more  intolerable  than  any  of  the 
preceding.  By  this,  his  minute,  but  mighty 
army,  God  afterward  drove  out  some  of  the 
devoted  nations  of  Canaan  before  Joshua, 
Exod.  xxiii,  28;  Deut.  vii,  20;  Josh,  xxiv,  12. 
This  insect  was  worshipped  in  Palestine  and 
49 


elsewhere  under  the  title  of  Baal-zebub,  "  lord 
of  the  gad  fly,"  2  Kings  i,  1,  2.  Egypt,  we 
learn  from  Herodotus,  abounded  witli  prodi- 
gious swarms  of  flies,  or  gnats ;  but  this  was 
in  the  heat  of  summer,  during  the  dog  days ; 
whence  this  fly  is  called  by  the  Septuagint 
Kw6jtvia,  the  dog  fly.  But  the  appointed  time 
of  this  plague  was  in  the  middle  of  winter ; 
and,  accordingly,  this  plague  extorted  Pha- 
raoh's partial  consent,  "  Go  ye,  sacrifice  to 
your  God,  but  in  the  land;"  and  when  Moses 
and  Aaron  objected  the  oftence  they  would 
give  to  the  Egyptians,  who  would  stone  them 
for  sacrificing  "the  abomination  of  the  Egyp- 
tians," namely,  animal  sacrifices,  he  reluctantly 
consented,  "  only  ye  shall  not  go  very  far 
away  ;"  for  he  was  apprehensive  of  their  flight, 
like  his  predecessor,  who  first  enslaved  the 
Israelites,  Exod.  i,  10 ;  and  he  again  desired 
them  to  "  entreat  for  him."  But  he  again 
dealt  deceitfully ;  and  after  the  flies  were 
removed  so  effectually  that  not  one  was  left, 
when  Moses  "entreated  the  Lord,  Pharaoh 
hardened  his  heart  this  fifth  time  also,  neither 
would  he  let  the  people  go." 

This  second  breach  of  promise  on  the  part 
of  Pharaoh  drew  down  a  plague  of  a  more 
deadly  description  than  the  preceding.  The 
fifth  plague  of  murrain  destroyed  all  the  cattle 
of  Egypt,  but  of  "  the  cattle  of  the  Israelites 
died  not  one."  It  was  immediately  inflicted 
by  God  himself,  after  previous  notification, 
and  without  the  agency  of  Moses  and  Aaron, 
to  manifest  the  divine  indignation  at  Pharaoh's 
falsehood.  And  though  the  king  sent  and 
found  that  not  one  of  the  Israelites  was  dead, 
yet  his  heart  was  hardened  this  sixth  time 
also,  and  he  would  not  let  the  people  go, 
Exod.  ix,  1-7. 

At  length,  after  Pharaoh  had  repeatedly 
abused  the  gracious  respites  and  warnings 
vouchsafed  to  him  and  his  servants,  a  sorer 
set  of  plagues,  affecting  themselves,  began  to 
be  inflicted ;  and  Moses  now,  for  the  first  time, 
appears  as  the  executioner  of  divine  vengeance  ; 
for  in  the  presence  of  Pharaoh,  by  the  divine 
command,  he  sprinkled  ashes  of  the  furnace 
toward  heaven,  and  it  became  a  boil,  breaking 
forth  with  blains  upon  man  and  upon  beast. 
And  the  magicians  could  not  stand  before 
Moses  because  of  the  boil,  which  affected  them 
and  all  the  Egyptians,  Exod.  ix,  8-11.  This 
was  a  very  significant  plague :  the  furnace 
from  which  the  ashes  were  taken  aptly  repre- 
sented "the  iron  furnace"  of  Egyptian  bond- 
age, Deut.  iv,  20 ,  and  the  scattering  of  the 
ashes  in  the  air  might  have  referred  to  the 
usage  of  the  Egyptians  in  their  Typhonian 
sacrifices  of  human  victims  ;  while  it.  converted 
another  of  the  elements,  and  of  their  gods,  the 
air,  or  ether,  into  an  instrument  of  their  chas- 
tisement. And  now  "the  Lord,"  for  the  first 
time,  "hardened  the  heart  of  Pharaoh,"  after 
he  had  so  repeatedly  hardened  it  himself,  "  and 
he  hearkened  not  unto  them,  as  the  Lord  had 
foretold  unto  Moses,"  Exod.  ix,  12.  Though 
Pharaoh  probably  felt  the  scourge  of  the  boil, 
as  well  as  his  people,  it  did  not  soften  nor 
humble  his  heart ;  and  when  he  wilfully  and 


FLA 


754 


PLA 


obstinately  turned  away  from  the  light,  and 
shut  his  eyes  against  the  luminous  evidences 
vouchsafed  to  him  of  the  supremacy  of  the  God 
of  the  Hebrews,  and  had  twice  broken  his  pro- 
mise when  he  was  indulged  with  a  respite,  and 
dealt  deceitfully,  he  became  a  just  object  of 
punishment ;  and  God  now  began  to  increase 
the  hardness  or  obduracy  of  his  heart.  And 
such  is  the  usual  and  the  righteous  course  of 
his  providence ;  when  nations  or  individuals 
despise  the  warnings  of  Heaven,  abuse  their 
best  gifts,  and  resist  the  means  of  grace,  God 
then  "  delivers  thcin  over  to  a  reprobate"  or 
undiscerning  "  mind,  to  work  all  unclcanness 
with  greediness,"  Rom.  i,  28. 

In  the  tremendous  plague  of  hail,  the  united 
elements  of  air,  water,  and  tire,  were  employed 
to  terrify  and  punish  the  Egyptians  by  their 
principal  divinities.    This  plague  was  formally 
announced    to   Pharaoh   and  his    people :   "  I 
will  at  this  season  send  all  my  plagues  upon 
thine  heart,  and  upon  thy  servants,  and  upon 
thy  people,  that  thou  mayest  know  that  there 
is  none  like  me  in  all  the  earth.     For  now  I 
could  stretch  out  my  hand,  and  smite  thee  and 
thy  people  with  pestilence,"  or  destroy  thee  at 
once,  like  thy  cattle  with  the  murrain,  "  and 
thou  shouldest  be  cut  off  from  the  earth  ;  but, 
in  truth,  for  this  cause  have  I  sustained  thee, 
that  I  might  manifest  in  thee  my  power,  and 
that  my  name  might  be  declared  throughout 
the  whole  earth,"  Exod.  ix,  13-16.     This  ren- 
dering of  the  passage  is  more  conformable  to 
the  context,  the  Chaldue  paraphrase,  and  to 
Philo,    than    the    received   translation,    "  For 
now  I  will  stretch  out  my  hand,  that  I  may 
smite  thee   and  thy  people  with  pestilence ;" 
for  surely  Pharaoh   and  his  people  were  not 
smitten  with  pestilence  ;  and  "  they  were  pre- 
served" or  kept  from  immediate  destruction, 
according    to   the   Septuagint,   &utii(h)0ik,    "to 
manifest  the  divine  power,"  by  the  number  and 
variety  of  their  plagues.    Still,  however,  in  the 
midst  of  judgment,  God  remembered  mercy  ; 
he  gave  a  gracious  warning  to  the  Egyptians, 
to  avoid,  if  they  chose,  the  threatened  calamity : 
"  Send,  therefore,  now,  and  gather  thy  cattle, 
and  all  that  thou  hast  in  the  Hold ;  every  man 
and  beast  that  shall  be  found  in  the  field,  and 
shall  not  be  brought  home,  the  hail  shall  come 
down  upon  them,  and  they  shall  die."     And 
this  warning  had  sonic  effect :  "  He  that  feared 
the  word  of  the  Lord  among  the  servants  of 
Pharaoh,  made  his  servants  and  his  cattle  flee 
into  the  houses ;  and  he  that  regarded  not  the 
word  of  the  Lord,  left  his  servants  and  his 
cattle  in  the  field,"  Exod.  ix,  17-21.     But  it 
may  be  asked,  If  all  the  cattle  of  the  Egyptians 
were  destroyed  by  the   foregoing    plague   of 
murrain,  as  asserted  Exod.  ix,  6,  how  came 
there  to  be  any  cattle  left  ?     Surely  the  Egyp- 
tians might  have  recruited  their   stock   from 
the  land  of  Goshen,  where  "  not  one  of  the 
cattle  of  the  Israelites  died."    And  this  justifies 
the  supposition,  that  there  was  some  respite, 
or  interval,  between  the  several  plagues,  and 
confirms  the  conjecture  of  the  duration  of  the 
whole,  about  a  quarter  of  a  year.     And  that 
the  warning,   in  this  case,  was  respected  by 


many  of  the  Egyptians,  we  may  infer  from  the 
number  of  chariots  and  horsemen  that  went  in 

fmrsuit  of  the  Israelites  afterward.  This  was 
bretold  to  be  "a  very  grievous  hail,  such  as  had 
not  been  in  Egypt  since  the  foundation  thereof: 
and  the  Lord  sent  thunder  and  hail,  and  the 
fire  ran  along  the  ground ;  and  the  hail  smote 
throughout  all  the  land  of  Egypt  all  that  was 
in  the  field,  both  man  and  beast ;  and  the  hail 
smote  every  herb  of  the  field,  and  brake  every 
tree  of  the  field.  Only  in  the  land  of  Goshen, 
where  the  children  of  Israel  were,  there  was 
no  hail."  Pharaoh  sent  and  called  for  Moses 
and  Aaron,  and  said  unto  them,  "  I  have  sinned 
this  time  ;  the  Lord  is  righteous,  and  I  and  my 
people  are  wicked  :  entreat  the  Lord,"  for  it  is 
enough,  "  that  there  might  be  no  more  mighty 
thunderings  and  hail ;  and  I  will  let  you  go, 
and  ye  shall  stay  no  longer."  But  when  there 
was  respite,  Pharaoh  "  sinned  yet  more,  and 
hardened  his  heart,  he  and  his  servants ;  neither 
would  he  let  the  people  go,"  Exod.  ix,  27-35. 
In  this  instance,  there  is  a  remarkable  suspen- 
sion of  the  judicial  infatuation.  Pharaoh  had 
humbled  himself,  and  acknowledged  his  own 
and  his  people's  guilt,  and  the  justice  of  the 
divine  plague :  the  Lord,  therefore,  forbore 
this  time  to  harden  his  heart.  But  he  abused 
the  long  sufferance  of  God,  and  this  additional 
respite ;  he  sinned  yet  more,  because  he  now 
sinned  wilfully,  after  he  had  received  informa- 
tion  of  the  truth ;  he  relapsed,  and  hardened 
his  own  heart  a  seventh  time.  He  became, 
therefore,  "  a  vessel  of  wrath,  fitted  to  destruc- 
tion," Heb.  x,  26 ;  Rom.  ix,  22. 

The  design  of  the  eighth  and  the  ensuing 
plagues,  was  to  confirm  the  faith  of  the  Israel- 
ites:  "That  thou  mayest  tell  in  the  ears  of 
thy  son,  and  of  thy  son's  son,  what  I  have 
wrought  in  Egypt,  and  my  signs  which  I  have 
done  among  them ;  that  ye  may  know  how 
that  I  am  the  Lord."  This  plague  of  locusts, 
intlicted  on  the  now  devoted  Egyptians  and 
their  king,  completed  the  havoc  begun  by  the 
hail ;  by  this  "  the  wheat  and  rye  were  de- 
stroyed, and  every  herb  of  the  land,  and  all 
the  fruit  of  the  trees  which  tho  hail  had  left : 
and  there  remained  not  any  verdure  in  the 
trees,  nor  in  the  herbs  of  the  field,  throughout 
tho  land  of  Egypt.  Very  grievous  were  they  ; 
before  them  were  no  such  locusts  as  they, 
neither  after  them  shall  thero  be  such,"  Exod. 
x,  3-15. 

The  awful  plague  of  darkness  over  all  the 
land  of  Egypt,  for  three  days,  "a  thick  dark, 
ness  which  might  be  felt,"  in  the  emphatic 
language  of  Scripture,  'was  inflicted  on  the 
Egyptians,  and  their  chief  god,  the  sun ;  and 
was,  indeed,  a  most  significant  sign  of  tho 
divine  displeasure,  and  of  that  mental  darkness 
under  which  they  now  laboured.  Their  con- 
sternation thereat  is  strongly  represented  by 
tiieir  total  inaction  ;  neither  rose  any  from  his 
place  for  three  days,  petrified,  as  they  Were, 
with  horror.  They  were  also  "  scared  with 
strange  apparitions  and  visions,  while  a  heavy 
night  was  spread  over  them,  an  image  of  that 
darkness  which  should  afterward  receive  them, 
But    yet,    thoy    were    unto    thotnsclves   more 


PLA 


755 


PLA 


grievous  than  that  darknet>H,"  Wisdom  xvii, 
3-21 ;  Psalm  lxxviii,  49.  This  terrific  and 
horrible  plague  compelled  Pharaoh  to  relax ; 
he  offered  to  let  the  men  and  their  families 
go  ;  but  he  wished  to  keep  the  flocks  and  herds 
as  security  for  their  return ;  but  Moses  per- 
emptorily declared,  that  not  a  hoof  should  be 
left  behind.  Again  "  the  Lord  hardened  Pha- 
raoh's heart,  so  that  he  would  not  let  them 
go,"  Exod.  x,  21-27.  "And  the  Lord  said 
unto  Moses,  Pharaoh  shall  not  hearken  unto 
you,  that  my  wonders  may  be  multiplied  in 
the  land  of  Egypt.  And  Moses  and  Aaron 
did  all  these  wonders  before  Pharaoh ;  and  the 
Lord"  ultimately  "  hardened  Pharaoh's  heart, 
so  that  he  wpuld  not  let  the  children  of  Israel 
go  out  of  nis  land,"  Exod.  xi,  9,  10.  This 
passage  forms  the  conclusion  to  the  nine 
plagues,  and  should  properly  follow  the  pre- 
ceding ;  for  the  result  of  the  tenth  and  last 
plague  was  foretold,  that  Pharaoh  should  not 
only  let  them  go,  but  surely  thrust  them  out 
altogether,  Exod.  xi,  1. 

The  tenth  plague  was  announced  to  Pha- 
laoh  with  much  solemnity:  "Thus  saith  the 
Lord,  About  midnight  will  I  go  out  into  the 
midst  of  Egypt,  and  all  the  first-born  in  the 
land  of  Egypt  shall  die,  from  the  first-born  of 
Pharaoh  that  sitteth  upon  his  throne,  even  to 
the  first-born  of  the  maid-servant  that  is  behind 
the  mill ;  and  all  the  first-born  of  cattle.  And 
there  shall  be  a  great  cry  throughout  the  land 
of  Egypt,  such  as  tliere  was  none  like  it,  nor 
.shall  be  any  more.  But  against  any  of  the 
children  of  Israel  shall  not  a  dog  move  his 
tongue,  against  man  or  beast;  that  ye  may 
know,  how  that  the  Lord  doth  make  a  differ- 
ence between  the  Egyptians'  and  Israel.  And 
all  these  thy  servants  shall  come  down  unto 
me,  and  bow  themselves  unto  me,  saying,  Get 
thee  out,  and  all  the  people  that  follow  thee. 
And  after  that  I  will  go  out,"  Exod.  xi,  4-8. 
Such  a  threat,  delivered  in  so  high  a  tone, 
both  in  the  name  of  the  God  of  Israel  and  of 
Moses,  did  not  fail  to  exasperate  the  infatuated 
Pharaoh,  and  he  said,  "  Get  thee  from  me ; 
take  heed  to  thyself;  see  my  face  no  more : 
for  in  the  day  thou  scest  my  face  thou  shalt  die. 
And  Moses  said,  Be  it  so  as  thou  hast  spoken ; 
I  will  see  thy  face  again  no  more.  And  he 
went  out  from  Pharaoh  in  great  anger,"  Exod. 
x,  28,  29  ;  xi,  8.  "  And  at  midnight  the  Lord 
smote  all  the  first-born  in  the  land  of  Egypt ; 
and  there  was  a  great  cry  in  Egypt,  for  there 
was  not  a  house  in  which  there  was  not  one 
dead,"  Exod.  xii,  1-30.  This  last  tremendous 
judgment  is  described  with  mueh  sublimity  in 
the  book  of  Wisdom,  xviii,  11-18. 

"For  when  all  things  were  wrapt  in  still  silence, 

And  night,  in  her  proper  speed,  holding  her  mid  course, 

Thy  all  powerful  oracle  leapt  down  from  heaven, 

Out  of  the  royal  throne,  a  tierce  warrior, 

Into  the  midst  of  the  Inn  J  of  destruction, 

Wielding  a  sharp  sword,  thine  unfeigned  command, 

And  standing  n|>,  lie  fiiie.1  the  whole  with  death, 

He  touched  the  heavens]  indeed,  but  trod  Upon  the  earth-!" 

"  And  Pharaoh  rose   up  in  the  night,  he  and 

all  his  servants,  and  all  the  Egyptians  ;    and 

he  called  for,"  or  sent  to,  "  Moses  and  Aarou 


by  night,  and  said,  Get  you  forth  from  among 
my  people,  both  ye  and  the  children  of  Israel ; 
and  go,  serve  the  Lord,  as  ye  said ;  take  also 
your  flocks  and  your  herds,  and  be  gone  ;  and 
bless  me  also.  And  the  Egyptians  also  were 
urgent  upon  the  people,  to  send  them  out  of 
the  land  in  haste ;  for  they  said,  We  shall  all 
be  dead."  It  is  evident  from  the  extreme  ur- 
gency of  the  occasion,  when  all  the  Egyptians 
apprehended  total  destruction,  if  the  departure 
of  the  Israelites  was  delayed  any  longer,  that 
Pharaoh  had  no  personal  interview  with  Mo- 
ses and  Aaron,  which  would  have  wasted  time, 
and  was  quite  unnecessary  ;  he  only  sent  them 
a  peremptory  mandate  to  be  gone  on  their  own 
terms.  "  And  the  children  of  Israel  did  ac- 
cording to  the  word  of  Moses ;  and  they  asked 
of  the  Egyptians  jewels  of  silver,  and  jewels 
of  gold,  and  raiment.  And  the  Lord  gave  the 
people  favour  in  the  sight  of  the  Egyptians,  so 
that  they  freely  gave  what  they  required,  and 
they  spoiled  the  Egyptians,"  Exod.  xii,  31-36, 
as  originally  foretold  to  Abraham,  Gen.  xv,  14  ; 
an<i  to  Moses  before  the  plagues  began.  This 
was  an  act  of  perfect  retributive  justice,  to 
make  the  Egyptians  pay  for  the  long  and  la- 
borious services  of  the  Israelites,  whom  they 
had  unjustly  enslaved,  in  violation  of  their 
charter. 

The  Israelites  were  thrust  out  of  Egypt  on 
the  fifteenth  day  of  the  first  month,  "  about 
six  hundred  thousand  men  on  foot,  beside 
women  and  children.  And  a  mixed  multitude 
went  up  also  with  them  ;  and  flocks  and  herds, 
even  very  much  cattle,"  Exod.  xii,  37-38; 
Num.  xi,  4 ;  xxxiii,  3.  "  And  they  went  out 
with  a  high  hand ;  for  the  Lord  went  before 
them  by  day,  in  a  pillar  of  a  cloud,  to  lead  them 
the  way  ;  and  by  night  in  a  pillar  of  fire,  to  give 
them  light,  to  go  by  day  and  night.  He  took 
not  away  the  pillar  of  the  cloud  by  day,  nor 
the  pillar  of  fire  by  night,  from  before  the  peo- 
ple," Exod.  xiii,  22 ;  Num.  ix,  15-23.  And 
the  motion  or  rest  of  this  divine  guide  regulated 
their  marches,  and  their  stations  or  encamp- 
ments during  the  whole  of  their  route,  Num. 
x,  33-36.     .See  Red  Sea. 

PLATONISTS.  The  Platonic  philosophy 
is  denominated  from  Plato,  who  was  born  about 
B.  C.  426.  He  founded  the  old  academy  on  the 
opinions  of  Heraclitus,  Pythagoras,  and  So- 
crates ;  and  by  adding  the  information  he  had 
acquired  to  their  discoveries,  he  established  a 
sect  of  philosophers,  who  were  esteemed  more 
perfect  than  any  who  had  before  appeared  in 
the  world.  The  outlines  of  Plato's  philoso- 
phical system  were  as  follows : — that  there  is 
one  God,  eternal,  immutable,  and  immaterial ; 
perfect  in  wisdom  and  goodness,  omniscient, 
and  omnipresent :  that  this  all-perfect  Being 
formed  the  universe  out  of  a  mass  of  eternally 
preexisting  matter,  to  which  he  gave  form  and 
arrangement :  that  there  is  in  matter  a  neces- 
sary, but  blind  and  refractory  force,  which 
resists  the  will  of  the  supreme  Artificer,  so 
that  he  cannot  perfectly  execute  his  designs ; 
and  this  is  the  cause  of  the  mixture  of  good 
and  evil  which  is  found  in  the  material  world  : 
that  the  soul  of  man  was  derived  by  emanation 


PLA 


756 


PLO 


from  God ;  but  that  this  emanation  was  not 
immediate,  but  through  the  intervention  of  the 
soul  of  the  world,  which  was  itself  debased  by 
6ome  material  admixture :  that  the  relation 
which  the  human  soul,  in  its  original  consti- 
tution, bears  to  matter,  is  tho  source  of  moral 
evil ;  that  when  God  formed  the  universe,  he 
separated  from  the  soul  of  the  world  inferior 
souls,  equal  in  number  to  the  stars,  and  assigned 
to  each  its  proper  celestial  abode :  that  these 
souls  were  sent  down  to  earth  to  be  imprisoned 
in  mortal  bodies ;  hence  arose  the  depravity  and 
misery  to  which  human  nature  is  liable  :  that 
the  soul  is  immortal ;  and  by  disengaging  itself 
from  all  animal  passions,  and  rising  above  sen- 
sible  objects  to  the  contemplation  of  the  world 
of  intelligence,  it  may  be  prepared  to  return  to 
its  original  habitation  :  that  matter  never  suf- 
fers annihilation,  but  that  the  world  will  remain 
for  ever  ;  and  that  by  the  action  of  its  animat- 
ing principle  it  accomplishes  certain  periods, 
within  which  every  thing  returns  to  its  ancient 
place  and  state.  This  periodical  revolution  of 
nature  is  called  the  Platonic,  or  great  year. 

The  Platonic  system  makes  the  perfection 
of  morality  to  consist  in  living  in  conformity 
to  the  will  of  God,  the  only  standard  of  truth, 
and  teaches  that  our  highest  good  consists  in 
the  contemplation  and  knowledge  of  the  su- 
preme Being.  In  this  divine  Being  Plato 
admitted  a  sort  of  trinity  of  three  hypostases. 
The  first  he  considered  as  self-existent,  calling 
him,  by  way  of  eminence,  to  iSv,  the  Being,  or 
t&  h>,  the  One.  The  only  attribute  which  he 
acknowledged  in  this  person  was  goodness ; 
and  therefore  he  frequently  styles  him,  to 
ayadbv,  the  good.  The  second  he  considered 
as,  voB«-,  the  mind,  or,  \oyds,  the  wisdom  or  rea- 
son of  the  former,  and  the  <5^iypyo'?,  maker  of 
the  world.  The  third  he  always  speaks  of  as, 
tyuX*!'  t^e  soul  of  the  world.  He  taught  that 
the  second  is  a  necessary  emanation  from  the 
first,  and  the  third  from  the  second,  or  perhaps 
from  both ;  comparing  these  emanations  to 
those  of  light  and  heat  from  the  sun.  From 
the  above  use  of  Logos  for  the  second  person 
of  the  Platonic  trinity,  it  has  been  thought 
that  St.  John  borrowed  the  term  from  Plato  ; 
but  it  is  not  likely  that  this  Apostle  was  con- 
versant with  his  writings,  and  therefore  both 
Le  Clerc  and  Dr.  Campbell  think  it  more  pro- 
bable that  he  took  it  from  the  Old  Testament. 
The  end  of  all  knowledge,  or  philosophy,  ac- 
cording to  Plato,  was  to  make  us  resemble  the 
Deity  as  much  as  is  compatible  with  human 
natftre.  This  likeness  consists  in  the  posses- 
sion and  practice  of  all  the  moral  virtues. 
After  the  death  of  Plato,  many  of  his  disciples 
deviated  from  his  doctrines.  His  school  was 
then  divided  into  the  old,  the  middle,  and  the 
new  academy.  The  old  academy  strictly 
adhered  to  his  tenets.  The  middle  academy 
partially  receded  from  his  system,  without 
entirely  deserting  it.  The  new  academy 
almost  entirely  relinquished  tho  original  doc- 
trines of  Plato,  and  verged  toward  the  skep- 
tical philosophy.  An  infusion  of  Platonism, 
though  in  a  perverted  form,  is  seen  in  the 
philosophy  most  prevalent  in  the  times  of  the 


Apostles.  It  was  Judaized  by  the  contempla 
tive  Hellenists,  and,  through  them,  their  native 
Judaism  was  Platonized.  The  eclectic  philo- 
sophy added  other  ingredients  to  the  com- 
pound, from  the  oriental  systems.  All  how- 
ever issued  in  pride,  and  the  domination  of 
bewildering  and  monstrous  imaginations. 

PLOUGH.  The  Syrian  plough,  which  was 
probably  used  in  all  the  regions  around,  is  a 
very  simple  frame,  and  commonly  so  light, 
that  a  man  of  moderate  strength  might  carry 
it  in  one  hand.  Volney  states  that  in  Syria  it 
is  often  nothing  else  than  the  branch  of  a  tree 
cut  below  a  bifurcation,  and  used  without 
wheels.  It  is  drawn  by  asses  and  cows,  sel- 
dom by  oxen.  And  Dr.  Russel  informs  us, 
the  ploughing  of  Syria  is  performed  often  by 
a  little  cow,  at  most  with  two,  and  sometimes 
only  by  an  ass.  In  Persia  it  is  for  the  most 
part  drawn  by  one  ox  only,  and  not  unfre- 
quently  even  by  an  ass,  although  it  is  more 
ponderous  than  in  Palestine.  With  such  an 
imperfect  instrument,  the  Syrian  husbandman 
can  do  little  more  than  scratch  the  surface  of 
his  field,  or  clear  away  the  stones  or  weeds 
that  encumber  it,  and  prevent  the  seed  from 
reaching  the  soil.  The  ploughshare  is  a  "  piece 
of  iron,  broad,  but  not  large,  which  tips  the 
end  of  the  shaft."  So  much  does  it  resemble 
the  short  sword  used  by  the  ancient  warriors, 
that  it  may  with  very  little  trouble,  be  con- 
verted into  that  deadly  weapon ;  and  when 
the  work  of  destruction  is  over,  reduced  again 
into  its  former  shape,  and  applied  to  the  pur- 
poses of  agriculture.  In  allusion  to  the  first 
operation,  the  Prophet  Joel  summons  the  na- 
tions to  leave  their  peaceful  employments  in 
the  cultivated  field,  and  buckle  on  their  arm- 
our :  "  Beat  your  ploughshares  into  swords, 
and  your  pruning  hooks  into  spears,"  Joel 
iii,  10.  This  beautiful  image  the  Prophet 
Isaiah  has  reversed,  and  applied  to  the  esta- 
blishment of  that  profound  and  lasting  peace 
which  is  to  bless  the  church  of  Christ  in  the 
latter  days  :  "  And  they  shall  beat  their  swords 
into  ploughshares,  and  their  spears  into  pru- 
ning hooks ;  nation  shall  not  lift  up  sword 
against  nation,  neither  shall  they  learn  war 
any  more,"  Isaiah  ii,  4.  The  plough  used  in 
Syria  is  so  light  and  simple  in  its  construction, 
that  the  husbandman  is  under  the  necessity  of 
guiding  it  with  great  care,  bending  over  it, 
and  loading  it  with  his  own  weight,  else  the 
share  would  glide  along  the  surface  without 
making  any  incision.  His  mind  should  be 
wholly  intent  on  his  work,  at  once  to  press 
the  plough  into  the  ground,  and  direct  it  in  a 
straight  line.  "  Let  the  ploughman,"  said 
Hesiod,  "  attend  to  his  charge,  and  look  before 
him ;  not  turn  aside  to  look  on  his  associates, 
but  make  straight  furrows,  and  have  his  mind 
attentive  to  his  work."  And  Pliny  :  "  Unless 
the  ploughman  stoop  forward,"  to  press  his 
plough  into  the  soil,  and  conduct  it  properly, 
"  he  will  turn  it  aside."  To  such  careful  and 
incessant  exertion,  our  Lord  alludes  in  that 
declaration,  "No  man  having  put  his  hand  to 
the  plough,  and  looking  back,  is  fit  for  the 
kingdom  of  heaven,"  Luke  ix,  62. 


POE 


757 


POE 


POETRY  OF  THE  HEBREWS.  Among 
the  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  says  Bishop 
Lowth,  there  is  such  an  apparent  diversity  in 
style,  as  sufficiently  discovers  which  of  them 
are  to  be  considered  as  poetical,  and  which  as 
prose.  While  the  historical  books  and  legis- 
lative writings  of  Moses  are  evidently  prosaic 
compositions,  the  book  of  Job,  the  Psalms  of 
David,  the  Song  of  Solomon,  the  Lamentations 
of  Jeremiah,  a  great  part  of  the  prophetical 
writings,  and  several  passages  scattered  occa- 
sionally through  the  historical  books,  carry  the 
most  plain  and  distinguishing  marks  of  poetical 
writing.  There  is  not  the  least  reason  for 
doubting  that  originally  these  were  written  in 
verse,  or  some  kind  of  measured  numbers ; 
though,  as  the  ancient  pronunciation  of  the 
Hebrew  language  is  now  lost,  we  are  not  able 
to  ascertain  the  nature  of  the  Hebrew  verse, 
or  at  most  can  ascertain  it  but  imperfectly. 
Let  any  person  read  the  historical  introduction 
to  the  book  of  Job,  contained  in  the  first  and 
second  chapters,  and  then  go  on  to  Job's 
speech  in  the  beginning  of  the  third  chapter, 
and  he  cannot  avoid  being  sensible  that  he 
passes  all  at  once  from  the  region  of  prose  to 
that  of  poetry.  From  the  earliest  times  music 
and  poetry  were  cultivated  among  the  He- 
brews. In  the  days  of  the  judges  mention  is 
made  of  the  schools  or  colleges  of  the  prophets, 
where  one  part  of  the  employment  of  the  per- 
sons trained  in  such  schools  was  to  sing  the 
praises  of  God,  accompanied  with  various  in- 
struments. But  in  the  days  of  King  David 
music  and  poetry  were  carried  to  the  greatest 
height.  In  1  Chron.  xxv,  an  account  is  given 
of  David's  institutions  relating  to  the  sacred 
music  and  poetry,  which  were  certainly  more 
costly,  more  splendid  and  magnificent,  than 
ever  obtained  in  the  public  service  of  any  other 
nation.     See  Psalms. 

The  general  construction  of  the  Hebrew 
poetry  is  of  a  singular  nature,  and  peculiar  to 
itself.  It  consists  in  dividing  every  period 
into  correspondent,  for  the  most  part  into 
equal,  members,  which  answer  to  one  another 
both  in  sense  and  sound.  In  the  first  member 
of  the  period  a  sentiment  is  expressed ;  and  in 
the  second  member  the  same  sentiment  is  am- 
plified, or  is  repeated  in  different  terms,  or 
sometimes  contrasted  with  its  opposite  ;  but  in 
such  a  manner,  that  the  same  structure,  and 
nearly  the  same  number  of  words,  is  preserved. 
This  is  the  general  strain  of  all  the  Hebrew 
poetry.  Instances  of  it  occur  every  where  on 
opening  the  Old  Testament.  Thus,  in  Psalm 
xcvi : — 

"Sing  unto  the  Lord  a  new  song. 
Sing  unto  the  Lord,  all  the  earth. 

Sing  unto  the  Lord,  and  bless  his  name. 
Show  forth  his  salvation  from  day  to  day. 

Declare  his  glory  among  the  Heathen, 
His  wonders  among  all  the  people. 

For  the  Lord  is  great,  and  greatly  to  be  praised. 
He  is  to  be  feared  above  all  the  gods. 

Honour  and  majesty  are  before  him  ; 

Strength  and  beauty  are  in  his  sanctuary." 
It  is  owing  in  a  great  measure  to  this  form 
of  composition,  that  our  version,  though  in 
prose,  retains  so  much  of  a  poetical  cast :  for, 


the  version  being  strictly  word  for  word  after 
the  original,  the  form  and  order  of  the  original 
sentence  are  preserved ;  which,  by  this  arti- 
ficial structure,  this  regular  alternation  and 
correspondence  of  parts,  makes  the  ear  sensi- 
ble of  a  departure  from  the  common  style  and 
tone  of  prose.  The  origin  of  this  form  of 
poetical  composition  among  the  Hebrews  is 
clearly  to  be  deduced  from  the  manner  in 
which  their  sacred  hymns  were  wont  to  be 
sung.  They  were  accompanied  with  music, 
and  they  were  performed  by  choirs  or  bands  of 
singers  and  musicians,  who  answered  alter- 
nately to  each  other.  When,  for  instance, 
one  band  began  the  hymn  thus:  "The  Lord 
reigneth,  let  the  earth  rejoice ;"  the  chorus, 
or  semi-chorus,  took  up  the  corresponding  ver- 
sicle,  "  Let  the  multitude  of  the  isles  be  glad 
thereof."  "  Clouds  and  darkness  are  round 
about  him,"  sung  the  one  ;  the  other  replied, 
"Judgment  and  righteousness  are  the  habita- 
tion of  his  throne."  And  in  this  manner 
their  poetry,  when  set  to  music,  naturally  di- 
vided itself  into  a  succession  of  strophes  and 
antistrophes  correspondent  to  each  other ; 
whence  it  is  probable  the  antiphon,  or  respon- 
sory,  in  the  public  religious  service  of  so  many 
Christian  churches,  derived  its  origin.  The 
twenty-fourth  Psalm,  in  particular,  which  is 
thought  to  have  been  composed  on  the  great 
and  solemn  occasion  of  the  ark  of  the  cove- 
nant being  brought  back  to  Mount  Zion,  must 
have  had  a  noble  effect  when  performed  after 
this  manner,  as  Dr.  Lowth  has  illustrated  it. 
The  whole  people  are  supposed  to  be  attend- 
ing the  procession.  The  Levites  and  singers, 
divided  into  their  several  courses,  and  accom- 
panied with  all  their  musical  instruments,  led 
the  way.  After  the  introduction  to  the  Psalm, 
in  the  two  first  verses,  when  the  procession 
begins  to  ascend  the  sacred  mount,  the  ques- 
tion is  put,  as  by  a  semi-chorus,  "  Who  shall 
ascend  into  the  hill  of  the  Lord,  and  who  shall 
stand  in  his  holy  place  ?"  The  response  is 
made  by  the  full  chorus  with  the  greatest  dig- 
nity :  "  He  that  hath  clean  hands  and  a  pure 
heart;  who  hath  not  lifted  up  his  soul  to 
vanity,  nor  sworn  deceitfully."  As  the  pro- 
cession approaches  to  the  doors  of  the  taber- 
nacle, the  chorus,  with  all  their  instruments, 
join  in  this  exclamation  :  "  Lift  up  your  heads, 
ye  gates,  and  be  ye  lifted  up,  ye  everlasting 
doors,  and  the  King  of  glory  shall  come  in." 
Here  the  semi-chorus  plainly  breaks  in,  as 
with  a  lower  voice,  "  Who  is  this  King  of 
glory  ?"  And  at  the  moment  when  the  ark  is 
introduced  into  the  tabernacle,  the  response  is 
made  by  the  burst  of  the  whole  chorus  :  "  The 
Lord,  strong  and  mighty;  the  Lord,  mighty 
in  battle." 

The  method  of  composition  which  has  been 
explained,  by  correspondent  versicles  being 
universally  introduced  into  the  hymns  or  mu- 
sical poetry  of  the  Jews,  easi'ly  spread  itself 
through  their  other  poetical  writings,  which 
were  not  designed  to  be  sung  in  alternate 
portions,  and  which,  therefore,  did  not  so 
much  require  this  mode  of  composition.  But 
the  mode  became  familiar  to  their  ears,  and 


POE 


758 


pot: 


carried  with  it  a  certain  solemn  majesty  of 
style,  particularly  suited  to  sacred  subjects. 
Hence,  throughout  the  prophetical  writings, 
we  find  it  prevailing  as  much  as  in  the  Psalms 
of  David.  This  form  of  writing  is  one  of  the 
great  characteristics  of  the  ancient  Hebrew 
poetry ;  very  different  from,  and  even  opposite 
to,  the  style  of  the  (J reek  and  Roman  poets. 
Independently  of  this  peculiar  mode  of  con- 
struction, the  sacred  poetry  is  distinguished 
by  the  highest  beauties  of  strong,  concise, 
bold,  and  figurative  expression.  Conciseness 
and  strength  are  two  of  its  most  remarkable 
characters.  One  might,  indeed,  imagine  that 
the  practice  of  the  Hebrew  poets,  of  always 
amplifying  the  same  thought,  by  repetition  or 
contrast,  might  tend  to  enfeeble  their  style. 
But  they  conduct  themselves  so  as  not  to  pro- 
duce this  effect.  Their  sentences  are  always 
short.  Few  superfluous  words  are  used.  The 
same  thought  is  never  dwelt  upon  long.  To 
their  conciseness  and  sobriety  of  expression 
their  poetry  is  indebted  for  much  of  its  sub- 
limity ;  and  all  writers  who  attempt  the  sublime 
might  profit  much  by  imitating,  in  this  re- 
spect, the  style  of  the  Old  Testament. 

No  writings  whatever  abound  so  much  with 
the  most  bold  and  animated  figures  as  the 
sacred  books.  In  order  to  do  justice  to  these, 
it  is  necessary  that  we  transport  ourselves  as 
much  as  we  can  into  the  land  of  Judea,  and 
place  before  our  eyes  that  scenery  and  those 
objects  with  which  the  Hebrew  writers  were 
conversant.  Natural  objects  are  in  some  mea- 
sure common  to  them  with  poets  of  all  ages 
and  countries.  Light  and  darkness,  trees  and 
flowers,  the  forest  and  the  cultivated  field, 
suggest,  to  them  many  beautiful  figures.  But, 
in  order  to  relish  their  figures  of  this  kind, 
we  must  take  notice  that  several  of  them  arise 
from  the  particular  circumstances  of  the  land 
of  Judea.  During  the  summer  months  little 
or  no  rain  falls  throughout  all  that  region. 
While  the  heats  continued,  the  country  was 
intolerably  parched  ;  want  of  water  was  a  great 
distress;  and  a.  plentiful  shower  falling,  or  a 
rivulet  breaking  forth,  altered  the  whole  face 
of  nature,  and  introduced  much  higher  ideas 
of  refreshment  and  pleasure  than  the  like 
causes  can  suggest  to  us.  Hence,  to  repre- 
sent distress,  such  frequent  allusions  among 
them,  "to  a  dry  and  thirsty  land  where  no 
water  is ;"  and  hence,  to  describe  a  change 
from  distress  to  prosperity,  their  metaphors 
are  founded  on  the  falling  of  showers,  and  the 
bursting  out  of  springs  in  the  desert.  Thus : 
"  The  wilderness  and  the  solitary  place  shall 
be  glad,  and  the  desert  shall  rejoice  and  blos- 
som as  the  rose.  For  in  the  wilderness  shall 
waters  break  out,  and  streams  in  the  desert ; 
and  the  parched  ground  shall  becomo  a  pool, 
and  the  thirsty  land,  springs  of  water;  in  the 
habitation  of  dragons  there  shall  be  grass, 
with  rushes  and  reeds,"  Isaiah  xxxv,  1,  6,  7. 
Images  of  this  nature  arc  very  familiar  to 
Isaiah,  and  occur  in  many  parts  of  his  book. 
Again:  as  Judea  was  a  hilly  country,  it  was, 
during  the  rainy  months,  exposed  to  frequent 
inundations  by  the  rushing  of  torrents,  which 


came  down  suddenly  from  the  mountains,  and 
carried  every  thing  before  them ;  and  Jordan, 
their  only  great  river,  annually  overflowed  its 
banks.  Hence  the  frequent  allusions  to  "  the 
noise,  and  to  the  rushings  of  many  waters  ;" 
and  hence  great  calamities  so  often  compared 
to  the  overflowing  torrent,  which,  in  such  a 
country,  must  have  been  images  particularly 
striking:  "  Deep  calleth  unto  deep  at  the  noise 
of  thy  water  spouts ;  all  thy  waves  and  thy 
billows  are  gone  over  me,"  Psalm  xlii,  7.  The 
two  most  remarkable  mountains  of  the  country 
were  Lebanon  and  Carmel ;  the  former  noted 
for  its  height,  and  the  woods  of  lofty  cedars 
that  covered  it ;  the  latter,  for  its  beauty  and 
fertility,  the  richness  of  its  vines  and  olives. 
Hence,  with  the  greatest  propriety,  Lebanon 
is  employed  as  an  image  of  whatever  is  great, 
strong,  or  magnificent ;  Carmel,  of  what  is 
smiling  and  beautiful.  "The  glory  of  Leba- 
non shall  be  given  to  it,  and  the  excellency  of 
Carmel,"  Isaiah  xxxv,  2.  Lebanon  is  often 
put  metaphorically  for  the  whole  state  or 
people  of  Israel,  for  the  temple,  for  the  king 
of  Assyria ;  Carmel,  for  the  blessings  of  peace 
and  prosperity.  "  His  countenance  is  as 
Lebanon,"  says  Solomon,  speaking  of  the  dig- 
nity of  a  man's  appearance ;  but  when  he 
describes  female  beauty,  "  Thine  head  is  like 
Mount  Carmel,"  Cant,  v,  15;  vii,  5.  It  is 
farther  to  be  remarked  under  this  head,  that, 
in  the  images  of  the  awful  and  terrible  kind, 
with  which  the  sacred  poets  abound,  they 
plainly  draw  their  descriptions  from  that  vio- 
lence of  the  elements,  and  those  great  con- 
cussions of  nature,  with  which  their  climate 
rendered  them  acquainted.  Earthquakes  were 
not  unfrequent ;  and  the  tempests  of  hail, 
thunder,  and  lightning,  in  Judea  and  Arabia, 
accompanied  with  whirlwinds  and  darkness, 
far  exceed  any  thing  of  that  sort  which  hap- 
pens in  more  temperate  regions.  Isaiah,  xxiv, 
20,  describes,  with  great  majesty,  the  earth, 
"  reeling  to  and  fro  like  a  drunkard,  and  re- 
moved like  a  cottage."  And  in  those  circum- 
stances of  terror,  with  which  an  appearance  of 
the  Almighty  is  described,  in  Psalm  xviii, 
when  his  pavilion  round  about  him  was  dark- 
ness ;  when  hail  stones  and  coals  of  fire  were 
his  voice  ;  and  when,  at  his  rebuke,  the  chan 
nels  of  the  waters  are  said  to  bo  seen,  and  the 
foundations  of  the  hills  discovered ;  though 
there  may  be  some  reference,  as  Dr.  Lowth 
thinks,  to  the  history  of  God's  descent  upon 
Mount  Sinai ;  yet  it  seems  more  probable  that 
the  figures  were  taken  directly  from  those 
commotions  of  nature  with  which  the  author 
was  acquainted,  and  which  suggested  stronger 
and  nobler,  images  than  those  which  now 
occur  to  us. 

Beside  tho  natural  objects  of  their  own 
country,  we  find  tho  rites  of  their  religion, 
and  the  arts  and  employments  of  their  com- 
mon lifo,  frequently  employed  as  grounds  of 
imagery  among  the  Hebrews.  Hence  flowed, 
of  course,  the  many  allusions  to  pastoral  life, 
to  the  "green  pastures  and  the  still  waters," 
and  to  the  care  and  watchfulness  of  a  shepherd 
over  his  flock,  which  carry  to  this  day  so  much 


POE 


759 


POE 


beauty  and  tenderness  in  them,  in  Psalm  xxiii, 
and  in  many  other  passages  of  the  poetical 
writings  of  Scripture.  Hence  all  the  images 
founded  upon  rural  employments,  upon  the 
wine  press,  the  threshing  floor,  the  stubble 
and  the  chaff'.  To  disrelish  all  such  images  is 
the  effect  of  false  delicacy.  Homer  is  at  least 
as  frequent,  and  much  more  minute  and  par- 
ticular, in  his  similes,  founded  on  what  we 
now  call  low  life ;  but,  in  his  management  of 
them,  far  inferior  to  the  sacred  writers,  who 
generally  mix  with  their  comparisons  of  this 
kind  somewhat  of  dignity  and  grandeur  to  en- 
noble them.  What  inexpressible  grandeur 
does  the  following  rural  image  in  Isaiah,  for 
instance,  receive  from  the  intervention  of  the 
Deity  ! — "The  nations  shall  rush  like  the  rush- 
ings  of  many  waters ;  but  God  shall  rebuke 
them,  and  they  shall  fly  far  off;  and  they  shall 
be  chased  as  the  chaff  of  the  mountain  before 
the  wind,  and  like  the  down  of  the  thistle  be- 
fore the  whirlwind."  Figurative  allusions, 
too,  we  frequently  find  to  the  rites  and  cere- 
monies of  their  religion,  to  the  legal  distinc- 
tions of  things  clean  and  unclean,  to  the  mode 
of  their  temple  service,  to  the  dress  of  their 
priests,  and  to  the  most  noted  incidents  record- 
ed in  their  sacred  history  ;  as,  to  the  destruc- 
tion of  Sodom,  the  descent  of  God  upon  Mount 
Sinai,  and  the  miraculous  passage  of  the  Is- 
raelites through  the  Red  Sea.  The  religion  of 
the  Hebrews  included  the  whole  of  their  laws 
and  civil  constitution.  It  was  full  of  splendid 
external  rites,  that  occupied  their  senses ;  it 
was  connected  with  every  part  of  their  national 
history  and  establislnnent ;  and  hence,  all  ideas 
founded  on  religion  possessed  in  this  nation  a 
dignity  and  importance  peculiar  to  themselves, 
and  were  uncommonly  suited  to  impress  the 
imagination. 

From  all  this  it  results  that  the  imagery  of 
the  sacred  poets  is,  in  a  high  degree,  express- 
ive and  natural ;  it  is  copied  directly  from  real 
objects  that  were  before  their  eyes ;  it  has  this 
advantage,  of  being  more  complete  within 
itself,  more  entirely  founded  on  national  ideas 
and  manners,  than  that  of  the  most  of  other 
poets.  In  reading  their  works  we  find  our- 
selves continually  in  the  land  of  Judea.  Tho 
palm  trees,  and  the  cedars  of  Lebanon,  are 
ever  rising  in  our  view.  The  face  of  their 
territory,  the  circumstances  of  their  climate, 
the  manners  of  the  people,  and  the  august 
ceremonies  of  their  religion,  constantly  pass 
under  different  forms  before  us.  The  com- 
parisons employed  by  the  sacred  poets  are 
generally  short,  touching  on  one  point  only 
of  resemblance,  rather  than  branching  out 
into  little  episodes.  In  this  respect  they  have 
an  advantage  over  the  Greek  and  Roman  au- 
thors; whose  comparisons,  by  the  length  to 
which  they  are  extended,  sometimes  interrupt 
the  narration  too  much,  and  carry  too  visible 
marks  of  study  and  labour  ;  whereas,  in  the 
Hebrew  poets,  they  appear  more  liko  the 
glowings  of  a  lively  fancy,  just  glancing  asido 
to  some  resembling  object,  and  presently  re- 
turning to  its  track.  Such  is  the  following 
fine  comparison,  introduced  to   describe  the 


happy  influence  of  good  government  upon  a 
people,  in  what  are  called  the  last  words  of 
David :  "  He  that  ruleth  over  men  must  be 
just,  ruling  in  the  fear  of  God ;  and  he  shall 
be  as  the  light  of  the  morning  when  the  sun 
riseth,  even  a  morning  without  clouds ;  as  the 
tender  grass  springing  out  of  the  earth,  by 
clear  shining  after  rain,"  2  Sam.  xxiii,  3. 
This  is  one  of  the  most  regular  and  formal 
comparisons  in  the  sacred  books. 

Allegory,  likewise,  is  a  figure  frequently 
found  in  them.  But  the  poetical  figure  which, 
beyond  all  others,  elevates  the  style  of  Scrip- 
ture, and  gives  it  a  peculiar  boldness  and  sub- 
limity, is  prosopopoeia,  or  personification.  No 
personifications  employed  by  any  poets  are  so 
magnificent  and  striking  as  those  of  the  inspir- 
ed writers.  On  great  occasions  they  animate 
every  part  of  nature,  especially  when  any  ap- 
pearance or  operation  of  the  Almighty  is  con- 
cerned. "  Before  him  went  the  pestilence." 
"The  waters  saw  thee,  O  God,  and  were 
afraid."  "  The  mountains  saw  thee,  and  they 
trembled."  "  The  overflowing  of  tho  water 
passed  by."  "  The  deep  uttered  his  voice,  and 
lifted  up  his  hands  on  high."  When  inquiry 
is  made  about  the  place  of  wisdom,  Job  intro- 
duces the  deep,  saying,  "  It  is  not  in  me  ;  and 
the  sea  saith,  It  is  not  in  me.  Destruction  and 
death  say,  We  have  heard  the  fame  thereof 
with  our  ears."  That  noted  sublime  passage 
in  the  book  of  Isaiah,  which  describes  the  fall 
of  the  king  of  Assyria,  is  full  of  personified 
objects ;  the  fir  trees  and  cedars  of  Lebanon 
breaking  forth  into  exultation  on  the  fall  of 
the  tyrant ;  hell  from  beneath  stirring  up  all 
the  dead  to  meet  him  at  his  coming ;  and  the 
dead  kings  introduced  as  speaking  and  joining 
in  the  triumph.  In  the  same  strain  are  those 
many  lively  and  passionate  apostrophes  to 
cities  and  countries,  to  persons  and  things, 
with  which  tho  prophetical  writings  every 
where  abound.  "Othou  sword  of  the  Lord, 
how  long  will  it  be  ere  thou  be  quiet  ?  Put. 
thyself  up  into  the  scabbard,  rest,  and  be  still. 
How  can  it  be  quiet,"  as  the  reply  is  instantly 
made,  "seeing  the  Lord  hath  given  it  a 
charge  against  Askelon,  and  the  sea  shore  ? 
there  hath  he  appointed; it,"  Jer.  xlvii,  6.  In 
general,  for  it  would  carry  us  too  far  to  en- 
large  upon  all  the  instances,  the  style  of  the 
poetical  books  of  the  Old  Testament  is,  beyond 
the  style  of  all  other  poetical  works,  fervid, 
bold,  and  animated.  It  is  extremely  different 
from  that  regular  correct  expression  to  which 
our  ears  are  accustomed  in  modern  poetry.  It 
is  the  burst  of  inspiration.  The  scenes  are  not 
coolly  described,  but  represented  as  passing  be- 
fore our  eyes.  Every  object  and  every  person 
is  addressed  and  spoken  to,  as  if  present.  The 
transition  is  often  abrupt;  tho  connection  often 
obscure ;  tho  persons  are  often  changed ; 
figures  crowded,  and  heaped  upon  one  another. 
Bold  sublimity,  not  correct  elegance,  is  its 
character  We  see  the  spirit  of  the  writer 
raised  beyond  himself,  and  labouring  to  find 
vent  for  ideas  too  mighty  for  his  utterance. 

Tho  soveral  kinds  of  poetical  composition 
which  we  find  in  Scripture   are   chiefly  the 


POM 


760 


POS 


didactic,  elegiac,  pastoral,  and  lyric.  Of  the 
didactic  species  of  poetry,  the  book  of  Proverbs 
is  the  principal  instance.  The  first  nine  chap- 
ters of  that  book  are  highly  poetical,  adorned 
with  many  distinguished  graces,  and  figures  of 
expression.  The  book  of  Ecclesiastes  comes, 
likewise,  under  this  head ;  and  some  of  the 
Psalms,  as  the  hundred  and  nineteenth  in  par- 
ticular. Of  elegiac  poetry,  many  very  beauti- 
ful specimens  occur  in  Scripture  ;  such  as  the 
lamentation  of  David  over  his  friend  Jonathan  ; 
several  passages  in  the  prophetical  hooks  ;  and 
several  of  David's  Psalms,  composed  on  occa- 
sions of  distress  and  mourning.  The  forty- 
second  Psalm,  in  particular,  is,  in  the  highest 
degree,  tender  and  plaintive.  But  the  most  regu- 
lar and  perfect  elegiac  composition  in  the  Scrip- 
ture, perhaps  in  the  whole  world,  is  the  Lament- 
ations of  Jeremiah.  As  the  prophet  mourns,  in 
that  book,  over  the  destruction  of  the  temple  and 
the  holy  city,  and  the  overthrow  of  the  whole 
state,  he  assembles  all  the  affecting  images 
which  a  subject  so  melancholy  could  suggest. 
The  Song  of  Solomon  affords  us  a  high  ex- 
emplification of  pastoral  poetry.  Considered 
with  respect  to  its  spiritual  meaning,  it  is  un- 
doubtedly a  mystical  allegory  ;  in  its  form  it 
is  a  dramatic  pastoral,  or  a  perpetual  dialogue 
between  personages  in  the  character  of  shep- 
herds ;  and,  suitably  to  that  form,  it  is  full  of 
rural  and  pastoral  images  from  beginning  to  end. 
Of  lyric  poetry,  or  that  which  is  intended  to 
be  accompanied  with  music,  the  Old  Testa- 
ment is  full.  Beside  a  great  number  of  hymns 
and  songs,  which  we  find  scattered  in  the  his- 
torical and  prophetical  books,  such  as  the 
song  of  Moses,  the  song  of  Deborah,  and  many 
others  of  like  nature,  the  whole  book  of  Psalms 
is  to  be  considered  as  a  collection  of  sacred 
odes.  In  these  we  find  the  ode  exhibited  in 
all  the  varieties  of  its  form,  and  supported  with 
the  highest  spirit  of  lyric  poetry ;  sometimes 
sprightly,  cheerful,  and  triumphant ;  some- 
times solemn  and  magnificent ;  sometimes 
tender  and  soft.  From  these  instances  it 
clearly  appears,  that  there  are  contained  in 
the  Holy  Scriptures  full  exemplifications  of 
several  of  the  chief  kinds  of  poetical  writing. 

POLLUX,  a  tutelar  deity  of  mariners  in  an- 
cient times,  Acts  xxviii,  11,  whose  image  was 
placed  cither  at  the  prow  or  stern  of  the  ship. 

POMEGRANATE,  jidi,  Numbers  xiii,  23  ; 
xx,  5 ;  1  Sam.  xiv,  2,  &c,  a  low  tree  growing 
very  common  in  Palestine,  and  in  other  parts 
of  the  east.  Its  branches  are  very  thick  and 
bushy ;  some  of  them  are  armed  with  sharp 
thorns.  They  are  garnished  with  narrow  spear- 
shaped  leaves.  Its  flowers  are  of  an  elegant 
red  colour,  resembling  a  rose.  It  is  chiefly 
valued  for  the  fruit,  which  is  as  big  as  a  large 
apple,  is  quite  round,  and  has  the  general 
qualities  of  other  summer  fruits,  allaying  heat 
and  quenching  thirst.  The  high  estimation 
in  which  it  was  held  by  the  people  of  Israel, 
may  be  inferred  from  its  being  one  of  the  three 
kinds  of  fruit  brought  by  the  spies  from  Eshcol 
to  Moses  and  the  congregation  in  the  wilder- 
ness, Num.  xiii,  23  ;  xx,  5  ;  and  from  its  being 
specified  by  that  rebellious  people  as  one  of  the 


greatest  luxuries  which  they  enjoyed  in  Egypt, 
the  want  of  which  they  felt  so  severely  in  the 
sandy  desert.  The  pomegranate,  classed  by 
Moses  with  wheat  and  barley,  vines  and  figs, 
oil  olive  and  honey,  was,  in  his  account,  one 
principal  recommendation  of  the  promised 
land,  Deut.  viii,  8.  The  form  of  this  fruit  was 
so  beautiful,  as  to  be  honoured  with  a  place  at 
the  bottom  of  the  high  priest's  robe,  Exodus 
xxviii,  33  ;  Ecclus.  xlv,  9  ;  and  was  the  princi- 
pal ornament  of  the  stately  columns  of  Solo- 
mon's temple.  The  inside  is  full  of  small 
kernels,  replenished  with  a  generous  liquor. 
In  short  there  is  scarcely  any  part  of  the 
pomegranate  which  does  not  delight  and  re- 
create the  senses. 

PORTERS  OF  THE  TEMPLE.  The  Le- 
vites  discharged  the  office  of  porters  of  the 
temple  both  day  and  night,  and  had  the  care 
both  of  the  treasure  and  offerings.  The  office 
of  porter  was  in  some  sort  military  ;  properly 
speaking,  they  were  the  soldiers  of  the  Lord, 
and  the  guards  of  his  house,  to  whose  charge 
the  several  gates  of  the  courts  of  the  sanctua- 
ry were  appointed  by  lot,  1  Chronicles  xxvi,  1, 
13,  19.  "They  waited  at  every  gate;  and 
were  not  permitted  to  depart  from  their  ser- 
vice," 2  Chron.  xxxv,  15 ;  and  they  attended 
by  turns  in  their  courses,  as  the  other  Levites 
did,  2  Chron.  viii,  14.  .  Their  proper  business 
was  to  open  and  shut  the  gates,  and  to  attend 
at  them  by  day,  as  a  sort  of  peace  officers,  in 
order  to  prevent  any  tumult  among  the  people  ; 
to  keep  strangers  and  the  excommunicated  and 
unclean  persons,  from  entering  into  the  holy 
court ;  and,  in  short,  to  prevent  whatever  might 
be  prejudicial  to  the  safety,  peace,  and  purity 
of  the  holy  place  and  service.  They  also  kept 
guard  by  night  about  the  temple  and  its  courts ; 
and  they  are  said  to  have  been  twenty-four,  in- 
cluding three  priests,  who  stood  sentry  at  so 
many  different  places.  There  was  a  superior 
officer  over  the  whole  guard,  called  by  Maimon- 
ides,  "  the  man  of  the  mountain  of  the  house  ;" 
he  walked  the  round  as  often  as  he  pleased ; 
when  he  passed  a  sentinel  that  was  standing, 
he  said,  "  Peace  be  unto  you  ;"  but  if  he  found 
one  asleep,  he  struck  him,  and  he  had  liberty 
to  set  fire  to  his  garment.  This  custom  may, 
perhaps,  be  alluded  to  in  the  following  pas- 
sage:  "Behold,  I  come  as  a  thief,"  that  is, 
unawares ;  "  blessed  is  he  that  watcheth  and 
keepeth  his  garments,"  Rev.  xvi,  15.  Psalm 
exxxiv,  seems  to  be  addressed  to  these  watch- 
men of  the  temple,  "  who  by  night  stand  in  the 
house  of  the  Lord  ;"  in  which  they  are  exhort- 
ed to  employ  their  waking  hours  in  acts  of 
praise  and  devotion. 

POST,  a  messenger  or  regulated  courier, 
appointed  to  carry  with  expedition  the  des- 
patches of  princes,  or  the  letters  of  private  per- 
sons in  general,  Job  ix,  25  ;  Jer.  li,  31 ;  2  Chron. 
xxx,  (>;  Esther  iii,  13,  &c.  It  is  thought  that 
the  use  of  posts  is  derived  from  the  Persians. 
Diodorus  Siculus  observes,  that  the  kings  of 
Persia,  in  order  to  have  intelligence  of  what 
was  passed  through  all  the  provinces  of  their 
vast  dominions,  placed  centinels  at  eminences, 
at  convenient  distances,  where  towers  were 


PRA 


761 


PRA 


built.  These  centinels  gave  notice  of  public 
occurrences  from  one  to  another,  with  a  very 
loud  and  shrill  voice,  by  which  news  was  trans- 
mitted from  one  extremity  of  the  kingdom  to 
another  with  great  expedition.  But  as  this 
could  not  be  practised,  except  in  the  case  of 
general  news,  which  it  was  expedient  that  the 
whole  nation  should  be  acquainted  with,  Cy- 
rus, as  Xenophon  relates,  appointed  couriers 
and  places  for  post  horses,  building  on  purpose 
on  all  the  high  roads  houses  for  the  reception 
of  the  couriers,  where  they  were  to  deliver 
their  packets  to  the  next,  and  so  on.  This 
they  did  night  and  day,  so  that  no  inclemency 
of  weather  was  to  stop  them ;  and  they  are 
represented  as  moving  with  astonishing  speed. 
In  the  judgment  of  many  they  went  faster 
than  cranes  could  fly.  Herodotus  owns,  that 
nothing  swifter  was  known  for  a  journey  by 
land.  Xerxes,  in  his  famous  expedition  against 
Greece,  planted  posts  from  the  vEgean  Sea  to 
Shushan,  or  Susa,  to  send  notice  thither  of 
what  might  happen  to  his  army ;  he  placed 
these  messengers  from  station  to  station,  to 
convey  his  packets,  at  such  distances  from 
each  other  as  a  horse  might  easily  travel. 

POTTER.  Frequent  mention  is  made  of 
the  potter  in  Scripture,  Jer.  xviii,  3 ;  Ecclus. 
xxxviii,  29,  30.  Homer  says,  that  the  potter 
turns  his  wheel  with  his  hands.  But  at  the 
present  day,  the  wheel  on  which  the  work  is 
formed  is  turned  by  another. 

POTTER'S  FIELD,  the  land  that  was 
bought  with  the  money  for  which  Judas  sold 
our  Saviour,  Matt,  xxvii,  7,  10,  and  which  he 
returned.     See  Aceldama. 

PRAYER  has  been  well  defined,  the  offer- 
ing up  of  our  desires  unto  God,  for  things 
agreeable  to  his  will,  in  the  name  or  through 
the  mediation  of  Jesus  Christ,  by  the  help  of 
the  Holy  Spirit,  with  a  confession  of  our  sins, 
and  a  thankful  acknowledgment  of  his  mercies. 
1.  Prayer  is  in  itself  a  becoming  acknowledg- 
ment of  the  all-sufficiency  of  God,  and  of  our 
dependence  upon  him.  It  is  his  appointed 
means  for  the  obtaining  of  both  temporal  and 
spiritual  blessings.  He  could  bless  his  crea- 
tures in  another  way  :  but  he  will  be  inquired 
of,  to  do  for  them  those  things  of  which  they 
stand  in  need,  Ezek.  xxxvi,  37.  It  is  the  act 
of  an  indigent  creature,  seeking  relief  from 
the  fountain  of  mercy.  A  sense  of  want  ex- 
cites desire,  and  desire  is  the  very  essence  of 
prayer.  "  One  thing  have  I  desired  of  the 
Lord,"  says  David :  "  that  will  I  seek  after." 
Prayer  without  desire  is  like  an  altar  without 
a  sacrifice,  or  without  the  fire  from  heaven  to 
consume  it.  When  all  our  wants  are  supplied, 
prayer  will  be  converted  into  praise  ;  till  then 
Christians  must  live  by  prayer,  and  dwell  at 
the  mercy  seat.  God  alone  is  able  to  hear 
and  to  supply  their  every  want.  The  revela- 
tion which  he  has  given  of  his  goodness  lays 
a  foundation  for  our  asking  with  confidence 
the  blessings  we  need,  and  his  ability  encou- 
rages us  to  hope  for  their  bestowment.  «'  O 
thou  that  hearest  prayer  ;  unto  thee  shall  all 
flesh  come,"  Psalm  lxv,  2.  2.  Prayer  is  a 
spiritual  exercise,  and  can  only  be  performed 


acceptably  by  the  assistance  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
Rom.  viii,  26.     "The  sacrifice  of  the  wicked 
is  an  abomination  to  the  Lord,  but  the  prayer 
of  the  upright  is  his  delight."  The  Holy  Spirit 
is  the  great  agent  in  the  world  of  grace,  and 
without  his  special  influence  there  is  no  ac- 
ceptable prayer.     Hence  he  is  called  the  Spirit 
of  grace  and  of  supplication  :  for  he  it  is  that 
enables  us  to  draw  nigh  unto  God,  filling  our 
mouth  with  arguments,    and   teaching  us  to 
order  our    cause   before   him,    Zech.   xii,    10. 
3.  All  acceptable  prayer  must  be    offered  in 
faith,  or  a  believing  frame  of  mind.     "If  any 
man  lack  wisdom,  let  him   ask  of  God,  who 
giveth  to  all  men  liberally,  and  upbraideth  not, 
and  it  shall  be  given  him.     But  let  him  ask  in 
faith,  nothing  wavering — for  let  not  the  waver- 
ing man  think  that  he  shall  receive  any  thing 
of  the  Lord,"  James  i,  5-7.     "  He  that  cometh 
unto  God  must  believe  that  he  is,  and  that  he 
is   a   rewarder  of  them  that  diligently  seek 
him,"  Heb.  xi,  6.     It  must  be  offered  in  the 
name  of  Christ,  believing  in  him  as  revealed 
in  the  word  of  God,  placing  in  him  all  our 
hope  of  acceptance,  and  exercising  unfeigned 
confidence  in  his  atoning  sacrifice  and  preva- 
lent intercession.     4.  Prayer  is  to  be  offered 
for  "  things  agreeable  to  the  will  of  God."    So 
the  Apostle    says :    "  This  is  the    confidence 
that  we  have  in  him,  that,  if  we  ask  any  thing 
according  to  his  will,  he  heareth  us ;  and  if 
we  know  that  he  hear  us,  whatsoever  we  ask, 
we  know  that  we  have  the  petitions  that  we 
desired  of  him,"  1  John  v.  14,  15.    Our  prayers 
must  therefore  be  regulated  by  the  revealed 
will  of  God,  and  come  within  the  compass  of 
the  promises.     These  are  to  be  the  matter  and 
the  ground  of  our  supplications.     What  God 
has  not  particularly  promised  he  may  never- 
theless   possibly   bestow ;    but    what   he    has 
promised  he  will  assuredly  perform.      Of  the 
good  things  promised  to  Israel  of  old  not  one 
failed,  but  all  came  to  pass  ;  and  in  due  time 
the  same  shall  be  said  of  all  the  rest.     5.  All 
this  must  be  accompanied  with  confession  of 
our  sins,    and  thankful   acknowledgment  of 
God's  mercies.     These  are  two  necessary  in- 
gredients in  acceptable  prayer.     "  I  prayed," 
says  the  Prophet  Daniel,  "  and  made  confes- 
sion."    Sin  is  a  burden,  of  which  confession 
unloads  the  soul.     "  Father,"  said  the  return- 
ing prodigal,  "  I  have  sinned  against  Heaven 
and  in  thy  sight."      Thanksgiving  is  also  as 
necessary  as  confession ;  by  the  one  we  take 
shame   to   ourselves  ;   by  the   other,   we  give 
glory  to    God.      By  the    one,  we    abase    the 
creature  ;  by  the  other  we  exalt  the  Creator. 
In  petitioning  favours  from  God,  we  act  like 
dependent  creatures ;  in  confession,  like  sin- 
ners ;  but  in  thanksgiving,  like  angels. 

The  reason  on  which  this  great  and  effica- 
cious duty  rests,  has  been  a  subject  of  some 
debate.  On  this  point,  however,  we  have 
nothing  stated  in  the  Scriptures.  From  them 
we  learn  only,  that  God  has  appointed  it ;  that 
he  enjoins  it  to  be  offered  in  faith,  that  is,  faith 
in  Christ,  whose  atonement  is  the  meritorious 
and  procuring  cause  of  all  the  blessings  to 
which  our  desires  can  be  directed ;  and  that 


PRA 


762 


PRA 


prayer  so  offered  is  an  indispensable  condition 
i  oin  obtaining  the  blessings  for  which  we 
ask.  As  a  Blatter  of  inference]  however,  we 
may  discover  some  glimpses  of  the  reason  in 
the  divine  Mind  on  which  its  appointment 
rests.  That  reason  has  sometimes  been  said 
to  be  the  moral  preparation  and  state  of  fitness 
produced  in  the  soul  for  the  reception  of  the 
divine  mercies  which  the  act  and,  more  espe- 
cially the  habit  of  prayer  must  induce.  Against 
this  stands  the  strong,  and,  in  a  Scriptural  view, 
fatal  objection,  that  an  efficiency  is  thus  as- 
cribed to  the  mere  act  of  a  creature  to  pro- 
duce those  great,  and,  in  many  respects,  radical 
changes  in  the  character  of  man,  which  we 
are  taught,  by  inspired  authority,  to  refer  to 
the  direct  influences  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  What 
is  it  that  lils  man  for  forgiveness,  but  simply 
repentance  ?  Yet  that  is  expressly  said  to  be 
the  "gift"  of  Christ,  and  supposes  strong 
operations  of  the  illuminating  and  convincing 
Spirit  of  truth,  the  Lord  and  Giver  of  spiritual 
life  ;  and  if  the  mere  acts  and  habit  of  prayer 
had  efficiency  enough  to  produce  a  Scriptural 
repentance,  then  every  formalist  attending 
with  ordinary  seriousness  to  his  devotions 
must,  in  consequence,  become  a  penitent. 
Again :  if  we  pray  for  spiritual  blessings 
aright,  that  is,  with  an  earnestness  of  desire 
which  arises  from  a  due  apprehension  of  their 
importance,  and  a  preference  of  them  to  all 
earthly  good,  who  does  not  see  that  this  im- 
plies such  a  deliverance  from  the  earthly  and 
carnal  disposition  which  characterizes  our  de- 
generate nature,  that  an  agency  far  above  our 
own,  however  we  may  employ  it,  must  be  sup- 
posed ?  or  else,  if  our  own  prayers  could  be 
efficient  up  to  this  point,  we  might,  by  the 
continual  application  of  this  instrument,  com- 
plete our  regeneration,  independent  of  that 
grace  of  God,  which,  after  all,  this  theory 
brings  in.  It  may  indeed  be  said,  that  the 
grace  of  God  operates  by  our  prayers  to  pro- 
duce in  us  a  state  of  moral  fitness  to  receive 
the  blessings  we  ask.  But  this  gives  up  the 
point  contended  for,  the  moral  efficiency  of 
prayer;  and  refers  the  efficiency  to  another 
agent  working  by  our  prayers  as  an  instru- 
ment. Still,  however,  it  may  be  affirmed,  that 
the  Scriptures  no  where  represent  prayer  as 
an  instrument  for  improving  our  moral  slate, 
in  any  other  way  than  as  tho  means  of  bring- 
ing into  the  soul  new  supplies  of  spiritual  life 
and  strength.  It  is  therefore  more  properly 
to  be  considered  as  a  condition  of  our  obtain- 
ing that  grace  by  which  such  effects  are 
wrought,  than  as  the  instrument  by  which  it 
effects  them.  In  fact,  all  genuine  acts  of 
prayer  depend  upon  a  grace  previously  be- 
stowed, and  from  which  alone  the  disposition 
nnd  the  power  to  pray  proceed.  So  it  was 
■aid  of  Saul  of  Tarsus,  "  Behold,  he  prayeth  !" 
Be  prayed  in  fact  then  for  the  first  time;  but. 
thai  was  in  consequence  of  the  illumination 
of  Ins  mind  as  to  his  spiritual  danger,  effected 
by  the  miracle  on  the  way  to  Damascus,  and 
tho  grace  of  God  which  accompanied  tho 
miracle.  Nor  does  the  miraculous  character 
of  tho  means  by  which  conviction  was  pro- 


duced in  his  mind,  affect  the  relevancy  of  this 
to  ordinary  cases.  By  whatever  means  God 
may  be  pleased  to  fasten  the  conviction  of  our 
spiritual  danger  upon  our  minds,  and  to  awaken 
us  out  of  the  long  sleep  of  sin,  that  conviction 
must  precede  real  prayer,  and  comes  from  the 
influence  of  his  grace,  rendering  the  means 
of  conviction  effectual.  Thus  it  is  not  the 
prayer  which  produces  the  conviction,  but  the 
conviction  which  gives  birth  to  the  prayer ; 
and  if  we  pursue  the  matter  into  its  subse- 
quent stages,  we  shall  come  to  the  same  re- 
sult. We  pray  for  what  we  feel  we  want ; 
that  is,  for  something  not  in  our  possession  ; 
we  obtain  this  either  by  impartation  from 
God,  to  whom  we  look  up  as  the  only  Being 
able  to  bestow  the  good  for  which  we  ask 
him  ;  or  else  we  obtain  it,  according  to  this 
theory,  by  some  moral  efficiency  being  given 
to  the  exercise  of  prayer  to  work  it  in  us. 
Now,  the  latter  hypothesis  is  in  many  cases 
manifestly  absurd.  We  ask  for  pardon  of  sin, 
for  instance ;  but  this  is  an  act  of  God  done 
for  us,  quite  distinct  from  any  moral  change 
which  prayer  may  be  said  to  produce  in  us, 
whatever  efficiency  we  may  ascribe  to  it ;  for 
no  such  change  in  us  can  be  pardon,  since 
that  must  proceed  from  the  party  offended. 
We  ask  for  increase  of  spiritual  strength  ;  and 
prayer  is  the  expression  of  that  want.  But  if 
it  supply  this  want  by  its  own  moral  efficiency, 
it  must  supply  it  in  proportion  to  its  intensity 
and  earnestness  ;  which  intensity  and  earnest- 
ness can  only  be  called  forth  by  the  degree  in 
which  the  want  is  felt,  so  that  the  case  sup-  > 
posed  is  contradictory  and  absurd,  as  it  makes 
the  sense  of  want  to  be  in  proportion  to  the 
supply  which  ought  to  abate  or  remove  it. 
And  if  it  be  urged,  that  prayer  at  least  pro- 
duces in  us  a  fitness  for  the  supply  of  spiritual 
strength,  because  it  is  excited  by  a  sense  of 
our  wants,  the  answer  is,  that  the  fitness  con- 
tended for  consists  in  that  sense  of  want  itself 
which  must  be  produced  in  us  by  the  previous 
agency  of  grace,  or  we  should  never  pray  for 
supplies.  Thcro  is,  in  fact,  nothing  in  prayer 
simply  which  appears  to  have  any  adaptation, 
as  an  instrument,  to  effect  a  moral  change  in 
man,  although  it  should  be  supposed  to  be 
made  use  of  by  the  influence  of  the  Holy 
Spirit.  Tho  word  of  God  is  properly  an 
instrument,  because  it  contains  the  doctrine 
which  that  Spirit  explains  and  applies,  and 
the  motives  to  faith  and  obedience  which  he 
enforces  upon  the  conscience  and  affections  ; 
and  although  prayer  brings  these  truths  and 
motives  before  us,  prayer  cannot  properly  be 
said  to  be  an  instrument  of  our  regeneration, 
because  that  which  is  thus  brought  by  prayer  '. 
to  bear  upon  our  case  is  the  word  of  God  itself 
introduced  into  our  prayers,  which  derive  their 
sole  influence  in  that  respect  from  that  cir- 
cumstance. Prayer  simply  is  the  application 
of  an  insufficient  to  a  sufficient  Being  for  the 
good  which  the  former  cannot  otherwise  ob- 
tain, and  which  the  latter  only  can  supply ; 
and  as  that  supply  is  dependent  upon  prayer, 
and  in  the  nature  of  the  thing  consequent, 
prayer  can  in  no  good  sense  be  said  to  be  the 


PRA 


763 


PRA 


instrument  of  supplying  our  wants,  or  fitting 
us  for  their  supply,  except  relatively,  as  a  mere 
condition  appointed  by  the  Donor. 

If  wo  must  inquire  into  the  reason  of  the 
appointment  of  prayer,  and  it  can  scarcely  be 
considered  as  a  purely  arbitrary  institution, 
that  reason  seems  to  be,  the  preservation  in 
the  minds  of  men  of  a  solemn  and  impressive 
sense  of  God's  agency  in  the  world,  and  the 
dependence  of  all  creatures  upon  him.  Per- 
fectly pure  and  glorified  beings,  no  longer  in  a 
state  of  probation,  and  therefore  exposed  to  no 
temptations,  may  not  need  this  institution ; 
but  men  in  their  fallen  state  are  constantly 
prone  to  forget  God ;  to  rest  in  the  agency  of 
second  causes ;  and  to  build  upon  a  sufficiency 
in  themselves.  This  is  at  once  a  denial  to 
God  of  the  glory  which  lie  rightly  claims,  and 
a  destructive  delusion  to  creatures,  who,  in 
forsaking  God  as  tho  object  of  their  constant 
affiance,  trust  but  in  broken  reeds,  and  attempt 
to  drink  from  "  broken  cisterns  which  can  hold 
no  water."  It  is  then  equally  in  mercy  to  us, 
as  in  respect  to  his  own  honour  and  acknow- 
ledgment, that  the  divine  Being  has  suspended 
so  many  of  his  blessings,  and  those  of  the 
highest  necessity  to  us,  upon  the  exercise  of 
prayer ;  an  act  which  acknowledges  his  un- 
controllable agency,  and  the  dependence  of  all 
creatures  upon  him  ;  our  insufficiency,  and  his 
fulness  ;  and  lays  the  foundation  of  that  habit 
of  gratitude  and  thanksgiving  w  Inch  is  at  once 
eo  meliorating  to  our  own  feelings,  and  so 
conducive  to  a  cheerful  obedience  to  the  will 
of  God.  And  if  this  reason  for  the  injunction 
of  prayer  is  no  where  in  Scripture  stated  in  so 
many  words,  it  is  a  principle  uniformly  sup- 
posed as  the  foundation  of  the  whole  scheme 
of  religion  which  they  have  revealed. 

To  this  duty  objections  have  been  sometimes 
offered,  at  which  it  may  be  well  at  least  to 
glance.  One  has  been  grounded  upon  a  sup- 
posed predestination  of  all  things  which  come 
to  pass ;  and  tho  argument  is,  that  as  this 
established  predetermination  of  all  things  can- 
not be  altered,  prayer,  which  supposes  that  God 
will  depart  from  it,  is  vain  and  useless.  The 
answer  which  a  pious  predestinarian  would 
give  to  this  objection  is,  that  the  argument 
drawn  from  the  predestination  of  God  lies  with 
the  same  force  against  every  other  human 
effort,  as  against  prayer ;  and  that  as  God's 
predetermination  to  give  food  to  man  does  not 
render  the  cultivation  of  the  earth  useless  and 
impertinent,  so  neither  docs  the  predestination 
of  things  shut  out  the  necessity  and  efficacy 
of  prayer.  It  would  also  be  urged,  that  God 
has  ordained  the  means  as  well  as  the  end  ; 
and  although  he  is  an  unchangeable  Being,  it 
is  a  part  of  the  unchangeable  system  which  he 
has  established,  that  prayer  shall  be  heard  and 
accepted.  Those  who  have  not  these  views 
of  predestination  will  answer  the  objection 
differently  ;  for  if  the  premises  of  such  a  pre- 
destination as  is  assumed  by  the  objection,  and 
conceded  in  the  answer,  be  allowed,  the  an- 
swer is  unsatisfactory.  The  Scriptures  repre- 
sent God,  for  instance,  as  purposing  to  inflict 
j   judgment  upon  an  individual  or  a  nation, 


which  purpose  is  often  changed  by  prayer.  In 
this  case  either  God's  purpose  must  be  denied, 
and  then  his  threatenings  are  reduced  to  words 
without  meaning;  or  the  purpose  must  be 
allowed ;  in  which  case  either  prayer  breaks 
in  upon  predestination,  if  understood  abso- 
lutely, or  it  is  vain  and  useless.  To  the  objec- 
tion so  drawn  out  it  is  clear  that  no  answer 
is  given  by  saying  that  the  means  as  well  as 
the  end  are  predestinated,  since  prayer  in  such 
cases  is  not  a  means  to  the  end,  but  an  instru- 
ment of  thwarting  it;  or  is  a  means  to  one 
end  in  opposition  to  another  end,  which,  if 
equally  prodestinated  with  tho  same  absolute, 
ness,  is  a  contradiction.  The  true  answer  is, 
that  although  God  has  absolutely  predetermined 
some  things,  there  are  others  which  respect 
his  government  of  free  and  accountable  agents, 
which  ho  has  but  conditionally  predetermined, 
The  true  immutability  of  God  consists,  not  in 
his  adherence  to  his  purposes,  but  in  his  never 
changing  the  principles  of  his  administration  ; 
and  he  may  therefore,  in  perfect  accordance 
with  his  preordination  of  things,  and  the  immu- 
tability of  his  nature,  purpose  to  do,  under 
certain  conditions  dependent  upon  the  free 
agency  of  man,  what  he  will  not  do  under 
others ;  and  for  this  reason,  that  an  immutable 
adhorenco  to  the  principles  of  a  wise,  just,  and 
gracious  government  requires  it.  Prayer  is 
in  Scripture  made  one  of  these  conditions; 
and  if  God  has  established  it  as  ono  of  the 
principles  of  his  moral  government  to  accept 
prayer,  in  every  case  in  which  he  has  given  us 
authority  to  ask,  he  has  not,  we  may  be  assured, 
entangled  his  actual  government  of  the  world 
with  the  bonds  of  such  an  eternal  predestina- 
tion of  particular  events,  as  either  to  reduce 
prayer  to  a  mere  form  of  words,  or  not  to  be 
able  himself,  consistently  with  his  decrees,  to 
answer  it,  whenever  it  is  encouraged  by  his 
express  engagements. 

A  second  objection  is,  that  as  God  is  infi- 
nitely wise  and  good,  his  wisdom  and  justice 
will  lead  him  to  bestow  "  whatever  is  fit  for 
us  without  praying ;  and  if  any  thing  be  not 
fit  for  us,  we  cannot  obtain  it  by  praying." 
To  this  Dr.  Paley  very  well  replies,  "that  it. 
may  bo  agreeablo  to  perfect  wisdom  to  grant 
that  to  our  prayers  which  it  would  not  have 
been  agreeablo  to  the  same  wisdom  to  have 
given  us  without  praying  for."  This,  inde- 
pendent of  the  question  of  the  authority  of  the 
Scriptures  which  explicitly  enjoin  prayer,  is 
the  best  answer  which  can  be  given  to  the 
objection ;  and  it  is  no  small  confirmation  of 
it,  that  it  is  obvious  to  every  reflecting  man, 
that  for  God  to  withhold  favours  till  asked  for, 
"  tends,"  as  the  same  writer  observes,  "  to 
encourage  devotion  among  his  rational  crea- 
tures, and  to  keep  up  and  circulate  a  know- 
ledge and  sense  of  their  dependency  upon 
him."  But  it  is  urged,  "  God  will  always  do 
what  is  best  from  the  moral  perfection  of  his 
nature,  whether  we  pray  or  not."  This  ob- 
jection, however,  supposes  that  there  is  but 
one  mode  of  acting  for  the  best,  and  that  the 
divine  will  is  necessarily  determined  to  that 
mode  only;  "both  which  positions,"  says  Pa 


PRA 


764 


PRE 


ley,  "  presume  a  knowledge  of  universal  na- 
ture, much  beyond  what  we  are  capable  of 
attaining."  It  is,  indeed,  a  very  unsatisfactory 
mode  of  speaking,  to  Bay,  God  will  always  do 
what  is  best;  since  we  can  conceive  him 
capable  in  all  cases  of  doing  what  is  still 
better  for  the  creature,  and  also  that  the  crea- 
ture is  capable  of  receiving  more  and  more 
from  his  infinite  fulness  for  ever.  All  that 
can  be  rationally  meant  by  such  a  phrase  is, 
that,  in  the  circumstances  of  the  case,  God 
will  always  do  what  is  most  consistent  with 
bis  own  wisdom,  holiness,  and  goodness;  but 
then  the  disposition  to  pray,  and  the  act  of 
praying,  add  a  new  circumstance  to  every  case, 
and  often  bring  many  other  new  circumstances 
along  wiili  them.  It  supposes  humility,  con- 
trition, and  trust,  on  the  part  of  the  creature; 
and  an  acknowledgment  of  the  power  and 
compassion  of  God,  and  of  the  merit  of  the 
atonement  of  Christ :  all  which  are  manifestly 
new  positions,  so  to  speak,  of  the  circum- 
stances of  the  creature,  which,  upon  the  very 
principle  of  the  objection,  rationally  under- 
stood, must  be  taken  into  consideration. 

But  if  the  efficacy  of  prayer  as  to  ourselves 
be  granted,  its  influence  upon  the  case  of 
others  is  said  to  be  more  difficult  to  conceive. 
This  may  be  allowed  without  at  all  affecting 
tho  duty.  Those  who  bow  to  the  authority 
of  the  Scriptures  will  see,  that  the  duty  of 
praying  for  ourselves  and  for  others  rests  upon 
the  same  divine  appointment ;  and  to  those 
who  ask  for  the  reason  of  such  intercession  in 
behalf  of  others,  it  is  sufficient  to  reply,  that 
the  efficacy  of  prayer  being  established  in  one 
case,  there  is  the  same  reason  to  conclude  that 
our  prayers  may  benefit  others,  as  any  other 
effort  we  may  use.  It  can  only  be  by  divine 
appointment  that  one  creature  is  made  depend- 
ent upon  another  for  any  advantage,  since  it 
was  doubtless  in  the  power  of  the  Creator  to 
have  rendered  each  independent  of  all  hut 
himself.  Whatever  reason,  therefore,  might 
lead  him  to  connect  and  interweave  the  inte- 
rests of  one  man  with  the  benevolence  of  an- 
other, will  be  the  leading  reason  for  that  kind 
of  mutual  dependence  which  is  implied  in  the 
benefit  of  mutual  prayer.  Were  it  only  that  a 
previous  sympathy,  charity,  and  good  will,  are 
implied  in  the  duty,  and  must,  indeed,  be  cul- 
tivated in  order  to  it,  and  be  strengthened  by 
it,  the  wisdom  and  benevolence  of  the  institu- 
tion would,  il  is  presumed,  be  apparent  to  every 
well  constituted  mind.  That  all  prayer  for 
others  must  proceed  upon  a  less  perfect  know- 
ledge of  them  than  we  have  of  ourselves,  is 
certain  ;  that  all  our  petitions  must  be,  even  in 
our  own  mind,  more  conditional  than  those 
which  respect  ourselves,  though  many  of  these 
must  be  subjected  to  the  principles  of  a  general 
administration,  which  we  but  partially  appre- 
hend ;  and  that  all  spiritual  influences  upon 
others,  when  they  arc  subject  to  our  prayers, 
will  be  understood  by  us  as  liable  to  the  con- 
trol of  their  free  agency,  must  also  be  con- 
ceded; and,  therefore)  when  others  are  con- 
cerned, our  prayer  may  often  be  partially  or 
wholly  fruitless.  Ho  who  believes  the  Scriotures 


will,  however.,  be  encouraged  by  the  declara- 
tion that  "  the  effectual  fervent  prayer  of  a 
righteous  man,"  for  his  fellow  creatures,  "  avail- 
eth  much ;"  and  he  who  demands  something 
beyond  mere  authoritative  declaration,  as  he 
cannot  deny  that  prayer  is  one  of  those  instru- 
ments by  which  another  may  be  benefited,  must 
acknowledge  that,  like  the  giving  of  counsel, 
it  may  be  of  great  utility  in  some  cases,  although 
it  should  fail  in  others  ;  and  that  as  no  man  can 
tell  how  much  good  counsel  may  influence  an- 
other, or  in  many  cases  say  whether  it  has 
ultimately  failed  or  not,  so  it  is  with  prayer. 
It  is  a  part  of  the  divine  plan,  as  revealed  in 
his  word,  to  give  many  blessings. to  man  inde- 
pendent of  his  own  prayers,  leaving  the  subse- 
quent improvement  of  them  to  himself.  They 
are  given  in  honour  of  the  intercession  of 
Christ,  man's  great  "  Advocate  ;"  and  they  are 
given,  subordinately,  in  acceptance  of  the 
prayers  of  Christ's  church,  and  of  righteous 
individuals.  And  when  many  or  few  devout 
individuals  become  thus  the  instruments  of 
good  to  communities,  or  to  whole  nations, 
there  is  no  greater  mystery  in  this  than  in  the 
obvious  fact,  that  the  happiness  or  misery  of 
large  masses  of  mankind  is  often  greatly  affected 
by  the  wisdom  or  the  errors,  the  skill  or  the 
incompetence,  the  good  or  the  bad  conduct, 
of  a  few  persons,  and  often  of  one. 

PREACHING  is  the  discoursing  publicly 
on  any  religious  subject.  From  the  sacred 
records,  says  Robert  Robinson,  we  learn  that 
when  men  began  to  associate  for  the  purpose 
of  worshipping  the  Deity,  Enoch  prophesied, 
Jude  14,  15.  We  have  a  very  short  account 
of  this  prophet  and  his  doctrine  ;  enough,  how- 
ever, to  convince  us  that  he  taught  the  prin- 
cipal truths  of  natural  and  revealed  religion. 
Conviction  of  sin  was  in  his  doctrine,  and 
communion  with  God  was  exemplified  in  his 
conduct,  Gen.  v,  24;  Heb.  xi,  5,  6.  From  the 
days  of  Enoch  to  the  time  of  Moses,  each 
patriarch  worshipped  God  with  his  family : 
probably  several  assembled  at  new  moons, 
and  alternately  instructed  the  whole  company. 
"Noah,"  it  is  said,  "was  a  preacher  of  right- 
eousness," 1  Peter  iii,  19,  20 ;  2  Peter  ii,  5. 
Abraham  commanded  his  household  after  him 
to  keep  the  way  of  the  Lord,  and  to  do  justice 
and  judgment,  Gen.  xviii,  19 ;  and  Jacob,  when 
his  house  lapsed  to  idolatry,  remonstrated 
against  it,  and  exhorted  all  them  that  were 
with  him  to  put  away  the  strange  gods,  and 
go  up  with  him  to  Bethel,  Gen.  xxxv,  2,  3. 
Melchisedcc,  also,  we  may  consider  as  the 
father,  the  priest,  and  the  prince,  of  his  people  ; 
publishing  the  glad  tidings  of  peace  and  salva- 
tion, Gen.  xiv;  Heb.  vii. 

Moses  was  a  most  eminent  prophet  and 
preacher,  raised  up  by  the  authority  of  God, 
and  by  whom,  it  was  said,  came  the  law,  John 
i,  17.  This  great  man  had  much  at  heart  the 
promulgation  of  his  doctrine  :  he  directed  it 
to  be  inscribed  on  pillars,  to  be  transcribed  in 
books,  and  to  be  taught  both  in  public  and  pri- 
vate by  word  of  mouth,  Deut.  iv,  9  ;  vi,  9 ; 
xv ii,  18 ;  xxvii,  8 ;  xxxi,  19 ;  Num.  v,  23.  He 
himself  set  the  example  of  each  ;   and  how  he 


PRE 


765 


PRE 


and  Aaron  preached,  we  may  see  by  several 
parts  of  his  writings.  The  first  discourse  was 
heard  with  profound  reverence  and  attention  ; 
the  last  was  both  uttered  and  received  with 
raptures,  Exod.  iv,  31 ;  Deut.  xxxiii,  7,  8,  &c. 
Public  preaching  does  not  appear  under  this 
economy  to  have  been  attached  to  the  priest- 
hood :  priests  were  not  officially  p*eachers ; 
and  we  have  innumerable  instances  of  dis- 
courses delivered  in  assemblies  by  men  of  other 
tribes  beside  that  of  Levi,  Psalm  Ixviii,  11. 
Joshua  was  an  Ephraimite ;  but,  being  full  of 
the  spirit  of  wisdom,  he  gathered  the  tribes  to 
Shechem,  and  harangued  the  people  of  God, 
Deut.  xxxiv,  9 ;  Joshua  xxiv.  Solomon  was 
a  prince  of  the  house  of  Judah  ;  Amos,  a  herds- 
man of  Tekoa ;  yet  both  were  preachers,  and 
one  at  least  was  a  prophet,  1  Kings  ii ;  Amos 
vii,  14,  15.  When  the  ignorant  notions  of 
Pagans,  the  vices  of  their  practice,  and  the 
idolatry  of  their  pretended  worship,  were  in 
some  sad  periods  incorporated  into  the  Jewish 
religion  by  the  princes  of  that  nation,  the  pro- 
phets and  all  the  seers  protested  against  this 
apostasy ,  and  they  were  persecuted  for  so 
doing.  Shemaiah  preached  to  Rehoboam,  the 
princes,  and  all  the  people  at  Jerusalem, 
2  Chron.  xii,  5  ;  Azariah  and  Hanani  preached 
to  Asa  and  his  army,  2  Chron.  xv,  1 ;  xvi,  7 ; 
Micaiah,  to  Ahab.  Some  of  them  opened 
schools,  or  houses  of  instruction  ;  and  there  to 
their  disciples  they  taught  the  pure  religion  of 
Moses.  At  Naioth,  in  the  suburbs  of  Ramah, 
there  was  one  where  Samuel  dwelt ;  and  there 
was  one  at  Jericho,  and  a  third  at  Bethel, 
to  which  Elijah  and  Elisha  often  resorted. 
Thither  the  people  went  on  Sabbath  days  and 
at  new  moons,  and  received  public  lessons  of 
piety  and  morality,  1  Sam.  xix,  18 ;  2  Kings 
ii,  2,  5 ;  iv,  2,  3.  Through  all  this  period, 
however,  there  was  a  dismal  confusion  of  the 
useful  ordinance  of  public  preaching.  Some- 
times they  had  no  open  vision,  and  the  word 
of  the  Lord  was  precious,  or  scarce  ;  the  peo- 
ple heard  it  only  now  and  then.  At  other 
times  they  were  left  without  a  teaching  priest, 
and  without  law.  And  at  other  seasons  again, 
itinerants,  both  princes,  priests,  and  Levites, 
were  sent  through  all  the  country,  to  carry 
the  book  of  the  law,  and  to  teach  in  the  cities. 
In  a  word,  preaching  flourished  when  pure 
religion  grew  ;  and  when  the  last  decayed,  the 
first  was  suppressed.  Moses  had  not  appro- 
priated preaching  to  any  order  of  men  :  per- 
sons, places,  times,  and  manners,  were  all  left 
open  and  discretional.  Many  of  the  discourses 
were  preached  in  camps  and  courts,  in  streets, 
schools,  cities,  villages  ;  sometimes,  with  great 
composure  and  coolness ;  at  other  times,  with 
vehement  action  and  rapturous  energy  ;  some- 
times, in  a  plain,  blunt  style ;  at  other  times, 
in  all  the  magnificent  pomp  of  eastern  allegory. 
On  some  occasions,  the  preachers  appeared  in 
public  with  visible  signs,  with  implements 
of  war,  with  yokes  of  slavery,  or  something 
adapted  to  their  subject.  They  gave  lectures 
on  these,  held  them  up  to  view,  girded  them 
on,  broke  them  in  pieces,  rent  their  garments, 
rolled  in  the  dust,  and  endeavoured,  by  all  the 


methods  they  could  devise,  agreeably  to  the 
customs  of  their  country,  to  impress  the  minds 
of  their  auditors  with  the  nature  and  importance 
of  their  doctrines.  These  men  were  highly  es- 
teemed by  the  pious  part  of  the  nation ;  and 
princes  thought  proper  to  keep  seers  and  others 
who  were  scribes,  who  read  and  expounded  the 
law,  2  Chron.  xxxiv,  29,  30  ;  xxxv,  15.  Hence, 
false  prophets,  bad  men,  who  found  their  ac- 
count in  pretending  to  be  good,  crowded  the 
courts  of  princes.  Jezebel,  an  idolatress,  had 
four  hundred  prophets  of  Baal ;  and  Ahab,  a 
pretended  worshipper  of  Jehovah,  had  as  many 
pretended  prophets  of  his  own  profession, 
2  Chron.  xviii,  5. 

When  the  Jews  were  carried  captive  into 
Babylon,  the  prophets  who  were  with  them 
inculcated  the  principles  of  religion,  and  en- 
deavoured to  possess  their  minds  with  an 
aversion  to  idolatry;  and,  to  the  success  of 
preaching,  we  may  attribute  the  re-conversion 
of  the  Jews  to  the  belief  and  worship  of  one 
God ;  a  conversion  that  remains  to  this  day. 
The  Jews  have  since  fallen  into  horrid  crimes  ; 
but  they  have  never  since  this  period  lapsed 
into  gross  idolatry,  Hosea  ii,  iii ;  Ezekiel 
ii,  iii,  xxxiv.  There  were  not  wanting,  how- 
ever, multitudes  of  false  prophets  among  them, 
whose  characters  are  strikingly  delineated  by 
the  true  prophets,  and  which  the  reader  may 
see  in  Ezek.  xiii ;  Isa.  lvi ;  Jer.  xxiii.  When 
the  seventy  years  of  the  captivi  ty  were  expired, 
the  good  prophets  and  preachers,  Zerubbabel, 
Joshua,  Haggai,  and  others,  having  confidence 
in  the  word  of  God,  and  being  concerned  to 
possess  their  natural,  civil,  and  religious  rights, 
endeavoured,  by  all  means,  to  extricate  them- 
selves and  their  countrymen  from  that  mor- 
tifying state  into  which  the  crimes  of  their 
ancestors  had  brought  them.  They  wept, 
fasted,  prayed,  preached,  prophesied,  and  at 
length  prevailed.  The  chief  instruments  were 
Nehemiah  and  Ezra  ;  the  former  was  governor, 
and  reformed  the  civil  state ;  the  latter  was  a 
scribe  of  the  lav/  of  the  God  of  heaven,  and 
applied  himself  to  ecclesiastical  matters,  in 
which  he  rendered  the  noblest  service  to  his 
country,  and  to  all  posterity.  He  collected 
and  collated  MSS.  of  the  sacred  writings,  and 
arranged  and  published  the  books  of  the  holy 
canon  in  their  present  form.  To  this  he  added 
a  second  work,  as  necessary  as  the  former  :  he 
revised  and  new  modelled  public  teaching,  and 
exemplified  his  plan  in  his  own  person.  The 
Jews  had  almost  lost,  in  the  seventy  years' 
captivity,  their  original  language  ;  that  was 
now  become  dead ;  and  they  spoke  a  jargon 
made  up  of  their  own  language  and  that  of  the 
Chaldeans,  and  other  nations,  with  whom  they 
had  been  mingled.  Formerly,  preachers  had 
only  explained  subjects  :  now  they  were  obliged 
to  explain  words ;  words  which,  in  the  sacred 
code,  were  become  obsolete,  equivocal,  or  dead. 
Houses  were  now  opened,  not  for  ceremonial 
worship,  as  sacrificing,  for  this  was  confined 
to  the  temple ;  but  for  moral  and  religious 
instruction,  as  praying,  preaching,  reading  the 
law,  divine  worship,  and  social  duties.  These 
houses   were  called   synagogues :    the  people. 


I'RE 


766 


PRE 


repaired  thither  for  morning  and  evening 
prayer  ;  and  on  Sabbaths  and  festivals,  the  law 
was  read  and  expounded  to  them.  We  have  a 
short  but  beautiful  description  of  the  manner 
of  Ezra's  first  preaching,  Nch.  viii.  Upward 
of  fifty  thousand  people  assembled  in  a  street, 
or  large  squaro,  near  the  water  gale.  It  was 
early  in  the  morning  of  a  Sabbath  day.  A 
pulpit  of  wood,  in  the  fashion  of  a  small  tower, 
was  placed  there  on  purpose  for  the  preacher; 
and  this  turret  was  supported  by  a  scaffold,  or 
temporary  gallery,  where,  in  a  wing  on  the 
right  hand  of  the  pulpit,  sat  six  of  the  principal 
preachers;  and  in  another  on  the  left,  seven. 
Thirteen  other  principal  teachers,  and  many 
Levites,  were  present  also,  on  scaffolds  erected 
for  the  purpose,  alternately  to  officiate.  When 
Ezra  ascended  the  pulpit,  he  produced  and 
opened  the  book  of  the  law,  and  the  whole 
congregation  instantly  rose  up  from  their  seats, 
and  stood.  Then  he  offered  up  prayer  and 
praise  to  God.  The  people  bowing  their  heads 
and  worshipping  the  Lord  with  their  faces  to 
the  ground  ;  and  at  the  close  of  the  prayer, 
with  uplifted  hands,  they  solemnly  pronounced, 
"Amen!  Amen!"  Then  all  standing,  Ezra, 
assisted  at  times  by  the  Levites,  read  the  law 
distinctly,  gave  the  sense,  and  caused  them 
to  understand  the  reading.  The  sermons  de- 
livered so  affected  the  hearers,  that  they  wept 
excessively ;  and  about  noon  the  sorrow  be- 
came so  exuberant  and  immeasurable,  that  it 
was  thought  necessary  by  the  governor,  the 
preacher,  and  the  Levites,  to  restrain  it.  "  Go 
your  way,"  said  they,  "  eat  the  fat,  and  drink 
the  sweet,  send  portions  to  them  for  whom 
nothing  is  prepared."  The  wise  and  benevo- 
lent sentiments  of  these  noble  souls  were  im- 
bibed by  the  whole  congregation,  and  fifty 
thousand  troubled  hearts  were  calmed  in  a 
moment.  Home  they  returned,  to  eat,  to 
drink,  to  send  portions,  and  rejoice,  because 
they  had  understood  the  words  that  were 
declared  unto  them.  Plato  was  living  at  this 
time,  leaching  dull  philosophy  to  cold  aca- 
demics; but  what  was  he,  and  what  was 
Xenophon,  or  Demosthenes,  or  any  of  the 
Pagan  orators,  in  comparison  with  these  men  ? 
From  this  period  to  that  of  tho  appearance  of 
Jesus  Christ,  public  preaching  was  universal ; 
synagogues  were  multiplied,  vast  numbers  at- 
tended, and  elders  and  rulers  were  appointed 
for  the  purpose  of  order  and  instruction. 

The  most  celebrated  preacher  that  arose  be- 
fore the  appearance  of  Jesus  Christ  was  John 
tho  Baptist.  He  was  commissioned  from  hea- 
ven to  bo  the  harbinger  of  tho  Messiah.  His 
subjects  were  few,  plain,  and  important.  His 
stylo  was  vehement,  his  images  bold,  his  de- 
portment solemn,  his  action  eager,  and  his 
morals  strict.  But  this  bright  morning  star 
gave  way  to  the  illustrious  Sun  of  Righteous- 
ness, who  now  arose  on  a  benighted  world. 
Jesus  Christ  certainly  was  the  Prince  of  teach- 
ers. Who  but  can  admire  the  simplicity  and 
majesty  of  his  style,  the  beauty  of  his  images, 
the  alternate  ;,oftiie:,s  and  severity  of  his 
address,  tho  choice  of  his  subjects,  the  grace- 
fulness of  his  deportment,  and  the  indefati- 


gableness  of  his  zeal  ?  Let  the  reader  charm 
and  solace  himself  in  the  study  and  contem- 
plation of  tho  character,  excellency,  and  dig- 
nity of  this  divine  teacher,  as  he  will  find  them 
delineated  in  the  evangelists. 

The  Apostles  copied  their  divine  Master. 
They  formed  multitudes  of  religious  societies, 
and  were  abundantly  successful  in  their  la- 
bours. They  confined  their  attention  to 
religion,  and  left  the  schools  to  dispute,  and 
politicians  to  intrigue.  The  doctrines  they 
preached  they  supported  entirely  by  evidence  ; 
and  neither  had  nor  required  such  assistance 
as  human  laws  or  worldly  policy,  the  eloquence 
of  schools  or  the  terror  of  arms,  could  afford 
them. 

The  Apostles  being  dead,  every  thing  came 
to  pass  as  they  had  foretold  ;  the  whole  Chris- 
tian system,  in  time,  underwent  a  miserable 
change ;    preaching  shared  the  fate  of  other 
institutions,   and  the   glory  of  the  primitive 
church  gradually  degenerated.     Those  writers 
whom  we  call  the  fathers,  however,  held  up  to 
view  by  some  as  models  for  imitation,  do  not 
deserve  that  indiscriminate  praise  ascribed  to 
them.     Christianity,  it  is  true,  is  found  in  their 
writings ;    but  how   sadly  incorporated    with 
Pagan  philosophy  and  Jewish  allegory !     It 
must,  indeed,  be  allowed,  that,  in  general,  the 
simplicity    of  Christianity    was    maintained, 
though  under  gradual  decay,  during  the  first 
three  centuries.     The  next  five  centuries  pro- 
duced  many   pious  and  excellent   preachers, 
both  in  the  Latin  and  Greek  church,  though 
the  doctrine    continued  to  degenerate.     The 
Greek  pulpit  was  adorned  with  some  eloquent 
orators.    Basil,  bishop  of  Ccesarea,  John  Chry- 
sostom,  preacher  at  Antioch,  and  afterward 
patriarch,  as  he  was  called,  of  Constantinople, 
and  Gregory  Nazianzen,  who  all  flourished  in 
tho    fourth   century,    seem    to   have    led    the 
fashion  of  preaching  in  tho  Greek  church ; 
Jcrom  and   Augustino  did   the  same    in    the 
Latin    church.     The    first   preachers   differed 
much  in  pulpit  action;   the  greater  part  used 
very  moderate  and  sober  gestures.     They  de- 
livered their  sermons  all  extempore,  wTlile  there 
were  notaries  who  took  down  what  they  said. 
Sermons  in  those  days  were  all  in  I  he  vulgai 
tongue :  tho  Greeks  preached  in  Greek,  the 
Latins  in    Latin.      They  did   not  preach    by 
the  clock,  so  to  speak,  but  were  short  or  long 
as  they  saw  occasion ;    though  an  hour  was 
about  the  usual  time.    Sermons  were  generally 
both  preached  and  heard  standing ;  but  some- 
times both  speaker  and  auditors  sat,  especially 
the  aged  and  the   infirm.     The  fathers  were 
fond  of  allegory;  for  Origen,  that  everlasting 
allegorizcr,  had  set  them  the  example.    Before 
preaching,  the  preacher  usually  went  into  a 
vestry  to  pray,  and  afterward  to  speak  to  such 
as  came  to  salute  him.     He  prayed  with  his 
eyes  shut  in  the  pulpit.     The  first  word  t la- 
preacher  uttered  to  the  people  when    he  as- 
cended the  pulpit  was,  "  Peace  be  with  you ;" 
or,  "  The  grace  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  the 
love  of  God,  and  the  fellowship  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  be  with  you  all ;"  to  whom  the  assembly 
first  added,  "  Amen,"  and  in  after  times  they 


PRE 


767 


PRE 


answered,  "  And  with  thy  spirit."  Degenerate, 
however,  as  these  days  were,  in  comparison 
of  those  of  the  Apostles,  yet  they  were  golden 
ages  in  comparison  with  the  times  that  fol- 
lowed, when  metaphysical  reasoning,  mystical 
divinity,  yea,  Aristotelian  categories,  and  read- 
ing the  lives  of  saints,  were  substituted  in  the 
place  of  sermons.  The  pulpit  became  a  stage 
where  ludicrous  priests  obtained  the  vulgar 
laugh  by  the  lowest  kind  of  wit,  especially  at 
the  festivals  of  Christmas  and  Easter. 

But  the  glorious  Reformation  was  the  off- 
spring of  preaching,  by  which  mankind  were 
reformed ;  there  was  a  standard,  and  the  reli- 
gion of  the  times  was  put  to  the  trial  by  it. 
The  avidity  of  the  common  people  to  read  the 
Scriptures,  and  to  hear  them  expounded,  was 
wonderful ;  and  the  papists  were  so  fully  con- 
vinced of  the  benefits  of  frequent  public  in- 
struction,  that  they,  who  were  justly  called 
unpreaching  prelates,    and  whose  pulpits  to 
use  an  expression  of  Latimer,  had  been  "  bells 
without  clappers"  for  many  a  long  year,  were 
obliged  for  shame  to  set  up  regular  preaching 
again.     The   church   of  Rome  has  produced 
some  great  preachers  since  the  Reformation, 
but  none    equal    to    the    reformed  preachers. 
And  a  question  naturally  arises  here,  which  it 
would  be  unpardonable  to  pass  over  in  silence, 
concerning  the  singular  effect  of  the  preaching 
of  the  reformed,  which  was  general,  national, 
universal  reformation.     In  the  dark  times  of 
popery  there  had  arisen  now  and  then  some 
famous  popular  preachers,  who  had  zealously 
inveighed  against  the  vices  of  the  times,  and 
whose    sermons    had    produced    sudden    and 
amazing   effects    on    their   auditors ;    but  all 
these  effects  had  died  away  with  the  preachers 
who  had  produced  them,  and  all  things  had 
gone  back  into  their  old  state.    Law,  learning, 
commerce,  society  at  large  had  not  been  im- 
proved.    Here  a  new  scene  opens ;  preachers 
arise  less  popular,  perhaps  less  indefatigable 
and  exemplary  ;    their  sermons  produce  less 
striking  immediate  effects  ;  and  yet  their  audi- 
tors go  away  and  agree  by  whole  nations  to 
reform.      Jerom    Savonarola,    Jerom    Narni, 
Capistran,  Connecte,   and  many  others,  had 
produced,  by  their  sermons,  great  immediate 
effects.     When  Connecte  preached,  the  ladies 
lowered  their    head  dresses,    and   committed 
quilled  caps  by  hundreds  to  the  flames.  When 
Narni  taught  the  people  in  lent,  from  the  pul- 
pits of  Rome,  half  the  city  went  from  his  ser- 
mons crying  along  the  streets,  "  Lord,  have 
mercy  upon  us  ;"  so  that  in  only  one  passion 
week,  two  thousand  crowns'  worth  of  ropes 
were  sold  to  make  scourges  with ;  and  when 
ho  preached  before  the  pope  to  the  cardinals 
and  bishops,  and  painted  the  sin  of  non-resi- 
dence in  its  own  colours,  he  frightened  thirty 
or  forty  bishops,  who  heard  him,  homo  to  their 
diocesses.     In  the  pulpit  of  the  university  of 
Salamanca,  he  induced  eight  hundred  students 
to  quit  nil  worldly  prospects  of  honour,  riches, 
and    pleasure,,  and   to  become    penitents    in 
divers  monasteries.      We  know  the   fate   of 
Savonarola,   and  others  might  be  added  ;  but 
all  lamented  the   momentary  duration   of  the 


effects  produced  by  their  labours.  Narni  him- 
self was  so  disgusted  with  his  office,  that  he 
renounced  preaching,  and  shut  himself  up  in 
his  cell  to  mourn  over  his  irreclaimable  con- 
temporaries ;  for  bishops  went  back  to  the 
court,  and  rope  makers  lay  idle  again. 

Our  reformers  taught  all  the  good  doctrines 
which  had  been  taught  by  these  men,  and  they 
added  two  or  three  more,  by  which  they  laid 
the  axe  to  the  root  of  the  apostasy,  and  pro- 
duced general  reformation.  Instead  of  ap- 
pealing to  popes  and  canons,  and  founders  and 
fathers,  they  only  quoted  them,  and  referred 
their  auditors  to  the  Holy  Scriptures  for  law. 
Pope  Leo  X.  did  not  know  this  when  he  told 
Prierio,  who  complained  of  Luther's  heresy, 
"  Friar  Martin  has  a  fine  genius."  They  also 
taught  the  people  what  little  they  knew  of 
Christian  liberty ;  and  so  led  them  into  a  be- 
lief that  they  might  follow  their  own  ideas  in 
religion,  without  the  consent  of  a  confessor, 
a  diocesan,  a  pope,  or  a  council.  They  went 
farther,  and  laid  the  stress  of  all  religion  on 
justifying  faith. 

Since  the  reformers  we  have  had  multitudes 
who  have  entered  into  their  views  with  disin- 
terestedness and  success ;  and  in  the  present 
times,  both  in  the  church  and  among  other 
religious  societies,  names  might  be  mentioned 
which  would  do  honour  to  any  nation ;  for 
though  there  are  too  many  who  do  not  fill  up 
that  important  station  with  proportionate  piety 
and  talents,  yet  we  have  men  who  are  con- 
spicuous for  their  extent  of  knowledge,  depth 
of  experience,  originality  of  thought,  fervency 
of  zeal,  consistency  of  deportment,  and  great 
usefulness  in  the  Christian  church. 

The  preceding  sketch  will  show  how  mighty 
an  agent  preaching  has  been  in  all  ages,  in 
raising,  and  maintaining,  and  reviving  the  spirit 
of  religion.  Wherever  it  has  had  this  power, 
let  it  however  be  remarked,  it  has  consisted 
in  the  declaration,  the  proclamation,  of  the 
truth  of  God,  as  contained  in  his  early  revela 
tions  to  man,  and  afterward  embodied  in  the 
Holy  Scriptures.  The  effect  too  has  been  pro- 
duced by  preachers  living  themselves  under 
the  influence  of  this  truth,  and  filled  "  with 
faith  and  the  Holy  Ghost,"  depending  wholly 
upon  God's  blessing  for  success,  and  going 
forth  in  his  name,  with  ardent  longing  to 
"win  souls,"  and  to  build  up  the  church  in 
knowledge  and  holiness.  For  preaching  is 
not  a  profession  ;  but  a  work  of  divine  ap- 
pointment, to  be  rightly  discharged  only  by 
him  who  receives  a  commission  from  God, 
and  fulfils  it  as  under  his  eye,  and  in  depend, 
ence  upon  his  promise,  "  Lo,  I  am  with  you 
alway." 

PREDESTINATION,  according  to  some, 
is  a  judgment,  or  decree  of  God,  by  which  he 
has  resolved,  from  all  eternity,  to  save  a  cer- 
tain number  of  persons,  hence  named  elect. 
Others  define  it,  a  decree  to  give  faith  in  Jesus 
Christ  to  a  certain  number  of  men,  and  to 
leave  the  rest  to  their  own  malice  and  hard- 
ness of  heart.  A  third,  more  Scripturally, 
God's  eternal  purpose  to  ^avo  all  that  "  truly 
repent    and    unfeignedly    believe     his     holy 


PRE 


768 


PRE 


Gospel," — according  to  the  Apostle  Paul, 
"Whom  he  did  foreknow"  as  believers  "them 
he  also  did  predestinate  to  be  conformed  to 
the  image  of  his  Son  ;"  to  his  moral  image 
here,  and  to  the  image  of  his  glorified  hu- 
manity in  heaven.  According  to  the  Calvin- 
istical  scheme,  the  reason  of  God's  predesti- 
nating some  to  everlasting  life  is  not  founded 
in  a  foresight  of  their  faith  and  obedience ; 
nevertheless,  it  is  also  maintained  on  this 
scheme,  that  the  means  are  decreed  as  well  as 
the  end,  and  that  God  purposes  to  save  none 
but  such  as  by  his  grace  he  shall  prepare  for 
salvation  by  sanctification.  The  Remonstrants 
define  predestination  to  be  God's  decree  to 
save  believers,  and  condemn  unbelievers. 
Some  represent  the  election  and  predestina- 
tion spoken  of  in  Scripture,  as  belonging  only 
to  nations,  or,  at  least,  bodies  of  men,  and  not 
to  particular  persons.  The  greatest  difficulties 
with  which  the  modern  theology  is  clogged 
turn  on  predestination ;  both  the  Romish 
and  Reformed  churches  are  divided  about  it; 
the  Lutherans  speak  of  it  with  horror ;  the 
Calvinists  contend  for  it  with  the  greatest 
zeal ;  the  Molinists  and  Jesuits  preach  it  down 
as  a  most  dangerous  doctrine ;  the  Jansenists 
assert  it  as  an  article  of  faith  ;  the  Arminians, 
Remonstrants,  and  many  others,  are  all  avowed 
enemies  of  absolute  predestination.  Those 
strenuous  patrons  of  Jansenism,  the  Port- 
royalists,  taught,  that  God  predestinates  those 
whom  he  foresees  will  cooperate  with  his  grace 
to  the  end.  Dupin  acids,  that  men  do  not  fall 
into  sin  because  not  predestinated  to  life,  but 
they  are  not  predestinated  because  God  fore- 
saw their  sins.     See  Calvinism. 

This  doctrine  has  been  already  treated  of. 
We  shall  here  therefore  merely  subjoin  a 
sketch  of  its  history  previous  to  the  Reforma- 
tion. The  apostolic  fathers,  men  little  accus- 
tomed to  the  intricacy  of  metaphysical  disqui- 
sition, deeply  impressed  with  the  truth  of  the 
Gospel,  powerfully  influenced  by  its  spirit,  and 
from  their  particular  situation  naturally  dwell- 
ing much  upon  it  as  a  system  of  direction  and 
consolation,  do  not,  in  their  writings,  at  all 
advert  to  the  origin  of  evil,  or  to  predestina- 
tion, so  closely  allied  to  it.  They  press,  with 
much  earnestness,  upon  those  in  whom  they 
were  interested  the  vast  importance  of  prac- 
tical holiness,  exhibit  the  motives  which  ap- 
peared to  them  calculated  to  secure  it,  and 
represent  the  blessedness  which  awaits  good 
men,  and  the  condemnation  reserved  for  the 
wicked  ;  but  they  do  not  once  attempt  to  de- 
termine whether  the  sin  which  they  were 
solicitous  to  remove  could  be  accounted  for, 
in  consistency  with  the  essential  holiness  and 
the  unbounded  mercy  of  the  Deity.  In  short, 
they  just  took  that  view  of  this  subject  which 
every  man  takes  when  he  is  not  seeking  to 
enter  into  philosophical  disquisition  ;  never  for 
one  moment  doubting  that  whatever  is  wrong 
was  ultimately  to  be  referred  to  man,  and  that 
the  economy  of  grace  proceeding  from  God 
was  the  most  convincing  proof  of  the  tender- 
ness of  his  compassion  for  mankind. 

When,  however,  the  church  received  within 


its  communion  those  who  had  been  educated 
in  the  schools  of  philosophy,  and  to  whom  the 
question  as  to  the  origin  of  evil  must,  while 
they  frequented  these  schools,  have  become 
familiar,  it  was  not  to  be  supposed  that,  even 
although  they  were  convinced  that  we  should 
be  chiefly  solicitous  about  the  formation  of  the 
Christian  character,  there  would  be  no  allusion 
to  what  had  formerly  interested  them,  or  that 
they  would  refrain  from  delivering  their  senti- 
ments upon  it.  Agreeably  to  this,  we  find,  in 
the  works  of  Justin  Martyr,  Tatian,  Irenams, 
Tertullian,  and  Origen,  sufficient  intimations 
that  they  had  directed  their  attention  to  the 
difficulty  now  under  review ;  and  that,  whe- 
ther upon  adequate  grounds  or  not,  they  had 
come  to  a  decision  as  to  the  way  in  which  it 
should  be  explained  consistently  with  the 
divine  perfections.  It  is  evident  that  they 
did  not  investigate  the  subject  to  the  depth  to 
which  it  is  requisite  for  the  full  discussion  of 
it  to  go ;  and  that  various  questions  which 
must  be  put  before  it  can  be  brought  com- 
pletely before  us,  they  either  did  not  put,  or 
hastily  regarded  as  of  very  little  moment :  but 
it  is  enough  to  dwell  upon  the  fact,  that  they 
did  employ  their  thoughts  upon  it,  and  have 
so  expressed  themselves  as  to  leave  no  doubt 
of  the  light  in  which  it  was  contemplated  by 
them.  Justin,  in  his  dialogue  with  Trypho, 
remarks  that  "  they  who  were  foreknown  as 
to  become  wicked,  whether  angels  or  men,  did 
so  not  from  any  fault  of  God,  deriy  tov  Ocov, 
but  from  their  own  blame ;"  by  which  obser- 
vation he  shows  it  to  have  been  his  opinion 
that  God  foresaw  in  what  manner  his  intelli- 
gent creatures  would  act ;  but  that  this  did  not 
affect  their  liberty,  and  did  not  diminish  their 
guilt.  A  little  after  he  says  more  fully,  that 
"  God  created  angels  and  men  free  to  the 
practice  of  righteousness,  having  planted  in 
them  reason,  through  which  they  knew  by 
whom  they  were  created  and  through  whom 
they  existed,  when  before  they  were  not,  scad 
who  prescribed  to  them  a  law  by  which 
they  were  to  be  judged,  if  they  acted  contrary 
to  right  reason.  Wherefore,  we,  angels  and 
men,  are  through  ourselves  convicted  as  being 
wicked,  if  we  do  not  lay  hold  of  repentance. 
But  if  the  Logos  of  God  foretels  that  some 
angels  and  men  would  go  to  be  punished,  he 
does  so  because  he  foreknew  that  they  would 
certainly  become  wicked  by  no  means,  how- 
ever, because  God  made  them  such."  Justin 
thus  admits  that  man  is  wholly  dependent 
upon  God,  deriving  existence  and  every  thing 
which  he  has  from  the  Almighty;  but  he  is 
persuaded  that  we  were  perfectly  able  to  retain 
our  integrity,  and  that,  although  it  was  fore- 
seen that  wc  should  not  do  so,  this  did  not 
abridge  our  moral  power,  or  fix  any  imputa- 
tion on  the  Deity  in  consequence  of  our  trans- 
gression. Tatian,  in  his  oration  against  the 
Greeks,  an  excellent  work  which,  although 
composed  alter  the  death  of  Justin,  was  writ- 
ten, in  all  probability,  before  its  author  had 
adopted  the  wild  opinions  which  he  defended 
toward  the  conclusion  of  his  life,  expresses 
very  much  the  tame  sentiments  avowed  by 


PRE 


769 


PRE 


Justin.  He  says,  "  Both  men  and  angels  were 
created  free,  so  that  man  becoming  wicked 
through  his  own  fault  may  be  deservedly 
punished,  while  a  good  man,  who,  from  the 
right  exercise  of  his  free  will,  does  not  trans- 
gress the  law  of  God,  is  entitled  to  praise ; 
that  the  power  of  the  divine  Logos  having  in 
himself  the  knowledge  of  what  was  to  hap- 
pen, not  through  fate  or  unavoidable  necessity, 
but  from  free  choice,  predicted  future  things, 
condemning  the  wicked  and  praising  the 
righteous." 

Irenaeus,  in  the  third  book  of  his  work 
against  heresies,  has  taken  an  opportunity  to 
state  his  notions  about  the  origin  of  evil.  The 
seventy-first  chapter  of  that  book  is  entitled, 
"  A  proof  that  man  is  free,  and  has  power  to 
this  extent,  that  of  himself  he  can  choose  what 
is  good  or  the  contrary."  In  illustration  of 
this  he  remarks,  "  God  gave  to  man  the  power 
of  election  as  he  did  to  the  angels.  They, 
therefore,  who  do  not  obey  are  justly  not 
found  with  the  good,  and  receive  deserved 
punishment,  because  God  having  given  them 
what  was  good,  they  did  not  keep  it,  but  de- 
spised the  riches  of  the  divine  mercy."  The 
next  chapter  is  entitled,  "  A  proof  that  some 
men  are  not  good  by  nature,  and  others  wicked, 
and  that  what  is  good  is  within  the  choice  of 
man."  In  treating  on  this  subject,  Irenaeus 
observes,  that  "  if  the  reverse  were  the  case, 
the  good  would  not  merit  praise  nor  the  wicked 
blame,  because  being  merely  what,"  without  any 
will  of  theirs,  they  had  been  made,  they  could 
not  be  considered  as  voluntary  agents.  But," 
he  adds,  "  since  all  have  the  same  nature,  and 
are  able  to  retain  and  to  do  what  is  good,  and 
may,  on  the  other  hand,  lose  it  and  not  do  it, 
some  are,  even  in  the  sight  of  men,  and  much 
more  in  that  of  God,  deservedly  praised  and 
others  blamed."  In  support  of  this  he  intro- 
duces a  great  variety  of  passages  from  Scrip- 
ture. It  appears,  however,  that  the  real 
difficulty  attending  the  subject  had  suggested 
itself  to  his  mind ;  for  he  inquires  in  the 
seventy-third  chapter,  why  God  had  not  from 
the  beginning  made  man  perfect,  all  things 
being  possible  to  him.  He  gives  to  this  ques- 
tion a  metaphysical  and  unsatisfactory  answer, 
but  which  so  far  satisfied  himself  as  to  con- 
vince him  that  there  could  not,  on  this  ground, 
be  any  imputation  justly  cast  on  the  perfections 
of  the  Almighty,  and  that,  consequently,  a  suf- 
ficient explanation  of  the  origin  of  evil  and  of 
the  justice  of  punishing  it,  was  to  be  found  in 
the  nature  of  man  as  a  free  agent,  or  in  the 
abuse  of  that  liberty  writh  which  man  had  been 
endowed.  Tertullian  had  also  speculated  upon 
the  moral  condition  of  man,  and  has  recorded 
his  sentiments  with  respect  to  it.  He  ex- 
plicitly asserts  the  freedom  of  the  will ;  lays 
down  the  position,  that,  if  this  be  denied,  there 
can  be  neither  reward  nor  punishment ;  and, 
in  answer  to  an  objection,  that  since  free  will 
has  been  productive  of  such  melancholy  con- 
sequences, it  would  have  been  better  that  it 
had  not  been  bestowed,  he  enters  into  a  formal 
vindication  of  this  part  of  our  constitution.  In 
reply  to  another  suggestion,  that  God  might 


have  interposed  to  prevent  the  choice  which 
was  to  be  productive  of  sin  and  misery,  he 
maintains  that  this  could  not  have  been  done 
without  destroying  that  admirable  constitution 
by  which  alone  the  interests  of  virtue  can  be 
really  promoted.  He  thus  thought  that  sin  was 
to  be  imputed  wholly  to  man,  and  that  it  was 
perfectly  consistent  with  the  attributes  of  God, 
or  rather  illustrated  these  attributes,  that  there 
should  be  a  system  under  which  sin  was  pos- 
sible, because  without  this  possibility  there 
could  have  been  no  accountable  agents. 

From  what  has  been  stated  on  this  subject, 
it  seems  unquestionable  that  the  apostolic 
fathers  did  not  at  all  enter  upon  the  subject 
of  the  origin  of  evil ;  that  the  writers  by 
whom  they  were  succeeded  were  satisfied  that, 
in  the  sense  in  which  the  term  is  now  most 
commonly  used,  there  was  no  such  thing  as 
predestination  ;  that  they  uniformly  represent- 
ed the  destiny  of  man  as  regulated  by  the  use 
or  abuse  of  his  free  will ;  that,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  Irenaeus,  they  did  not  attempt  to 
explain  why  such  a  creature  as  man,  who  was 
to  fall  into  sin,  was  created  by  a  Being  of  infi- 
nite goodness ;  that  the  sole  objection  to  their 
doctrine  seemed  to  them  to  be,  that  prescience 
was  incompatible  witli  liberty,  and  that,  when 
they  answered  this,  they  considered  that  no- 
thing more  was  requisite  for  receiving,  with- 
out hesitation,  the  view  of  man  upon  which  they 
often  and  fondly  dwelt,  as  a  free  and  accounta- 
ble agent,  who  might  have  held  fast  his  integrity, 
and  whose  fall  from  that  integrity  was  to  be  as- 
cribed solely  to  himself,  as  it  did  not  at  all  re- 
sult from  any  appointment  of  the  supreme  Being. 

Although  opinions  respecting  original  sin, 
directly  tending  to  a  very  different  view  of  the 
subject  than  had  been  previously  taken,  had 
been  stated  by  Cyprian,  yet  a  thorough  inves- 
tigation of  it,  and  the  sentiments  which  after- 
ward were  widely  received  in  the  Christian 
church,  took  their  rise  from  the  discussions  to 
which  the  Pelagian  controversy  gave  occasion. 
Previous  to  the  part  which  Augustine  took  in 
that  controversy,  he  seems  to  have  been  very 
much  of  the  same  sentiments  with  Origen  and 
the  other  early  fathers.  But,  either  from  what 
he  considered  as  a  more  deliberate  and  com- 
plete examination  of  Scripture,  or  from  per- 
ceiving the  necessity  imposed  on  him,  in  con- 
sequence of  some  of  the  positions  which  he 
had  laid  down  in  his  writings  against  Pelagius, 
he  soon  changed  his  opinion,  and  advanced  a 
notion  more  in  harmony  with  these  positions. 
Having  to  show  the  absolute  necessity  of 
divine  grace,  he  inculcated  that,  in  conse- 
quence of  original  sin,  man  was  infallibly 
determined  to  evil,  and  was  therefore  in  a 
state  of  condemnation,  and  he  thus  took  away 
the  foundation  upon  which  the  prevailing 
tenets  rested ;  because  it  was  impossible  that 
men  could  be  predestined  to  life,  or  the  reverse, 
from  prescience  of  their  actions,  when,  with- 
out the  special  grace  of  God,  they  were  abso- 
lutely incapacitated  for  obedience  to  the  divine 
law.  To  get  rid  of  this  difficulty,  Augustine, 
in  some  degree,  transferred  the  search  for  the 
origin  of  6in  from  the  state  of  man  to  the  pur. 


PRE 


770 


PRE 


poses  of  God,  asserting  that  from  all  eternity 
the  Almighty  had  determined  to  choose  from 
the  mass  of  mankind,  lost  in  guilt  and  corrup- 
tion, a  certain  number  to  be  transformed  to 
holiness,  and  to  be  admitted  after  this  life  to 
eternal  happiness  ;  that  he  did  this  to  promote 
his  own  glory ;  and  that,  by  the  operation  of 
his  Spirit,  granted  of  his  own  free  and  unde- 
served mercy,  he  produced  in  the  elect  or 
chosen  the  fruits  of  righteousness,  and  quali- 
ried  them  for  the  enjoyment  of  heaven.  The 
whole  of  the  remainder  of  the  human  race 
were,  according  to  this  system,  left  in  their 
condition  by  nature,  or  in  other  words,  were 
given  up  to  endless  misery.  There  imme- 
diately arose  out  of  this  view  of  the  subject, 
the  formidable  and  heart-rending  objection, 
that  God  was  really  the  author  of  sin ;  that, 
having  so  created  mankind  that  of  themselves 
they  could  not  be  holy,  there  was  on  the  part 
of  those  delivered  no  virtue,  as  there  was  on 
the  other  part  no  blame ;  the  case  being  quite 
different  from  what  it  would  have  been  had 
God  interposed  with  respect  to  creatures  who 
had  not  received  from  himself  their  physical  and 
moral  constitution.  Accordingly,  it  has  been 
asserted  that  a  sect  did  arise,  which,  carrying 
out,  as  the  members  of  it  affirmed,  the  princi- 
ples of  Augustine,  maintained  that  God  not 
only  predestinated  the  wicked  to  eternal 
punishment,  but  also  to  the  guilt  and  trans- 
gression for  which  they  were  punished ;  that 
the  human  race  was  thus  wholly  passive,  the 
good  and  bad  actions  of  men,  or  what  were 
commonly  termed  such,  being  determined  from 
all  eternity  by  a  divine  decree,  or  fixed  by  hope- 
less, irresistible  necessity.  These  opinions  it  is 
said  that  the  venerable  and  enlightened  bishop 
of  Hippo  zealously  opposed,  labouring  to  show 
that  they  were  not  fairly  deduced  from  what 
he  had  taught,  making  a  distinction  probably 
between  his  account  of  free  will  and  the  ne- 
cessity here  confounded  with  it,  and  perhaps 
reluctant  to  push  his  tenets  so  far  as  apparently 
they  might  be  carried.  The  fact  is,  that 
although  the  doctrine  of  absolute  predestina- 
tion is  occasionally  clearly  taught  by  Augus- 
tine, and  obviously  follows  from  his  other 
principles,  yet  he  does  not  always  write  con- 
sistently with  regard  to  it;  or,  at  least,  there 
is  sometimes  so  much  vagueness  in  his  asser- 
tions and  illustrations,  that  his  authority  has 
been  claimed  in  support  of  their  peculiar  tenets 
both  by  the  Janscnists  and  the  Jesuits,  opposite 
to  each  other  as  the  sentiments  of  these  two 
orders  are  upon  the  subject  of  which  wc  are 
treating.  Still  it  is  beyond  a  question  that 
this  celebrated  theologian  did  fix  the  attention 
of  the  church  upon  that  subject  much  more 
closely  than  before  his  age  had  been  the  case, 
and  gave  rise  to  those  discussions  in  relation 
to  it  which  have  so  often  agitated  Christians, 
and  tended  much  more  to  destroy  the  mild 
and  tolerant  spirit  of  the  Gospel,  than  to  throw 
light  upon  its  momentous  truths.  The  subject 
of  predestination,  however,  was  long  regarded 
as  one  which  it  was  not  esteemed  requisite 
absolutely  to  define,  and  which  might  be  very 
much  left  open  to  speculation ;  for  although 


in  different  countries  decrees  were  passed, 
guarding  against  what  were  viewed  as  errors 
resulting  from  it,  it  is  plain,  from  what  took 
place  upon  the  revival  of  the  controversy  in 
an  after  age,  that  there  had  not  been  formed 
any  standard  to  which  ecclesiastical  authority 
required  that  all  who  were  esteemed  orthodox 
should  strictly  conform.     See  Augustine. 

In  the  ninth  century,  Godeschalchus,  a  man 
of  illustrious  birth,  who  had,  contrary  to  his 
inclinations,  been  devoted  by  his  parents  to  a 
monastic  life,  and  who  had,  with  unwearied 
diligence,  studied  the  science  of  theology,  in- 
flamed by  an  unhappy  desire  to  unravel  all  the 
difficulties  with  which  that  science  abounds, 
occupied  his  mind  with  the  consideration  of 
the  question  of  predestination,  and  finally 
adopted,  with  regard  to  it,  the  doctrine  of 
Augustine.  Not  satisfied  with  having  con- 
vinced himself,  he  conceived  it  to  be  his  duty 
to  labour  for  the  conviction  of  others  ;  and  he 
accordingly  openly  and  zealously  inculcated 
that  the  elect  were  predestinated  to  life,  and 
the  rest  of  mankind  to  everlasting  misery. 
Rabanus,  archbishop  of  Mentz,  who  had  for 
some  reason  before  this  been  inspired  with 
enmity  to  Godeschalchus,  having  been  in- 
formed of  the  tenets  which  he  was  publishing, 
and,  as  has  too  often  been  the  case,  veiling 
private  antipathy  under  the  cloak  of  anxiety 
for  the  purity  of  divine  truth,  opposed  him 
with  the  utmost  vehemence ;  and,  having  as- 
sembled a  council  in  his  own  metropolitan 
city,  procured  the  condemnation  of  the  views 
which  he  reprobated.  The  matter  was  after- 
ward taken  up  by  Hincmar,  archbishop  of 
Rheims,  who  was  the  zealous  friend  of  Raba- 
nus ;  and  he  also  having  procured  the  meeting 
of  a  council,  confirmed  the  sentence  that  had 
been  already  passed.  Not  satisfied  with  this, 
he  degraded  Godeschalchus  from  the  priest- 
hood ;  and,  with  an  inhumanity  infinitely 
more  detestable  than  heresy,  he  put  the  unfor- 
tunate monk  to  the  torture.  The  fortitude  of 
Godeschalchus  was  for  a  moment  overpower- 
ed, and  he  consented  to  commit  to  the  flames 
a  justification  of  his  opinions  which  he  had 
presented  to  his  execrable  tormentors.  It  was 
not  to  be  supposed  that  by  atrocious  violence 
like  this  sincere  conviction  could  be  produced 
in  the  person  against  whom  it  was  directed,  or 
that  others  would  be  disposed  universally  to 
submit  to  it.  The  controversy,  accordingly, 
soon  was  renewed ;  writers  on  both  sides  of 
the  question  contended  with  the  utmost 
warmth,  and  eagerly  displayed  the  extent  of 
their  erudition.  New  councils  were  summoned, 
by  which  the  decrees  of  former  councils  were 
reversed,  and  the  tenets  of  Godeschalchus 
were  confirmed ;  and  the  whole  agitation  ter- 
minated by  leaving  the  subject  in  the  same 
undefined  state  on  the  part  of  the  church  in 
which  it  had  been  before  it  was  thus  intem- 
perately  and  cruelly  discussed. 

To  the  schoolmen,  who  delighted  much 
more  in  losing  themselves  amidst  inextricable 
difficulties  and  endless  distinctions,  than  in 
opening  the  sources  of  knowledge  and  remov- 
ing the  difficulties  with  which  these  were  sur- 


PRE 


771 


PRE 


rounded,  this  subject,  from  its  intricate  or 
inexplicable  nature,  was  admirably  adapted; 
and  they  did  not  fail  to  exercise  upon  it  their 
diligence  and  their  ingenuity.  Thomas  Aqui- 
nas, who  flourished  during  the  thirteenth 
century,  was  a  man  who  in  more  enlightened 
times  would  have  really  merited  the  high  repu- 
tation which  he  enjoyed,  and  which  procured 
for  him  from  his  contemporaries  the  appella- 
tion of  the  Angelic  Doctor.  He  was  capable 
of  vast  mental  exertion,  and,  amidst  all  his 
avocations,  produced  works  so  voluminous 
that  in  modern  days  even  students  would 
shrink  from  the  perusal  of  them  as  an  over- 
whelming task.  He  wrote  largely  upon  the 
nature  of  grace,  and  predestination,  so  inti- 
mately connected  with  it.  His  opinions  upon 
these  subjects  were  nearly  the  same  with  those 
of  Augustine  j  and  so  much,  indeed,  was  he 
conceived  to  resemble  in  genius  and  under- 
standing that  distinguished  prelate,  that  it  was 
asserted  the  soul  of  Augustine  had  been  sent 
into  the  body  of  Aquinas.  He  taught  that 
God  had,  from  all  eternity,  and  without  any 
regard  to  their  works,  predestinated  a  certain 
number  to  life  and  happiness ;  but  he  found 
great  delight  in  endeavouring  to  reconcile  this 
position  with  the  freedom  of  the  human  will. 
His  celebrated  antagonist,  John  Duns  Scotus, 
an  inhabitant  of  Britain,  surnamed,  from  the 
acuteness  and  bent  of  his  mind,  the  Subtile 
Doctor,  also  directed  his  attention,  in  the  sub- 
sequent century,  to  the  same  thorny  specula- 
tions, taking  a  different  view  of  them  from 
Aquinas ;  and  we  find  in  the  works  of  these 
two  brilliant  lights  of  the  schoolmen  all  that 
the  most  learned  in  the  dark  ages  thought 
upon  them. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  trace  the  various  shades 
of  opinion  which  existed  in  the  church  as  to 
predestination  from  this  era  till  the  Reforma- 
tion :  it  is  enough  to  remark,  that,  after  all 
which  had  been  Avritten  upon  it,  it  does  not 
appear  that  any  peculiar  sentiments  with  re- 
spect to  it  were,  by  the  reformers,  judged 
essential  to  orthodoxy.  It  was  more  wisely 
considered  that,  upon  a  point  involved  in  im- 
penetrable difficulties,  and  raised  far  above 
human  comprehension,  men  might  be  allowed 
to  differ,  while  their  attachment  to  the  best 
interests  of  pure  religion  could  not  be  called  in 
question.     See  Calvinism  and  Lutherans. 

The  seventeenth  article  of  the  church  of 
England  is  often  adduced  by  Calvinists  as  fa- 
vourable to  their  peculiar  views  of  absolute 
predestination ;  but  such  a  representation  of 
it  is  rendered  plausible  only  by  adding  to  its 
various  clauses  qualifying  expressions  to  suit 
that  purpose.  'Under  the  articles  Church  of 
England,  Confessions,  and  Calvinism,  have 
been  exhibited  the  just  and  liberal  views  of 
Cranmer  and  the  principal  English  reformers 
on  this  subject, — the  sources  from  which  they 
drew  the  articles  of  religion  and  the  public 
formularies  of  devotion, — and  some  of  the 
futile  attempts  of  the  high  predestinarians  in 
the  church  to  inoculate  the  public  creed  with 
their  dogmas.  Cartwright  and  his  followers, 
in  their  second    "Admonition  to  the  Parlia- 


ment" in  1572,  complained  that  the  articles 
speak  dangerously  of  "  falling  from  grace ;" 
and  in  1587  they  preferred  a  similar  complaint. 
The  labours  of  the  Westminster  Assembly  at 
a  subsequent  period,  and  their  abortive  result, 
in  relation  to  this  subject,  are  well  known. 
Long  before  Arminius  had  turned  his  thoughts 
to  the  consideration  of  general  redemption,  a 
great  number  of  the  English  clergy  had  pub- 
licly taught  and  defended  the  same  doctrine. 
It  was  about  1571  when  Dr.  Peter  Baroe,  "  a 
zealous  Anti-Calvinian,"  as  one  of  our  church 
historians  observes,  was  made  Margaret  Pro- 
fessor of  Divinity  in  the  university  of  Cam- 
bridge ;  and  "  he  went  on  teaching  in  his 
lectures,  preaching  in  his  sermons,  determin- 
ing in  the  schools,  and  printing  in  several 
books,  divers  points  contrary  to  Calvinism. 
And  this  he  did  for  several  years,  without  any 
manner  of  disturbance  or  interruption.  The 
heads  of  the  university,  in  a  letter  to  the  Lord 
Burleigh,  dated  March  8,  1595,  say,  he  had 
done  it  for  fourteen  or  fifteen  years  preceding 
and  they  might  have  said  twenty;  for  he 
printed  some  of  his  lectures  in  1574,  and  the 
prosecution  he  was  at  last  under,  which  will 
be  considered  hereafter,  was  not  till  1595.  In 
1584,  Mr.  Harsnet,  afterward  archbishop  of 
York,  preached  against  absolute  reprobation 
at  St.  Paul's  Cross,  the  greatest  audience  then 
in  the  kingdom ;  as  did  the  judicious  Mr. 
Hooker  at  the  Temple  in  the  year  following. 
In  the  year  1594,  Mr.  Barret  preached  at  St. 
Mary's  in  Cambridge  against  Calvinism,  with 
very  smart  reflections  upon  Calvin  himself, 
Beza,  Zanchy,  and  several  others  of  the  most 
noted  writers  in  that  scheme.  In  the  same 
year,  Dr.  Baroe  preached  at  the  same  place  to 
the  same  purpose.  By  this  time  Calvinism  had 
gained  considerable  ground,  being  much  pro- 
moted by  the  learned  Whitaker  and  Mr.  Per- 
kins;  and  several  of  the  heads  of  the  univer- 
sity being  in  that  scheme,  they  complained  of 
the  two  sermons  above  mentioned  to  the  Lord 
Burleigh  their  chancellor.  Their  heads  en- 
deavoured to  bring  Barret  to  a  retraction,  to 
which  whether  he  ever  submitted  according  to 
the  form  they  drew  up,  may  reasonably  be 
doubted.  At  length  the  matter  was  laid  before 
Archbishop  Whitgift,  who  was  offended  at 
their  proceedings,  and  writes  to  the  Lord  Bur- 
leigh, that  some  of  the  points  which  the  heads 
had  enjoined  Barret  to  retract  were  such  as 
the  most  learned  Protestants,  then  living, 
varied  in  judgment  upon ;  and  that  the  most 
ancient  and  best  divines  in  the  land  were  in  the 
chiefest  points  in  opinion  against  the  heads  and 
their  resolutions.  Another  letter  he  sent  to 
the  heads  themselves,  telling  them  that  they 
had  enjoined  Barret  to  affirm  that  which  was 
contrary  to  the  doctrine  holden  and  expressed 
by  many  sound  and  learned  divines  in  the 
church  of  England,  and  in  other  churches 
likewise  men  of  best  account;  and  that  which 
for  his  own  part  he  thought  to  be  false  and 
contrary  to  the  Scriptures ;  for  the  Scriptures 
are  plain,  that  God  by  his  absolute  will  did  not 
hate  and  reject  any  man.  There  might  be 
impiety  in  believing  the  one,  there  could  bs 


PRE 


772 


PRE 


none  in  believing  the  other;  neither  was  it 
contrary  to  any  article  of  religion  established 
by  authority  in  this  church  of  England,  but 
rather  agreeable  thereto.  This  testimony  of 
the  archbishop  is  very  remarkable  ;  and  though 
he  afterward  countenanced  the  Lambeth  arti- 
cles, that  is  of  little  or  no  weight  in  the  case. 
The  question  is  not  about  any  man's  private 
opinion,  but  about  the  doctrine  of  the  church  ; 
and  supposing  the  archbishop  to  be  a  Calvin- 
ist,  as  he  seems  to  have  been  at  least  in  some 
points,  this  only  adds  the  greater  weight  to 
his  testimony,  that  our  church  has  no  where 
declared  in  favour  of  that  scheme.  The  arch- 
bishop descended  to  the  particulars  charged 
against  Barret,  asking  the  heads  what  article 
of  the  church  was  contradicted  by  this  or  that 
notion  of  his  ;  and  Whitaker  in  his  reply  does 
not  appeal  to  one  of  the  articles,  as  against 
Barret,  but  forms  his  plea  upon  the  doctrines 
which  then  generally  obtained  in  pulpits.  His 
words  are,  *  We  are  fully  persuaded  that  Mr. 
Barret  hath  taught  untruth,  if  not  against  the 
articles,  yet  against  the  religion,  of  our  church, 
publicly  received,  and  always  held  in  her 
majesty's  reign,  and  maintained  in  all  ser- 
mons, disputations,  and  lectures.'  And  even 
this  pretence  of  his,  weak  as  it  would  have 
been  though  true,  is  utterly  false,  directly  con- 
trary, not  only  to  what  has  been  already  shown 
to  be  the  facts  of  the  case,  but  also  to  what 
the  archbishop  affirmed,  and  that  too,  as  must 
be  supposed,  upon  his  own  knowledge.  As 
to  Dr.  Baroe,  he  met  witli  many  friends,  who 
espoused  his  cause.  Mr.  Strype  particularly 
mentions  four,  Mr.  Overal,  Dr.  Clayton,  Mr. 
Harsnet,  Dr.  Andrews  ;  all  of  them  great  and 
learned  men,  men  of  renown,  and  famous  in 
their  generation.  How  many  more  there  were, 
nobody  can  tell.  The  heads  in  their  letter  to 
the  Lord  Burleigh  do  not  pretend  that  the 
preaching  against  Calvinism  gave  a  general 
offence,  but  that  it  offended  many  ;  which  im- 
plies that  there  were  many  others  on  the  op- 
posite side  ;  and  they  expressly  say  there  were 
divers  in  the  Anti-Calvinian  scheme,  whom 
they  represent  as  maintaining  it  with  great 
boldness.  But  what  put  a  stop  to  this  prose- 
cution against  Baroe  was,  a  reprimand  from 
their  chancellor,  the  Lord  Burleigh,  who 
wrote  to  the  heads,  that  as  good  and  as  an- 
cient were  of  another  judgment,  and  that  they 
might  punish  him,  but  it  would  be  for  well 
doing." 

But  Dr.  Whitaker,  Regius  Professor  of  Di- 
vinity in  Cambridge,  could  not  endure  the 
farther  prevalence  of  the  doctrines  of  general 
redemption  in  that  university ;  he  therefore,  in 
1595,  drew  up  nine  affirmations,  elucidatory 
of  his  views  of  predestination,  and  obtained 
for  them  the  sanction  of  several  Calvinian 
heads  of  houses,  with  whom  he  repaired  to 
Archbishop  Whitgift.  Having  heard  their  ex 
parte  statement,  his  grace  summoned  Bishops 
Flecher  and  Vaughan,  and  Dr.  Tyndal,  dean 
of  Ely,  to  meet  Dr.  Whitaker  and  the  Cam- 
bridge deputation  at  his  palace  in  Lambeth,  on 
the  tenth  of  November,  1595;  where,  after 
much  oolishing  and  altering,  they  produced 


Whitaker's  affirmation  in  the  following  form, 
called  the  "  Lambeth  Articles,"  from  the  place 
in  which  their  secret  sittings  had  been  held  : — 
"  1.  God  from  eternity  hath  predestinated  cer- 
tain men  unto  life  ;  certain  men  he  hath  repro- 
bated. 2.  The  moving  or  efficient  cause  of 
predestination  unto  life  is  not  the  foresight  of 
faith  or  of  perseverance,  or  of  good  works,  or 
of  any  thing  that  is  in  the  person  predesti- 
nated ;  but  it  is  only  the  good  will  and  pleasure 
of  God.  3.  A  certain  number  of  the  predes- 
tinate is  predetermined,  which  can  neither  be 
augmented  nor  diminished.  4.  Those  who 
are  not  predestinated  to  salvation  shall  be 
necessarily  damned  for  their  sins.  5.  A  true, 
living,  and  justifying  faith,  and  the  Spirit  of 
God  justifying,  is  not  extinguished,  doth  not 
fall  off,  or  vanish  away,  in  the  elect,  either 
totally  or  finally.  6.  A  man  who  is  a  true 
believer,  that  is,  one  who  is  endued  with  a 
justifying  faith,  is  assured  with  a  plerophory, 
or  firm  persuasion,  of  faith  concerning  the 
remission  of  his  sins,  and  his  eternal  salvation 
through  Christ.  7.  Saving  grace  is  neither 
given,  communicated,  nor  granted  to  all  men, 
by  which  they  can  be  saved  if  they  will.  8.  No 
one  is  able  to  come  unto  Christ  unless  it  shall 
be  given  unto  him,  and  unless  the  Father  shall 
draw  him ;  and  all  men  are  not  drawn  by  the 
Father,  that  they  may  come  unto  the  Son. 
9.  It  is  not  placed  in  the  choice,  will,  or  ca- 
pacity of  every  one  to  be  saved."  Dr.  Whita- 
ker died  a  few  days  after  his  return  from 
Lambeth,  with  the  nine  articles  to  which  he 
had  procured  the  patronage  of  the  primate. 
After  his  demise,  two  competitors  appeared 
for  the  vacant  King's  Professorship,  Dr.  Wot- 
ton,  of  King's  College,  a  professed  Calvinian, 
and  Dr.  Overal  of  Trinity  College,  "  almost  as 
far,"  says  Heylin,  "  from  the  Calvinian  doc- 
trine in  the  main  platform  of  predestination  as 
Baroe,  Harsnet,  or  Barret  arc  conceived  to  be. 
But  when  it  came  to  the  vote  of  the  university, 
the  place  was  carried  for  Overal  by  the  major 
part;  which  plainly  shows,  that  though  the 
doctrines  of  Calvin  were  so  hotly  stickled  here 
by  most  of  the  heads,  yet  the  greater  part  of 
the  learned  body  entertained  them  not."  "  The 
Lambeth  articles,"  it  is  well  observed,  "  are  no 
part  of  the  doctrine  of  the  church  of  England, 
having  never  had  any  the  least  sanction  either 
from  the  parliament  or  the  convocation.  They 
were  drawn  up  by  Professor  Whitaker ;  and 
though  they  were  afterward  approved  by  Arch- 
bishop Whitgift,  and  six  or  eight  of  the  inferior 
clergy,  in  a  meeting  they  had  at  Lambeth,  yet 
this  meeting  was  only  in  a  private  manner,  and 
without  any  authority  from  the  queen ;  who 
was  so  far  from  approving  of  their  proceedings, 
that  she  not  only  ordered  the  articles  to  be 
suppressed,  but  was  resolutely  bent  for  some 
time  to  bring  the  archbishop  and  his  associates 
under  a  premimire,  for  presuming  to  make  them 
without  any  warrant  or  legal  authority." 
Such,  in  brief,  was  the  origin  and  such  the 
fate  of  the  Lambeth  articles,  without  the  coun- 
tenance of  which  the  defenders  of  Calvinism  in 
the  church  of  England  could  find  no  semblance 
of  support  for  their  manifold  affirmations  on- 


PRE 


773 


PRE 


predestination  and  its  kindred  topics.  These 
articles  afford  another  instructive  instance  of 
the  extreme  ignorance  of  the  real  sentiments 
of  their  opponents,  which  often  betrays  itself 
in.  the  conduct  of  many  eminent  men,  when 
they  rashly  begin  to  fence  off  the  reputed 
heterodoxy  of  their  brethren  from  the  sacred 
precincts  of  their  own  orthodoxy.  Two  of 
the  ablest  and  most  consistent  Arminians  of 
the  old  English  school,  Baroe  and  Piaifere, 
have  lucidly  shown  how  every  one  of  these 
nine  assertions  may,  without  difficulty,  be 
interpreted  in  accordance  with  their  individual 
belief.  Baroe's  clever  dissertation  on  this 
subject  will  be  found  in  Strype's  "  Life  of 
Whitgift;"  and  that  of  Piaifere,  in  his  own 
unanswerable  "  Apello  Evangelium ." 

PRE-EXISTENCE  OF  JESUS'  CHRIST 
is  his  existence  before  he  was  born  of  the 
Virgin  Mary.  That  he  really  did  exist,  is 
plain  from  John  iii,  13 ;  vi,  50,  &c  ;  viii,  58 ; 
xvii,  5,  24;  1  John  i,  2 ;  but  there  are  various 
opinions  respecting  this  existence.  Some  ac- 
knowledging, with  the  orthodox,  that  in  Jesus 
Christ  there  is  a  divine  nature,  a  rational  soul, 
and  a  human  body,  go  into  an  opinion  peculiar 
to  themselves.  His  body  was  formed  in  the 
virgin's  womb ;  but  his  human  soul,  they  sup- 
pose, was  the  first  and  most  excellent  of  all 
the  works  of  God  ;  was  brought  into  existence 
before  the  creation  of  the  world,  and  subsisted 
in  happy  union  in  heaven  with  the  second  per- 
son ofthe  Godhead,  till  his  incarnation.  These 
divines  differ  from  those  called  Arians,  for  the 
latter  ascribe  to  Christ  only  a  created  deity, 
whereas  the  former  hold  his  true  and  proper 
divinity.  They  differ  from  the  Socinians,  who 
believe  no  existence  of  Jesus  Christ  before  his 
incarnation :  they  differ  from  the  Sabellians, 
who  only  own  a  trinity  of  names  :  they  differ 
also  from  the  generally  received  opinion,  which 
is,  that  Christ's  human  soul  began  to  exist  in 
the  womb  of  his  mother,  in  exact  conformity 
to  that  likeness  unto  his  brethren  of  which  St. 
Paul  speaks,  Heb.  ii,  17.  The  writers  in  favour 
of  the  preexistence  of  Christ's  human  soul 
recommend  their  opinion  by  these  arguments  : 
1.  Christ  is  represented  as  his  Father's  mes- 
senger, or  angel,  being  distinct  from  his  Father, 
sent  by  his  Father,  long  before  his  incarnation, 
to  perform  actions  which  seem  to  be  too  low 
for  the  dignity  of  pure  Godhead.  The  appear- 
ances of  Christ  to  the  patriarchs  are  described 
like  the  appearance  of  an  angel,  or  man  really 
distinct  from  God ;  yet  one,  in  whom  God, 
or  Jehovah,  had  a  peculiar  indwelling,  or 
with  whom  the  divine  nature  had  a  personal 
union.  2.  Christ,  when  he  came  into  the 
world,  Is  said,  in  several  passages  of  Scripture, 
to  have  divested  himself  of  some  glory  which 
he  had  before  his  incarnation.  Now  if  there 
had  existed  before  this  time  nothing  but  his 
divine  nature,  this  divine  nature,  it  is  argued, 
could  not  properly  have  divested  itself  of  any 
glory,  John  xvii,  4,  5;  2  Cor.  viii,  9.  It  can- 
not be  said  of  God  that  he  became  poor :  he  is 
infinitely  self-sufficient ;  he  is  necessarily  and 
eternally  rich  in  perfections  and  glories.  Nor 
can  it  be  said  of  Christ,  as  man,  that  he  was 


rich,  if  he  were  never  in  a  richer  state  before 
than  while  he  was  on  earth.  3.  It  seems 
needful,  say  those  who  embrace  this  opinion, 
that  the  soul  of  Jesus  Christ  should  preexist, 
that  it  might  have  an  opportunity  to  give  its 
previous  actual  consent  to  the  great  and  pain- 
ful undertaking  of  making  atonement  for  our 
sins.  On  the  other  side,  it  is  affirmed  that  the 
doctrine  ofthe  preexistence  ofthe  human  soul 
of  Christ  weakens  and  subverts  that  of  his 
divine  personality.  1.  A  pure  intelligent  spirit, 
the  -first,  the  most  ancient,  and  the  most  excel- 
lent of  creatures,  created  before  the  foundation 
of  the  world,  so  exactly  resembles  the  second 
person  ofthe  Arian  trinity,  that  it  is  impossi- 
ble to  show  the  least  difference  except  in  name. 
2.  This  preexistent  intelligence,  supposed  in 
this  doctrine,  is  so  confounded  with  those  other 
intelligences  called  angels,  that  there  is  great 
danger  of  mistaking  this  human  soul  for  an 
angel,  and  so  of  making  the  person  of  Christ 
to  consist  of  three  natures.  3.  If  Jesus  Christ 
had  nothing  in  common  like  the  rest  of  man- 
kind except  a  body,  how  could  this  semi-con- 
formity make  him  a  real  man  ?  4.  The  pas- 
sages quoted  in  proof  of  the  preexistence  ofthe 
human  soul  of  Jesus  Christ,  are  of  the  same 
sort  with  those  which  others  allege  in  proof 
ofthe  preexistence  of  all  human  souls.  5.  This 
opinion,  by  ascribing  the  dignity  of  the  work 
of  redemption  to  this  sublime  human  soul, 
detracts  from  the  deity  of  Christ,  and  renders 
the  last  as  passive  as  the  first  is  active.  6.  This 
notion  is  contrary  to  the  Scripture.  St.  Paul 
says,  "  In  all  things  it  behoved  him  to  be  made 
like  unto  his  brethren,"  Heb.  ii,  17  :  he  partook 
of  all  our  infirmities,  except  sin.  St.  Luke 
says,  "  He  increased  in  stature  and  wisdom," 
Luke  ii,  52.  Upon  the  whole,  this  scheme, 
adopted  to  relieve  the  difficulties  which  must 
always  surround  mysteries  so  great,  only  cre- 
ates new  ones.  This  is  the  usual  fate  of 
similar  speculations,  and  shows  the  wisdom 
of  resting  in  the  plain  interpretation  of  the 
word  of  God. 

PRESBYTERIANS  are  those  that  affirm 
there  is  no  order  in  the  church,  as  established 
by  Christ  and  his  Apostles,  superior  to  that  of 
presbyters  ;  that  all  ministers,  being  ambassa- 
dors, are  equal  by  their  commission  ;  and  that 
elder,  or  presbyter,  and  bishop,  are  the  same 
in  name  and  office,  and  the  terms  synonymous. 
Their  arguments  against  the  Episcopalians  are 
as  follows : — With  respect  to  the  successors 
ofthe  Apostles,  they  seem  to  have  been  placed 
on  a  footing  of  perfect  equality,  the  iidKovoi,  or 
deacons,  not  being  included  among  the  teach- 
ers. They  were  inferior  officers,  whose  pro- 
vince it  originally  was  to  care  for  the  poor, 
and  to  discharge  those  secular  duties  arising 
out  ofthe  formation  of  Christian  communities, 
which  could  not  be  discharged  by  the  minis- 
ters without  interfering  with  the  much  higher 
duties  which  they  had  to  perform.  These 
ministers  are  sometimes  in  the  New  Testament 
styled  npevSvrepot,  or  presbyters,  at  other  times 
inicr/cowi,  or  bishops ;  but  the  two  appellations 
were  indiscriminately  applied  to  all  the  pastors 
who    were    the    instructors    of  the    different 


PRE 


77-1 


PRE 


churches.     Of  this  various  examples  may  he 
given  from  the  sacred  writings.    The  Apostle 
Paul,  upon  a  very  affecting  occasion,  when  he 
was  convinced  that  he  could  never  again  have 
an  opportunity  of  addressing  them,  sent  for 
the  elders  or  presbyters  of  Ephesu*,  the  per- 
sons to  whom  the  ministry  in  that  church  had 
been  committed  ;  and  after  mentioning  all  that 
he  had  done,  and  intimating  to  them  the  suf- 
ferings which  awaited  him,    he  addressed  to 
them   what   may  be  considered  as  his  dying 
advice,  and  as  comprehending  in  it  all  that  he 
judged  it  most  essential  for  them  to  do.  "  Take 
heed,  therefore,  unto  yourselves,  and  to  all  the 
flock  over  which  the  Holy  Ghost  hath  made 
you  bishops  or  overseers,  to  feed  the  church 
of  God,"  Acts  xx,  17,  28.     Hete  they  whose 
duty  it   was  to  feed  the  church  of  God,  as 
having  been  set  apart  through  the  Holy  Spirit 
for  that  interesting  work,  are  termed  by  the 
Apostle  presbyters  and  bishops,  and  there  is 
not  the  slightest  allusion  to  the  existence  of 
any  other  hiaKonoi,  or  bishop,  superior  to  those 
hlaxomi,  or  bishops,   to  whom   he   gives  the 
moving  charge  now  recorded.     In  his  epistle 
to  Titus,  St.  Paul  thus  writes:  "For  this  pur- 
pose I  left  thee  in  Crete,"  where,  as  yet,  it  is 
probable  that  no  teachers  had  been  appointed, 
"that  thou  shouldest  ordain  elders,  or  pres- 
byters, in  every  city."      He  then  points  out 
the  class  of  men  from  which  the  presbyters 
were  to  be  selected,  adding,  as  the  reason  of 
this,  "for  a  bishop  must  be  blameless  as  the 
steward  of  God,"  Titus  i,  5,   7.     It  is  quite 
plain  that  the  epithet  bishop  is  here  applicable 
to  the  same  persons  who  were  a  little  before 
styled  elders,  and  both  are  declared  to  be  the 
stewards  of  God,  the  guardians  and  instructers 
of  his  church.     The  Apostle  Peter,  in  his  first 
epistle  addressed  to  the  Jewish  converts,  has 
these  words :  "  The  elders  which  are  among 
you  I  exhort,  who  am  also  an  elder,  o  tn^Trpea- 
Svreoos,  and  a  witness  of  the  sufferings  of  Christ, 
feed  the  flock  of  God  which  is  among  you, 
taking  the  oversight  of  it,  intaKo-nomTt?,  being 
bishops  of  it,  not  by  constraint  but  willingly," 
1  Peter  v,  1,  2.    This  passage  is  a  very  strong 
one.      The  Apostle  speaks  of  himself  in   his 
extraordinary  capacity,  a  witness  of  the  suf- 
ferings of  Christ,  and  in  his  ordinary  capacity 
as  a  teacher ;    showing,  by  the  use  of  a  very 
significant  term,  that  as  to  it  he  was  on  a  foot- 
ing of  equality  with  the  other  pastors  or  pres- 
byters.    He  gives  it  in  charge  to  them  to  feed 
the  flock   of  God;   the  charge  which,  under 
most  particular  and  affecting  circumstances,  he 
had  received  from  the  Lord  after  the  resurrec- 
tion, and  which  includes  in  it  the  performance 
of  every  thing  requisite  for  the  comfort  and  the 
edification  of  Christians  ;   and  he  accordingly 
expresses  this  by  the  word  ImaKoiroVvTSs,  being 
bishops  over  them.  It  cannot,  with  any  shadow 
of  reason,  be  supposed  that  the  Apostle  would 
exhort  the  elders  or  presbyters  to  take  to  them- 
selves the  office,  and  to  perform  the  duties,  of 
a  bishop,  if  that  term  really  marked  out  a  dis- 
tinct and  higher  order ;  or  that  he  would  have 
considered  the  presbyters  as  fitted  for  the  dis- 
charge of  the  whole  ministerial  office,  if  there 


were  parts  of  that  office  which  he  knew  that  it 
was  not  lawful  for  them  to  exercise. 

It  seems,   by  the  passages  that  have  been 
quoted,  to  be  placed  beyond  a  doubt,  that,  in 
what  the  Apostles  said  respecting  the  minis- 
ters of  Christ's  religion,  they  taught  that  the 
tKiaKo-Koi  and  the. tjptaBvrepoi  were  the  same  class 
of  instructers ;   and  that  there  were,  in  fact, 
only  two  orders  pointed  out  by  them,  bishops 
or  presbyters,  and  deacons.     This  being  the 
case,  even  although  it  should  appear  that  there 
were    bishops,   in  the  common  sense  of  that 
term,  recognized  in  the  apostolic  age,  all  that 
could  be  deduced  from  the  fact  would  be,  that 
the  equality  at  first  instituted  among  the  teach- 
ers, had,  for  prudential  reasons,  or  under  pecu- 
liar circumstances,   been   interrupted ;   but  it 
would  not  follow  either  that  the  positive  and 
general    declarations  on    the    subject  by  the 
inspired  writers  were  not  true,  or  thai  it  was 
incumbent  at  all  times,  and  upon  all  Chris- 
tians, to  disregard  them.     It  has  been  stren- 
uously contended  that  there  were  such  bishops 
in  the  infancy  of  the  church,  and  that  allusion 
is  made    to  them  in  Scripture ;   but  without 
directly    opposing   the    assertion,    this   much 
must  be  admitted,  that  the  proof  of  it  is  less 
clear  than  that  bishops  and  presbyters  were 
represented  as  the  same  in  rank  and  in  autho- 
rity.  Indeed,  there  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
any  occasion  for  this  higher  order.    To  presby- 
ters was  actually  committed  the  most  important 
charge  of  feeding  the  church  of  God,  that  is, 
of  promoting  the    spiritual   improvement    of 
mankind  ;  and  it  is  remarkable  that  their  privi 
lege  of  separating  from  the  people  by  ordination 
the  ministers  of  religion,  is  explicitly  acknow- 
ledged in  the   case    of  Timothy,   whom    the 
Apostle   admonishes  not  to  neglect  the   gift 
that  was  in  him,  and  which  had  been  given 
by   prophecy,   and  by  the   laying  on   of  the 
hands   of  the   presbytery ;    by  which   can  be 
meant  only  the  laying  on  of  the  hands  of  those 
who  were  denominated  presbyters  or  bishops. 
But  although  all  the  parts  of  the  ministerial  duty 
had  been  intrusted  to  presbyters,  it  is  still  con- 
tended that  the  New  Testament  indicates  the 
existence  of  bishops  as  a  higher  order.    There 
has,  however,  been  much  diversity  of  opinion 
in  relation  to  this  point  by  those  who  contend 
for  the  divine  institution  of  episcopacy.    Some 
of  them  maintain  that  the  Apostles,  while  they 
lived,  were  the  bishops  of  the  Christian  church  ; 
but  this,   and  upon    irrefragable    grounds,    is 
denied  by  others.     Some  urge  that  Timothy 
and  Titus  were,  in  what  they   call  the  true 
sense  of  the  term,  bishops  ;   but  many  deny 
that,  founding  their  denial  upon  these  evan- 
gelists not  having  resided  within  the  bounds, 
or  been  limited  to  the  administration  of  any 
one  church,  being  sent  wherever  it  was  resolved 
to  bring  men  to  the  knowledge  of  divine  truth. 
Many  conceive  that  the  question  is  settled  by 
the  epistles  in  the  book  of  Revelation   being 
addressed    to    the    angels    of  the    respective 
churches  named  by  the  Apostle.     But  it  is  far 
from  being  obvious  what  is  implied  under  the 
appellation  angel ;  there  has  been  much  dis. 
pute    about    this   point,   and  it  is  certainly  a 


PRE 


775 


PRE 


deviation  from  all  the  usual  rules  by  which  we 
are  guided  in  interpreting'  Scripture,  to  bring 
an  obscure  and  doubtful  passage  in  illustration 
of  one,  about  the  import  of  which,  if  we  attend 
to  the  language  used,  there  can  be  no  doubt. 
It  may,  therefore,  be  safely  affirmed  that  there 
is  nothing  clear  and  specific  in  the  writings  of 
the  New  Testament  which  qualifies  the  posi- 
tive declarations  that  bishops  and  presbyters 
were  the  same  officers ;  that  the  ground  upon 
which  the  distinction  between  them  is  placed, 
is,  at  least,  far  from  obviously  supporting  it; 
and  that  there  is  not  the  slightest  intimation 
that  the  observance  of  such  a  distinction  is  at 
all  important,  much  less  absolutely  essential 
to  a  true  Christian  church,  insomuch  that, 
where  it  is  disregarded,  the  ordinances  of  divine 
appointment  cannot  be  properly  dispensed.  If 
therefore  it  be  established, — and  some  of  the 
most  learned  and  zealous  advocates  for  the 
hierarchy  which  afterward  arose  have  been 
compelled  to  admit  its — that  Scripture  has  not 
recognized  any  difference  of  rank  or  order 
between  the  ordinary  teachers  of  the  Gospel, 
all  other  means  of  maintaining  this  difference 
should  be  with  Protestants  of  no  force.  It 
may  be  shown  that  the  admission  of  the  dis- 
tinction is  not  incompatible  with  the  great 
ends  for  which  a  ministry  was  appointed,  and 
even  in  particular  cases  may  tend  to  promote 
them  ;  but  still  it  is  merely  a  matter  of  human 
regulation,  not  binding  upon  Christians,  and 
not  in  any  way  connected  with  the  vital  influ- 
ence of  the  Gospel  dispensation.  The  whole 
of  the  writers  of  antiquity  may  be  urged  in 
support  of  it,  if  that  could  be  done  ;  and,  after 
all,  every  private  Christian  would  be  entitled 
to  judge  for  himself,  and  to  be  directed  by  his 
own  judgment,  unless  it  be  maintained  that 
where  Scripture  has  affirmed  the  existence  of 
equality,  this  is  to  be  counteracted  and  set 
at  nought  by  the  testimonies  and  assertions 
•of  a  set  of  writers,  who,  although  honoured 
with  the  name  of  fathers,  are  very  far,  indeed, 
from  being  infallible,  and  who  have,  in  fact, 
Gften  delivered  sentiments  which  even  they 
who,  upon  a  particular  emergency,  cling  to 
them,  must  confess  to  be  directly  at  variance 
with  all  that  is  sound  in  reason,  or  venerable 
and  sublime  in  religion.  It  also  follows,  from 
the  Scriptural  identity  of  bishops  and  presby- 
ters, that  no  church  in  which  this  identity  is 
preserved,  can  on  that  account  be  considered 
as  having  departed  from  the  apostolic  model, 
or  its  ministers  be  viewed,  at  least  with  any 
good  reason,  as  having  less  ground  to  hope 
for  the  blessing  of  God  upon  their  spiritual 
labours;  because  if  we  admit  the  contrary,  we 
must  also  admit  that  the  inspired  writers, 
instead  of  properly  regulating  the  church, 
betrayed  it  into  error,  by  omitting  to  make  a 
distinction  closely  allied  with  the  essence  of 
religion.  What  is  this  but  to  say  that  it  is 
safer  to  follow  the  erring  direction  of  frail 
mortals,  than  to  follow  the  admonitions  of 
those  who,  it  is  universally  allowed,  were 
inspired  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  or  commissioned 
by  him  to  be  the  instructers  of  the  world  ? 
It  is  to  be  observed,  however,  that  although 


bishops  and  presbyters  were  the  same  when 
the  epistles  of  the  New  Testament  were  writ- 
ten, it  would  be  going  too  far  to  contend  that 
no  departure  from  this  should  ever  take  place  ; 
because,  to  justify  such  a  position,  it  would  be 
requisite  that  a  positive  injunction  should  have 
been  given  that  equality  must  at  all  times  be 
carefully  preserved.  There  is,  however,  no 
such  injunction.  Unlike  the  Old  Testament, 
which  specified  every  thing,  even  the  most 
minute,  in  relation  to  the  priesthood,  the  New 
only  alludes  in  general  terms,  and  very  seldom, 
to  the  ministry ;  and  the  reason  probably  is, 
that,  being  intended  for  all  nations,  it  left 
Christians  at  liberty  to  make  such  modifica- 
tions in  the  ecclesiastical  constitution  as  in 
their  peculiar  situation  appeared  best  adapted 
for  religious  edification.  The  simple  test  to 
be  applied  to  the  varying  or  varied  forms  of" 
church  government  is  that  indicated  by  our 
Lord  himself:  "By  their  fruits  ye  shall  know 
them."  Wherever  the  regulations  respecting 
the  ministry  are  such  as  to  divert  it  from  the 
purposes  for  which  it  was  destined,  to  separate 
those  who  form  it  from  the  flock  of  Christ,  to 
relax  their  diligence  in  teaching,  and  to  destroy 
the  connection  between  them  and  their  people, 
so  as  to  render  their  exertions  of  little  or  of 
no  use,  there  we  find  a  church  not  apostolical. 
But  wherever  the  blessed  fruits  of  Gospel  teach- 
ing are  in  abundance  produced,  where  the 
people  and  the  ministers  are  cordially  united, 
and  where  every  regulation  is  calculated  to 
give  efficacy  to  the  labours  of  those  who  have 
entered  into  the  vineyard,  we  have  an  apos- 
tolical church,  or,  to  speak  more  properly,  a 
church  of  Christ,  built  upon  a  rock,  because 
devoted  to  the  beneficent  objects  for  which 
our  Saviour  came  into  the  world. 

The  form  of  church  government  among  the 
Scotch  Presbyterians  is  as  follows  : — The  kirk 
session,  consisting  of  the  minister  and  lay 
elders  of  the  congregation,  is  the  lowest  eccle- 
siastical judicature.  The  next  is  the  presbytery, 
which  consists  of  all  the  pastors  within  a  cer- 
tain district,  and  one  ruling  elder  from  each 
parish.  The  provincial  synods,  of  which  there 
are  fifteen,  meet  twice  in  the  year,  and  are 
composed  of  the  members  of  the  several  pres- 
byteries within  the  respective  provinces.  From 
the  kirk  sessions  appeal  lies  to  the  presbyteries, 
from  these  to  the  synods,  and  from  them  to  the 
general  assembly,  which  meets  annually,  and 
is  the  highest  ecclesiastical  authority  in  the 
kingdom.  This  is  composed  of  delegates  from 
each  presbytery,  from  every  royal  borough, 
and  from  each  of  the  Scotch  univeisities;  and 
the  king  presides  by  a  commission  of«his  own 
appointment.  The  Scotch  ordain  by  the  "  lay- 
ing on  of  the  hands  of  the  presbytery,"  before 
which  persons  may  be  licensed  to  preach  as 
probationers,  but  cannot  administer  the  sacra- 
ments. The  clergy  are  maintained  by  the 
state,  and  nominated  to  livings  by  patrons,  as 
in  other  establishments.  Those  properly  called 
the  English  Presbyterians,  have  no  connection 
with  the  Scotch  kirk.  They  are  now  indeed 
broken  into  separate  churches,  and  follow  the 
same  form  of  church  government  as  the  Con. 


PRE 


776 


PRE 


gregationalists  or  Independents.  The  name 
Presbyterian,  therefore,  is  now  inapplicable  to 
them  although  retained.  So  Dr.  Doddridge  : 
"  Those  who  hold  every  pastor  to  be  so  a  bishop 
or  overseer  of  his  own  congregation,  as  that 
no  other  person  or  body  of  men  have,  by  divine 
institution,  a  power  to  exercise  any  superior  or 
pastoral  office  in  it,  may,  properly  speaking, 
be  called,  so  far  at  least,  congregational ;  and 
it  is  by  a  vulgar  mistake  that  any  such  are 
called  Presbyterians."    See  Episcopalians. 

PRESCIENCE,  or  foreknowledge,  an  attri- 
bute of  God.  (See  Omniscience.)  On  this 
subject  three  leading  theories  have  been  resorted 
to,  in  order  to  evade  the  difficulties  which  are 
supposed  to  be  involved  in  the  opinion  com- 
monly received.  The  Chevalier  Ramsay, 
among  his  other  speculations,  holds  it  a  mat- 
ter of  choice  in  God,  to  think  of  finite  ideas ; 
and  similar  opinions,  though  variously  worded, 
have  been  occasionally  adopted.  In  substance 
these  opinions  are,  that  though  the  knowledge 
of  God  be  infinite  as  his  power  is  infinite,  there 
is  no  more  reason  to  conclude,  that  his  know- 
ledge should  be  always  exerted  to  the  full  extent 
of  its  capacity,  than  that  his  power  should  be 
employed  to  the  extent  of  his  omnipotence  ; 
and  that  if  we  suppose  him  to  choose  not  to 
know  some  contingencies,  the  infiniteness  of 
his  knowledge  is  not  thereby  impugned.  To 
this  it  may  he  answered,  that  the  infinite  power 
of  God  is  in  Scripture  represented,  as  in  the 
nature  of  things  it  must  be,  as  an  infinite  capa- 
city, and  not  as  infinite  in  act ;  but  that  the 
knowledge  of  God  is  on  the  contrary  never 
represented  there  to  us  as  a  capacity  to  acquire 
knowledge,  but  as  actually  comprehending  all 
things  that  are,  and  all  things  that  can  be. 
2.  That  the  notion  of  God's  choosing  to  know 
some  things,  and  not  to  know  others,  supposes 
a  reason  why  he  refuses  to  know  any  class  of 
things  or  events  ;  which  reason,  it  would  seem, 
can  only  arise  out  of  their  nature  and  circum- 
stances, and  therefore  supposes  at  least  a  par- 
tial knowledge  of  them,  from  which  the  reason 
for  his  not  choosing  to  know  them  arises.  The 
doctrine  is  therefore  somewhat  contradictory. 
But,  3.  It  is  fatal  to  this  opinion  that  it  does 
not  at  all  meet  the  difficulty  arising  out  of  the 
question  of  the  consistency  of  divine  prescience, 
and  the  froe  actions  of  men  ;  since  some  con- 
tingent actions,  for  which  men  have  been 
made  accountable,  wo  are  sure,  have  been 
foreknown  by  God,  because  by  his  Spirit,  in 
the  prophets  they  were  foretold ;  and  if  the 
freedom  of  man  can  in  these  cases  be  recon- 
ciled to  the  prescience  of  God,  there  is  no 
greater  difficulty  in  any  other  case  which  can 
possibly  occur. 

A  second  theory  is,  that  the  foreknowledge 
of  contingent  events,  being  in  its  own  nature 
impossible,  because  it  implies  a  contradiction, 
it  does  no  dishonour  to  the  divine  Being  to 
affirm,  that  of  such  events  he  has,  and  can 
have,  no  prescience  whatever  ;  and  thus  the 
prescience  of  God,  as  to  moral  actions,  being 
wholly  denied,  the  difficulty  in  question  is  got 
rid  of.  To  this  the  same  answer  must  be 
given  as  to  the  former.     It  does  not  meet  the 


case,  so  long  as  the  Scriptures  are  allowed  to 
contain  prophecies  of  rewardable  and  punish- 
able actions.  The  great  fallacy  in  the  argument, 
that  the  certain  prescience  of  a  moral  action 
destroys  its  contingent  nature,  lies  in  suppos- 
ing that  contingency  and  certainty  are  the 
opposites  of  each  other.  It  is,  perhaps,  unfor- 
tunate, that  a  word  which  is  of  figurative  ety- 
mology, and  which  consequently  can  only 
have  an  ideal  application  to  such  subjects, 
should  have  grown  into  common  use  in  this 
discussion,  because  it  is  more  liable,  on  that 
account,  to  present  itself  to  different  minds 
under  different  shades  of  meaning.  If,  how- 
ever, the  term  contingent  in  this  controversy 
has  any  definite  meaning  at  all,  as  applied  to 
the  moral  actions  of  men,  it  must  mean  their 
freedom,  and  stands  opposed,  not  to  certainty, 
but  to  necessity.  A  free  action  is  a  voluntary 
one ;  and  an  action  which  results  from  the 
choice  of  the  agent,  is  distinguished  from  a 
necessary  one  in  this,  that  it  might  not  have 
been,  or  have  been  otherwise,  according  to  the 
self-determining  power  of  the  agent.  It  is 
with  reference  to  this  specific  quality  of  a  free 
action,  that  the  term  contingency  is  used ;  it 
might  have  been  otherwise,  in  other  words,  it 
was  not  necessitated.  Contingency  in  moral 
actions  is,  therefore,  their  freedom,  and  is 
opposed,  not  to  certainty,  but  to  constraint. 
The  very  nature  of  this  controversy  fixes  this 
as  the  precise  meaning  of  the  term.  The  ques- 
tion is  not,  in  point  of  fact,  about  the  certainty 
of  moral  actions,  that  is,  whether  they  will 
happen  or  not;  but  about  the  nature  of  them, 
whether  free  or  constrained,  whether  they  must 
happen  or  not.  Those  who  advocate  this 
theory,  care  not  about  the  certainty  of  actions, 
simply  considered,  that  is,  whether  they  will 
take  place  or  not ;  the  reason  why  they  object 
to  a  certain  prescience  of  moral  actions,  is 
this, — they  conclude,  that  such  a  prescience 
renders  them  necessary.  It  is  the  quality  of 
the  action  for  which  they  contend,  not  whether 
it  will  happen  or  not.  If  contingency  meant 
uncertainty,  the  sense  in  which  such  theorists 
take  it,  the  dispute  would  be  at  an  end.  But 
though  an  uncertain  action  cannot  be  foreseen 
as  certain,  a  free,  unnecessitated  action  ma}' ; 
for  there  is  nothing  in  the  knowledge  of  the 
action,  in  the  least,  to  affect  its  nature.  Simple 
knowledge  is,  in  no  sense,  a  cause  of  action, 
nor  can  it  be  conceived  to  be  causal,  uncon- 
nected with  exerted  power :  for  mere  know- 
ledge, therefore,  an  action  remains  free  or 
necessitated  as  the  case  may  be.  A  necessi- 
tated action  is  not  made  a  voluntary  one  by  its 
being  foreknown  ;  a  free  action  is  not  made  a 
necessary  one.  Free  actions  foreknown  will 
not,  therefore,  cease  to  be  contingent.  But 
how  stands  the  case  as  to  their  certainty  ?  Pre- 
cisely on  the  same  ground.  The  certainty  of 
a  necessary  action  foreknown,  does  not  result 
from  the  knowledge  of  the  action,  but  from  the 
operation  of  the  necessitating  cause  ;  and,  in 
like  manner,  the  certainty  of  a  free  action  does 
not  result  from  the  knowledge  of  it,  which  is  no 
cause  at  all,  but  from  the  voluntary  cause,  that 
is,  the  determination  of  tho  will.    It  alters  not 


PRE 


777 


PRE 


the  case  in  the  least,  to  say  that  the  voluntary 
action  might  have  been  otherwise.  Had  it  been 
otherwise,  the  knowledge  of  it  would  have 
been  otherwise ;  but  as  the  will  which  gives 
birth  to  the  action,  is  not  dependent  upon  the 
previous  knowledge  of  God,  but  the  knowledge 
of  the  action  upon  foresight  of  the  choice  of 
the  will,  neither  the  will  nor  the  act  is  controlled 
by  the  knowledge;  and  the  action,  though  fore- 
seen, is  still  free  or  contingent.  The  fore- 
knowledge of  God  has  then  no  influence  upon 
either  the  freedom  or  the  certainty  of  actions, 
for  this  plain  reason,  that  it  is  knowledge,  and 
not  influence;  and  actions  may  be  certainly 
foreknown,  without  their  being  rendered  ne- 
cessary by  that  foreknowledge.  But  here  it  is 
said,  "  If  the  result  of  an  absolute  contingen- 
cy be  certainly  foreknown,  it  can  have  no 
other  result,  it  cannot  happen  otherwise." 
This  is  not  the  true  inference.  It  will  not 
happen  otherwise  ;  but  it  may  be  asked,  Why 
can  it  not  happen  otherwise  ?  Can  is  an  expres- 
sion of  potentiality,  it  denotes  power  or  possi- 
bility. The  objection  is,  that  it  is  not  possible 
that  the  action  should  otherwise  happen.  But 
why  not  ?  What  deprives  it  of  that  power?  If 
a  necessary  action  were  in  question,  it  could 
not  otherwise  happen  than  as  the  necessitating 
cause  shall  compel ;  but  then  that  would  arise 
from  the  necessitating  cause  solely,  and  not 
from  the  prescience  of  the  action  which  is  not 
causal.  But  if  the  action  be  free,  and  it  enter 
into  the  very  nature  of  a  voluntary  action  to  be 
unconstrained,  then  it  might  have  happened 
in  a  thousand  other  ways,  or  not  have  hap- 
pened at  all ;  the  foreknowledge  of  it  no  more 
affects  its  nature  in  this  case  than  in  the  other. 
All  its  potentiality,  so  to  speak,  still  remains, 
independent  of  foreknowledge,  which  neither 
adds  to  its  power  of  happening  otherwise, 
nor  diminishes  it.  But  then  we  are  told, 
that  "the  prescience  of  it,  in  that  case,  must 
be  uncertain."  Not  unless  any  person  can 
prove,  that  the  divine  prescience  is  unable  to 
dart  through  all  the  workings  of  the  human 
mind,  all  its  comparison  of  things  in  the  judg- 
ment, all  the  influences  of  motives  on  the 
affections,  all  the  hesitances  and  haltings  of 
the  will,  to  its  final  choice.  "  Such  know- 
ledge is  too  wonderful  for  us,"  but  it  is  the 
knowledge  of  Him  "who  understandeth  the 
thoughts  of  man  afar  oft*."  "But  if  a  contin- 
gency will  have  a  given  result,  to  that  result 
it  must  be  determined."  Not  in  the  least.  We 
have  seen  that  it  cannot  be  determined  to  a 
given  result  by  mere  precognition  ;  for  we 
have  evidence  in  our  own  minds  that  mere 
knowledge  is  not  causal  to  the  actions  of  an- 
other. It  is  determined  to  its  result  by  the 
will  of  the  agent ;  but  even  in  that  case,  it  can- 
not be  said,  that  it  must  be  determined  to  that 
result,  because  it  is  of  the  nature  of  freedom 
to  be  unconstrained  :  so  that  here  we  have  an 
instance  in  the  case  of  a  free  agent  that  lie 
toill  act  in  some  particular  manner ;  but  it  by 
no  means  follows  from  what  will  be,  whether 
foreseen  or  not,  that  it  must  be. 

The  third  theory  amounts,  in  brief,  to  this, 
that  the  foreknowledge  of  God  must  be  sup- 


posed to  differ  so  much  from  any  thing  of  the 
kind  which  we  perceive  in  ourselves,  and  from 
any  ideas  which  we  can  possibly  form  of  that 
property  of  the  divine  nature,  that  no  argu- 
ment respecting  it  can  be  grounded  upon  our 
imperfect  notions  ;  and  that  all  controversy  on 
suDJects  connected  with  it,  is  idle  and  fruitless. 
But  though  foreknowledge  in  God  should  je 
admitted  to  be  something  of  a  "very  different 
nature"  to  the  same  quality  in  man,  yet  as  it 
is  represented  as  something  equivalent  to  fore- 
knowledge, whatever  that  something  may  be, 
since  in  consequence  of  it,  prophecies  have 
actually  been  uttered  and  fulfilled,  and  of  such 
a  kind,  too,  as  relate  to  actions  for  which  men 
have  in  fact  been  held  accountable  ;  all  the 
original  difficulty  of  reconciling  contingent 
events  to  this  something,  of  which  human 
foreknowledge  is  a  "kind  of  shadow,"  as  "a. 
map  of  China  is  to  China  itself,"  remains  in 
full  force.  The  difficulty  is  shifted,  but  not 
removed.  It  may,  therefore,  be  certainly  con- 
cluded, if  at  least  the  Holy  Scriptures  are  to  be 
our  guide,  that  the  omniscience  of  God  com- 
prehends his  certain  prescience  of  all  events 
however  contingent ;  and  if  any  thing  more 
were  necessary  to  strengthen  the  argument 
above  given,  it  might  be  drawn  from  the  irra- 
tional, and,  above  all,  the  unscriptural  conse- 
quences, which  would  follow  from  the  denial 
of  this  doctrine.  These  are  forcibly  stated  by 
President  Edwards  : — "  It  would  follow  from 
this  notion,  (namely,  that  the  Almighty  doth 
not  foreknow  what  will  be  the  result  of  future 
contingencies,)  that  as  God  is  liable  to  be  con- 
tinually repenting  what  he  has  done ;  so  he 
must  be  exposed  to  be  constantly  changing 
his  mind  and  intentions  as  to  his  future  con- 
duct ;  altering  his  measures,  relinquishing  his 
old  designs,  and  forming  new  schemes  and 
projections.  For  his  purposes,  even  as  to  the 
main  parts  of  his  scheme,  namely,  such  as  be- 
long to  the  state  of  his  moral  kingdom,  must 
be  always  liable  to  be  broken,  through  want 
of  foresight ;  and  he  must  be  continually  put- 
ting his  system  to  rights,  as  it  gets  out  of  order, 
through  the  contingence  of  the  actions  of 
moral  agents  :  he  must  be  a  Being  who,  instead 
of  being  absolutely  immutable,  must  necessa- 
rily be  the  subject  of  infinitely  the  most  nume- 
rous acts  of  repentance,  and  changes  of  inten- 
tion, of  any  being  whatsoever ;  for  this  plain 
reason,  that  his  vastly  extensive  charge  com- 
prehends an  infinitely  greater  number  of  those 
things  which  are  to  him  contingent  and  un- 
certain. In  such  a  situation  he  must  have 
little  else  to  do,  but  to  mend  broken  links  as 
well  as  he  can,  and  be  rectifying  his  disjointed 
frame  and  disordered  movements,  in  the  best 
manner  the  case  will  allow.  The  supreme 
Lord  of  all  things  must  needs  be  under  great 
and  miserable  disadvantages,  in  governing  the 
world  which  he  has  made,  and  has  the  care  of, 
through  his  being  utterly  unable  to  find  out 
things  of  chief  importance,  which  hereafter 
shall  befall  his  system  ;  which,  if  he  did  but 
know,  he  might  make  seasonable  provision 
for.  In  many  cases,  there  may  be  very  great 
necessity  that  he  should  make  provision,  in 


PRE 


778 


PR1 


t.ho  manner  of  his  ordering  and  disposing 
things,  for  some  great  events  which  are  to 
happen,  of  vast  and  extensive  influence,  and 
endless  consequence  to  the  universe  ;  which  he 
may  see  afterward,  when  it  is  too  late,  and 
may  wish  in  vain  that  he  had  known  before- 
hand, that  he  might  have  ordered  his  affairs 
accordingly.  And  it  is  in  the  power  of  man, 
on  these  principles,  by  his  devices,  purposes, 
and  actions,  thus  to  disappoint  God,  break  his 
measures,  make  him  continually  to  change  his 
mind,  subject  him  to  vexation,  and  bring  him 
into  confusion." 

Socinus  and  his  early  followers  would  not 
allow  that  God  possesses  any  knowledge  of 
future  contingencies.  The  schoolmen,  in  re- 
ference  to  this  species  of  knowledge  in  God, 
invented  that  called  scientia  media,  and  which 
they  "  define  as  that  by  which  God  knows  sub 
conditions,  what  men  or  angels  will  do  accord, 
ingto  the  liberty  which  they  have,  when  they 
are  placed  in  these  or  those  circumstances,  or 
in  this  or  in  that  order  of  tilings."  When  Goma- 
rus,  the  opponent  of  Arminius,  found  that  his 
opinion  concerning  the  object  of  reprobation 
was  clogged  with  this  absurdity — that  it  made 
God  to  be  the  author  of  Adam's  sin,  he  very 
astutely  took  refuge  in  this  conditionate  fore- 
knowledge, and,  in  his  corrected  theses  on 
predestination,  published  after  the  death  of 
Arminius,  he  describes  it  as  "that  by  which 
God,  through  the  infinite  light  of  his  own 
knowledge,  foreknows  some  future  things,  not 
absolutely,  but  as  placed  under  a  certain  con- 
dition." Walanis,  the  celebrated  antagonist 
of  Episcopius,  had  recourse  to  the  same  expe- 
dient. This  distinction  has  been  adopted  by 
very  few  of  those  who  espouse  the  doctrines 
of  general  redemption  ;  and  who  believe  that 
every  event,  how  contingent  soever  to  the 
creature,  is,  with  respect  to  God,  certainly 
foreknown.  An  old  English  divine  thinks, 
that,  "  in  the  sacred  Scriptures  certain  not  ob- 
scure vestiges  are  apparent  of  this  kind  of 
knowledge,  of  things  that  will  happen  thus  or 
otherwise,  on  the  supposition  of  the  occurrence 
of  this  or  that  circumstance.  Omitting  the 
well  known  example  of  David  in  Keilah,  1  Sam. 
xxii,  12,  and  of  Chorazin  and  Bcthsaida,  Matt, 
xi,  21 ;  Luke  x,  l.'l,  consult,  among  other  say- 
ings of  the  same  description,  the  answer  of 
our  Saviour  to  the  chief  priests  and  scribes, 
who  had  asked,  '  Art  thou  the  Christ  ?  Tell 
us.'  And  he  said  unto  them,  '  If  I  tell  you,  ye 
will  not  believe.'  In  the  subsequent  verse  he 
adds,  'If  I  also  ask  you,  ye  will  not  answer 
me,  nor  let  me  go,'  Luke  xxii,  67,  68.  You 
have  here  three  events  specified,  which  yet 
will  not  occur  even  on  the  supposition  of 
Christ  our  Lord  himself."  This  kind  of  know- 
ledge might  very  well  be  included  in  that  of 
scientia  visioiiis,  because  the  latter  ought  to 
include,  not  what  God  will  do  and  what  his 
creatures  will  do  under  his  appointment,  but 
what  they  will  do  by  his  permission  as  free 
agents,  and  what  he  will  do,  as  a  consequence 
of  this,  in  his  character  of  Governor  and  Lord. 
But  since  the  predestinarians  had  confounded 
scientia  visionis  with  a  predestinating  decree, 


the  scientia  media  well  expressed  what  they 
had  left  quite  unaccounted  for,  and  which  they 
had  assumed  did  not  really  exist, — the  actions 
of  creatures  endowed  with  free  will,  and  the 
acts  of  Deity  which  from  eternity  were  con- 
sequent upon  them.  If  such  actions  do  not 
take  place,  then  men  are  not  free  ;  and  if  the 
rectoral  acts  of  God  are  not  consequent  upon 
the  actions  of  the  creature  in  the  order  of  the 
divine  intention,  and  the  conduct  of  the  crea- 
ture is  consequent  upon  the  foreordained  recto- 
ral acts  of  God,  then  we  reach  a  necessitating 
eternal  decree,  which  in  fact,  the  predestinarian 
contends  for;  but  it  unfortunately  brings  after 
it  consequences  which  no  subtleties  have  ever 
been  able  to  shake  off, — that  the  only  actor  in 
the  universe  is  God  himself;  and  that  the  only 
distinction  among  events  is,  that  one  class  is 
brought  to  pass  by  God  directly,  and  the  other 
indirectly,  not  by  the  agency,  but  by  the  mere 
instnrmentality,  of  his  creatures. 

PRIEST,  a  general  name  for  the  minister 
of  religion.  The  priest  under  the  law  was, 
among  the  Hebrews,  a  person  consecrated  and 
ordained  of  God  to  offer  up  sacrifices  for  his 
own  sins  and  those  of  the  people,  Lev.  iv, 
5,  6.  The  priesthood  was  not  annexed  to  a 
certain  family  till  after  the  promulgation  of 
the  law  of  Moses.  Before  that  time  the  first- 
born of  every  family,  the  fathers,  the  princes, 
the  kings  were  priests.  Cain  and  Abel,  Noah, 
Abraham,  Job,  Abimelech  and  Laban,  Isaac 
and  Jacob,  offered  themselves  their  own  sacri- 
fices. In  the  solemnity  of  the  covenant  that 
the  Lord  made  with  his  people  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  Sinai,  Moses  performed  the  office  of 
mediator,  Exod.  xxiv,  5,  6 ;  and  young  men 
were  chosen  from  among  the  children  of  Israel 
to  perform  the  office  of  priests.  But  after  the 
Lord  had  chosen  the  tribe  of  Levi  to  serve 
him  in  his  tabernacle,  and  the  priesthood  was 
annexed  to  the  family  of  Aaron,  then  the  right 
of  offering  sacrifices  to  God  was  reserved  to 
the  priests  alone  of  this  family.  The  Lord  or- 
dained, Num.  xvi,  40,  that  no  stranger,  which 
was  not  of  the  seed  of  Aaron,  should  come 
near  to  offer  incense  unto  the  Lord,  that  he 
might  not  be  as  Korah  and  his  company.  The 
punishment  of  Uzziah  is  well  known,  2  Chron 
xxvi,  19,  who,  having  presumed  to  offer  incense 
to  the  Lord,  was  suddenly  smitten  with  a  lep- 
rosy, put  out  of  his  palace,  and  excluded  from 
the  administration  of  affairs  to  the  day  of  his 
death.  However,  it  seems  that,  on  certain 
occasions,  the  judges  and  the  kings  of  the  He- 
brews offered  sacrifices  unto  the  Lord,  espe- 
cially before  a  constant  place  of  worship  was 
fixed  at  Jerusalem  ;  for  in  1  Sam.  vii,  8,  we  are 
told  that  Samuel,  who  was  no  priest,  offered 
a  lamb  for  a  burnt-sacrifice  to  the  Lord  ;  and  in 
1  Sam.  ix,  13,  it  is  said  that  this  prophet  was 
to  bless  the  offering  of  the  people,  which  should 
seem  to  be  a  function  appropriated  to  the 
priests;  lastly,  1  Sam.  xvi,  5,  he  goes  to  Beth- 
lehem, where  he  offers  a  sacrifice  at  the  inau- 
guration or  anointing  of  David.  Saul  himself 
offered  a  burnt-offering  to  the  Lord,  perhaps 
as  being  king  of  Israel,  1  Sam.  xiii,  9,  10. 
Elijah  also  offered  a  burnt-offering  upon  Mount 


PRI 


779 


PRI 


Carmel,  1  Kings  xviii,  33.  David  himself 
sacrificed,  (at  least  the  text  expresses  it  so,) 
at  the  ceremony  of  bringing  the  ark  to  Jeru- 
salem, and  at  the  floor  of  Araunah,  2  Sam. 
vi,  13.  Solomon  went  up  to  the  brazen  altar 
that  was  at  Gibeon,  and  there  offered  sacri- 
fices, 2  Chron.  i,  5.  It  is  true  the  above  pas- 
sages are  commonly  explained  by  supposing 
that  these  princes  offered  their  sacrifices  by 
the  hands  of  the  priests ;  but  the  sacred  text 
will  by  no  means  favour  such  explanations  ; 
and  it  is  very  natural  to  imagine,  that  in  the 
quality  of  kings  and  heads  of  the  people,  they 
had  the  privilege  of  performing  some  sacerdo- 
tal functions,  upon  some  extraordinary  occa- 
sions ;  thus  we  see  David  clothed  with  the 
priestly  ephod,  and  consulting  the  Lord  ;  and 
upon  another  occasion  we  find  David  and 
Solomon  pronounce  solemn  benedictions  on 
the  people,  2  Sam.  vi,  18 ;  1  Kings  viii,  55. 
God  having  reserved  to  himself  the  first-born 
of  all  Israel,  because  he  had  preserved  them 
from  the  hand  of  the  destroying  angel  in 
Egypt,  by  way  of  exchange  or  compensation 
accepted  of  the  tribe  of  Levi  for  the  service  of 
the  tabernacle,  Numbers  iii,  41.  Of  the  three 
sons  of  Levi,  Gershon,  Kohath,  and  Merari, 
the  Lord  chose  the  family  of  Kohath,  and  out 
of  this  the  house  of  Aaron,  to  exercise  the 
functions  of  the  priesthood.  AH  the  rest  of 
the  family  of  Kohath,  even  the  children  of 
Moses  and  their  descendants,  remained  of  the 
order  of  mere  Levites.     See  Levites. 

The  posterity  of  the  sons  of  Aaron,  namely, 
Eleazar  and  Ithamar,  Lev.  x,  1-5 ;  1  Chron. 
xxiv,  1,  2,  had  so  increased  in  number  in  the 
time  of  David,  that  they  were  divided  into 
twenty-four  classes,  which  officiated  a  week  at 
a  time  alternately.  Sixteen  classes  were  of  the 
family  of  Eleazar,  and  eight  of  the  family  of 
Ithamar.  Each  class  obeyed  its  own  prefect  or 
ruler.  The  class  Jojarib  was  the  first  in  order, 
and  the  class  Abia  was  the  eighth,  1  Mac.  ii,  1 ; 
Luke  i,  5 ;  1  Chron.  xxiv,  3-19.  This  division 
of  the  priesthood  was  continued  as  a  permanent 
arrangement  after  the  time  of  David,  2  Chron. 
viii,  14 ;  xxxi,  2  ;  xxxv,  4,  5.  Indeed,  although 
only  four  classes  returned  from  the  captivity, 
the  distinction  between  them,  and  also  the  an- 
cient names,  were  still  retained,  Ezra  ii,  36- 
39;  Neh.  vii,  39-42;  xii,  1. 

Aaron,  the  high  priest  was  set  apart  to  his 
office  by  the  same  ceremonies  with  which  his 
sons  the  priests  were,  with  this  exception,  that 
the  former  was  clothed  in  his  robes,  and  the 
sacred  oil  was  poured  upon  his  head,  Exod. 
xxix,  5-9  ;  Lev.  viii,  2.  The  other  ceremonies 
were  as  follows.  The  priests,  all  of  them  with 
their  bodies  washed,  and  clad  in  their  appro- 
priate dress,  assembled  before  the  altar,  where 
a  bullock,  two  rams,  unleavened  bread,  and 
wafers  of  two  kinds  in  baskets,  were  in  readi- 
ness. When  they  had  placed  their  hands 
upon  the  head  of  the  bullock,  he  was  slain  by 
Moses  as  a  sin-offering.  He  touched  the  horns 
of  the  altar  with  the  blood,  poured  the  remain- 
der of  it  round  its  base,  and  placed  the  parts 
which  were  to  compose  the  sacrifice  on  its 
£op.     The  remaining  parts  of  the  animal  were 


i.i  imi'i 

IE 

inHfed 


all  burned  without  the  camp,  Exod.  xxix,  10-14; 
Lev.  viii,  2,  3,  14-17.  They  in  like  manner 
placed  their  hands  on  the  head  of  one 
rams,  which  was  also  slain  by  Moses' 
whole  burnt-offering,  the  blood  was  sprinl 
around  the  altar,  and  the  parts  of  the  ram 
were  separated  and  burned  upon  it,  Exod.  xxix, 
15-18  ;  Lev.  viii,  18-21.  The  other  ram,  when 
the  priests  had  laid  their  hands  upon  him,  was 
likewise  slain  by  Moses  for  the  sacrifice  of  con- 
secration. He  touched  with  the  blood  the  tip 
of  the  right  ear  of  the  priests,  the  thumb  of 
the  right  hand,  and  the  great  toe  of  the  right 
foot.  The  rest  of  the  blood  he  sprinkled  in 
part  upon  the  bottom  of  the  altar,  and  a  part 
he  mingled  with  the  consecrated  oil,  and 
sprinkled  on  the  priests  and  their  garments. 
He  anointed  the  high  priest  by  pouring  a  pro- 
fusion of  oil  upon  his  head ;  whence  he  is  call- 
ed the  anointed,  Lev.  v,  3,  5,  16;  vi,  15; 
Psalm  exxxiii,  2.  Certain  parts  of  the  sacri- 
fice, namely,  the  fat,  the  kidneys,  the  haunches, 
the  caul  above  the  liver,  and  the  right  shoulder, 
also  one  cake  of  unleavened  bread,  a  cake  of 
oiled  bread,  and  a  wafer,  were  placed  by  Mo- 
ses upon  the  hands  of  the  priests,  that  they 
might  offer  them  to  God.  This  ceremony 
was  called  "  filling  the  hands,"  expressions 
which  accordingly  in  a  number  of  passages 
mean  the  same  as  consecrating,  Exod.  xxxii, 
29 ;  Leviticus  xvi,  32 ;  1  Chronicles,  xxix,  5. 
All  the  parts  which  have  been  mentioned  as 
being  placed  in  tho  hands  of  the  priests,  were 
at  last  burned  upon  the  altar.  This  ceremony, 
which  continued  for  eight  days,  for  ever  sepa- 
rated the  priests  from  all  the  other  Israelites, 
not  excepting  the  Levites  ;  so  that  there  was 
subsequently  no  need  of  any  farther  consecra- 
tion, neither  for  themselves  nor  their  posterity, 
Exodus  xxix,  35-37  ;  Lev.  x,  7  ;  Rom.  i,  1  ; 
Eph.  iii,  3  ;  Acts  xiii,  2,  3.  That  the  ceremo- 
nies of  inauguration  or  consecration,  however, 
were  practised  at  every  new  accession  of  a 
high  priest  to  his  office,  seems  to  be  hinted  in 
the  following  passages,  Exod.  xxix,  29;  Lev. 
xvi,  32;  xxi,  10 ;  Num.  xx,  26-28  ;  xxxv,  25. 

It  was  not  customary  for  the  priests  to  wear 
the  sacerdotal  dress  except  when  performing 
their  official  duties,  Exod.  xxviii,  4,  43 ;  Ezek. 
xlii,  14;  xliv,  19.  The  description  of  the 
dress  of  the  priests  which  is  given  in  Exodus 
xxviii,  is  by  some  thought  defective,  as  many 
things  are  passed  in  silence,  apparently  for 
the  reason  that  they  were  at  that  time  suffi- 
ciently well  known,  without  being  expressly 
stated.  Some  additional  information  is  com- 
municated to  us  by  Josephus  ;  but  the  dress  of 
the  priests,  as  he  describes  it,  may  have  been 
in  some  respects  of  recent  origin.  It  was  as 
follows  :  1.  A  sort  of  hose,  made  of  cotton  or 
linen,  which  was  fastened  round  the  loins,  and 
extended  down  so  as  to  cover  the  thighs,  Lev. 
vi,  10  ;  Ezek.  xliv,  18.  2.  A  tunic  of  cotton 
which  extended,  in  the  days  of  Josephus,  down 
to  the  ankles.  It  was  furnished  with  sleeves, 
and  was  fabricated  all  of  one  piece  without 
being  sewn,  Exod.  xxviii,  39,  41 ;  xxix,  5 ;  John 
xix,  23.  3.  The  girdle.  According  to  Jose- 
phus it  was  a  hand's  breadth  in  width,  woven 


PRI 


780 


PRO 


in  such  a  manner  as  to  exhibit  the  appearance 
of  scales,  and   ornamented  with  embroidered 
rhmers  in  purple,  dark  blue,  scarlet,  and  white. 
■n-  worn  a  little  below  the  breast,  encircled 
trreTjody  twice,  and  was  tied  in  a  knot  before. 
The  extremities  of  the  girdle  hung  down  nearly 
to  the   ankle.      The   priest,  when  engaged  in 
his  sacred  functions,  in  order  to  prevent  his 
being  impeded  by  them,  threw  them  over  his 
left  shoulder,  Exod.  xxxix,  527-29.      4.  The 
mitre  or  turban  was  originally  acuminated  in 
its  shape,  was  lofty,   and  was  hound  upon  the 
head,  Exod.  xxviii,  8,  40 ;  xxix,  9  ;  Lev.  viii,  13. 
In  the  time  of  Josephus  the  shape  of  the  mitre 
had  become  somewhat  altered ;  it  was  circular, 
wTas  covered  witli  apiece  of  fine  linen,  and  sat 
so  closely  on  the  upper  part  of  the  head,  (for 
it  did  not  cover  the  whole  of  the  head,)  that  it 
would   not  fall   oft"  when   the   body  was  bent 
down.      The   Hebrew   priests,    like   those    of 
Egypt  and  other  nations,  performed  their  sa. 
cred  duties  with  naked  feet;  a  symbol  of  reve- 
rence and  veneration,  Exod.  iii,  5;  Josh.v,  15. 
The  ordinary  priests  served  immediately  at 
the  altar,  offered  sacrifices,  killed  and  flayed 
them,  and  poured  the  blood  at  the  foot  of  the 
altar,  2  Chron.  xxix,  34;  xxxv,  11.  They  kept 
a   perpetual    fire    burning   upon   the    altar  of 
burnt-sacrifices,  and  in  the  lamps  of  the  golden 
candlestick  that  was  in  the  sanctuary  ;  they 
prepared  the  loaves  of  shew  bread,  baked  them, 
and  changed  them  every  Sabbath  day.    Every 
day,  night,  and  morning,  a  priest  appointed 
by  casting  lots  at  the  beginning  of  the  week, 
brought  iu^o  the  sanctuary  a  smoking  censer, 
and  set  it  upon  the  golden  table,   otherwise 
called  the  altar  of  perfumes,  Luke  i,  9.     The 
priests  were  not  suffered   to  offer  incense  to 
the  Lord  witli  strange  fire,  Lev.  x,  1,2;  that 
is,  with  any  other   tire  than  what  should  be 
taken  from  the  altar  of  burnt-sacrifices.     It  is 
well  known  with  what  severity  God  chastised 
Nadab  and  Abihu  for  having  failed  in  this. 
Those  that  would  dedicate  themselves  to  per- 
petual service  in  the  temple  were  well  receiv- 
ed, and  were  maintained  by  the  constant  and 
daily  offerings,    Deut.  xviii,  6-8.     The  Lord 
had  given  no  lands  of  inheritance  to  the  tribe 
of  Levi  in  the  distribution  of  the  land  of  pro- 
mise.    He  designed  that  they  should  be  sup- 
ported by  the  tithes,  the  first  fruits,  the  offer- 
ings that  were  made  in  the  temple,  by  their 
share  of  the  sin-offerings,  and  thanksgiving- 
offerings  that  were  sacrificed  in  the  temple,  of 
which  certain  parts  were  appropriated  to  the 
priests.     They  had  also  a  share  in  the  wool 
when    the    sheep  were   shorn.     All  the  first- 
born, both  of  man  and  beast,  belonged  to  the 
Lord,  that  is,  to  his  priests.     The  men  were 
redeemed  for  the  sum  of  five  shekels,  Num. 
xviii,   15,  16.     The  first-born  of  impure  ani- 
mals were    redeemed   or   exchanged,  but  the 
clean  animals  were  not  redeemed ;  they  were 
sacrificed  to  the  Lord,  their  blood  was  sprinkled 
about  the  altar,  and  all  the  rest  belonged  to  the 
priest,  Num.  xviii,  17-19.     The  first  fruits  of 
trees,    Lev.   xix,    23,    24,    that  is,  those  that 
came  on  the  fourth  year,  belonged  also  to  the 
priest.     They  gave  also  to  the  priests  and  Le- 


vites  an  allowance  out  of  the  dough  that  they 
kneaded.  They  had  the  tithe  of  all  the  fruits 
of  the  land,  and  of  al'  animals  which  were  fed 
under  the  shepherd's  crook,  Lev.  xxvii,  31, 
32.  God  also  provided  them  with  houses  and 
accommodations,  by  appointing  them  forty- 
eight  cities  for  their  habitations,  Num.  xxxv, 
1-3.  In  the  precincts  of  these  cities  they  pos- 
sessed as  far  as  a  thousand  cubits  beyond  the 
walls.  Of  these  forty-eight  cities  six  were 
appointed  to  be  cities  of  refuge,  for  the  sake 
of  those  who  should  commit  any  casual  or 
involuntary  manslaughter ;  the  priests  had 
thirteen  of  these  for  their  share,  and  all  the 
others  belonged  to  the  Levites,  Josh,  xxi,  19. 
One  of  the  chief  employments  of  the  priests, 
next  to  attending  upon  the  sacrifices  anr1.  the 
service  of  the  tabernacle  or  temple,  was  the 
instruction  of  the  people  and  the  deciding  con- 
troversies, distinguishing  the  several  sorts  of 
leprosy,  the  causes  of  divorce,  the  waters  of 
jealousy,  vows,  all  causes  relating  to  the  law, 
the  uncleannesses  that  were  contracted  seve- 
ral ways  ;  all  these  things  were  brought  before 
the  priests,  Hosea  iv,  6 ;  Mai.  ii,  7,  &c ;  Lev. 
xiii,  14 ;  Num.  v,  14,  15.  They  publicly  bless- 
ed the  people  in  the  name  of  the  Lord.  la 
time  of  war  their  business  was  to  carry  the 
ark  of  the  covenant,  to  consult  the  Lord,  to 
sound  the  holy  trumpets,  and  encourage  and 
harangue  the  army. 

The  term  priest  is  most  properly  given  to 
Christ,  of  whom  the  high  priests  under  the 
law  were  types  and  figures,  he  being  the  high 
priest  especially  ordained  of  God,  who,  by  the 
sacrifice  of  himself,  and  by  his  intercession, 
opens  the  way  to  reconciliation  with  God, 
Heb.  viii,  17 ;  ix,  11-25.  The  word  is  also 
applied  to  every  true  believer  who  is  enabled 
to  offer  up  himself  "a  spiritual  sacrifice  ac- 
ceptable to  God  through  Christ,"  1  Pet.  ii,  5 ; 
Rev.  i,  6.  But  it  is  likewise  improperly  applied 
to  Christian  ministers,  who  have  no  sacrifices 
to  offer ;  unless,  indeed,  when  it  is  considered 
as  contracted  from  presbyter,  which  signifies 
an  elder,  and  is  the  name  given  in  the  New 
Testament  to  those  who  were  appointed  to 
the  office  of  teaching  and  ruling  in  the  church 
of  God.     See  Aaron. 

PRISCILLA,  a  Christian  woman,  well 
known  in  the  Acts,  and  in  St.  Paul's  epistles  ; 
sometimes  placed  before  her  husband  Aquila. 
From  Ephesus  this  pious  pair  went  to  Rome, 
where  they  were  when  St.  Paul  wrote  his 
epistle  to  the  Romans,  A.  D.  58.  He  salutes 
them  the  first  of  all,  with  great  commenda- 
tions, Rom.  xvi,  3.  They  returned  into  Asia 
some  time  afterward  ;  and  St.  Paul,  writing  to 
Timothy,  desires  him  to  salute  them  on  his 
behalf,  2  Tim.  iv,  19,  A.  D.  65. 

PROFANE,  an  epithet  applied  to  those  who 
abuse  and  contemn  holy  things.  The  Scrip- 
ture calls  Esau  profane,  because  he  sold  his 
birthright,  which  was  considered  a  holy  thing, 
not  only  because  the  priesthood  was  annexed 
to  it,  but  also  because  it  was  a  privilege  relat- 
ing to  Christ,  and  a  type  of  the  title  of  be- 
lievers  to  the  heavenly  inheritance,  Heb.  xii, 
16.     The  priests  of  the  race  of  Aaron  were 


PRO 


781 


PRO 


enjoined  to  distinguish  between  sacred  and 
profane,  between  pure  and  polluted,  Lev.  x, 
10  ;  xix,  7,  8.  Hence  they  were  prohibited  the 
use  of  wine  during  their  attendance  on  the 
temple  service,  that  their  spirits  might  not  be 
discomposed  by  excitement.  To  profane  the 
temple,  to  profane  the  Sabbath,  to  profane  the 
altar,  are  common  expressions  to  denote  the 
violation  of  the  rest  of  the  Sabbath,  the  enter, 
ing  of  foreigners  into  the  temple,  or  the  want 
of  reverence  in  those  that  entered  it,  and  the 
impious  sacrifices  that  were  offered  on  the 
altar  of  the  Lord. 

PROMISE,  an  assurance  given  by  God,  in 
his  word,  of  bestowing  blessings  upon  his 
people,  2  Pet.  i,  4.  The  word  in  the  New 
Testament  is  usually  taken  for  the  promises 
that  God  heretofore  made  to  Abraham,  and  the 
oilier  patriarchs,  of  sending  the  Messiah,  and 
conferring  his  Holy  Spirit  and  eternal  life  on 
those  that  should  believe  on  him.  It  is  in  this 
6ense  that  the  Apostle  Paul  commonly  uses 
the  word  promise,  Rom.  iv,  13,  14;  Gal.  iii, 
14,  17,  18,  21,  22,  29.  The  promises  of  the 
new  covenant  are  called  better  than  those  of 
the  old,  Heb.  viii,  6,  because  they  are  more 
spiritual,  clear,  comprehensive,  and  universal 
than  those  of  the  Mosaic  covenant.  The  time 
of  the  promise,  Acts  vii,  17,  is  the  time  of  ful- 
filling the  promise.  The  "  children  of  the 
promise"  are,  1.  The  Israelites  descended  from 
Isaac,  in  opposition  to  the  Ishmaelites  de- 
scended from  Ishmael  and  Hagar.  2.  The 
Jews  converted  to  Christianity,  in  opposition 
to  the  obstinate  Jews,  who  would  not  believe  i 
in  Christ.  3.  All  true  believers  who  are  born 
again  by  the  supernatural  power  of  God,  and 
who  by  faith  lay  hold  on  the  promise  of  salva- 
tion in  Jesus  Christ. 

PROPHECY,  the  prediction  of  future 
events ;  it  is  especially  understood  of  those 
predictions  which  are  contained  in  the  Holy 
Scriptures  ;  all  of  which  claim  divine  inspira- 
tion, and  by  their  wonderful  fulfilment  are 
proved  to  have  proceeded  from  God,  who  only 
with  certainty  can  know  the  future.  Prophecy 
is  one  great  branch  of  the  external  evidence  of 
the  truth  of  the  Scriptures ;  and  the  nature 
and  force  of  this  kind  of  evidence  may  here 
be  properly  pointed  out.  No  argument  a  priori 
against  the  possibility  of  prophecy  can  be 
attempted  by  any  one  who  believes  in  the  ex- 
istence and  infinitely  perfect  nature  of  God. 
The  infidel  author  of  "  The  Moral  Philoso- 
pher," indeed,  rather  insinuates  than  attempts 
fully  to  establish  a  dilemma  with  which  to 
perplex  those  who  regard  prophecy  as  one  of 
the  proofs  of  a  divine  revelation.  He  thinks 
that  either  prophecy  must  respect  events  ne- 
cessary, as  depending  upon  necessary  causes, 
which  might  be  certainly  foreknown  and  pre- 
dicted ;  or  that,  if  human  actions  are  free,  and 
effects  contingent,  the  possibility  of  prophecy 
must  be  given  up,  as  it  implies  foreknowledge, 
which,  if  granted,  would  render  them  neces- 
sary. The  first  part  of  this  objection  might 
be  allowed,  were  there  no  predictions  to  be 
adduced  in  favour  of  a  professed  revelation, 
except  such  as  related  to  events  which  human 


experience  has  taught  to  be  dependent  upon 
some  cause,  the  existence  and  necessary  ope- 
ration of  which  are  within  the  compass  of 
human  knowledge.  But  to  foretel  such  events 
would  not  be  to  prophesy,  any  more  than  to 
say  that  it  will  be  light  to-morrow  at  noon,  or 
that  on  a  certain  day  and  hour  next  year  there 
will  occur  an  eclipse  of  the  sun  or  moon,  when 
that  event  has  been  previously  ascertained  by 
astronomical  calculation.  If,  however,  it  were 
allowed  that  all  events  depended  upon  a  chain 
of  necessary  causes,  yet,  in  a  variety  of  in- 
stances, the  argument  from  prophecy  would 
not  be  at  all  affected ;  for  the  foretelling  of 
necessary  results  in  certain  circumstances  is 
beyond  human  intelligence,  because  they  can 
only  be  known  to  him  by  whose  power  those 
necessary  causes  on  which  they  depend  have 
been  arranged,  and  who  has  prescribed  the 
times  of  their  operation.  To  borrow  a  case, 
for  the  sake  of  illustration,  from  the  Scrip- 
tures, though  the  claims  of  their  predictions 
are  not  now  in  question ;  let  us  allow  that 
such  a  prophecy  as  that  of  Isaiah  respecting 
the  taking  of  Babylon  by  Cyrus  was  uttered, 
as  it  purports  to  be,  more  than  a  century  be- 
fore Cyrus  was  born,  and  that  all  the  actions 
of  Cyrus  and  his  army,  and  those  of  the  Baby- 
lonian monarch  and  his  people,  were  neces- 
sitated ;  is  it  to  be  maintained  that  the  chain 
of  necessitating  causes  running  through  more 
than  a  century  could  be  traced  by  a  human 
mind,  so  as  to  describe  the  precise  manner  in 
which  that  fatality  would  unfold  itself,  even 
to  the  turning  of  the  river,  the  drunken  carousal 
of  the  inhabitants,  and  the  neglect  of  shutting 
the  gates  of  the  city  ?  This  being  by  uniform 
and  universal  experience  known  to  be  above 
all  human  apprehension,  would  therefore  prove 
that  the  prediction  was  made  in  consequence 
of  a  communication  from  a  superior  and  divine 
Intelligence.  Were  events,  therefore,  sub- 
jected to  invincible  fate  and  necessity,  there 
might  nevertheless  be  prophecy. 

The  other  branch  of  the  dilemma  is  founded 
on  the  notion  that  if  we  allow  the  moral  free- 
dom of  human  actions,  prophecy  is  impossible, 
because  certain  foreknowledge  is  contrary  to 
that  freedom,  and  fixes  and  renders  the  event 
necessary.  To  this  the  reply  is,  that  the  ob- 
jection is  founded  on  a  false  assumption,  the 
divine  foreknowledge  having  no  more  influence 
in  effectuating  or  making  certain  any  event 
than  human  foreknowledge  in  the  degree  in 
which  it  may  exist,  there  being  no  moral 
causality  at  all  in  knowledge.  This  lies  in  the 
will,  which  is  the  determining  acting  principle, 
in  every  agent ;  or,  as  Dr.  Samuel  Clarke  has 
expressed  it,  in  answer  to  another  kind  of  ob- 
jector, "  God's  infallible  judgment  concerning 
contingent  truths  does  no  more  alter  the  nature 
of  the  things,  and  cause  them  to  be  necessary, 
than  our  judging  right  at  any  time  concerning 
a  contingent  truth  makes  it  cease  to  be  con- 
tingent ;  or  than  our  science  of  a  present  truth 
is  any  cause  of  its  being  either  true  or  present. 
Here,  therefore,  lies  the  fallacy  of  our  author's 
argument.  Because,  from  God's  foreknowing 
the  existence  of  things  depending  upon  a  chairs 


PRO 


782 


PRO 


of  necessary  causes,  it  follows  that  the  exist- 
ence of  the  things  must  needs  be  necessary  ; 
therefore,  from  God's  judging  infallibly  con- 
cerning tilings  which  depend  not  on  necessary 
but  free  causes,  he  concludes  thai  these  things 
also  depend  not  upon  free  but  necessary  causes. 
Contrary,  I  say,  to  the  supposition  in  the  argu- 
ment ;  for  it  must  not  be  first  supposed  that 
things  are  in  their  own  nature  necessary;  but 
from  the  power  of  judging  infallibly  concern- 
ing free  events,  it  must  be  proved  that  things, 
otherwise  supposed  free,  will  thereby  unavoid- 
ably become  necessary."  The  whole  question 
lies  in  this,  Is  the  simple  knowledge  of  an  ac- 
tion a  necessitating  cause  of  the  action  ?  And 
the  answer  must  be  in  the  negative,  as  every 
man's  consciousness  will  assure  him.  If  the 
causality  of  influence,  cither  immediate,  or  by 
the  arrangement  of  compelling  events,  be 
mixed  up  with  this,  the  ground  is  shifted  ;  and 
it  is  no  longer  a  question  which  respects  sim- 
ple prescience.  (See  Prescience.)  This  meta- 
physical objection  having  no  foundation  in 
truth,  the  force  of  the  evidence  arising  from 
predictions  of  events,  distant,  and  beyond  the 
power  of  human  sagacity  to  anticipate,  and 
uttered  as  authentications  of  a  divine  commis- 
sion, is  apparent.  "  Such  predictions,  whether 
in  the  form  of  declaration,  description,  or  re- 
presentation of  tilings  future,"  as  Mr.  Boyle 
justly  observes,  "  are  supernatural  things,  and 
may  properly  be  ranked  among  miracles."  For 
when,  for  instance,  the  events  are  distant 
many  years  or  ages  from  the  uttering  of  the 
prediction  itself,  depending  on  causes  not  so 
much  as  existing  when  the  prophecy  was 
spoken  and  recorded,  and  likewise  upon  vari- 
ous circumstances  and  a  long  arbitrary  series 
of  things,  and  the  fluctuating  uncertainties  of 
human  volitions,  and  especially  when  they 
depend  not  at  all  upon  any  external  circum- 
stances nor  upon  any  created  being,  but  arise 
merely  from  the  counsels  and  appointment  of 
God  himself, — such  events  can  be  foreknown 
only  by  that  Being,  one  of  whose  attributes  is 
omniscience,  and  can  be  foretold  by  him  only 
to  whom  the  "  Father  of  lights"  shall  reveal 
them;  so  that  whoever  is  manifestly  endued 
with  that  predictive  power  must,  in  that  in- 
stance, speak  and  act  by  divine  inspiration, 
and  what  he  pronounces  of  that  kind  must  be 
received  as  the  word  of  God ;  nothing  more 
being  necessary  to  assure  us  of  this  than  cre- 
dible testimony  that  such  predictions  were 
uttered  before  the  event,  or  conclusive  evidence 
that  the  records  which  contain  them  are  of  the 
antiquity  to  which  they  pretend. 

The  distinction  between  the  prophecies  of 
Scripture  and  the  oracles  of  Heathenism  is 
marked  and  essential.  In  the  Heathen  oracles 
we  cannot  discern  any  clear  and  unequivocal 
tokens  of  genuine  prophecy.  They  were  des- 
titute of  dignity  and  importance,  had  no  con- 
nection with  each  other,  tended  to  no  object  of 
general  concern,  and  never  looked  into  times 
remote  from  their  own.  We  read  only  of  some 
few  predict  ions  and  prognostications,  scattered 
among  the  writings  of  poets  and  philosophers, 
most  of  which,  beside  being  very  weakly  au- 


thenticated, appear  to  have  been  answers  to 
questions  of  merely  local,  personal,  and  tem- 
porary concern,  relating  to  the  issue  of  affairs 
then  actually  in  hand,  and  to  events  speedily 
to  be   determined.      Far   from  attempting  to 
form  any  chain  of  prophecies,  respecting  things 
far  distant  as  to  time  or  place,  or  matters  con- 
trary to  human  probability,  and  requiring  su- 
pernatural agency  to  effect  them,  the  Heathen 
priests  and  soothsayers  did  not  even  pretend  to 
a  systematic  and  connected  plan.  They  hardly 
dared,  indeed,  to  assume  the  prophetic  charac- 
ter in  its  full  force,  but  stood  trembling,  as  it 
were,  on  the  brink  of  futurity,  conscious  of 
their  inability  to  venture  beyond  the  depths  of 
human  conjecture.      Hence  their  predictions 
became  so  fleeting,  so  futile,  so  uninteresting, 
that,  though  they  were  collected  together  as 
worthy  of  preservation,  they  soon  fell  into  dis- 
repute and  almost  total  oblivion.     (See  Ora- 
cles.)    The  Scripture  prophecies,  on  the  other 
hand,  constitute  a  series  of  divine  predictions, 
relating  principally  to   one  grand  object,   of 
universal  importance,  the  work  of  man's  re 
demption,  and  carried  on  in  regular  progres- 
sion   through    the    patriarchal,    Jewish,    and 
Christian  dispensations,  with  a  harmony  and 
uniformity  of  design,   clearly  indicating  one 
and  the  same  divine  Author.     They  speak  of 
the  agents  to  be  employed  in  it,  and  especially 
of  the  great  agent,  the  Redeemer  himself;  and 
of  those  mighty  and  awful  proceedings  of  Pro- 
vidence as  to  the  nations  of  the  earth,  by  which 
judgment  and  mercy  are  exercised  with  refer- 
ence both  to  the  ordinary  principles  of  moral 
government,  and  especially  to  this  restoring 
economy,  to  its  struggles,  its  oppositions,  and 
its  triumphs.     They  all  meet  in  Christ,  as  in 
their  proper  centre,  and  in  him  only ;    how- 
ever many  of  the  single  lines,  when  considered 
apart,  may  be  imagined  to  have  another  direc- 
tion, and  though  they  may  pass  through  inter- 
mediate events.    If  we  look,  says  Bishop  Hurd, 
into  the  prophetic. writings,  we  find  that  pro- 
phecy is  of  a  prodigious  extent ;   that  it  com. 
menced  from  the  fall  of  man,  and  reaches  to 
the  consummation  of  all  things  ;  that  for  many 
ages  it  was  delivered  darkly  to  a  few  persons, 
and  with  large  intervals  from  the  date  of  one 
prophecy  to  that  of  another ;    but,  at  length, 
became  more  clear,  more  frequent,  and   was 
uniformly  carried  on  in  the  line  of  one  people, 
separated  from  the  rest  of  the  world, — among 
other  reasons  assigned,  for  this  principally,  to 
be  the  repository  of  the  divine  oracles ;    that, 
with  some  intermission,  the  spirit  of  prophecy 
subsisted  among  that  people  to  the  coming  of 
Christ;  that  he  himself  and  his  Apostles  exer- 
cised this  jiower  in  the  most  conspicuous  man- 
ner, and  left  behind  them  many  predictions, 
recorded  in  the  books  of  the  New  Testament, 
which  profess  to  respect  very  distant  events, 
and  even  run  out  to  the  end  of  time,  or,  in  St. 
John's  expression,  to  that  period  "when  the 
mystery  of  God  shall  be  perfected."     Farther, 
beside  the  extent  of  this  prophetic  scheme,  the 
dignity  of  the  Person  whom  it  concerns  de- 
serves our  consideration.     He  is  described  in 
terms  which  excite  the  most  august  and  mag- 


PRO 


7S3 


PRO 


nificent  ideas.-  He  is  spoken  01,  indeed,  some- 
times as  being  "the  seed  of  the  woman,"  and 
as  "the  Son  of  man;"  yet  so  as  being  at  the 
same  time  of  more  than  mortal  extraction.  He 
is  even  represented  to  us  as  being  superior  to 
men  and  angels ;  as  far  above  all  principality 
and  power  ;  above  all  that  is  accounted  great, 
whether  in  heaven  or  in  earth ;  as  the  word 
and  wisdom  of  God;  as  the  eternal  Son  of  the 
Father  ;  as  the  Heir  of  all  things,  by  whom  he 
made  the  worlds  ;  as  the  brightness  of  his  glory, 
and  the  express  image  of  his  person.  We 
have  no  words  to  denote  greater  ideas  than 
these ;  the  mind  of  man  cannot  elevate  itself 
to  nobler  conceptions.  Of  such  transcendent 
worth  and  excellence  is  that  Jesus  said  to.be, 
to  whom  all  the  prophets  bear  witness  !  Lastly, 
the  declared  purpose  for  which  the  Messiah, 
prefigured  by  so  long  a  train  of  prophecy,  came 
into  the  world,  corresponds  to  all  the  rest  of 
the  representation.  It  was  not  to  deliver  an 
oppressed  nation  from  civil  tyranny,  or  to  erect 
a  great  civil  empire,  that  is,  to  achieve  one  of 
those  acts  which  history  accounts  most  heroic. 
No  :  it  was  not  a  mighty  state,  a  victor  people, 

Non  res  Romance,  perituraque  regno, 
[Not  the  empire  of  Rome  and  kingdoms  about  to  perish,] 
that  was  worthy  to  enter  into  the  contempla- 
tion of  this  divine  Person.  It  was  another  and 
far  sublimer  purpose,  which  he  came  to  accom- 
plish ;  a  purpose,  in  comparison  of  which  all 
our  policies  are  poor  and  little,  and  all  the  per- 
formances of  man  as  nothing.  It  was  to  de- 
liver a  world  from  ruin ;  to  abolish  sin  and 
death ;  to  purify  and  immortalize  human  na- 
ture ;  and  thus,  in  the  most  exalted  sense  of 
the  words,  to  be  the  Saviour  of  men  and  the 
blessing  of  all  nations.  There  is  no  exaggera- 
tion in  this  account :  a  spirit  of  prophecy  per- 
vading all  time,  characterizing  one  Person  of 
the  highest  dignity,  and  proclaiming  the  ac- 
complishment of  one  purpose,  the  most  benefi- 
cent, the  most  divine,  the  imagination  itself 
can  project.  Such  is  the  Scriptural  delineation 
of  that  economy  which  we  call  prophetic. 

The  advantage  of  this  species  of  evidence 
belongs  then  exclusively  to  our  revelation. 
Heathenism  never  made  any  clear  and  well 
founded  pretensions  to  it.  Mohammedanism, 
though  it  stands  itself  as  a  proof  of  the  truth 
of  Scripture  prophecy,  is  unsupported  by  a 
single  prediction  of  its  own. 

The  objection  which  has  been  raised  to 
Scripture  prophecy,  from  its  supposed  ob- 
scurity, has  no  solid  foundation.  There  is,  it 
is  true,  a  prophetic  language  of  symbol  and 
emblem  ;  but  it  is  a  language  which  is  definite 
and  not  equivocal  in  its  meaning,  and  as  easily 
mastered  as  the  language  of  poetry,  by  atten- 
tive persons.  This,  however,  is  not  always 
used.  The  style  of  the  prophecies  of  Scripture 
very  often  differs  in  nothing  from  the  ordinary 
style  of  the  Hebrew  poets ;  and,  in  not  a  few 
cases,  and  those  too  on  which  the  Christian 
builds  most  in  the  argument,  it  sinks  into  the 
plainness  of  historical  narrative.  Some  degree 
of  obscurity  is  essential  to  prophecy :  for  the 
end  of  it  was  not  to  gratify  human  curiosity, 
by  a  detail  of  future  events  and  circumstances  ; 


and  too  great  clearness  and  speciality  might 
have  led  to  many  artful  attempts  to  fulfil  the 
predictions,  and  so  far  the  evidence  of  their 
accomplishment  would  have  been  weakened. 
The  two  great  ends  of  prophecy  are,  to  excite 
expectation  before  the  event,  and  then  to  con- 
firm the  truth  by  a  striking  and  unequivocal 
fulfilment ;  and  it  is  a  sufficient  answer  to  the 
allegation  of  the  obscurity  of  the  prophecies 
of  Scripture,  that  they  have  abundantly  ac- 
complished those  objects,  among  the  most 
intelligent  and  investigating,  as  well  as  among 
the  simple  and  unlearned,  in  all  ages.  It  can- 
not be  denied,  for  instance,  leaving  out  par- 
ticular cases  which  might  be  given,  that  by 
means  of  these  predictions  the  expectation  of 
the  incarnation  and  appearance  of  a  divine 
Restorer  was  kept  up  among  the  people  to 
whom  they  were  given,  and  spread  even  to 
the  neighbouring  nations ;  that  as  these  pro- 
phecies multiplied,  the  hope  became  more 
intense ;  and  that  at  the  time  of  our  Lord's 
coming,  the  expectation  of  the  birth  of  a  very 
extraordinary  person  prevailed,  not  only  among 
the  Jews,  but  among  other  nations.  This  pur- 
pose was  then  sufficiently  answered,  and  an 
answer  is  given  to  the  objection.  In  like  man- 
ner prophecy  serves  as  the  basis  of  our  hope 
in  things  yet  to  come  ;  in  the  final  triumph  of 
truth  and  righteousness  on  earth,  the  universal 
establishment  of  the  kingdom  of  our  Lord,  and 
the  rewards  of  eternal  life  to  be  bestowed  at 
his  second  appearing.  In  these  all  true  Chris- 
tians agree;  and  their  hope  could  not  have 
been  so  uniformly  supported  in  all  ages  and 
under  all  circumstances,  had  not  the  prophecies 
and  predictive  promises  conveyed  with  suffi- 
cient clearness  the  general  knowledge  of  tho 
good  for  which  they  looked,  though  many  of 
its  particulars  be  unrevealed.  The  second  end 
of  prophecy  is,  to  confirm  the  truth  by  the 
subsequent  event.  Here  the  question  of  the 
actual  fulfilment  of  Scripture  prophecy  is 
involved ;  and  it  is  no  argument  against  the 
unequivocal  fulfilment  of  several  prophecies, 
that  many  have  doubted  or  denied  what  the 
believers  in  revelation  have  on  this  subject  so 
strenuously  contended  for.  How  few  of  man- 
kind have  read  the  Scriptures  with  serious 
attention,  or  been  at  the  pains  to  compare 
their  prophecies  with  the  statements  in  history. 
How  few,  especially  of  the  objectors  to  the 
Bible,  have  read  it  in  this  manner  !  How  many 
of  them  have  confessed  unblushingly  their  un- 
acquaintance  witli  its  contents,  or  have  proved 
what  they  have  not  confessed  by  the  mistakes 
and  misrepresentations  into  which  they  have 
fallen  !  As  for  the  Jews,  the  evident  dominion 
of  their  prejudices,  their  general  averseness  to 
discussion,  and  the  extravagant  principles  of 
interpretation  they  have  adopted  for  many 
ages,  which  set  all  sober  criticism  at  defiance, 
render  nugatory  any  authority  which  might 
be  ascribed  to  their  denial  of  the  fulfilment  of 
certain  prophecies  in  the  sense  adopted  by 
Christians.  We  may  add  to  this,  that  among 
Christian  critics  themselves  there  may  be  much 
disagreement.  Eccentricities  and  absun 
are  found  among  the  learned  in  every  depart. 


PRO 


784 


PRO 


irnnit  of  knowledge,  and  much  of  this  way- 
wardness and  affectation  of  singularity  has 
infected  interpreters  of  Scripture.  But,  after 
all,  there  is  a  truth  and  reason  in  every  subject, 
which  the  understandings  of  the  generality  of 
men  will  apprehend  and  acknowledge  when- 
ever it  is  fully  understood  and  impartially  con- 
sidered;  to  this  in  all  such  cases  the  appeal 
can  only  be  made,  and  here  it  may  be  made 
with  confidence.  Instances  of  the  signal  ful- 
filment of  numerous  prophecies  are  scattered 
through  various  articles  in  this  volume;  so 
that  it  is  not  necessary  to  repeat  them  here. 
A  few  words  on  the  double  sense  of  prophecy 
may,  however,  be  added. 

For  want  of  a  right  apprehension  of  the 
true  meaning  of  this  somewhat  unfortunate 
term  which  has  obtained  in  theology,  an  ob- 
jection of  another  kind  has  been  raised,  as 
though  no  definite  meaning  could  be  assigned 
to  the  prophecies  of  Scripture.  Nothing  can 
be  more  unfounded.  The  double  sense  of  many 
prophecies  in  the  Old  Testament,  says  an  able 
writer,  has  been  made  a  pretext  by  ill  disposed 
men,  for  representing  them  as  of  uncertain 
meaning,  and  resembling  the  ambiguity  of  the 
Pagan  oracles.  But  whoever  considers  the 
subject  with  due  attention,  will  perceive  how 
little  ground  there  is  for  such  an  accusation. 
The  equivocations  of  the  Heathen  oracles 
manifestly  arose  from  their  ignorance  of 
future  events,  and  from  their  endeavours  to 
conceal  that  ignorance  by  such  indefinite  ex- 
pressions, as  might  be  equally  applicable  to 
two  or  more  events  of  a  contrary  description. 
But  the  double  sense  of  the  Scripture  prophe- 
cies, far  from  originating  in  any  doubt  or  un- 
certainty, as  to  the  fulfilment  of  them  in  either 
sense,  springs  from  a  foreknowledge  of  their 
accomplishment  in  both  ;  whence  the  predic- 
tion is  purposely  so  framed  as  to  include  both 
events,  which,  so  far  from  being  contrary  to 
each  other,  are  typical  the  one  of  the  other, 
and  are  thus  connected  together  by  a  mutual 
dependency  or  relation.  This  has  often  been 
satisfactorily  proved,  with  respect  to  those 
prophecies  which  referred,  in  their  primary 
sense,  to  the  events  of  the  Old  Testament, 
and,  in  their  farther  and  more  complex  signi- 
fication, to  those  of  the  New  :  and  on  this 
double  accomplishment  of  some  prophecies  is 
grounded  our  firm  expectation  of  the  comple- 
tion of  others,  which  remain  yet  unfulfilled  in 
their  secondary  sense,  but  which  we  justly 
consider  as  equally  uncertain  in  their  issue  as 
those  which  are  already  past.  So  far,  then, 
from  any  valid  objection  lying  against  the 
credibility  of  the  Scripture  prophecies,  from 
these  seeming  ambiguities  of  meaning,  we  may 
urge  them  as  additional  proofs  of  their  coming 
from  God.  For,  who  but  the  Being  that  is 
infinite  in  knowledge  and  in  counsel  could  so 
construct  predictions  as  to  give  them  a  two- 
fold application,  to  events  distant  from,  and, 
to  human  foresight,  unconnected  with,  each 
other  ?  What  power  less  than  divine  could  so 
frame  them  as  to  make  the  accomplishment 
of  them  in  one  instance  a  solemn  pledge  and 
assurance  of  their  completion  in  another  in- 


stance,  of  still  higher  and  more  universal  im- 
portance ?  Where  will  the  scoffer  find  any 
thing  like  this  in  the  artifices  of  Heathen 
oracles,  to  conceal  their  ignorance,  and  to 
impose  on  the  credulity  of  mankind  ?  See 
Oracles. 

On  this  subject  it  may  be  observed,  by  way 
of  general  illustration,  that  the  remarkable 
personages  under  the  old  dispensation  were 
sometimes  in  the  description  of  their  charac- 
ters, and  in  the  events  of  their  lives,  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  future  dispensers  of  evan- 
gelical blessings,  as  Moses  and  David  were 
unquestionably  types  of  Christ,  Ezck.  xxxiv, 
23 ;  Matt,  xi,  14 ;  Heb.  vi,  20 ;  vii,  1-3.  Per- 
sons likewise  were  sometimes  descriptive  of 
things,  as  Sarah  and  Hagar  were  allegorical 
figures  of  the  two  covenants,  Gal.  iv,  22-31 ; 
Rom.  ix,  8-13.  And,  on  the  other  hand, 
things  were  used  to  symbolize  persons,  as  the 
brazen  serpent  and  the  paschal  lamb  were 
signs  of  our  healing  and  spotless  Redeemer, 
Exodus  xii,  46  ;  John  iii,  14 ;  xix,  36.  And 
so,  lastly,  ceremonial  appointments  and  legal 
circumstances  were  preordained  as  signifi- 
cant of  Gospel  institutions,  1  Cor.  x,  1-11  ; 
Heb.  viii,  5  ;  ix,  x ;  1  Pet.  iii,  20,  22.  Hence 
it  was  that  many  of  the  descriptions  of  the 
prophets  had  a  twofold  character ;  bearing 
often  an  immediate  reference  to  present  cir- 
cumstances, and  yet  being  in  their  nature  pre- 
dictive of  future  occurrences.  What  they 
reported  of  the  type  was  often  in  a  more  signal 
manner  applicable  to  the  thing  typified,  Psalm 
xxi,  4-6;  xl,  1,  7-10  ;  xli,  4;  Lam.  xiii,  1-30; 
John  xiii,  18  ;  Dan.  xi,  36,  37  ;  what  they 
spoke  literally  of  present,  was  figuratively  de- 
scriptive of  future  particulars  ;  and  what  was 
applied  in  a  figurative  sense  to  existing  per- 
sons, was  often  actually  characteristic  of  their 
distant  archetypes,  Psalm  xxii,  16-18,  &,c. 
Many  passages  then  in  the  Old  Testament, 
which  in  their  first  aspect  appear  to  be  his- 
torical, are  in  fact  prophetic,  and  they  are  so 
cited  in  the  New  Testament,  not  by  way  of 
ordinary  accommodation,  or  casual  coinci- 
dence, but  as  intentionally  predictive,  as  hav- 
ing a  double  sense,  a  literal  and  a  mystical 
interpretation,  Hosea  xi,  1 ;  Matt,  ii,  15. 

Beside  these  historical  passages,  of  which 
the  covert  allusions  were  explained  by  the 
interpretation  of  the  Gospel  writers,  who  were 
enlightened  by  the  Spirit  to  unfold  the  myste- 
ries of  Scripture,  the  prophets  often  uttered 
positive  predictions  which,  in  consequence  of 
the  correspondence  established  between  the 
two  dispensations,  were  descriptive  of  a  double 
event,  however  they  might  be  themselves  ig- 
norant of  the  full  extent  of  those  prophecies 
which  they  delivered.  For  instance,  their 
promises  of  present  success  and  deliverances 
were  often  significant  of  distant  benefits,  and 
secular  consolations  conveyed  assurances  of 
evangelical  blessings,  2  Sam.  vii,  13,  14;  Heb. 
i,  5.  Thus  their  prophecies  received  comple. 
tion  in  a  first  and  secondary  view.  As  being 
in  part  signs  to  excite  confidence,  they  had  an 
immediate  accomplishment,  but  were  after- 
ward   fulfilled    in    a    more    illustrious    sense, 


PRO 


785 


PRO 


1  Kings  xiii,  2,  3 ;  Isaiah  vii,  14 ;  Matt,  i,  22  ; 
Dan.  ix,  27;  xii,  7;  1  Mace,  i,  54;  Matt. 
xxiv,  15  ;  the  prophets  being  inspired,  by  the 
suggestions  of  the  Spirit,  to  use  expressions 
magnificent  enough  to  include  the  substance 
in  the  description  of  the  figure.  That  many 
of  the  prophecies  in  the  Old  Testament  were 
direct,  and  singly  and  exclusively  applicable  to, 
and  accomplished  in,  our  Saviour,  is  certain, 
Gen.  xlix,  10  ;  Psalm  xlii,  xlv  ;  Isaiah  lii,  liii ; 
Daniel  vii,  13,  14  ;  Micah  v,  2  ;  Zech.  ix,  9  ; 
Mai.  iii,  1. 

It  requires  much  attention  to  comprehend 
the  full  import  and  extent  of  this  typical  dis- 
pensation, and  the  chief  obscurities  which 
prevail  in  the  sacred  writings  are  to  be  attri- 
buted to  the  double  character  of  prophecy. 
To  unravel  this  is,  however,  an  interesting 
and  instructive  study ;  though  an  admiration 
of  the  spiritual  meaning  should  never  lead  us 
to  disregard  or  undervalue  the  first  and  evi- 
dent signification ;  for  many  great  men  have 
been  so  dazzled  by  their  discoveries, in  this 
mode  of  explication,  as  to  be  hurried  into  wild 
and  extravagant  excess ;  as  is  evident  from 
the  writings  of  Origen  and  Jerom ;  as  also 
from  the  Commentaries  of  Austin,  who  ac- 
knowledges that  he  had  too  far  indulged  in  the 
fancies  of  an  exuberant  imagination,  declaring 
that  the  other  parts  of  Scripture  are  the  best 
commentaries.  The  Apostles  and  the  evan- 
gelists are,  indeed,  the  best  expositors ;  and 
where  those  infallible  guides  have  led  the  way, 
we  need  not  hesitate  to  follow  their  steps  by 
the  light  of  clear  reason  and  just  analogy. 

It  is  this  double  character  of  prophecy 
which  occasions  those  unexpected  transitions 
and  sudden  interchanges  of  circumstance  so 
observable  in  the  prophetic  books.  Hence 
different  predictions  are  sometimes  blended 
and  mixed  together ;  temporal  and  spiritual 
deliverances  are  foretold  in  one  prophecy ;  and 
greater  and  smaller  events  are  combined  in 
one  point  of  view.  Hence,  likewise,  one  chain 
of  connected  design  runs  through  the  whole 
scheme  of  prophecy,  and  a  continuation  of 
events  successively  fulfilling,  and  successively 
branching  out  into  new  predictions,  continued 
to  confirm  the  faith,  and  to  keep  alive  the  ex- 
pectations, of  the  Jews.  Hence  was  it  the 
character  of  the  prophetic  spirit  to  be  rapid  in 
its  description,  and  regardless  of  the  order  of 
history  ;  to  pass  with  quick  and  unexpected 
celerity  from  subject  to  subject,  and  from 
period  to  period.  "  And  we  must  allow,"  says 
Lord  Bacon,  "  for  that  latitude  that  is  agreea- 
ble and  familiar  to  prophecy,  which  is  of  the 
nature  of  its  Author,  with  whom  a  thousand 
years  are  but  as  one  day."  The  whole  of  the 
great  scheme  must  have  been  at  once  present 
to  the  divine  Mind  ;  but  God  described  its  parts 
in  detail  to  mankind,  in  such  measures  and  in 
such  proportions,  that  the  connection  of  every 
link  was  obvious,  and  its  relations  apparent  in 
every  point  of  view,  till  the  harmony  and  en- 
tire consistency  of  the  plan  were  displayed  to 
those  who  witnessed  its  perfection  in  the  ad- 
vent of  Christ. 

PROPHETS.     A  prophet,  in  the  strict  and 
51 


proper  sense,  was  one  to  whom  the  knowledge 
of  secret  things  was  revealed,  that  he  might 
declare  them  to  others,  whether  they  were 
things  past,  or  present,  or  to  come.  The  woman 
of  Samaria  perceived  our  Saviour  was  a  pro- 
phet, by  his  telling  her  the  secrets  of  her  past. 
life,  John  iv,  19.  The  Prophet  Elisha  had 
the  present  conduct  of  his  servant  Gehazi 
revealed  to  him,  2  Kings  v,  26.  And  most  of 
the  prophets  had  revelations  concerning  future 
events  ;  above  all,  concerning  the  coming  and 
kingdom  of  the  Messiah  :  "  He  has  raised  up 
a  horn  of  salvation  for  us  in  the  house  of  his 
servant  David,  as  he  spake  by  the  mouth  of 
his  holy  prophets,  which  have  been  since  the 
world  began,"  Luke  i,  69,  70.  Nevertheless, 
in  a  more  lax  or  analogical  sense,  the  title 
prophet  is  sometimes  given  to  persons  who 
had  no  such  revelation,  nor  were  properly  in- 
spired. Thus  Aaron  is  said  to  be  Moses's 
prophet :  "  The  Lord  said  unto  Moses,  See,  I 
have  made  thee  a  god  to  Pharaoh,  and  Aaron 
thy  brother  shall  be  thy  prophet,"  Exod.  vii,  1 : 
because  Aaron  received  the  divine  messages, 
which  he  carried  immediately  from  Moses ; 
whereas  other  prophets  receive  their  messages 
immediately  from  God  himself.  In  this  respect, 
as  Moses  stood  in  the  place  of  God  to  Pha. 
raoh,  so  Aaron  acted  in  the  character  of  his 
prophet.  The  title  of  prophets  is  given  also 
to  the  sacred  musicians,  who  sung  the  praises 
of  God,  or  who  accompanied  the  song  with 
musical  instruments.  Thus  "  the  sons  of 
Asaph,  and  of  Heman,  and  of  Jeduthun,"  are 
said  to  "prophesy  with  harps,  with  psalteries, 
and  with  cymbals,"  1  Chron.  xxv,  1 ;  and  they 
prophesied,  it  is  said,  "according  to  the  order 
of  the  king."  Perhaps  Miriam,  the  sister  of 
Aaron,  may  be  callud  a  prophetess  only  on 
this  account,  that  she  led  the  concert  of  the 
women,  who  sung  the  song  of  Moses  with 
timbrels  and  with  dances,  Exodus  xv,  20,  21. 
Thus  the  Heathen  poets,  who  sung  or  com- 
posed verses  in  praise  of  their  gods,  were  called 
by  the  Romans  vates,  or  prophets ;  which  is 
of  the  same  import  with  the  Greek  tzpotp/jTris,  a 
title  which  St.  Paul  gives  to  Epimenidcs,  a 
Cretan  poet,  Titus  i,  12. 

Godwin  observes,  that,  for  the  propagation 
of  learning,  colleges  and  schools  were  in  divers 
places  erected  for  the  prophets.  The  first  inti 
matron  we  have  in  Scripture  of  these  schools 
is  in  1  Sam.  x,'5,  where  we  read  of  "a  com- 
pany of  prophets  coming  down  from  the  high 
place  with  a  psaltery,  a  tabret,  a  pipe,  and  a 
harp  before  them,  and  they  did  prophesy." 
They  are  supposed  to  be  the  students  in  a 
college  of  prophets  at  lijoj,  or  "  the  hill,"  as 
we  render  it,  "of  God."  Our  translators  else- 
where retain  the  same  Hebrew  word,  as  sup- 
posing it  to  be  the  proper  name  of  a  place, 
"Jonathan  smote  the  garrison  of  the  Philis- 
tines that  was  in  Geba,"  1  Sam.  xiii,  3.  Some 
persons  have  imagined  that  the  ark,  or  at  least 
a  synagogue,  or  some  place  of  public  worship, 
was  at  this  time  at  Geba,  and  that  this  is  tho 
reason  of-  its  being  styled  in  the  former  pas- 
sage Q»sll7Nfl  njj^j,  the  hill  of  God.  We  read 
afterward  of  such  another  company   of  pro* 


PRO 


786 


PRO 


phets  at  Naioth  in  Ramah,  "  prophesying,  and 
Samuel  standing   as   appointed  over   them," 

1  Sarn.  xix,  19,  20.  The  students  in  these 
colleges  were  called  sons  of  the  prophets,  who 
are  frequently  mentioned  in  after  ages,  even 
in  the  most  degenerate  times.  Thus  we  read 
of  the  sons  of  the  prophets  that  were  at 
Bethel ;  and  of  another  school  at  Jericho ; 
and  of  the    sons    of  the  prophets  at  Gilgal, 

2  Kings  ii,  3,  5 ;  iv,  38.  It  should  seem,  that 
these  sons  of  the  prophets  were  very  nume- 
rous ;  for  of  this  sort  were  probably  the  pro- 
phets of  the  Lord,  whom  Jezebel  cut  off;  "  but 
Obadiah  took  a  hundred  of  them,  and  hid  them 
by  fifty  in  a  cave,"  1  Kings  xviii,  4.  In  these 
schools  young  men  were  educated  under  a 
proper  master,  who  was  commonly,  if  not 
always,  an  inspired  prophet,  in  the  knowledge 
of  religion,  and  in  sacred  music,  1  Sam.  x,  5  ; 
xix,  20,  and  were  thereby  qualified  to  be  pub- 
lic preachers,  which  seems  to  have  been  part 
of  the  business  of  the  prophets  on  the  Sabbath 
days  and  festivals,  2  Kings  iv,  23.  It  should 
seem,  that  God  generally  chose  the  prophets, 
whom  he  inspired,  out  of  these  schools.  Amos, 
therefore,  speaks  of  it  as  an  extraordinary  case, 
that  though  he  was  not  one  of  the  sons  of  the 
prophets,  but  a  herdsman,  "yet  the  Lord  took 
him  as  he  followed  the  flock,  and  said  unto 
him,  Go,  prophesy  unto  my  people  Israel," 
Amos  vii,  14,  15.  That  it  was  usual  for  some 
of  these  schools,  or  at  least  for  their  tutors,  to 
be  endued  with  a  prophetic  spirit,  appears  from 
the  relation  of  the  prophecies  concerning  the 
ascent  of  Elijah,  delivered  to  Elisha  by  the 
sons  of  the  prophets,  both  at  Jericho  and  at 
Bethel,  2  Kings  ii,  3,  5. 

The  Hebrew  prophets  present  a  succession 
of  men  at  once  the  most  singular  and  the  most 
venerable  that  ever  appeared,  in  so  long  a  line 
of  time,  in  the  world.  They  had  special  com- 
munion with  God ;  they  laid  open  the  scenes 
of  the  future;  they  were  ministers  of  the  pro- 
mised Christ.  They  upheld  religion  and  piety 
in  the  worst  times,  and  at  the  greatest  risks ; 
and  their  disinterestedness  was  only  equalled 
by  their  patriotism.  The  houses  in  which 
they  lived  were  generally  mean,  and  of  their 
own  building,  2  Kings  vi,  2-4.  Their  food 
wa6  chiefly  pottage  of  herbs,  unless  when  the 
people  sent  them  some  better  provision,  as 
bread,  parched  corn,  honey,  dried  fruits,  and 
the  like,  1  Kings  xiv,  3  ;  2  Kings  iv,  38,  39, 
42.  Their  dress  was  plain  and  coarse,  tied 
about  with  a  leathern  girdle,  Zech.  xiii,  4  ; 
2  Kings  i,  8.  Riches  were  no  temptation  to 
them  ;  therefore  Elisha  not  only  refused  Naa- 
man's  presents,  but  punished  his  servant  Ge- 
hazi  very  severely  for  clandestinely  obtaining 
a  small  share  of  them,  2  Kings  v,  15,  &c.  To 
succeeding  ages  they  have  left  a  character 
consecrated  by  holiness,  and  "  visions  of  the 
Holy  One,"  which  still  unveil  to  the  church 
his  most  glorious  attributes,  and  his  deepest 
designs.  "  Prophecy,"  says  the  Apostle  Peter, 
"came  not  of  old  time  by  the  will  of  man: 
but  holy  men  of  God  6pake  as  they  were 
moved  by  the  Holy  Ghost,"  2  Pet.  i,  21.  They 
flourished  in  a  continued  succession  during  a 


period  of  more  than  a  thousand  years,  reckon, 
ing  from  Moses  to  Malachi,  all  cooperating  in 
the  same  designs,  uniting  in  one  spirit  to  de- 
liver the  same  doctrines,  and  to  predict  the 
same  blessings  to  mankind.  Their  claims  to 
a  divine  commission  were  demonstrated  by 
the  intrinsic  excellency  of  their  doctrine ;  by 
the  disinterested  zeal  and  undaunted  courage 
with  which  they  prosecuted  their  ministry, 
and  persevered  in  their  great  design,  and  by 
the  unimpeachable  integrity  of  their  conduct. 
But  even  those  credentials  of  a  divine  mission 
were  still  farther  confirmed  by  the  exercise  of 
miraculous  powers,  and  by  the  completion  of 
many  less  important  predictions  which  they 
uttered,  Deut.  xiii,  1-3  ;  xviii,  22  ;  Joshua  x, 
13;  1  Sam.  xii,  8;  2  Kings  i,  10;  Isa.  xxxviii, 
8 ;  xiii,  9  ;  1  Sam.  ix,  6  ;  1  Kings  xiii,  3  ;  Jer. 
xxviii,  9  ;  Ezek.  xxxiii,  33.  When  not  imme- 
diately employed  in  the  discharge  of  their  sacred 
office,  they  lived  sequestered  from  the  world, 
in  religious  communities,  or  wandered  "  in 
deserts,  in  mountains,  and  in  caves  of  the 
earth ;"  distinguished  by  their  apparel,  and 
by  the  general  simplicity  of  their  style  of  life, 
2  Kings  i,  8  ;  iv,  10,  38  ;  vi,  1 ;  Isa.  xx,  2  ;  Matt, 
iii,  4 ;  Heb.  xi,  38  ;  Rev.  xi,  3.  They  were 
the  established  oracles  of  their  country,  and 
consulted  upon  all  occasions  when  it  was 
necessary  to  collect  the  divine  will  on  any 
civil  or  religious  question.  These  illustrious 
personages  were  likewise  as  well  the  types  as 
the  harbingers  of  that  greater  Prophet  whom 
they  foretold  ;  and  in  the  general  outline  of 
their  character,  as  well  as  in  particular  events 
of  their  lives,  they  prefigured  to  the  Jews  the 
future  Teacher  of  mankind.  Like  him,  also, 
they  laboured  by  every  exertion  to  instruct 
and  reclaim  ;  reproving  and  threatening  the 
sinful,  however  exalted  in  rank,  or  encircled 
by  power,  with  such  fearless  confidence  and 
sincerity  as  often  excited  respect.  The  most 
intemperate  princes  were  sometimes  compelled 
unwillingly  to  hear  and  to  obey  their  direc- 
tions, 1  Kings  xii,  21-24;  xiii,  2-6;  xx,  42, 
43;  xxi,  27;  2  Chron.  xxviii,  9-14;  though 
often  so  incensed  by  their  rebuke,  as  to  resent 
it  by  the  severest  persecutions.  Then  it  was 
that  the  prophets  exhibited  the  integrity  of 
their  characters,  by  zealously  encountering 
oppression,  hatred,  and  death,  in  the  cause  of 
religion.  Then  it  was  that  they  firmly  sup- 
ported "trial  of  cruel  mockings  and  scourg- 
ings,  yea,  moreover,  of  bonds  and  imprison- 
ment. They  were  stoned,  they  were  sawn 
asunder,  were  tempted,  were  slain  with  the 
sword  ;  they  wandered  about,  destitute,  afflict- 
ed, tormented,"  evil  intreated  for  those  virtues 
of  which  the  memorial  should  flourish  to  pos- 
terity, and  martyred  for  righteousness,  which, 
whenever  resentment  should  subside,  it  would 
be  deemed  honourable  to  reverence,  Matthew 
xxiii,  27-29. 

The  manner  in  which  the  prophets  published 
their  predictions  was,  either  by  uttering  them 
aloud  in  some  public  place,  or  by  affixing  them 
on  the  gates  of  the  temple,  Jcr.  vii,  2;  Ezek. 
iii,  10,  where  they  might  be  generally  seen 
and  read.      Upon  some  important  occasions, 


PRO 


787 


PRO 


when  it  was  necessary  to  rouse  the  fears  of  a 
disobedient  people,  and  to  recall  them  to  repent, 
ance,  the  prophets,  as  objects  of  universal  at- 
tention, appear  to  have  walked  about  publicly 
in  sackcloth,  and  with  every  external  mark  of 
humiliation  and  sorrow.  They  then  adopted 
extraordinary  modes  of  expressing  their  con- 
victions of  impending  wrath,  and  endeavoured 
to  awaken  the  apprehensions  of  their  country, 
by  the  most  striking  illustration  of  threatened 
punishment.  Thus  Jeremiah  made  bonds  and 
yokes,  and  put  them  upon  his  neck,  Jer.  xxvii, 
strongly  to  intimate  the  subjection  that  God 
would  bring  on  the  nations  whom  Nebuchad- 
nezzar should  subdue.  Isaiah  likewise  walked 
naked,  that  is,  without  the  rough  garment  of 
the  prophet,  and  barefoot,  as  a  sign  of  the  dis- 
tress that  awaited  the  Egyptians,  Isa.  xx.  So 
Jeremiah  broke  the  potter's  vessel,  Jer.  xix ; 
and  Ezekiel  publicly  removed  his  household 
goods  from  the  city,  2  Kings  xxv,  4,  5 ;  Ezek. 
xii,  7 ;  more  forcibly  to  represent  by  these  ac- 
tions some  correspondent  calamities  ready  to 
fall  on  nations  obnoxious  to  God's  wrath  ;  this 
mode  of  expressing  important  circumstances 
by  action,  being  customary  and  familiar  among 
all  eastern  nations.  The  great  object  of  pro- 
phecy was,  as  has  been  before  observed,  a 
description  of  the  Messiah,  and  of  his  kingdom, 
Matt,  xxvi,  56 ;  Luke  i,  70  ;  xviii,  31 ;  xxiv, 
44 ;  John  i,  45  ;  Acts  iii,  18,  24 ;  x,  43 ;  xiii, 
29 ;  xv,  15 ;  xxviii,  23 ;  1  Pet.  i,  10-12.  These 
were  gradually  unfolded  by  successive  pro- 
phets in  predictions  more  and  more  distinct. 
They  were  at  first  held  forth  in  general  pro- 
mises ;  they  were  afterward  described  by  figures, 
and  shadowed  out  under  types  and  allusive 
institutions,  and  finally  foretold  in  the  full 
lustre  of  descriptive  prophecy.  The  Hebrew 
prophets  were  chosen  of  God  to  testify  before- 
hand of  the  sufferings  of  Christ,  and  the  glory 
that  should  follow.     See  Prophecy. 

PROPITIATION.  To  propitiate  is  to  ap- 
pease, to  atone,  to  turn  away  the  wrath  of  an 
offended  person.  In  the  case  before  us,  the 
wrath  turned  away  is  the  wrath  of  God  ;  the 
person  making  the  propitiation  is  Christ ;  the 
propitiating  offering  or  sacrifice  is  his  blood. 
All  this  is  expressed  in  most  explicit  terms  in 
the  following  passages :  "  And  he  is  the  pro- 
pitiation for  our  sins,"  1  John  ii,  2.  "Herein 
is  love,  not  that  we  loved  God,  but  that  he 
loved  us,  and  sent  his  Son  to  be  the  propitia- 
tion for  our  sins,"  1  John  iv,  10.  "  Whom 
God  hath  set  forth  to  be  a  propitiation  through 
faith  in  his  blood,"  Rom.  iii,  25.  The  word 
used  in  the  two  former  passages  is  [W^d? ;  in 
the  last  iXas-ripiev.  Both  are  from  the  verb  'iXdoxu, 
so  often  used  by  Greek  writers  to  express  the 
action  of  a  person  who,  in  some  appointed 
way,  turned  away  the  wrath  of  a  deity ;  and 
therefore  cannot  bear  the  sense  which  Socinus 
would  put  upon  it, — the  destruction  of  sin. 
This  is  not  supported  by  a  single  example. 
With  all  Greek  authorities,  whether  poets, 
historians,  or  others,  the  word  means  to  pro- 
pitiate, and  is,  for  the  most  part,  construed 
with  an  accusative  case,  designating  the  per- 
son whose  displeasure    is   averted.      As  this 


could  not  be  denied,  Crellius  comes  to  the  aid 
of  Socinus,  and  contends  that  the  sense  ot 
this  word  was  not  to  be  taken  from  its  com- 
mon use  in  the  Greek  tongue,  but  from  the 
Hellenistic  use  of  it  in  the  Greek  of  the  New 
Testament,  the  LXX.  and  the  Apocrypha.  But 
this  will  not  serve  him  ;  for  both  by  the  LXX. 
and  in  the  Apocrypha,  it  is  used  in  the  same 
sense  as  in  the  Greek  classic  writers.  "  He 
shall  offer  his  iXac/idi',  sin-offering,  saith  the 
Lord  God,"  Ezek.  xliv,  27.  "  And  the  priest 
shall  take  the  blood  of  the  j^iXa^oE,  sin-offer- 
ing," Ezek.  xlv,  19.  Kpos  ™5  IW^oC,  "  The 
ram  of  the  atone-ment,"  Num.  v,  8.  To  which 
may  be  added,  out  of  the  Apocrypha,  "Now 
as  the  high  priest  was  making  IXacixbv,  an 
atonement,"  2  Mace,  iii,  33. 

The  propitiatory  sense  of  the  word  iXao-^rfj 
being  thus  fixed,  the  modern  Socinians  have 
conceded,  in  their  note  on  1  John  ii,  2,  in  their 
Improved  Version,  that  it  means  the  "pacify- 
ing of  an  offended  party;"  but  they  subjoin, 
that  Christ  is  a   propitiation,  because  by  his 
Gospel  he    brings  sinners  to  repentance,  and 
thus  averts  the  divine  displeasure.     The  con- 
cession is  important ;    and  the  comment  can- 
not weaken  it,  because  of  its  absurdity  ;  for,  in 
that  interpretation  of  propitiation,  Moses,  or 
any  of  the  Apostles,  or  any  minister  of  the 
Gospel  now,  who  succeeds  in  bringing  sinners 
to  repentance,  is  as  truly  a  propitiation  for  sin 
as  Christ  himself.     On  Rom.  iii,  25,  however, 
the  authors  of  the  Improved  Version  continue 
to  follow  their  master  Socinus,  and  translate 
the  passage,  "whom  God  hath  set  forth  a  pro- 
pitiation, through  faith  in  his  blood,"  "  whom 
God  hath  set  forth  as  a  mercy  seat  in  his  own 
blood,"  and  lay  great  stress  upon  this  render- 
ing, as  removing  that  countenance  to  the  doc- 
trine of  atonement  by  vicarious  sufferings  which 
the  common  translation   affords.     The   word 
Wa^-fipiov  is  used  in  the  Septuagint  version,  and 
in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  to  express  the 
mercy  seat  or  covering  of  the  ark.      But  so 
little  is  to  be  gained  by  taking  it  in  this  sense 
in  this  passage,  that  this  rendering  is  adopted 
by  several  orthodox  commentators  as  express- 
ing, by  a  figure,  or  rather  by  emphatically  sup- 
plying a  type  to  the  antitype, — the  doctrine  of 
our  Lord's  atonement.     The  mercy  seat  was 
so  called,  because,  under  the  Old  Testament, 
it  was  the  place  where  the  high  prie.st,  on  the 
feast  of  expiation,  sprinkled  the  blood  of  the 
sin-offerings,  in  order  to  make  an  atonement 
for  himself  and  the  whole  congregation;  and, 
since   God   accepted  the   offering  which  was 
then  made,  it  was,  for  this  reason,  accounted 
the  medium  through  which  God  showed  him- 
self propitious  to  the  people.     With  reference 
to  this,  Jesus   Christ   may  be  called  a  mercy 
seat,  as  being  the  person  in  or  through  whom 
God    shows    himself  propitious    to    mankind. 
And  as,  under  the  law,  God  was  propitious  to 
those  who  came  to   him  by  appearing  before 
his  mercy  seat  with  the  blood  of  their  sin-offer- 
ings ;  so,  under  the  Gospel  dispensation,  he  is 
propitious  to  those  who  come,  unto  him  by  Je- 
sus Christ,  through  faith  in  that  blood  which  is 
elsewhere  called  "  the  blood  of  sprinkling," 


PRO 


788 


FRO 


and  winch  he  shed  for  the  remission  of  sirts. 
Some  able  critics  have,  however,  argued,  from 
the  force  of  the  context,  that  the  word  ought 
to  be  taken  actively,  and  not  merely  declara- 
tively  ;  not  as  "  a  propitiatory,"  but  as  "  a  pro- 
pitiation," which,  says  Grotius,  is  shown  by  the 
mention  which  is  afterward  made  of  blood,  to 
which  the  power  of  propitiation  is  ascribed. 
Others  supply  Svpa  or  hpuov,  and  render  it  expia- 
tory sacrifice.  But,  whichever  of  these  render, 
ings  be  adopted,  the  same  doctrine  is  held  forth 
to  us.  The  covering  of  the  ark  was  rendered 
a  propitiatory  only  by  the  blood  of  the  victims 
sprinkled  before  and  upon  it ;  and  when  the 
Apostle  says,  that  God  hath  set  forth  Jesus 
Christ  to  be  a  propitiatory,  he  immediately 
adds,  having  the  ceremonies  of  the  temple  in 
his  view,  "through  faith  in  his  blood."  The 
text,  therefore,  contains  no  exhibition  of  any 
means  of  obtaining  mercy  but  through  the 
blood  of  sacrifice,  according  to  the  rule  laid 
down  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  "  With- 
out shedding  of  blood  there  is  no  remission  ;" 
and  is  in  strict  accordance  with  Ephesians  i,  7, 
"  We  have  redemption  through  his  blood,  the 
remission  of  sins."  It  is  only  by  his  blood 
that  Christ  reconciles  us  to  God. 

Unable  as  they  who  deny  the  vicarious  na- 
ture of  the  sufferings  of  Christ  are  to  evade  the 
testimony  of  the  above  passages  which  speak 
of  our  Lord  as  "a  propitiation,"  their  next  re- 
source often  is  to  deny  the  existence  of  wrath 
in  God,  in  the  hope  of  proving  that  propitia- 
tion, in  a  proper  sense,  cannot  be  the  doctrine 
of  Scripture,  whatever  may  be  the  force  of  the 
mere  terms  which  the  sacred  writers  employ. 
In  order  to  give  plausibility  to  their  statement, 
they  pervert  the  opinion  of  the  orthodox,  and 
argue  as  though  it  formed  a  part  of  the  doc- 
trine of  Christ's  propitiation  and  oblation  for 
sin,  to  represent  God  as  naturally  an  implaca- 
ble and  vengeful  being,  and  only  made  placa- 
ble and  disposed  to  show  mercy  by  satisfaction 
being  mado  to  his  displeasure  through  our 
Lord's  sufferings  and  death.  This  is  as  con- 
trary to  Scripture  as  it  is  to  the  opinons  of  all 
sober  persons  who  hold  the  doctrine  of  Christ's 
atonement.  God  is  love  ;  but  it  is  not  neces- 
sary, in  order  to  support  this  truth,  to  assume 
that  he  is  nothing  else.  He  has  other  attri- 
butes, which  harmonize  with  this  and  with 
each  other;  though,  assuredly,  that  harmony 
cannot  be  established  by  any  who  deny  the 
propitiation  for  sin  made  by  the  dealh  of 
Christ.  It  sufficiently  proves  that  there  is  not 
only  no  implacability  in  God,  but  a  most  ten- 
der and  placable  affection  toward  the  sinning 
human  race  itself,  and  that,  the  Son  of  God, 
by  whom  the  propitiation  was  made,  was  the 
free  gift  of  the  Father  to  us.  This  is  the  most 
eminent  proof  of  his  love,  that,  for  our  snkos, 
and  that  mercy  might  bo  extended  to  us,  "He 
spared  not  his  own  Son  ;  but  delivered  him 
up  freely  for  us  all."  Thus  he  is  the  fountain 
and  first  moving  cause  of  that  scheme  of 
recovery  and  salvation  which  the  incarnation 
and  death  of  our  Lord  brought  into  full  and 
efficient  operation.  The  true  >|uestions  are, 
indeed,  not  whether  God  is  love,  or  whether 


he  is  of  a  placable  nature  ;  but  whether  God 
is  holy  and  just ;  whether  we,  his  creatures, 
are  under  law  or  not;  whether  this  law  has 
any  penalty,  and  whether  God,  in  his  rectoral 
character,  is  bound  to  execute  and  uphold  that 
law.  As  the  justice  of  God  is  punitive,  (and 
if  it  is  not  punitive,  his  laws  are  a  dead  letter,) 
then  is  there  wrath  in  God  ;  then  is  God  angry 
with  the  wicked ;  then  is  man,  as  a  sinner, 
obnoxious  to  this  anger  ;  and  so  a  propitiation 
becomes  necessary  to  turn  it  away  from  him. 
Nor  are  these  terms  unscriptural ;  they  are 
used  in  the  New  Testament  as  emphatically 
as  in  the  Old  ;  though,  the  former  is,  in  a  spe- 
cial sense,  a  revelation  of  the  mercy  of  God  to 
man.  John  declares,  that,  if  any  man  believeth 
not  on  the  Son  of  God,  "the  wrath  of  God 
abideth  upon  him ;"  and  St.  Paul  affirms,  that 
"  the  wrath  of  God  is  revealed  from  heaven 
against  all  ungodliness  and  unrighteousness 
of  men."  The  day  of  judgment  is,  with  refer- 
ence to  the  ungodly,  said  to  be  "the  day  of 
wrath  ;"  God  is  called  "  a  consuming  fire  ;" 
and,  as  such,  is  the  object  of  "reverence  and 
godly  fear."  Nor  is  this  his  displeasure  light, 
and  the  consequences  of  it  a  trifling  and  tem- 
porary inconvenience.  When  we  only  regard 
the  consequences  which  have  followed  sin  in 
society,  from  the  earliest  ages,  and  in  every 
part  of  the  world,  and  add  to  these  the  many 
direct  and  fearful  inflictions  of  punishment 
which  have  proceeded  from  the  "Judge  of  the 
whole  earth,"  then,  to  use  the  language  of 
Scripture,  "our  flesh  may  well  tremble  because 
of  his  judgments."  But  when  we  look  at  the 
future  state  of  the  wicked  as  represented  in 
Scripture,  though  it  is  expressed  generally, 
and  surrounded  with  the  mystery  of  a  place, 
and  a  condition  of  being,  unknown  to  us  in 
the  present  state,  all  evils  which  history  has 
crowded  into  the  lot  of  man  appear  insignifi- 
cant in  comparison  of  banishment  from  God, 
separation  from  good  men,  public  condemna- 
tion, torment  of  spirit,  "weeping,  wailing,  and 
gnashing  of  teeth,"  "everlasting  destruction," 
"  everlasting  fire."  Let  men  talk  ever  so 
much  or  eloquently  of  the  pure  benevolence  of 
God,  they  cannot  abolish  the  facts  recorded  in 
the  history  of  human  suffering  in  this  world 
as  tlio  effects  of  transgression;  nor  can  they 
discharge  these  fearful  comminutions  from  the 
pages  of  the  book  of  God.  These  cannot  be  cri- 
ticised away;  and  if  it  is  "Jesus  who  saves  us 
from  this  wrath  to  come,"  that  is,  from  those 
effects  of  the  wrath  of  God  which  are  to  come, 
then,  but  for  him,  we  should  have  been  liable 
to  them.  That  principle  in  God,  from  which 
such  effects  follow,  the  Scriptures  call  wrath  ; 
and  they  who  deny  the  existence  of  wrath  in 
God,  deny,  therefore,  the  Scriptures. 

It  by  no  means  follows,  however,  that  this 
wrath  is  a  passion  in  God ;  or  that,  though  we 
contend  that  the  awful  attribute  of  his  justice 
requires  satisfaction,  in  order  to  the  forgiveness 
of  the  guilty,  we  afford  reason  to  any  to  charge 
us  with  attributing  vengeful  affections  to  the 
divine  Being.  "  Our  adversaries,"  says  Bishop 
Stillingfleet,  "first  make  opinions  for  us,  and 
then  show  that  they  are  unreasonable.     They 


PRO 


789 


PRO 


first  suppose  that  anger  in  God  is  to  be  con- 
sidered as  a  passion,  and  that  passion  a  desire 
of  revenge  ;  and  then  tell  us,  that  if  we  do  not 
prove  that  this  desire  of  revenge  can  be  satis- 
fied by  the  sufferings  of  Christ,  then  we  can 
never  prove  the  doctrine  of  satisfaction  to  be 
true ;  whereas,  we  do  not  mean  by  God's  an- 
ger, any  such  passion,  but  the  just  declaration 
of  God's  will  to  punish,  upon  our  provocation 
of  him  by  our  sins  ;  we  do  not  make  the  design 
of  the  satisfaction  to  be  that  God  may  please 
himself  in  revenging  the  sins  of  the  guilty  upon 
the  most  innocent  person,  because  we  make 
the  design  of  punishment  not  to  be  the  satisfac- 
tion of  anger  as  a  desire  of  revenge,  but  to  be 
the  vindication  of  the  honour  and  rights  of  the 
offended  person  by  such  a  way  as  he  himself 
shall  judge  satisfactory  to  the  ends  of  his  gov- 
ernment."    See  Atonement  and  Extiation.- 

PROPITIATORY,  among  the  Jews,  was 
the  cover  or  lid  of  the  ark  of  the  covenant, 
which  was  lined  both  within  and  without  with 
plates  of  gold,  insomuch  that  there  was  no 
wood  to  be  seen.  Some  even  take  it  to  have 
been  one  piece  of  massive  gold.  The  cheru- 
bims  spread  their  wings  over  the  propitiatory. 
This  propitiatory  was  a  type  or  figure  of  Christ. 
See  Propitiation. 

PROSELYTE,  UpocijXvTos,  signifies  a  stran- 
ger, a  foreigner  ;  the  Hebrew  word  "U,  or  -oj, 
also  denotes  a  stranger,  one  who  comes  from 
abroad,  or  from  another  place.  In  the  lan- 
guage of  the  Jews,  those  were  called  by  this 
name  who  came  to  dwell  in  their  country,  or 
who  embraced  their  religion,  being  not  Jews 
by  birth.  In  the  New  Testament  they  are 
called  sometimes  proselytes,  and  sometimes 
Gentiles,  fearing  God,  Acts  ii,  5;  x,  ii,  22  ; 
xiii,  16,  50.  The  Jews  distinguish  two  kinds 
of  proselytes.  The  first,  proselytes  of  the  gate  ; 
the  others,  proselytes  of  justice  or  righteous- 
ness. The  first  dwelt  in  the  land  of  Israel,  or 
oven  out  of  that  country,  and,  without  oblig- 
ing themselves  to  circumcision,  or  to  any  other 
ceremony  of  the  law,  feared  and  worshipped 
the  true  God,  observing  the  rules  imposed  on 
Noah.  These  were,  according  to  the  rabbins, 
1 .  To  abstain  from  idolatry ;  2.  From  blas- 
phemy ;  3.  From  murder ;  4.  From  adultery  ; 
5.  From  theft ;  6.  To  appoint  just  and  upright 
judges ;  7.  Not  to  eat  the  flesh  of  any  animal 
cut  off  while  it  was  alive.  Maimonides  says, 
that  the  first  six  of  these  precepts  were  given 
to  Adam,  and  the  seventh  to  Noah.  The  pri- 
vileges of  proselytes  of  the  gate  were,  first, 
that  through  holiness  they  might  have  hope 
of  eternal  life.  Secondly,  they  could  dwell  in 
the  land  of  Israel,  and  share  in  the  outward 
prosperities  of  it.  It  is  said  they  did  not  dwell 
in  the  cities,  but  only  in  the  suburbs  and  the 
villages ;  but  it  is  certain  that  the  Jews  often 
admitted  into  their  cities,  not  only  proselytes 
of  habitation,  but  also  Gentiles  and  idolaters, 
as  appears  by  the  reproaches  on  this  account, 
throughout  the  Scriptures. 

Proselytes  of  justice  or  of  righteousness  were 
those  converted  to  Judaism,  who  had  engaged 
themselves  to  receive  circumcision,  and  to 
observe  the  whole  law  of  Moses.     Thus  were 


they  admitted  to  all  the  prerogatives  of  the 
people  of  the  Lord.  The  rabbins  inform  us 
that,  before  circumcision  was  administered  to 
them,  and  before  they  were  admitted  into  the 
religion  of  the  Hebrews,  they  were  examined 
about  the  motives  of  their  conversion  ;  whether 
the  change  was  voluntary,  or  whether  it  pro- 
ceeded from  interest,  fear,  ambition,  &c.  When 
the  proselyte  was  well  proved  and  instructed, 
they  gave  him  circumcision ;  and  when  the 
wound  of  his  circumcision  healed,  they  gave 
him  baptism,  by  plunging  his  whole  body  into 
a  cistern  of  water,  by  only  one  immersion. 
Boys  under  twelve  years  of  age,  and  girls  un- 
der thirteen,  could  not  become  proselytes  till 
they  had  obtained  the  consent  of  their  parents, 
or,  in  case  of  refusal,  the  concurrence  of  the 
officers  of  justice.  Baptism  in  respect  of  girls 
had  the  same  effect  as  circumcision  in  respect 
of  boys.  Each  of  them,  by  means  of  this, 
received,  as  it  were,  a  new  birth,  so  that  those 
who  were  their  parents  before  were  no  longer 
regarded  as  such  after  this  ceremony,  and  those 
who  before  were  slaves  now  became  free. 

Many,  however,  are  of  opinion  that  there 
appears  to  be  no  ground  whatever  in  Scripture 
for  this  distinction  of  proselytes  of  the  gate, 
and  proselytes  of  righteousness.  "According 
to  my  idea,"  says  Dr.  Tomline,  "  proselytes 
were  those,  and  those  only,  who  took  upon 
themselves  the  obligation  of  the  whole  Mosaic 
law,  but  retained  that  name  till  they  were  ad- 
mitted into  the  congregation  of  the  Lord  as 
adopted  children.  Gentiles  were  allowed  to 
worship  and  offer  sacrifices  to  the  God  of 
Israel  in  the  outer  court  of  the  temple ;  and 
some  of  them,  persuaded  of  the  sole  and  uni- 
versal sovereignty  of  the  Lord  Jehovah,  might 
renounce  idolatry  without  embracing  the  Mo- 
saic law  ;  but  such  persons  appear  to  me  never 
to  be  called  proselytes  in  Scripture,  or  in  any 
ancient  Christian  writer."  He  also  observes  that 
"  the  term  proselytes  of  the  gate  is  derived  from 
an  expression  frequent  in  the  Old  Testament ; 
namely,  '  the  stranger  that  is  within  thy  gates ;' 
but  I  think  it  evident  that  the  strangers  were 
those  Gentiles  who  were  permitted  to  live 
among  the  Jews  under  certain  restrictions, 
and  whom  the  Jews  were  forbidden  '  to  vex  or 
oppress,'  so  long  as  they  live  in  a  peaceable 
manner."  Dr.  Lardner  says,  "  I  do  not  believe 
that  the  notion  of  two  sorts  of  Jewish  prose- 
lytes can  be  found  in  any  Christian  writer 
before  the  fourteenth  century  or  later."  Dr. 
Jennings  also  observes  that  "there  does  not 
appear  to  be  sufficient  evidence  in  the  Scrip- 
ture history  of  the  existence  of  such  proselytes 
of  the  gate,  as  the  rabbins  mention ;  nor, 
indeed,  of  any  who  with  propriety  can  be 
styled  proselytes,  except  such  as  fully  embraced 
the  Jewish  religion." 

PROSEUCH.E.  That  the  Jews  had  houses, 
or  places  for  prayer,  called  rapoatu^ai,  appears 
from  a  variety  of  passages  in  Philo  ;  and,  par- 
ticularly in  his  oration  against  Flaccus,  he 
complains  that  their  rapoo-tu^ui  were  pulled  down, 
and  there  was  no  place  left  in  which  they  might 
worship  God  and  pray  for  Csesar.  Among  those 
who  make  the  synagogues  and  proseuch<e  to  be 


PRO 


790 


PRO 


different  places,  are  the  learned  Mr.  Joseph 
Mede  and  Dr.  Prideaux;  and  they  think  the 
difference  consists  partly  in  the  form  of  the 
edifice ;  a  synagogue,  they  say,  being  roofed 
like  our  houses  or  churches ;  and  a  proseucha 
being  only  encompassed  with  a  wall,  or  some 
other  mound  or  enclosure,  and  open  at  the 
top,  like  our  courts.  They  make  them  to 
differ  in  situation;  synagogues  being  in  towns 
and  cities,  proseucha;  in  the  fields,  and  fre- 
quently by  the  river  side.  Dr.  Prideaux  men- 
tions another  distinction  in  respect  to  the 
service  performed  ill  them.  In  synagogues, 
he  says,  the  prayers  were  offered  up  in  public 
forms  in  common  for  the  whole  congregation  ; 
but  in  the  proseucha  they  prayed,  as  in  the 
temple,  every  one  apart  for  himself  And  thus 
our  Saviour  prayed  in  the  proseucha  into  which 
he  entered.  Yet,  after  all,  the  proof  in  favour 
of  this  notion  is  not  so  strong,  but  that  it  still 
remains  a  question  with  some,  whether  the 
synagogues  and  the  proseucha;  were  any  thing 
more  than  two  different  names  for  the  same 
place ;  the  one  taken  from  the  people's  as- 
sembling in  them,  the  other  from  the  service  to 
which  they  were  more  immediately  appropri- 
ated, namely,  prayer.  Nevertheless,  the  name 
proseucha  will  not  prove  that  they  were  appro- 
priated only  to  prayer,  and  therefore  were  differ- 
ent from  synagogues,  in  which  the  Scriptures 
were  also  read  and  expounded  ;  since  the  temple, 
in  which  sacrifices  were  offered,  and  all  the  parts 
of  divine  service  were  performed,  is  called  oJa-o? 
zzpoacvT(i)i,  a  house  of  prayer,  Matt,  xxi,  13. 

PROTESTANT .  The  Emperor  Charles  V. 
called  a  diet  at  Spire,  in  1529,  to  request  aid 
from  the  German  princes  against  the  Turks, 
and  to  devise  the  most  effectual  means  for 
allaying  the  religious  disputes  which  then 
raged  in  consequence  of  Luther's  opposition 
to  the  established  religion.  In  this  diet  it  was 
decreed  by  Ferdinand,  archduke  of  Austria, 
and  other  popish  princes,  that  in  the  countries 
which  had  embraced  the  new  religion  it  should 
be  lawful  to  continue  in  it  till  the  meeting  of 
a  council;  but  that  no  Roman  Catholic  should 
be  allowed  to  turn  Lutheran,  and  that  the 
reformers  should  deliver  nothing  in  their-  ser- 
mons contrary  to  the  received  doctrine  of  the 
church.  Against  this  decree,  six  Lutheran 
princes,  namely,  John  and  George,  the  elect- 
ors of  Saxony  and  Brandenburg,  Ernest  and 
Francis,  the  two  dukes  of  Lunenburg,  the 
landgrave  of  Hesse,  and  the  prince  of  Anhalt, 
with  the  deputies  of  thirteen  imperial  towns, 
namely,  Strasburg,  Ulm,  Nuremberg,  Con- 
stance, Rottingen,  Windsheim,  Memmingen, 
Nortlingen,  Lindaw,  Kempten,  JIailbron,  Wis. 
semburg,  and  St.  (jail,  formally  and  solemnly 
protested  and  declared  that  they  appealed  to  a 
general  council ;  and  hence  the  name  of  Pro- 
testants, by  which  the  followers  of  Luther 
have  ever  since  been  known.  Nor  was  it  con- 
fined to  them;  for  it  soon  after  included  the 
Calvinists,  and  lias  now  of  a  long  time  been 
applied  generally  to  the  Christian  sects,  of 
whatever  denomination,  and  in  whatever  coun- 
try they  may  be  found,  which  have  separated 
from  the  see  of  Rome 


Mr.  Chillingworth,  addressing  himself  to  a 
writer  in  favour  of  the  church  of  Rome,  speaks 
of  the  religion  of  the  Protestants  in  the  follow- 
ing excellent  terms  :  "  Know  then,  sir,  that 
when  I  say  the  religion  of  Protestants  is  in 
prudence  to  be  preferred  before  yours,  on  the 
one  side,  I  do  not  understand  by  your  religion 
the  doctrine  of  Bellarmine,  or  Baronius,  or 
any  other  private  man  among  you,  nor  the 
doctrine  of  the  Sorbonne,  of  the  Jesuits,  or  of 
the  Dominicans,  or  of  any  other  particular 
company  among  you,  but  that  wherein  you  all 
agree,  or  profess  to  agree,  the  doctrine  of  the 
council  of  Trent ;  so,  accordingly,  on  the 
other  side,  by  the  religion  of  Protestants,  I 
do  not  understand  the  doctrine  of  Luther,  or 
Calvin,  or  Melancthon,  nor  the  confession  of 
Augsburg,  or  Geneva,  nor  the  catechism  of 
Heidelberg,  nor  the  articles  of  the  church  of 
England  ;  no,  nor  the  harmony  of  Protestant 
confessions  ;  but  that  in  which  they  all  agree, 
and  which  they  all  subscribe  with  a  greater 
harmony,  as  a  perfect  rule  of  faith  and  action  ; 
that  is,  the  Bible.  The  Bible,  I  say,  the  Bible 
only,  is  the  religion  of  Protestants.  Whatso- 
ever else  they  believe  beside  it,  and  the  plain, 
irrefragable,  indubitable  consequences  of  it, 
well  may  they  hold  it  as  a  matter  of  opinion ; 
but  as  a  matter  of  faith  and  religion,  neither 
can  they  with  coherence  to  their  own  grounds 
believe  it  themselves,  nor  require  belief  of  it 
of  others,  without  most  high  and  most  schis- 
matical  presumption.  I,  for  my  part,  after  a 
long,  and,  as  I  verily  believe  and  hope,  impar 
tial,  search  of  the  true  way  to  eternal  happiness, 
do  profess  plainly  that  I  cannot  find  any  rest 
for  the  sole  of  my  foot  but  upon  this  rock  only. 
I  see  plainly,  and  with  my  own  eyes,  that  there 
are  popes  against  popes,  and  councils  against 
councils ;  some  fathers  against  other  fathers, 
the  same  fathers  against  themselves ;  a  con- 
sent of  fathers  of  one  age  against  a  consent  of 
fathers  of  another  age ;  traditive  interpreta- 
tions of  Scripture  are  pretended,  but  there  are 
few  or  none  to  be  found  ;  no  tradition  but  that 
of  Scripture  can  derive  itself  from  the  fountain, 
but  may  be  plainly  proved  either  to  have  been 
brought  in  in  such  an  age  after  Christ,  or  that 
in  such  an  age  it  was  not  in.  In  a  word,  there 
is  no  sufficient  certainty  but  of  Scripture  only 
for  any  considering  man  to  build  upon.  This, 
therefore,  and  this  only,  I  have  reason  to  be- 
lieve. This  I  will  profess ;  according  to  this 
I  will  live;  and  for  this,  if  there  be  occasion, 
I  will  not  only  willingly,  but  even  gladly,  lose 
my  life,  though  I  should  be  sorry  that  Chris- 
tians shoul*!  take  it  from  me.  Propose  me  any 
thing  out  of  this  book,  and  require  whether  I 
believe  or  no,  and,  seem  it  never  so  incompre- 
hensible to  human  reason,  I  will  subscribe  it 
with  hand  and  heart,  as  knowing  no  demon- 
stration can  be  stronger  than  this,  God  hath 
said  so,  therefore  it  is  true.  In  other  things, 
I  will  take  no  man's  liberty  of  judging  from 
him  ;  neither  shall  an)-  man  take  mine  from  me." 
Under  such  views  the  Bible  is  held  as  the 
only  sure  foundation  upon  which  all  true  Pro- 
testants build  every  article  of  the  faith  which 
they  profess,  and  every  point  of  doetrine  which 


PRO 


791 


PRO 


they  teach  ;  and  all  other  foundations,  whether 
they  be  the  decisions  of  councils,  the  confes- 
sions of  churches,  the  prescripts  of  popes,  or 
the  expositions  of  private  men,  are  considered 
by  them  as  sandy  and  unsafe,  or  as  in  nowise 
to  be  ultimately  relied  on.  Yet,  on  the  other 
hand,  they  by  no  means  fastidiously  reject 
them  as  of  no  use;. for  while  they  admit  the 
Bible,  or  the  Scriptures  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testament,  to  be  the  only  infallible  rule  by 
which  we  must  measure  the  truth  or  falsehood 
of  every  religious  opinion,  they  are  sensible 
that  all  men  are  not  equally  fitted  to  under- 
stand or  to  apply  this  rule  ;  and  that  the  wisest 
men  want,  on  many  occasions,  all  the  helps 
afforded  by  the  learning  and  research  of  others 
to  enable  them  to  understand  its  precise  nature, 
and  to  define  its  certain  extent.  These  helps 
are  great  and  numerous,  having  been  supplied, 
in  every  age  of  the  church,  by  the  united  labours 
of  learned  men  in  every  country,  and  by  none 
in  greater  abundance  than  by  those  in  Protest- 
ant communions. 

PROVERBS,  short  aphorisms,  and  senten- 
tious moral  and  prudential  maxims,  usually 
expressed  in  numbers,  or  rhythm,  or  antithesis, 
as  being  more  easily  remembered,  and  of  more 
use,  than  abstruse  and  methodical  discourses. 
This  method  of  instruction  appears  to  be  pecu- 
liarly suited  to  the  disposition  and  genius  of 
the  Asiatics,  among  whom  it  has  prevailed 
from  the  earliest  agjs.  The  Gymnosophists 
of  India  delivered  their  philosophy  in  brief 
enigmatical  sentences;  a  practice  adopted  and 
carried  to  a  great  extent  by  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians. The  mode  of  conveying  instruction  by 
compendious  maxims  obtained  among  the  Jews, 
from  the  first  dawn  of  their  literature,  to  its 
final  extinction  in  the  east  through  the  power 
of  the  Mohammedan  arms  ;  and  it  was  familiar 
to  tlie  inhabitants  of  Syria  and  Palestine,  as 
we  learn  from  the  testimony  of  St.  Jerom. 
The  eloquence  of  Arabia  was  mostly  exhibited 
in  detached  and  unconnected  sentences,  which, 
like  so  many  loose  gems,  attracted  attention 
by  the  fulness  of  the  periods,  the  elegance  of 
the  phraseology,  and  the  acuteness  of  pro- 
verbial sayings.  Nor  do  the  Asiatics  at  present 
differ,  in  this  repect,  from  their  ancestors,  as 
numerous  amth'd,  or  moral  sentences,  are  in 
circulation  throughout  the  regions  of  the  east, 
some  of  which  have  been  published  by  Hot- 
tinger,  Erpenius,  the  younger  Schultens,  and 
others  who  have  distinguished  themselves  by 
the  pursuit  of  oriental  learning.  "  The  moral- 
ists of  the  east,"  says  Sir  William  Jones,  "have, 
in  general,  chosen  to  deliver  their  precepts  in 
short  sententious  maxims,  to  illustrate  them  by 
sprightly  comparisons,  or  to  inculcate  them  in 
the  very  ancient  forms  of  agreeable  apologues  : 
there  are,  indeed,  both  in  Arabic  and  Persian, 
philosophical  tracts  on  ethics,  written  with 
sound  ratiocination  and  elegant  perspicuity ; 
but  in  every  part  of  the  eastern  world,  from 
Pekin  to  Damascus,  the  popular  teachers  of 
moral  wisdom  have  immemorially  been  poets ; 
and  there  would  be  no  end  of  enumerating 
their  works,  which  are  still  extant  in  the  five 
principal  languages  of  Asia."     The  ingenious 


but  ever  disputing  and  loquacious  Greeks  were 
indebted  to  the  same  means  for  their  earliest 
instruction  in  wisdom.  The  sayings  of  the 
seven  wise  men,  the  golden  verses  of  Pytha- 
goras, the  remains  of  Theognis  and  Phocylides, 
if  genuine,  and  the  gnomai  of  the  older  poets, 
testify  the  prevalence  of  aphorisms  in  ancient 
Greece.  Had  no  specimens  remained  of  Hel- 
lenic proverbs,  we  might  have  concluded  this 
to  have  been  the  case ;  for  the  Greeks  bor- 
rowed the  rudiments,  if  not  the  principal  part, 
of  their  knowledge  from  those  whom  they 
arrogantly  termed  barbarians ;  and  it  is  only 
through  the  medium  of  compendious  maxims 
and  brief  sentences  that  traditionary  knowledge 
can  be  preserved.  This  mode  of  communi- 
cating moral  and  practical  wisdom  accorded 
with  the  sedate  and  deliberative  character  of 
the  Romans ;  and,  in  truth,  from  its  influence 
over  the  mind,  and  its  fitness  for  popular 
instruction,  proverbial  expressions  exist  in  all 
ages  and  in  all  languages. 

Proverbs,  in  the  Hebrew  language,  are 
called  meshalim,  which  is  derived  from  a  verb 
signifying  both  "  to  rule,"  "  to  have  dominion," 
and  "  to  compare,"  "to  liken,"  "  to  assimilate :" 
hence  the  term  denotes  the  highly  figurative 
and  poetical  style  in  general,  and  likewise 
those  compendious  and  authoritative  sentences 
in  particular  which  are  commonly  denominated 
proverbs.  This  term,  which  our  translators 
have  adopted  after  the  Vulgate,  denotes,  ac- 
cording to  our  great  lexicographer,  "  a  short 
sentence  frequently  repeated  by  the  people,  a 
saw,  an  adage ;"  and  no  other  word  can,  per- 
haps, be  substituted  more  accurately  expressing 
the  force  of  the  Hebrew;  or,  if  there  could,  it 
has  been  so  long  familiarized  by  constant  use, 
that  a  change  is  totally  inadmissible. 

The  Meshalim,  or  Proverbs  of  Solomon,  on 
account  of  their  intrinsic  merit,  as  well  as  of 
the  rank  and  renown  of  their  author,  would  be 
received  witli  submissive  deference  ;  in  conse- 
quence of  which,  they  would  rapidly  spread 
through  every  part  of  the  Jewish  territories. 
The  pious  instructions  of  the  king  would  be 
listened  to  with  the  attention  and  respect  they 
deserve,  and,  no  doubt,  would  be  carefully  re- 
corded by  a  people  attached  to  his  person,  and 
holding  his  wisdom  in  the  highest  admiration. 
These,  either  preserved  in  writing,  or  handed 
down  by  oral  communication,  were  subse- 
quently collected  into  one  volume,  and  con- 
stitute the  book  in  the  sacred  canon,  entitled, 
"  The  Proverbs  of  Solomon,  the  son  of  David, 
king  of  Israel."  The  genuineness  and  authen- 
ticity of  this  title,  and  those  in  chap,  x,  1,  aud 
xxv,  1,  cannot  be  disputed;  not  the  smallest 
reason  appears  for  calling  them  in  question. 
One  portion  of  the  book,  from  the  twenty-fifth 
chapter  to  the  end  of  the  twenty-ninth,  was 
compiled  by  the  men  of  Hezekiah,  as  appears 
from  the  title  prefixed  to  it.  Eliakim,  Shebna, 
Joah,  Isaiah,  Hosea,  and  Micah,  personages 
of  eminence  and  worth,  were  contemporary 
with  Hezekiah ;  but  whether  these  or  others 
executed  the  compilation,  it  is  now  impossible 
to  determine.  They  were  persons,  however, 
as  we  may  reasonably  suppose,  well  qualified 


PRO 


792 


PRO 


for  the  undertaking,  who  collected  what  were 
known  to  be  the  genuine  proverbs  of  Solomon 
from  the  various  writings  in  which  they  were 
dispersed,  and  arranged  them  jrn  their  present 
.order.  Whether  the  preceding  twenty-four 
chapters,  which,  doubtless,  existed  in  a  com- 
bined form  previous  to  the  additional  collec- 
tion, were  compiled  by  the  author,  or  sonic 
other  person,  is  quite  uncertain.  Both  collec- 
tions, however,  being  made  at  so  early  a  period, 
is  a  satisfactory  evidence  that  the  Proverbs 
are  the  genuine  production  of  Solomon,  to 
whom  they  arc  ascribed  ;  for,  from  the  death 
of  Solomon  to  the  reign  of  Hezekjah,  accord- 
ing to  the  Bible  chronology,  was  a  period  of 
two  hundred  and  forty-nine  years,  or,  accord- 
ing to  Dr.  Hales,  two  hundred  and  sixty-five 
years ;  too  short  a  space  to  admit  of  any 
forgery  or  material  error,  as  either  must  have 
been  immediately  detected  by  the  worthies 
who  flourished  during  the  virtuous  reign  of 
Hezekiah. 

PROVIDENCE,  the  conduct  and  direction 
of  the  several  parts  of  the  universe,  by  a  su- 
perior intelligent  Being.  The  notion  of  a 
providence  is  founded  upon  this  truth,  that 
the  Creator  has  not  so  fixed  and  ascertained 
the  laws  of  nature,  nor  so  connected  the  chain 
of  second  causes,  as  to  leave  the  world  to 
itself,  but  that  he  still  preserves  the  reins  in 
his  own  hands,  and  occasionally  intervenes, 
alters,  restrains,  enforces,  suspends,  &c,  those 
laws  by  a  particular  providence.  Some  use 
the  word  providence,  in  a  more  general  sense, 
signifying  by  it  that  power  or  action  by  which 
the  several  parts  of  the  creation  are  ordinarily 
directed.  Thus  Damascenus  defines  provi- 
dence to  be  that  divine  will  by  which  all 
things  are  ordered  and  directed  to  the  proper 
end:  which  notion  of  providence  supposes  no 
laws  at  all  fixed  by  the  author  of  nature  at  the 
creation,  but  that  he  reserved  it  at  large,  to 
be  governed  by  himself  immediately.  The 
Epicureans  denied  any  divine  providence,  as 
thinking  it  inconsistent  with  the  ease  and  re- 
pose of  the  divine  nature  to  meddle  at  all  with 
human  affairs.  Simplicius  argues  thus  for  a 
providence  :  If  "God  does  not  look  to  the  affairs 
of  the  world,  it  is  either  because  he  cannot  or 
will  not;  but  the  first  is  absurd,  since,  to 
govern  cannot  be  difficult  where  to  create  was 
easy;  and  the  latter  is  both  absurd  and  blas- 
phemous. In  Plato's  Tenth  Dialogue  of  Laws, 
he  teaches  excellently,  that  (since  what  is  s  lf. 
moving  is,  by  its  nature,  before  that  which 
moves  only  in  consequence  of  being  moved) 
nrind  must  be  prior  to  matter,  and  the  cause 
of  all  its  modifications  and  changes  ;  and  that, 
therefore,  there  is  a  universal  Mind  possessed 
of  ajl  perfection,  which  produced  and  which 
actuates  all  things.  After  this  he  shows  that 
the  Deity  exercises  a  particular  providence 
over  the  world,  taking  care  of  small  no  less 
than  great  things.  In  proving  this  be  observes 
"that  a  superior  nature  of  such  excellence  as 
the  divine,  which  bears,  sees,  and  knows  all 
things,  cannot,  in  any  instance,  be  subject  to 
negligence  or  sloth  ;  that  the  meanest  and  the 
greatest  part  of  the  world  are  all  equally  his 


work  or  possession  ;  that  great  things  cannot 
be  rightly  taken  care  of  without  taking  care 
of  small ;  and  that,  in  all  cases,  the  more  able 
and  perfect  any  artist  is,  (as  a  physician,  an 
architect,  or  the  ruler  of  the  state,)  the  more 
his  skill  and  care  appear  in  little  as  well  as 
great  things.  Let  us  not,  then,"  says  he, 
"  conceive  of  God  as  worse  than  even  mortal 
artists." 

The  term  providence,  in  its  primary  signifi- 
cation, simply  denotes  foresight ;  and  if  we 
allow  the  existence  of  a  supreme  Being  who 
formed  the  universe  at  first,  we  must  neces- 
sarily allow  that  he  has  a  perfect  foresight  of 
every  event  which  at  any  time  takes  place  in 
the  natural  or  moral  world.  Matter  can  have 
no  motion,  nor  spirit  any  energy,  but  what  is 
derived  from  him ;  nor  can  he  be  ignorant  of 
the  effects  which  they  will,  either  separately 
or  conjointly,  produce.  A  common  mechanic 
has  knowledge  of  the  work  of  his  own  hands: 
when  he  puts  the  machine  which  he  has  made 
in  motion,  he  foresees  how  long  it  will  go, 
and  what  will  be  the  state  and  position  of  its 
several  parts  at  any  particular  point  of  time ; 
or,  if  he  is  not  perfectly  able  to  do  this,  it  is 
because  he  is  not  perfectly  acquainted  with  all 
the  powers  of  the  materials  which  he  has  used 
in  its  construction  :  they  are  not  of  his  mak- 
ing, and  they  may  therefore  have  qualities 
which  he  does  not  understand,  and  conse- 
quently cannot  regulate.  But  in  the  immense 
machine  of  the  universe  there  is  nothing  ex- 
cept that  which  God  has  made  ;  all  the  powers 
and  properties,  relations  and  dependencies, 
which  created  things  have,  they  have,  both  in 
kind  and  degree,  from  him.  Nothing,  there- 
fore, it  should  seem,  can  come  to  pass  at  any 
time,  or  in  any  part  of  the  universe,  which  its 
incomprehensible  Architect  did  not,  from  the 
moment  his  almighty  fiat,  called  it  into  exist- 
ence, clearly  foresee.  The  providence  of  God 
is  implied  in  his  very  existence  as  an  intelli- 
gent Creator ;  and  it  imports  not  only  an  ab- 
stract foresight  of  all  possible  events,  but  such 
a  predisposition  of  causes  and  effects,  such  an 
adjustment  of  means  and  ends,  as  seems  to  as 
to  exclude  that  contingency  of  human  actions 
with  which,  as  expectants  of  positive  rewards 
and  punishments  in  another  world,  we  firmly 
believe  it  to  be  altogether  consistent. 

By  providence  we  may  understand,  not 
merely  foresight,  but  a  uniform  and  constant 
operation  of  God  subsequent  to  the  act  of crea- 
tion.  Thus,  in  every  machine  formed  by  hu- 
man ingenuity,  there  is  a  necessity  for  the 
action  of  some  extraneous  power  to  put  the 
machine  in  motion  :  a  proper  construction  and 
disposition  of  parts  not  being  sufficient  to  effect 
the  end  :  there  must  lie  a  spring,  or  a  weight, 
or  an  impulse  of  air  or  water,  or  some  sub- 
stance or  other,  on  which  the  motion  of  the 
several  parts  of  the  machine  must  depend.  In 
like  manner,  the  machine  of  the  universe  de- 
pends upon  its  ( Ireator  for  the  commencement 
and  the  conservation  of  the  motion  of  its 
several  parts.  The  power  by  which  the  in- 
sensible particles  of  matter  coalesce  into  sen- 
sible lumps,  as  well  as  that  by  which  the  great 


PRO 


793 


PRO 


orbs  of  the  universe  are  reluctantly,  as  it  were, 
retained  in  their  courses,  admits  not  an  expla- 
nation from  mechanical  causes  :  the  effects  of 
both  of  them  are  different  from  such  as  mere 
matter  and  motion  can  produce ;    they  must 
ultimately  be  referred  to  God.     Vegetable  and 
animal  life  and  increase  cannot  be  accounted 
for,  without  recurring  to  him  as  the  primary 
cause  of  both.     In  all  these  respects  the  pro- 
vidence of  God  is  something  more  than  fore- 
sight ;  it  is  a  continual  influence,  a  universal 
agency  ;  "  by  him  all  things  consist,"  and  "  in 
him  wc  live,  and  move,  and  have  our  being." 
Much  labour  has  been  employed  to  account 
for  all  the  phenomena  of  nature  by  the  powers 
of  mechanism,  or  the  necessary  laws  of  matter 
and  motion.     But  this,  as  we  imagine,  cannot 
be  done.     The  primary  causes  of  things  must 
certainly  be  some  powers  and  principles  not 
mechanical,  otherwise  we  shall  be  reduced  to 
the  necessity  of  maintaining  an  endless  pro- 
gression of  motions  communicated  from  matter 
to  matter,  without  any  first  mover;  or  of  say- 
ing that  the  first  impelling  matter  moved  itself. 
The  former  is  an  absurdity  too  great  to  be 
embraced  by  any  one ;    and  there  is  reason  to 
hope  that  the  essential  inactivity  of  matter  is 
at  present  so  well  understood,  and  so  generally 
allowed,    notwithstanding   some    modern    op- 
pugners  of  this  hypothesis,  that  there  can  be 
but  few  who  will  care  to  assert  the  latter.    All 
our  reasonings  about  bodies,  and  the  whole  of 
natural  philosophy,  are  founded  on  the  three 
laws  of  motion  laid  down  by  Sir  Isaac  Newton, 
at  the  beginning  of  the  " Principia?'     These 
laws    express   the    plainest   truths ;    but   they 
would    have    neither  evidence  nor   meaning, 
were  not  inactivity  contained  in  our  idea  of 
matter.     Should  it  be  said  that  matter,  though 
naturally  inert,  may  be  made  to  be  otherwise 
by  divine  power,  this  would  be  the  same  with 
saying  that  matter  may  be  made  not  to  be 
matter.     If  inactivity  belong  to   it  at  all,   it 
must  belong  to  it  as  matter,  or  solid  extension, 
and    therefore    must   be   inseparable   from   it. 
Matter  is  figured,  movable,  discerptable,  inac- 
tive, and  capable  of  communicating  motion  by 
impulse  to  other  matter:  these  are  not  acci- 
dental but  primary  qualities  of  matter.    Beside, 
matter  void  of  inactivity,  if  we  were  to  suppose 
it   possible,   could   produce  no   effects.      The 
communication  of  motion,  its  direction,  the 
resistance  it  surfers,  and  its  cessation,  in  a 
word,  the  whole  doctrine  of  motion  cannot  be 
consistently  explained  or   clearly  understood 
without  supposing  the  inertia  of  matter.    Self- 
moving  matter  must  have  thought  and  design, 
because,  whenever  matter  moves,  it  must  move 
in  some  particular  direction,  and  with  some 
precise  degree  of  velocity ;  and  as  there  is  an 
infinity   of  these  equally  possible,   it  cannot 
move    itself  witlio.it    selecting    one   of  these 
preferably  to  and  exclusively  of  all  others,  and 
therefore  not   without  design.       Moreover,  it 
may  be  plainly  proved  that  matter  cannot  be 
the. ultimate  cause  of  the  phenomena  of  nature, 
or  the  agent  which,  by  any  powers  inherent  in 
itself,   produces  the   general  laws  of  nature, 
without    possessing    the    highest    degree    of 


knowledge  and  wisdom  ;  which  might  be  easdy 
evinced  or  exemplified  by  adverting  to  the  par- 
ticular law  of  gravitation.  "  The  philosopher," 
says  an  excellent  writer,  "  who  overlooks  the 
laws  of  an  all-governing  Deity  in  nature,  con- 
tenting himself  with  the  appearance  of  the 
material  universe  only,  and  the  mechanical 
laws  of  motion,  neglects  what  is  most  excel- 
lent, and  prefers  what  is  imperfect  to  what  is 
supremely  perfect,  finitude  to  infinity,  what  is 
narrow  and  weak  to  what  is  unlimited  and 
almighty,  and  what  is  perishing  to  what  en- 
dures for  ever.  Sir  Isaac  Newton  thought  it 
most  unaccountable  to  exclude  the  Deity  only 
out  of  the  universe.  It  appeared  to  him  much 
more  just  and  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the 
whole  chain  of  causes,  or  the  several  series  of 
them,  should  centre  in  him  as  their  source; 
and  the  whole  system  appear  depending  on 
him  the  only  independent  cause."  If,  then, 
the  Deity  pervades  and  actuates  the  material 
world,  and  his  unremitting  energy  is  the  cause 
to  which  every  effect  in  it  must  be  traced ;  the 
spiritual  world,  which  is  of  greater  conse- 
quence, cannot  be  disregarded  by  him.  Is 
there  not  one  atom  of  matter  on  which  he  does 
not  act ;  and  is  there  one  living  being  about 
which  he  has  no  concern  ?  Does  not  a  stone 
fall  without  him  ;  and  does,  then,  a  man  suffer 
without  him?  The  inanimate  world  is  of  no 
consequence,  abstracted  from  its  subserviency 
to  the  animate  and  reasonable  world :  the  for- 
mer, therefore,  must  be  preserved  and  governed 
entirely  with  a  view  to  the  latter.  But  it  is 
not  mere  energy  or  the  constant  exertion  of 
power  that  is  discernible  in  the  frame  or  laws 
of  the  universe,  in  maintaining  the  succession 
of  men,  and  in  producing  men  and  other  be- 
ings ;  but  wisdom  and  skill  are  also  conspicu- 
ous in  the  structure  of  every  object  in  trie 
inanimate  creation.  After  a  survey  of  the 
beauty  and  elegance  of  the  works  of  nature, 
aided  by  the  perusal  of  Matt,  vi,  28,  &c,  we 
may  ask  ourselves,  Has  God,  in  the  lowest  of 
his  works,  been  lavish  of  wisdom,  beauty, 
and  skill ;  and  is  he  sparing  of  these  in  the 
concerns  of  reasonable  beings  ?  Or  does  he 
less  regard  order,  propriety,  and  fitness  in  the 
determination  of  their  states?  TIiq  answer  is 
obvious.  Providence  also  implies  a  particular 
interposition  of  God  in  administering  the  affairs 
of  individuals  and  nations,  and  wholly  distinct 
from  that  general  and  incessant  exertion  of  his 
power,  by  which  he  sustains  the  universe  in 
existence. 

The  doctrine  of  providence  may  be  evinced 
from  the  consideration  of  the  divine  perfec- 
tions. The  first  cause  of  all  things  must  be 
regarded  as  a  being  absolutely  perfect;  and 
the  idea  of  absolute  perfection  comprehends 
infinite  power,  wisdom,  and  goodness;  hence 
we  deduce  the  doctrine  of  providence.  The 
Deity  cannot  be  an  indifferent  spectator  of  the 
series  of  events  in  that  world  to  which  he  has 
given  being.  His  goodness  will  as  certainly 
engage  him  to  direct  them  agreeably  to  the 
ends  of  goodness,  as  his  wisdom  and  power 
enable  him  to  do  it  in  the  most  effectual  man- 
ner.    This  conclusion   is  conformable   to  all 


PRO 


794 


PSA 


our  ideas  of  those  attributes.  Could  we  call 
that  being  good  who  would  refuse  to  do  an}' 
good  which  he  is  able  to  do  without  the  least 
labour  or  difficulty  ?  God  is  present  every 
where.  He  sees  all  that  happens,  and  it  is  in 
his  power,  with  perfect  ease,  to  order  all  for 
the  best.  Can  he  then  possess  goodness,  and 
at  the  same  time  not  do  this  ?  A  God  without 
a  providence  is  undoubtedly  a  contradiction. 
Nothing  is  plainer  than  that  a  being  of  perfect 
reason  will,  in  every  instance,  take  such  care 
of  the  universe  as  perfect  reason  requires. 
That  supreme  intelligence  and  love,  which  are 
present  to  all  things,  and  from  whence  all 
things  sprung,  must  govern  all  occurrences. 
These  considerations  prove  what  has  been 
called  a  particular,  in  opposition  to  a  general, 
providence.  We  cannot  conceive  of  any  rea- 
sons that  can  influence  the  Deity  to  exercise 
any  providence  over  the  world,  which  are  not 
likewise  reasons  for  extending  it  to  all  that 
happens  in  the  world.  As  far  as  it  is  confined 
to  generals,  or  overlooks  any  individual,  or  any 
event,  it  is  incomplete,  and  therefore  unsuita- 
ble to  the  idea  of  a  perfect  being. 

One  common  prejudice  against  this  doctrine 
arises  from  the  apprehension  that  it  is  below 
the  dignity  of  the  Deity  to  watch  over,  in  the 
manner  implied  in  it,  the  meanest  beings,  and 
the  minutest  affairs.  To  which  it  may  be 
replied,  that  a  great  number  of  minute  affairs, 
if  they  are  eacli  of  them  of  some  consequence, 
make  up  a  sum  which  is  of  great  consequence  ; 
and  that  there  is  no  way  of  taking  care  of  this 
sum,  without  taking  care  of  each  particular. 
This  objection,  therefore,  under  the  appearance 
of  honouring  God,  plainly  dishonours  him. 
Nothing  is  absolutely  trilling  in  which  the 
happiness  of  any  individual,  even  the  most 
insignificant,  is  at  all  concerned ;  nor  is  it 
beneath  a  wise  and  good  being  to  interpose  in 
any  thing  of  this  kind.  To  suppose  the  Deity 
above  this,  is  to  suppose  him  above  acting  up 
to  the  full  extent  of  goodness  and  rectitude. 
The  same  eternal  benevolence  that  first  en- 
gaged him  to  produce  beings,  must  also  engage 
him  to  exercise  a  particular  providence  over 
them ;  and  the  very  lowest  beings,  as  well  as 
the  highest,  seem  to  have  a  kind  of  right  to  his 
superintendence,  from  the  act  itself  of  bring- 
ing them  into  existence.  Every  apprehension 
that  this  is  too  great  a  condescension  in  him 
is  founded  on  the  poorest  ideas ;  for,  surely, 
whatever  it  was  not  too  great  condescension 
in  him  to  create,  it  cannot  be  too  great  a  con- 
descension in  him  to  take  care  of.  Beside, 
with  regard  to  God,  all  distinctions  in  the 
creation  vanish.  All  beings  are  infinitely,  that 
is,  equally,  inferior  to  him. 

Accident,  and  chance,  and  fortune,  are 
words  which  we  often  hear  mentioned,  and 
much  is  ascribed  to  them  in  the  life  of  man. 
But  they  are  words  without  meaning;  or,  as 
far  as  they  have  any  signification,  they  are  no 
other  than  names  for  the  unknown  operations 
of  providence ;  for  it  is  certain  that  in  God's 
universe  nothing  comes  to  pass  causelessly,  or 
in  vain.  Every  event  has  its  own  determined 
direction.     That  chaos  of  human  affairs  and 


intrigues  where  we  can  see  no  light,  that  mass 
of  disorder  and  confusion  which  they  often 
present  to  our  view,  is  all  clearness  and  order 
in  the  sight  of  Him  who  is  governing  and 
directing  the  whole,  and  bringing  forward 
every  event  in  its  due  time  and  place.  "  The 
Lord  sitteth  on  the  flood.  The  Lord  maketh 
the  wrath  of  man  to  praise  him,"  as  he  maketh 
the  "hail  and  rain  to  obey  his  word.  He  hath 
prepared  his  throne  in  the  heavens;  and  his 
kingdom  ruleth  over  all.  A  man's  heart  de- 
viseth  his  way,  but  the  Lord  directeth  his  steps." 
No  other  principle  than  this,  embraced  with  a 
steady  faith,  and  attended  with  a  suitable 
practice,  can  ever  be  able  to  give  repose  and 
tranquillity  to  the  mind  ;  to  animate  our  hopes, 
or  extinguish  our  fears;  to  give  us  any  true 
satisfaction  in  the  enjoyments  of  life,  or  to 
minister  consolation  under  its  adversities.  If 
we  are  persuaded  that  God  governs  the  world, 
that  he  has  the  superintendence  and  direction 
of  all  events,  and  that  we  are  the  objects  of  his 
providential  care  ;  whatever  may  be  our  distress 
or  our  danger,  we  can  never  want  consolation  ; 
we  may  always  have  a  fund  of  hope,  always  a 
prospect  of  relief.  But  take  away  this  hope 
and  this  prospect,  take  away  the  belief  of  God 
and  of  a  superintending  providence,  and  man 
would  be  of  all  creatures  the  most  miserable  ; 
destitute  of  every  comfort,  every  support,  un- 
der present  sufferings,  and  of  every  security 
against  future  dangers. 

PSALMS.  The  book  of  Psalms  is  a  col- 
lection of  hymns,  or  sacred  songs,  in  praise 
of  God,  and  consists  of  poems  of  various  kinds. 
They  are  the  productions  of  different  persons, 
but  are  generally  called  the  Psalms  of  David, 
because  a  great  part  of  them  was  composed  by 
him,  and  David  himself  is  distinguished  by  the 
name  of  the  Psalmist.  We  cannot  now  ascer- 
tain all  the  Psalms  written  by  David,  but  their 
number  probably  exceeds  seventy ;  and  much 
less  are  we  able  to  discover  the  authors  of  the 
other  Psalms,  or  the  occasions  upon  which 
they  were  composed.  A  few  of  them  were 
written  after  the  return  from  the  Babylonian 
captivity.  The  titles  prefixed  to  them  are  of 
very  questionable  authority  ;  and  in  many  cases 
they  are  not  intended  to  denote  the  writer  but 
refer  only  to  the  person  who  was  appointed  to 
set  them  to  music.  David  first  introduced  the 
practice  of  singing  sacred  hymns  in  the  public 
service  of  God ;  and  it  was  restored  by  Ezra. 
The  authority  of  the  Psalms  is  established  not 
only  by  their  rank  among  the  sacred  writings, 
and  by  the  unvaried  testimony  of  ages,  but 
likewise  by  many  intrinsic  proofs  of  inspi- 
ration. Not  only  do  they  breathe  through 
every  part  a  divine  spirit  of  eloquence,  but 
they  contain  numberless  illustrious  prophecies 
that  were  remarkably  accomplished,  and  are 
frequently  appealed  to  by  the  evangelical  writ- 
ers. The  sacred  character  of  the  whole  book 
is  established  by  the  testimony  of  our  Saviour 
and  his  Apostles,  who,  in  various  parts  of  the 
New  Testament,  appropriate  the  predictions 
of  the  Psalms  as  obviously  apposite  to  the  cir- 
cumstances of  their  lives,  and  as  intentionally 
composed  to  describe  them.     The  veneration 


PSA 


795 


PSA 


for  the  Psalms  has  in  all  ages  of  the  church 
been  considerable.  The  fathers  assure  us,  that 
in  the  earlier  times  the  whole  book  of  Psalms 
was  generally  learned  by  heart ;  and  that  the 
ministers  of  every  gradation  were  expected  to 
be  able  to  repeat  them  from  memory.  These 
invaluable  Scriptures  are  daily  repeated  with- 
out weariness,  though  their  beauties  are  often 
overlooked  in  familiar  and  habitual  perusal. 
As  hymns  immediately  addressed  to  the  Deity, 
they  reduce  righteousness  to  practice ;  and 
while  we  acquire  the  sentiments,  wie  perform 
the  offices  of  piety ;  while  we  supplicate  for 
blessings,  we  celebrate  the  memorial  of  former 
mercies;  and  while  in  the  exercise  of  devotion, 
faith  is  enlivened  by  the  display  of  prophecy. 
Josephus  asserts,  and  most  of  the  ancient  writ- 
ers maintain,  that  the  Psalms  were  composed 
in  metre.  They  have  undoubtedly  a  peculiar 
conformation  of  sentences,  and  a  measured 
distribution  of  parts.  Many  of  them  are  elegiac, 
and  most  of  David's  are  of  the  lyric  kind. 
There  is  no  sufficient  reason  however  to  be- 
lieve, as  some  writers  have  imagined,  that  they 
were  written  in  rhyme,  or  in  any  of  the  Gre- 
cian measures.  Some  of  them  are  acrostic ; 
and  though  the  regulations  of  the  Hebrew 
measure  are  now  lost,  there  can  be  no  doubt, 
from  their  harmonious  modulation,  that  they 
were  written  with  some  kind  of  metrical  order  ; 
and  they  must  have  been  composed  in  accom- 
modation to  the  measure  to  which  they  were 
set.  (See  Poetry  of  the  Hebrews.)  The  Hebrew 
copies  and  the  Septuagint  version  of  this  book 
contain  the  same  number  of  Psalms  ;  only  the 
Septuagint  translators  have,  for  some  reason 
which  does  not  appear,  thrown  the  ninth  and 
tenth  into  one,  as  also  the  one  hundred  and 
fourteenth  and  one  hundred  and  fifteenth,  and 
have  divided  the  one  hundred  and  sixteenth 
and  one  hundred  and  forty-seventh  each  into 
two. 

It  is  very  justly  observed  b)'  Dr.  Allix,  that, 
"  although  the  sense  of  near  fifty  Psalms  be 
fixed  and  settled  by  divine  authors,  yet  Christ 
and  his  Apostles  did  not  undertake  to  quote 
all  the  Psalms  they  could,  but  only  to  give  a 
key  to  their  hearers,  by  which  they  might 
apply  to  the  same  subjects  the  Psalms  of  the 
same  composure  and  expression."  With  re- 
gard to  the  Jews,  Bishop  Chandler  very  perti- 
nently remarks,  that  "they  must  have  under- 
stood David,  their  prince,  to  have  been  a 
figure  of  Messiah.  They  would  not  otherwise 
have  made  his  Psalms  part  of  their  daily  wor- 
ship ;  nor  would  David  have  delivered  them  to 
the  church  to  be  so  employed,  were  it  not  to 
instruct  and  support  them  in  the  knowledge 
and  belief  of  this  fundamental  article.  Were 
the  Messiah  not  concerned  in  the  Psalms,  it 
would  have  beert  absurd  to  celebrate  twice  a 
day,  in  their  public  devotions,  the  events  of 
one  man's  life,  who  was  deceased  so  long  ago, 
as  to  have  no  relation  now  to  the  Jews  and 
the  circumstances  of  their  affairs ;  or  to  tran- 
scribe whole  passages  from  them  into  their 
prayers  for  the  coming  of  the  Messiah."  Upon 
the  same  principle  it  is  easily  seen  that  the 
objections,  which  may  seem  to  lie  against  the 


use  of  Jewish  services  in  Christian  congrega- 
tions, may  cease  at  once.  Thus  it  may  be 
said,  Are  we  concerned  with  the  affairs  of 
David  and  of  Israel  ?  Have  we  any  thing  to 
do  with  the  ark  and  the  temple  ?  They  are  no 
more.  Are  we  to  go  up  to  Jerusalem,  and  to 
worship  on  Sion  ?  They  are  desolated,  and 
trodden  under  foot  by  the  Turks.  Are  we  to 
sacrifice  young  bullocks  according  to  the  law  ? 
The  law  is  abolished,  never  to  be  observed 
again.  Do  we  pray  for  victory  over  Moab, 
Edom,  and  Philistia;  or  for  deliverance  from 
Babylon  ?  There  are  no  such  nations,  no  such 
places  in  the  world.  What  then  do  we  mean, 
when,  taking  such  expressions  into  our  mouths, 
we  utter  them  in  our  own  persons,  as  parts  of 
our  devotions,  before  God  ?  Assuredly  we  must 
mean  a  spiritual  Jerusalem  and  Sion  ;  a  spirit- 
ual ark  and  temple  ;  a  spiritual  law  ;  spiritual 
sacrifices  ;  and  spiritual  victories  over  spiritual 
enemies ;  all  described  under  the  old  names, 
which  are  still  retained,  though  "  old  things 
are  passed  away,  and  all  things  are  become 
new,"  2  Cor.  v,  17.  By  substituting  Messiah 
for  David,  the  Gospel  for  the  law,  the  church 
Christian  for  that  of  Israel,  and  the  enemies 
of  the  one  for  those  of  the  other,  the  Psalms 
are  made  our  own.  Nay,  they  are  with  more 
fulness  and  propriety  applied  now  to  the  sub- 
stance, than  they  were  of  old  to  the  "shadow 
of  good  things  then  to  come,"  Heb.  x,  1.  For 
let  it  not  pass  unobserved,  that  when,  upon  the 
first  publication  of  the  Gospel,  the  Apostles 
had  occasion  to  utter  their  transports  of  joy, 
on  their  being  counted  worthy  to  suffer  for 
the  name  of  their  Lord  and  Master,  which  was 
then  opposed  by  Jew  and  Gentile,  they  brake 
forth  into  an  application  of  the  second  Psalm 
to  the  transactions  then  before  their  eyes, 
Acts  iv,  25.  The  Psalms,  thus  applied,  have 
advantages  which  no  fresh  compositions,  how- 
ever finely  executed,  can  possibly  have  ;  since, 
beside  their  incomparable  fitness  to  express 
our  sentiments,  they  are  at  the  same  time 
memorials  of,  and  appeals  to,  former  mercies 
and  deliverances  ;  they  are  acknowledgments 
of  prophecies  accomplished ;  they  point  out 
the  connection  between  the  old  and  new  dis- 
pensations, thereby  teaching  us  to  admire  and 
adore  the  wisdom  of  God  displayed  in  both, 
and  furnishing  while  we  read  or  sing  them,  an 
inexhaustible  variety  of  the  noblest  matter  that 
can  engage  the  contemplations  of  man. 

Very  few  of  the  Psalms,  comparatively,  ap- 
pear to  be  simply  prophetical,  and  to  belong 
only  to  Messiah,  without  the  intervention  of 
any  other  person.  Most  of  them,  it  is  appre- 
hended, have  a  double  sense,  which  stands 
upon  this  ground  and  foundation,  that  the  an- 
cient patriarchs,  prophets,  priests,  and  kings, 
were  typical  characters,  in  their  several  offices, 
and  in  the  more  remarkable  passages  of  their 
lives,  their  extraordinary  depressions  and  mi- 
raculous exaltations  foreshowing  him  who 
was  to  arise  as  the  head  of  the  holy  family, 
the  great  prophet,  the  true  priest,  the  ever- 
lasting king.  The  Israelitish  polity,  and  the 
law  of  Moses,  were  purposely  framed  after  the 
example  and  shadow  of  things  spiritual  and 


PSA 


796 


PSA 


heavenly ;  and  the  events  which  happened  to 
the  ancient  people  ol'  God  were  designed  to 
shadow  out  parallel  occurrences,  which  should 
afterward  take  place  in  the  accomplishment 
of  man's  redemption,  and  tho  rise  and  progress 
of  the  Christian  church.  (See  Primhecy.)  For 
this  reason,  the  Psalms  composed  for  the  use 
of  Israel,  and  by  them  accordingly  used  at  the 
time,  do  admit  of  an  application  to  us,  who  are 
now  "the  Israel  of  God,"  Gal.  vi,  16,  and  to 
our  Redeemer,  who  is  the  King  of  this  Israel. 
It  would  he  an  arduous  and  adventurous  un- 
dertaking to  attempt  to  lay  down  the  rules 
observed  in  the  conduct  of  the  mystic  allegory, 
so  diverse  are  the  modes  in  which  the  Holy 
Spirit  has  thought  proper  to  communicate  his 
counsels  to  different  persons  on  different  occa- 
sions ;  inspiring  and  directing  the  minds  of  the 
prophets  according  to  his  good  pleasure;  at 
one  time  vouchsafing  more  full  and  free  dis. 
coveries  of  future  events ;  while,  at  another, 
he  is  more  obscure  and  sparing  in  his  intima- 
tions. From  hence,  of  course,  arises  a  great 
variety  in  the  Scripture  usage  of  this  kind  of 
allegory  as  to  the  manner  in  which  the  spiritual 
sense  is  coucheu  under  the  other.  Sometimes 
it  can  hardly  break  forth  and  show  itself  at 
intervals  through  the  literal,  which  meets  the 
eye  as  the  ruling  sense,  and  seems  to  have 
taken  entire  possession  of  the  words  and 
phrases.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  much  oftener 
the  capital  figure  in  the  piece,  and  stands  con- 
fessed at  once  by  such  splendour  of  language, 
that  the  letter,  in  its  turn,  is  thrown  into  shade, 
and  almost  totally  disappears.  Sometimes  it 
shines  with  a  constant  equable  light,  and 
sometimes  it  darts  upon  us  on  a  sudden,  like 
a  flash  of  lightning  from  the  clouds.  But  a 
composition  is  n  ^r  more  truly  elegant  and 
beautiful,  than  when  the  two  senses,  alike  con- 
spicuous, run  parallel  together  through  the 
whole  poem,  mutually  corresponding  with  and 
illustrating  each  other. 

Thus  the  establishment  of  David  upon  his 
throne,  notwithstanding  the  opposition  made  to 
it  by  his  enemies,  is  the  subject  of  the  second 
Psalm.  David  sustains  in  it  a  twofold  charac- 
ter, literal  and  allegorical.  If  we  read  over 
the  Psalm  first  with  an  eye  to  the  literal  David, 
the  meaning  is  obvious,  and  put  out  of  all  dis- 
pute by  the  sacred  history.  There  is  indeed 
an  uncommon  glow  in  the  expression,  and 
sublimity  in  the  figures;  and  the  diction  is 
now  and  then  exaggerated,  as  it  were,  on  pur- 
pose to  intimate  and  lead  us  to  the  contempla- 
tion of  higher  and  more  important  matters 
concealed  within.  In  compliance  with  this 
admonition,  if  wo  take  another  survey  of  the 
Psalm,  as  relative  to  the  person  and  concerns 
of  the  spiritual  David,  a  nobler  scries  of  events 
instantly  rises  to  view,  and  the  meaning  be- 
comes more  evident,  as  well  as  exalted.  The 
colouring,  which  may  perhaps  seem  too  bold 
and  glaring  for  the  king  of  Israel,  will  no 
longer  appear  so,  when  laid  upon  his  great 
antitype.  After  we  have  thus  attentively  con- 
sidered the  subject  apart,  let  us  look  at  them 
together,  and  we  shall  behold  the  full  beauty 
and  majesty  of  this  most  charming  poem.   We 


shnll  perceive  the  two  senses  very  distinct  from 
each  other,  yet  conspiring  in  perfect  harmony, 
and  bearing  a  wonderful  resemblance  in  every 
feature  and  lineament,  while  the  analogy  be- 
tween them  is  so  exactly  preserved,  that  either 
may  pass  for  the  original,  from  whence  the 
other  was  copied.  New  light  is  continually 
cast  upon  the  phraseology,  fresh  weight  and 
dignity  are  added  to  the  sentiment,  till  gradu- 
ally ascending  from  things  below  to  things 
above,  from  human  affairs  to  those  which  are 
divine,  they  bear  the  great  important  theme 
upward  with  them,  and  at  length  place  it  in 
the  height  and  brightness  of  heaven.  What 
has  been  observed  with  regard  to  this  Psalm, 
may  also  be  applied  to  the  seventy-second  ; 
the  subject  of  which  is  of  the  same  kind,  and 
treated  in  the  same  manner.  Its  title  might 
be,  "  The  Inauguration  of  Solomon."  The 
scheme  of  the  allegory  is  alike  in  both ;  but  a 
diversity  of  matter  occasions  an  alteration  in 
the  diction.  For  whereas  one  is  employed  in 
celebrating  the  magnificent  triumphs  of  vic- 
tory, it  is  the  design  of  the  other  to  draw  a 
pleasing  picture  of  peace,  and  of  that  felicity 
which  is  her  inseparable  attendant.  The  style 
is  therefore  of  a  more  even  and  temperate  sort, 
and  more  richly  ornamented.  It  abounds  not 
with  those  sudden  changes  of  the  person 
speaking  which  dazzle  and  astonish ;  but  the 
imagery  is  borrowed  from  the  delightful  scenes 
with  which  creation  cheers  the  sight,  and  the 
pencil  of  the  divine  artist  is  dipped  in  the  softer 
colours  of  nature.  And  here  we  may  take 
notice  how  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  genius 
of  this  kind  of  allegory  the  parabolical  style 
is,  on  account  of  that  great  variety  of  natural 
images  to  be  found  in  it.  For  as  these  images 
are  capable  of  being  employed  in  the  illustra- 
tion of  things  divine  and  human,  between 
which  there  is  a  certain  analogy  maintained, 
so  they  easily  afford  that  ambiguity  which  is 
necessary  in  this  species  of  composition,  where 
the  language  is  applicable  to  each  sense,  and 
obscure  in  neither  ;  it  comprehends  both  parts 
of  the  allegory,  and  may  be  clearly  and  dis- 
tinctly referred  to  one  or  the  other. 

On  this  book  Bishop  Horsley  remarks  : — 
These  Psalms  go,  in  general,  under  the  name 
of  the  Psalms  of  David.  King  David  gave  a 
regular  and  noble  form  to  the  musical  part  of 
the  Jewish  service.  He  was  himself  a  great 
composer,  both  in  poetry  and  music,  and  a 
munificent  patron,  no  doubt,  of  arts  in  which 
he  himself  so  much  delighted  and  excelled. 
The  Psalms,  however,  appear  to  be  composi- 
tions of  various  authors,  in  various  ages  ;  some 
much  more  ancient  than  the  times  of  King 
David,  some  of  a  much  later  age.  Of  many, 
David  himself  was  undoubtedly  the  author ; 
and  that  those  of  his  composition  were  pro- 
phetic, we  have  David's  own  authority,  which 
maybe  allowed  to  overpower  a  host  of  modern 
expositors.  For  thus  King  David,  at  the  close 
of  his  life,  describes  himself  and  his  sacred 
songs:  "David,  the  son  of  Jesse,  said,  and 
the  man  who  was  raised  up  on  high,  the 
anointed  of  the  God  of  Jacob,  and  the  sweet 
psalmist  of  Israel,  said,  The  Spirit  of  Jehovah 


PSA 


797 


PSA 


spake  by  me,  and  his  word  was  in  my  tongue.' 
It  was  the  word,  therefore,  of  Jehovah's  Spirit 
which  was  uttered  by  David's  tongue.  But  it 
should  seem,  the  Spirit  of  Jehovah  would  not 
be  wanting  to  enable  a  mere  man  to  make 
complaint  of  his  own  enemies,  to  describe  his 
own  sufferings  just  as  he  felt  them,  and  his 
own  escapes  just  as  they  happened.  But  the 
Spirit  of  Jehovah  described  by  David's  utter- 
ance what  was  known  to  that  Spirit  only,  and 
that  Spirit  only  could  describe.  So  that,  if 
David  be  allowed  to  have  had  any  knowledge 
of  the  true  subject  of  his  own  compositions, 
it  was  nothing  in  his  own  life,  but  something 
put  into  his  mind  by  the  Holy  Spirit  of  God ; 
and  the  misapplication  of  the  Psalms  to  the 
literal  David  has  done  more  mischief  than  the 
misapplication  of  any  other  parts  of  the  Scrip- 
tures among  those  who  profess  the  belief  of 
the  Christian  religion. 

The  Psalms  are  all  poems  of  the  lyric  kind, 
that  is,  adapted  to  music,  but  with  great  variety 
in  the  style  of  composition.  Some  are  simply 
odes.  An  ode  is  a  dignified  sort  of  song,  nar- 
rative of  the  facts,  either  of  public  history  or 
private  life,  in  a  highly  adorned  and  figured 
style.  But  the  figure  in  the  Psalms  is  that 
which  is  peculiar  to  the  Hebrew  language,  in 
which  the  figure  gives  its  meaning  with  as 
much  perspicuity  as  the  plainest  speech.  Some 
are  of  the  sort  called  elegiac,  which  are  pa- 
thetic compositions  upon  mournful  subjects. 
Some  are  ethic,  delivering  grave  maxims  of 
life,  or  the  precepts  of  religion,  in  solemn,  but 
for  the  most  part  simple,  strains.  Some  are 
enigmatic,  delivering  the  doctrines  of  religion 
in  enigmata,  contrived  to  strike  the  imagina- 
tion forcibly,  and  yet  easy  to  be  understood. 
In  all  these  the  author  delivers  the  whole  mat- 
ter in  his  own  person.  But  a  very  great,  I 
believe  the  far  greater,  part  are  a  sort  of  dra- 
matic ode,  consisting  of  dialogues  between  per- 
sons sustaining  certain  characters.  In  these 
dialogue  Psalms  the  persons  are  frequently  the 
psalmist  himself,  or  the  chorus  of  priests  and 
Levites,  or  the  leader  of  the  Levitical  band, 
opening  the  ode  with  a  proem  declarative  of 
the  subject,  and  very  often  closing  the  whole 
with  a  solemn  admonition  drawn  from  what 
the  other  persons  say.  The  other  persons  are 
Jehovah,  sometimes  as  one,  sometimes  as  an- 
other, of  the  three  Persons  ;  Christ  in  his  in- 
carnate state,  sometimes  before,  sometimes 
after,  his  resurrection ;  the  human  soul  of 
Christ  as  distinguished  from  the  divine  essence. 
Christ,  in  his  incarnate  state,  is  personated 
sometimes  as  a  priest,  sometimes  as  a  king, 
sometimes  as  a  conqueror  ;  and  in  those  Psalms 
in  which  he  is  introduced  as  a  conqueror,  the 
resemblance  is  very  remarkable  between  this 
conqueror  in  the  book  of  Psalms  and  the  wai. 
rior  on  the  white  horse  in  the  book  of  Revela- 
tion, who,  goes  forth  with  a  crown  on  his  head, 
and  a  bow  in  his  hand,  conquering  and  to 
conquer.  And  the  conquest  in  the  Psalms  is 
followed,  like  the  conquest  in  the  Revelation, 
by  the  marriage  of  the  conqueror.  These  are 
circumstances  of  similitude  which,  to  any  one 
versed  in  the  prophetic  style,  prove  beyond  a 


doubt  that  the  mystical  conqueror  is  the  same 
personage  in  both. 

PSALMODY.  The  service  of  the  ancient 
Christian  church  usually  began  with  reading 
or  with  the  singing  of  psalms.  We  are  not  to 
understand  this  as  if  their  psalmody  was  per- 
formed in  one  course  of  many  psalms  together, 
without  intermission,  but  rather,  with  some 
respite,  and  a  mixture  of  other  parts  of  divine 
service,  to  make  the  whole  more  agreeable  and 
delightful.  As  to  the  persons  concerned  in  sing- 
ing the  Psalms  publicly  in  the  church,  they  may 
be  considered  in  four  different  respects,  accord- 
ing to  the  different  ways  of  psalmody ;  for  some- 
times the  Psalms  were  sung  by  one  person 
alone  ;  and  sometimes  the  whole  assembly 
joined  together,  men,  women,  and  children  : 
this  was  the  most  ancient  and  general  practice. 
At  other  times  the  Psalms  were  sung  alternate- 
ly ;  the  congregation  dividing  themselves  into 
two  parts,  and  singing  verse  for  verse.  Beside 
all  these,  there  was  yet  a  fourth  way  of  singing, 
pretty  common  in  the  fourth  century,  which 
was,  when  a  single  person  began  the  verse, 
and  the  people  joined  with  him  in  the  close. 

Psalmody  was  always  esteemed  a  consider- 
able part  of  devotion,  and  upon  that  account 
was  usually  performed  in  the  standing  posture. 
As  to  the  voice  or  pronunciation,  used  in 
singing,  it  was  of  two  sorts,  the  plain  song, 
and  the  more  artificial ;  the  plain  song  was 
only  a  gentle  inflexion,  or  turn  of  the  voice, 
not  very  different  from  the  chanting  in  our 
cathedrals ;  the  artificial  song  seems  to  have 
been  a  regular  musical  composition,  like  our 
anthems.  It  was  no  objection  against  the 
psalmody  of  the  church,  that  she  sometimes 
made  use  of  psalms  and  hymns  of  human  corn- 
position,  beside  those  of  the  inspired  writers. 
St.  Augustine  himself  made  a  psalm  of  many 
parts,  in  imitation  of  the  hundred  and  nine- 
teenth, to  preserve  his  people  from  the  errors 
of  the  Donatists.  St.  Hilary  and  St.  Ambrose 
likewise  made  many  hymns,  which  were  sung 
in  their  respective  churches.  But  two  corrup- 
tions crept  into  the  psalmody,  which  the  fa- 
thers declaim  against  with  great  zeal.  The 
first  was,  the  introducing  secular  music,  or 
an  imitation  of  the  light  airs  of  the  theatre, 
in  the  devotions  of  the  church.  The  other 
was,  the  regarding  more  the  sweetness  of  the 
composition  than  the  sense  and  meaning ; 
thereby  pleasing  the  ear,  without  raising  the 
affections  of  the  soul. 

The  use  of  musical  instruments  in  singing 
of  psalms,  seems  to  be  as  ancient  as  psalmody 
itself.  The  first  psalm  we  read  of  was  sung 
to  a  timbrel,  namely,  that  which  Moses  and 
Miriam  sung  after  the  deliverance  of  the  chil- 
dren of  Israel  from  Egypt ;  and  afterward,  at 
Jerusalem,  when  the  temple  w:  a  built,  musical 
instruments  were  constantly  used  at  their  pub- 
lic services.  And  this  has  been  the  common 
practice  in  all  ages  of  the  church.  When  the 
use  of  organs  was  first  introduced,  is  not  cer 
tainly  known ;  but  we  find,  that  about  A.  D. 
(i60,  Constantine  Copronymus,  emperor  of 
Constantinople,  sent  a  present  of  an  organ  to 
King  Pepin  of  France. 


PSA 


798 


PUB 


Clement  Marot,  groom  of  the  bed  chamber 
to  Francis  I.,  king  of  France,  was  the  first 
who  engaged  in  translating  the  Psalms  into 
metre.  He  versified  the  first  fifty  at  the  insti- 
gation of  Vatablus,  Hebrew  professor  at  Paris  ; 
and  afterward,  upon  his  return  to  Geneva,  he 
made  an  acquaintance  with  Beza,  who  versified 
the  rest,  and  had  tunes  set  to  them ;  and  thus 
they  began  to  be  sung  in  private  houses,  and 
afterward  were  brought  into  the  churches  of 
the  French  and  other  countries.  In  imitation 
of  this  version,  Sternhold,  one  of  the  grooms 
of  the  privy  chamber  to  our  King  Edward  VI., 
undertook  a  translation  of  the  Psalms  into 
metre.  He  went  through  but  thirty-seven  of 
them,  the  rest  being  soon  after  finished  by 
Hopkins  and  others.  This  translation  was  at 
first  discountenanced  by  many  of  the  clergy, 
who  looked  upon  it  as  done  in  opposition  to 
the  practice  of  chanting  the  Psalms  in  the 
cathedrals. 

Early  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth, 
metrical  psalmody  was  introduced  into  this 
country.  The  new  morning  prayer  began  at 
St.  Antholin's,  London,  when  a  psalm  was 
sung  in  the  Geneva  fashion,  all  the  congrega- 
tion, men,  women,  and  boys  singing  together. 
Bishop  Jewel  says,  that  "  the  singing  of  psalms, 
begun  in  one  church  in  London,  did  quickly 
spread  itself,  not  only  through  the  city,  but  in 
the  neighbouring  places ;  sometimes  at  Paul's 
Cross  six  thousand  people  singing  together." 

A  curious  controversy  on  this  subject  arose 
among  the  Dissenters  in  the  end  of  the  seven- 
teenth century.  Whether  singing  in  public 
worship  had  been  partially  discontinued  dur- 
ing the  times  of  persecution  to  avoid  informers, 
or  whether  the  miserable  manner  in  which  it 
was  performed  gave  persons  a  distaste  to  it,  so 
it  appears,  that  in  1691,  Mr.  Benjamin  Keach 
published  a  tract  entitled,  "  The  Breach  Re- 
paired in  God's  Worship :  or,  Psalms,  Hymns, 
&c,  proved  to  be  a  Holy  Ordinance  of  Jesus 
Christ."  To  us  it  may  appear  strange  that 
such  a  point  should  be  disputed ;  but  Mr. 
Keach  was  obliged  to  labour  earnestly,  and 
with  a  great  deal  of  prudence  and  caution,  to 
obtain  the  consent  of  his  people  to  sing  a 
hymn  at  the  conclusion  of  the  Lord's  Supper. 
After  six  years  more,  they  agreed  to  sing  on 
the  thanksgiving  days ;  hut  it  required  still 
fourteen  years  more  before  he  could  persuade 
them  to  sing  every  Lord's  day ;  and  then  it 
was  only  after  the  last  prayer,  that  those  who 
chose  it  might  withdraw  without  joining  in 
it !  Nor  did  even  this  satisfy  these  scrupulous 
consciences  ;  for,  after  all,  a  separation  took 
place,  and  the  inharmonious  seceders  formed 
a  new  church  in  May's  Pond,  where  it  was 
above  twenty  years  longer  before  singing  the 
praises  of  God  could  be  endured.  It  is  diffi- 
cult at  this  period  to  believe  it ;  but  Mr.  Ivimey 
quotes  Mr.  Crosby,  as  saying,  that  Mr.  Reach's 
was  the  first  church  in  which  psalm  singing 
was  introduced.  This  remark,  however,  must 
probably  be  confined  to  the  Baptist  churches. 
The  Presbyterians,  it  seems,  were  not  quite  so 
unmusical ;  for  the  Directory  of  the  Westmin- 
ster ilivines  distinctly  stated,  that  "  it  is  the  duty 


of  Christians  to  praise  God  publicly  by  singing 
of  Psalms  together  in  the  congregation."  And 
beside  the  old  Scotch  Psalms,  Dr.  John  Patrick, 
of  the  Charter  house,  made  a  version  which 
was  in  very  general  use  among  Dissenters, 
Presbyterians,  and  Independents,  before  it  was 
superseded  by  the  far  superior  compositions  of 
Dr.  Watts.  These  Psalms,  however,  like  those 
of  the  English  and  Scotch  establishment,  were 
drawled  out  in  notes  of  equal  length,  without 
accent  or  variety.  Even  the  introduction  of 
the  tripie-time  tunes,  probably  about  the  time 
of  Dr.  Watts's  psalms,  gave  also  great  offence 
to  some  people,  because  it  marked  the  accent 
of  the  measure.  Old  Mr.  Thomas  Bradbury 
used  to  call  this  time  "a  long  leg  and  a  short 
one."  The  beautiful  compositions  of  Dr.  Watts, 
Mr.  C.  Wesley,  and  others,  have  produced  a 
considerable  revolution  in  modern  psalmody. 
Better  versions  of  the  Psalms,  and  many  excel- 
lent collections  of  hymns,  are  now  in  use,  and 
may  be  considered  as  highly  important  gifts 
bestowed  upon  the  modern  church  of  God. 

PSALTERY.     See  Music. 

PTOLEMAIS.     See  Accho. 

PUBLICAN,  a  collector  or  receiver  of  the 
Roman  revenues.  Judea  being  added  to  the 
provinces  of  the  Roman  empire,  and  the  taxes 
paid  by  the  Jews  directly  to  the  emperor,  the 
publicans  were  the  officers  appointed  to  collect 
them.  The  ordinary  taxes  which  the  Romans 
levied  in  the  provinces  were  of  three  sorts : 
1.  Customs  upon  goods  imported  and  exported  ; 
which  tribute  was  therefore  called  poriorium, 
from  portus,  "  a  haven."  2.  A  tax  upon  cat- 
tle fed  in  certain  pastures  belonging  to  the 
Roman  state,  the  number  of  which  being  kept 
in  writing,  this  tribute  was  called  scriptura. 
3.  A  tax  upon  corn,  of  which  the  government 
demanded  a  tenth  part.  This  tribute  was  call- 
ed itecuma.  These  publicans  are  distinguished 
by  Sigonius  into  three  sorts  or  degrees, — the 
farmers  of  the  revenue,  their  partners,  and 
their  securities  ;  in  which  he  follows  Polybius. 
These  are  called  the  mancipes,  socii,  and  prades, 
who  were  all  under  the  quccstore  sararii,  that 
presided  over  the  finances  at  Rome.  The 
mancipes  farmed  the  revenue  of  large  districts 
or  provinces,  had  the  oversight  of  the  inferior 
publicans,  received  their  accounts  and  collec- 
tions, and  transmitted  them  to  the  quceslores 
ecrarii.  They  often  let  out  their  provinces  in 
smaller  parcels  to  the  socii;  so  called,  because 
they  were  admitted  to  a  share  in  the  contract, 
perhaps  for  the  sake  of  more  easily  raising  the 
purchase  money ;  at  least  to  assist  in  collect- 
ing the  tribute.  Both  the  mancipes  and  socii 
are  therefore  properly  styled  reXdvai,  from  tCXos, 
1r ih u turn,  and  (Wo/im,  emo.  They  were  obliged 
to  procure  precdes,  or  sureties,  who  gave  secu- 
rity to  the  government  for  the  fulfilment  of  the 
contract.  The  distribution  of  Sigonius,  there- 
fore, or  rather  of  Polybius,  is  not  quite  exact, 
since  there  were  properly  but  two  sorts  of  pub- 
licans, the  mancipes  and  the  socii.  The  former 
are,  probably,  those  whom  the  Greeks  call 
apx<T£Aciva<,  chiefs  of  the  publicans;  of  which 
sort  was  Zaccheus.  As  the)'  were  superior  to 
the  common  publicans  in  dignity,  being  mostly 


PUL 


799 


PUR 


of  the  equestrian  order,  so  they  were  generally 
in  their  moral  character.  But  as  for  the  com- 
mon publicans,  the  collectors  or  receivers,  as 
many  of  the  socii  were,  they  are  spoken  of 
with  great  contempt,  by  Heathens  as  well  as 
Jews ;  and  particularly  by  Theocritus,  who 
said,  that  "  among  the  beasts  of  the  wilder- 
ness, bears  and  lions  are  the  most  cruel ; 
among  the  beasts  of  the  city,  the  publican  and 
parasite."  The  reason  of  the  general  hatred 
to  them  was,  doubtless,  their  rapine  and  ex- 
tortion. For,  having  a  share  in  the  farm  of 
the  tribute,  at  a  certain  rate,  they  were  apt  to 
oppress  the  people  with  illegal  exactions,  to 
raise  as  large  a  fortune  as  they  could  for  them- 
selves. Beside,  publicans  were  particularly 
odious  to  the  Jews,  who  looked  upon  them  to 
be  the  instruments  of  their  subjection  to  the 
Roman  emperors,  to  which  they  generally  held 
it  sinful  for  them  to  submit.  They  considered 
it  as  incompatible  with  their  liberty  to  pay 
tribute  to  any  foreign  power,  Luke  xx,  22,  &c  ; 
and  those  of  their  own  nation  that  engaged  in 
this  employment  they  regarded  as  Heathens, 
Matthew  xviii,  17.  It  is  even  said,  that  they 
would  not  allow  them  to  enter  into  their  tem- 
ple or  synagogues,  nor  to  join  in  prayers,  nor 
even  allow  their  evidence  in  a  court  of  justice 
on  any  trial ;  nor  would  they  accept  of  their 
offerings  in  the  temple. 

It  appears  by  the  Gospel  that  there  were 
many  publicans  in  Judea  at  the  time  of  our 
Saviour.  Zaccheus,  probably,  was  one  of  the 
principal  receivers,  since  he  is  called  the  chief 
of  the  publicans,  Luke  xix,  2  ;  but  St.  Matthew 
was  only  an  inferior  publican.  The  Jews  re- 
proached our  Saviour  for  showing  kindness  to 
these  persons,  Luke  vii,  34;  and  he  himself 
ranks  them  with  harlots,  Matt,  xxi,  31.  Some 
of  them,  it  should  seem,  had  humbling  views 
of  themselves,  Luke  xviii,  10.  Zaccheus  as- 
sures our  Lord,  who  had  honoured  him  with  a 
visit,  that  he  was  ready  to  give  the  half  of  his 
goods  to  the  poor,  Luke  xix,  8,  and  to  return 
fourfold  of  whatever  he  had  unjustly  acquired. 

PUBLIUS,  the  governor  of  Melita,  Acts 
xxviii,  7-9.  When  St.  Paul  was  shipwrecked 
on  this  island,  Publius  received  him  and  his 
company  into  his  house  very  kindly,  and 
treated  them  for  three  days  with  great  hu- 
manity. 

PUL,  king  of  Assyria.  He  came  into  the 
land  of  Israel  in  the  time  of  Manahem,  king 
of  the  ten  tribes,  2  Kings  xv,  19,  &c,  and 
invaded  the  kingdom  on  the  other  side  of 
Jordan.  But  Manahem,  by  a  present  of  one 
thousand  talents  of  silver,  prevailed  on  the 
king  of  Assyria,  not  only  to  withdraw  his 
forces,  but  to  recognize  his  title  to  the  crown 
of  Israel  before  he  left  the  kingdom.  This  is 
the  first  time  that  we  find  any  mention  made 
of  the  kingdom  of  Assyria  since  the  days  of 
Nimrod ;  and  Pul  is  the  first  monarch  of  that 
nation  who  invaded  Israel,  and  began  their 
transportation  out  of  their  own  country. 

PULSE,  »"?p,  Lev.  xxiii,  14;  1  Sam.xvii,  17  ; 
2  Sam.  xvii,  23 ;  a  term  applied  to  those  grains 
or  seeds  which  grow  in  pods,  as  beans,  peas, 
vetches,  &c,  from  Vib,  a  bean.     The  Vulgate 


renders  this  kali  in  2  Sam.  xvii,  28,  fnxum 
cicer,  "  parched  peas."  In  Daniel  i,  12,  16, 
the  word  D'jnj,  rendered  pulse,  may  signify 
seeds  in  general. 

PUNISHMENTS  OF  THE  HEBREWS. 
There  were  several  sorts  of  punishments  in 
use  among  the  Jews  which  are  mentioned  in 
the  Scripture.  1.  The  punishment  of  the 
cross.  (See  Cross.)  2.  Suspension,  Esther 
vii,  10 ;  Joshua  viii,  29 ;  2  Samuel  xxi,  12. 
3.  Stoning.  4.  Firs.  This  punishment  was 
common,  Gen.  xxxviii,  24 ;  Leviticus  xxi,  9. 
5.  The  rack  or  tympanum,  mentioned  Heb. 
xi,  35.  Commentators  are  much  divided  about 
the  meaning  of  this  punishment ;  but  most  of 
them  are  of  opinion  that  the  bastinado,  or  the 
punishment  of  the  stick,  is  intended,  and  that 
the  Apostle  alludes  to  the  cruelties  exercised 
upon  old  Eleazar;  for,  in  2  Mac.  vi,  19,  where 
his  martyrdom  is  spoken  of,  it  is  said  that  he 
came  to  the  tympanum.  6.  The  p]  ocipice,  or 
throwing  persons  headlong  from  a  rock,  with 
a  stone  tied  about  the  neck,  2  Chron.  xxv,  12. 
7.  Decapitation,  Gen.  xl,  19 ;  Judges  ix,  5 ; 
2  Kings  x,  7 ;  Matt,  xiv,  8.  8.  The  punish- 
ment of  the  saw,  or  to  be  cut  asunder  in  the 
middle,  Heb.  xi,  37.  This  punishment  was 
not  unknown  to  the  Hebrews.  Some  think  it 
was  originally  from  the  Persians  or  Chaldeans. 
9.  Plucking  out  the  eyes,  Exod.  xxi,  24.  Some 
think  this  punishment  was  seldom  executed, 
but  the  offender  was  made  to  suffer  in  his  pro- 
perty rather  than  in  his  person  :  yet  there,  are 
some  instances  on  record,  Judges  xvi,  21 ; 
1  Sam.  xi,  2 ;  2  Kings  xxv,  7.  10.  The  cut- 
ting off  the  extremities  of  the  feet  and  hands, 
Judges  i,  5-7 ;  2  Sam.  iv,  12. 

PUR,  tib,  K\rjpos,  signifies  lot.  Pur,  Phur, 
or  Purim,  was  a  solemn  feast  of  the  Jews, 
instituted  in  memory  of  the  lots  cast  by 
Haman,  the  enemy  of  the  Jews,  Esther  iii,  7. 
These  lots  were  cast  in  the  first  month  of  the 
year,  and  gave  the  twelfth  month  of  the  same 
year  for  the  execution  of  Haman's  design,  to 
destroy  all  the  Jews  in  Persia.  Thus  the  su- 
perstition of  Haman,  in  crediting  these  lots, 
caused  his  own  ruin,  and  the  preservation  of 
the  Jews,  who,  by  means  of  Esther,  had  time 
to  avert  this  blow.  The  Jews  have  exactly 
kept  this  feast  down  to  our  times.  See  Ha- 
man, Esther,  and  Mordecai. 

PURGATORY,  a  place  in  which,  according 
to  the  church  of  Rome,  the  just,  who  depart 
out  of  this  life,  are  supposed  to  expiate  certain 
offences  which  do  not  merit  eternal  damnation. 
Broughton  has  endeavoured  to  prove  that  this 
notion  has  been  held  by  Pagans,  Jews,  and 
Mohammedans,  as  well  as  by  Christians ;  and 
that  in  the  days  of  the  Maccabees,  the  Jews 
believed  that  sin  might  be  expiated  by  sacrifice 
after  the  death  of  the  sinner.  The  arguments 
advanced  for  purgatory  by  the  papists  are 
these :  Every  sin,  how  slight  soever,  though 
no  more  than  an  idle  word,  as  it  is  an  offence 
to  God,  deserves  punishment  from  him,  and 
will  be  punished  by  him  hereafter,  if  not  can- 
celled by  repentance  here.  2.  Such  small  sins 
do  not  deserve  eternal  punishment.  3.  Few 
depart  this  life  so  pure  as  to  be  totally  exempt 


PUR 


800 


PUR 


from  spots  of  this  nature,  and  from  every  kind 
of  debt  due  to  God's  justice.  4.  Therefore, 
few  will  escape  without  suffering  something 
from  his  justice  for  such  debts  as  they  have 
carried  with  them  out  of  this  world,  according 
to  the  rule  of  divine  justice,  by  which  he  treats 
every  soul  hereafter  according  to  his  works, 
and  according  to  the  state  in  which  he  finds  it 
in  death.  From  these  positions,  which  the 
papist  considers  as  so  many  self-evident  truths, 
he  infers  that  there  must  be  some  third  place 
of  punishment ;  for  sihec  the  infinite  holiness 
of  God  can  admit  nothing  into  heaven  that,  is 
not  clean  and  pure  from  all  sin,  both  great  and 
small,  and  his  infinite  justice  can  permit  none 
to  receive  the  reward  of  bliss,  who  as  yet  are 
not  out  of  debt,  but  have  something  in  justice 
lo  suffer,  there  must,  of  necessity,  be  some 
place  or  state,  where  souls  departing  this  life, 
pardoned  as  to  the  eternal  guilt  of  sin,  yet 
obnoxious  to  some  temporal  penalty,  or  with 
tiie  guilt  of  some  venial  faults,  are  purged  and 
purified  before  their  admittance  into  heaven. 
And  this  is  what  he  is  taught  concerning  pur- 
gatory; though  he  know  not  where  it  is,  of 
what  nature  the  pains  are,  or  how  long  each 
soul  is  detained  there,  yet  he  believes  that 
those  who  are  in  this  place  are  relieved  by  the 
prayers  of  their  fellow  members  here  on  earth, 
as  also  by  alms  and  masses  offered  up  to  God 
for  their  souls.  And  as  for  such  as  have  no 
relations  or  friends  to  gray  for  them,  or  give 
alms  to  procuro  masses  for  their  relief,  they 
are  not  neglected  by  the  church,  which  makes 
a  general  commemoration  of  all  the  faithful 
departed,  in  every  mass,  and  in  every  one  of 
the  canonical  hours  of  the  divine  office.  Be- 
side the  above  arguments,  the  following  pas- 
sages are  alleged  as  proofs  :  2  Mace,  xii,  43-45 ; 
Matt,  xii,  31,  32;  1  Cor.  Hi,  15;  1  Peter  iii,  19. 
But  it  may  be  observed,  1.  That  the  books  of 
Maccabees  have  no  evidence  of  inspiration, 
therefore  quotations  from  them  are  not  to  be 
regarded.  2.  If  they  were,  the  texts  referred  to 
would  rather  prove  that  there  is  no  such  place 
as  purgatory,  since  Judas  did  not  expect  the 
souls  departed  to  reap  any  benefit  from  the 
sin-offering  till  the  resurrection.  The  texts 
quoted  from  the  Scriptures  have  no  reference 
to  the  doctrine,  as  may  be  seen  by  consulting 
the  context,  and  any  just  commentator  upon 
it.  3.  The  Scriptures,  in  general,  speak  of 
departed  souls  going  immediately,  at  death,  to 
a  fixed  state  of  happiness  or  misery,  and  give 
us  no  idea  of  purgatory,  Isaiah  lvii,  2 ;  Rev. 
xiv,  13  ;  Luke  xvi,  22 ;  2  Cor.  v,  8.  4.  It  is 
derogatory  from  the  doctrine  of  the  satisfac- 
tion of  Christ.  If  Christ  died  for  us,  and  re- 
deemed us  from  sin  and  hell,  as  the  Scripture 
speaks,  then  the  idea  of  farther  meritorious 
suffering  detracts  from  the  perfection  of  his 
sacrifice,  and  places  merit  still  in  the  creature  ; 
a  doctrine  exactly  opposite  to  the  Scriptures. 

PURITANS.  In  England,  the  term  Puri- 
tans  was  applied  to  those  who  wished  for  a 
farther  degree  of  reformation  in  the  church 
thnn  was  adopted  by  Queen  Elizabeth  ;  and  a 
purer  form,  not  of  faith,  but  of  discipline  and 
worship.     It  was  a  common  name  given  to  all 


who,  from  conscientious  motives,  though  on 
different  grounds,  disapproved  of  the  established 
religion,  from  the  reformation  under  Elizabeth, 
to  the  Act  of  Uniformity  in  1662.  From  that 
time  to  the  revolution  in  1688,  as  many  as 
refused  to  comply  with  the  established  worship, 
(among  whom  were  about  two  thousand  clergy- 
men, and  perhaps  five  hundred  thousand  peo- 
ple,) were  denominated  Nonconformists.  From 
the  passing  of  the  Act  of  Toleration  on  the 
accession  of  William  and  Mary,  the  name  of 
Nonconformists  was  changed  to  that  of  Pro- 
testant Dissenters.  Prior  to  the  grand  rebellion 
in  1640,  the  Puritans  were,  almost  without 
exception,  Episcopalians  ;  but  after  the  famous 
"League  and  Covenant"  of  those  turbulent 
times  the  greater  part  of  them  became  Presby- 
terians. Some,  however,  were  Independents, 
and  some  Baptists.  The  objections  of  the  lat- 
ter were  more  fundamental ;  they  disapproved 
of  all  national  churches,  as  such,  and  disavowed 
the  authority  of  human  legislation  in  matters 
of  faith  and  worship.  The  persecutions  carried 
on  against  the  Puritans  during  the  .reigns  of 
Elizabeth  and  the  Stuarts  served  to  lay  the 
foundation  of  a  new  empire,  and  eventually  a 
vast  republic,  in  the  western  world.  Thither, 
as  into  a  wilderness,  they  fled  from  the  face  of 
their  persecutors ;  and,  being  protected  in  the 
free  exercise  of  their  religion,  continued  to  in- 
crease, until  at  length  they  became  an  inde- 
pendent nation.  The  different  principles, 
however,  on  which  they  had  originally  divided 
from  the  church  establishment  at  home,  ope- 
rated in  a  way  that  might  have  been  expected, 
when  they  came  to  the  possession  of  the  civil 
power  abroad.  Those  who  formed  the  colony 
of  Massachusetts  having  never  relinquished 
the  principle  of  a  national  church,  and  of  the 
power  of  the  civil  magistrate  in  matters  of  faith 
and  worship,  were  less  tolerant  than  those  who 
settled  at  New  Plymouth,  at  Rhode  Island,  and 
Providence  Plantations.  The  very  men  who 
had  just  escaped  the  persecutions  of  the  English 
prelates,  now,  in  their  turn,  persecuted  others 
who  dissented  from  them;  until,  at  length,  the 
liberal  system  of  toleration  established  in  the 
parent  country  at  the  revolution,  extended  to 
the  colonies,  and  in  a  good  measure  put  an  end 
to  these  censurable  proceedings. 

PURPLE,  jdjtin,  Exodus  xxv,  4,  &c ;  aop- 
<pipa,  Mark  xv,  17,  20;  Luke  xvi,  19;  John 
xix,  2,  5;  Rev.  xvii,  4;  xviii,  12,  16.  This  is 
supposed  to  be  the  very  precious  colour  ex- 
tracted from  the  purpura  or  murex,  a  species 
of  shell  fish;  and  the  same  with  the  famous 
Tynan  dye,  so  costly,  and  so  much  celebrated 
in  antiquity.  The  purple  dye  is  called  in 
1  Mace,  iv,  23,  "  purple  of  the  sea,"  or  sea 
purple ;  it  being  the  blood  or  juice  of  a  tur- 
binated shell  fish,  which  the  Jews  call  ntVn. 
(See  Scarlet.)  Among  the  blessings  pro- 
nounced by  Moses  upon  the  tribes  of  Israel, 
those  of  Zebulun  and  Issachar  are,  "  They 
shall  suck  of  the  abundance  of  the  seas,  and 
of  the  treasures  hid  in  the  sand,"  Deut.  xxxiii, 
19.  Jonathan  Ben  Uzziel  explains  the  latter 
clause  thus:  "From  the  sand  are  produced 
looking    glasses,    and    glass    in    general;   the 


QUA 


801 


QUI 


treasures,  the  method  of  finding  and  working 
which,  was  revealed  to  these  tribes."  Several 
ancient  writers  inform  us,  that  there  were 
havens  in  the  coasts  of  the  Zebulunites,  in 
which  the  sand  proper  for  making  glass  was 
found.  The  words  of  Tacitus  are  remarkable  : 
"  Et  Belus  amnis  Judaico  mari  illabitur,  circa 
ejus  os  lectcB  arena  admixto  rtitro  in  vitrum  ex- 
coquuntur."  "  The  river  Belus  falls  into  the 
Jewish  sea,  about  whose  mouth  those  sands 
mixed  with  nitre  are  collected,  out  of  which 
glass  is  formed."  But  it  seems  much  more 
natural  to  explain  "the  treasures  hid  in  the 
sand,"  of  those  highly  valuable  murices  and 
purpura  which  were  found  on  the  sea  coast, 
near  the  country  of  Zebulun  and  Issachar,  and 
of  which  those  tribes  partook  in  common  with 
their  Heathen  neighbours  of  Tyre,  who  ren- 
dered the  curious  dyes  made  from  those  shell 
fish  so  famous  among  the  Romans  by  the 
names  of  Sarranum  ostrum,  Tyrii  colores.  In 
reference  to  the  purple  vestment,  Luke  xvi, 
19,  it  may  be  observed  that  this  was  not  ap- 
propriately a  royal  robe.  In  the  earlier  times 
it  was  the  dress  of  any  of  high  rank.  Thus  all 
the  courtiers  were  styled  by  the  historians  pur- 
purati.  This  Colour  is  more  properly  crimson 
than  purple ;  for  the  LXX.,  Josephus,  and 
Phil-o,  constantly  use  aop<p£pav  to  express  the 
Hebrew  jcnN,  by  which  the  Talmudists  under- 
stood crimson ;  and  that  this  Hebrew  word 
expressed,  not  the  Tyrian  purple,  but  that 
brought  to  the  city  from  another  country,  ap- 
pears from  Ezek.  xxvii,  7.  The  purple  robe 
put  on  our  Saviour,  John  xix,  2,  5,  is  explain- 
ed by  a  Roman  custom,  the  dressing  of  a  per- 
son in  the  robes  of  state,  as  the  investiture  of 
office.  Hence  the  robe  brought  by  Herod's  or 
the  Roman  soldiers,  scoffingly,  was  as  though 
it  had  been  the  pictce  vestes  usually  sent  by 
the  Roman  senate.  In  Acts  xvi,  14,  Lydia  is 
said  to  be  "a  seller  of  purple."  Mr.  Harmer 
styles  purple  the  most  sublime  of  all  earthly 
colours,  having  the  gaudiness  of  red,  of  which 
it  retains  a  shade,  softened  with  the  gravity  of 
blue. 

PUTEOLI,  so  called  from  its  baths  of  hot 
water,  a  city  of  Campania,  in  Italy;  now  call- 
ed Pozzuoli,  in  a  province  of  the  kingdom  of 
Naples,  called  Terra  di  Lavoro,  and  about 
eight  miles  from  Naples.  St.  Paul  stayed  a 
week  with  the  Christians  of  this  place,  in  his 
journey  as  a  prisoner  to  Rome,  Acts  xxviii, 
13.  The  Alexandrian  merchant  vessels  pre- 
ferred Puteoli  to  all  the  harbours  in  Italy,  and 
here  they  deposited  their  rich  freights.  They 
conducted  the  ships  adorned  with  wreaths  and 
festive  garments,  in  the  form  of  a  fleet,  one 
after  another,  into  the  harbour,  where  they 
were  received  with  the  greatest  demonstrations 
of  friendship.  Such  was  the  case  with  the 
6ale  of  Alexandrian  commodities  throughout 
Italy.  According  to  the  course  then  pursued, 
the  vessel  in  which  St.  Paul  sailed  went  direct 
into  this  harbour. 

QUAIL,  V?e>,  Exod.  xvi,  13 ;  Num.  xi,  31, 
32 ;  Psalm  cv,  10 ;  a  bird  of  the  gallinaceous 
kind.     Hasselquist,    mentioning   the  quail  of 
52 


the  larger  kind,  says,  "  It  is  of  the  size  of  the 
turtle  dove.  I  have  met  with  it  in  the  wilder- 
ness of  Palestine,  near  the  shores  of  the  Dead 
Sea  and  the  Jordan,  between  Jordan  and 
Jericho,  and  in  the  deserts  of  Arabia  Petrea. 
If  the  food  of  the  Israelites  was  a  bird,  this  is 
certainly  it ;  being  so  common  in  the  places 
through  which  they  passed."  It  is  said  that. 
God  gave  quails  to  his  people  in  the  wilder- 
ness upon  two  occasions :  first,  within  a  few 
days  after  they  had  passed  the  Red  Sea,  Exod. 
xvi,  3-13.  The  second  time  was  at  the  en- 
campment at  the  place  called  in  Hebrew, 
Kibroth-hataavah,  the  graves  of  lust,  Num. 
xi,  32  ;  Psalm  cv,  40.  Both  of  these  happened 
in  the  spring,  when  the  quails  passed  from 
Asia  into  Europe.  They  are  then  to  be  found 
in  great  quantities  upon  the  coast  of  the  Red 
Sea  and  Mediterranean.  God  caused  a  wind 
to  arise  that  drove  them  within  and  about  the 
camp  of  the  Israelites ;  and  it  is  in  this  that 
the  miracle  consists,  that  they  were  brought 
so  seasonably  to  this  place,  and  in  so  great 
number  as  to  furnish  food  for  above  a  million 
of  persons  for  more  than  a  month.  The  He- 
brew word  shalav  signifies  "  a  quail,"  by  the 
agreement  of  the  ancient  interpreters.  And 
the  Chaldee,  Syriac,  and  Arabic  languages 
call  them  nearly  by  the  same  name.  The  Sep- 
tuagint,  Syrnmachus,  and  most  of  commenta- 
tors, both  ancient  and  modern,  understand  it 
in  the  same  manner;  and  with  them  agree 
Philo,  Josephus,  Apollinaris,  and  the  rabbins ; 
but  Ludolphus  has  endeavoured  to  prove  that 
a  species  of  locust  is  spoken  of  by  Moses. 
Dr.  Shaw  answers,  that  the  holy  psalmist,  in 
describing  this  particular  food  of  the  Israelites, 
by  calling  the  animals  feathered  fowls,  entirely 
confutes  this  supposition.  And  it  should  be 
recollected,  that  this  miracle  was  performed  in 
compliance  with  the  wish  of  the  people  that 
they  might  have  flesh  to  eat. 

QUAKERS.     See  Fiuends. 

QUESTIONS.  Among  the  ancients  no 
pastime  was  more  common  than  that  of  pro- 
posing  and  answering  difficult  questions.  The 
person  who  solved  the  question  was  honoured 
with  a  reward;  he  who  failed  in  the  attempt 
suffered  a  certain  punishment ;  both  the  re- 
wards and  penalties  were  varied  according  to 
the  disposition  of  the  company.  That  the 
custom  of  proposing  riddles  was  very  ancient, 
and  derived  from  the  eastern  nations,  appears 
from  the  story  of  Samson,  in  the  book  of 
Judges,  who  proposed  one  to  the  Philistines  at 
his  nuptial  feast.  Nor  were  these  questions 
confined  to  entertainments,  but,  in  the  primi- 
tive times,  were  proposed  on  other  occasions, 
by  those  who  desired  to  make  proof  of  another's 
wisdom  and  learning.  Agreeably  to  this  cus- 
tom, the  queen  of  Sheba  came  to  prove  Solo- 
mon with  hard  questions,  1  Kings  x,  1. 

QUIETISTS,  the  disciples  of  Michael  de 
Molinos,  a  Spanish  priest,  who  flourished  in 
the  seventeenth  century,  and  wrote  a  book 
called  "The  Spiritual  Guide."  He  had  many 
disciples  in  Spain,  Italy,  France,  and  the 
Netherlands.  Some  pretend  that  he  borrowed 
his  principles  from   the   Spanish    Illuminati ; 


RAB 


802 


RAB 


and  M.  Gregoire  will  have  it  that  they  came 
originally  from  the  Persian  Soofees;  while 
others  no  less  confidently  derive  them  from  the 
Greek  Hesycasts.  The  Quietists,  however, 
deduce  their  principles  from  the  Scriptures. 
They  argue  thus  :  "  The  Apostle  tells  us,  that 
'the  Spirit  makes  intercession  for'  or  in  'us.' 
Now  if  the  Spirit  pray  in  us,  we  must  resign 
ourselves  to  his  impulses,  by  remaining  in  a 
state  of  absolute  rest,  or  quietude,  till  we 
attain  the  perfection  of  the  unitive  life,"  a  life 
of  union  with,  and,  as  it  should  seem,  of  ab- 
sorption in,  the  Deity.  They  contend,  that 
true  religion  consists  in  the  present  calm  and 
tranquillity  of  a  mind  removed  from  all  external 
and  finite  things,  and  centered  in  God;  and  in 
such  a  pure  love  of  the  supreme  Being,  as  is 
independent  of  all  prospect  of  interest  or  re- 
ward. To  prove  that  our  love  to  the  Deity 
must  be  disinterested,  they  allege,  that  the 
Lord  hath  made  all  things  for  himself,  as  saith 
the  Scripture ;  and  it  is  for  his  glo/y  that  he 
wills  our  happiness.  To  conform,  therefore, 
to  the  great  end  of  our  creation,  we  must  pre- 
fer God  to  ourselves,  and  not  desire  our  own 
happiness  but  for  his  glory ;  otherwise  we 
shall  go  contrary  to  his  order.  As  the  per- 
fections of  the  Deity  are  intrinsically  amiable, 
it  is  our  glory  and  perfection  to  go  out  of  our- 
selves, to  be  lost  and  absorbed  in  the  pure  love 
of  infinite  beauty.  Madam  Guion,  a  woman 
of  fashion  in  France,  born  1648,  becoming 
pious,  was  a  warm  advocate  of  these  princi- 
ples. She  asserted,  that  the  means  of  arriving 
at  this  perfect  love,  are  prayer  and  the  self- 
denial  enjoined  in  the  Gospel.  Prayer  she 
defines  to  be  the  entire  bent  of  the  soul  toward 
its  divine  origin.  Some  of  her  pious  canticles 
were  translated  by  the  poet  Cowper,  and  repre- 
sent her  sentiments  to  the  best  advantage. 
Fenelon,  the  amiable  archbishop  of  Cambray, 
also  favoured  these  sentiments  in  his  celebrated 
publication,  entitled,  "The  Maxims  of  the 
Saints."  The  distinguishing  tenet  in  his 
theology  was  the  doctrine  of  the  disinterested 
love  of  God  for  his  own  excellencies,  inde- 
pendent of  his  relative  benevolence :  an  im- 
portant feature  also  in  the  system  of  Madam 
Guion,  who,  with  the  good  archbishop,  was 
persecuted  by  the  pope  and  by  Bossuet.  See 
Mystics. 

RAB.  The  title  rabbi,  witli  several  others 
from  the  same  root,  aa-\,  magnus  est,  vel  mul- 
tiplicatus  est,  began  first  to  be  assumed,  ac- 
cording to  Godwin,  as  a  distinguishing  title  of 
honour  by  men  of  learning,  about  the  time  of 
the  birth  of  Christ.  We  find  it  anciently 
given,  indeed,  to  several  magistrates  and 
officers  of  state.  In  Esther  i,  8,  it  is  said,  the 
king  appointed  irva  a-r^a,  which  we  render 
"  all  the  officers  of  his  house."  In  Jeremiah 
xli,  1,  we  read  of  the  "fton  'an,  "the  princes  of 
the  king."  In  Job  xxxii,  0,  it  is  said,  that  the 
O'a-i,  which  we  render  "  great  men,  are  not 
always  wise ;"  a  rendering  which  well  ex- 
presses the  original  meaning  of  the  word.  It 
was  not  therefore  in  those  days  properly  a 
title    of  honour,  belonging  to  any  particular 


office  or  dignity,  in  church  or  state  ;  but  all 
who  were  of  superior  rank  and  condition  in 
life  were  called  D'ai.  We  do  not  find  the 
prophets,  or  other  men  of  learning  in  the  Old 
Testament,  affecting  any  title  beside  that 
which  denoted  their  office ;  and  they  were 
contented  to  be  addressed  by  their  bare  names. 
The  first  Jewish  rabbi,  said  to  have  been  dis- 
tinguished witli  any  title  of  honour,  was 
Simeon,  the  son  of  Hillel,  who  succeeded  his 
father  as  president  of  the  sanhedrim  ;  and  his 
title  was  that  of  rabban.  The  later  rabbies 
tell  us,  this  title  was  conferred  with  a  good 
deal  of  ceremony.  When  a  person  had  gone 
through  the  schools  and  was  thought  worthy 
of  the  degree  of  rabbi,  he  was  first  placed  in  a 
chair  somewhat  raised  above  the  company ; 
then  were  delivered  to  him  a  key  and  a  table 
book  :  the  key,  as  a  symbol  of  the  power  or 
authority  now  conferred  upon  him,  to  teach 
that  knowledge  to  others  which  he  had  learned 
himself;  and  this  key  he  afterward  wore  as  a 
badge  of  his  honour,  and  when  he  died  it  was 
buried  with  him  :  the  table  book  was  a  symbol 
of  his  diligence  in  his  studies,  and  of  his  en- 
deavouring to  make  farther  improvements  in 
learning.  The  next  ceremony  in  the  creation 
of  a  rabbi  was  the  imposition  of  hands  on  him 
by  the  delegates  of  the  sanhedrim,  practised  in 
imitation  of  Moses's  ordaining  Joshua  by  this 
rite,  to  succeed  him  in  his  office,  Num.  xxvii, 
18  ;  Deut.  xxxiv,  9.  And  then  they  proclaim- 
ed his  title. 

According  to  Maimonides,  the  imposition 
of  hands  was  not  looked  upon  to  be  essential ; 
but  was  sometimes  omitted.  They  did  not 
always,  saith  he,  lay  their  hands  on  the  head 
of  the  elder  to  be  ordained ;  but  called  him 
rabbi,  and  said,  "  Behold  thou  art  ordained, 
and  hast  power,"  &c.  We  find  this  title  given 
to  John  the  Baptist,  John  iii,  26;  and  fre- 
quently to  our  blessed  Saviour ;  as  by  John's 
disciples,  by  Nicodemus,  and  by  the  people 
that  followed,  John  i,  38 ;  iii,  2 ;  vi,  20.  The 
reason  of  our  Saviour's  prohibiting  his  disci- 
ples to  be  called  rabbi  is  expressed  in  these 
words  :  "  Be  not  ye  called  rabbi,  for  one  is 
your  master,  even  Christ,"  Kadny^hu  your 
guide  and  conductor,  on  whose  word  and 
instructions  alone  you  are  to  depend  in  mat- 
ters of  religion  and  salvation.  Accordingly 
the  inspired  Apostles  pretend  to  nothing  more 
than,  as  the  ambassadors  of  Christ,  to  deliver 
his  instructions  ;  and,  for  their  own  part,  they 
expressly  disclaim  all  dominion  over  the  faith 
and  consciences  of  men,  2  Cor.  i,  24 ;  v,  20. 
The  Jewish  writers  distinguish  between  the 
titles  rab,  rabbi,  rabban.  As  for  rab  and  rabbi, 
the  only  difference  between  them  is,  that  rab 
was  the  title  of  such  as  had  had  their  educa- 
tion, and  taken  their  degree,  in  some  foreign 
Jewish  school ;  suppose  at  Babylon,  where 
there  was  a  school  or  academy  of  considerable 
note  ;  rabbi  was  the  title  of  such  as  were  edu- 
cated in  the  land  of  Judea,  who  were  accounted 
more  honourable  than  the  others.  But  as  for 
rabban,  it  was  the  highest  title ;  which,  they 
say,  was  never  conferred  on  more  than  seven 
persons,  namely,   on   R.  Simeon,   five  of  his 


RAB 


803 


RAI 


descendants,  and  on  R.  Jochanan,  who  was  of 
a  different  family.  It  was  on  this  account,  it 
should  seem,  that  the  blind  man  gave  this  title 
to  Christ,  Mark  x,  51 ;  being  convinced  that 
he  was  possessed  of  divine  power,  and  worthy 
of  the  most  honourable  distinctions.  And 
Mary  Magdalene,  when  she  saw  Christ  after 
his  resurrection,  "said  unto  him,  Rabboni," 
John  xx,  16,  that  is,  my  rabban,  like  my  lord 
in  English ;  for  rabbon  is  the  same  with  rab- 
ban, only  pronounced  according  to  the  Syriac 
dialect.  » 

There  were  several  gradations  among  the 
Jews  before  the  dignity  of  rabbin,  as  among 
us,  before  the  degree  of  doctor.  The  head  of  a 
school  was  called  chacJiam,  or  wise.  He  had 
the  head  seat  in  the  assemblies  and  in  the  syna- 
gogues. He  reprimanded  the  disobedient,  and 
could  excommunicate  them  ;  and  this  procured 
him  great  respect.  In  their  schools  they  sat 
upon  raised  chairs,  and  their  scholars  were 
seated  at  their  feet.  Hence  St.  Paul  is  said 
to  have  studied  at  the  feet  of  Rabbi  Gamaliel, 
Acts  xxii,  3.  The  studies  of  the  rabbins  are 
employed  either  on  the  text  of  the  law,  or  the 
traditions,  or  the  cabbala ;  these  three  objects 
form  so  many  different  schools  and  different 
sorts  of  rabbins.  Those  who  chiefly  apply  to 
the  letter  of  Scripture  are  called  Cardites, 
Literalists.  Those  who  chiefly  study  the  tra- 
ditions and  oral  laws  of  the  Talmud  are  called 
Rabbanists.  Those  who  give  themselves  to 
their  secret  and  mysterious  divinity,  letters 
and  numbers,  are  called  Cabbalists,  Tradition- 
aries.  The  rabbins  are  generally  very  ignorant 
in  history,  chronology,  philology,  antiquity, 
and  geography.  They  understand  the  holy 
language  but  imperfectly.  They  know  not 
the  true  signification  of  a  multitude  of  words 
in  the  sacred  text.  They  are  prodigiously 
conceited  about  their  traditions,  so  that  there 
is  very  little  profit  in  reading  them ;  and  ex- 
perience shows  that  most  who  have  applied 
themselves  to  peruse  their  books,  have  been 
but  little  benefited  by  them,  and  have  enter- 
tained a  perfect  contempt  of  their  understand- 
ing and  their  works.  The  chief  function  of 
the  rabbins  is  to  preach  in  the  synagogue,  to 
make  public  prayers  there,  and  to  interpret 
the  law  ;  they  have  the  power  of  binding  and 
loosing,  that  is,  of  declaring  what  is  forbidden, 
and  what  allowed.  When  the  synagogue  is 
poor  and  small,  there  is  but  one  rabbin,  who 
at  the  same  time  discharges  the  office  of  a 
judge  and  a  teacher.  But  when  the  Jews  are 
numerous  and  powerful,  they  appoint  three 
pastors,  and  a  house  of  judgment,  where  all 
their  civil  affairs  are  determined.  Then  the 
rabbin  applies  himself  to  instruction  only,  un- 
less it  be  thought  proper  to  call  him  into  the 
council  to  give  his  advice,  in  which  case  he 
takes  the  chief  place. 

RABBATH,  or  RABBAT-AMMON,  the 
capital  city  of  the  Ammonites,  situated  beyond 
Jordan.     See  Ammon. 

RABBATH-MOAB,  the  capital  city  of  the 
Moabites,  called  otherwise  Ar,  or  Arcopolis. 
See  Moab. 

RABBI.     See  Rab. 


RABSHAKEH,  a  chief  butler,  or  cupbearer. 
This  is  a  term  of  dignity,  and  not  a  proper 
name.  Rabshakeh  was  sent  by  Sennacherib, 
king  of  Assyria,  to  summon  Hezekiah  to  sur- 
render Jerusalem,  2  Kings  xviii,  17,  18  ;  xix,  4; 
Isaiah  xxxvi. 

RACA,  a  Syriac  word  which  properly  signi- 
fies empty,  vain,  beggarly,  foolish,  and  which 
includes  in  it  a  strong  idea  of  contempt.  Our 
Saviour  pronounces  a  censure  on  every  person 
using  this  term  to  his  neighbour,  Matt,  v,  22. 
Lightfoot  assures  us  that,  in  the  writings  of 
the  Jews,  the  word  raca  is  a  term  of  the  utmost 
contempt,  and  that  it  was  usual  to  pronounce 
it  with  marked  signs  of  indignation. 

RACHEL,  the  daughter  of  Laban,  and  sister 
of  Leah.  The  Prophet  Jeremiah,  xxxi,  15,  and 
St.  Matthew,  ii,  18,  have  put  Rachel  for  the 
tribes  of  Ephraim  and  Manasseh,  the  children 
of  Joseph,  the  son  of  Rachel.  This  prophecy 
was  completed  when  these  two  tribes  were 
carried  into  captivity  beyond  the  Euphrates  ; 
and  St.  Matthew  made  application  cf  it  to  what 
happened  at  Bethlehem,  when  Herod  put  to 
death  the  children  of  two  years  old  and  under. 
Then  Rachel,  who  was  buried  there,  might  be 
said  to  make  her  lamentations  for  the  death 
of  so  many  innocent  children  sacrificed  to  the 
jealousy  of  a  wicked  monarch. 

RAHAB  was  a  hostess  of  the  city  of  Jericho, 
who  received  and  concealed  the  spies  sent  by 
Joshua.  The  Hebrew  calls  her  Zona,  Joshua 
ii,  1,  which  Jerom  and  many  others  Understand 
of  a  prostitute.  Others  think  she  was  only  a 
hostess  or  innkeeper,  and  that  this  is  the  true 
signification  of  the  original  word.  Had  she 
been  a  woman  of  ill  fame,  would  Salmon,  a 
prince  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  have  taken  her 
to  wife  ?  Or  could  he  have  done  it  by  the  law  ? 
Beside,  the  spies  of  Joshua  would  hardly  have 
gone  to  lodge  with  a  common  harlot,  they 
who  were  charged  with  so  nice  and  dangerous 
a  commission.  Those  who  maintain  that  she 
was  a  harlot,  pretend  that  she  was  perhaps 
one  of  those  women  who  prostituted  them- 
selves in  honour  of  the  Pagan  deities ;  as  if 
this  could  extenuate  her  crime,  or  the  scandal 
of  her  profession  if  she  was  a  public  woman. 
It  is  also  observable  that  such  women  are 
called  kadeshah,  not  zona,  in  tire  Hebrew. 
Rahab  married  Salmon,  a  prince  of  Judah,  by 
whom  she  had  Boaz,  from  whom  descended 
Obed,  Jesse,  and  David.  Thus  Jesus  Christ 
condescended  to  reckon  this  Canaanitish  wo- 
man among  his  ancestors.  St.  Paul  magnifies 
the  faith  of  Rahab,  Heb.  xi,  31. 

Rahab  is  also  a  name  of  Egypt,  Isa.  xxx,  7  ; 
li,  9. 

RAIMENT.  In  addition  to  what  occurs 
under  the  article  Habits,  it  may  be  observed 
that  to  make  presents  of  changes  of  raiment, 
Gen.  xlv,  22,  has  always  been  common  among 
all  ranks  of  orientals.  The  perfuming  of  rai- 
ment with  sweet-scented  spices  or  extracts  is 
also  still  a  custom,  which  explains  the  smell 
of  Jacob's  raiment.  A  coat  or  robe  of  many 
colours,  such  as  Jacob  gave  to  Joseph,  is 
also  a  mark  of  distinction.  The  Turks  at 
Aleppo  thus  array  their  sons ;  and,  in  the  tims 


RAV 


804 


RAV 


of  Sisera,  a  coat  of  divers  colours  is  mentioned 
among  the  rich  spoils  which  fell  to  the  con- 
querors. A  frequent  change  of  garments  is 
also  very  common  both  to  show  respect  and 
to  display  opulence.  Is  there  an  allusion  to 
this  in  Psalm  cii,  26 :  "Asa  vesture  shalt  thou 
change  them,  and  they  shall  be  changed  ?" 
If  so,  it  conveys  the  magnificent  idea  of  the 
almighty  Creator  investing  himself  with  the 
whole  creation  as  with  a  robe,  and  having  laid 
that  aside,  by  new  creations,  or  the  successive 
production  of  beings,  clothing  himself  with 
others,  at  his  pleasure. 

RAIN,  the  vapours  exhaled  by  the  sun, 
which  descend  from  the  clouds  to  water  the 
earth,  Eccles.  xi,  3.  The  sacred  writers  often 
speak  of  the  rain  of  the  former  and  latter  sea- 
son, Deut.  xi,  14  ;  Hosea  vi,  3.  Twice  in  the 
year  there  generally  fell  plenty  of  rain  in 
Judea  ;  in  the  beginning  of  the  civil  year, 
about  September  or  October  ;  and  half  a  year 
after,  in  the  month  of  Abib,  or  March,  which 
was  the  first  month  in  the  ecclesiastical  or 
sacred  year,  whence  it  is  called  the  latter  rain 
in  the  first  month,  Joel  ii,  23.  (See  Canaan.) 
The  ancient  Hebrews  compared  elocution,  and 
even  learning  or  doctrine,  to  rain  :  "  My  doc- 
trine shall  drop  as  the  rain,"  Deut.  xxxii,  2. 

RAMESES,  or  RAAMSES,  a  city  supposed 
to  have  been  situated  in  the  eastern  part  of 
Egypt,  called  the  land  of  Goshen,  which  was 
also  hence  termed  the  land  of  Rameses.  It 
was  one  of  the  cities  built  by  the  Israelites  as 
a  treasure  city,  as  it  is  translated  in  our  Bibles  ; 
probably  a  store  city,  or,  as  others  interpret  it, 
a  fortress.  Its  position  may  be  fixed  about  six 
or  eight  miles  above  the  modern  Cairo,  a  little 
to  the  south  of  the  Babylon  of  the  Persians, 
the  ancient  Letopolis  ;  as  Josephus  says  that 
the  children  of  Israel,  after  quitting  this  place, 
in  their  first  march  to  Succoth,  passed  by  the 
latter  city. 

RAMOTH,  a  famous  city  in  the  mountains 
of  Gilead,  1  Kings  iv,  13.  It  is  often  called 
Ramoth-Gilead.  Josephus  calls  it  Ramathan, 
or  Aramatha.  The  city  belonged  to  the  tribe 
of  Gad,  Deut.  iv,  43.  It  was  assigned  for  a 
dwelling  of  the  Levites,  and  was  one  of  the 
cities  of  refuge  beyond  Jordan,  Joshua  xx,  8 ; 
xxi,  38.  It  became  famous  during  the  reigns 
of  the  latter  kings  of  Israel,  and  was  the  occa- 
sion of  several  wars  between  them  and  the 
kings  of  Damascus,  who  had  made  a  conquest 
of  it,  which  the  sovereigns  of  Israel  endea- 
voured to  regain,  1  Kings  xxii,  3-5.  Eusebius 
says,  that  Ramoth  was  fifteen  miles  from  Phila- 
delphia  toward  the  east.  St.  Jerom  places  it 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Jabbok,  and  conse- 
quently to  the  north  of  Philadelphia. 

RAVEN,  a-iip,  in  Chaldee,  orba,  in  Syriac, 
croac,  in  Latin,  corvus,  Gen.  viii,  7 ;  Lev.  xi, 
15;  Deut.  xiv,  14;  1  Kings  xvii,  4,  6;  Job 
xxxviii,  41  ;  Psalm  cxlvii,  9 ;  Prov.  xxx,  17 ; 
Cant,  v,  11 ;  Isa.  xxxiv,  11;  «<5pn|,  Luke  xii,  24; 
a  well  known  bird  of  prey.  All  the  interpret- 
ers agree  that  oreb  signifies  the  raven,  from 
oreb,  "  evening,"  on  account  of  its  colour. 
Michaelis,  in  proposing  a  question  respecting 
certain  birds,  says  of  the  oreb,  "  II  est  decide, 


que  e'est  le  corbeau ;  il  seroit  done  superflu  de  le 
demander.  Mais  je  desirerois  plus  de  certitude 
sur  le  nom  Syriaque  des  corbeaux."  [It  is  set- 
tled that  this  is  the  raven ;  it  would  therefore 
be  superfluous  to  investigate  it.  But  I  could 
wish  more  certainty  respecting  the  Syriac 
name  of  ravens.]  One  can  hardly  doubt  that 
it  is  taken  from  the  note  of  this  bird.  On  the 
decrease  of  the  waters  of  the  flood,  so  that  tho 
tops  of  the  mountains  became  visible,  Noah 
sent  forth  out  of  one  of  the  windows  of  the  ark 
a  raven,  a  bold  and  adventurous  bird,  by  way 
of  experiment,  to  see  whether  the  waters  were 
sunk  or  abated.  Forty  days  the  violent  rain 
had  continued  ;  and  he  might  think  this,  there- 
fore, a  likely  time  for  the  waters  to  run  off 
again.  In  the  original  text,  in  the  Samaritan, 
in  the  Chaldee  and  Arabic,  it  is  said  that  the 
raven  "  returned"  to  the  ark ;  but  the  Greek 
interpreters,  the  Syriac,  the  Latin,  and  most 
of  the  eminent  fathers  and  commentators,  say 
that  it  did  not  return  any  more.  Here  are 
great  authorities  on  both  sides ,  but  the  latter 
reading,  though  so  contrary  in  sense  to  the 
other,  yet  in  the  Hebrew  is  not  very  different 
in  the  form  of  the  letters,  and  appears  to  be 
the  better  reading  of  the  two.  For  if  the  raven 
had  returned,  what  occasion  had  Noah  to  send 
forth  a  dove  ?  Or  why  did  he  not  take  the 
raven  in  unto  him  into  the  ark,  as  he  did  after- 
ward the  dove  ?  Or  why  did  he  not  send  forth 
the  same  raven  again,  as  he  did  afterward  the 
same  dove  again  ?  It  is  not  improperly  ex- 
pressed in  our  translation,  that  "the  raven 
went  forth  to  and  fro,"  flying  hither  and 
thither,  "until  the  waters  were  dried  up  from 
off  the  face  of  the  earth."  He  found,  perhaps, 
in  the  higher  grounds,  some  of  the  carcasses 
of  those  who  had  perished  in  the  deluge. 

The  Prophet  Elijah  was  in  his  retirement 
fed  by  this  bird.  A  writer,  indeed,  in  the  Me- 
moirs of  Literature,  for  April,  1710,  endea- 
vours to  show,  from  many  authors,  that  there 
was  in  the  country  of  Bethschan,  in  Decapo- 
lis,  by  the  brook  Cherith  or  Carith,  a  little 
town  called  Aorabi  or  Orbo,  Judges  vii,  25 ; 
Isa.  x,  6 ;  and  he  therefore  explains  the  word 
orebim,  which,  in  1  Kings  xvii,  4,  we  translate 
"  ravens,"  of  the  inhabitants  of  that  village, 
some  of  whom,  he  contends,  daily  carried 
bread  and  flesh  to  Elijah,  who  had  retired  to 
and  lay  in  a  cave  in  the  neighbourhood.  On 
the  other  hand,  Scheuchzer  ably  vindicates 
the  commonly  received  opinion.  The  editor 
of  Calmet,  also,  in  the  appendix,  under  the 
article  Elijah,  has  some  pertinent  observations 
on  this  subject.  "  We  ought  to  consider,"  says 
he,  "  1.  That  Ahab  sought  Elijah  with  avidit}-, 
and  took  an  oath  of  every  people,  no  doubt, 
also,  in  his  dominions,  that  he  was  not  con- 
cealed among  its  inhabitants ;  his  situation, 
therefore,  required  the  utmost  privacy,  even  to 
solitude.  2.  That  when  the  brook  Cherith 
was  dried  up,  the  prophet  was  obliged  to  quit 
his  asylum,  which  he  needed  not  to  have  done, 
had  a  people  been  his  suppliers,  for  they  could 
have  brought  him  water  as  well  as  food." 

In  Psalm  cxlvii,  9,  it  is  said,  "  The  Lord 
giveth  to  the  beast  his  food,  and  to  the  young 


REA 


805 


REA 


ravens  which  cry."  And  in  Job  xxxviii,  41, 
"Who  provideth  for  the  raven  his  food,  when 
his  young  ones  cry  unto  God,  wandering-  for 
want  of  meat  ?"  Job  and  the  psalmist  may 
allude  to  what  is  said  by  some  naturalists,  that 
the  ravens  drive  out  their  young  ones  early 
from  their  nests,  and  oblige  them  to  seek  food 
for  their  own  sustenance.  The  same  kind 
Providence  which  furnishes  support  to  his 
intelligent  offspring  is  not  unmindful  of  the 
wants,  or  inattentive  to  the  desires,  of  the 
meanest  of  his  creatures. 

Lo,  the  young  ravens,  from  their  ne6t  exiled, 

On  hunger's  wing  attempt  the  aerial  wild ! 

Who  leads  their  wanderings,  and  their  feast  supplies'! 

To  God  ascend  their  importuning  cries. 

Christ  instructs  his  disciples,  from  the  same 
circumstance,  to  trust  in  the  care  and  kindness 
of  Heaven  :  "  Consider  the   ravens ;  for  they 
neither  sow  nor  reap,  neither  have  storehouse, 
nor  barn  ;  and  God  feedeth  them.    How  much 
better  are  ye  than  the  fowls !"  Luke  xii,  24. 
Solomon,  speaking  of  the  peculiar  regard  and 
veneration   due   to    the   worthy   persons    and 
salutary  instructions  of  parents,  observes,  that 
an  untimely  fate.,  and  the  want  of  decent  inter- 
ment, may  be   expected  from  contrary  con- 
duct ;  and  that  the  leering  eye,  which  throws 
wicked  contempt  on  a  good  father,  and  inso- 
lent disdain  on  a  tender  mother,  shall  be  dug 
out  of  the   unburied  exposed   corpse   by  the 
ravens   of  the  valley,    and   eaten  up  by  the 
young  eagles,  Prov.  xxx,  17.     It  was  a  com- 
mon punishment  in  the  east,  and  one  which 
the  orientals  dreaded  above  all  others,  to  ex- 
pose in  the  open  fields  the  bodies  of  evil  doers 
that  had  suffered  by  the  laws  of  their  offended 
country,  to  be  devoured  by  the  beasts  of  the 
field,  and  the  fowls  of  heaven.    The  wise  man 
insinuates  that  the  raven  makes  his  first  and 
keenest  attack  on   the    eye,   which  perfectly 
corresponds   with  his    habits,   for    he    always 
begins  his  banquet  with  that  part.     Isiodore 
says    of  him,   Primo    in  cadaveribus  occulum 
petit ;  [he  attacks  first  the  eye  of  the  dead ;] 
and  Epictetus,   Oi  [iiv   KopaKc$  tUv   rcrEXturijiciirwv 
Tois  f>(j>8a\novs  Au/iaivrfirai,  "  the  ravens  devour 
the  eyes  of  the  dead."     Many  other  testimo- 
nies might  be  adduced,  but  these  are  sufficient 
to  justify  the  allusion  in  the  proverb. 

The  raven,  it  is  well  known,  delights  in 
solitude.  He  frequents  the  ruined  tower  or 
the  deserted  habitation.  In  Isaiah,  xxxiv,  11, 
it  is  accordingly  foretold  that  the  raven,  with 
other  birds  of  similar  dispositions,  should  fix 
his  abode  in  the  desolate  houses  of  Edom.  In 
the  Septuagint  and  other  versions  the  Hebrew 
word  for  desolation  is  rendered  raven.  The 
meaning  is,  that  in  those  splendid  palaces, 
where  the  voice  of  joy  and  gladness  was  heard, 
and  every  sound  which  could  ravish  the  ear 
and  subdue  the  heart,  silence  was,  for  the 
wickedness  of  their  inhabitants,  to  hold  her 
reign  for  ever,  interrupted  only  by  the  scream 
of  the  cormorant  and  the  croaking  of  the 
raven. 

READING.  In  the  countries  of  the  Levant 
the  people  never  read  silently,  but  go  on  in  a 
kind  of  singing  voice,  aloud.     The  eunuch 


was  probably  thus  reading  when  Philip  over- 
heard him,  and  finding  that  he  was  reading 
the  Scriptures,  said,  "  Understandeet  thou 
what  thou  readest  ?" 

REASON,  Use  of,  in  Religion.     The  sub- 
lime, incomprehensible  nature  of  some  of  the 
Christian  doctrines  has  so  completely  subdued 
the  understanding  of  many  pious  men,  as  to 
make  them  think   it  presumptuous   to  apply 
reason  in  any  way  to  the  revelations  of  God ; 
and  the  many  instances  in  which  the  simplicity 
of  truth   has  been  corrupted  by  an   alliance 
with   philosophy  confirm  them  in  the  belief 
that  it  is  safer,  as  well  as  more  respectable,  to 
resign  their  minds  to  devout  impressions,  than 
to  exercise  their  understandings  in  any  specu- 
lations upon  sacred  subjects.    Enthusiasts  and 
fanatics  of  all  different  names  and  sects  agree 
in  decrying  the  use  of  reason,  because  it  is  the 
very  essence   of  fanaticism  to   substitute,   in 
place  of  the  sober  deductions  of  reason,  the 
extravagant  fancies  of  a  disordered  imagina- 
tion,   and   to    consider    these    fancies    as  the 
immediate  illumination  of  the  Spirit  of  God. 
Insidious  writers  in  the  deistical  controversy 
have  pretended  to  adopt  those  sentiments  of 
humility  and  reverence,  which  are  inseparable 
from  true  Christians,  and  even  that  total  sub- 
jection of  reason  to  faith  which  characterizes 
enthusiasts.    A  pamphlet  was  published  about 
the   middle  of  the  last  century   that  made   a 
noise  in  its  day,  although  it  is  now  forgotten, 
entitled,  "  Christianity  not  founded  on  Argu- 
ment," which,  while  to  a   careless  reader   it 
may  seem   to   magnify  the   Gospel,    does    in 
reality  tend  to  undermine  our  faith,  by  sepa- 
rating  it   from    a   rational    assent ;    and    Mr. 
Hume,  in  the  spirit  of  this  pamphlet,  concludes 
his  Essay  on  Miracles  with  calling  those  dan- 
gerous  friends    or    disguised   enemies  to    the 
Christian   religion   who   have    undertaken    to 
defend  it  by  the  principles  of  human  reason : 
"  Our  most  holy   religion,"   he   says,  with   a 
disingenuity  very  unbecoming  his  respectable 
talents,  "is  founded  on  faith,  not  on  reason  ;" 
and,  "  mere  reason  is  insufficient  to  convince 
us  of  its  veracity."     The  church  of  Rome,  in 
order  to  subject  the  minds  of  her  votaries  to 
her  authority,  has  reprobated  the  use  of  reason 
in  matters   of  religion.     She  has  revived  an 
ancient  position,  that  things  may  be  true  in 
theology  which  are  false  in  philosophy ;  and 
she  has,  in  some  instances,  made  the  merit  of 
faith  to  consist  in  the  absurdity  of  that  which 
was  believed. 

The  extravagance  of  these  positions  has 
produced,  since  the  Reformation,  an  opposite 
extreme.  While  those  who  deny  the  truth  of 
revelation  consider  reason  as  in  all  respects  a 
sufficient  guide,  the  Socinians,  who  admit  that 
a  revelation  has  been  made,  employ  reason  as 
the  supreme  judge  of  its  doctrines,  and  boldly 
strike  out  of  their  creed  every  article  that  is 
not  altogether  conformable  to  those  notions 
which  may  be  derived  from  the  exercise  of 
reason.  These  controversies  concerning  the 
use  of  reason  in  matters  of  religion  are  dis- 
putes, not  about  words,  but  about  the  essence 
of  Christianity.     But  a  few  plain  observations 


REA 


806 


REA 


are  sufficient  to  ascertain  where  the  truth  lies 
in  this  subject. 

The  first  use  of  reason  in  matters  of  religion 
is  to  examine  the  evidences  of  revelation.  For, 
the  more  entire  the  submission  which  we  con- 
sider as  due  to  every  thing  that  is  revealed,  we 
have  the  more  need  to  be  satisfied  that  any 
system  which  professes  to  be  a  divine  revela- 
tion does  really  come  from  God. 

After  the  exercise  of  reason  has  established 
in  our  minds  a  firm  belief  that  Christianity  is 
of  divine  original,  the  second  use  of  reason  is 
to  learn  what  are  the  truths  revealed.  As 
these  truths  are  not  in  our  days  communicated 
to  any  by  immediate  inspiration,  the  knowledge 
of  them  is  to  be  acquired  only  from  books 
transmitted  to  us  with  satisfying  evidence  that 
they  were  written  above  seventeen  hundred 
years  ago,  in  a  remote  country  and  foreign 
language,  under  the  direction  of  the  Spirit  of 
God.  In  order  to  attain  the  meaning  of  these 
books  we  must  study  the  language  in  which 
they  were  written  ;  and  we  must  study  also 
the  manners  of  the  times,  and  the  state  of  the 
countries,  in  which  the  writers  lived;  because 
these  are  circumstances  to  which  an  original 
author  is  often  alluding,  and  by  which  his 
phraseology  is  generally  affected  ;  we  must  lay 
together  different  passages  in  which  the  same 
word  or  phrase  occurs,  because  without  this 
labour  we  cannot  ascertain  its  precise  signifi- 
cation ;  and  we  must  mark  the  difference  of 
style  and  manner  which  characterizes  different 
writers,  because  a  right  apprehension  of  their 
meaning  often  depends  upon  attention  to  this 
difference.  AH  this  supposes  the  application 
of  grammar,  history,  geography,  chronology, 
and  criticism  in  matters  of  religion  ;  that  is, 
it  supposes  that  the  reason  of  man  had  been 
previously  exercised  in  pursuing  these  different 
branches  of  knowledge,  and  that  our  success 
in  attaining  the  true  sense  of  Scripture  depends 
upon  the  diligence  with  which  we  avail  our- 
selves of  the  progress  that  has  been  made  in 
them.  It  is  obvious  that  every  Christian  is 
not  capable  of  making  this  application.  But 
this  is  no  argument  against  the  use  of  reason, 
of  which  we  are  now  speaking.  For  they  who 
use  translations  and  commentaries  rely  only 
upon  the  reason  of  others,  instead  of  exer- 
cising their  own.  The  several  branches  of 
knowledge  have  been  applied  in  every  age  by 
some  persons  for  the  benefit  of  others ;  and 
the  progress  in  sacred  criticism,  which  dis- 
tinguishes the  present  times,  is  nothing  else 
but  the  continued  application,  in  elucidating 
the  Scripture,  of  reason  enlightened  by  every 
kind  of  subsidiary  knowledge,  and  very  much 
improved  in  this  kind  of  exorcise  by  the  em- 
ployment which  the  ancient  classics  have 
given  it  since  the  revival  of  letters. 

After  the  two  uses  of  reason  that  have  been 
illustrated,  a  third  comes  to  be  mentioned, 
which  may  be  considered  as  compounded  of 
both.  Reason  is  of  eminent  use  in  repelling 
the  attacks  of  the  adversaries  of  Christianity. 
When  men  of  erudition,  of  philosophical  acute- 
ness,  and  of  accomplished  taste,  direct  their 
talents  against  our  religion,  the  cause  is  very 


much  hurt  by  an  unskilful  defender.  He  can- 
not unravel  their  sophistry ;  he  does  not  see 
the  amount  and  the  effect  of  the  concessions 
which  he  makes  to  them ;  he  is  bewildered  by 
their  quotations,  and  he  is  often  led  by  their 
artifice  upon  dangerous  ground.  In  all  ages 
of  the  church  there  have  been  weak  defenders 
of  Christianity  ;  and  the  only  triumphs  of  the 
enemies  of  our  religion  have  arisen  from  their 
being  able  to  expose  the  defects  of  those 
methods  of  defending  the  truth  which  some  of 
its  advocates  had  unwarily  chosen.  A  mind 
trained  to  accurate  and  philosophical  views  of 
the  nature  and  the  amount  of  evidence,  en- 
riched with  historical  knowledge,  accustomed 
to  throw  out  of  a  subject  all  that  is  minute  and 
irrelative,  to  collect  what  is  of  importance 
within  a  short  compass,  and  to  form  the  com- 
prehension of  a  whole,  is  the  mind  qualified  to 
contend  with  the  learning,  the  wit,  and  the 
sophistry  of  infidelity.  Many  such  minds  have 
appeared  in  this  honourable  controversy  during 
the  course  of  this  and  the  last  century  ;  and  the 
success  has  corresponded  to  the  completeness  of 
the  furniture  with  which  they  engaged  in  the 
combat.  The  Christian  doctrine  has  been  vindi- 
cated by  their  masterly  exposition  from  various 
misrepresentations ;  the  arguments  for  its  di- 
vine original  have  been  placed  in  their  true 
light ;  and  the  attempts  to  confound  the  mira- 
cles and  prophecies  upon  which  Christianity 
rests  its  claim,  with  the  delusions  of  imposture, 
have  been  effectually  repelled.  Christianity 
has,  in  this  way,  received  the  most  important 
advantages  from  the  attacks  of  its  enemies ; 
and  it  is  not  improbable  that  its  doctrines  would 
never  have  been  so  thoroughly  cleared  from  all 
the  corruptions  and  subtleties  which  had  at- 
tached to  them  in  the  progress  of  ages,  nor  the 
e.idences  of  its  truths  have  been  so  accurately 
understood,  nor  its  peculiar  character  been  so 
perfectly  discriminated,  had  not  the  zeal  and 
abilities  which  have  been  employed  against  it 
called  forth  in  its  defence  some  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished masters  of  reason.  They  brought 
into  the  service  of  Christianity  the  same  wea- 
pons which  had  been  drawn  for  her  destruc 
tion,  and,  wielding  them  with  confidence  and 
skill  in  a  good  cause,  became  the  successful 
champions  of  the  truth. 

The  fourth  use  of  reason  consists  in  judging 
of  the  truths  of  religion.  Every  thing  which 
is  revealed  by  God  comes  to  his  creatures  from 
so  high  an  authority,  that  it  may  be  rested  in 
with  perfect  assurance  as  true.  .  Nothing  can 
be  received  by  us  as  true  which  is  contrary  to 
the  dictates  of  reason,  because  it  is  impossible 
for  us  to  receive  at  the  same  time  the  truth 
and  the  falsehood  of  a  proposition.  But  many 
things  are  true  which  we  do  not  fully  compre- 
hend ;  and  many  propositions,  which  appear 
incredible  when  they  are  first  enunciated,  are 
found,  upon  examination,  such  as  our  under- 
standings can  readily  admit.  These  principles 
embrace  the  whole  of  the  subject,  and  they 
mark  out  the  steps  by  which  reason  is  to  pro- 
ceed in  judging  of  the  truths  of  religion.  We 
first  examine  the  evidences  of  revelation.  If 
these  satisfy  our  understandings,  we  are  certain 


REG 


807 


REC 


that  there  can  be  no  contradiction  between  the 
doctrines  of  this  true  religion,  and  the  dictates 
of  right  reason.  If  any  such  contradiction 
appear,  there  must  be  some  mistake;  by  not 
making  a  proper  use  of  our  reason  in  the  inter- 
pretation of  the  Gospel,  we  suppose  that  it  con- 
tains doctrines  which  it  does  not  teach ;  or  we 
give  the  name  of  right  reason  to  some  narrow 
prejudices  which  deeper  reflection,  and  more 
enlarged  knowledge,  will  dissipate  ;  or  we  con- 
sider a  proposition  as  implying  a  contradiction, 
when,  in  truth,  it  is  only  imperfectly  under- 
stood. Here,  as  in  every  other  case,  mistakes 
ere  to  be  corrected  by  measuring  back  our  steps. 
We  must  examine  closely  and  impartially  the 
meaning  of  those  passages  which  appear  to 
contain  the  doctrine ;  we  must  compare  them 
with  one  another  ;  we  must  endeavour  to  derive 
light  from  the  general  phraseology  of  Scripture 
and  the  analogy  of  faith ;  and  we  shall  gene- 
rally be  able,  in  this  way,  to  separate  the  doc- 
trine from  all  those  adventitious  circumstances 
which  give  it  the  appearance  of  absurdity.  If 
a  doctrine  which,  upon  the  closest  examination, 
appears  unquestionably  to  be  taught  in  Scrip- 
ture, still  does  not  approve  itself  to  our  under- 
standing, we  must  consider  carefully  what  it  is 
that  prevents  us  from  receiving  it.  There  may 
be  preconceived  notions  hastily  taken  up  which 
that  doctrine  opposes ;  there  may  be  pride  of 
understanding  that  does  not  readily  submit  to 
the  views  which  it  communicates ;  or  reason 
may  need  to  be  reminded,  that  we  must  expect 
to  find  in  religion  many  things  which  we  are 
not  able  to  comprehend.  One  of  the  most 
important  offices  of  reason  is  to  recognize  her 
own  limits.  She  never  can  be  moved,  by  any 
authority,  to  receive  as  true  what  she  perceives 
to  be  absurd.  But,  if  she  has  formed  a  just 
estimate  of  human  knowledge,  she  will  not 
shelter  her  presumption  in  rejecting  the  truths 
of  revelation  under  the  pretence  of  contradic- 
tions that  do  not  really  exist ;  she  will  readily 
admit  that  there  may  be  in  a  subject  some  points 
which  she  knows,  and  others  of  which  she  is 
ignorant ;  she  will  not  allow  her  ignorance  of 
the  latter  to  shake  the  evidence  of  the  former, 
but  will  yield  a  firm  assent  to  that  which  she 
does  understand,  without  presuming  to  deny 
what  is  beyond  her  comprehension.  And  thus, 
availing  herself  of  all  the  light  which  she  now 
has,  she  will  wait  in  humble  hope  for  the  time 
when  a  larger  measure  shall  be  imparted. 

REBEKAH,  the  wife  of  Isaac.     See  Isaac. 

RECEIPT  OF  CUSTOM.  Matthew,  when 
called,  was  sitting  at  the  receipt  of  custom,  or 
dues  on  merchandise.  He  was  a  publican  or 
tax-gatherer,  or,  as  we  should  say,  a  custom 
house  officer.  The  publicans  had  houses  or 
booths  built  for  them  at  the  foot  of  bridges,  at 
the  mouth  of  rivers,  by  the  sea  shore,  and  the 
parts  of  the  lake  of  Gennesareth,  or  sea  of 
Tiberias,  to  collect  the  taxes  on  passengers  and 
merchandise.     See  Publican. 

RECHABITES.  The  Rechabites,  though 
they  dwelt  among  the  Israelites,  did  not  belong 
to  any  of  their  tribes ;  for  they  were  Kenitos, 
as  appears  from  1  Chron.  ii,  55,  where  the 
Kenites  are  said  to  have  come  of  "  Hemath, 


the  father  of  the  house  of  Rechab."  These 
Kenites,  afterward  styled  Rechabites,  were  of 
the  family  of  Jethro,  otherwise  called  Hobab, 
whose  daughter  Moses  married;  for  "the  chil 
dren  of  the  Kenite,  Moses's  father-in-law,"  it 
is  said,  "went  up  out  of  the  city  of  palm  trees 
with  the  children  of  Judah,  and  dwelt  among 
the  people,"  Judges  i,  16;  and  we  read  of 
"  Heber  the  Kenite,  who  was  of  the  children 
of  Hobab,  the  father-in-law  of  Moses,  who  had 
severed  himself  from  the  Kenites,"  or  from  the 
bulk  of  them  who  settled  in  the  tribe  of  Judah, 
"  and  pitched  his  tent  in  the  plain  of  Zaanaim," 
Judges  iv,  11.  They  appear  to  have  sprung 
from  Midian,  the  son  of  Abraham  by  Keturah, 
Gen.  xxv,  2 ;  for  Jethro,  from  whom  they  are 
descended,  is  called  a  Midianite,  Num.  x,  23. 
Of  this  family  was  Jehonadab,  the  son  of 
Rechab,  a  man  of  eminent  zeal  for  the  pure 
worship  of  God  against  idolatry,  who  assisted 
King  Jehu  in  destroying  the  house  of  Ahab, 
and  the  worshippers  of  Baal,  2  Kings  x,  15, 
16,  23,  &c.  It  was  he  who  gave  that  rule  of 
life  to  his  children  and  posterity  which  we  read 
of  in  Jer.  xxxv,  6,  7.  It  consisted  of  these 
three  articles  :  that  they  should  drink  no  wine  ; 
that  they  should  neither  possess  nor  occupy 
any  houses,  fields,  or  vineyards ;  that  they 
should  dwell  in  tents.  This  was  the  institution 
of  the  children  of  Rechab;  and  this  they  con- 
tinued to  observe  for  upward  of  three  hundred 
years,  from  the  time  of  Jehu  to  that  of  Jehoia- 
kim,  king  of  Judah,  when  Nebuchadnezzar 
coming  to  besiege  Jerusalem,  the  Rechabites 
were  obliged  to  leave  tho  country  and  take 
refuge  in  the  city.  In  Jer.  xxxv,  there  is  a 
promise  made  to  this  people,  that  Jonadab,  the 
son  of  Rechab,  should  not  want  a  man  to  stand 
before  the  Lord ;  that  is,  that  his  posterity 
should  not  fail :  and  to  this  day  this  tribe  is 
found  among  the  Arabians  of  the  desert,  dis- 
tinct, free,  and  practising  exactly  the  institu- 
tions of  Jonadab,  whose  name  they  bear,  and 
of  whose  institutions  they  boast.  This  is  a  re- 
markable instance  of  the  exact  fulfilment  ofami- 
nute  and  isolated  prophecy.  See  Beni  Khaibir. 
RECONCILIATION.  The  expressions 
"reconciliation"  and  "making  peace"  neces- 
sarily suppose  a  previous  state  of  hostility 
between  God  and  man,  which  is  reciprocal. 
This  is  sometimes  called  enmity,  a  term,  a3  it 
respects  God,  rather  unfortunate,  since  enmity 
is  almost  fixed  in  our  language  to  signify  a 
malignant  and  revengeful  feeling.  Of  this, 
the  oppugners  of  the  doctrine  of  the  atonement 
have  availed  themselves  to  argue,  that  as  there 
can  be  no  such  affection  in  the  divine  nature, 
therefore,  reconciliation  in  Scripture  does  not 
mean  the  reconciliation  of  God  to  man,  but  of 
man  to  God,  whose  enmity  the  example  and 
teaching  of  Christ,  they  tell  us,  is  very  effectual 
to  subdue.  It  is,  indeed,  a  sad  and  humbling 
truth,  and  one  which  the  Socinians  in  their 
discussions  on  the  natural  innocence  of  man 
are  not  willing  to  admit,  that  by  the  infection 
of  sin  "the  carnal  mind  is  enmity  to  God," 
that  human  nature  is  malignantly  hostile  to 
God  and  to  the  control  of  his  law ;  but  this  is 
far  from  expressing  the  whole  of  that  relation 


REC 


808 


REC 


of  man  in  which,  in  Scripture,  he  is  said  to  be 
at  enmity  with  God,  and  so  to  need  a  recon- 
ciliation, the  making  of  peace  between  God 
and  him.     That  relation  is  a  legal  one,  as  that 
of  a  sovereign  in  his  judicial  capacity,  and  a 
criminal  who  has  violated  his  laws  and  risen 
up  against  his  authority,  and  who  is,  therefore, 
treated  as  an  enemy.     The  word  t'^fyo'c  is  used 
in  this  passive  sense,  both  in  the  Greek  writers 
and  in  the  New  Testament.     So,  in  Romans 
xi,   28,  the   Jews,  rejected  and  punished  for 
refusing  the  Gospel,  are  said  by  the  Apostle, 
"as  concerning  the  Gospel,"  to  be  "enemies 
for  your  sakes  ;"  treated  and  accounted  such  ; 
"  but,  as  touching  the  election,  they  are  beloved 
for  the  fathers'  sakes."     In  the  same  epistle, 
v,  10,  the  term  is  used  precisely  in  the  same 
sense,  and  that  with  reference  to  the  recon- 
ciliation by  Christ :    "  For  if  when   we  were 
enemies  we  were  reconciled  to  God  by  the 
death  of  his   Son ;"  that  is,  when  we   were 
objects  of  the  divine  judicial  displeasure,  ac- 
counted as  enemies,  and  liable  to  be  capitally 
treated  as  such.     Enmity,  in  the  sense  of  ma- 
lignity and  the  sentiment  of  hatred,  is  added  to 
this  relation  in  the  case  of  man  ;    but  it  is  no 
part  of  the  relation  itself;  it  is  rather  a  cause 
of  it,  as  it  is  one  of  the  actings  of  a  corrupt 
nature  which  render  man   obnoxious  to  the 
displeasure  of  God,  and  the  penalty  of  his  law, 
and  place  him  in  the  condition  of  an  enemy. 
It  is  tins  judicial  variance  and  opposition  be- 
tween God  and  man  which  is  referred  to  in  the 
term  reconciliation,  and  in  the  phrase  "  making 
peace,"  in  the  New  Testament ;  and  the  hos- 
tility is,  therefore,  in  its  own  nature,  mutual. 
But  that  there  is  no  truth  in  the  notion,  that 
reconciliation  means  no  more  than  our  laying 
aside  our  enmity  to  God,  may  also  be  shown 
from  several  express  passages.     The  first  is  the 
passage  we  have  above  cited:  "  For  if  when 
we  were  enemies  we  were  reconciled  to  God," 
Rom.  v,  10.      Here  the  act  of  reconciling  is 
ascribed  to  God,   and  not  to  us ;  but  if  this 
reconciliation  consisted  in  the  laying  aside  of 
our  own  enmity,  the  act  would  be  ours  alone  : 
and,  farther,  that  it  could  not  be  the  laying 
aside  of  our  enmity,  is   clear  from  the  text, 
which  speaks  of  reconciliation  while  we  were 
yet  enemies.     The    reconciliation    spoken  of 
here  is  not,  as  Socinus  and  his  followers  have 
said,  our  conversion.     For  that  the  Apostle  is 
speaking  of  a  benefit  obtained  for  us  previous 
to  our  conversion,  appears  evident  from  the 
opposite  members  of  the  two  sentences,  "much 
more,  being  justified,  we  shall  be  saved  from 
wrath    through    him,"    "  much    more,    being 
reconciled,  we  shall  be  saved  by  his  life."  The 
Apostle  argues  from  the  greater  to  the  less. 
If  God  were  so  benign  to  us  before  our  con- 
version, what  may  we   not  expect  from  him 
now  we    are  converted  ?     To   reconcile  here 
cannot  mean  to  convert;  for  the  Apostle  evi- 
dently speaks  of  something  greatly  remarkable 
in  the  act  of  Christ;  but  to  convert  sinners  is 
nothing  remarkable,   since   none  but  sinners 
can  be  ever  converted  ;  whereas  it  was  a  rare 
and  singular  thing  for  Christ  to  die  for  sinners, 
and  to  reconcile  sinners  to  God  by  his  death, 


when  there  have  been  but  very  few  good  men 
who  have  died  for  their  friends.  In  the  next 
place,  conversion  is  referred  more  properly  to 
his  glorious  life,  than  to  his  shameful  death  ; 
but  this  reconciliation  is  attributed  to  his 
death,  as  contradistinguished  from  his  glori. 
ous  life,  as  is  evident  from  the  antithesis  con. 
tained  in  the  two  verses.  Beside,  it  is  from  the 
latter  benefit  that  we  learn  the  nature  of  the 
former.  The  latter,  which  belongs  only  to 
the  converted,  consists  of  the  peace  of  God, 
and  salvation  from  wrath,  Rom.  v,  9,  10.  This 
the  Apostle  afterward  calls  receiving  the  recon- 
ciliation. And  what  is  it  to  receive  the  recon- 
ciliation, but  to  receive  the  remission  of  sins  ? 
Acts  x,  43.  To  receive  conversion  is  a  mode 
of  speaking  entirely  unknown.  If,  then,  to 
receive  the  reconciliation  is  to  receive  the  re- 
mission of  sins,  and  in  effect  to  be  delivered 
from  wrath  or  punishment,  to  be  reconciled 
must  have  a  corresponding  signification. 

"  God  was  in  Christ  reconciling  the  world 
to  himself,  not  imputing  their  trespasses  unto 
them,"  2  Cor.  v,  19.  Here  the  manner  of  this 
reconciliation  is  expressly  said  to  be,  not  our 
laying  aside  our  enmity,  but  the  non-imputa- 
tion of  our  trespasses  to  us  by  God;  in  other 
words,  the  pardoning  of  our  offences  and  re- 
storing us  to  favour.  The  promise,  on  God's 
part,  to  do  this,  is  expressive  of  his  previous 
reconciliation  to  the  world  by  the. death  of 
Christ;  for  our  actual  reconciliation  is  distin- 
guished from  this  by  what  follows,  "and  hath 
committed  to  us  the  ministry  of  reconciliation," 
by  virtue  of  which  all  men  were,  by  the  Apos- 
tles, entreated  and  besought  to  be  reconciled 
to  God.  The  reason,  too,  of  this  reconcilia- 
tion of  God  to  the  world,  by  virtue  of  which  he 
promises  not  to  impute  sin,  is  grounded  by  the 
Apostle,  in  the  last  verse  of  the  chapter,  not 
upon  the  laying  aside  of  enmity  by  men,  but 
upon  the  sacrifice  of  Christ:  "For  he  hath 
made  him  to  be  sin,"  a  sin-offering,  "  for  us, 
who  knew  no  sin,  that  we  might  be  made  the 
righteousness  of  God  in  him."  "And  that  he 
might  reconcile  both  unto  God  in  one  body 
by  the  cross,  having  slain  the  enmity  thereby," 
Eph.  ii,  16.  Here  the  act  of  reconciling  is 
attributed  to  Christ.  Man  is  not  spoken  of  as 
reconciling  himself  to  God;  but  Christ  is  said 
to  reconcile  Jews  and  Gentiles  together,  and 
both  to  God,  "by  his  cross."  Thus,  says  the 
Apostle,  "he  is  our  peace;"  but  in  what  man- 
ner is  the  peace  effected  ?  Not,  in  the  first 
instance,  by  subduing  the  enmity  of  man's 
heart,  but  by  removing  the  enmity  of  "  the 
law."  "Having  abolished  in"  or  by  "his 
flesh  the  enmity,  even  the  law  of  command- 
ments." The  ceremonial  law  only  is  here, 
probably  meant ;  for  by  its  abolition,  through 
its  fulfilment  in  Christ,  the  enmity  between 
Jews  and  Gentiles  was  taken  away ;  but  still 
it  was  not  only  necessary  to  reconcile  Jew 
and  Gentile  together,  but  to  "  reconcile  both 
unto  God."  This  he  did  by  the  same  act ; 
abolishing  the  ceremonial  law  by  becoming  the 
antitype  of  all  its  sacrifices,  and  thus,  by  the 
sacrifice  of  himself,  effecting  the  reconcilia- 
tion of  all  to  God,  "  slaying  the  enmity  by  hia 


RED 


S09 


RED 


cross,"  taking  away  whatever  hindered  the 
reconciliation  of  the  guilty  to  God,  which,  as 
we  have  seen,  was  not  enmity  and  hatred  to 
God  in  the  human  mind  only,  but  that  judicial 
hostility  and  variance  which  separated  God 
and  man  as  Judge  and  criminal.  The  feeble 
criticism  of  Socinus,  on  this  passage,  in  which 
he  has  been  followed  by  his  adherents  to  this 
day,  is  thus  answered  by  Grotius  :  "  In  this 
passage  the  dative  fc)sw,  to  God,  can  only  be 
governed  by  the  verb  anoKardWa^,  that  he  might 
reconcile ;  for  the  interpretation  of  Socinus, 
which  makes  to  God  stand  by  itself,  or  that 
to  reconcile  to  God  is  to  reconcile  them  among 
themselves,  that  they  might  serve  God,  is  dis- 
torted and  without  example.  Nor  is  the  argu- 
ment valid  which  is  drawn  from  thence,  that 
in  this  place  St.  Paul  properly  treats  of  the 
peace  made  between  Jews  and  Gentiles ;  for 
neither  does  it  follow  from  this  argument, 
that  it  was  beside  his  purpose  to  mention  the 
peace  made  for  each  with  God.  For  the  two 
opposites  which  are  joined,  are  so  joined  among 
themselves,  that  they  should  be  primarily  and 
chiefly  joined  by  that  bond ;  for  they  are  not 
united  among  themselves,  except  by  and  for 
that  bond.  Gentiles  and  Jews,  therefore,  are 
made  friends  among  themselves  by  friendship 
with  God." 

Here  also  a  critical  remark  will  be  appro- 
priate.     The  above  passages  will  show  how 
falsely  it  has    been    asserted  that  God  is  no 
where   in  Scripture   said  to  be   reconciled  to 
us,   and  that  they  only   declare  that  we    are 
reconciled  to  God ;  but  the  fact  is,  that  the  very 
phrase  of  our  being  reconciled  to  God  imports 
the  turning  away  of  his  wrath  from  us.  Whitby 
observes,   on  the  words  KardWdTTtiv  and  kqtoX- 
Aaj/i;,   "  that  they  naturally  import  the  recon- 
ciliation of  one  that  is  angry  or  displeased  with 
us,  both  in  profane  and  Jewish  writers."  When 
the    Philistines    suspected   that    David  would 
appease  the  anger  of  Saul,  by  becoming  their 
adversary,  they  said,  "Wherewith  should  he 
reconcile  himself  to  his  master  ?  Should  it  not  be 
with  the  heads  of  these  men  ?"  not,  surely,  How 
shall  he  remove  his  own  anger  against  his  mas- 
ter ?  but,  how  shall  he  remove  his  master's  anger 
against  him  ?    How  shall  he  restore  himself  to 
his  master's  favour  ?  "  If  thou  bring  thy  gift  to 
the  altar,  and  there  rememberest  that  thy  bro- 
ther hath  aught  against  thee,"  not,  that  thou 
hast  aught  against  thy  brother,  "  first  be  recon- 
ciled to  thy  brother  ;"  that  is,  appease  and  con- 
ciliate him  ;  so  that  the  words,  in  fact,  import, 
"  See  that  thy  brother  be  reconciled  to  thee," 
since  that  which  goes  before  is,  not  that  he 
hath  done  thee  an  injury,  but  thou  him.  Thus, 
then,  for  us  to  be  reconciled  to  God  is  to  avail 
ourselves  of  the  means  by  which  the  anger  of 
God  toward  us  is  to  be  appeased,  which  the 
New  Testament  expressly  declares  to  be  me- 
ritoriously "the  sin-offering"  of  Him   "who 
knew  no  sin,"  and  instrumentally,  as  to  each 
individual    personally,  "  faith  in  his   blood." 
See  Propitiation. 

REDEEMER.  The  Hebrew  goel  is  thus 
rendered,  and  the  title  is  applied  to  Christ,  as 
he  is  the  Avenger  of  man  upon  his  spiritual 


enemy,  and  delivers  man  from  death  and  the 
power  of  the  grave,  which  the  human  avenger 
could  not  do.  The  right  of  the  institution  of 
goel  was  only  in  a  relative,  one  of  the  same 
blood  ;  and  hence  our  Saviour's  assumption  of 
our  nature  is  alluded  to  and  implied  under  this 
term.  There  was  also  the  right  of  buying  back 
the  family  inheritance  when  alienated  ;  and 
this  also  applies  to  Christ,  our  Goel,  who 
has  purchased  back  the  heavenly  inheritance 
into  the  human  family.  Under  these  views 
Job  joyfully  exclaims,  "  I  know  that  my  Re- 
deemer," my  Goel,  "  liveth,"  &c.  See  Goel, 
Mediator,  and  Jesus  Christ. 

REDEMPTION  denotes  our  recovery  from 
sin  and  death  by  the  obedience  and  sacrifice 
of  Christ,  who,  on  this  account,  is  called  the 
Redeemer.  "  Being  justified  freely  by  his 
grace,  through  the  redemption  that  is  in  Christ 
Jesus,"  Rom.  iii,  24.  "  Christ  hath  redeemed 
us  from  the  curse  of  the  law,  being  made  a 
curse  for  us,"  Gal.  iii,  13.  "  In  whom  we 
have  redemption  through  his  blood,  the  for- 
giveness of  sins,  according  to  the  riches  of  his 
grace,"  Eph.  i,  7.  "  Forasmuch  as  ye  know 
that  ye  were  not  redeemed  with  corruptible 
things,  as  silver  and  gold,  from  your  vain 
conversation  received  by  tradition  from  your 
fathers  ;  but  with  the  precious  blood  of  Christ, 
as  of  a  lamb  without  blemish,  and  without 
spot,"  1  Pet.  i,  18,  1 9.  "  And  ye  are  not  your 
own,  for  ye  are  bought  with  a  price,"  1  Cor. 
vi,  19,  20. 

By  redemption,  those  who  deny  the  atone- 
ment made  by  Christ  wish  to  understand  de- 
liverance merely,  regarding  only  the  effect,  and 
studiously  putting  out  of  sight  the  cause  from 
which  it  flows.      But  the  very  terms  used  in 
the  above  cited  passages,   "  to  redeem,"  and 
"  to  be  bought  with  a   price,"   will   each   be 
found  to  refute  this  notion  of  a  gratuitous  de- 
liverance, whether  from  sin  or  punishment,  or 
both.     Our  English  word,  to  redeem,  literally 
means  "to  buy  back;"  and  \vrp6o>,  to  redeem, 
and  a-rroXiTQiisciSi  redemption,  are,  both  in  Greek 
writers  and  in  the  New  Testament,  used  for 
the  act  of  setting  free  a  captive,  by  paying 
Mrpov,  a  ransom  or  redemption  price.     But,  as 
Grotius  has  fully  shown,  by  reference  to  the 
use  of  the  words  both  in  sacred  and  profane 
writers,  redemption  signifies  not  merely  "  the 
liberation  of  captives,"  but  deliverance  from 
exile,  death,  and  every  other  evil  from  which 
we  may  be  freed ;   and  \vrpov  signifies  every 
thing  which  satisfies  another,  so  as  to  effect 
this  deliverance.     The  nature  of  this  redemp- 
tion or  purchased  deliverance,   (for  it  is  not 
gratuitous  liberation,  as  will  presently  appear,) 
is,  therefore,  to  be  ascertained  by  the  circum- 
stances of  those  who  are  the  subjects  of  it. 
The  subjects  in  the  case  before  us  are  sinful 
men.     They  are  under  guilt,  under  "  the  curse 
of  the  law,"  the  servants  of  sin,  under  the 
power  and  dominion  of  the  devil,  and  "taken 
captive  by  him  at  his  will,"  liable  to  the  death 
of  the  body  and  to  eternal  punishment.      To 
the  whole   of  this  case,  the  redemption,  the 
purchased  deliverance  of  man,  as  proclaimed 
in  the  Gospel,  applies  itself.      Hence,  in  the 


RED 


810 


RED 


above  cited  and  other  passages,  it  is  said,  "We 
have  redemption  through  his  blood,  the  for- 
giveness of  sins,"  in  opposition  to  guilt ;  re- 
demption from  "  the  curse  of  the  law  ;" 
deliverance  from  sin,  that  "  we  should  be  set 
free  from  sin  ;"  deliverance  from  the  power  of 
Satan ;  from  death,  by  a  resurrection  ;  and 
from  future  "  wrath,"  by  the  gift  of  eternal 
life.  Throughout  the  whole  of  this  glorious 
doctrine  of  our  redemption  from  these  tre- 
mendous evils  there  is,  however,  in  the  New 
Testament,  a  constant  reference  to  the  Mrpov, 
the  redemption  price,  which  \irpov  is  as  con- 
stantly declared  to  be  the  death  of  Christ, 
which  he  endured  in  our  stead.  "  The  Son 
of  man  came  to  give  his  life  a  ransom  for 
many,"  Matt,  xx,  28.  "  Who  gave  himself  a 
ransom  for  all,"  1  Tim.  ii,  6.  "In  whom  we 
have  redemption  through  his  blood,"  Eph.  i,  7. 
"Ye  were  not  redeemed  with  corruptible  things, 
as  silver  and  gold,  but  with  the  precious  blood 
of  Christ,"  1  Pet.  i,  18, 19.  That  deliverance  of 
man  from  sin,  misery,  and  all  other  penal  evils 
of  his  transgression,  which  constitutes  our 
redemption  by  Christ,  is  not,  therefore,  a  gra- 
tuitous deliverance,  granted  without  a  con- 
sideration, as  an  act  of  mere  prerogative  ;  the 
ransom,  the  redemption  price,  was  exacted 
and  paid ;  one  thing  was  given  for  another, 
the  precious  blood  of  Christ  for  captive  and 
condemned  men.  Of  the  same  import  are 
those  passages  which  represent  us  as  having 
been  "bought,"  or  "purchased"  by  Christ. 
St.  Peter  speaks  of  those  "who  denied  the 
Lord  riv  ayopdaavra  avrcis,  that  bought  them  ;" 
and  St.  Paul,  in  the  passage  above  cited,  says, 
"  Ye  are  bought  with  a  price,  fiyop<i<sQt)Tt ;" 
which  price  is  expressly  said  by  St.  John  to 
be  the  blood  of  Christ :  "  Thou  wast  slain, 
and  hast  redeemed  us  to  God  (iryipaoas,  hast 
purchased  us)  by  thy  blood,"  Rev.  v,  9. 

RED  SEA,  celebrated  chiefly  for  the  mira- 
culous passage  of  the  Israelites  through  its 
waters.  They  were  thrust  out  of  Egypt,  says 
Dr.  Hales,  on  the  fifteenth  day  of  the  first 
month  ;  "  about  six  hundred  thousand  men  on 
foot,  beside  women  and  children.  And  a 
mixed  multitude  went  up  also  witli  them  ;  and 
flocks  and  herds,  even  very  much  cattle," 
Exod.  xii,  37-39  ;  Num.  xi,  4;  xxxiii,  3.  After 
they  set  out  from  Rameses,  in  the  land  of 
Goshen,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Cairo,  their 
first  encampment  was  at  Succoth,  signifying 
"  booths,"  or  an  "  enclosure  for  cattle,"  after  a 
etage  of  about  thirty  miles ;  their  second,  at 
Etham,  or  Adsjerud,  on  the  edge  of  the  wilder- 
ness, about  sixty  miles  farther  ;  "  for  the  Lord 
led  them  not  by  the  way  of  the  land  of  the 
Philistines,  although  that  was  near ;  for  God 
said,  Lest  peradventure  the  people  repent  when 
they  see  war,  and  they  return  to  Egypt :  but 
God  led  the  people  about  by  the  way  of  the 
wilderness  of  the  Red  Sea,"  or  by  a  circuitous 
rout  to  the  land  of  promise,  in  order  to  train 
them  and  instruct  them,  in  the  solitudes  of 
Arabia  Petrrea,  Exodus  xiii,  17-20 ;  Deut. 
xxxii,  10.  Instead  of  proceeding  from  Etham, 
round  the  head  of  the  Red  Sea,  and  coasting 
along  its  eastern  shore,  the  Lord  made  them 


turn  southward  along  its  western  shore,  and, 
after  a  stage  of  about  twenty  or  thirty  miles, 
to  encamp  in  the  valley  of  Bedea,  where  there 
was  an  opening  in  the  great  chain  of  mount- 
ains that  line  the  western  coast,  called  Pi-hahi- 
roth,  the  mouth  of  the  ridge  between  Migdol 
westward,  and  the  sea  eastward,  "  over  against 
Baal-zephon,"  on  the  eastern  coast ;  to  tempt 
Pharaoh,  whose  heart  he  finally  hardened,  to 
pursue  them  when  they  were  "  entangled  in 
the  land,"  and  shut  in  by  the  wilderness  on 
their  rear  and  flanks,  and  by  the  sea  in  their 
front.  The  leading  motive  with  Pharaoh  and 
his  servants  was  to  bring  back  the  Israelites  to 
bondage,  and  of  the  Egyptians  in  general,  to 
recover  the  treasures  of  which  they  had  been 
spoiled,  Exod.  xiv,  1-5.  So  Pharaoh  pursued 
the  Israelites  by  the  direct  way  of  Migdol, 
with  six  hundred  chariots,  his  horsemen,  and 
his  army,  and  overtook  them  encamping  by 
the  sea,  beside  Pi-hahiroth,  over  against  Baal- 
zephon.  When  their  destruction,  or  their  ro- 
turn  to  bondage,  seemed  to  be  inevitable,  the 
Lord  interposed  and  fought  for  Israel.  He 
opened  for  them  a  passage  across  the  Red  Sea, 
where  it  was  about  twelve  miles  wide,  and 
brought  them  through  in  safety ;  while  he 
drowned  the  Egyptians,  who  blindly  followed 
them  to  their  own  destruction,  Psalm  lxxvii, 
18,  &c. 

On  this  memorable  deliverance  Moses  com 
posed  a  thanksgiving,  which  he  and  the  Israel- 
ites sung  unto  the  Lord.  It  is  also  a  sublime 
prophecy,  foretelling  the  powerful  effect  of 
this  tremendous  judgment  on  the  neighbour- 
ing nations  of  Edom,  Moab,  Palestine,  and 
Canaan,  the  future  settlement  of  the  Israelites 
in  the  promised  land;  and  the  erection  of  the 
temple  and  sanctuary  on  Mount  Zion,  and  the 
perpetuity  of  the  dominion  and  worship  of  God. 

The  precise  place  of  this  passage  has  been 
much  contested.  Some  place  it  near  Suez,  at 
the  head  of  the  gulf;  others,  with  more  proba- 
bility, about  ten  hours'  journey  lower  down,  at 
Clysma,  or  the  vale  of  Bedea.  The  day  be- 
fore the  passage,  by  the  divine  command,  the 
Israelites  encamped  beside  Pi-hahiroth,  "be- 
tween Migdol  and  the  sea,  over  against  Baal- 
zephon,"  Exodus  xiv,  2;  Num.  xxxiii,  7.  Pi- 
hahiroth  signifies  "  the  mouth  of  the  ridge,"  or 
chain  of  mountains,  which  line  the  western 
coast  of  the  Red  Sea,  called  Attaka,  "deliver- 
ance," in  which  was  a  gap,  which  formed  the 
extremity  of  the  valley  of  Bedea,  ending  at  the 
sea  eastward,  and  running  westward  to  some 
distance,  toward  Cairo  ;  Migdol,  signifying  "a 
tower,"  probably  lay  in  that  direction ;  and 
Baal-zephon,  signifying  "  the  northern  Baal," 
was  probably  a  temple  on  the  opposite  pro- 
montory, built  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Red 
Sea.  And  the  modern  names  of  places  in  the 
vicinity  tend  to  confirm  these  expositions  of 
the  ancient.  Beside  Attaka,  on  the  eastern 
coast  opposite,  is  a  head  land,  called  Ras  Musa, 
or  "the  Cape  of  Moses;"  somewhat  lower, 
Hamam  Fannin,  " Pharaoh's  Springs ;"  below 
Girondel,  a  reach  of  the  gulf,  called  Birket 
Faraun  ;  and  the  general  name  of  the  gulf  is 
Bahr  al  Kolsum,   "the  Bav  of  Submersion." 


RED 


811 


RED 


These  names  indicate  that  the  passage  was 
considerably  below  Suez,  according  to  the  tra- 
dition of  the  natives.  The  depth  and  breadth 
of  the  gulf,  from  Suez  downward,  is  thus  de- 
scribed by  Niebuhr  :  "  I  have  not  found  in  this 
sea,  from  Suez  southward,  any  bank  or  isthmus 
under  water.  When  we  departed  from  Suez,  we 
sailed  as  far  as  Girondel,  without  fear  of  en- 
countering any  such.  We  had  in  the  first  place, 
the  road  of  Suez,  four  fathom  and  half;  at  three 
German  leagues  from  Suez,  in  the  middle  of  the 
gulf,  four  fathoms ;  and  about  Girondel,  near 
the  shore,  even  to  ten  fathoms."  Bruce,  also, 
describing  the  place  of  passage  opposite  Ras 
Musa,  or  a  little  below  it,  says,  "There  is  here 
about  fourteen  fathom  of  water  in  the  channel, 
and  about  nine  in  the  sides,  and  good  anchorage 
every  where.  The  farthest  side,  the  eastern, 
is  a  low  sandy  coast,  and  a  very  easy  landing 
place."  Shaw  reckons  the  breadth  of  the  gulf 
at  this  place  about  ten  miles ;  Neibuhr,  three 
leagues  and  more  ;  Bruce,  something  less  than 
four  leagues  :  we  may  therefore  estimate  it 
about  twelve  miles,  from  their  joint  reports. 
But  this  space-  the  host  of  the  Israelites  could 
easily  have  passed  in  the  course  of  a  night, 
from  the  evening  to  the  ensuing  morning 
watch,  or  dawn  of  day,  according  to  the  Mo. 
saical  account.  And  surely  the  depth  of  the 
sea  was  no  impediment,  when  the  Lord  divided 
it  by  "a  strong  east  wind,"  which  blew  across 
the  sea  all  that  night,  and  made  the  bottom  of 
the  sea  dry  land;  "and  the  children  of  Israel 
went  into  the  midst  of  the  sea  upon  the  dry 
ground,  and  the  waters  were  a  wall  unto  them, 
on  their  right  hand  and  on  their  left,"  Exodus 
xiv,  21,  22. 

In  the  queries  of  Michaelis,  sent  to  Niebuhr, 
when  in  Egypt,  it  was  proposed  to  him  to  in- 
quire upon  the  spot,  whether  there  were  not 
some  ridges  of  rocks  where  the  water  was  shal- 
low, so  that  an  army  at  particular  times  may 
pass  over ;  secondly,  whether  the  Etesian 
winds,  which  blow  strongly  all  summer  from 
the  north-west,  could  not  blow  so  violently 
against  the-  sea  as  to  keep  it  back  on  a  heap, 
so  that  the  Israelites  might  have  passed  with- 
out a  miracle.  And  a  copy  of  these  queries 
was  left,  also,  for  Bruce,  to  join  his  inquiries 
likewise  ;  his  observations  on  which  are  excel- 
lent:  "I  must  confess,  however  learned  the 
gentlemen  were  who  proposed  these  doubts,  I 
did  not  think  they  merited  any  attention  to 
solve  them.  This  passage  is  told  us  by  Scrip- 
ture to  be  a  miraculous  one  ;  and  if  so,  we 
have  nothing  to  do  with  natural  causes.  If  we 
do  not  believe  Moses,  we  need  not  believe  the 
transaction  at  all,  seeing  that  it  is  from  his  au- 
thority alone  we  derive  it.  If  we  believe  in 
God,  that  he  made  the  sea,  we  must  believe  he 
could  divide  it  when  he  sees  proper  reason  ; 
and  of  that  he  must  be  the  only  judge.  It  is 
no  greater  miracle  to  divide  the  Red  Sea  than 
to  divide  the  river  Jordan.  If  the  Etesian 
wind,  blowing  from  the  north-west  in  summer, 
could  keep  up  the  sea  as  a  wall  on  the  right, 
or  to  the  south,  of  fifty  feet  high,  still  the  diffi- 
culty would  remain  of  building  the  wall  on  the 
jeft  hand,  or  to  the  north.    Beside,  water  stand- 


ing in  that  position  for  a  day  must  have  lost 
the  nature  of  fluid.  Whence  came  that  cohe- 
sion of  particles  which  hindered  that  wall  to 
escape  at  the  sides  ?  This  is  as  great  a  miracle 
as  that  of  Moses.  If  the  Etesian  winds  had 
done  this  once,  they  must  have  repeated  it 
many  a  time  before  and  since,  from  the  same 
causes.  Yet  Diodorus  Siculus  says  the  Troglo- 
dytes, the  indigenous  inhabitants  of  that  very 
spot,  had  a  tradition  from  father  to  son,  from 
their  very  earliest  ages,  that  '  once  this  division 
of  the  sea  did  happen  there ;  and  that,  after 
leaving  its  bottom  some  time  dry,  the  sea  again 
came  back,  and  covered  it  with  great  fury.' 
The  words  of  this  author  are  of  the  most  re- 
markable kind  :  we  cannot  think  this  Heathen 
is  writing  in  favour  of  revelation  :  he  knew 
not  Moses,  nor  says  a  word  about  Pharaoh  and 
his  host ;  but  records  the  miracle  of  the  divi- 
sion of  the  sea  in  words  nearly  as  strong  as 
those  of  Moses,  from  the  mouths  of  unbiassed, 
undesigning  Pagans."  Still  skeptical  queries 
have  their  use ;  they  lead  to  a  stricter  investi- 
gation of  facts,  and  thereby  tend  strongly  to 
confirm  the  veracity  of  the  history  they  mean 
to  impeach.  Thus  it  appears  from  the  accu- 
rate observations  of  Niebuhr  and  Bruce,  that 
there  is  no  ledge  of  rocks  running  across  the 
gu]f  any  where,  to  afford  a  shallow  passage. 
And  the  second  query,  about  the  Etesian  or 
northerly  wind,  is  refuted  by  the  express  men- 
tion of  a  strong  easterly  wind  blowing  across, 
and  scooping  out  a  dry  passage ;  not  that  it 
was  necessary  for  Omnipotence  to  employ  it 
there  as  an  instrument,  any  more  than  at  Jor- 
dan ;  but  it  seems  to  be  introduced  in  the  sa- 
cred history  by  way  of  anticipation,  to  exclude 
the  natural  agency  that  might  in  after  times 
be  employed  for  solving  the  miracle  ;  and  it  is 
remarkable  that  the  monsoon  in  the  Red  Sea 
blows  the  summer  half  of  the  year  from  the 
north,  the  winter  half  from  the  south,  neither 
of  which  therefore,  even  if  wind  could  be  sup- 
posed to  operate  so  violently  upon  the  waters, 
could  produce  the  miracle  in  question. 

Wishing  to  diminish,  though  not  to  deny, 
the  miracle,  Niebuhr  adopts  the  opinion  of 
those  who  contend  for  a  higher  passage  near 
Suez.  "  For,"  says  he,  "  the  miracle  would 
be  less  if  they  crossed  the  sea  there  than  near 
Bedea.  But  whosoever  should  suppose  that 
the  multitude  of  the  Israelites  could  be  able  to 
cross  it  here  without  a  prodigy  would  deceive 
himself;  for,  even  in  our  days,  no  caravan 
passes  that  way  to  go  from  Cairo  to  Mount 
Sinai,  although  it  would  considerably  shorten 
the  journey.  The  passage  would  have  been 
naturally  more  difficult  for  the  Israelites  some 
thousands  of  years  back,  when  the  gulf  was 
probably  larger,  deeper,  and  more  extended 
toward  the  north  ;  for,  in  all  appearance,  the 
water  has  retired,  and  the  ground  near  this 
end  has  been  raised  by  the  sands  of  the  neigh- 
bouring desert."  But  it  sufficiently  appears, 
even  from  Niebuhr's  own  statement,  that  the 
passage  of  the  Israelites  could  not  have  been 
taken  near  Suez ;  for,  1.  He  evidently  con- 
founded the  town  of  Kolsum,  the  ruins  of 
which  he   places   near   Suez,    and   where  he 


RED 


812 


RED 


supposed  the  passage  to  be  made,  with  the 
bay  of  Kolsum,  which  began  about  forty-five 
miles  lower  down ;  as  Bryant  has  satisfactorily 
proved,  from  the  astronomical  observations  of 
Ptolemy  and  of  Ulug  Beigh,  made  at  Heroum, 
the  ancient  head  of  the  gulf.  2.  Instead  of 
crossing  the  sea  at  or  near  Ethan,  their  second 
station,  the  Israelites  turned  southward,  along 
the  western  shore ;  and  their  third  station  at 
Pi-hahiroth,  or  Bedea,  was  at  least  a  full  day's 
journey  below  Ethan,  as  Bryant  has  satisfac- 
torily proved  from  Scripture,  Exodus  xiv,  2. 
And  it  was  this  unexpected  change  in  the  di- 
rection of  their  march,  and  the  apparently  dis- 
advantageous situation  in  which  they  were 
then  placed,  entangled  in  the  land,  and  shut 
in  by  the  wilderness,  with  a  deep  sea  in  front, 
the  mountains  of  Attaka  on  the  sides,  and  the 
enemy  in  their  rear,  that  tempted  the  Egyptians 
to  pursue  them  through  the  valley  of  Bedea, 
by  the  direct  route  from  Cairo,  who  overtook 
them  encamping  by  the  sea,  beside  Pi-hahiroth, 
opposite  to  Ball-zephon,  Exod.  xiv,  2-9. 

Niebuhr  wonders  how  the  Israelites  could 
suffer  themselves  to  be  brought  into  such  a 
disadvantageous  situation,  or  be  led  blindfold 
by  Moses  to  their  apparent  destruction.  "  One 
need  only  travel  with  a  caravan,"  says  he, 
"  which  meets  with  the  least  obstacle,  namely, 
a  small  torrent,  to  be  convinced  that  the  ori- 
entals do  not  let  themselves  be  led,  like  fools, 
by  their  caravan  baschi,"  or  leader  of  the  cara- 
van. But  the  Israelites  went  out  of  Egypt 
with  "  a  high  hand,"  though  led  by  Moses,  yet 
under  the  visible  guidance  and  protection  of 
"the  Lord  God  of  the  Hebrews,"  who  "  went 
before  them  by  day  in  a  pillar  of  a  cloud,  and 
by  night  in  a  pillar  of  fire  ;"  and  who,  for  their 
encouragement,  to  enter  the  passage  of  the  sea 
miraculously  prepared  for  them,  removed  the 
cloud  which  went  before  tti3  camp  of  Israel 
hitherto,  and  placed  it  behind  them.  "  And  it 
came  between  the  camp  of  the  Egyptians  and 
the  camp  of  Israel ;  and  it  was  a  cloud  and 
darkness  to  the  one,  but  gave  light  by  night  to 
the  other :  so  that  the  one  came  not  near  the 
other  all  the  night,"  Exod.  xiv,  8-20. 

Niebuhr  wonders,  also,  how  Pharaoh  and 
the  Egyptians  could  be  led  to  follow  the  Israel- 
ites. "  Pharaoh  must  have  wanted  prudence, 
if,  after  having  seen  so  many  prodigies  in 
Egypt,  he  had  entered  into  a  sea  of  more  than 
three  leagues  wide :  all  the  Egyptians,  too, 
must  have  been  bereft  of  understanding,  in 
wishing  to  pursue  the  Israelites  into  such  a  sea. 
Doubtless  they  knew  their  own  country  well 
enough  to  distinguish  the  bottom  of  a  large 
sea,  which  bounds  Egypt  on  that  side,  from  a 
desert."  But  Pharaoh  and  the  Egyptians  pro- 
bably did  not  know  their  situation.  The  cloud 
which  separated  them  from  the  Israelites  in- 
creased the  darkness  of  the  night ;  and  they 
probably  did  not  enter  into  the  sea  till  about 
midnight,  by  which  time  the  van  of  the  Israel- 
ites might  have  reached  the  eastern  shore. 
Meanwhile,  the  bed  of  the  sea,  now  beaten  by 
the  feet  of  the  immense  multitude  of  men  and 
cattle  that  had  gone  before,  might  not  have 
been   easily  distinguishable   from    the   desert. 


If  we  ask,  Why  did  the  Egyptians  venture  to 
pursue  the  Israelites  by  night  ?  Why  did  they 
not  wait  till  day  light,  when  they  could  see 
whither  they  were  going?  Niebuhr  himself 
has  unwittingly  answered  the  question :  Pha- 
raoh wanted  "  prudence,"  indeed,  and  the 
Egyptians  were  "bereft  of  understanding." 
And  this  is  the  Scriptural  solution  ;  for  God 
hardened  the  heart  of  Pharaoh  to  follow  after 
them,  that  he  might  be  honoured  upon  Pharaoh 
and  all  his  host ;  and  that,  by  their  miraculous 
destruction,  the  Egyptians  might  know  that 
he  was  the  Lord  supreme,  Exod.  xiv,  4-18. 
The  Egyptians  did  not  find  out  their  mistake 
till  the  "  morning  appeared,"  or  till  day-break, 
when  the  rear  of  the  Israelites  had  gained  the 
shore,  and  the  Egyptians  had  reached  the  mid- 
dle of  the  sea,  and  their  whole  host  had  entered 
into  it :  then,  indeed,  they  attempted  to  fly 
back,  but  in  vain  ;  for  "  their  chariot  wheels 
were  broken  off",  so  that  they  drave  them 
heavily,  and  their  host  was  troubled"  by  the 
Lord,  who  looked  or  frowned  upon  them 
through  the  cloudy  pillar  of  fire,  and  over- 
whelmed all  their  host  in  the  midst  of  the  sea  ; 
when  the  sea  suddenly  returned  to  his  strength 
at  the  signal  of  Moses  stretching  forth  his 
hand  over  it,  Exod.  xiv,  24-28. 

The  particulars  of  this  transaction  demon- 
strate, that  neither  the  host  of  the  Israelites, 
nor  the  host  of  Pharaoh,  could  possibly  have 
passed  at  the  head  of  the  gulf  near  Suez  ;  where 
the  sea  was  only  half  a  league  broad,  accord- 
ing to  Niebuhr's  own  supposition,  and  con- 
sequently too  narrow  to  contain  the  whole 
host  of  Pharaoh  at  once ;  whose  six  hundred 
chariots  alone,  exclusive  of  his  cavalry  and 
infantry,  must  have  occupied  more  ground. 
Manetho,  and  the  Egyptian  writers,  have 
passed  over  in  silence  this  tremendous  visita- 
tion of  their  nation.  An  ancient  writer,  how- 
ever, Artapanus,  who  wrote  a  history  of  the 
Jews,  about  B.  C.  130,  has  preserved  the  fol- 
lowing curious  Egyptian  traditions  : — "  The 
Memphites  relate,  that  Moses,  being  well  ac- 
quainted with  the  country,  watched  the  influx 
of  the  tide,  and  made  the  multitude  pass  through 
the  dry  bed  of  the  sea.  But  the  Heliopolitans 
relate,  that  the  king,  with  a  great  army,  ac- 
companied by  the  sacred  animals,  pursued  after 
the  Jews,  who  had  carried  off  with  them  the 
substance  of  the  Egyptians;  and  that  Moses, 
having  been  directed  by  a  divine  voice  to  strike 
the  sea  with  his  rod,  when  he  heard  it,  touched 
the  water  with  his  rod  ;  and  so  the  fluid  divided, 
and  the  host  passed  over  through  a  dry  way. 
But  when  the  Egyptians  entered  along  with 
them,  and  pursued  them,  it  is  said,  that  fire 
flashed  against  them  in  front,  and  the  sea, 
returning  back,  overwhelmed  the  passage. 
Thus  the  Egyptians  perished,  both  by  the  fire, 
and  by  the  reflux  of  the  tide." 

The  latter  account  is  extremely  curious :  it 
not  only  confirms  Scripture,  but  it  notices  three 
additional  circumstances:  1.  That  for  their 
protection  against  the  God  of  Israel,  the  Egyp- 
tians  brought  with  them  the  sacred  animals ; 
and  by  this  means  God  executed  judgment 
upon  all  the  bestial  gods  of  Egypt,  as  foretold. 


REE 


813 


REF 


Exod.  xii,  12,  that  perished  with  their  infatu- 
ated votaries ;  completing  the  destruction  of 
both,  which  began  with  smiting  the  first-born 
both  of  man  and  beast.  2.  That  the  recovery 
of  the  jewels  of  silver  and  jewels  of  gold,  and 
raiment,  which  they  asked  and  obtained  of  the 
Egyptians,  according  to  the  divine  command, 
Exod.  xii,  35,  36,  was  a  leading  motive  with 
the  Egyptians  to  pursue  them  ;  as  the  bringing 
back  the  Israelites  to  slavery  had  been  with 
Pharaoh  and  his  servants,  or  officers.  3.  That 
the  destruction  of  the  Egyptians  was  partly 
occasioned  by  lightning  and  thunderbolts  from 
the  presence  of  the  Lord  ;  exactly  correspond- 
ing to  the  psalmist's  sublime  description : 
"  The  waters  saw  thee,  O  God,  the  waters  saw 
thee ;  they  were  afraid :  the  depths  also  were 
troubled.  The  clouds  poured  out  water,  the 
air  thundered,  thine  arrows  also  went  abroad. 
Yea,  he  sent  out  his  arrows,  and  scattered  them; 
he  shot  forth  lightnings,  hail  stones,  and  coals 
of  fire,  and  discomfited  them.  Then  the  chan- 
nels of  waters  were  seen,  and  the  foundations 
of  the  world  were  discovered,  at  thy  rebuke,  O 
Lord,  at  the  blast  of  the  breath  of  thy  nostrils," 
Psalm  lxxvii,  16,  17;  xviii,  13-15. 

The  Red  Sea  derived  its  name  from  Edom, 
signifying  "  red,"  a  title  of  Esau,  to  whom 
the  bordering  country  of  Edom,  or  IdumEea,  be- 
longed, Gen.  xxv,  30  ;  xxxvi,  31-40.  It  was  also 
called  Yam  Suph,  "the  weedy  sea,"  in  several 
passages,  Num.  xxxiii,  10 ;  Psalm  cvi,  9,  &c, 
which  are  improperly  rendered  "  the  Red  Sea." 
Some  learned  authors  have  supposed  that  it 
was  so  named  from  the  quantity  of  weeds  in  it. 
"  But  in  contradiction  to  this,"  says  Bruce, 
"  I  must  confess,  that  I  never  in  my  life,  and 
I  have  seen  the  whole  extent  of  it,  saw  a  weed 
of  any  sort  in  it.  And  indeed,  upon  the  slight. 
est  consideration,  it  will  appear  to  any  one, 
that  a  narrow  gulf,  under  the  immediate  influ- 
ence of  monsoons,  blowing  from  contrary 
points  six  months  each  year,  would  have  too 
much  agitation  to  produce  such  vegetables, 
seldom  found  but  in  stagnant  water,  and  sel- 
domer,  if  ever,  found  in  salt  ones.  My  opinion 
then  is,  that  it  is  from  the  large  trees,  or  plants, 
of  white  coral,  perfectly  in  imitation  of  plants 
on  land,  that  the  sea  has  taken  the  name 
'  weedy.'  I  saw  one  of  these,  which,  from  a 
root  nearly  central,  threw  out  ramifications  in 
a  nearly  central  form,  measuring  twenty-six 
feet  diameter  every  way."  This  seems  to  be 
the  most  probable  solution  that  has  been 
hitherto  proposed  of  the  name.  The  tides  in 
this  sea  are  but  moderate.  At  Suez  the  dif- 
ference between  high  and  low  water  did  not 
exceed  from  three  to  four  feet,  according  to 
Niebuhr's  observations  on  the  tides  in  that 
gulf,  during  the  years  1762  and  1763. 

REED,  pdjx,  Job  xl,  21 ;  xii,  2,  20 ;  Isaiah 
ix,  14 ;  xix,  15 ;  lviii,  5 ;  <cdXn//o?,  Matt,  xi,  7 ; 
a  plant  growing  in  fenny  and  watery  places ; 
very  weak  and  slender,  and  bending  with  the 
least  breath  of  wind,  Matt,  xi,  7  ;  Luke  vii,  24. 
Thus  it  is  threatened,  "The  Lord  shall  smite 
Israel  as  a  reed  is  shaken  in  the  water,  and  he 
shall  root  up  Israel  out  of  the  good  land  which 
he  gave  to  their  fathers,  and  shall  scatter  them 


beyond  the  river,  because  they  have  made 
their  idol  groves,  provoking  him  to  anger," 
1  Kings  xiv,  15.  The  slenderness  and  fra- 
gility of  the  reed  is  mentioned  in  2  Kings 
xviii,  21  ;  Isaiah  xxxvi,  6 ;  and  is  referred  to 
in  Matt,  xii,  20,  where  the  remark,  illustrating 
the  gentleness  of  our  Saviour,  is  quoted  from 
the  prophecy  of  Isaiah,  xlii,  3.  The  Hebrew 
word  in  these  places  is  pupi  as  also  in  Job 
xl,  21 ;  Isaiah  xix,  6 ;  xxxv,  7  ;  Ezek.  xxix,  6. 
See  Bulrush. 

REFORMATION,  usually  spoken  of  the 
great  Reformation  in  the  church,  begun  by 
Luther  in  1517.  The  sad  departure  from  the 
standard  of  holiness  which  the  Romish  hierar- 
chy should  have  placed  before  them,  combined 
with  the  indecency  and  arrogance  with  which 
they  trampled  upon  the  rights  of  sovereigns, 
and  upon  the  property  and  the  comfort  of  all 
classes  of  men,  had,  for  a  considerable  period, 
produced  a  general  conviction,  that  a  reforma- 
tion of  the  church  in  its  head  and  members,  to 
use  the  expression  which  was  then  prevalent, 
was  absolutely  requisite :  and  some  steps  to 
accomplish  this  had  been  actually  taken.  The 
celebrated  council  of  Constance,  while,  in  its 
efforts  to  heal  the  schism  which  had  so  long 
grieved  and  scandalized  the  Catholic  world,  it 
set  aside  the  rival  pontiffs  who  claimed  to  be 
the  successors  of  St.  Peter,  laid  down  the 
important  maxim,  that  a  general  council  was 
superior  to  a  pope,  and  that  its  decisions  can 
restrain  his  power;  and  this  doctrine,  which 
might  otherwise  have  appeared  to  arise  out  of 
the  extraordinary  circumstances  under  which 
it  was  declared,  was  fully  confirmed  by  the 
council  of  Basil,  which  met  several  years  after, 
and  which  decided  the  point  upon  grounds  that 
might  at  all  times  be  urged.  The  popes,  in- 
deed, remonstrated  against  this,  but  still  they 
were  compelled  to  lower  their  tone  ;  and  they 
were  often  reminded,  even  within  the  precincts 
of  their  own  court,  that  the  period  was  fast 
approaching  when  the  fallacy  of  many  of  their 
pretensions  would  be  ascertained  and  exposed. 
It  had  become  common,  before  the  election  of 
a  new  pontiff,  to  frame  certain  articles  of  re- 
formation, which  the  successful  candidate  was 
required  to  swear  that  he  would  carry  into 
effect ;  and  although  the  oath  was  uniformly 
disregarded  or  violated,  the  views  which  led 
to  the  imposition  of  it  indicated  the  existence 
of  a  spirit  which  could  not  be  eradicated, 
and  which  might,  from  events  that  could 
not  be  foreseen,  and  could  not  be  controlled, 
acquire  a  vigour  which  no  exertion  of  power 
could  resist.  Such,  under  the  beneficent 
arrangement  of  Providence,  was  soon  act- 
ually the  case.  In  the  progress  of  the  oppo- 
sition made  to  some  of  the  worst  abuses  of 
Rome,  they  who  conducted  that  opposition 
were  guided  to  the  word  of  li.'e;  they  studied 
it  with  avidity  and  with  delight ;  and  they 
found  themselves  furnished  by  it  with  sufficient 
armour  for  the  mighty  contest  in  which  they 
were  to  engage.  They  discovered  in  the  New 
Testament  what  Christianity  really  was ;  their 
representations  of  it  were  received  with  won- 
der, and  read  with  avidity ;  the  secession  from 


REF 


814 


REF 


the  church  of  Rome  became  much  more  rapid 
and  much  more  extensive  than  it  had  previously 
been,  and  all  possibility  of  reconciliation  with 
that  church  was  done  away.  Of  this  the  popes 
were  fully  aware ;  and  as  the  only  way  of 
counteracting  that  which  was  to  them  so  for- 
midable,  they  attempted,  by  various  devices,  to 
fetter  the  press,  to  prevent  the  circulation  of 
the  Bible,  and  thus  again  to  plunge  the  world 
into  that  intellectual  darkness  from  which  it 
had  been  happily  delivered.  The  scheme  was 
impracticable.  The  "Indices  Expurgatorii," 
in  which  they  pointed  out  the  works  that  they 
condemned,  and  which  they  declared  it  to  be 
heresy  and  pollution  to  peruse,  increased  the 
desire  to  become  acquainted  with  them ;  and 
although  some  who  indulged  that  curiosity 
suffered  the  punishment  denounced  by  the 
inquisition  against  the  enemies  of  papal  super- 
stition, there  was  an  immense  proportion  which 
even  spiritual  tyranny  could  not  reach ;  so 
that  the  light  which  had  been  kindled  daily 
brightened,  till  it  shone  with  unclouded  lustre 
through  many  of  the  most  powerful  and  the 
most  refined  nations  of  Europe. 

It  is  worthy  of  careful  observation,  that  the 
resistance  which  ultimately  proved  so  success- 
ful, was  first  occasioned  by  practices  that  had 
been  devised  for  establishing  the  monstrous 
despotism  of  the  popes ;  that  when  it  com- 
menced, it  was  directed  against  what  was  con- 
ceived to  be  an  abuse  of  power,  without  the 
slightest  suspicion  being  entertained  that  the 
power  itself  was  unchristian;  that  the  reform- 
ers gradually  advanced ;  every  additional  in- 
quiry to  which  they  were  conducted  enlarging 
their  views,  and  bringing  them  acquainted 
with  fresh  proofs  of  that  daring  usurpation  to 
which  men  had  long  submitted,  till  at  length 
the  foundation  upon  which  the  whole  system, 
venerated  through  ages,  rested,  was  disclosed  to 
them,  and  perceived  to  be  a  foundation  of  sand. 
The  consequence  was,  that  the  supremacy  of 
the  pope  was  by  multitudes  abjured;  that  he 
was  branded  as  antichrist ;  that  communion 
with  the  popish  church  was  avoided  as  sinful, 
and  that  the  form  of  ecclesiastical  polity,  the 
essential  principle  of  which  was  the  infallibility 
of  the  bishop  of  Rome,  was  for  ever  renounced. 
The  wonderful  manner  in  which  this  signal 
revolution,  so  fraught  with  blessings  to  man- 
kind, was  accomplished,  the  various  events 
which  mark  its  history,  and  the  characters  and 
exertions  of  the  men  by  whose  agency  it  was 
effected,  cannot  be  too  often  surveyed,  or  too 
deeply  fixed  in  the  memorjT  The  whole,  even 
with  reference  to  the  illumination  of  the  hu- 
man mind  and  the  improvement  of  the  social 
state  of  the  world,  is  in  a  high  degree  interest- 
ing ;  and  that  interest  is  unspeakably  increased 
by  our  discerning  the  most  striking  evidence 
of  the  gracious  interposition  of  Providence 
dissipating  the  cloud  which  obscured  divine 
truth,  and  restoring  to  mankind  that  sacred 
treasure  which  is  sufficient  to  make  all  who 
seriously  examine  it  wise  unto  salvation.  It 
does  not,  however,  come  within  the  province 
of  this  work  to  give  a  minute  history  of  the 
origin   and   progress   of  the  Reformation,  to 


trace  the  steps  of  Zuinglius  and  of  Luther, 
and  to  detail  the  circumstances  which  advanced 
or  retarded  them  in  the  glorious  career  upon 
which  they  had  entered.  Much  discussion 
has  taken  place  with  respect  to  the  motives  by 
which  Luther  was  actuated.  This  point,  in 
reference  to  what  he  accomplished,  is  really 
of  little  moment;  but  there  cannot  be  a  doubt 
that  although  he  might,  throughout  his  ardu- 
ous struggle,  be  guided  occasionally  by  inferior 
considerations,  he  was  eventually,  at  least, 
chiefly  animated  by  the  noble  and  disinterested 
wish  to  emancipate  his  fellow  creatures  from 
what  he  was  convinced  was  the  direct  and 
most  infatuated  spiritual  oppression  ;  that  he 
looked  to  Heaven  for  support,  and  that  such 
support  he  largely  received. 

REFUGE,  Cities  of.  In  order  to  provide 
for  the  security  of  those  who,  without  design, 
might  happen  to  kill  a  person  in  whatever 
manner  it  should  be,  the  Lord  commanded 
Moses  to  appoint  six  cities  of  refuge,  Exod. 
xxi,  18;  Num.  xxxv,  11,  &c,  that  whoever 
should  undesignedly  spill  the  blood  of  a  fellow 
creature,  might  retire  thither,  and  have  time 
to  prepare  for  his  defence  before  the  judges ; 
so  that  the  relatives  of  the  deceased  might  not 
pursue  and  kill  him.  Of  these  cities  there 
were  three  on  each  side  Jordan.  Those  on 
this  side  Jordan  were  Kedesh  of  Naphtali, 
Hebron,  and  Shechein ;  those  beyond  Jordan 
were  Bezer,  Golan,  and  Ramoth-Gilcad,  Joshua 
xx,  7,  8.  They  served  not  only  for  the  He- 
brews, but  for  strangers  also  that  should  dwell 
in  their  country.  These  cities  were  to  be  of 
easy  access,  and  to  have  good  roads  to  them, 
and  bridges  wherever  there  should  be  occa- 
sion. The  width  of  these  roads  was,  at  least, 
to  be  two-and-thirty  cubits,  or  eight-and-forty 
feet.  When  there  were  any  cross  roads,  they 
were  careful  to  erect  posts  with  an  inscription 
pointing  to  the  city  of  refuge.  Every  )ear, 
on  the  fifteenth  of  the  month  Adar,  which 
answers  to  our  February  moon,  the  magistrates 
of  the  city  visited  the  roads,  to  see  if  they 
were  in  good  condition.  The  city  was  to  be 
well  supplied  with  water  and  provisions.  It 
was  not  allowed  to  make  any  weapons  there, 
lest  the  relatives  of  the  deceased  should  be 
furnished  with  arms  for  the  gratifying  of  their 
revenge.  Lastly,  it  was  necessary  that  who- 
ever took  refuge  there,  should  understand  a 
trade  or  calling,  that  he  might  not  be  charge- 
able to  the  inhabitants.  They  were  wont  to 
send  some  prudent  persons  to  meet  those  who 
were  pursuing  their  revenge  for  the  relations, 
that  they  might  dispose  them  to  clemency,  and 
persuade  them  to  wait  the  decision  of  justice. 

Though  the  man-slayer  had  fled  to  the  city 
of  refuge,  yet  he  was  not  on  this  account  ex- 
empted from  the  pursuit  of  justice.  An  infor- 
mation was  preferred  against  him,  Num.  xxxv, 
12  ;  he  was  summoned  before  the  judges,  and 
before  the  people,  to  clear  himself,  and  to 
prove  that  the  murder  was  merely  casual  and 
involuntary.  If  he  was  found  innocent,  he 
dwelt  safely  in  the  city  to  which  he  had 
retired  ;  if  otherwise,  he  was  put  to  death  ac- 
cording to  the  severity  of  the  law.     The  fol- 


REG 


815 


REH 


lowing  texts  of  Scripture  are  not  very  explicit 
whether  the  affair  was  under  the  cognizance 
of  the  judges  of  the  place  where  the  murder 
was  committed,  or  of  the  judges  of  the  city  of 
refuge  to  which  the  murderer  had  fled,  Deut. 
xix,  11,  12;  Joshua  xx,  4-6;  Num.  xxxv,  25; 
and  the  commentators  are  at  variance  in  this 
matter.  But  it  appears,  from  a  passage  of 
Joshua,  that  the  man-slayer  was  to  undergo 
two  trials ;  first,  in  the  city  of  refuge,  where 
the  judges  summarily  examined  the  affair,  and 
heard  his  allegations  at  his  first  arrival ; 
secondly,  when  he  was  taken  back  to  his  ovvn 
city,  to  be  judged  by  the  magistrates  of  the 
place,  who  took  the  cause  under  a  more  strict 
and  scrupulous  examination.  If  the  latter 
judges  declared  him  innocent,  they  had  him 
reconducted,  under  a  strong  guard,  to  the  city 
of  refuge  to  which  he  had  before  fled.  He 
was  not,  however,  immediately  liberated  ;  but, 
to  inspire  the  greater  horror  even  of  involun- 
tary murder,  it  seems  as  if  the  lav/  would 
punish  it  by  a  kind  of  banishment ;  for  he  was 
obliged  to  dwell  in  the  city,  without  going  out 
of  it,  till  the  death  of  the  high  priest ;  and  if 
before  that  time  he  was  imprudent  enough  to 
leave  the  city,  the  avenger  of  blood  might 
safely  kill  him  ;  but  after  the  death  of  the  high 
priest,  he  was  at  liberty  to  go  whither  he 
pleased  without  molestation. 

It  is  a  curious  fact,  that  the  North  Ameri- 
can Indian  nations  have  most  of  them  either 
a  house  or  town  of  refuge,  which  is  a  sure 
asylum  to  protect  a  man-slayer,  or  the  unfor- 
tunate captive,  if  they  can  once  enter  it.  "In 
almost  every  Indian  nation,"  says  Adair, 
"  there  are  several  peaceable  towns  which  are 
called  old,  beloved,  ancient,  holy,  or  white 
towns :  (white  being  their  fixed  emblem  of 
peace,  friendship,  prosperity,  happinc;-,  purity, 
&c  :)  they  seem  to  have  been  formerly  towns 
of  refuge  ;  for  it  is  not  in  the  memory  of  their 
oldest  people  that  ever  human  blood  was  shed 
in  them,  although  they  often  force  persons 
from  thence,  and  put  them  to  death  elsewhere." 
Sanctuaries  affording  security  for  criminals 
are  still  known  in  the  east,  and  anciently 
Were  established  in  Europe. 

REGENERATION,  a  new  birth;  that 
work  of  the  Holy  Spirit  by  which  we  expe- 
rience a  change  of  heart.  It  is  expressed  in 
Scripture  by  being  born  again,  John  iii,  7  ; 
bom  from  above;  being  quickened,  Eph.  ii,  1; 
by  Christ  being  formed  in  the  heart,  Gal.  iv, 
19 ;  by  our  partaking  of  the  divine  nature, 
2  Peter  i,  4.  The  efficient  cause  of  regenera- 
tion is  the  divine  Spirit.  That  man  is  not 
the  author  of  it,  is  evident  from  John  i,  12, 
13 ;  iii,  4 ;  Eph.  ii,  8,  10.  The  instrumental 
cause  is  the  word  of  God,  James  i,  18  ;  1  Peter 
i,  23  ;  1  Cor.  iv,  15.  The  change  in  regenera- 
tion consists  in  the  recovery  of  the  moral 
image  of  God  upon  the  heart ;  that  is  to  say, 
so  as  to  love  him  supremely  and  serve  him 
ultimately  as  our  highest  end,  and  to  delight 
in  him  superlatively  as  our  chief  good.  The 
sum  of  the  moral  law  is  to  love  the  Lord  our 
God  with  all  our  heart,  and  soul,  and  strength, 
and  mind.     This  is  the  duty  of  every  rational 


creature ;  and  in  order  to  obey  it  perfectly,  no 
part  of  our  inward  affection  or  actual  service 
ought  to  be,  at  any  time,  or  in  the  least  degree, 
misapplied.  Regeneration  consists  in  the  prin- 
ciple being  implanted,  obtaining  the  ascend- 
ancy, and  habitually  prevailing  over  its  oppo- 
site. It  may  be  remarked,  that  though  the 
inspired  writers  use  various  terms  and  modes 
of  speech  in  order  to  describe  this  change  of 
mind,  sometimes  terming  it  conversion,  re- 
generation, a  new  creation,  or  the  new  crea- 
ture, putting  off  the  old  man  with  his  deeds, 
and  putting  on  the  new  man,  walking  not 
after  the  flesh,  but  after  the  Spirit,  &e ;  yet  it 
is  all  effected  by  the  word  of  truth,  or  the 
Gospel  of  salvation,  gaining  an  entrance  into 
the  mind,  through  divine  teaching,  so  as  to 
possess  the  understanding,  subdue  the  will, 
and  reign  in  the  affections.  In  a  word,  it  is 
faith  working  by  love  that  constitutes  the  new 
creature,  the  regenerate  man,  Gal.  v,  6;  1 
John  v,  1-5.  Regeneration  is  to  be  distin- 
guished from  our  justification,  although  it  is 
connected  with  it.  Every  one  who  is  justi- 
fied, is  also  regenerated ;  but  the  one  places 
us  in  a  new  relation,  and  the  other  in  a  new 
moral  state.  Our  Lord,  in  one  instance,  uses 
the  term  regeneration  for  the  resurrection 
state  :  "  Ye  which  have  followed  me,  in  the 
regeneration,  when  the  Son  of  man  shall  sit 
on  the  throne  of  his  glory,  ye  also  shall  sit 
upon  twelve  thrones,  judging,"  Matt,  xix,  28. 
And,  accordingly,  Dr.  Campbell  translates  the 
passage  thus:  "At  the  renovation,  when  the 
Son  of  man  i.;hall  be  seated  on  the  glorious 
throne,  ye,  my  followers,  sitting  also  upon 
twelve  thrones,  shall  judge."  We  are  accus- 
tomed, says  he,  to  apply  the  term  solely  to  the 
conversion  of  individuals  ;  whereas  its  relation 
here  is  to  the  general  state  of  things.  The 
principal  completion  will  be  at  the  general 
resurrection,  when  there  will  be,  in  the  most 
important  sense,  a  renovation  or  regeneration 
of  heaven  and  earth,  when  all  things  shall 
become  new. 

REHOBOAM,  the  son  and  successor  of 
Solomon ;  his  mother  was  Naamah,  an  Am- 
monitish  woman,  whom  Solomon  had  married, 
1  Kings  xiv,  20,  21.  He  was  forty-one  years 
of  age  when  he  began  to  reign,  and,  conse- 
quently, was  born  in  the  first  year  of  his 
father's  reign,  A.  M.  2990,  or  the  year  before. 
This  prince  reigned  seventeen  years  at  Jerusa- 
lem, and  died  A.  M.  3046.  After  the  death 
of  Solomon,  Rehoboam  came  to  Shechem, 
because  all  Israel  was  there  assembled  to  make 
him  king,  1  Kings  xii.  Jeroboam,  the  son  of 
Nebat,  who  had  headed  a  sedition  against  So- 
lomon, and  had  been  compelled,  toward  the 
close  of  his  reign,  to  take  refuge  in  Egypt,  as 
soon  as  he  heard  that  this  prince  was  dead, 
returned  into  Judea,  and  came  to  the  assembly 
of  the  people  of  Shechem.  The  Israelites 
would  have  made  terms  with  Rehoboam ;  but, 
being  a  poor  politician,  and  following  the  ad- 
vice of  some  junior  counsellors,  he  managed 
his  business  so  imprudently  that  he  lost  the 
whole  house  of  Israel,  save  the  tribes  of  Judah 
and  Benjamin. 


REM 


816 


REP 


RELIGION.     See  Christianity. 

REMONSTRANTS  have  obtained  this 
name,  particularly  on  the  continent,  because, 
in  1610,  they  presented  to  the  states  of  Hoi- 
land  a  petition,  entitled  their  Remonstrance, 
in  which  they  stated  their  grievances,  and 
prayed  for  relief.  They  are  also  called  Armi- 
nians,  because  they  maintained  the  doctrines 
respecting  predestination  and  grace,  which 
were  embraced  and  defended  by  James  Har- 
menson  or  Arminius,  an  eminent  Protestant 
divine,  and  a  native  of  Holland,  who  was  born 
in  1560,  and  died  in  1609.  He  first  studied  at 
Leyden,  and  then  at  Geneva.  While  at  the 
university  of  Geneva,  he  studied  under  Beza, 
by  whom  he  was  instructed  in  the  doctrines 
of  Calvin  ;  and  having  been  judged  by  Martin 
Lydius,  professor  of  divinity  at  Franeker,  a 
proper  person  to  refute  a  work  in  which  the 
Calvinistic  doctrine  of  predestination  had  been 
attacked  by  some  ministers  of  Delft,  he  under- 
took the  task.  On  a  strict  examination  of  the 
reasons  on  both  sides,  however,  he  became  a 
convert  to  the  opinions  which  he  was  em- 
ployed to  refute.  The  result  of  his  inquiries 
on  this,  and  other  subjects  connected  with  it, 
was,  that,  thinking  the  doctrine  of  Calvin  with 
respect  to  free  will,  predestination,  and  grace, 
too  severe,  he  expressed  his  doubts  respecting 
them  in  the  year  1591,  and  at  length  adopted 
the  religious  system  of  those  who  extend  the 
love  of  God,  and  the  merits  of  his  Son,  to  all 
mankind.  After  his  appointment  to  the  theo- 
logical chair  of  Leyden,  in  1603,  he  avowed 
and  vindicated  the  principles  which  he  had 
embraced ;  but  the  prudence  and  caution  with 
which  he  published  and  defended  them  could 
not  screen  him  from  the  resentment  of  those 
who  adhered  to  the  theological  system  of  Cal- 
vin, and  in  particular  from  the  opposition  of 
Gomar  his  colleague.  After  the  death  of  Ar- 
minius, the  controversy,  thus  begun,  became 
more  general,  and  threatened  to  involve  the 
United  Provinces  in  civil  discord.  However, 
the  Arminian  tenets  gained  ground,  and  were 
adopted  by  several  persons  of  merit  and  dis- 
tinction. The  Calvinists  or  Gomarists  as  they 
were  now  called,  appealed  to  a  national  synod. 
Accordingly,  a  synod  was  at  length  convened 
at  Dordrecht  or  Dort,  and  was  composed  of 
ecclesiastical  and  lay  deputies  from  the  United 
Provinces,  and  also  of  ecclesiastical  deputies 
from  the  reformed  churches  of  England,  Swit- 
zerland, Bremen,  Hesse,  and  the  Palatinate. 
This  synod  sat  from  the  first  of  November, 
1618,  to  the  twenty-sixth  of  April,  1619.  The 
principal  advocate  in  favour  of  the  Arminians 
was  Episcopius,  who  was  at  that  time  professor 
of  divinity  at  Leyden.  The  roligious  principles 
of  the  Arminians  have  insinuated  themselves 
more  or  less  into  the  established  church  in 
Holland,  and  imbued  the  theological  system 
of  many  of  those  pastors  who  are  appointed  to 
maintain  the  doctrine  and  authority  of  the 
synod  of  Dort.  The  principles  of  Arminius 
were  early  introduced  into  various  other  coun- 
tries, as  Great  Britain,  France,  Geneva,  and 
many  parts  of  Switzerland  ;  but  their  progress 
is  said  to  have  been  rather  retarded  of  late, 


especially  in  Germany  and  several  parts  nl 
Switzerland,  by  the  prevalence  of  the  Leib- 
nitzian  and  Wolfian  philosophy,  which  is 
more  favourable  to  Calvinism.  The  distin- 
guishing tenets  of  the  Remonstrants  may  be 
said  to  consist  chiefly  in  the  different  light  in 
which  they  view  the  subjects  of  the  five  points, 
or  in  the  different  explanation  which  they  give 
to  them,  and  comprised  in  the  five  following 
articles  :  predestination,  universal  redemption, 
the  operation  of  grace,  the  freedom  of  the  will, 
and  perseverance.  They  believe  that  God, 
having  an  equal  regard  for  all  his  creatures, 
sent  his  Son  to  die  for  the  sins  not  of  the  elect 
only,  but  of  the  whole  world ;  that  no  mortal 
is  rendered  finally  unhappy  by  an  eternal  and 
invincible  decree,  but  that  the  misery  of  those 
who  perish  arises  from  themselves;  and  that, 
in  this  present  imperfect  state,  believers,  if 
not  vigilant,  may,  through  the  force  of  tempt- 
ation, and  the  influence  of  Satan,  fall  from 
grace,  and  sink  into  final  perdition.  See 
Arminiamsm. 

REMPHAN,  p>3  'Pt/j0a,  signifies  an  idol, 
according  to  the  Septuagint.  Amos,  v,  26, 
upbraids  the  Hebrews  with  having  carried, 
during  their  wanderings  in  the  wilderness,  the 
tabernacle  of  their  Moloch  and  Chiun,  their 
images,  the  star  of  their  god,  which  they  made 
to  themselves,  according  to  our  version  of  the 
Bible.  St.  Stephen,  quoting  this  passage  of 
Amos,  says,  "  Ye  took  up  the  tabernacle  of 
Moloch,  and  the  star  of  your  god  Remphan," 
Acts  vii,  43,  which  has  given  occasion  to  a 
variety  of  conjectures.  Grotius  thinks  it  to 
have  been  some  deity,  as  Rimmon  ;  and  Ca- 
pellus  and  Hammond  take  this  Remphan  to  be 
a  king  of  Egypt,  deified  by  his  subjects  ;  a  late 
writer  is  of  opinion,  that  God  here  refers  to 
the  idolatries  to  which  in  succeeding  ages  the 
Jews  were  gradually  given  up,  after  having 
begun  to  revolt  in  the  wilderness  by  the  sin 
of  the  golden  calf. 

REPENTANCE  is  sometimes  used  gene- 
rally for  a  change  of  mind,  and  an  earnest 
wishing  that  something  were  undone  that  has 
been  done.  Esau  found  no  place  for  repent, 
ance,  though  he  sought  it  carefully  with  tears; 
he  could  not  move  his  father  Isaac  to  repent 
of  what  he  had  done,  or  to  recall  the  blessing 
from  Jacob  and  confer  it  on  himself,  Heb.  xii, 
17  ;  Matt,  iii,  2  ;  iv,  17.  Taken  in  a  religious 
sense  it  signifies  conviction  of  sin  and  sorrow 
for  it.  But  there  is,  1.  A  partial  or  worldly 
repentance,  wherein  one  is  grieved  for  and 
turns  from  his  sin,  merely  on  account  of  the 
hurt  it  has  done,  or  is  likely  to  do,  him  :  so  a 
malefactor,  who  still  loves  his  sin,  repents  of 
doing  it,  because  it  brings  him  to  punishment. 
2.  An  evangelical  repentance,  which  is  a  godly 
sorrow  wrought  in  the  heart  of  a  sinful  person 
by  the  word  and  Spirit  of  God,  whereby,  from 
a  sense  of  his  sin,  as  offensive  to  God,  and  de. 
filing  and  endangering  to  his  own  soul,  and 
from  an  apprehension  of  the  mercy  of  God  in 
Christ,  he,  with  grief  and  hatred  of  all  his 
known  sins,  turns  from  them  to  God,  as  his 
Saviour  and  Lord.  This  is  called  "  repentance 
toward  God,"  as  therein  we  turn  from  6in  to 


REP 


817 


REP 


him ;  and  "  repentance  unto  life,"  as  it  leads 
to  spiritual  life,  and  is  the  first  step  to  eternal 
life,  Matt,  iii,  2 ;  Acts  iii,  19 ;  xi,  18 ;  xx,  12. 
God  himself  is  said  to  repent,  but  this  can 
only  be  understood  of  his  altering  his  conduct 
toward  his  creatures,  either  in  the  bestowing 
of  good  or  the  infliction  of  evil :  which  change 
in  the  divine  conduct  is  founded  on  a  change 
in  his  creatures ;  and  thus,  speaking  after  the 
manner  of  men,  God  is  said  to  repent. 

REPETITIONS  IN  PRAYER.  These  are 
forbidden  by  our  Lord,  and  were  well  styled 
".vain,"  if  they  consisted,  as  among  the  Mo- 
hammedans,  in  the  repetition  of  words  and 
phrases.  Richardson  mentions  an  old  man 
who  travelled  with  him,  who  was  thought  to 
be  of  peculiar  sanctity,  and  most  devout  in 
prayer  :  "Certainiy  he  did  not  prav  in  secret, 
communing  with  his  heart,  but  called  aloud 
with  all  his  might,  and  repeated  the  words  as 
fast  as  his  tongue  could  give  them  utterance. 
The  form  and  words  of  his  prayer  were  the 
same  with  those  of  the  others  ;  but  this  good 
man  had  made  a  vow  to  repeat  certain  words 
of  the  prayer  a  given  number  of  times,  both 
night  and  morning.  The  word  rabboni,  for 
example,  answering  to  our  word  Lord,  he 
would  bind  himself  to  repeat  a  hundred  or 
two  hundred  times,  twice  a  day  ;  and,  accord- 
ingly, went  on  in  the  hearing  of  all  the  party ; 
and,  on  his  knees  sometimes  with  his  face 
directed  steadily  to  heaven,  and  at  other  times 
bowing  down  to  the  ground,  and  calling  out 
rabboni,  rabboni,  rabboni,  rabboni,  rabboni, 
»Sic,  as  fast  as  he  could  articulate  the  words 
after  each  other,  like  a  school  boy  going 
through  his  task,  not  like  a  man  who,  praying 
with  the  heart  and  the  understanding  also,  con- 
tinues  longer  on  his  knees,  in  the  rapture  of 
devotion,  whose  soul  is  a  flame  of  fire,  en- 
kindled by  his  Maker,  and  fixing  upon  his 
God,  like  Jacob,  will  not  let  him  go  until  he 
bless  him.  Having  settled  his  accounts  with 
the  word  rabboni,  which  the  telling  of  his 
beads  enabled  him  to  know  when  he  had  done, 
he  proceeded  to  dispose  of  his  other  vows  in  a 
similar  manner.  Allah  houakhar,  perhaps, 
came  next,  '  God  most  great ;'  and  he  would 
go  on,  as  with  the  other,  Allah  houakbar, 
Allah  houakbar,  Allah  houakbar,  Allah  houak- 
bar, &c,  repeating  them  as  fast  as  he  could 
frame  his  organs  to  pronounce  them." 

REPHAIM.  The  .Rephaim  were  the  an- 
cient giants  of  the  land  of  Canaan.  There 
were  anciently  several  families  of  them  in  this 
country.  It  is  commonly  thought  that  they 
were  descended  from  one  called  Rephah  or 
Rapha ;  but  others  imagine  that  the  word 
Rephaim  properly  signifies  giants,  in  the  an- 
cient language  of  this  people.  There  were 
some  of  the  Rephaim  beyond  Jordan,  at  Ash- 
teroth  Karnaim,  in  the  time  of  Abraham,  when 
Chedorlaomer  made  war  against  them,  Gen. 
xiv,  5.  There  were  also  some  of  them  in  the 
country  in  the  days  of  Moses.  Og,  king  of 
Bashan,  was  one  of  the  posterity  of  the  Re- 
phaim, Joshua  xii,  4.  Also  in  the  time  of 
Joshua  there  were  some  of  their  descendants 
in  the  land  of  Canaan,  Joshua  xvii,  15.  Lastly, 
53 


we  hear  of  them  still  in  David's  time,  in  the 
city  of  Gath,  1  Chron.  xx,  4-6.  The  gianta 
Goliah,  Sippai,  Lahmi,  and  others,  were  some 
remains  of  the  Rephaim  ;  their  magnitude  and 
strength  are  known  from  Scripture.  See 
Giants. 

REPHIDIM,  a  station  or  encampment  ot 
the  Israelites,  Exod.  xvii,  1.  At  this  station, 
adjoining  to  Mount  Horeb,  the  people  again 
murmured  for  want  of  water ;  and  they  chid 
Moses,  saying,  "  Give  us  water  that  we  may 
drink."  And  "they  tempted  the  Lord,  say- 
ing, Is  the  Lord  among  us  or  not?"  Moses, 
therefore,  to  convince  them  that  he  was,  by 
a  more  obvious  miracle  than  at  Marah,  smote 
the  rock  with  his  rod,  by  the  divine  command, 
and  brought  water  out  of  it  for  the  people  to 
drink :  wherefore,  he  called  the  place  Meri- 
bah,  "chiding,"  and  the  rock  Massah,  "tempt- 
ation." On  their  way  to  Rephidim,  the 
Amalekites,  the  original  inhabitants  of  the 
country,  who  are  noticed  in  Abraham's  days, 
Gen.  xiv,  7,  not  having  the  fear  of  God  before 
their  eyes,  nor  regarding  the  judgments  re- 
cently inflicted  on  the  Egyptians,  attacked 
the  rear  of  the  Israelites  when  they  were  faint 
and  weary ;  but  were  defeated  by  a  chosen 
party,  under  the  command  of  Joshua,  the  faith- 
ful lieutenant  of  Moses,  who  is  first  noticed 
on  this  occasion,  and  even  then  pointed  out 
by  the  Lord  as  his  successor.  This  victory 
was  miraculous ;  for  while  Moses  held  up  his 
hand  Israel  prevailed,  but  when  he  let  it  down 
Amalek  prevailed.  So  Aaron  and  Hur  (the 
husband  of  Miriam,  according  to  Josephus) 
held  up  both  his  hands  steadily  till  sunset,  and 
thereby  gave  a  decided  victory  to  Israel.  This 
unprovoked  aggression  of  the  Amalekites  drew 
down  upon  them  from  the  Lord  the  sentence 
of  "  war  from  generation  to  generation,"  be- 
tween them  and  the  Israelites,  and  of  final 
extermination,  which  wad  commanded  to  be 
written  or  registered  in  a  book,  for  a  memorial 
to  Joshua  and  his  successors,  the  judges  and 
kings  of  Israel,  and  was  carried  into  execution 
by  Saul,  1  Sam.  xv,  8,  by  David,  1  Sam.  xxx, 
17,  and  finally  accomplished  by  the  Simeonites 
in  Hezekiah's  reign,  Exod.  xvii,  8-13 ;  Deut. 
xxv,  17  ;  1  Chron.  iv,  43.  While  the  Israelites 
were  encamped  at  Rephidim,  on  the  western 
side  of  Horeb,  the  mount  of  God,  Jethro,  the 
father-in-law  of  Moses,  who  lived  in  that 
neighbourhood,  and  was  priest  and  prince  of 
Midian,  came  to  visit  him,  with  his  wife  Zip- 
porah,  and  his  two  sons,  Eleazar  and  Gershom, 
who  had  accompanied  him  part  of  the  way  to 
Egypt,  but  returned  home  again  ;  and  they 
rejoiced  with  him  "  for  all  the  goodness  which 
the  Lord  had  done  for  Israel,  whom  he  had 
delivered  out  of  the  hand  of  the  Egyptians  ;" 
and  upon  this  occasion,  Jethro,  as  "  a  priest 
of  the  most  high  God,"  of  the  order  of  Mel- 
chizedek,  "  offered  a  burnt. ottering  and  sacri- 
fices of  thanksgiving  to  God,  at  which  Aaron 
and  all  the  elders  of  Israel  ate  bread  with 
Jethro  before  God,"  by  a  repetition  of  the 
eucharistic  feast  upon  a  sacrifice  which  Mel- 
chizedek  formerlv  administered  to  Abraham, 
Gen.  xiv,  18;  Exod.  xviii,  1-12.      Thus  was 


REP 


818 


REP 


fulfilled  the  prophetic  sign  which  the  Lord 
had  given  to  Moses  when  he  first  appeared  to 
him  in  the  burning  bush  :  "  This  shall  be  a 
token  unto  thee  that  I  have  sent  thee  :  when 
thou  hast  brought  forth  the  people  out  of 
Egypt,  ye  shall  serve  God  upon  this  moun- 
tain," Exod.  iii,  12.  The  speedy  accomplish- 
ment, therefore,  of  this  sign,  at  the  beginning 
of  their  journey,  was  well  calculated  to 
strengthen  their  faith  or  reliance  on  the  di- 
vine protection  throughout.  Jethro  appears 
to  have  been  distinguished  not  only  for  his 
piety,  but  also  for  his  political  wisdom.  By 
his  advice,  which  also  was  approved  by  the 
Lord,  Moses,  to  relieve  himself  from  the 
fatigue  of  administering  justice  to  the  people, 
the  whole  day,  from  morning  until  evening, 
instituted  inferior  judges  or  magistrates  over 
thousands,  hundreds,  fifties,  and  tens,  as  his 
deputies,  who  were  to  relieve  him  from  the 
burden  of  judging  the  smaller  causes,  but  to 
refer  the  greater  or  more  difficult  to  Moses, 
for  his  decision. 

REPROBATION  is  equivalent  to  rejection. 
Rejection  always  implies  a  cause  :  "  Reprobate 
silver  shall  men  call  them,  insomuch  that  the 
Lord  hath  rejected  them,"  Jer.  vi,  30 ;  that  is, 
they  are  base  metal,  which  will  not  bear  the 
proof.  Conditional  reprobation,  or  rejecting 
men  from  the  divine  mercy,  because  of  their 
impenitence  or  refusal  of  salvation,  is  a  Scrip- 
tural doctrine  ;  but  to  the  unconditional,  abso- 
lute reprobation  of  the  rigid  Calvinists,  the 
following  objections  may  be  urged  : — 

1.  It  cannot  be  reconciled  to  the  love  of 
God.  "  God  is  love."  "  He  is  loving  to  every 
man,  and  his  tender  mercies  are  over  all  his 
works." 

2.  Nor  to  the  wisdom  of  God  ;  for  the  bring- 
ing into  being  a  vast  number  of  intelligent 
creatures  under  a  necessity  of  sinning,  and  of 
being  eternally  lost,  teaches  no  moral  lesson 
to  the  world  ;  and  contradicts  all  those  notions 
of  wisdom  in  the  ends  and  processes  of  gov- 
ernment, which  we  are  taught  to  look  for, 
not  only  from  natural  reason,  but  from  the 
Scriptures. 

3.  Nor  to  the  grace  of  God,  which  is  so 
often  magnified  in  the  Scriptures;  for  doth  it 
argue  any  sovereign  or  high  strain,  any  super- 
abounding  richness  of  grace  or  mercy  in  any 
man,  when  ten  thousand  have  equally  offended 
him,  only  to  pardon  one  or  two  of  them  ?  Or 
in  what  sense  has  "  the  grace  of  God  appeared 
unto  all  men,"  or  even  to  one-millionth  part 
of  them? 

4.  Nor  can  this  merciless  reprobation  be 
reconciled  to  any  of  those  numerous  passages 
in  which  almighty  God  is  represented  as  ten- 
derly compassionate  and  pitiful  to  the  worst 
and  most  unworthy  of  his  creatures,  even  them 
who  finally  perish.  "  I  have  no  pleasure  in 
the  death  of  him  that  dieth."  "  Being  grieved 
at  the  hardness  of  their  hearts."  li  How  often 
would  I  have  gathered  thy  children  together, 
as  a  hen  gathereth  her  chickens  under  her 
wings,  and  yc  would  not!"  "The  Lord  is 
long-suffering  to  us-ward,  not  willing  that  any 
should  perish."    "  Or  despisest  thou  the  riches 


of  his  goodness,  and  forbearance,  and  long- 
suffering;  not  knowing  that  the  goodness  of 
God  leadeth  thee  to  repentance?" 

5.  It  is  as  manifestly  contrary  to  his  justice. 
Here,  indeed,  we  would  not  assume  to  measure 
this  attribute  of  God  by  unauthorized  human 
conceptions ;  but  when  God  himself  has  ap- 
pealed to  those  established  notions  of  justice 
and  equity  which  have  been  received  among 
all  enlightened  persons,  in  all  ages,  as  the 
measure  and  rule  of  his  own,  we  cannot  be 
charged  witli  this  presumption.  "  Shall  not 
the  Judge  of  all  the  earth  do  right  ?"  "  Are 
not  my  ways  equal  ?  saith  the  Lord."  We  may 
then  be  bold  to  affirm  that  justice  and  equity 
in  God  are  what  they  are  taken  to  be  among 
reasonable  men  ;  and  if  all  men  every  where 
would  condemn  it,  as  most  contrary  to  justice 
and  right,  that  a  sovereign  should  condemn  to 
death  one  or  more  of  his  subjects  for  not  obey- 
ing laws  which  it  is  absolutely  impossible  for 
them,  under  any  circumstances  which  the}' 
can  possibly  avail  themselves  of,  to  obey,  and 
much  more  the  greater  part  of  his  subjects ; 
and  to  require  them,  on  pain  of  aggravated 
punishment,  to  do  something  in  order  to  the 
pardon  and  remission  of  their  offences,  which 
he  knows  they  cannot  do,  say  to  stop  the  tide 
or  to  remove  a  mountain  ;  it  implies  a  charge 
as  obviously  unjust  against  God,  who  is  "just 
in  the  judgments  which  he  executeth,"  to  sup- 
pose him  to  act  precisely  in  the  same  manner 
in  regard  to  those  whom  he  has  passed  by  and 
rejected,  without  any  avoidable  fault  of  their 
own ;  to  destroy  them  by  the  simple  rule  of 
his  own  sovereignty,  or,  in  other  words,  to 
show  that  he  has  power  to  do  it.  In  whatever 
light  the  subject  be  viewed,  no  fault,  in  any 
right  construction,  can  be  chargeable  upon  the 
persons  so  punished,  or,  as  we  may  rather  say, 
destroyed,  since  punishment  supposes  a  judicial 
proceeding,  which  this  act  shuts  out.  For 
either  the  reprobates  are  destroyed  for  a  pure 
reason  of  sovereignty  without  any  reference  to 
their  sinfulness,  and  thus  all  criminality  is  left 
out  of  the  consideration  ;  or  they  are  destroyed 
for  the  sin  of  Adam,  to  which  they  were  not 
consenting ;  or  for  personal  faults  resulting 
from  a  corruption  of  nature  which  they  brought 
into  the  world  with  them,  and  which  God  wills 
not  to  correct,  and  which  they  have  no  power 
to  correct  themselves.  Every  received  notion 
of  justice  is  thus  violated.  We  grant,  indeed, 
that  some  proceedings  of  the  Almighty  may 
appear  at  first  irreconcilable  with  justice,  which 
are  not  so ;  as  that  we  should  suffer  pain  and 
death,  and  be  infected  with  a  morally  corrupt 
nature,  in  consequence  of  the  transgression  of 
our  first  progenitors ;  that  children  should 
suffer  for  their  parents'  faults  in  the  ordinary 
course  of  providence ;  and  that  in  general 
calamities  the  comparatively  innocent  should 
suffer  the  same  evils  as  the  guilty.  But  none 
of  these  are  parallel  cases.  For  the  "  free 
gift"  has  come  upon  all  men,  "  to  justification 
of  life,"  through  "the  righteousness"  of  the 
second  Adam,  so  that  the  terms  of  our  proba- 
tion are  but  changed.  None  are  doomed  to 
inevitable  ruin,    or  the  above   words   of  the 


REP 


819 


REP 


Apostle  would  have  no  meaning;  and  pain 
and  death,  as  to  all  who  avail  themselves  of 
the  remedy,  are  made  the  instruments  of  a 
higher  life,  and  of  a  superabounding  of  grace 
through  Christ.  The  same  observation  may 
be  made  as  to  children  who  suffer  evils  for 
their  parents'  faults.  This  circumstance  alters 
the  terms  of  their  probation  ;  but  if  every  con- 
dition of  probation  leaves  to  men  the  possi- 
bility and  the  hope  of  eternal  life,  and  the 
circumstances  of  all  are  balanced  and  weighed 
by  Him  who  administers  the  affairs  of  indi- 
viduals on  principles,  the  end  of  which  is  to 
turn  all  the  evils  of  life  into  spiritual  and 
higher  blessings,  there  is,  obviously,  no  im- 
peachment of  justice  in  the  circumstances  of 
the  probation  assigned  to  any  person  whatever. 
As  to  the  innocent  suffering  equally  with  the 
guilty  in  general  calamities,  the  persons  so 
suffering  are  but  comparatively  innocent,  and 
their  personal  transgressions  against  God  de- 
serve a  higher  punishment  than  any  which 
this  life  witnesses ;  this  may  also  as  to  them 
be  overruled  for  merciful  purposes,  and  a 
future  life  presents  its  manifold  compensations. 
But  as  to  the  non-elect,  the  whole  case,  in  this 
scheme  of  sovereign  reprobation,  or  sovereign 
preterition,  is  supposed  to  be  before  us.  Their 
state  is  fixed,  their  afflictions  in  this  life  will 
not  in  any  instance  be  overruled  for  ends 
of  edification  and  salvation ;  they  are  left 
under  a  necessity  of  sinning  in  every  condi- 
tion ;  and  a  future  life  presents  no  compensa- 
tion, but  a  fearful  looking  for  of  fiery  and 
quenchless  indignation.  It  is  surely  not  pos- 
sible for  the  ingenuity  of  man  to  reconcile  this 
to  any  notion  of  just  government  which  has 
ever  obtained ;  and  by  the  established  notions 
of  justice  and  equity  in  human  affairs,  we  are 
taught  by  the  Scriptures  themselves  to  judge 
of  the  divine  proceedings  in  all  completely 
stated  and  comprehensible  cases. 

6.  Equally  impossible  is  it  to  reconcile  this 
notion  to  the  sincerity  of  God  in  offering  sal- 
vation by  Christ  to  all  who  hear  the  Gospel, 
of  whom  this  scheme  supposes  the  majority, 
or  at  least  great  numbers  to  be  among  the  re- 
probate. The  Gospel,  as  we  have  seen,  is 
commanded  to  be  preached  to  every  creature ; 
which  publication  of  good  news  to  every  crea- 
ture is  an  offer  of  salvation  to  every  creature, 
accompanied  with  earnest  invitations  to  em- 
brace it,  and  admonitory  comminations  lest 
any  should  neglect  and  despise  it.  But  does 
it  not  involve  a  serious  reflection  upon  the 
truth  and  sincerity  of  God  which  men  ought 
to  shudder  at,  to  assume,  fiat  at  the  very  time 
the  Gospel  is  thus  preached,  no  part  of  this 
good  news  was  ever  designed  to  benefit  the 
majority,  or  any  great  part,  of  those  to  whom 
it  is  addressed  ?  that  they  to  whom  this  love 
of  God  in  Christ  is  proclaimed  were  never 
loved  by  God  ?  that  he  has  decreed  that  many 
to  whom  he  offers  salvation,  and  whom  he  in- 
vites to  receive  it,  shall  never  be  saved  ?  and 
that  he  will  consider  their  sins  aggravated  by 
rejecting  that  which  they  never  could  receive, 
and  which  he  never  designed  them  to  receive  ? 
It  is  no  answer  to  this  to  say  that  we  also 


admit  that  the  offers  of  mercy  are  made  by 
God  to  many  whom  he,  by  virtue  of  his  pre- 
science, knows  will  never  receive  them.  We 
grant  this;  but  it  is  enough  to  reply,  that  in 
this  case  there  is  no  insincerity.  On  the  Cal- 
vinian  scheme  the  offer  of  salvation  is  made 
to  those  for  whose  sins  Christ  made  no  atone- 
ment ;  on  the  other,  he  made  atonement  for 
the  sins  of  all.  On  the  former,  the  offer  is 
made  to  those  whom  God  never  designed  to 
embrace  it ;  on  the  latter  to  none  but  those 
whom  God  seriously  and  in  truth  wills  that 
they  should  avail  themselves  of  it ;  on  one 
theory,  the  bar  to  the  salvation  of  the  non- 
elect  lies  in  the  want  of  a  provided  sacrifice  for 
sin  ;  on  the  other,  it  rests  solely  in  men  them- 
selves ;  one  consists,  therefore,  with  a  perfect 
sincerity  of  offer,  the  other  cannot  be  main- 
tained without  bringing  the  sincerity  of  God 
into  question,  and  fixing  a  stigma  upon  his" 
moral  truth. 

7.  Unconditional  reprobation  cannot  be  re 
conciled  with  that  frequent  declaration  of 
Scripture,  that  "  God  is  no  respecter  of  per- 
sons." This  phrase,  we  grant,  is  not  to  be 
interpreted  as  though  the  bounties  of  the  Al- 
mighty were  dispensed  in  equal  measures  to 
his  creatures.  In  the  administration  of  favour, 
there  is  place  for  the  exercise  of  that  preroga- 
tive which,  in  a  just  sense,  is  called  the  sove- 
reignty of  God  ;  but  justice  knows  but  of  one 
rule  ;  it  is,  in  its  nature,  settled  and  fixed,  and 
looks  not  at  the  person,  but  the  case.  To  have 
respect  of  person's  is  a  phrase,  therefore,  in 
Scripture,  which  sometimes  refers  to  judicial 
proceedings,  and  signifies  to  judge  from  par- 
tiality and  affection,  and  not  upon  the  merits 
of  the  question.  It  is  also  used  by  St.  Peter 
with  reference  to  the  acceptance  of  Cornelius  : 
"  Of  a  truth  I  perceive  that  God  is  no  respecter 
of  persons  ;  but  in  every  nation  he  that  feareth 
him,  and  worketh  righteousness,  is  accepted 
with  him."  Here  it  is  clear,  that  to  respect 
persons,  would  be  to  reject  or  accept  them 
without  regard  to  their  moral  qualities,  and  on 
some  national  and  other  prejudice  or  partially 
which  forms  no  moral  rule  of  any  kind.  But, 
if  the  doctrine  of  absolute  election  and  repro- 
bation be  true ;  if  ive  are  to  understand  that 
men  like  Jacob  and  Esau,  in  the  Calvinistic 
construction  of  the  passage,  while  in  the  womb 
of  their  mother,  nay,  from  eternity,  are  loved 
and  hated,  elected  or  reprobated,  before  they 
have  done  "good  or  evil,"  then  it  necessarily 
follows,  that  there  is  precisely  this  kind  of  re- 
spect ot  persons  with  God  ;  for  his  acceptance 
or  rejection  of  men  stands  on  some  ground  of 
aversion  or  dislike,  which  cannot  be  resolved 
into  any  moral  rule,  and  has  no  respect  to  the 
merits  of  the  case  itself;  and  if  the  Scripture 
affirms  that  there  is  no  such  respect  of  persons 
with  God,  then  the  doctrine  which  implies  it 
is  contradicted  by  inspired  authority. 

8.  The  doctrine  of  which  we  are  showing 
the  difficulties,  brings  with  it  the  repulsive  and 
shocking  opinion  of  the  eternal  punishment 
of  infants.  Some  Calvinists  have,  indeed,  to 
get  rid  of  the  difficulty,  or  rather  to  put  it  out 
of  sight,  consigned  them  to  annihilation  ;  buf 


RES 


820 


RES 


of  the  annihilation  of  any  human  being  there 
is  no  intimation  in  the  word  of  God.  In  order, 
therefore,  to  avoid  the  fearful  consequence  of 
admitting  the  punishment  of  beings  innocent 
as  to  all  actual  sin,  there  is  no  other  way  than 
to  suppose  all  children,  dying  in  infancy,  to  be 
an  elected  portion  of  mankind,  which,  how. 
ever,  would  be  a  mere  hypothesis  brought  in 
to  serve  a  theory  without  any  evidence.  That 
some  of  those  who,  as  they  suppose,  are  under 
this  sentence  of  reprobation,  die  in  their  infan- 
cy, is,  probably,  what  most  Calvinists  allow  ; 
and,  if  their  doctrine  be  received,  cannot  be 
denied ;  and  it  follows,  therefore,  that  all  such 
infants  are  eternally  lost.  Now,  we  know 
that  infants  are  not  lost,  because  our  Lord 
gave  it  as  a  reason  why  little  children  ought 
not  to  be  hindered  from  coming  unto  him,  that 
"  of  such  is  the  kingdom  of  heaven."  On 
which  Calvin  himself  remarks,  "  In  this  word, 
'  for  of  such  is  the  kingdom  of  heaven,'  Christ 
comprehends  as  well  little  children  themselves, 
as  those  who  in  disposition  resemble  them. 
Hac  voce,  tarn  parvulos,  quam  eorum  similes, 
comprehendit."  We  are  assured  of  the  salva- 
tion of  infants,  also,  because  "the  free  gift  has 
come  upon  all  men  to,"  in  order  to,  "justifica- 
tion of  life,"  and  because  children  are  not 
capable  of  rejecting  that  blessing,  and  must, 
therefore,  derive  benefit  from  it.  The  point, 
also,  on  which  we  have  just  now  touched,  that 
"there  is  no  respect  of  persons  with  God," 
demonstrates  it.  For,  as  it  will  be  acknow- 
ledged, that  some  children,  dying  in  infancy, 
are  saved,  it  must  follow,  from  this  principle 
and  axiom  in  the  divine  government,  that  all 
infants  are  saved  ;  for  the  case  of  all  infants, 
as  to  innocence  or  guilt,  sin  or  righteousness, 
being  the  same,  and  God  as  a  judge,  being 
"no  respecter  of  persons,"  but  regarding  only 
the  merits  of  the  case,  he  cannot  make  this 
awful  distinction  as  to  them,  that  one  part  shall 
be  eternally  saved  and  the  other  eternally  lost. 
That  doctrine,  therefore,  which  implies  the 
perdition  of  infants,  cannot  be  congruous  to 
the  Scriptures  of  truth,  but  is  utterly  abhorrent 
to  them. 

Finally,  not  to  multiply  these  instances  of 
the  difficulties  which  accompany  the  doctrine 
of  absolute  reprobation,  or  of  pretention,  (to 
use  the  milder  term,  though  the  argument  is 
not  in  the  least  changed  by  it,)  h  destroys  the 
end  of  punitive  justice.  That  end  can  only  be, 
to  deter  men  from  offence,  and  to  adj  strength 
to  the  law  of  God.  But  if  the  whole  body  of 
the  reprobate  are  left  to  the  influence  of  their 
fallen  nature  without  remedy,  they  cannot  be 
deterred  from  sin  by  threats  of  inevitable  pun- 
ishment ;  nor  can  they  ever  submit  to  the 
dominion  of  the  law  of  God:  their  doom  is 
fixed,  and  threats  and  examples  can  avail 
nothing. 

RESTITUTION,  that  act  of  justice  by 
which  we  restore  to  our  neighbour  whatever  we 
have  unjustly  deprived  him  of,  Exod.  xxii,  1 ; 
Luke  xix,  8.  Moralists  observe,  respecting 
restitution,  1.  That  where  it  can  be  made  in 
kind,  or  the  injury  can  be  certainly  valued,  we 
are  to  restore  the  thing  or  the  value.     2.  We 


are  bound  to  restore  the  thing  with  the  natural 
increase  of  it,  that  is,  to  satisfy  for  the  loss 
sustained  in  the  mean  time,  and  the  gain  hin- 
dered. 3.  When  the  thing  cannot  be  restored, 
and  the  value  of  it  is  not  certain,  we  are  to 
give  reasonable  satisfaction,  according  to  a 
liberal  estimation.  4.  We  are  at  least  to  give, 
by  way  of  restitution,  what  the  law  would 
give ;  for  that  is  generally  equal,  and  in  most 
cases  rather  favourable  than  rigorous.  5.  A 
man  is  not  only  bound  to  make  restitution  for 
the  injury  he  did,  but  for  all  that  directly  fol- 
lows upon  the  injurious  act :  for  the  first  in- 
jury being  wilful,  we  are  supposed  to  will  all 
that  which  follows  upon  it. 

RESURRECTION.  The  belief  of  a  gene- 
ral resurrection  of  the  dead,  which  will  come 
to  pass  at  the  end  of  the  world,  and  will  be 
followed  with  an  immortality  either  of  happi- 
ness or  misery,  is  an  article  of  religion  in  com- 
mon to  Jews  and  Christians.  It  is  very  ex- 
pressly taught  both  in  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments, Psalm  xvi,  10  ;  Job  xix,  25,  &c  ;  Ezek. 
xxxvii,  1,  &c ;  Isaiah  xxvi,  19  ;  John  v,  28, 
29  ;  and  to  these  may  be  added,  Wisdom  iii,  1, 
&c;  iv,  15;  2  Mace,  vii,  14,  23,  29,  &c.  At 
the  time  when  our  Saviour  appeared  in  Judea, 
the  resurrection  from  the  dead  was  received  as 
one  of  the  principal  articles  of  the  Jewish  re- 
ligion by  the  whole  body  of  the  nation,  the 
Sadducees  excepted,  Matt,  xxii,  23 ;  Luke  xx, 
28  ;  Mark  xii,  18 ;  John  xi,  23,  24 ;  Acts  xxiii, 
6,  8.  Our  Saviour  arose  himself  from  the  dead, 
to  give  us,  in  his  own  person,  a  proof,  a  pledge, 
and  a  pattern  of  our  future  resurrection.  St. 
Paul,  in  almost  all  his  epistles,  speaks  of  a 
general  resurrection,  refutes  those  who  denied 
or  opposed  it,  and  proves  and  explains  it  by 
several  circumstances,  Rom.  vi,  5 ;  1  Cor.  xv, 
12-15  ;  Phil,  iii,  10,  11 ;  Heb.  xi,  35 ;  1  Thess. 
iv,  13-17,  &c. 

On  this  subject  no  point  of  discussion,  of 
any  importance,  arises  among  those  who  admit 
the  truth  of  Scripture,  except  a6  to  the  way  in 
which  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection  of  the 
body  is  to  be  understood ; — whether  a  resur- 
rection of  the  substance  of  the  body  be  meant, 
or  some  minute  and  indestructible  part  of  it. 
The  latter  theory  has  been  adopted  for  the  sake 
of  avoiding  certain  supposed  difficulties.  It  can- 
not however  fail  to  strike  every  impartial  reader 
of  the  New  Testament,  that  the  doctrine  of  the 
resurrection  is  there  taught  without  any  nice 
distinctions.  It  is  always  exhibited  as  a  miracu- 
lous work;  and  represents  the  same  body  which 
is  laid  in  the  grave  as  the  subject  of  this  change 
from  death  to  life,  by  the  power  of  Christ. 
Thus  our  Lord  was  raised  in  the  same  body  in 
which  he  died,  and  his  resurrection  is  con- 
stantly held  forth  as  the  model  of  ours ;  and 
the  Apostle  Paul  expressly  says,  "  Who  shall 
change  our  vile  hody,  that  it  nray  be  fashioned 
like  unto  his  glorious  body."  The  only  pas- 
sage of  Scripture  which  appears  to  favour  the 
notion  of  the  rising  of  the  immortal  body  from 
some  indestructible  germ,  is  1  Cor.  xv,  35,  &c  : 
"  But  some  men  will  say,  How  are  the  dead 
raised  up,  and  with  what  body  do  they  come  ? 
Thou  fool,    that   which  thou   sowest   is   not 


RES 


821 


RES 


quickened  except  it  die ;  and  that  which  thou 
sowest,  thou  sowest  not  that  body  that  shall 
be,  but  bare  grain,  it  may  chance  of  wheat,  or 
of  some  other  grain,"  &c.  If,  however,  it  had 
been  the  intention  of  the  Apostle,  holding  this 
view  of  the  case,  to  meet  objections  to  the  doc- 
trine of  the  resurrection,  grounded  upon  the 
difficulties  of  conceiving  how  the  same  body, 
in  the  popular  sense,  could  be  raised  up  in  sub- 
stance, we  might  have  expected  him  to  correct 
this  misapprehension  by  declaring,  that  this 
was  not  the  Christian  doctrine ;  but  that  some 
small  parts  of  the  body  only,  bearing  as  littlo 
proportion  to  the  whole  as  the  germ  of  a  seed 
to  the  plant,  would  be  preserved,  and  be  un- 
folded into  the  perfected  body  at  the  resurrec- 
tion. Instead  of  this,  he  goes  on  immediately 
to  remind  the  objector  of  the  differences  which 
exist  between  material  bodies  as  they  now  ex- 
ist ;  between  the  plant  and  the  bare  or  naked 
grain ;  between  one  plant  and  another ;  be- 
tween the  flesh  of  men,  of  beasts,  of  fishes,  and 
of  birds  ;  between  celestial  and  terrestrial  bo- 
dies ;  and  between  the  lesser  and  greater  celes- 
tial luminaries  themselves.  Still  farther  he 
proceeds  to  state  the  difference,  not  between 
the  germ  of  the  body  to  be  raised,  and  the  body 
given  at  the  resurrection ;  but  between  the 
body  itself,  understood  popularly,  which  dies, 
and  the  body  which  shall  be  raised.  "It  is 
sown  in  corruption,  it  is  raised  in  incorrup- 
tion,"  which  would  not  be  true  of  the  supposed 
incorruptible  and  imperishable  germ  of  this  hy- 
pothesis ;  and  can  only  be  affirmed  of  the  body 
itself,  considered  in  substance,  and,  in  its  pre- 
sent state,  corruptible.  Farther:  the  question 
put  by  the  objector, — "  How  are  the  dead 
raised  up  ?"  does  not  refer  to  the  modus  agendi 
of  the  resurrection,  or  the  process  or  manner 
in  which  the  thing  is  to  be  ejected,  as  the  ad- 
vocates of  the  germ  hypothesis  appear  to 
assume.  This  is  manifest  from  the  answer  of 
the  Apostle,  who  goes  on  immediately  to  state, 
not  in  what  manner  the  resurrection  is  to  be 
effected,  but  what  shall  be  the  state  or  condi- 
tion of  the  resurrection  body ;  which  is  no  an- 
swer at  all  to  the  question,  if  it  be  taken  in 
that  sense. 

Thus,  in  the  argument,  the  Apostle  confines 
himself  wholly  to  the  possibility  of  the  resur- 
rection of  the  body  in  a  refined  and  glorified 
state ;  but  omits  all  reference  to  the  mode  in 
which  the  thing  will  be  effected,  as  being  out 
of  the  line  of  the  objector's  questions,  and  in 
itself  above  human  thought,  and  wholly  mi- 
raculous. It  is,  however,  clear,  that  when  he 
speaks  of  the  body,  as  the  subject  of  this 
wondrous  "  change,"  he  speaks  of  it  popularly, 
as  the  same  body  in  substance,  whatever 
changes  in  its  qualities  or  figure  may  be  im- 
pressed upon  it.  Great  general  changes  it  will 
experience,  as  from  corruption  to  incorruption, 
from  mortality  to  immortality  ;  great  changes  of 
a  particular  kind  will  also  take  place,  as  its 
being  freed  from  deformities  and  defects,  and 
the  accidental  varieties  produced  by  climate, 
aliments,  labour,  and  hereditary  diseases.  It 
is  also  laid  down  by  our  Lord,  that  "in  the 
resurrection  they  shall  neither  marry  nor  be 


given  in  marriage,  but  be  like  to  the  angels  of 
God ;"  and  this  also  implies  a  certain  change 
of  structure ;  and  we  may  gather  from  the 
declaration  of  the  Apostle,  that  though  "the 
stomach"  is  now  adapted  "  to  meats,  and  meats 
to  the  stomach,"  yet  God  will  "destroy  both  it 
and  them ;"  that  the  animal  appetite  for  food 
will  be  removed,  and  the  organ  now  adapted 
to  that  appetite  will  have  no  place  in  the 
renewed  frame.  But  great  as  these  changes 
are,  the  human  form  will  be  retained  in  its 
perfection,  after  the  model  of  our  Lord's  "  glo- 
rious body,"  and  the  substance  of  the  matter 
of  which  it  is  composed  will  not  thereby  be 
affected.  That  the  same  body  which  was  laid 
in  the  grave  shall  arise  out  of  it,  is  the  mani- 
fest doctrine  of  the  Scriptures.  The  notion  of 
an  incorruptible  germ,  or  that  of  an  original 
and  unchangeable  stamen,  out  of  which  a  new 
and  glorious  body,  at  the  resurrection,  is  to 
spring,  appears  to  have  been  borrowed  from 
the  speculations  of  some  of  the  Jewish  rabbins. 
But  if  by  this  hypothesis  it  was  designed  to 
remove  the  difficulty  of  conceiving  how  the 
scattered  parts  of  one  body  could  be  preserved 
from  becoming  integral  parts  of  other  bodies, 
it  supposes  that  the  constant  care  of  Providence 
is  exerted  to  maintain  the  incorruptibility  of 
those  individual  germs,  or  stamina,  so  as  to 
prevent  their  assimilation  with  each  other. 
Now.  if  they  have  this  by  original  quality, 
then  the  same  quality  may  just  as  easily  be 
supposed  to  appertain  to  every  particle  which 
composes  a  human  body  ;  so  that,  though  it  be 
used  for  food,  it  shall  not  be  capable  of  assimi- 
lation, in  any  circumstances,  with  another 
human  body.  But  if  these  germs,  or  stamina, 
have  not  this  quality  by  their  original  nature, 
they  can  only  be  prevented  from  assimilating 
with  each  other  by  that  operation  of  God  which 
is  present  to  all  his  works,  and  which  must 
always  be  directed  to  secure  the  execution  of 
his  own  ultimate  designs.  If  this  view  be 
adopted,  then,  if  the  resort  must  at  last  be  to 
the  superintendence  of  a  Being  of  infinite 
power  and  wisdom,  there  is  no  greater  difficulty 
in  supposing  that  his  care  to  secure  this  object 
may  extend  to  a  million  as  easily  as  to  a  hun- 
dred particles  of  matter.  This  is,  in  fact,  the 
true  and  rational  answer  to  the  objection  that 
the  same  piece  of  matter  may  happen  to  be  a 
part  of  two  or  more  bodies,  as  in  the  instances 
of  men  feeding  upon  animals  which  have  fed 
upon  men,  and  of  men  feeding  upon  one 
another.  The  question  here  is  one  which 
simply  respects  the  frustrating  a  final  purpose 
of  the  Almighty  by  an  operation  of  nature. 
To  suppose  that  he  cannot  prevent  this,  is  to 
deny  his  power ;  to  suppose  him  inattentive  to 
it,  is  to  suppose  him  indifferent  to  his  own 
designs ;  and  to  assume  that  he  employs  care 
to  prevent  it,  is  to  assume  nothing  greater, 
nothing  in  fact  so  great,  as  many  instances  of 
control,  which  are  always  occurring ;  as,  for 
instance,  the  regulation  of  the  proportion  of 
the  sexes  in  human  births,  which  cannot  be 
attributed  to  chance,  but  must  either  be  referred 
to  superintendence,  or  to  some  original  law. 
Another  objection  to  the  resurrection  of  the 


RES 


822 


REU 


i>ody  haB  been  drawn  from  the  changes  of  its 
substance  during  life  ;  the  answer  to  which  is, 
that,  allowing  a  frequent  and  total  change  of 
the  substance  of  the  body  (which,  however,  is 
but  an  hypothesis)  to  take  place,  it  affects  not  the 
doctrine  of  Scripture,  which  is,  that  the  body 
which  is  laid  in  the  grave  shall  be  raised  up. 
But  then,  we  are  told,  that  if  our  bodies  have  in 
fact  undergone  successive  changes  during  life, 
the  bodies  in  which  we  have  sinned  or  performed 
rewardablc  actions  may  not  be,  in  many  in- 
stances, the  same  bodies  as  those  which  will 
be  actually  rewarded  or  punished.  We  answer, 
that  rewards  and  punishments  have  their  re- 
lation to  the  body,  not  so  much  as  it  is  the 
subject  but  as  it  is  the  instrument  of  reward 
and  punishment.  It  is  the  soul  only  which 
perceives  pain  or  pleasure,  which  suffers  or 
enjoys,  and  is,  therefore,  the  only  rewardable 
subject.  Were  we,  therefore,  to  admit  such 
corporeal  mutations  as  are  assumed  in  this 
■objection,  they  affect  not  the  case  of  our  ac- 
countability. The  personal  identity  or  same- 
ness of  a  rational  being,  as  Mr.  Locke  has 
observed,  consists  in  self-consciousness  :  "  By 
this  every  one  is  to  himself  what  he  calls  self, 
without  considering  whether  that  self  be  con- 
tinued in  the  same  or  divers  substances.  It 
was  by  the  same  self  which  reflects  on  an 
action  done  many  years  ago,  that  the  action 
was  performed."  If  there  were  indeed  any 
weight  in  this  objection,  it  would  affect  the 
proceedings  of  human  criminal  courts  in  all 
cases  of  offences  committed  at  some  distance 
of  time  ;  but  it  contradicts  the  common  sense, 
because  it  contradicts  the  common  conscious- 
ness and  experience,  of  mankind. 

Our  Lord  has  assured  us,  that  "the  hour  is 
coming  in  which  all  that  are  in  their  graves 
shall  hear  his  voice,  and  come  forth  ;  they  that 
have  done  good,  unto  the  resurrection  of  life, 
and  they  that  have  done  evil,  unto  the  resur- 
rection of  damnation."  Then  we  shall  "all  be 
changed,  in  a  moment,  in  the  twinkling  of  an 
eye,  at  the  last  trump,"  and  "  the  dead  shall  be 
raised  incorruptible  "  It  is  probable  that  the 
bodies  of  the  righteous  and  the  wicked,  though 
each  shall  in  some  respects  be  the  same  as 
before,  will  each  be  in  other  respects  not  the 
same,  but  undergo  some  change  conformable 
to  the  character  of  the  individual,  and  suited 
to  his  future  state  of  existence ;  yet  both,  as 
the  passage  just  quoted  clearly  teaches,  are 
then  rendered  indestruct'ble.  Respecting  the 
good  it  is  said,  "  When  Christ,  who  is  our  life, 
shall  appear,  we  shall  appear  with  him  in 
glory,"  "  we  shall  be  like  him  ;  our  body  shall 
be  fashioned  like  his  glorious  body  ;"  yet,  not- 
withstanding this,  "  it  doth  not  yet  fully  appear 
what  we  shall  be,"  Col.  iii,  4 ;  1  John  iii,  2 ; 
Phil,  iii,  21.  This  has  a  very  obvious  reason. 
,Our  present  manner  of  knowing  depends  upon 
our  present  constitution,  and  we  know  not  the 
exact  relation  which  subsists  between  this  con- 
stitution and  the  manner  of  being  in  a  future 
world ;  we  derive  our  ideas  through  the  me- 
dium of  the  senses;  the  senses  are  necessarily 
conversant  with  terrestrial  objects  only ;  our 
language  is  suited  to  the  communication  of 


present  ideas ;  and  thus  it  follows  that  the  ob- 
jects of  the  future  world  may  in  some  respects 
(whether  few  or  many  we  cannot  say)  differ 
so  extremely  from  terrestrial  objects,  that  lan- 
guage cannot  communicate  to  us  any  such 
ideas  as  would  render  those  matters  compre- 
hensible. But  language  may  suggest  striking 
and  pleasing  analogies ;  and  with  such  we  are 
presented  by  the  holy  Apostle:  "All  flesh," 
says  he,  "  is  not  the  same  flesh :  but  there  is 
one  flesh  of  men,  another  of  beasts,  another 
of  fishes,  and  another  of  birds ;"  and  yet 
all  these  are  fashioned  out  of  the  same 
kind  of  substance,  mere  inert  matter,  till 
God  gives  it  life  and  activity.  It  is  sown 
an  animal  body ;  a  body  which  previously 
existed  with  all  the  organs,  faculties,  and  pro 
pensities,  requisite  to  procure,  receive,  and 
appropriate  nutriment,  as  well  as  to  perpetuate 
the  species;  but  it  shall  be  raised  a  spiritual 
body,  refined  from  the  dregs  of  matter,  freed 
from  the  organs  and  senses  required  only  in 
its  former  state,  and  probably  possessing  the 
remaining  senses  in  greater  perfection,  together 
with  new  and  more  exquisite  faculties,  fitted 
for  the  exalted  state  of  existence  and  enjoy- 
ment to  which  it  is  now  rising.  In  the  present 
state  the  organs  and  senses  appointed  to  trans- 
mit the  impressions  of  objects  to  the  mind, 
have  a  manifest  relation  to  the  respective 
objects :  the  eye  and  seeing,  for  example,  to 
light ;  the  ear  and  hearing,  to  sound.  In  the 
:efined  and  glorious  state  of  existence  to  which 
good  men  are  tending,  where  the  objects  which 
solicit  attention  will  be  infinitely  more  nu- 
merous, interesting,  and  delightful,  may  not 
the  new  organs,  faculties,  and  senses,  be  pro- 
portionally refined,  acute,  susceptible,  or  pene- 
trating ?  Human  industry  and  invention  have 
placed  us,  in  a  manner,  in  new  worlds ;  what, 
then,  may  not  a  spiritual  body,  with  sharpened 
faculties,  and  the  grandest  possible  objects  of 
contemplation,  effect  in  the  celestial  regions 
to  which  Christians  are  invited  ?  There  the 
senses  will  no  longer  degrade  the  affections, 
the  imagination  no  longer  corrupt  the  heart ; 
the  magnificent  scenery  thrown  open  to  view 
will  animate  the  attention,  give  a  glow  and 
vigour  to  the  sentiments  ;  that  roused  attention 
will  never  tire ;  those  glowing  sentiments  will 
never  cloy ;  but  the,  man,  now  constituted  of 
an  indestructible  body,  as  well  as  of  an  immor- 
tal soul,  may  visit  in  eternal  succession  the 
streets  of  the  celestial  city,  may  "drink  of  the 
pure  river  of  the  water  of  life,  clear  as  crystal, 
proceeding  out  of  the  throne  of  God,  and  of 
the  Lamb  ;"  and  dwell  for  ever  in  those  abodes 
of  harmony  and  peace,  which,  though  "  eye 
hath  not  seen,  nor  ear  heard,  nor  has  it  entered 
into  the  imagination  of  man  to  conceive,"  we 
are  assured  "God  hath  prepared  for  them  that 
love  him,"  1  Cor.  ii,  9. 

REUBEN,  Tribe  of.  This  tribe,  having 
much  cattle,  solicited  and  obtained  from  Mo- 
ses possessions  east  of  the  Jordan  ;  by  which 
river  it  was  separated  from  the  main  body  of 
Israel :  it  was,  in  consequence,  exposed  to 
various  inroads  and  oppressions  from  which 
the  western  tribes  were  free  ;  and  it  was  amon§ 


RIV 


823 


ROD 


the  first  carried  into  captivity  by  Tiglath  pile- 
ser,  1  Chron.  v,  26. 

REVELATION,   or   APOCALYPSIS,   is 

the  name   given  to  a  canonical  book  of  the 
New  Testament.     See  Apocalypse. 

RHODES,  an  island  lying  south  of  the  pro- 
vince of  Caria,  in  Lesser  Asia,  and,  among 
the  Asiatic  islands,  is  accounted  for  dignity 
next  to  Cyprus  and  Lesbos.  It  is  pleasant  and 
healthful,  and  was  anciently  celebrated  for  the 
skill  of  its  inhabitants  in  navigation,  but  most, 
for  its  prodigious  statue  of  brass  consecrated 
to  the  sun,  and  called  the  Colossus.  This 
statue  was  seventy  cubits  high,  and  bestrode 
the  mouth  of  the  harbour,  go  that  ships  could 
sail  between  its  legs,  and  it  was  accounted  one 
of  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world.  St.  Paul, 
on  his  way  to  Jerusalem,  A.  D.  58,  went  from 
Miletus  to  Coos,  from  Coos  to  Rhodes,  and 
from  thence  to  Patara,  in  Lycia,  Acts  xxi,  1. 

RIGHTEOUSNESS,  justice,  holiness. 
The  righteousness  of  God  is  the  essential  per- 
fection of  his  nature ;  sometimes  it  is  put  for 
his  justice.  The  righteousness  of  Christ  de- 
notes, not  only  his  absolute  perfection,  but,  is 
taken  for  his  perfect  obedience  unto  death, 
and  his  suffering  the  penalty  of  the  law  in  our 
stead.  The  righteousness  of  the  law  is  that 
obedience  which  the  law  requires.  The  right- 
eousness of  faith  is  the  justification  which  is 
received  by  faith. 

RIMMON.     See  Naaman. 

RINGS.  The  antiquity  of  rings  appears 
from  Scripture  and  from  profane  authors. 
Judah  left  his  ring  with  Tamar,  Gen.  xxxviii, 
18.  When.  Pharaoh  committed  the  govern- 
ment of  Egypt  to  Joseph,  he  took  his  ring 
from  his  finger  and  gave  it  to  Joseph,  Gen. 
xli,  42.  After  the  victory  of  the  Israelites 
over  the  Midianites,  they  offered  to  the  Lord 
the  rings,  the  bracelets,  and  the  golden  neck- 
laces, taken  from  the  enemy,  Num.  xxxi,  50. 
The  Israelitish  women  wore  rings,  not  only 
on  their  fingers,  but  also  in  their  nostrils  and 
their  ears.  St.  James  distinguishes  a  man  of 
wealth  and  dignity  by  the  ring  of  gold  on  his 
finger,  James  ii,  2.  At  the  return  of  the 
prodigal  son,  his  father  orders  him  to  be  dress- 
ed in  a  new  suit  of  clothes,  and  to  have  a  ring 
put  on  his  finger,  Luke  xv,  22.  "When  God 
threatened  Jeconiah  with  the  utmost  effects  of 
his  anger,  he  tells  him,  that  though  he  were 
the  signet  or  ring  on  his  finger,  yet  he  should 
be  torn  off,  Jer.  xxii,  24.  The  ring  was  used 
chiefly  to  seal  with,  and  Scripture  generally 
assigns  it  to  princes  and  great  persons ;  as  the 
king  of  Egypt,  Joseph,  Ahaz,  Jezebel,  King 
Ahasuerus,  his  favourite  Haman,  Mordecai, 
King  Darius,  1  Kings  xxi,  8 ;  Esther  iii,  10, 
&c  ;  Dan.  vi,  17.  The  patents  and  orders  of 
these  princes  were  sealed  with  their  rings  or 
signets,  an  impression  from  which  was  their 
confirmation.  The  ring  was  one  mark  of 
sovereign  authority.  Pharaoh  gave  his  ring 
to  Joseph,  as  a  token  of  authority.  When 
Alexander  the  Great  gave  his  ring  to  Perdic- 
cas,  this  was  understood  as  nominating  him 
his  successor. 

RIVER.     The  Hebrews  give  the  name  of 


"  the  river,"  without  any  addition,  sometimes 
to  the  Nile,  sometimes  to  the  Euphrates,  and 
sometimes  to  Jordan.  It  is  the  tenor  of  the 
discourse  that  must  determine  the  sense  of 
this  vague  and  uncertain  way  of  speaking. 
They  give  also  the  name  of  river  to  brooks 
and  rivulets  that  are  not  considerable.  The 
name  of  river  is  sometimes  given  to  the  sea, 
Hab.  iii,  8;  Psalm  lxxviii,  16.  It  is  also  used 
as  a  symbol  for  plenty,  Job  xxix,  6 ;  Psalm 
xxxvi,  8. 

ROCK.  Palestine,  being  a  mountainous 
country,  had  also  many  rocks,  which  formed 
a  part  of  the  country's  defence ;  for  in  time  of 
danger  the  people"  retired  to  them,  and  found 
a  refuge  against  any  sudden  irruption  of  the 
enemy.  The  Benjamites  took  shelter  in  the 
rock  Rimmon,  Judges  xx,  47.  Samson  kept 
garrison  in  the  rock  of  Etham,  Judges  xv,  8. 
David  found  shelter  in  the  rocks  of  Maon, 
Engedi,  &c,  1  Sam.  xxii,  1 ;  xxiii,  25,  28 ; 
xxiv,  2-5.  Jerom  says  that  the  southern  parts 
of  Judea  were  full  of  caves  under  ground,  and 
of  caverns  in  the  mountains,  to  which  the 
people  retired  in  time  of  danger.  The  Ken- 
ites  dwelt  in  the  hollow  places  of  the  rocks, 
Num.  xxiv,  21.  Even  at  this  day  the  villages  of 
this  country  are  subterraneous,  or  in  the  rocks. 
Josephus  in  several  places  speaks  of  hollow 
rocks,  where  thieves  and  robbers  had  their 
haunts ;  and  travellers  still  find  a  great  num- 
ber of  them  in  Palestine,  and  in  the  adjoining 
provinces.  Toward  Lebanon,  the  mountains 
are  high,  but  covered  in  many  places  with  as 
much  earth  as  fits  them  for  cultivation.  Among 
the  crags  of  the  rocks,  the  beautiful  and  far- 
famed  cedar  waves  its  lofty  top,  and  extends 
its  powerful  arms,  surrounded  by  the  fir  and 
the  oak,  the  fig  and  the  vine.  On  the  road  to 
Jerusalem,  the  mountains  are  not  so  lofty  nor 
so  rugged,  but  become  fitter  for  tillage.  They 
rise  again  to  the  south-east  of  Mpunt  Carmel ; 
are  covered  with  woods,  and  afford  very  pic- 
turesque views ;  but  advancing  toward  Judea, 
they  lose  their  verdure,  the  valleys  become 
narrow,  dry,  and  stony,  and  terminate  at  the 
Dead  Sea  in  a  pile  pf  desolate  rocks,  precipices, 
and  caverns.  These  vast  excavations,  some 
of  which  will  contain  fifteen  hundred  men, 
are  the  grottoes  of  Engedi,  which  have  been 
a  refuge  to  the  oppressed  or  the  discontented 
in  all  ages.  Westward  of  Jordan  and  the  lake 
Asphaltites,  another  chain  of  rocks,  still 
loftier  and  more  rugged,  presents  a  yet  more 
gloomy  aspect,  and  announces  the  distant  en- 
trance of  the  desert,  and  the  termination  of 
the  habitable  regions. 

The  name  of  rock  is  also  given  to  God,  by 
way  of  metaphor,  because  God  is  the  strength, 
the  refuge,  and  defence  of  Israel,  as  those 
places  were  to  the  people  who  resided  among 
them,  Psalm  xviii,  2,  31 ;  xxxi,  2,  3 ;  Deut. 
xxxii,  15,  18,  30,  31  ;  Psalm  lxi,  2,  &c. 

ROD.  This  word  is  used  sometimes  for  the 
branches  of  a  tree  :  "  And  Jacob  took  him 
rods  of  green  poplar,  and  of  the  hazel  and 
chesnut  tree,"  Gen.  xxx,  37  ;  sometimes  for  a 
staff  or  wand  :  "  And  thou  shalt  tako  this  rod 
in  thine  hand,  wherewith  thou  shalt  do  signs. 


ROM 


824 


ROM 


And  Moses  took  the  rod  of  God  in  his  hand," 
Exod.  iv,  17,  20;  or  for  a  shepherd's  crook: 
"And  concerning  the  tithe  of  the  herd,  or  of 
the  flock,  even  of  whatsoever  passeth  under 
the  rod ;  the  tenth  shall  be  holy  unto  the 
Lord,"  Lev.  xxvii,  32 ;  or  for  a  rod,  properly 
so  called,  which  God  makes  use  of  to  correct 
men :  "  If  he  commit  iniquity,  I  will  chasten 
him  with  the  rod  of  men,  and  with  the  stripes 
of  the  children  of  men,"  2  Sam.  vii,  14.  "Let 
him  take  his  rod  away  from  me,"  Job  ix,  34. 
The  empire  of  the  Messiah  is  sometimes  re- 
presented by  a  rod  of  iron,  to  show  its  power 
and  its  might,  Psalm  ii,  9 ;  .Rev.  ii,  27  ;  xii,  5 ; 
xix,  15.  Rod  is  sometimes  put  to  signify  a 
tribe  or  a  people:  "Remember  thy  congrega- 
tion which  thou  hast  purchased  of  old,  the  rod 
of  thine  inheritance  which  thou  hast  redeem- 
ed," Psalm  lxxiv,  2.  "  Israel  is  the  rod  of  his 
inheritance,"  Jer.  x,  16.  The  rod  of  Aaron  is 
the  staff"  commonly  used  by  the  high  priest. 
This  is  the  rod  that  budded  and  blossomed  like 
an  almond  tree,  Num.  xvii.     See  Aaron. 

ROMAN  CATHOLICS,  or  members  of  the 
church  of  Rome,  otherwise  called  papists, 
from  the  pope  being  considered  by  them  as 
the  supreme  head  of  the  universal  church,  the 
successor  of  St.  Peter,  and  the  fountain  of 
theological  truth  and  ecclesiastical  honours. 
He  keeps  his  court  in  great  state  at  the  palace 
of  the  Vatican,  and  is  attended  by  seventy 
cardinals  as  his  privy  counsellors,  in  imitation 
of  the  seventy  disciples  of  our  Lord.  The 
pope's  authority  in  other  kingdoms  is  merely 
spiritual,  but  in  Italy  he  is  a  temporal  sove- 
reign, Louis  XVIII.  and  the  allies  having,  in 
1814,  restored  him  to  his  throne,  and  to  those 
temporalities  of  which  he  was  deprived  by 
Buonaparte  and  the  French  revolution.  On 
resuming  his  government,  Pope  Pius  VII.  soon 
restored  the  order  of  Jesuits  and  the  inquisi- 
tion ;  so  that  the  Roman  Catholic  religion  is 
now  reinstated  in  its  ancient  splendour  and 
authority.  The  principal  dogmas  of  this  re- 
ligion are  as  follows:  1.  That  St.  Peter  was 
deputed  by  Christ  to  be  his  vicar,  and  the  head 
of  the  catholic  church  ;  and  that  the  bishops 
of  Rome,  being  his  successors,  have  the  same 
apostolical  authority  ;  for  our  Saviour  declares, 
in  Matt,  xvi,  18,  "  Thou  art  Peter,  and  upon 
this  rock  will  I  build  my  church ;"  by  which 
rock  they  understand  St.  Peter  himself,  as  the 
name  signifies,  and  not  his  confession,  as  the 
Protestants  explain  it.  And  a  succession  in 
the  church  being  now  supposed  necessary 
under  the  New  Testament,  as  Aaron  had  his 
succession  under  the  old  dispensation,  which 
was  a  figure  of  the  new,  this  succession  can 
now,  they  contend,  be  shown  only  in  the  chair 
of  St.  Peter  at  Rome,  where  it  is  asserted  he 
presided  twenty-five  years  previous  to  his 
death;  therefore,  the  bishops  of  Rome  are  his 
true  successors.  2.  That  the  Roman  Catholic 
church  is  the  mother  and  mistress  of  all 
churches,  and  cannot  possibly  err  in  matters 
of  faith  ;  for  the  church  has  the  promise  of  the 
Spirit  of  God  to  lead  it  into  all  truth,  John 
xvi,  13  ;  "  and  the  gates  of  hell  shall  not  pre- 
vail against  it,"  Matt,  xvi,  18.     Christ  also, 


who  is  himself  the  truth,  has  promised  to  the 
pastors  and  teachers  of  the  church  to  be  with 
them  "always,  even  to  the  end  of  the  world," 
Matt,  xxviii,  20.     "  It  is  from  the  testimony 
and  authority  of  the  church,  therefore,"  6ay 
they,   "  that  we  receive  the  Scriptures  as  the 
word  of  God."     3.  That  the  Scriptures  thus 
received  on  the  authority  of  the  church  are 
not  sufficient  to  our  faith  without  apostolical 
traditions,  which  are  of  equal  authority  with 
the  Scriptures  ;  for  St.  Peter  assures  us,  that 
in  St.  Paul's  epistles  there  "  are  some  things 
hard  to  be  understood,  which  they  who  are 
unlearned  and  unstable  wnst,  as  they  do  also 
the   other    scriptures,  to   their    own    destruc- 
tion," 2  Peter  iii,  16.     We  are  directed  by  St. 
Paul  to  "stand  fast,   and  hold  the  traditions 
which  we  have  been  taught,  whether  by  word 
or  by  epistle,"  2  Thess.  ii,  15.     4.  That  seven 
sacraments  were   instituted  by  Jesus  Christ, 
namely,  baptism,  confirmation,  eucharist,  pe- 
nance,   extreme   unction,    orders,  and  matri- 
mony ;  and  that  they  confer  grace.     To  prove 
that  confirmation,  or  imposition  of  hands,  is  a 
sacrament,  they  quote  Acts  viii,  17  :   "  They," 
the  Apostles,  "laid  their  hands  on  them,"  be- 
lievers,  "  and  they  received  the  Holy  Ghost." 
Penance  is  a  sacrament  in  which  the  sins  we 
commit  after  baptism,  duly  repented  of,  and 
confessed  to  a  priest,  are  forgiven  ;  and  which 
they  think   was  instituted  by  Christ  himself 
when  he  breathed  upon  his  Apostles  after  his 
resurrection,  and  said,  "  Receive  ye  the  Holy 
Ghost :   whose  sins   ye   remit,   are   remitted  ; 
and  whose  sins  ye  retain,  are  retained,"  John 
xx,    23.     In    favour   of  extreme   unction,  or 
anointing  the  sick  with  oil,  they  argue  from 
James  i,  14,  15,  which  is  thus  rendered  in  the 
Vulgate  :    "  Is  any  sick  among  you  ?    Let  him 
call  for  the  priests  of  the  church,  and  let  them 
pray  over  him,  anointing  him  with  oil,"  &c. 
The  sacrament  of  holy  orders  is  inferred  from 
1  Tim.  iv,  14:  "Neglect  not  the  gift  that  is 
in  thee,  which  was  given  thee  by  prophecy, 
with  the  laying  on  the  hands  of  the  presby- 
tery," or  priesthood,  as  they  render  it.     That 
marriage  is  a  sacrament,  they  think  evident 
from    Ephes.  v,   32:  "This  is   a  great  mys- 
tery,"   representing   the    mystical    union    of 
Christ   and    his  church.      "  Matrimony,"  say 
they,  "  is  here  the  sign  of  a  holy  thing,  and 
therefore  it  is  a  sacrament."     Notwithstand- 
ing this,  they  enjoin  celibacy  upon  the  clergy, 
because  they  do  not  think  it  proper  that  those 
who,  by  their  office  and  function,  ought  to  be 
wholly  devoted   to   God,    should  be   diverted 
from  those  duties  by  the  distractions  of  a  mar- 
ried life,  1  Cor.  vii,  32,  33.     5.  That  in  the 
mass,  or  public  service,  there  is  offered  unto 
God  a  true  and  propitiatory  sacrifice  for  the 
quick  and  dead ;  and  that  in  the  sacrament  of 
the  eucharist,   under  the  forms  of  bread  .and 
wine,  are  really  and  substantially  present  the 
body  and  blood,   together  with  the  soul  and 
divinity,  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ ;  and  that 
there  is  a  conversion  made  of  the  whole  sub- 
stance of  the  bread  into  his  body,  and  of  the. 
wine  into  his  blood,  which  is  called  transub- 
stantiation  ;  according  to  our  Lord's  words  to 


ROM 


825 


ROM 


his  disciples,  "  This  is  my  body,"  &c,  Matt. 
xxvi,  26 ;  wherefore  it  becomes  with  them  an 
object  of  adoration.  Farther:  it  is  a  matter 
of  discipline,  not  of  doctrine,  in  the  Roman 
church,  that  the  laity  receive  the  eucharist 
in  one  kind,  that  is,  in  bread  only.  This  sa- 
crifice of  the  mass  was,  they  think,  predicted 
by  the  Prophet  Malachi,  i,  11,  who  says,  "In 
every  place  incense  shall  be  offered  unto  my 
name,  and  a  pure  offering."  6.  That  there  is 
a  purgatory ;  and  that  souls  kept  prisoners 
there  do  receive  help  by  the  suffrages  of  the 
faithful.  For  it  is  said,  in  1  Cor.  iii,  15,  "If 
any  man's  work  shall  be  burned,  he  shall  suf- 
fer loss ;  but  he  himself  shall  be  saved,  yet  so 
as  by  fire ;"  which  they  understand  of  the 
flames  of  purgatory.  They  also  believe  that 
souls  are  released  from  purgatory  by  the  pray- 
ers and  alms  which  are  offered  for  them,  prin- 
cipally by  the  holy  sacrifice  of  the  mass. 
They  call  purgatory  a  middle  state  of  souls, 
into  which  those  enter  who  depart  this  life  in 
God's  grace  ;  yet  not  without  some  less  stains 
of  guilt,  which  retard  them  from  entering 
.  heaven,   where    nothing   unclean    can    enter. 

7.  That  the  saints  reigning  with  Christ  (and 
especially  the  blessed  virgin)  are  to  be  hon- 
oured and  invoked ;  that  they  offer  prayers 
unto  God  for  us ;  and  that  their  relics  are  to 
be  had  in  veneration.  These  honours,  how- 
ever, are  not  divine,  but  relative,  and  redound 
to  the   divine   glory,  Rev.  v,  8 ;  viii,  4,  &c. 

8.  That  the  image  of  Christ,  of  the  blessed  vir- 
gin, the  mother  of  God,  and  of  other  saints, 
ought  to  be  retained  in  churches,  and  honour 
and  veneration  ought  to  be  given  unto  them. 
And  as  the  images  of  cherubims  were  allowed 
in  the  temples,  so  images  should  be  placed  in 
churches,  and  had  in  veneration.  9.  That  the 
power  of  indulgences  was  left  by  Christ  to  the 
church,  and  that  the  use  of  them  is  very  bene- 
ficial to  Christian  people ;  according  to  Matt. 
xvi,  19  :  "I  will  give  thee  the  keys  of  the  king- 
dom of  heaven."  By  indulgences  they  do  not 
mean  leave  to  commit  sin,  nor  pardon  for  sins 
to  come  ;  but  only  releasing,  by  the  power  of 
the  keys  committed  to  the  church,  the  debt  of 
temporal  punishment  which  may  remain  due 
upon  account  of  our  sins,  after  the  sins  them- 
selves, as  to  their  guilt  and  eternal  punish- 
ment, have  been  already  remitted  through 
repentance  and  confession,  and  by  virtue  of 
the  merit  of  Christ,  and  of  all  the  saints.  By 
their  indulgences  they  assert  that  they  apply 
to  their  souls  the  merits  of  Christ,  and  of  the 
saints  and  martyrs  through  him. 

The  ceremonies  of  this  church  are  numerous 
and  splendid,  as,  1.  They  make  use  of  the  sign 
of  the  cross  in  all  their  sacraments,  to  give  us 
to  understand,  that  they  have  their  whole  force 
and  efficacy  from  the  cross.  2.  Sprinkling  of 
the  holy  water  by  the  priest  on  solemn  days  is 
used  likewise  by  every  one  going  in  or  coming 
out  of  church.  3.  The  ceremony  of  blessing 
bells  is,  by  the  Catholics,  called  christening 
them ;  because  the  name  of  some  saint  is  as- 
cribed to  them,  by  virtue  of  whose  invocation 
they  are  presented,  in  order  that  they  may 
obtain   his   favour    and   protection.     4.  They 


always  bow  at  the  name  of  Jesus,  (which  is 
also  done  as  regularly  in  the  church  of  Eng- 
land,) and  they  found  the  practice  on  Phil,  ii, 
10  :  "  That  at  the  name  of  Jesus  every  knee 
should  bow."  5.  They  keep  a  number  of 
lamps  and  wax  candles  continually  burning 
before  the  shrines  and  images  of  the  saints. 
6.  They  make  use  of  incense,  and  have  lighted 
candles  upon  the  altar  at  the  celebration  of  the 
mass.  7.  The  practice  of  washing  the  poor's 
feet,  in  imitation  of  our  Lord's  washing  the 
feet  of  his  disciples,  is  solemnized  on  Holy 
Thursday  by  all  the  princes  of  the  Romish 
religion  in  Europe.  The  church  of  Rome 
also  professes  to  keep  the  fast  of  Lent  with 
great  strictness,  and  observes  a  much  greater 
number  loth  of  feasts  and  festivals  than  the 
church  of  England. 

The  church  of  Rome  assumes  the  title  of 
Catholic,  or  universal,  as  answering  to  that, 
article  in  the  Apostles'  Creed,   "  I  believe  in 
the  holy  Catholic  church."     The  above  is  per- 
haps a  sufficient  account  of  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic faith  ;  but  as  the  creed  of  Pope  Pius  IV.  is 
universally  admitted  to  be  the  true  standard 
of  that  faith,  it  would  be  decidedly  wrong  to 
conclude   without    inserting   it.      Mr.  Butler 
says  it  contains  a  succinct  and  explicit  sum- 
mary of  the  canons  of  the  council  of  Trent, 
and  was  published  in  the  form  of  a  papal  bull, 
in  1564.     He  adds,  "  It  is  received  throughout 
the  whole  Roman  Catholic  church  ;  every  one 
who   is    admitted  into  that  church,   publicly 
reads  and  professes  his  assent  to  it."      This 
document  commences  with  reciting  the  Nicene 
Creed,  which,  as  it  is  admitted  by  the  Protest- 
ant church  of  England,  and  inserted  in  the 
Common  Prayer  Book,  need  not  be  here  re- 
peated.     It  then    proceeds  with   the    twelve 
following  articles,  in  addition  to  those  of  the 
Apostles'    Creed,    which    they    also    reckon 
twelve  :   "  13.  I  most  firmly  admit  and  em- 
brace apostolical  and  ecclesiastical  traditions, 
and  all  other  constitutions  and  observances  of 
the   same  church.      I  also  admit  the    sacred 
Scriptures  according'  to  the  sense  which  the 
holy  mother  church  has  held,  and  does  hold, 
to  whom  it  belongs  to  judge  of  the  true  sense 
and  interpretation  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  ;  nor 
will  I  ever  take  and  interpret  them  otherwise 
than  according  to  the  unanimous  consent  of 
the  fathers.     14.  I  profess  also  that  there  are 
truly  and   properly  seven  sacraments  of  the 
new  law,  instituted  by  Jesus  Christ  our  Lord, 
and  for  the  salvation  of  mankind,  (though  all 
are  not  necessary  for  every  one,)  namely,  bap- 
tism,   confirmation,    eucharist,    penance,    ex- 
treme unction,  order,   and  matrimony ;    and 
that  they  confer  grace  ;  and  of  these,  baptism, 
confirmation,   and  order  cannot  be  reiterated 
without  sacrilege.     15.  I  also  receive  and  ad- 
mit the  ceremonies  of  the   Catholic  church, 
received  and  approved  in  the  solemn  adminis- 
tration   of    all    the    above    said    sacraments. 
16.  I  receive  and  embrace  all  and  every  one 
of  the  things  which   have  been   defined   and 
declared  in  the  holy  council  of  Trent,  con- 
cerning original  sin  and  justification.     17.  I 
profess,  likewise,  that  in  the  mass,  is  offered 


ROM 


826 


ROM 


to  God  a  true,  proper,  and  propitiatory  sacri- 
fice for  the  living  and  the  dead  ;  and  that  in 
the  most  holy  sacrament  of  the  eucharist  there 
is  truly,  really,  and  substantially  the  body  and 
blood,  together  with  the  soul  and  divinity,  of 
our  Lord  Jesus  Christ ;  and  that  there  is  made 
a  conversion  of  the  whole  substance  of  the 
bread  into  the  body,  and  of  the  whole  sub- 
stance of  the  wine  into  the  blood,  which  con- 
version the  Catholic  church  calls  transubstan- 
tiation.  18.  I  confess,  also,  that  under  either 
kind  alone,  Christ  whole  and  entire,  and  a 
true  sacrament,  is  received.  19.  I  constantly 
hold  that  there  is  a  purgatory,  and  that  the 
souls  detained  therein  are  helped  by  the 
suffrages  of  the  faithful.  20.  Likewise,  that 
the  saints  reigning  together  with  Christ  are 
to  be  honoured  and  invocated  ;  that  they  offer 
prayers  to  God  for  us,  and  that  their  relics 
are  to  be  venerated.  21.  I  most  firmly  assert, 
that  the  images  of  Christ,  and  of  the  mother 
of  Christ,  ever  a  virgin,  and  also  of  the  other 
saints,  are  to  be  had  and  retained,  and  that 
due  honour  and  veneration  are  to  be  given  to 
them.  22.  I  also  affirm,  that  the  power  of 
indulgences  was  left  by  Christ  in  the  church, 
and  that  the  use  of  them  is  most  wholesome 
to  Christian  people.  23.  I  acknowledge  the 
holy  Catholic  and  apostolic  Roman  church, 
the  mother  and  mistress  of  all  churches  ;  and 
I  promise  and  swear  true  obedience  to  the 
bishop  of  Rome,  the  successor  of  St.  Peter, 
prince  of  the  Apostles,  and  vicar  of  Jesus 
Christ.  24.  I  also  profess,  and  undoubtedly 
receive,  all  other  things,  delivered,  denned, 
and  declared  by  the  sacred  canons  and  general 
councils,  and  particularly  by  the  holy  council 
of  Trent ;  and  likewise,  I  also  condemn,  re- 
ject, and  anathematize  all  things  contrary 
thereto ;  and  all  heresies  whatsoever,  con- 
demned and  anathematized  by  the  church. 
This  true  catholic  faith,  out  of  which  none 
can  be  saved,  which  I  now  freely  profess,  and 
truly  hold,  I.  N.,  promise,  vow,  and  swear 
most  constantly  to  hold  and  profess  the  same, 
whole  and  entire,  with  God's  assistance,  to 
the  end  of  my  life.     Amen." 

Such  is  the  avowed  and  accredited  faith  of 
the  church  of  Rc-me  ;  but  it  seems  a  most  ex- 
traordinary circumstance,  that,  while  this 
church  has  so  enlarged  the  creed,  it  has  re- 
duced the  number  of  the  commandments, 
omitting  altogether  the  second,  "  Thou  shalt 
not  make  unto  thee  a  graven  image,"  &c, 
Exod.  xx,  3-6 ;  as  if  the  Catholics  were  con- 
scious it  could  by  no  means  be  reconciled  with 
the  twenty-first  article  of  the  above  recited 
creed.  And  then,  to  prevent  alarm,  as  every 
body  must  know  there  should  be  ten  com- 
mandments, the  last  is  divided  into  two,  to 
make  up  the  number.  Tais  is  said  to  have 
been  done,  even  before  the  Reformation.  It 
was  done  in  the  French  National  Catechism, 
published  in  1806,  and  sanctioned  by  Pope 
Pius  VII.,  by  the  archbishop  of  Paris,  and  by 
the  Emperor  Napoleon.  It  is  remarkable, 
also,  that  in  Dr.  Chalenor's  "  Garden  of  the 
Soul,"  printed  in  London  by  Coglan,  in  1787, 
in  a  form  of  self-examination  for  the  penitent 


upon  each  commandment,  there  is  no  reference 
to  the  one  omitted  ;  nor  is  there  any  reference 
to  it  in  Bossuet's  famous  "  Exposition  of  the 
Doctrines  of  the  Catholic  Church,"  when 
treating  upon  images,  and  the  manner  in 
which  they  are  directed  to  be  honoured. 
Lastly,  in  Butler's  Catechism,  the  eighth  edi- 
tion, printed  at  Dublin  in  1811,  and  sanctioned 
by  four  Roman  Catholic  archbishops,  the  com- 
mandments stand  literally  as  follows:  "1.  I 
am  the  Lord  thy  God ;  thou  shalt  have  no 
strange  gods  before  me.  2.  Thou  shalt  not 
take  the  name  of  the  Lord  thy  God  in  vain. 
3.  Remember  that  thou  keep  holy  the  Sabbath 
day.  4.  Honour  thy  father  and  thy  mother. 
5.  Thou  shalt  not  kill.  6.  Thou  shalt  not 
commit  adultery.  7.  Thou  shalt  not  steal. 
8.  Thou  shalt  not  bear  false  witness  against 
thy  neighbour.  9.  Thou  shalt  not  covet  thy 
neighbour's  wife.  10.  Thou  shalt  not  covet 
thy  neighbour's  goods."  Here  it  may  be  add- 
ed, that  by  omitting  the  second  command,  the 
others  are  numbered  differently  from  what  they 
are  by  us.  Thus,  the  third  is  brought  in  for 
the  second,  the  fourth  is  made  the  third,  &.c, 
till  they  come  to  the  last  which  is  divided  in 
two,  for  the  purpose  above  mentioned.  The 
gross  and  antiscriptural  errors,  leading  to 
superstition,  idolatry,  and  many  other  evils, 
which  are  contained  in  the  peculiarities  of  the 
papistical  faith,  are  abundantly  pointed  out 
and  refuted  by  the  leading  Protestant  writers. 
ROMANS,  Epistle  to  the.  This  epistle 
was  written  from  Corinth,  A.  D.  58,  being  the 
fourth  year  of  the  Emperor  Nero,  just  before 
St.  Paul  set  out  for  Jerusalem  with  the  contri- 
butions which  the  Christians  of  Macedonia 
and  Achaia  had  made  for  the  relief  of  their 
poor  brethren  in  Judea,  Acts  xx,  1 ;  Rom.  xv, 
25,  26.  It  was  transcribed  or  written  as  St. 
Paul  dictated  it,  by  Tertius ;  and  the  person 
who  conveyed  it  to  Rome  was  Phoebe,  a  dea- 
coness of  the  church  of  Cenchrea,  which  was 
the  eastern  port  of  the  city  of  Corinth,  Rom. 
xvi,  1,  22.  It  is  addressed  to  the  church  at 
Rome,  wiiich  consisted  partly  of  Jewish  and 
partly  of  Heathen  converts ;  and  throughout 
the  epistle  it  is  evident  that  the  Apostle  has 
regard  to  both  these  descriptions  of  Christians. 
St.  Paul,  when  he  wro.te  this  epistle  had  not 
been  at  Rome,  Rom.  i,  13  ;  xv,  23  ;  but  he  had 
heard  an  account  of  the  state  of  the  church  in 
that  city  from  Aquila  and  Priscilla,  two  Chris- 
tians who  were  banished  from  thence  by  the 
edict  of  Claudius,  and  with  whom  he  lived 
during  his  first  visit  to  Corinth.  Whethor 
any  other  Apostle  had  at  this  time  preached 
the  Gospel  at  Rome,  cannot  now  be  ascer- 
tained. Among  those  who  witnessed  the 
effect  of  the  first  effusion  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
are  mentioned  "  strangers  of  Rome,  Jews  and 
proselytes,"  Acts  ii,  10  ;  that  is,  persons  of  the 
Jewish  religion,  who  usually  resided  at  Rome, 
but  who  had  come  to  Jerusalem  to  be  present 
at  the  feast  of  pentecost.  It  is  highly  probable 
that  these  men,  upon  their  return  home,  pro- 
claimed the  Gospel  of  Christ ;  and  we  may 
farther  suppose  that  many  Christians  who 
had  been  converted  at  other  places  afterward 


ROO 


827 


ROS 


settled  at  Rome,  and  were  the  cause  of  others 
embracing   the    Gospel.      But,    by    whatever 
means  Christianity  had  been  introduced  into 
Rome,  it  seems  to   have  flourished  there   in 
great  purity  ;  for  we  learn  from  the  beginning 
of  this  epistle   that   the  faith  of  the   Roman 
Christians  was  at  this  time  much  celebrated, 
Rom.  i,  8.     To  confirm  them  in  that  faith,  and 
to  guard  them  against  the  errors  of  Judaizing 
Christians,  was  the   object  of  this  letter,   in 
which  St.  Paul  takes  occasion  to  enlarge  upon 
the  nature  of  the  Mosaic  institution ;  to  ex- 
plain the  fundamental  principles  and  doctrines 
of  Christianity ;  and  to  show  that  the  whole 
human  race,  formerly  divided  into  Jews  and 
Gentiles,  were  now  to  be    admitted  into  the 
religion   of  Jesus,  indiscriminately,    and  free 
from   every  other  obligation.      The  Apostle, 
after  expressing  his   affection  to  the  Roman 
Christians,  and  asserting  that  the  Gospel  is 
the  power  of  God  unto  salvation  to  all  who 
believe,  takes    a  comprehensive  view   of  the 
conduct  and  condition  of  men  under  the  differ, 
ent  dispensations   of  Providence  ;    he    shows 
that  all  mankind,    both  Jews    and   Gentiles, 
were  equally  "under  sin,"  and  liable  to  the 
wrath  and  punishment  of  God;  that  therefore 
there  was  a  necessity  for  a  universal  propitia- 
tion and  redemption,  which  were  now  offered 
to  the  whole  race  of  men,  without  any  prefer- 
ence or  exception,  by  the  mercy  of  him  who  is 
the  God  of  the  Gentiles  as  well  as  of  the  Jews ; 
that  faith  in  Jesus  Christ,  the  universal  Re- 
deemer, was  the  only  means  of  obtaining  this 
salvation,  which  the  deeds   of  the  law  were 
wholly  incompetent  to  procure  ;  that  as  the 
sins  of  the  whole  world  originated  from  the 
disobedience    of  Adam,    so   the   justification 
from  those  sins  was  to  be  derived  from  the 
obedience  of  Christ ;  that  all   distinction  be- 
tween Jew  and   Gentile  was  now  abolished, 
and  the    ceremonial  law  entirely  abrogated  ; 
that  the  unbelieving  Jews  would  be  excluded 
from  the  benefits  of  the  Gospel,  while  the  be- 
lieving Gentiles  would  be  partakers  of  them ; 
and  that  this  rejection  of  the  Jews,  and  call 
of  the  Gentiles,  were  predicted  by  the  Jewish 
Prophets  Hosea  and  Isaiah.     He  then  points 
out  the  superiority  of  the  Christian  over  the 
Jewish    religion,    and   earnestly    exhorts   the 
Romans  to  abandon  every  species  of  wicked- 
ness, and  to  practise  the  duties  of  righteous- 
ness and  holiness,  which  were  now  enjoined 
upon  higher  sanctions,  and  enforced  by  more 
powerful  motives.     In  the  latter  part  of  the 
epistle,  St.  Paul  gives  some  practical  instruc- 
tions, and  recommends  some  particular  v irtues ; 
and  he  concludes  with  a  salutation  and  a  dox- 
ology.     This  epistle  is  most  valuable,  on  ac- 
count of  the  arguments  and  truths  which  it 
contains,    relative  to  the    necessity,    nature, 
and  universality  of  the  Gospel  dispensation. 

ROOFS.  The  letting  down  of  the  paralytic 
through  the  roof  of  the  house  where  Jesus  was, 
is  satisfactorily  explained  by  the  following 
extract  from  Shaw's  Travels:  "The  houses 
throughout  the  east  are  low,  having  generally 
a  ground  floor  only,  or  one  upper  story,  and 
flat-roofed,  the  roof  being  covered  with  a  strong 


coat  of  plaster  of  terrace.  They  are  built  round 
a  paved  court,  into  which  the  entrance  from  the 
street  is  through  a  gateway  or  passage  room 
furnished  with  benches,  and  sufficiently  large 
to  be  used  for  receiving  visits  or  transacting 
business.  The  stairs  which  lead  to  the  roof 
are  never  placed  on  the  outside  of  the  house  in 
the  street,  but  usually  in  the  gateway,  or  pas- 
sage room  to  the  court,  sometimes  at  the  en- 
trance within  the  court.  This  court  is  now 
called,  in  Arabic,  el  woost,  or  '  the  middle  of 
the  house,'  literally  answering  to  to  pio-ov  of  St. 
Luke,  v,  19.  It  is  customary  to  fix  cords  from 
the  parapet  walls,  Deut.  xxii,  8,  of  the  flat 
roofs  across  this  court,  and  upon  them  to  ex- 
pand a  veil  or  covering,  as  a  shelter  from  the 
heat.  In  this  area,  probably,  our  Saviour 
taught.  The  paralytic  was  brought  on  to  the 
roof  by  making  a  way  through  the  crowd  to 
the  stairs  in  the  gateway,  or  by  the  terraces 
of  the  adjoining  houses.  They  rolled  back  the 
veil,  and  let  the  sick  man  down  over  the  para- 
pet of  the  roof  into  the  area  or  court  of  the 
house,  before  Jesus."  The  windows  of  the 
eastern  houses  being  chiefly  within,  facing 
the  court,  in  order  to  see  what  was  going  on 
without  in  the  streets  of  the  city,  the  only  way 
was  to  run  up  to  the  flat  roof.  Hence  the  fre- 
quent expression  in  Scripture,  when  allusion  is 
made  to  sudden  tumults  and  calamities,  to  get 
up  to  "  the  house  top."     See  Houses. 

ROSE,  nbxan,  Cant,  ii,  1 ;  Isaiah  xxxv,  1. 
The  rose,  so  much  and  so  often  sung  by  the 
poets  of  Persia,  Arabia,  Greece,  and  Rome,  is, 
indeed,  the  pride  of  the  garden  for  elegance 
of  form,  for  glow  of  colour,  and  fragrance  of 
smell.  Tournefort  mentions  fifty-three  kinds, 
of  which  the  Damascus  rose,  and  the  rose  of 
Sharon,  are  the  finest.  The  beauiy  of  these 
flowers  is  too  well  known  to  be  insisted  on ; 
and  they  are  at  this  day  much  admired  in  the 
east,  where  they  are  extremely  fragrant.  In 
what  esteem  the  rose  was  among  the  Greeks, 
may  be  learned  from  the  fifth  and  fifty-third 
odes  of  Anacreon.  Among  the  ancients  it 
occupied  a  conspicuous  place  in  every  chaplet ; 
it  was  a  principal  ornament  in  every  festive 
meeting,  and  at  every  solemn  sacrifice;  and 
the  comparisons  in  Ecclesiasticus  xxiv,  14, 
and  1,  8,  show  that  the  Jews  were  likewise 
much  delighted  with  it.  The  rose  bud,  or 
opening  rose,  seems  in  particular  a  favourite 
ornament.  The  Jewish  sensualists,  in  Wis- 
dom ii,  8,  are  introduced  saying,  "  Let  us  fill 
ourselves  with  costly  wine  and  ointments ;  and 
let  no  flower  of  the  spring  pass  by  us.  Let  us 
crown  ourselves  with  rose  buds  before  they  are 
withered." 

ROSH.  The  Hebrew  speaks  of  a  people 
called  Rosh,  Ezek.  xxxviii,  2,  3.  "The  ori- 
entals hold,  says  D'Herbelot,  "that  Japheth 
had  a  son  called  Rous,  not  mentioned  by  Mo- 
ses, who  peopled  Russia,  that  is,  Muscovy." 
We  question  not  but  Rosh,  or  Ros,  signifies 
Russia,  or  the  people  that  dwell  on  the  Araxes, 
called  Rosch  by  the  inhabitants ;  which  was 
the  habitation  »f  the  Scythians.  It  deserves 
notice,  that  the  LXX.  render  the  passage  in 

Ezekiel,  Tu>y,  ao^vra  'Pi>f,  Mccr^,  nal  Oo/SfX,  Gog% 


RUS 


S2S 


RUT 


the  chief  of  Ros,  Mesoch,  and  Thobel ;  and  Je- 
rom,  not  absolutely  to  reject  this  name,  inserts 
both  renderings :  Gog,  terram  Magog,  princi- 
pem  capitis  (sive  Ros)  Mosoch,  et  Thubal. 
Symmachus  and  Theodotion  also  perceived 
Ros  to  be  in  this  place  the  name  of  a  people ; 
and  this  is  now  the  prevailing  judgment  of  in- 
terpreters. Bochart,  about  A.  D.  1640,  con- 
tended that  Russia  was  the  nation  meant  by 
the  term  Ros ;  and  this  opinion  is  supported 
by  the  testimony  of  various  Greek  writers,  who 
describe  "  the  Ros  as  a  Scythian  nation,  bor- 
dering on  the  northern  Taurus."  Mosok,  or 
Mesech,  appears  to  be  the  same  as  the  Mosk- 
wa,  or  Moscow,  of  the  moderns  ;  and  we  know, 
that  not  only  is  this  the  name  of  the  city,  but 
also  of  the  river  on  which  it  stands.    See  Gog. 

RUBY,  a  beautiful  gem,  whose  colour  is 
red,  with  an  admixture  of  purple,  and  is,  in  its 
most  perfect  state,  a  gem  of  extreme  value.  In 
hardness  it  is  equal  to  the  sapphire,  and  second 
only  to  the  diamond.  It  is  mentioned  in  Job 
xxviii,  18,  and  Prov.  viii,  11,  &c. 

RUE,  Tzrjyavov,  Luke  xi,  42,  a  small  shrubby 
plant,  common  in  gardens.  It  has  a  strong, 
unpleasant  smell,  and  a  bitterish,  penetrating 
taste. 

RUSH,  ndj,  Exodus  ii,  3;  Job  viii,  11; 
Isaiah  xviii,  2 ;  xxxv,  7  ;  a  plant  growing  in 
the  water  at  the  sides  of  rivers,  and  in  marshy 
grounds. 

RUSSIAN  CHURCH.  The  Russians,  like 
other  nations,  were  originally  Pagans,  and 
worshipped  fire,  which  they  considered  as  the 
cause  of  thunder,  under  the  name  of  Perun, 
and  the  earth  under  the  name  Volata ;  at  the 
same  time  having  some  notions  of  a  future 
state  of  rewards  and  punishments.  Chris- 
tianity was  first  professed  by  the  Princess  Olga, 
who  was  baptized  at  Constantinople.  She 
recommended  it  to  her  grandson  Vladimir,  on 
whose  baptism,  in  988,  it  was  adopted  by  the 
nation  generally  ;  and  from  that  time  the  Greek 
church  has  been  the  established  religion 
throughout  Russia,  and  Greek  literature  greatly 
encouraged.  During  the  middle  ages,  however, 
the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation,  and  some 
other  popish  peculiarities,  were  covertly  intro- 
duced ;  and,  by  the  irruption  of  the  Mongol 
Tartars,  in  the  fifteenth  century,  a  stop  was  put 
to  learning  and  civilization  for  full  two  cen- 
turies ;  but,  on  the  accession  of  the  present 
dynasty  in  1613,  civilization  and  Christianity 
were  restored,  and  schools  established  for  the 
education  of  the  clergy.  The  Russian  clergy 
are  divided  into  regular  and  secular;  the  for- 
mer are  all  monks,  and  the  latter  are  the  paro- 
chial clergy.  The  superior  clergy  are  called 
archires ;  but  the  title  of  metropolitan,  or 
bishop,  is  personal,  and  not  properly  attached 
to  the  see,  as  in  the  western  church.  Next 
after  the  archires  rank  the  black  clergy,  in- 
cluding the  chiefs  of  monasteries  and  convents, 
and  after  them  the  monks.  The  secular  priests 
are  called  the  white  clergy,  including  the  pro- 
toires,  or  proto-popes,  priests,  and  deacons, 
together  with  the  readers  and  sacristans. 
Theso  amounted,  in  1805,  throughout  the  em- 
pire, to  ninety-eight  thousand  seven  hundred 


and  twenty-six.  The  white  clergy  must  be 
married  before  they  can  be  ordained,  but  must 
not  marry  a  second  time ;  they  are  at  liberty 
then  to  enter  among  the  black  clergy,  and  a 
way  is  thus  opened  for  their  accession  to  the 
higher  orders.  The  whole  empire  is  divided 
into  thirty-six  diocesses,  or  eparchies,  in  which 
are  four  hundred  and  eighty-three  cathedrals, 
and  twenty-six  thousand,  five  hundred  and 
ninety-eight  churches.  The  churches  are  di- 
vided into  three  parts.  1.  The  altar,  where 
stands  the  holy  table,  crucifix,  &c,  which  is 
separated  from  the  body  of  the  church  by  a 
large  screen,  on  which  are  painted  our  Saviour, 
the  virgin,  the  Apostles,  and  other  saints. 
Upon  a  platform  before  this  are  placed  the 
readers  and  singers,  and  here  the  preacher 
general"./  stands  behind  a  movable  desk.  2.  The 
nave,  or  body  of  the  church,  which  may  be 
called  the  inner  court.  3.  The  trapeza,  or 
outer  court.  The  two  last  are  designed  for 
the  congregation,  but  neither  have  any  seats. 
The  walls  of  the  church  are  highly  embellished 
with  Scripture  paintings,  ornamented  with 
gold,  silver,  and  precious  stones,  but  no 
images. 

The  church  service  i3  contained  in  twenty- 
four  volumes,  folio,  in  the  Slavonian  language, 
which  is  not  well  understood  by  the  common 
people.  Parts  of  the  Scriptures  are  read  in  the 
service ;  but  few,  even  of  the  ecclesiastics, 
possess  a  complete  Bible.  The  patriarch  of 
Russia  was  formerly  almost  equal  in  authority 
with  the  czar  himself;  but  Peter  the  Great,  on 
the  death  of  the  patriarch  in  1700,  abolished 
his  office,  and  appointed  an  exarch.  In  1721 
he  abolished  this  office  also,  and  appointed  a 
"  holy  legislative  synod"  for  the  government 
of  the  church,  at  the  head  of  which  is  always 
placed  a  layman  of  rank  and  eminence.  The 
monastic  life  was  once  so  prevalent  in  this 
country,  that  there  were  four  hundred  and 
seventy-nine  convents  for  men,  and  seventy- 
four  for  women,  in  which  there  were  about 
seventy  thousand  monks  and  nuns,  &,c ;  but 
this  kind  of  life  was  so  much  discouraged  by 
Peter  the  Great  and  the  Empress  Catherine, 
that  the  religious  are  now  reduced  to  about 
five  thousand  monks  and  seventeen  hundred 
nuns.  Great  part  of  their  revenues  has  also 
been  alienated,  and  appropriated  to  the  support 
of  hospitals  and  houses  for  the  poor. 

RUTH.  The  book  of  Ruth  is  so  called 
from  the  name  of  the  person,  a  native  of  Moab, 
whose  history  it  contains.  It  may  be  consi- 
dered as  a  supplement  to  the  book  of  Judges,  to 
which  it  was  joined  in  the  Hebrew  canon,  and 
the  latter  part  of  which  it  greatly  resembles, 
being  a  detached  story  belonging  to  the  same 
period.  Ruth  had  a  son  called  Obed,  who  was 
the  grandfather  of  David,  which  circumstance 
probably  occasioned  her  history  to  be  written, 
as  the  genealogy  of  David,  from  Pharez,  the 
son  of Judah,  from  whom  the  Messiah  was  to 
spring,  is  here  given  ;  and  some  commentators 
have  thought,  that  the  descent  of  our  Saviour 
from  Ruth,  a  Gentile  woman,  was  an  intimation 
of  the  comprehensive  nature  of  the  Christian 
dispensation.      We    are    no    where    informed 


SAB 


829 


SAB 


when  Ruth  lived ;  but  as  King  David  was  her 
great-grandson,  we  may  place  her  history  about 
B.  C.  1250.  This  book  was  certainly  written 
after  the  birth  of  David,  and  probably  by  the 
Prophet  Samuel,  though  some  have  attributed 
it  to  Hezekiah,  and  others  to  Ezra.  The  story 
related  in  this  book  is  extremely  interesting ; 
the  widowed  distress  of  Naomi,  her  affectionate 
concern  for  her  daughters,  the  reluctant  de- 
parture of  Orpah,  the  dutiful  attachment  of 
Ruth,  and  the  sorrowful  return  to  Bethlehem, 
are  very  beautifully  told.  The  simplicity  of 
manners,  likewise,  which  is  shown  in  Ruth's 
industry  and  attention  to  Naomi;  the  elegant 
charity  of  Boaz ;  and  his  acknowledgment  of 
his  kindred  with  Ruth,  afford  a  pleasing  con- 
trast to  the  turbulent  scenes  described  in  the 
book  of  the  Judges.  The  respect,  likewise, 
which  the  Israelites  paid  to  the  law  of  Moses, 
and  their  observance  of  ancient  customs,  are 
represented  in  a  very  lively  and  animated  man- 
ner, Ruth  iv.  It  is  a  pleasing  digression  from 
the  general  thread  of  the  sacred  history. 

SABAOTH,  or  rather  Zabaoth,  a  Hebrew 
word,  signifying  hosts  or  armies,  nifrox  r\W, 
Jehovah  Sabaoth,  The  Lord  of  Hosts.  By  this 
phrase  we  may  understand  the  host  of  heaven, 
or  the  angels  and  ministers  of  the  Lord;  or 
the  stars  and  planets,  which,  as  an  army  ranged 
in  battle  array,  perform  the  will  of  God  ;  or, 
lastly,  the  people  of  the  Lord,  both  of  the  old 
and  new  covenant,  which  is  truly  a  great  army, 
of  which  God  is  the  Lord  and  commander. 

SABBATH.  The  obligation  of  a  sabbatical 
institution  upon  Christians,  as  well  as  the  ex- 
tent of  it,  have  been  the  subjects  of  much  con- 
troversy. Christian  churches  themselves  have 
differed ;  and  the  theologians  of  the  same 
church.  Much  has  been  written  upon  the  sub- 
ject on  each  side,  and  much  research  and  learn- 
ing employed,  sometimes  to  darken  a  very  plain 
subject.  The  question  respects  the  will  of 
God  as  to  this  particular  point, — Whether  one 
day  in  seven  is  to  be  wholly  devoted  to  reli- 
gion, exclusive  of  worldly  business  and  worldly 
pleasures.  Now,  there  are  but  two  ways  in 
which  the  will  of  God  can  be  collected  from 
his  word ;  either  by  some  explicit  injunction 
upon  all,  or  by  incidental  circumstances.  Let 
us  then  allow,  for  a  moment,  that  we  have  no 
such  explicit  injunction  ;  yet  we  have  certainly 
none  to  the  contrary :  let  us  allow  that  we 
have  only  for  our  guidance,  in  inferring  the 
will  of  God  in  this  particular,  certain  circum- 
stances declarative  of  his  will ;  yet  this  import- 
ant conclusion  is  inevitable,  that  all  such 
indicative  circumstances  are  in  favour  of  a 
sabbatical  institution,  and  that  there  is  not  one 
which  exhibits  any  thing  contrary  to  it.  The 
seventh  day  was  hallowed  at  the  close  of  the 
creation;  its  sanctity  was  afterward  marked 
by  the  withholding  of  the  manna  on  that  day, 
and  the  provision  of  a  double  supply  on  the 
sixth,  and  that  previous  to  the  giving  of  the 
law  from  Sinai :  it  was  then  made  a  part  of 
that  great  epitome  of  religious  and  moral  duty, 
which  God  wrote  with  his  own  finger  on  tables 
of  stone ;  it  was  a  part  of  the  public  political 


law  of  the  only  people  to  whom  almighty  God 
ever  made  himself  a  political  Head  and  Ruler; 
its  observance  is  connected  throughout  the 
prophetic  age  with  the  highest  promises,  its 
violations  with  the  severest  maledictions  ;  it 
was  among  the  Jews  in  our  Lord's  time  a  day 
of  solemn  religious  assembling,  and  was  so  ob- 
served by  him  ;  when  changed  to  the  first  day 
of  the  week,  it  was  the  day  on  which  the  first 
Christians  assembled  ;  it  was  called,  by  way 
of  eminence,  "the  Lord's  day;"  and  we  have 
inspired  authority  to  say,  that  both  under  the 
Old  and  New  Testament  dispensations,  it  is 
used  as  an  expressive  type  of  the  heavenly  and 
eternal  rest.  Now,  against  all  these  circum- 
stances so  strongly  declarative  of  the  will  of 
God,  as  to  the  observance  of  a  sabbatical  in- 
stitution, what  circumstance  or  passage  of 
Scripture  can  be  opposed,  as  bearing  upon  it 
a  contrary  indication  ?  Certainly,  not  one ; 
for  those  passages  in  St.  Paul,  in  which  he 
speaks  of  Jewish  Sabbaths,  with  their  Levitical 
rites,  and  of  a  distinction  of  days,  the  observ- 
ance of  which  marked  a  weak  or  a  criminal 
adherence  to  the  abolished  ceremonial  dispen- 
sation ;  touch  not  the  Sabbath  as  a  branch  of 
the  moral  law,  or  as  it  was  changed,  by  the 
authority  of  the  Apostles,  to  the  first  day  of 
the  week.  If,  then,  we  were  left  to  determine 
the  point  by  inference,  the  conclusion  must  be 
irresistibly  in  favour  of  the  institution. 

It  may  also   be  observed,   that  those  who 
will  so  strenuously  insist  upon  the  absence  of 
an  express  command  as  to  the  Sabbath  in  tbie 
writings  of  the  evangelists  and  Apostles,  t:s 
explicit  as  that  of  the  decalogue,  assume,  thsit 
the  will  of  God  is  only  obligatory  when  man  i- 
fested  in  some  one  mode,  which  they  judge  l.o 
be  most  fit.     But  this  is  a  dangerous  hypothe- 
sis ;    for,   however  the  will   of  God   may  I  ie 
manifested,  if  it  is  with  such  clearness  as  Ito 
exclude  all  reasonable  doubt,  it  is  equally  obi  i- 
gatory  as  when   it  assumes   the  formality  of 
legal   promulgation.      Thus  the  Bible   is   n<  )t 
all  in  the  form  of  express   and  authoritatn  e 
command ;  it  teaches  by  examples,  by  proverb  s, 
by  songs,  by  incidental  allusions  and   occur- 
rences ;  and  yet  is,  throughout,  a  manifestatio  n 
of  the  will  of  God  as  to  morals  and  religion  t  n 
their  various  branches,  and,  if  disregarded,  i  t 
will  be  so  at  every  man's  peril.     But  strong  a  s 
this  ground  is,  we  quit  it  for  a  still  stronger.    I  t 
is  wholly  a  mistake,  that  the  Sabbath,  becausi  i 
not  reenacted  with  the  formality  of  the  deca,  - 
logue,  is  not  explicitly  enjoined  upon  Chria.  - 
tians,  and  that  the  testimony  of  Scripture  to  > 
such  an  injunction  is  not  unequivocal  and  irre. 
fragable.    The  Sabbath  was  appointed  at  the 
creation  of  the  world,   and  sanctified,  or  set 
apart  for  holy  purposes,   "for  man,"  for  all 
men,  and  therefore  for  Christians  ;  since  there 
was  never  any  repeal  of  the  original  institu- 
tion.    To  this  we  add,  that  if  the  moral  law 
be  the  law  of  Christians,  then  is  the  Sabbath, 
as  explicitly  enjoined  upon  them  as  upon  the- 
Jews.     But  that  the  moral  law  is  our  law,  as 
well  as  the  law  of  the  Jews,  all  but  Antino- 
mians  must  acknowledge ;  and  few,  we  sup- 
pose, will  be  inclined  to  run  into  the  fearful 


SAB 


830 


SAB 


mazes  of  that  error,  in  order  to  support  lax 
notions  as  to  the  obligation  of  the  Sabbath  ; 
into  which,  however,  they  must  be  plunged, 
if  they  deny  the  law  of  the  decalogue  to  be 
binding.  That  it  is  so  bound  upon  us,  a  few 
passages  of  Scripture  will  prove  as  well  as 
many.  Our  Lord  declares,  that  he  "  came  not 
to  destroy  the  law  and  the  prophets,  but  to 
fulfil."  Take  it,  that  by  "the  law,"  he  meant 
both  the  moral  and  the  ceremonial ;  ceremo- 
nial law  could  only  be  fulfilled  in  him,  by 
realizing  its  types ;  and  moral  law,  by  uphold- 
ing its  authority.  For  "  the  prophets,"  they 
admit  of  a  similar  distinction;  they  either  en- 
join morality,  or  utter  prophecies  of  Christ ; 
the  latter  of  which  were  fulfilled  in  the  sense 
of  accomplishment,  the  former  by  being  sanc- 
tioned and  enforced.  That  the  observance  of 
the  Sabbath  is  a  part  of  the  moral  law,  is  clear 
from  its  being  found  in  the  decalogue,  the  doc- 
trine of  which  our  Lord  sums  up  in  the  moral 
duties  of  loving  God  and  our  neighbour ;  and 
for  this  reason  the  injunctions  of  the  pro- 
phets, on  the  subject  of  the  Sabbath,  are  to  be 
regarded  as  a  part  of  their  moral  teaching. 
Some  divines  have,  it  is  true,  called  the  ob- 
servance of  the  Sabbath  a  positive,  and  not  a 
moral  precept.  If  it  were  so,  its  obligation  is 
precisely  the  same,  in  all  cases  where  God 
himself  has  not  relaxed  it ;  and  if  a  positive 
precept  only,  it  has  surely  a  special  eminence 
given  to  it,  by  being  placed  in  the  list  of  the 
ten  commandments,  and  being  capable,  with 
them,  of  an  epitome  which  resolves  them  into 
the  love  of  God  and  our  neighbour.  The  truth 
seems  to  be,  that  it  is  a  mixed  precept,  and 
Hot  wholly  positive,  but  intimately,  perhaps 
essentially  connected  with  several  moral  prin- 
ciples of  homage  to  God,  and  mercy  to  men  ; 
with  the  obligation  of  religious  icorship,  of 
public  religious  worship,  and  of  mulistracted 
public  worship :  and  this  will  jiccount  for  its 
collocation  in  the  decalogue  with  the  highest 
duties  of  religion,  and  the  leading  rules  of  per- 
sonal and  social  morality.  The  passage  from 
our  Lord's  sermon  on  the  mount,  with  its  con- 
text, is  a  sufficiently  explicit  enforcement  of 
the  moral  law,  generally,  upon  his  followers ; 
bet  when  he  says,  "  The  Sabbath  was  made 
for  man,"  he  clearly  refers  to  its  original  insti- 
tution, as  a  universal  law,  and  not  to  its  obli- 
gttion  upon  the  Jews  only,  in  consequence  of 
tke  enactments  of  the  law  of  Moses.  It  "was 
made  for  man,"  not  as  he  may  be  a  Jew,  or  a 
Christian ;  but  as  man,  a  creature  bound  to 
love,  worship,  and  obey  his  God  and  Maker, 
aid  on  his  trial  for  eternity. 

Another  explicit  proof  that  the  law  of  the 
fe?n  commandments,  and,  consequently,  the 
law  of  the  Sabbath,  is  obligatory  upon  Chris- 
tians, is  found  in  the  answer  of  the  Apostle  to 
an  objection  to  the  doctrine  of  justification  by 
rfaitli :  "  Do  we  then  make  void  the  law  through 
•faith  ?"  Rom.  iii,  31 ;  which  is  equivalent  to 
asking,  Does  Christianity  teach  that  the  law  is 
no  longer  obligatory  on  Christians,  because  it 
teaches  that  no  man  can  be  justified  by  it  ? 
To  this  he  answers,  in  the  most  solemn  form 
of  expression,  "  God  forbid ;  yea,  we  establish 


the  law."  Now,  the  sense  in  which  the  Apos-' 
tie  uses  the  term,  "the  law,"  in  this  argument, 
is  indubitably  marked  in  Rom.  vii,  7  :  "  I  had 
not  known  sin  birt  by  the  law ;  for  I  had  not 
known  lust,  except  the  law  had  said,  Thou 
shalt  not  covet :"  which,  being  a  plain  refer- 
ence to  the  tenth  command  of  the  decalogue, 
as  plainly  shows  that  the  decalogue  is  "the 
law"  of  which  he  speaks.  This,  then,  is  the 
law  which  is  established  by  the  Gospel ;  and 
this  can  mean  nothing  else  but  the  establish- 
ment and  confirmation  of  its  authority,  as  the 
rule  of  all  inward  and  outward  holiness.  Who- 
ever, therefore,  denies  the  obligation  of  the 
Sabbath  on  Christians,  denies  the  obligation 
j  of  the  whole  decalogue;  and  there  is  no  real 
medium  between  the  acknowledgment  of  the 
divine  authority  of  this  sacred  institution,  as  a 
universal  law,  and  that  gross  corruption  of 
Christianity,  generally  designated  Antinomi- 
anism. 

Nor  is  there  any  force  in  the  dilemma  into 
which  the  anti-sabbatarians  would  push  us, 
when  they  argue,  that,  if  the  case  be  so,  then 
are  we  bound  to  the  same  circumstantial  exacti- 
tude of  obedience  with  regard  to  this  command, 
as  to  the  other  precepts  of  the  decalogue  ;  and, 
therefore,  that  we  are  bound  to  observe  the 
seventh  day,  reckoning  from  Saturday,  as  the 
Sabbath  day.  But,  as  the  command  is  partly 
positive,  and  partly  moral,  it  may  have  circum- 
stances which  are  capable  of  being  altered  in 
perfect  accordance  with  the  moral  principles 
on  which  it  rests,  and  the  moral  ends  which  it 
proposes.  Such  circumstances  are  not  indeed 
to  be  judged  of  on  our  own  authority.  We 
must  either  have  such  general  principles  for 
our  guidance  as  have  been  revealed  by  God,  and 
cannot  therefore  be  questioned,  or  some  spe- 
cial authority  from  which  there  can  be  no  just 
appeal.  Now,  though  there  is  not  on  record 
any  divine  command  issued  to  the  Apostles,  to 
change  the  Sabbath  from  the  day  on  which  it 
was  held  by  the  Jews,  to  the  first  day  of  the 
week ;  yet,  when  we  see  that  this  was  done 
in  the  apostolic  age,  and  that  St.  Paul  speaks 
of  the  Jewish  Sabbaths  as  not  being  obligatory 
upon  Christians,  while  he  yet  contends  that 
the  whole  moral  law  is  obligatory  upon  them  ; 
the  fair  inference  is,  that  this  change  of  the 
day  was  made  by  divine  direction.  It  is  indeed 
more  than  inference  that  the  change  was  made 
under  the  sanction  of  inspired  men;  and  those 
men,  the  appointed  rulers  in  the  church  of 
Christ ;  whose  business  it  was  to  "  set  all 
things  in  order,"  which  pertained  to  its  wor- 
ship and  moral  government.  We  may  there- 
fore rest  well  enough  satisfied  with  this, — that 
as  a  Sabbath  is  obligatory  upon  us,  we  act  un- 
der apostolic  authority  for  observing  it  on  the 
first  day  of  the  week,  and  thus  commemorate 
at  once  the  creation  and  the  redemption  of 
the  world. 

Thus,  even  if  it  were  conceded,  that  tho 
change  of  the  day  was  made  by  the  agreement 
of  the  Apostles,  without  express  directions 
from  Christ,  which  is  not  probable,  it  is  cer- 
tain that  it  was  not  done  without  that  general 
authority  which  was    confided   to    them   by 


SAB 


831 


SAB 


Christ ;  but  it  would  not  follow  even  from  this 
change,  that  they  did  in  reality  make  any 
alteration  in  the  law  of  the  Sabbath,  either  as 
it  stood  at  the  time  of  its  original  institution 
at  the  close  of  the  creation,  or  in  the  deca- 
logue of  Moses.  The  same  portion  of  time 
which  constituted  the  seventh  day  from  the 
creation  could  not  be  observed  in  all  parts  of 
the  earth ;  and  it  is  not  probable,  therefore, 
that  the  original  law  expresses  more,  than 
that  a  seventh  day,  or  one  day  in  seven,  the 
seventh  day  after  six  days  of  labour,  should 
be  thus  appropriated,  from  whatever  point  the 
enumeration  might  set  out,  or  the  hebdomadal 
cycle  begin.  For  if  more  had  been  intended, 
'hen  it  would  have  been  necessary  to  establish 
<■*  rule  for  the  reckoning  of  days  themselves, 
which  has  been  different  in  different  nations; 
aome  reckoning  from  evening  to  evening,  as 
the  Jews  now  do,  others  from  midnight  to 
midnight,  &c.  So  that  those  persons  in  this 
country  and  in  America,  who  hold  their  Sab- 
bath on  Saturday,  under  the  notion  of  exactly 
conforming  to  the  Old  Testament,  and  yet 
calculate  the  days  from  midnight  to  midnight, 
have  no  assurance  at  all  that  they  do  not 
desecrate  a  part  of  the  original  Sabbath,  which 
might  begin,  as  the  Jewish  Sabbath  now,  on 
Friday  evening,  and,  on  the  contrary,  hallow 
a  portion  of  a  common  day,  by  extending  the 
Sabbath  beyond  Saturday  evening.  Even  if 
this  were  ascertained,  the  differences  of  lati- 
tude and  longitude  would  throw  the  whole 
into  disorder  ;  and  it  is  not  probable  that  a 
universal  law  should  have  been  fettered  with 
that  circumstantial  exactness,  which  would 
have  rendered  difficult,  and  sometimes  doubt- 
ful, astronomical  calculations  necessary  in 
order  to  its  being  obeyed  according  to  the 
intention  of  the  lawgiver.  Accordingly  we 
find,  says  Mr.  Holden,  that  in  the  original 
institution  it  is  stated  in  general  terms,  that 
God  blessed  and  sanctified  the  seventh  day, 
which  must  undoubtedly  imply  the  sanctity  of 
every  seventh  day  ;  but  not  that  it  is  to  be 
subsequently  reckoned  from  the  first  demiurgic 
day.  Had  this  been  included  in  the  command 
of  the  Almighty,  something,  it  is  probable, 
would  have  been  added  declaratory  of  the 
intention ;  whereas  expressions  the  most  un- 
defined are  employed  ;  not  a  syllable  is  uttered 
concerning  the  order  and  number  of  the  days; 
and  it  cannot  reasonably  be  disputed  that  the 
command  is  truly  obeyed  by  the  separation  of 
every  seventh  day,  from  common  to  sacred 
purposes,  at  whatever  given  time  the  cycle 
may  commence.  The  difference  in  the  mode  of 
expression  here,  from  that  which  the  sacred 
historian  has  used  in  the  first  chapter,  is  very 
remarkable.  At  the  conclusion  of  each  division 
of  the  work  of  creation,  he  says,  "  The  even- 
ing and  the  morning  were  the  first  day,"  and 
so  on  ;  but  at  the  termination  of  the  whole,  he 
merely  calls  it  the  seventh  day ;  a  diversity  of 
phrase,  which,  as  it  would  be  inconsistent 
with  every  idea  of  inspiration  to  suppose  it 
undesigned,  must  have  been  intended  to  de- 
note a  day,  leaving  it  to  each  people  as  to 
what  manner  it  is  to  be  reckoned.     The  term 


obviously  imports  the  period  of  the  earth's 
rotation  round  its  axis,  while  it  is  left  unde- 
termined, whether  it  shall  be  counted  from 
evening  or  morning,  from  noon  or  midnight. 
The  terms  of  the  law  are,  "  Remember  the 
Sabbath  day,  to  keep  it  holy.  Six  days  shalt 
thou  labour,  and  do  all  thy  work  ;  but  the 
seventh  day  is  the  Sabbath  of  the  Lord  thy 
God.  For  in  six  days  the  Lord  made  heaven 
and  earth,  the  sea,  and  all  that  in  them  is,  and 
rested  the  seventh  day ;  wherefore  the  Lord 
blessed  the  Sabbath  day,  and  hallowed  it." 
With  respect  to  time,  it  is  here  mentioned  in 
the  same  indefinite  manner  as  at  its  primeval 
institution,  nothing  more  being  expressly  re- 
quired than  to  observe  a  day  of  sacred  rest 
after  every  six  days  of  labour.  The  seventh 
day  is  to  be  kept  holy ;  but  not  a  word  is  said 
as  to  what  epoch  the  commencement  of  the 
series  is  to  be  referred  ;  nor  could  the  Hebrews 
have  determined  from  the  decalogue  what  day 
of  the  week  was  to  be  kept  as  their  Sabbath. 
The  precept  is  not,  Remember  the  seventh  day 
of  the  week,  to  keep  it  holy,  but,  "Remember 
the  Sabbath  day,  to  keep  it  holy ;"  and  in  the 
following  explication  of  these  expressions,  it 
is  not  said  that  the  seventh  day  of  the  week  is 
the  Sabbath,  but  without  restriction,  "  The 
seventh  day  is  the  Sabbath  of  the  Lord  thy 
God;"  not  the  seventh  according  to  any  par- 
ticular method  of  computing  the  septenary 
cycle,  but,  in  reference  to  the  six  before  men- 
tioned, every  seventh  day  in  rotation  after  six 
of  labour. 

Thus  that  part  of  the  Jewish  law,  the  deca- 
logue, which,  on  the  authority  of  the  New 
Testament,  we  have  shown  to  be  obligatory 
upon  Christians,  leaves  the  computation  of 
the  hebdomadal  cycle  undetermined  ;  and, 
after  six  days  of  labour,  enjoins  the  seventh 
as  the  Sabbath,  to  which  the  Christian  prac- 
tice as  exactly  conforms  as  the  Jewish.  It  is 
not,  however,  left  to  every  individual  to  de- 
termine which  day  should  be  his  Sabbath, 
though  he  should  fulfil  the  law  so  far  as  to  ab- 
stract the  seventh  part  of  his  time  from  labour. 
It  was  ordained  for  worship,  for  public  wor- 
ship ;  and  it  is  therefore  necessary  that  the 
Sabbath  should  be  uniformly  observed  by  a 
whole  community  at  the  same  time.  The 
divine  Legislator  of  the  lews  interposed  for 
this  end,  by  special  direction,  as  to  his  people. 
The  first  Sabbath  kept  in  the  wilderness  was 
calculated  from  the  first  day  in  which  the 
manna  fell ;  and  with  no  apparent  reference 
to  the  creation  of  the  world.  By  apostolic 
authority,  it  is  now  fixed  to  be  held  on  the  first 
day  of  the  week ;  and  thus  one  of  the  great 
ends  for  which  it  was  established,  that  it 
should  be  a  day  of  "  holy  convocation,"  is 
secured. 

Traces  of  the  original  appointment  of  the 
Sabbath,  and  of  its  observance  prior  to  the 
giving  forth  of  the  law  of  Moses,  have  been 
found  by  the  learned  in  the  tradition  which 
universally  prevailed  of  the  sacredness  of  the 
number  seven,  and  the  fixing  of  the  first  period 
of  time  to  the  revolution  of  seven  days.  The 
measuring  of  time  by  a  day  and  night  is  pointed 


SAB 


832 


SAB 


out  to  the  common  sense  of  mankind  by  the 
diurnal  course  of  the  sun.  Lunar  months  and 
solar  years  are  equally  obvious  to  all  rational 
creatures ;  so  that  the  reason  why  time  has 
been  computed  by  days,  months,  and  years,  is 
readily  given  ;  but  how  the  division  of  time 
into  weeks  of  seven  days,  and  this  from  the 
beginning,  came  to  obtain  universally  among 
mankind,  no  man  can  account  for,  without 
having  respect  to  some  impressions  on  the 
minds  of  men  from  the  constitution  and  law  of 
nature,  with  the  tradition  of  a  sabbatical  rest 
from  the  foundation  of  the  world.  Yet  plain 
intimations  of  this  weekly  revolution  of  time 
are  to  be  found  in  the  earliest  Greek  poets  : 
Hesiod,  Homer,  Linus,  as  well  as  among  the 
nations  of  the  Chaldeans,  Egyptians,  Greeks, 
and  Romans.  It  deserves  consideration,  too, 
on  this  subject,  that  Noah,  in  sending  forth 
the  dove  out  of  the  ark,  observed  the  septenary 
revolution  of  days,  Gen.  viii,  10,  12  ;  and  at  a 
subsequent  period,  in  the  days  of  the  Patriarch 
Jacob,  a  week  is  spoken  of  as  a  well  known 
period  of  time,  Gen.  xxix,  27 ;  Judges  xiv,  12, 
15, 17.  These  considerations  are  surely  suffi- 
cient to  evince  the  futility  of  the  arguments 
which  are  sometimes  plausibly  urged  for  the 
first  institution  of  the  Sabbath  under  the  law ; 
and  the  design  of  which,  in  most  cases  is,  to 
set  aside  the  moral  obligation  of  appropriating 
one  day  in  seven  to  the  purposes  of  the  public 
worship  of  God,  and  the  observation  of  divine 
ordinances.  But  the  truth  is,  that  the  seventh 
day  was  set  apart  from  the  beginning  as  a  day 
of  rest ;  and  it  was  also  strictly  enjoined  upon 
the  Israelites  in  their  law,  both  on  the  ground 
of  its  original  institution,  Exod.  xx,  8-11,  and 
also  to  commemorate  their  deliverance  from 
the  bondage  of  Egypt,  Deut.  v,  15. 

"A  Sabbath  day's  journey"  was  reckoned 
"to  be  two  thousand  cubits,  or  one  mile,  Acts 
i,  12.  The  sabbatical  year  was  celebrated 
among  the  Jews  every  seventh  year  when  the 
land  was  left  without  culture,  Exod.  xxii,  10. 
God  appointed  the  observation  of  the  sabbati- 
cal year,  to  preserve  the  remembrance  of  the 
creation  of  the  world,  to  enforce  the  acknow- 
ledgment of  his  sovereign  authority  over  all 
things,  and  in  particular  over  the  land  of  Ca- 
naan, which  he  had  given  to  the  Israelites,  by 
delivering  up  the  fruits  to  the  poor  and  the 
stranger.  It  was  a  sort  of  tribute,  or  small  rent, 
by  which  they  held  the  possession.  Beside, 
he  intended  to  inculcate  humanity  upon  his 
people,  by-«ommanding  that  they  should  re- 
sign to  the  slaves,  the  poor,  and  the  strangers, 
anc1  to  the  brutes,  the  produce  of  their  fields, 
of  ineir  vineyards,  and  of  their  gardens.  In 
the  sabbatical  year  all  debts  were  remitted, 
and  the  slaves  were  liberated,  Exodus  xxi,  2  ; 
Deut.  xv,  2. 

SABEANS,  or  "  men  of  stature,"  Isa.  xlv, 
14.  These  men  were  probably  the  Sabeans 
of  Arabia  Felix,  or  of  Asia.  They  submitted 
to  Cyrus.  The  Sabeans  of  Arabia  were  de- 
scended from  Saba ;  but  as  there  are  several 
of  this  name,  who  were  all  heads  of  peoples, 
or  of  tribes,  we  must  distinguish  several  kinds 
of  Sabeans.     1.  Those  Sabeans  who  seized  the 


flocks  of  Job,  i,  15,  were,  probably,  a  people 
of  Arabia  Deserta,  about  Bozra ;  or,  perhaps, 
a  flying  troop  of  Sabeans  which  infested  that 
country.  2.  Sabeans,  descendants  from  Sheba, 
son  of  Cush,  Gen.  x,  7,  are  probably  of  Arabia 
Felix  :  they  were  famous  for  spices  ;  the  poets 
gave  them  the  epithet  of  soft  and  effeminate, 
and  say  they  were  governed  by  women  : 
Medis,  levibusque  Sabais 
Imperat  hie  sexus. 
[This  sox  governs  the  Medes,  and  the  gentle  Sabeans] 
Several  are  of  opinion,  that  from  them  camo 
the  queen  of  Sheba,  1  Kings  x,  1,2;  and  that 
of  these  Sabeans  the  psalmist  speaks,  Psalm 
lxxii,  10,  "  The  kings  of  Arabia  and  Sheba 
shall  give  gifts  ;"  and  Jeremiah,  vi,  20  :  "What 
are  the  perfumes  of  Sheba  to  me  ?"  and  Isaiah, 
Ix,  6:  "All  who  come  from  Sheba  shall  offer 
gold  and  perfumes."  3.  Sabeans,  sons  of 
Sheba h,  son  of  Reumah,  Gen.  x,  7,  probably 
dwelt  in  Arabia  Felix.  Probably  it  is  of  these 
Ezekiel  speaks,  xxvii,  22,  who  came  with  their 
merchandise  to  the  fairs  of  Tyre :  and  Joel, 
iii,  8 :  "  I  will  deliver  up  your  children  to  the 
tribe  of  Judah,  who  shall  sell  them  to  the  Sa- 
beans, a  very  distant  nation."  4.  Sabeans, 
descendants  from  Joktan,  may  very  well  be 
those  mentioned  by  Ezekiel,  xxvii,  23  :  "  Saba, 
Assur,  and  Chelmad,  thy  dealers."  They  are 
thought  to  have  inhabited  beyond  the  Eu- 
phrates ;  whence  they  are  connected  with 
Asshur  and  Chilmad,  Gen.  x,  28 ;  1  Chron.  i, 
22.  5.  Sabeans  are  also  placed  in  Africa,  in 
the  isle  of  Meroe.  Josephus  brings  the  queen 
of  Sheba  from  thence,  and  pretends  that  it 
had  the  name  of  Shebah,  or  Saba,  before  that 
of  Meroe. 

SABELLIANS  were  so  called  from  Sabel- 
lius,  a  presbyter,  or,  according  to  others,  a 
bishop,  of  Upper  Egypt,  who  was  the  founder 
of  the  sect-  As,  from  their  doctrine,  it  follows 
that  God  the  Father  suffered,  they  were  hence 
called  by  their  adversaries,  Patripassians  ;  and, 
as  their  idea  of  the  trinity  was  by  some  called 
a  modal  trinity,  they  have  likewise  been  call- 
ed Modalists.  Sabellius  having  been  a  dis- 
ciple of  Noetus,  Noetians  is  another  name  by 
which  his  followers  have  sometimes  been 
known;  and  as,  from  their  fears  of  infringing 
on  the  fundamental  doctrine  of  all  true  reli- 
gion, the  unity  of  God,  they  neglected  all  dis- 
tinctions of  persons,  and  taught  the  notion  of 
one  God  with  three  names,  they  may  hence 
be  also  considered  as  a  species  of  Unitarians. 
Sabellius  flourished  about  the  middle  of  the 
third  century,  and  his  doctrine  seems  to  have 
had  many  followers  for  a  short  time.  Its 
growth,  however,  was  soon  checked  by  the 
opposition  made  to  it  by  Dionysius,  bishop  of 
Alexandria,  and  the  sentence  of  condemnation 
pronounced  upon  its  author  by  Pope  Dionysius, 
in  a  council  held  at  Rome,  A.  D.  263.  Sabel- 
lius taught  that  there  is  but  one  person  in  the 
Godhead  ;  and,  in  confirmation  of  this  doctrine, 
he  made  use  of  this  comparison  :  As  man, 
though  composed  of  body  and  soul,  is  but  one 
person,  so  God,  though  ho  is  Father,  Son,  and 
Holy  Ghost,  is  but  one  person.  Hence  the 
Sabellians    reduced    the  three  persons  in  the 


SAC 


833 


SAC 


trinity  to  three  characters  or  relations,  and 
maintained  that  the  Word  and  Holy  Spirit  are 
only  virtues,  emanations,  or  functions,  of  the 
Deity  ;  that  he  who  is  in  heaven  is  the  Father 
of  all  things;  that  he  descended  into  the  vir- 
gin, became  a  child,  and  was  born  of  her  as  a 
son;  and  that,  having  accomplished  the  mys- 
tery of  our  redemption,  he  effused  himself 
upon  the  Apostles  in  tongues  of  fire,  and  was 
then  denominated  the  Holy  Ghost.  This  they 
explain  by  resembling  God  to  the  sun,  the 
illuminative  virtue  or  quality  of  which  was  the 
word,  and  its  quickening  virtue  the  Holy 
Spirit.  The  word,  according  to  their  doc- 
trine, was  darted,  like  a  divine  ray,  to  accom- 
plish the  work  of  redemption ;  and  having 
reascended  to  heaven,  the  influences  of  the 
Father  were  communicated,  after  a  like  man- 
ner, to  the  Apostles.  They  also  attempted  to 
illustrate  this  mystery,  by  one  light  kindled  by 
another ;  by  the  fountain  and  stream,  and  by 
the  stock  and  branch.  With  respect  to  the 
sentiments  of  Sabellius  himself,  the  accounts 
are  various.  According  to  some,  he  taught 
that  the  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost,  were 
one  subsistence,  and  one  person,  with  three 
names ;  and  that,  in  the  Old  Testament,  the 
Deity  delivered  the  law  as  the  Father ;  in  the 
New  Testament  dwelt  among  men  as  the 
Son ;  and  descended  on  the  Apostles  as  the 
Holy  Spirit.  According  to  Mosheim,  his  sen- 
timents differed  from  those  of  Noetus,  in  this, 
that  the  latter  was  of  opinion,  that  the  person 
of  the  Father  had  assumed  the  human  nature 
of  Christ ;  whereas  Sabellius  maintained,  that 
a  certain  energy  only  proceeded  from  the 
supreme  Parent,  or  a  certain  portion  of  the 
divine  nature  was  united  to  the  Son  of  God, 
the  man  Jesus ;  and  he  considered,  in  the 
same  manner,  the  Holy  Ghost  as  a  portion  of 
the  everlasting  Father. 

Between  the  system  of  Sabellianism  and 
what  is  termed  the  indwelling  scheme,  there 
appears  to  be  a.  considerable  resemblance,  if  it 
be  not  precisely  the  same,  differently  explain- 
ed. The  indwelling  scheme  is  chiefly  founded 
on  that  passage  in  the  New  Testament,  where 
the  Apostle  speaking  of  Christ  says,  "  In  him 
dwelleth  all  the  fulness  of  the  Godhead  bodily." 
Dr.  Watts,  toward  the  close  of  his  life,  adopt- 
ed this  opinion,  and  wrote  several  pieces  in 
its  defence.  His  sentiments  on  the  trinity 
appear  to  have  been,  that  the  Godhead,  the 
Deity  itself,  personally  distinguished  as  the 
Father,  was  united  to  the  man  Christ  Jesus ; 
in  consequence  of  which  union  or  indwelling 
of  the  Godhead,  he  became  properly  God. 
Mr.  Palmer  observes,  that  Dr.  Watts  con- 
ceived this  union  to  have  subsisted  before  the 
Saviour's  appearance  in  the  flesh,  and  that  the 
human  soul  of  Christ  existed  with  the  Father 
from  before  the  foundation  of  the  world  :  on 
which  ground  he  maintains  the  real  descent 
of  Christ  from  heaven  to  earth,  and  the  whole 
scene  of  his  humiliation,  which  he  thought 
incompatible  with  the  common  opinion  con- 
cerning him. 

SACKCLOTH,  a  sort  of  mourning  worn  at 
the  death  of  a  friend  or  relation.  In  great 
54 


calamities,  in  penitence,  in  trouble  also,  they 
wore  sackcloth  about  their  bodies :  "  Gird 
yourselves  with  sackcloth,  and  mourn  for 
Abner,"  2  Sam.  iii,  31.  "Let  us  gird  our- 
selves with  sackcloth  ;  and  let  us  go  and  im- 
plore the  clemency  of  the  king  of  Israel," 
1  Kings  xx,  31.  Ahab  rent  his  clothes,  put 
on  a  shirt  of  haircloth  next  to  his  skin,  fasted, 
and  lay  upon  sackcloth,  1  Kings  xxi,  27 
When  Mordecai  was  informed  of  the  destruc- 
tion threatened  to  his  nation,  he  put  on  sack 
cloth,  and  covered  his  head  with  ashes,  Es- 
ther iv.  On  the  contrary,  in  time  of  joy,  or 
on  hearing  good  news,  those  who  were  clad  in 
sackcloth  tore  it  from  their  bodies,  and  cast  it 
from  them,  Psalm  xxx,  11.  The  prophets 
were  often  clothed  in  sackcloth,  and  generally 
in  coarse  clothing.  The  Lord  bids  Isaiah  to 
put  off  the  sackcloth  from  about  his  body,  and 
to  go  naked,  that  is,  without  his  upper  gar- 
ment, Isaiah  xx,  2.  Zechariali  says  that  false 
prophets  shall  no  longer  prophesy  in  sackcloth, 
to  deceive  the  simple,  Zech.  xiii,  4. 

SACRAMENT.  There  is  no  word  in  the 
Bible  which  corresponds  to  the  word  sacra- 
ment. It  is  a  Latin  word  ;  and,  agreeably  to 
its  derivation,  it  was  applied  by  the  early 
writers  of  the  western  church  to  any  ceremony 
of  our  holy  religion,  especially  if  it  were  figu- 
rative or  mystical.  But  a  more  confined  sig- 
nification of  this  word  by  degrees  prevailed, 
and  in  that  stricter  sense  it  has  been  always 
used  by  the  divines  of  modern  times.  Sacra- 
ments, says  Dr.  Hill,  are  conceived  in  the 
church  of  Rome  to  consist  of  matter,  deriving, 
from  the  action  of  the  priest  in  pronouncing 
certain  words,  a  divine  virtue,  by  which  grace 
is  conveyed  to  the  soul  of  every  person  who 
receives  them.  It  is  supposed  to  be  necessary 
that  the  priest,  in  pronouncing  the  words,  has 
the  intention  of  giving  to  the  matter  that 
divine  virtue ;  otherwise  it  remains  in  its 
original  state.  On  the  part  of  those  who  re- 
ceive the  sacrament,  it  is  required  that  they  be 
free  from  any  of  those  sins,  called  in  the  church 
of  Rome  mortal ;  but  it  is  not  required  of  them 
to  exercise  any  good  disposition,  to  possess 
faith,  or  to  resolve  that  they  shall  amend  their 
lives;  for  such  is  conceived  to  be  the  physical 
virtue  of  a  sacrament  administered  by  a  priest 
with  a  good  intention,  that,  unless  when  it  is 
opposed  by  the  obstacle  of  a  mortal  sin,  the 
very  act  of  receiving  it  is  sufficient.  This  act 
was  called,  in  the  language  of  the  schools, 
opus  operatum,  the  work  done  independently 
of  any  disposition  of  mind  attending  the  deed; 
and  the  superiority  of  the  sacraments  of  the 
New  Testament  over  the  sacraments  of  the 
Old  was  thus  expressed,  that  the  sacraments 
of  the  Old  Testament  were  effectual  ex  opare 
operavtis,  from  the  piety  and  faith  of  the  per- 
sons to  whom  they  were  administered  ;  while 
the  sacraments  of  the  New  Testament  convey 
grace,  ex  opere  operato,  from  their  own  intrinsic 
virtue,  and  an  immediate  physical  influence 
upon  the  mind  of  him  who  receives  them. 
This  notion  represents  the  sacraments  as  a 
mere  charm,  the  use  of  which,  being  totally 
disjoined  from  every  mental  exercise,  cannot 


SAC 


834 


SAC 


be  regarded  as  a  reasonable  service.  It  gives 
men  the  hope  of  receiving,  by  the  use  of  a 
charm,  the  full  participation  of  the  grace  of 
God,  although  they  continue  to  indulge  that 
very  large  class  of  sins,  to  which  the  accom. 
modating  morality  of  the  church  of  Rome  ex- 
tends  the  name  of  venial ;  and  yet  it  makes 
this  high  privilege  entirely  dependent  upon  the 
intention  of  another,  who,  although  he  per- 
forms all  the  outward  acts  which  belong  to 
the  sacrament,  may,  if  he  chooses,  withhold 
the  communication  of  that  physical  virtue, 
without  which  the  sacrament  is  of  none  avail. 
The  Socinian  doctrine  concerning  the  na- 
ture of  the  sacraments  is  founded  upon  a  sense 
of  the  absurdity  and  danger  of  the  popish  doc- 
trine, and  a  solicitude  to  avoid  any  approach 
to  it,  and  runs  into  the  opposite  extreme.  It 
is  conceived  that  the  sacraments  are  not  es- 
sentially distinct  from  any  other  rites  or  cere- 
monies; that,  as  they  consist  of  a  symbolical 
action,  in  which  something  external  and  ma- 
terial is  employed  to  represent  what  is  spirit- 
ual and  invisible,  they  may  by  this  address  to 
the  senses  be  of  U6e  in  reviving  the  remem- 
brance of  past  events,  and  in  cherishing  pious 
sentiments ;  but  that  their  effect  is  purely  moral, 
and  that  they  contribute,  by  that  moral  effect, 
to  the  improvement  of  the  individual  in  the 
same  manner  with  reading  the  Scriptures,  and 
many  other  exercises  of  religion.  It  is  admit- 
ted, indeed,  by  the  Socinians,  that  the  sacra- 
ments are  of  farther  advantage  to  the  whole 
society  of  Christians,  as  being  the  solemn 
badges  by  which  the  disciples  of  Jesus  are  dis- 
criminated from  other  men,  and  the  appointed 
method  of  declaring  that  faith  in  Christ,  by 
the  public  profession  of  which  Christians  mi- 
nister to  the  improvement  of  one  another.  But 
in  these  two  points,  the  moral  effect  upon  the 
individual,  and  the  advantage  to  society,  is 
contained  all  that  a  Socinian  holds  concern- 
ing the  general  nature  of  the  sacraments. 
This  doctrine,  like  all  other  parts  of  the  So- 
cinian system,  represents  religion  in  the  simple 
view  of  being  a  lesson  of  righteousness,  and 
loses  sight  or  that  character  of  the  Gospel, 
which  is  meant  to  be  implied  in  calling  it  a 
covenant  of  grace.  The  greater  part  of  Pro- 
testants, therefore,  following  an  expression  of 
the  Apostle,  Rom.  iv,  11,  when  he  is  speaking 
of  circumcision,  consider  the  sacraments  as 
not  only  signs,  but  also  seals,  of  the  covenant 
of  grace.  Those  who  apply  this  phrase  to  the 
sacraments  of  the  New  Testament,  admit 
every  part  of  the  Socinian  doctrine  concern- 
ing the  nature  of  sacraments,  and  are  accus- 
tomed to  employ  that  doctrine  to  correct  those 
popish  errors  upon  this  subject  which  are  not 
yet  eradicated  from  the  minds  of  many  of  the 
people.  But  although  they  admit  that  the 
Socinian  doctrine  is  true  as  far  as  it  goes, 
they  consider  it  as  incomplete.  -  For,  while 
they  hold  that  the  sacraments  yield  no  benefit 
to  those  upon  whom  the  signs  employed  in 
them  do  not  produce  the  proper  moral  effect, 
they  regard  these  signs  as  intended  to  repre- 
sent an  inward  invisible  grace,  which  pro- 
ceeds from  him  by  whom  they  are  appointed, 


and  as  pledges  that  that  grace  will  be  convey, 
ed  to  all  in  whom  the  moral  effect  is  produced. 
The  sacraments,  therefore,  in  their  opinion, 
constitute  federal  acts,  in  which  the  personi 
who  receive  them  with  proper  dispositions, 
solemnly  engage  to  fulfil  their  part  of  the  cove 
nant,  and  God  confirms  his  promise  to  them 
in  a  sensible  manner;  not  as  if  the  promise  of 
God  were  of  itself  insufficient  to  render  any 
event  certain,  but  because  this  manner  of  ex- 
hibiting the  blessings  promised  gives  a  stronger 
impression  of  the  truth  of  the  promise,  and 
conveys  to  the  mind  an  assurance  that  it  will 
be  fulfilled.  According  to  this  account  of  the 
sacraments,  the  express  institution  of  God  is 
essentially  requisite  to  constitute  their  nature ; 
and  in  this  respect  sacraments  are  distinguish- 
ed from  what  may  be  called  the  ceremonies  of 
religion.  Ceremonies  are  in  their  nature 
arbitrary  ;  and  different  means  may  be  em- 
ployed by  different  persons  with  success, 
according  to  their  constitution,  their  educa- 
tion, and  their  circumstances,  to  cherish  the 
sentiments  of  devotion,  and  to  confirm  good 
purposes.  But  no  rite  which  is  not  ordained 
by  God  can  be  conceived  to  be  a  seal  of  his 
promise,  or  the  pledge  of  any  event  that  de- 
pends upon  his  good  pleasure.  Hence,  that 
any  rite  may  come  up  to  our  idea  of  a  sacra- 
ment, we  require  in  it,  not  merely  a  vague 
and  general  resemblance  between  the  external 
matter  which  is  the  visible  substance  of  the 
rite,  and  the  thing  thereby  signified,  but  also 
words  of  institution,  and  a  promise  by  which 
the  two  are  connected  together ;  and  hence 
we  reject  five  of  the  seven  sacraments  that 
are  numbered  in  the  church  of  Rome,  because 
in  some  of  the  five  we  do  not  find  any  matter 
without  which  there  is  not  that  sign  which 
enters  into  our  definition  of  a  sacrament ;  and 
in  others  we  do  not  find  any  promise  connect- 
ing the  matter  used  with  the  grace  said  to  be 
thereby  signified,  although  upon  this  con- 
nection the  essence  of  a  sacrament  depends. 

SACRIFICE,  properly  so  called,  is  the 
solemn  infliction  of  death  on  a  living  creature, 
generally  by  the  effusion  of  its  blood,  in  a 
way  of  religious  worship ;  and  the  presenting 
of  this  act  to  God,  as  a  supplication  for  the 
pardon  of  sin,  and  a  supposed  means  of  com- 
pensation for  the  insult  and  injury  thereby 
offered  to  his  majesty  and  government.  Sacri- 
fices have,  in  all  ages,  and  by  almost  every 
nation,  been  regarded  as  necessary  to  placate 
the  divine  anger,  and  render  the  Deity  pro- 
pitious. Though  the  Gentiles  had  lost  the 
knowledge  of  the  true  God,  they  still  retained 
such  a  dread  of  him,  that  they  sometimes 
sacrificed  their  own  offspring  for  the  purpose 
of  averting  his  anger.  Unhappy  and  bewildered 
mortals,  seeking  relief  from  their  guilty  fears, 
hoped  to  atone  for  past  crimes  by  committing 
others  still  more  awful ;  they  gave  their  first. 
born  for  their  transgression,  the  fruit  of  their 
body  for  the  sin  of  their  soul.  The  Scriptures 
sufficiently  indicate  that  sacrifices  were  insti- 
tuted by  divine  appointment,  immediately  after 
the  entrance  of  sin,  to  prefigure  the  sacrifice 
of  Christ.     Accordingly,  we  find  Abel,  Noah. 


SAC 


835 


SAD 


Abraham,  Job,  and  others,  offering  sacrifices 
in  the  faith  of  the  Messiah ;  and  the  divine 
acceptance  of  their  sacrifices  is  particularly 
recorded.  But,  in  religious  institutions,  the 
Most  High  has  ever  been  jealous  of  his  pre- 
rogative. He  alone  prescribes  his  own  wor- 
6hip  ;  and  he  regards  as  vain  and  presumptuous 
every  pretence  of  honouring  him  which  he  has 
not  commanded.  The  sacrifice  of  blood  and 
death  could  not  have  been  offered  to  him  with- 
out  impiety,  nor  would  he  have  accepted  it, 
had  not  his  high  authority  pointed  the  way  by 
an  explicit  prescription. 

Under  the  law,  sacrifices  of  various  kinds 
were  appointed  for  the  children  of  Israel ;  the 
paschal  lamb,  Exod.  xii,  3 ;  the  holocaust,  or 
whole  burnt-offering,  Lev.  vii,  8  ;  the  sin-offer- 
ing, or  sacrifice  of  expiation,  Lev.  iv,  3,  4 ; 
and  the  peace-offering,  or  sacrifice  of  thanks- 
giving, Lev.  vii,  11,  12  ;  all  of  which  emblem- 
atically set  forth  the  sacrifice  of  Christ,  being 
the  instituted  types  and  shadows  of  it,  Heb. 
ix,  9-15  ;  x,  1.  Accordingly,  Christ  abolished 
the  whole  of  them  when  he  offered  his  own 
sacrifice.  "  Above,  when  he  said,  Sacrifice, 
and  offering,  and  burnt-offerings,  and  offering 
for  sin,  thou  wouldest  not,  neither  hadst  plea- 
sure therein,  which  are  offered  by  the  law  ; 
then  said  he,  Lo,  I  come  to  do  thy  will,  O  God. 
He  taketh  away  the  first,  that  he  may  establish 
the  second.  By  the  which  will  we  are  sanc- 
tified through  the  offering  of  the  body  of  Christ 
once  for  all,"  Heb.  x,  8-10 ;  1  Cor.  v,  7.  In 
illustrating  this  fundamental  doctrine  of  Chris- 
tianity, the  Apostle  Paul,  in  his  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews,  sets  forth  the  excellency  of  the  sacri- 
fice of  our  great  High  Priest  above  those  of  the 
law  in  various  particulars.  The  legal  sacrifices 
were  only  brute  animals,  such  as  bullocks, 
heifers,  goats,  lambs,  &c  ;  but  the  sacrifice  of 
Christ  was  himself,  a  person  of  infinite  dignity 
and  worth,  Heb.  ix,  12, 13 ;  i,  3 ;  ix,  14, 2G ;  x,  10. 
The  former,  though  they  cleansed  from  cere- 
monial uncleanness,  could  not  possibly  expiate 
sin,  or  purify  the  conscience  from  the  guilt  of 
it ;  and  so  it  is  said  that  God  was  not  well 
pleased  in  them,  Heb.  x,  4,  5,  8,  Jl.  But 
Christ,  by  the  sacrifice  of  himself,  hath  effect- 
ually, and  forever,  put  away  sin,  having  made 
an  adequate  atonement  unto  God  for  it,  and 
by  means  of  faith  in  it  he  also  purges  the  con- 
science from  dead  works  to  serve  the  living 
God,  Heb.  ix,  10-26 ;  Ephes.  v,  2.  The  legal 
sacrifices  were  statedly  offered,  year  after  year, 
by  which  their  insufficiency  was  indicated,  and 
an  intimation  given  that  God  was  still  calling 
sins  to  his  remembrance,  Heb.  x,  3 ;  but  the 
last  required  no  repetition,  because  it  fully  and 
at  once  answered  all  the  ends  of  sacrifice,  on 
which  account  God  hath  declared  that  he  will 
remember  the  sins  and  iniquities  of  his  people 
no  more. 

The  term  sacrifice  is  often  used  in  a  second- 
ary or  metaphorical  sense,  and  applied  to  the 
good  works  of  believers,  and  to  the  duties  of 
prayer  and  praise,  as  in  the  following  passages : 
"  But  to  do  good,  and  to  communicate,  forget 
not;  for  with  such  sacrifices  God  is  well 
pleased,"  Heb.  xiii,  16.     "Having  received  of 


Epaphroditus  the  things  which  ye  sent,  an  odour 
of  a  sweet  smell,  a  sacrifice  acceptable,  well 
pleasing  to  God,"  Phil,  iv,  18.  "  Ye  are  built 
up  a  spiritual  house,  a  holy  priesthood,  to  offer 
up  spiritual  sacrifices,  acceptable  to  God  by 
Jesus  Christ,"  1  Peter  ii,  5.  "  By  him,  there- 
fore, let  us  offer  the  sacrifice  of  praise  to  God 
continually  ;  that  is,  the  fruit  of  our  lips,  giv- 
ing thanks  to  his  name,"  Heb.  xiii,  15.  "  I 
beseech  you,  by  the  mercies  of  God,  that  ye 
present  your  bodies  a  living  sacrifice,  holy  ac- 
ceptable unto  God,  which  is  your  reasonable 
service,"  Rom.  xii,  1.  "There  is  a  peculiar 
reason,"  says  Dr.  Owen,  "  for  assigning  this 
appellation  to  moral  duties  ;  for  in  every  sacri- 
fice there  was  a  presentation  of  something  unto 
God.  The  worshipper  was  not  to  offer  that 
which  cost  him  nothing  ;  part  of  his  substance 
was  to  be  transferred  from  himself  unto  God. 
So  it  is  in  these  duties ;  they  cannot  be  pro- 
perly observed  without  the  alienation  of  some- 
thing that  was  our  own, — our  time,  ease,  pro- 
perty,  &c,  and  a  dedication  of  it  to  the  Lord. 
Hence  they  have  the  general  nature  of  sacri- 
fices." The  ceremonies  used  in  offering  the 
Jewish  sacrifices  require  to  be  noticed  as  illus- 
trative of  many  texts  of  Scripture,  and  some 
points  of  important  doctrine.  See  Atonement, 
Offerings,  Expiation,  Propitiation,  Recon- 
ciliation, and  Redemption. 

SADDUCEES,  a  sect  among  the  Jews.  It 
is  said  that  the  principles  of  the  Sadducees 
were  derived  from  Antigonvts  Sochaeus,  presi- 
dent of  the  sanhedrim,  about  B.  C.  250,  who, 
rejecting  the  traditionary  doctrines  of  the 
seribes,  taught  that  man  ought  to  serve  God 
out  of  pure  love,  and  not  from  hope  of  reward, 
or  fear  of  punishment ;  and  that  they  derived 
their  name  from  Sadoc,  one  of  his  followers, 
who,  mistaking  or  perverting  this  doctrine, 
maintained  that  Ihere  was  no  future  state  of 
rewards  and  punishments.  Whatever  found- 
ation there  may  be  for  this  account  of  the 
origin  of  the  sect,  it  is  certain,  that  in  the 
time  of  our  Saviour  the  Sadducees  denied  the 
resurrection  of  the  dead,  Acts  xxiii,  8,  and 
the  existence  of  angels  and  spirits,  or  souls  of 
departed  men  ;  though,  as  Mr.  Hume  observes, 
it  is  not  easy  to  comprehend  how  they  could 
at  the  same  time  admit  the  authority  of  the 
law  of  Moses.  They  carried  their  ideas  of 
human  freedom  so  far  as  to  assert  that  men 
were  absolutely  masters  of  their  own  actions, 
and  at  full  liberty  to  do  either  good  or  evil. 
Josephus  even  says  that  they  denied' the  essen- 
tial difference  between  good  and  evil;  and, 
though  they  believed  that  God  created  and 
preserved  the  world,  they  seem  to  have  denied 
his  particular  providence.  These  tenets,  which 
resemble  the  Epicurean  philssophy,  led,  as 
might  be  expected,  to  great  profligacy  of  life  ; 
and  we  find  the  licentious  wickedness  of  the 
Sadducees  frequently  condemned  in  the  New 
Testament;  yet  they  professed  themselves 
obliged  to  observe  the  Mosaic  law,  beeause  of 
the  temporal  rewards  and  punishments  annexed 
to  such  observance ;  and  hence  thsy  were 
always  severe  in  their  punishment  of  any 
crimes  which  tended  to  disturb  the  public  tran. 


SAL 


836 


SAL 


quillity.  The  Sadducees  rejected  all  tradition, 
and  some  authors  have  contended  that  they 
admitted  only  the  books  of  Moses ;  but  there 
seems  no  ground  for  that  opinion,  either  in 
the  Scriptures  or  in  any  ancient  writer.  Even 
Josephus,  who  was  himself  a  Pharisee,  and 
took  every  opportunity  of  reproaching  the  Sad- 
ducees, does  not  mention  that  they  rejected 
any  part  of  the  Scriptures ;  he  only  says  that 
"  the  Pharisees  have  delivered  to  the  people 
many  institutions  as  received  from  the  fathers, 
which  are  not  written  in  the  law  of  Moses. 
For  this  reason  the  Sadducees  reject  these 
things,  asserting  that  those  things  are  binding 
which  are  written,  but  that  the  things  received 
by  tradition  from  the  fathers  are  not  to  be  ob- 
served." Beside,  it  is  generally  believed  that 
the  Sadducees  expected  the  Messiah  with  great 
impatience,  which  seems  to  imply  their  belief 
in  the  prophecies,  though  they  misinterpreted 
their  meaning.  Confining  all  their  hopes  to 
this  present  world,  enjoying  its  riches,  and 
devoting  themselves  to  its  pleasures,  they 
might  well  be  particularly  anxious  that  their 
lot  of  life  should  be  cast  in  the  splendid  reign 
of  this  expected  temporal  king,  with  the  hope 
of  sharing  in  his  conquests  and  glory  ;  but  this 
expectation  was  so  contrary  to  the  lowly  ap- 
pearance of  our  Saviour,  that  they  joined  their 
inveterate  enemies,  the  Pharisees,  in  persecut- 
ing him  and  his  religion.  Josephus  says,  that 
the  Sadducees  were  able  to  draw  over  to  them 
the  rich  only,  the  people  not  following  them  ; 
and  he  elsewhere  mentions  that  this  sect  spread 
chiefly  among  the  young.  The  Sadducees  were 
far  less  numerous  than  the  Pharisees,  but  they 
were,  in  general  persons  of  greater  opulence 
and  dignity.  The  council  before  whom  our 
Saviour  and  St.  Paul  were  carried  consisted 
partly  of  Pharisees  and  partly  of  Sadducees. 

SALAMIS,  once  a  famous  city  in  the  isle 
of  Cyprus,  opposite  to  Seleucia,  on  the  Syrian 
coast ;  and  as  it  was  the  first  place  where  the 
Gospel  was  preached,  it  was  in  the  primitive 
times  made  the  see  of  the  primate  of  the  whole 
island.  It  was  destroyed  by  the  Saracens,  and 
from  the  ruins  was  built  Famagusta,  which 
was  taken  by  the  Turks  in  1570.  Here  St. 
Paul  preached,  A.  D.  44,  Acts  xiii,  5. 

SALMON,  son  of  Nahshon :  he  married 
Rahab,  by  whom  he  had  Boaz,  1  Chron.  ii, 
11,  51,  54;  Ruth  iv,  20,  21;  Matt,  i,  4.  He 
is  named  the  father  of  Bethlehem,  because  his 
descendants  peopled  Bethlehem. 

SALOME,  the  wife  of  Zebedee,  and  mother 
of  St.  James  the  greater,  and  St.  John  the 
evangelist,  Matthew  xxvii,  56;  and  one  of 
those  holy  women  who  used  to  attend  upon 
our  Saviour  in  his  jourueyings,  and  to  minis- 
ter to  him.  She  was  the  person  who  requested 
of  Jesus  Christ,  that  her  two  sons,  James  and 
John,  might  sit  on  his  rijjfht  and  left  hand  when 
he  should  enter  upon  his  kingdom,  having  then 
but  the  same  obscun'  virus  as  the  rest,  of  the 
disciples  ;  but  she  gave  proof  of  her  faith  when 
she  followed  Christ  to  Calvary,  and  did  not 
forsake  him  even  at  the  cross,  Mark  xv,  40 ; 
Matt,  xxvii,  55,  56.  She  was  also  one  of  the 
women  that  brought  perfumes  to  embalm  him. 


and  who  came,  for  this  purpose,  to  the  sepul- 
chre "  early  in  the  morning,"  Mark  xvi,  1,  2. 
At  the  tomb  they  saw  two  angels,  who  informed 
them  that  Jesus  was  risen.  Returning  to  Jeru- 
salem, Jesus  appeared  to  them  on  the  way,  and 
said  to  them,  "Be  not  afraid:  go,  tell  my  bre. 
thren  that  they  go  into  Galilee,  and  there  shall 
they  see  me." 

SALT.  God  appointed  that  salt  should  be 
used  in  all  the  sacrifices  that  were  offered  to 
him,  Leviticus  ii,  13.  Salt  is  esteemed  the 
symbol  of  wisdom  and  grace,  Colossians  iv,  6  ; 
Mark  ix,  50  ;  also  of  perpetuity  and  incorrup- 
tion,  Numbers  xviii,  19 ;  2  Chronicles  xiii,  5. 
The  orientals  were  accustomed  also  to  ratify 
their  federal  engagements  by  salt.  This  sub- 
stance was,  among  the  ancients,  the  emblem 
of  friendship  and  fidelity,  and  therefore  used 
in  all  their  sacrifices  and  covenants.  It  was  a 
sacred  pledge  of  hospitality  which  they  never 
ventured  to  violate.  Numerous  instances  oc- 
cur of  travellers  in  Arabia,  after  being  plunder- 
ed and  stripped  by  the  wandering  tribes  of  the 
desert,  claiming  the  protection  of  some  civil, 
ized  Arab,  who,  after  receiving  them  into  his 
tent,  and  giving  them  salt,  instantly  relieves 
their  distress,  and  never  forsakes  them  till  he 
has  placed  them  in  safety.  An  agreement,  thus 
ratified,  is  called,  in  Scripture,  "  a  covenant 
of  salt."  The  obligation  which  this  symbol 
imposes  on.  the  mind  of  an  oriental,  is  well 
illustrated  by  the  Baron  du  Tott  in  the  follow- 
ing anecdote  :  One  who  was  desirous  of  his 
acquaintance  promised  in  a  short  time  to  re- 
turn. The  baron  had  already  attended  him 
half  way  down  the  staircase,  when  stopping, 
and  turning  briskly  to  one  of  his  domestics, 
"Bring  me  directly,"  said  he,  "some  bread 
and  salt."  What  he  requested  was  brought ; 
when,  taking  a  little  salt  between  his  fingers, 
and  putting  it  with  a  mysterious  air  on  a  bit 
of  bread,  he  ate  it  with  a  devout  gravity,  assur- 
ing du  Tott  he  might  now  rely  on  him. 

Although  salt,  in  small  quantities,  may  con- 
tribute to  the  communicating  and  fertilizing 
of  some  kinds  of  stubborn  soil,  yet,  according 
to  the  observations  of  Pliny,  "  all  places  in 
which  salt  is  found  are  barren  and  produce 
nothing."  The  effect  of  salt,  where  it  abounds, 
on  vegetation,  is  described  by  burning,  in  Deut. 
xxix,  23,  "The  whole  land  thereof  is  brim- 
stone, and  salt  of  burning."  Thus  Volney, 
speaking  of  the  borders  of  the  Asphaltic  lake, 
or  Dead  Sea,  says,  "The  true  cause  of  the 
absence  of  vegetables  and  animals  is  the  acrid 
saltness  of  its  waters,  which  is  infinitely  greater 
than  that  of  the  sea.  The  land  surrounding 
the  lake,  being  equally  impregnated  with  that 
saltness,  refuses  to  produce,  plants  ;  the  air  it- 
self, which  is  by  evaporation  loaded  with  it, 
and  which  moreover  receives  vapours  of  sul- 
phur and  bitumen,  cannot  suit  vegetation ; 
whence  that  dead  appearance  which  reigns 
around  the  lake."  So  a  salt  land,  Jer.  xvii,  6, 
is  the  same  as  the  "  parched  places  of  the 
wilderness,"  and  is  descriptive  of  barrenness, 
as  saltness  also  is,  Job  xxxix,  6;  Psalm  cvii, 
34;  Ezek.  xlvii,  11  ;  Zech.  ii,  9.  Hence  the 
ancient  custom  of  sowing  an  enemy's  city, 


SAL 


837 


SAL 


when  taken,  with  salt,  in  token  of  perpetual 
desolation,  Judges  iv,  45  ;  and  thus  in  after 
times  the  city  of  Milan  was  burned,  razed,  sown 
with  salt,  and  ploughed  by  the  exasperated 
emperor,  Frederic  Barbarossa.  The  salt  used 
by  the  ancients  was  what  we  call  rock  or  fossil 
salt ;  and  also  that  left  by  the  evaporation  of 
salt  lakes.  Both  these  kinds  were  impure, 
being  mixed  with  earth,  sand,  &c,  and  lost 
their  strength  by  deliquescence.  Maundrell, 
describing  the  valley  of  salt,  says,  "On  the 
side  toward  Gibul  there  is  a  small  precipice, 
occasioned  by  the  continual  taking  away  of 
the  salt ;  and  in  this  you  may  see  how  the 
veins  of  it  lie.  I  broke  a  piece  of  it,  of  which 
that  part  that  was  exposed  to  the  sun,  rain, 
and  air,  though  it  had  the  sparks  and  particles 
of  salt,  yet  it  had  perfectly  lost  its  savour ; 
the  inner  part,  which  was  connected  with  the 
rock,  retained  its  savour,  as  I  found  by  proof." 
Christ  reminds  his  disciples,  Matt,  v,  13,  "Ye 
are  the  salt  of  the  earth  ;  but  if  the  salt  have 
lost  its  savour,  wherewith  shall  it  be  salted  ? 
It  is  thenceforth  good  for  nothing  but  to  be 
cast  out,  and  to  be  trodden  under  foot  of 
men."  This  is  spoken  of  the  mineral  salt  as 
mentioned  by  Maundrell,  a  great  deal  of  which 
was  made  use  of  in  offerings  at  the  temple  ; 
such  of  it  as  had  become  insipid  was  thrown 
out  to  repair  the  road.  The  existence  of  such  a 
salt,  and  its  application  to  such  a  use,  Schoet- 
genius  has  largely  proved  in  his  "  Horai  He- 
braicce."  The  salt  unfit  for  the  land,  Luke  xvi, 
34,  Le  Clerc  conjectures  to  be  that  made  of 
wood  ashes,  which  easily  loses  its  savour,  and 
becomes  no  longer  serviceable. 

Effcetos  cinerem  immundum  jactare  per  agros. 

Virgil.  Georg.  i,  81. 
"But  blush  not  fattening  dung  to  cast  around, 
Or  sordid  ashes  o'er  th'  exhausted  ground." 

Warton. 
SALUTATIONS  at  meeting  are  not  less 
common  in  the  east  than  in  the  countries  of 
Europe,  but  are  generally  confined  to  those  of 
their  own  nation  or  religious  party.  When 
the  Arabs  salute  each  other,  it  is  generally  in 
these  terms  :  Saluin  aleikum,  "  Peace  be  with 
you  ;"  laying,  as  they  utter  the  words,  the  right 
hand  on  the  heart.  The  answer  is,  Aleikum 
essalum,  "  With  you  be  peace ;"  to  which 
aged  people  are  inclined  to  add,  "and  the  mer- 
cy and  blessing  of  God."  The  Mohammedans 
of  Egypt  and  Syria  never  salute  a  Christian 
in  these  terms :  they  content  themselves  with 
saying  to  them,  "  Good  day  to  you ;"  or, 
"Friend,  how  do  you  do  ?"  Niebuhr's  state- 
ment is  confirmed  by  Mr.  Bruce,  who  says  that 
some  Arabs,  to  whom  he  gave  the  salam,  or 
salutation  of  peace,  either  made  no  reply,  or 
expressed  their  astonishment  at  his  impudence 
in  using  such  freedom.  Thus  it  appears  that 
the  orientals  have  two  kinds  of  salutations ; 
one  for  strangers,  and  the  other  for  their 
own  countrymen,  or  persons  of  their  own  re- 
ligious profession.  The  Jews  in  the  days  of 
our  Lord  seem  to  have  generally  observed  the 
same  custom  ;  they  would  not  address  the  usual 
compliment  of,  "  Peace  be  with  you,"  to  either 
Heathens  or  publicans ;  the  publicans  of  the 


Jewish  nation  would  use  it  to  their  country- 
men who  were  publicans,  but  not  to  Heathens, 
though  the  more  rigid  Jews  refused  to  do  it 
either  to  publicans  or  Heathens.  Our  Lord 
required  his  disciples  to  lay  aside  the  morose- 
ness  of  Jews,  and  cherish  a  benevolent  dispo- 
sition toward  all  around  them  :  "  If  ye  salute 
your  brethren  only,  what  do  ye  more  than 
others  ?  Do  not  even  the  publicans  so  ?"  They 
were  bound  by  the  same  authority  to  embrace 
their  brethren  in  Christ  with  a  special  affec- 
tion, yet  they  were  to  look  upon  every  man  as 
a  brother,  to  feel  a  sincere  and  cordial  interest 
in  his  welfare,  and  at  meeting  to  express  their 
benevolence,  in  language  corresponding  with 
the  feelings  of  their  hearts.  This  precept  is 
not  inconsistent  with  the  charge  which  the 
Prophet  Elisha  gave  to  his  servant  Gehazi,  not 
to  salute  any  man  he  met,  nor  return  his  salu- 
tation ;  for  he  wished  him  to  make  all  the 
haste  in  his  power  to  restore  the  child  of  the 
Shunamite,  who  had  laid  him  under  so  many 
obligations.  The  manners  of  the  country 
rendered  Elisha's  precautions  particularly  pro 
per  and  necessary,  as  the  salutations  of  the 
east  often  take  up  a  long  time.  For  a  similar 
reason  our  Lord  himself  commanded  his  disci- 
ples on  one  occasion  to  salute  no  man  by  the 
way :  it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  he  would 
require  his  followers  to  violate  or  neglect  an 
innocent  custom,  still  less  one  of  his  own 
precepts ;  he  only  directed  them  to  make  the 
best  use  of  their  time  in  executing  his  work. 
This  precaution  was  rendered  necessary  by  the 
length  of  time  which  their  tedious  forms  of  salu- 
tation required.  They  begin  their  salutations 
at  a  considerable  distance,  by  bringing  the  hand 
down  to  the  knees,  and  then  carrying  it  to  the 
stomach.  They  express  their  dt^otedness  to 
a  person  by  holding  down  the  hand,  as  they 
do  their  affection  by  raising  it  afterward  to  the 
heart.  When  they  come  close  together,  they 
take  each  other  by  the  hand  in  token  of  friend- 
ship. The  country  people  at  meeting  clap 
each  other's  hands  very  smartly  twenty  or 
thirty  times  together,  without  saying  any  thing 
more  than,  "  How  do  ye  do  ?  I  wish  you  good 
health."  After  this  first  compliment,  many 
other  friendly  questions  about  the  health  of 
the  family,  mentioning  each  of  the  children 
distinctly,  whose  names  they  know.  To  avoid 
this  useless  waste  of  time,  our  Lord  command- 
ed them  to  avoid  the  customary  salutations  of 
those  whom  they  might  happen  to  meet  by  the 
way.  Ah  the  forms  of  salutation  now  observed 
appear  to  have  been  in  general  use  in  the  days 
of  our  Lord ;  for  he  represents  a  servant  as 
falling  down  at  the  feet  of  his  master,  when 
he  had  a  favour  to  ask ;  and  an  inferior  serv- 
ant, as  paying  the  same  compliment  to  the 
first,  who  belonged,  it  would  seem,  to  a  higher 
class ;  "  The  servant,  therefore,  fell  down  and 
worshipped  him,  saying,  Lord,  have  patience 
with  me,  and  I  will  pay  thee  all.  And  his  fel- 
low servant  fell  down  at  hi*  feet,  and  besought 
him,  saying,  Have  patience  with  me,  and  I 
will  pay  thee  all,"  Matt,  xviii,  26,  29.  When 
Jairus  solicited  the  Saviour  to  go  and  heal  his 
daughter,  he  fell  down  at  his  feet :  the  Apostle 


SAL 


838 


SAM 


Peter,  on  another  occasion,  seems  to  have 
fallen  down  at  his  knees,  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  modern  Arabs  fall  down  at  the  knees  of 
a  superior.  The  woman  who  was  afflicted  with 
an  issue  of  blood  touched  the  hem  of  his  gar- 
ment, and  the  Syro-Phenician  woman  fell 
down  at  his  feet.  In  Persia,  the  salutation 
among  intimate  friends  is  made  by  inclining 
the  neck  over  each  other's  neck,  and  then  in- 
clining cheek  to  cheek ;  which  Mr.  Morier 
thinks  is  most  likely  the  falling  upon  the  neck 
and  kissing,  so  frequently  mentioned  in  Scrip- 
ture, Gen.  xxxiii,  4;  xlv,  14;  Luke  xv,  20. 

SAIAATION  imports,  in  general,  some 
great  deliverance  from  any  evil  or  danger. 
Thus,  the  conducting  the  Israelites  through 
the  Red  Sea,  and  delivering  them  out  of  the 
hands  of  the  Egyptians,  is  called  a  great  salva- 
tion. But  salvation  by  way  of  eminence,  is 
applied  to  that  wonderful  deliverance  which 
our  blessed  Saviour  procured  for  mankind,  by 
saving  them  from  the  punishment  of  their  sins  ; 
and  in  the  New  Testament  is  the  same  as  our 
redemption  by  Christ.  This  is  that  salvation 
referred  to  by  St.  Paul :  "  How  shall  we  escape 
if  we  neglect  so  great  salvation  ?"  The  sal- 
vation which  Christ  purchased,  and  the  Gospel 
tenders  to  every  creature,  comprehends  the 
greatest  blessings  which  God  can  bestow  ;  a  de- 
liverance from  the  most  dreadful  evils  that  man- 
kind can  suffer.  It  contains  all  that  can  make 
the  nature  of  man  perfect  or  his  life  happy, 
and  secures  him  from  whatever  can  render  his 
condition  miserable.  The  blessings  of  it  are 
inexpressible,  and  beyond  imagination.  "  Eye 
hath  not  seen,  nor  ear  heard,  neither  have  en- 
tered into  the  heart  of  man,  the  things  which 
God  hath  prepared  for  them  that  love  him." 
For,  to  be  saved  as  Christ  saves,  is  to  have  all 
our  innumerable  sins  and  transgressions  for- 
given and  blotted  out ;  all  those  heavy  loads 
of  guilt  which  oppressed  our  souls  perfectly 
removed  from  our  minds.  It  is  to  be  recon- 
ciled to  God,  and  restored  to  his  favour,  so 
that  he  will  be  no  longer  angry,  terrible,  and 
retributive,  but  a  most  kind,  compassionate, 
and  tender  Father.  It  is  to  be  at  peace  with 
him  and  with  our  consciences;  to  have  a  title 
to  his  peculiar  love,  care,  and  protection, 
all  our  days ;  to  be  rescued  from  the  bondage 
and  dominion  of  sin,  and  the  tyranny  of  the 
devil.  It  is  to  be  translated  from  the  power 
of  darkness,  into  the  kingdom  of  Christ ;  so 
that  sin  shall  reign  no  longer  in  our  mortal 
bodies,  but  we  shall  be  enabled  to  serve  God 
in  newness  of  life.  It  is  to  be  placed  in  a  state 
of  true  freedom  and  liberty,  to  be  no  longer 
under  the  control  of  blind  passions,  and  hurried 
on  by  our  impetuous  lusts  to  do  what  our  rea- 
son condemns.  It  is  to  have  a  new  principle 
of  life  infused  into  our  souls ;  to  have  the  Holy 
Spirit  resident  in  our  hearts,  whose  comfort- 
able influence  must  ever  cheer  and  refresh  us, 
and  by  whose  counsels  we  may  be  alwavs  ad- 
vised, directed,  and  governed.  It  is  to  be 
transformed  into  the  image  of  God;  and  to  be 
made  like  him  in  wisdom,  righteousness,  and 
all  other  perfections  of  which  man's  nature  is 
capable. 


Finally,  to  be  saved  as  Christ  came  to  save 
mankind,  is  to  be  translated,  after  this  life  is 
ended,  into  a  state  of  eternal  felicity,  never 
more  to  die  or  suffer,  never  more  to  know  pain 
and  sickness,  grief  and  sorrow,  labour  and 
weariness,  disquiet,  or  vexation,  but  to  live  in 
perfect  peace,  freedom,  and  liberty,  and  to  en. 
joy  the  greatest  good  after  the  most  perfect 
manner  for  ever.  It  is  to  have  our  bodies 
raised  again,  and  reunited  to  our  souls  ;  so  that 
they  shall  be  no  longer  gross,  earthly,  corruptible 
bodies,  but  spiritual,  heavenly,  immortal  ones, 
fashioned  like  unto  Christ's  glorious  body,  in 
which  he  now  sits  at  the  right  hand  of  God. 
It  is  to  live  in  the  city  of  the  great  King,  the 
heavenly  Jerusalem,  where  the  glory  of  the 
Lord  fills  the  place  with  perpetual  light  and 
bliss.  It  is  to  spend  eternity  in  the  most  noble 
and  hallowed  employments,  in  viewing  and 
contemplating  the  wonderful  works  of  God, 
admiring  the  wisdom  of  his  providence,  ador- 
ing his  infinite  love  to  the  sons  of  men,  reflect- 
ing on  our  own  inexpressible  happiness,  and 
singing  everlasting  hymns  of  praise,  joy,  and 
triumph  to  God  and  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ 
for  vouchsafing  all  these  blessings.  It  is  to 
dwell  for  ever  in  a  place,  where  no  objects  of 
pity  or  compassion,  of  anger  or  e-nvy,  of  hatred 
or  distrust,  are  to  be  found  ;  but  where  all  will 
increase  the  happiness  of  each  other,  by  mutual 
love  and  kindness.  It  is  to  converse  with  the 
most  perfect  society,  to  be  restored  to  the  fel- 
lowship of  our  friends  and  relations  who  have 
died  in  the  faith  of  Christ,  and  to  be  with  Jesus 
Christ,  to  behold  his  glory,  to  live  for  ever  in 
seeing  and  enjoying  the  great  God,  in  "whose 
presence  is  fulness  of  joy,  and  at  whose  right 
hand  are  pleasures  for  evermore."  This  is 
the  salvation  that  Christ  has  purchased  for 
us  ;  and  which  his  Gospel  offers  to  all  man- 
kind. 

SAMARIA,  one  of  the  three  divisions  of 
the  Holy  Land,  having  Galilee  on  the  north, 
Judea  on  the  south,  the  river  Jordan  on  the 
east,  and  the  Mediterranean  Sea  on  the  west. 
It  took  its  name  from  its  capital  city,  Samaria  ; 
and  formed,  together  with  Galilee  and  some 
cantons  on  the  east  of  Jordan,  during  the 
reigns  of  the  kings  of  Israel  and  Judah,  the 
kingdom  of  the  former.  The  general  aspect 
and  produce  of  the  country  are  nearly  the  same 
as  those  of  Judea.  But  Mr.  Buckingham  ob- 
serves, that  "  while  in  Judea  the  hills  are 
mostly  as  bare  as  the  imagination  can  paint 
them,  and  a  few  of  the  narrow  valleys  only 
are  fertile,  in  Samaria,  the  very  summits  of 
the  eminences  are  as  well  clothed  as  the  sides 
of  them.  These,  with  the  luxuriant  valleys 
which  they  enclose,  present  scenes  of  unbro- 
ken verdure  in  almost  every  point  of  view, 
which  are  delightfully  variegated  by  the  pic- 
turesque forms  of  the  hills  and  vales  them- 
selves, enriched  by  the  occasional  sight  of 
wood  and  water,  in  clusters  of  olive  and  other 
trees,  and  rills  and  torrents  running  among 
them." 

2.  Samaria,  the  capital  city  of  the  kingdom 
of  the  ten  tribes  that  revolted  from  the  house 
of  David.    It  was  built  by  Omri,  king  of  Israel, 


SAM 


839 


SAM 


who  began  to  reign  A.  M.  3079,  and  who  died 
3086.  He  bought  the  hill  Samaria  of  Shemer 
for  two  talents  of  silver,  or  for  the  sum  of 
684Z.  7s.  6d.  It  took  the  name  of  Samaria 
from  Shemer,  the  owner  of  the  hill,  I  Kings 
xvi,  24.  Some  think,  however,  that  there 
were  before  this  some  beginnings  of  a  city  in 
that  place,  because,  antecedent  to  the  reign 
of  Omri,  there  is  mention  made  of  Samaria, 
1  Kings  xiii,  32,  A.  M.  3030.  But  others  take 
this  for  a  prolepsis,  or  an  anticipation,  in  the 
discourse  of  the  man  of  God.  However  this 
may  be,  it  is  certain  that  Samaria  was  no  con- 
siderable place,  and  did  not  become  the  capital 
of  the  kingdom,  till  after  the  reign  of  Omri. 
Before  him,  the  kings  of  Israel  dwelt  at  She- 
chem  or  at  Tirzah.  Samaria  was  advantage- 
ously situated  upon  an  agreeable  and  fruitful 
hill,  twelve  miles  from  Dothaim,  twelve  from 
Merrom,  and  four  from  Atharath.  Josephus 
says  it  was  a  day's  journey  from  Jerusalem. 
The  kings  of  Samaria  omitted  nothing  to  make 
this  city  the  strongest,  the  finest,  and  the 
richest  that  was  possible.  Ahab  built  there  a 
palace  of  ivory,  1  Kings  xxii,  39  ;  that  is,  in 
which  there  were  many  ivory  ornaments  ;  and, 
according  to  Amos,  iii,  15 ;  iv,  1,  2,  it  became 
the  seat  of  luxury  and  effeminacy.  Benhadad, 
king  of  Syria,  built  public  places,  called 
"  streets,"  in  Samaria,  1  Kings  xx,  34 ;  pro- 
bably bazaars  for  trade,  and  quarters  where 
his  people  dwelt  to  pursue  commerce.  His 
son  Benhadad  besieged  this  place  under  the 
reign  of  Ahab,  1  Kings  xx,  A.  M.  3103.  It 
was  besieged  by  Shalmaneser,  king  of  Assyria, 
in  the  ninth  year  of  the  reign  of  Hoshea,  king 
of  Israel,  2  Kings  xvii,  6,  &c,  which  was  the 
fourth  of  Hezekiah,  king  of  Judah.  It  was 
taken  three  years  after,  A.  M.  3283.  The 
Prophet  Hosea,  x,  4,  8,  9,  speaks  of  the 
cruelties  exercised  by  Shalmaneser  against 
the  besieged ;  and  Micah,  i,  6,  says  that  the 
city  was  reduced  to  a  heap  of  stones.  The 
Cuthites  that  were  sent  by  Esar-haddon  to 
inhabit  the  country  of  Samaria  did  not  think 
it  worth  their  while  to  repair  the  ruined  city  : 
they  dwelt  at  Shechem,  which  they  made  the 
capital  city  of  their  state.  They  were  in  this 
condition  when  Alexander  the  Great  came  into 
Phenicia  and  Judea.  However,  the  Cuthites 
had  rebuilt  some  of  the  houses  of  Samaria, 
even  from  the  time  of  the  return  of  the  Jews 
from  the  captivity,  since  the  inhabitants  of 
Samaria  are  spoken  of,  Ezra  iv,  17 ;  Neh.  iv,  2. 
And  the  Samaritans,  being  jealous  of  the  Jews, 
on  account  of  the  favours  that  Alexander  the 
Great  had  conferred  on  them,  revolted  from 
him,  while  he  was  in  Egypt,  and  burned  An- 
dromachus  alive,  whom  he  had  left  governor 
of  Syria.  Alexander  soon  marched  against 
them,  took  Samaria,  and  appointed  Macedo- 
nians to  inhabit  it,  giving  the  country  round 
it  to  the  Jews  ;  and  to  encourage  them  in  the 
cultivation,  he  exempted  them  from  tribute. 
The  kings  of  Egypt  and  Syria,  who  succeeded 
Alexander,  deprived  them  of  the  property  of 
this  country.  But  Alexander  Balas,  king  of 
Syria,  restored  to  Jonathan  Maccaba=>us  the 
cities  of  Lydda,  Ephrem.  and  Ramatha,  which 


he  cut  off  from  the  country  of  Samaria, 
1  Mace,  x,  30,  38;  xi,  28,  34.  Lastly,  the 
Jews  reentered  into  the  full  possession  of  this 
whole  country  under  John  Hircanus,  the  As- 
monean,  who  took  Samaria,  and,  according  to 
Josephus,  made  the  river  run  through  its 
ruins.  It  continued  in  this  state  till  A.  M. 
3947,  when  Aulus  Gabinius,  the  proconsul  of 
Syria,  rebuilt  it,  and  gave  it  the  name  of  Ga. 
biniana.  Yet  it  remained  very  inconsiderable 
till  Herod  the  Great  restored  it  to  its  ancient 
splendour. 

The  sacred  authors  of  the  New  Testament 
speak  but  little  of  Samaria ;  and  when  they 
do  mention  it,  the  country  is  rather  to  be  un- 
derstood than  the  city,  Luke  xvii,  11;  John 
iv,  4,  5.  After  the  death  of  Stephen,  Acts 
viii,  1,  2,  3,  when  the  disciples  were  dispersed 
through  the  cities  of  Judea  and  Samaria,  Philip 
made  several  converts  in  this  city.  There  it 
was  that  Simon  Magus  resided,  and  thither 
Peter  and  John  went  to  communicate  the  gifts 
of  the  Holy  Spirit. 

Travellers  give  the  following  account  of  its 
present  state  : — Sebaste  is  the  name  which 
Herod  gave  to  the  name  of  the  ancient  Sa- 
maria, the  imperial  city  of  the  ten  tribes,  in 
honour  of  Augustus  (Sebastos)  Caesar,  when 
he  rebuilt  and  fortified  it,  converting  the 
greater  part  of  it  into  a  citadel,  and  erecting 
here  a  noble  temple.  "The  situation,"  says 
Dr.  Richardson,  "  is  extremely  beautiful,  and 
strong  by  nature ;  more  so,  I  think,  than  Je- 
rusalem. It  stands  on  a  fine,  large,  insulated 
hill,  compassed  all  around  by  a  broad  deep 
valley ;  and  when  fortified,  as  it  is  stated  to 
have  been  by  Herod,  one  would  have  imagined 
that,  in  the  ancient  system  of  warfare,  nothing 
but  famine  could  have  reduced  such  a  place, 
The  valley  is  surrounded  by  four  hills,  one  on 
each  side,  which  are  cultivated  in  terraces  up 
to  the  top,  sown  with  grain,  and  planted  with 
fig  and  olive  trees,  as  is  also  the  valley.  The 
hill  of  Samaria  likewise  rises  in  terraces  to  a 
height  equal  to  any  of  the  adjoining  mount- 
ains. The  present  village  is  small  and  poor, 
and,  after  passing  the  valley,  the  ascent  to  it 
is  very  steep.  Viewed  from  the  station  of  our 
tents,  it  is  extremely  interesting,  both  from  its 
natural  situation,  and  from  the  picturesque 
remains  of  a  ruined  convent,  of  good  Gothic 
architecture.  Having  passed  the  village,  to- 
ward the  middle  of  the  first  terrace,  there  is  a 
number  of  columns  still  standing.  I  counted 
twelve  in  one  row,  beside  several  that  stood 
apart,  the  brotherless  remains  of  other  rows. 
The  situation  is  extremely  delightful,  and  my 
guide  informed  me,  that  they  belonged  to  the 
serai,  or  palace.  On  the  next  terrace  there 
are  no  remains  of  solid  building,  but  heaps  of 
stone  and  lime  and  rubbish  mixed  with  the 
soil  in  great  profusion.  Ascending  to  the 
third  or  highest  terrace,  the  traces  of  former 
building  were  not  so  numerous,  but  we  en- 
joyed a  delightful  view  of  the  surrounding 
country.  The  eye  passed  over  the  deep  val- 
ley that  encompasses  the  hill  of  Sebaste,  and 
rested  on  the  mountains  beyond,  that  retroated 
as  they  rose  with  a  gentle  slope,  and  met  the 


SAM 


840 


SAM 


view  in  every  direction,  like  a  book  laid  out 
for  perusal  on  a  reading  desk.  This  was  the 
I  lie  capital  of  the  short-lived  and  wicked 
kjngdoin  of  Israel;  and  on  tlie  face  of  these 
mountains  the  eye  surveys  the  scene  of  many 
bloody  conflicts  and  many  (Memorable  events. 
Sere  those  holy  men  of  God,  Elijah  and 
Eliaha,  spoke  their  tremendous  warnings  in 
the  ears  of  their  incorrigible  rulers,  and  wrought 
their  miracles  in  the  sight  of  all  the  people. 
From  this  lofty  eminence  we  descended  to 
the  south  side  of  the  hill,  where  we  saw  the 
remains  of  a  stately  colonnade  that  stretches 
along  this  beautiful  exposure  from  east  to  west. 
Sixty  columns  are  still  standing  in  one  row. 
The  shafts  are  plain ;  and  fragments  of  Ionic 
volutes,  that  lie  scattered  about,  testify  the 
order  to  which  they  belonged.  These  are 
probably  the  relica  of  some  of  the  magnificent 
structures  with  which  Ilcrod  the  Great  adorned 
laria.  None  of  the  walls  remain."  Mr. 
Ingham  mentions  a  current  tradition, 
that  the  avenue  of  columns  formed  a  part  of 
Herod's  palace.  According  to  his  account, 
there  were  eighty-three  of  these  columns  erect 
in  1816,  beside  others  prostrate;  all  without 
I-.  Josephus  states,  that,  about  the 
Dliddle  of  the  city,  Herod  built  "a  sacred 
place,  of  ;i  furlong  and  a  half  in  circuit,  and 
adorned  it  with  all  sorts  of  decorations;  and 
therein  erected  a  temple,  illustrious  for  both 
its  largeness  and  beauty."  It  is  probable  that 
these  columns  belonged  to  it.  On  the  eastern 
side  of  the  same  summit  are  the  remains,  Mr. 
Buckingham  states,  of  another  building,  "  of 
which  eight  large  and  eight  small  columns  are 
still  standing,  with  many  others  fallen  near 
them.  These  also  are  without  capitals,  and 
are  of  a  smaller  size  and  of  an  inferior  stone  to 
the  others."  "  In  the  walls  of  the  humble 
dwePings  forming  the  modern  village,  por- 
tions of  sculptured  blocks  of  stone  are  per- 
ceived, and  even  fragments  of  granite  pillars 
have  been  worked  into  the  masonry," 

SAM  A  R  IT  \.\S,  an  ancient  sect  among  the 
Jews,  still  subsisting  in  some  parts  of  the  Le- 
vant, under  the  same  name.     Its  origin  was  in 
the  time  of  Rehoboam,  under  whose  reign  a 
division  was  made  of  the  people  of  Israel  into 
two  distinct  kingdoms.  One  of  these  kingdoms, 
called  Judah,  consisted  of  such  as  adhered  to 
Rehoboam  and  tho  house  of  David ;  the  other 
retained  the  ancient  name  of  Israelites,  under 
the  command  of  Jeroboam.    The  capital  of  the 
state  of  these  latter  was  Samaria;  and  hence 
it  was  that  they  were  denominated  Samaritans. 
Some  affirm  that  Salmanazar,  king  of  Assyria, 
having  conquered  Samaria,  led  the  whole  peo- 
ple   captive    into    tho    remotest   parts    of  his 
empire,  and  filled  their  places  with  colonies  of 
Babylonians,  Cutheans,  and   other   idolaters. 
These  finding  themselves  daily  destroyed  by 
wild   beasts,   it  is   said,   desired   an    Israelitish 
priest  to  instruct  them  in  the  ancient  laws  and 
customi  of  the  land  they  inhabited.     This  was 
ited  them  ;  and  they  thenceforth  ceased  to 
!    with  any  beasts.     However, 
with  the  lav.    of    Moses,   they  still   retained 
soinev  hat  of  their  ancient  idolatry.     The  rab- 


bins say,  they  adored  the  figure  of  a  dove  on 
Mount  Gerizim.  As  the  revolted  tribes  had 
no  more  of  the  Scriptures  than  the  five  books 
of  Moses,  so  the  priest  could  bring  no  others 
with  him  beside  those  books  written  in  the  old 
Phenician  letters. 

Upon    the    return    of  the   Jews    from    the 
Babylonish  captivity,  and   the  rebuilding  of 
Jerusalem  and  the  temple,  the  religion  of  the 
Samaritans  received  another  alteration  on  the 
following  occasion :    one  of  the   sons  of  Je- 
hoiada,  the  high  priest,  whom  Josephus  calls 
Manasseh,  married  the  daughter  of  Sanballat 
the  Iloronite  ;  but  the  law  of  God  having  for- 
bidden the  intermarriages  of  the  Israelites  with 
any  other  nation,   Nehemiah   set  himself  to 
reform  this  corruption,  which  had  spread  into 
many  Jewish  families,  and  obliged  all  that  had 
taken  strange  wives  immediately  to  part  with 
them,  Neh.  xiii,  23-30.     Manasseh,  unwilling 
to  surrender   his  wife,  fled  to  Samaria ;    and 
many  others  in  the  same  circumstances,  and 
with  similar  disposition,  went  and  settled  under 
the  protection  of  Sanballat,  governor  of  Sa- 
maria.     Manasseh   brought   with    him  some 
other  apostate  priests,  with  many  other  Jews, 
who  disliked  the  regulations  made  by  Nehe- 
miah at  Jerusalem  ;  and  now  the  Samaritans, 
having  obtained  a  high  priest,  and  other  priests 
of  the   descendants   from   Aaron,  were   soon 
brought  off  from  the  worship  of  the  false  gods, 
and  became  as  much  enemies  to  idolatry  as  the 
best  of  the  Jews.     However,  Manasseh  gave 
them  no  other  Scriptures  beside  the  Pentateuch, 
lest,   if  they  had  the   other  Scriptures,  they 
should  then  find  that  Jerusalem  was  the  only 
place  where  they  should  offer  their  sacrifices. 
From  that  time  the  worship  of  the  Samaritans 
came  much  nearer  to  that  of  the  Jews,  and 
they  afterward  obtained  leave  of  Alexander 
the  Great  to  build  a  temple  on  Mount  Gerizim, 
near  the  city  of  Samaria,  in  imitation  of  the 
temple  at  Jerusalem,  where  they  practised  the 
same   forms  of  worship.     To  this   mountain 
and  temple  the  Samaritan  woman  of  Sychar 
refers  in  her  discourse  with  our  Saviour,  John 
iv,  20.     The  Samaritans  soon  after  revolted 
from  Alexander,  who  drove  them  out  of  Sa- 
maria, introduced  Macedonians  in  their  room, 
and  gave  the  province  of  Samaria  to  the  Jews. 
This  circumstance   contributed    in    no    small 
degree  to  increase  the   hatred   and  animosity 
between  those  two  people.     When  any  Israel- 
ite deserved  punishment  on   account  of  the 
violation  of  some  important  point  of  the  law, 
he  presently  took  refuge  in  Samaria  or  She- 
chem,  and  embraced  the  worship  at  the  temple 
of  Gerizim.     When  the   affairs   of  the  Jews 
were  prosperous,  the   Samaritans  did  not  fail 
to  call  themselves  Hebrews,  and  of  the  race  of 
Abraham.     But  when  the  Jews  suffered  perse- 
cution, the  Samaritans   disowned    them,  and 
alleged  that  they  were  Phenicians  originally, 
or  descended  from   Joseph,  or   Manasseh    his 
son.     This  was  their  practice  in  the  time  of 
Antiochus    Epiphanes.      It    is    certain,    the 
modern    Samaritans   are    far    from    idolatry ; 
some  of  the  most   learned  among  the  Jewish 
doctors   own,   that  they   observe   the   law   of 


SAM 


841 


SAN 


Moses  more  rigidly  than  the  Jews  themselves. 
They  have  a  Hebrew  copy  of  the  Pentateuch, 
differing  in  some  respects  from  that  of  the 
Jews ;  and  written  in  different  characters, 
commonly  called  Samaritan  characters ;  which 
Origen,  Jerom,  and  other  fathers  and  critics, 
ancient  and  modern,  take  to  be  the  primitive 
character  of  the  ancient  Hebrews,  though 
others  maintain  the  contrary.  The  point  of 
preference,  as  to  purity,  antiquity,  &c,  of  the 
two  Pentateuchs,  is  also  much  disputed  by 
modern  critics. 

The  Samaritans  are  now  few  in  number; 
though  it  is  not  very  long  since  they  pretended 
to  have  priests  descended  directly  from  the 
family  of  Aaron.  -  They  were  chiefly  found 
at  Gaza,  Neapolis  or  Shechem,  (the  ancient 
Sichem  or  Naplouse,)  Damascus,  Cairo,  &c. 
They  had  a  temple,  or  chapel,  on  Mount  Ge. 
rizim,  where  they  performed  their  sacrifices. 
They  have  also  synagogues  in  other  parts  of 
Palestine,  and  also  in  Egypt.  Joseph  Scali- 
ger,  being  curious  to  know  their  usages,  wrote 
to  the  Samaritans  of  Egypt,  and  to  the  high 
priest  of  the  whole  sect,  who  resided  at  Neapo- 
lis. They  returned  two  answers,  dated  in  the 
year  998  of  the  Hegira  of  Mohammed.  These 
answers  never  came  to  the  hands  of  Scaliger. 
They  are  now  in  the  library  at  Paris,  and  have 
been  translated  into  Latin  by  Father  Morin, 
priest  of  the  oratory ;  and  printed  in  the  col. 
lection  of  letters  of  that  father  in  England, 
1662,  under  the  title  of  "  Antiquitates  Ecclesice, 
Orientalis."  M.  Simon  has  inserted  a  French 
translation  in  the  first  edition  of  "  Ceremonies 
et  Coutumes  des  Juifs,"  in  the  manner  of  a 
supplement  to  Leo  de  Modena.  In  the  first 
of  these  answers,  written  in  the  name  of  the 
assembly  of  Israel,  in  Egypt,  they  declare  that 
they  ce.ebrate  the  passover  every  year,  on  the 
fourteerth  day  of  the  first  month,  on  Mount 
Gerizirn.  and  that  he  who  then  did  the  office 
of  high  priest  was  called  Eleazar,  a  descendant 
of  Phinehas,  son  of  Aaron.  In  the  second 
answer,  which  is  in  the  name  of  the  high  priest 
Eleazar,  and  the  synagogue  of  Shechem,  they 
declare,  that  they  keep  the  Sabbath  in  all  the 
rigour  with  which  it  is  enjoined  in  the  book 
of  Exodus;  none  among  them  stirring  out  of 
doors,  but  to  the  synagogue.  They  add,  that 
they  begin  the  feast  of  the  passover  with  the 
sacrifice  appointed  for  that  purpose  in  Exodus  ; 
that  they  sacrifice  no  where  else  but  on  Mount 
Gerizim ;  that  they  observe  the  feasts  of  har- 
vest, the  expiation,  the  tabernacles,  &c.  They 
add  farther,  .hat  they  never  defer  circumcision 
beyond  the  eighth  day ;  never  marry  their 
nieces,  as  the  Jews  do  ;  have  but  one  wife  ;  and, 
in  fine,  do  nothing  but  what  is  commanded  in 
the  law :  whereas  the  Jews  frequently  abandon 
the  law  to  follow  the  inventions  of  their  rab- 
bins. At  the  time  when  they  wrote  to  Scaliger, 
they  reckoned  one  hundred  and  twenty-two 
high  priests;  affirmed  that  the  Jews  had  no 
high  priests  of  the  race  of  Phinehas ;  and  that 
the  Jews  belied  them  in  calling  them  Cutheans ; 
for  that  they  are  descended  from  the  tribe  of 
Joseph  by  Ephraim. 

SAMSON,  son  of  Manoah,  of  the  tribe  of 


Dan,  Judges  xiii,  2,  &c.  We  are  no  where 
acquainted  with  the  name  of  his  mother.  He 
was  born,  A.  M.  2849,  and  was  a  Nazarite  from 
his  infancy,  by  the  divine  command.  He  was 
brought  up  in  a  place  called  the  camp  of  Dan, 
between  Zorah  and  Estaol,  Judges  xiii,  25. 
His  extraordinary  achievements  are  particu- 
larly recorded  in  Judges  xiv-xvi.  "  Faith"  is 
attributed  to  him  by  St.  Paul,  though  whether 
he  retained  it  to  the  end  of  his  life  may  be 
doubted.  He  is  not  inaptly  called  by  an  old 
writer,  "  a  rough  believer." 

SAMUEL,  the  son  of  Elkanah  and  of  Han- 
nah, of  the  tribe  of  Levi,  and  family  of  Kohath, 
was  born,  A.  M.  2848.  He  was  an  eminent 
inspired  prophet,  historian,  and  the  seven- 
teenth and  last  Judge  of  Israel ;  and  died  in 
the  ninety-eighth  year  of  his  age,  two  years 
before  Saul,  A.  M.  2947,  1  Sam.  xxv.  To 
Samuel  are  ascribed  the  book  of  Judges,  that 
of  Ruth,  and  the  first  book  of  Samuel.  There 
is,  indeed,  great  probability  that  he  composed 
the  first  twenty-four  chapters  of  the  first  book 
of  Samuel ;  since  they  contain  nothing  but 
what  he  might  have  written,  and  such  transac- 
tions as  he  was  chiefly  concerned  in.  How- 
ever, in  these  chapters  there  are  some  small 
additions,  which  seem  to  have  been  inserted 
after  his  death.  Samuel  began  the  order  of 
the  prophets,  which  was  never  discontinued 
till  the  death  of  Zochariah  and  Malachi,  Acts 
iii,  24.  From  early  youth  to  hoary  years,  the 
character  of  Samuel  is  one  on  which  the  mind 
rests  with  veneration  and  delight. 

SANBALLAT,  the  governor  of  the  Cuth- 
ites  or  Samaritans,  and  an  enemy  to  the  Jews. 
He  was  a  native  of  Horon,  a  city  beyond 
Jordan,  in  the  country  of  the  Moabites,  Neh. 
ii,  10,  19 ;  iv,  vi. 

SANCTIFICATION,  that  work  of  God's 
grace  by  which  we  are  renewed  after  the  image 
of  God,  set  apart  for  his  service,  and  enabled 
to  die  unto  sin  and  live  unto  righteousness. 
Sanctification  is  either  of  nature,  whereby  we 
are  renewed  after  the  image  of  God,  in  know- 
ledge, righteousness,  and  true  holiness,  Eph. 
iv,  24;  Col.  iii,  19,  or  of  practice,  whereby  we 
die  unto  sin,  have  its  power  destroyed  in  us, 
cease  from  the  love  and  practice  of  it,  hate  it 
as  abominable,  and  live  unto  righteousness, 
loving  and  studying  good  works,  Tit.  ii,  11,  12. 
Sanctification  comprehends  all  the  graces  of 
knowledge,  faith,  repentance,  love,  humility, 
zeal,  patience,  &c,  and  the  exercise  of  them 
in  our  conduct  toward  God  or  man,  Gal. 
v,  22-24;  1  Peter  i,  15,  16;  Matt,  v,  vi,  vii. 
Sanctification  in  this  world  must  be  complete  ; 
the  whole  nature  must  be  sanctified,  all  sin 
must  be  utterly  abolished,  or  the  soul  can  never 
be  admitted  into  the  glorious  presence  of  God, 
Heb.  xii,  14 ;  1  Peter  i,  15 ;  Rev.  xxi,  27  ;  yet 
the  saints,  while  here,  are  in  a  state  of  spiritual 
warfare  with  Satan  and  his  temptations,  with 
the  world  and  its  influence,  2  Cor.  ii,  11 ;  Gal. 
v,  17,  24;  Rom.  vii,  23;  1  John  ii,  15,  16. 

SANCTIFY.  In  the  Old  Testament,  to 
sanctify  often  denotes  to  separate  from  a  com- 
mon to  a  holy  purpose ;  to  set  apart  or  consecrate 
to  God  as  his  special  property,  and  for  his  ser- 


SAN 


842 


SAN 


rice.  Our  Lord  also  uses  this  term,  when  he 
•ays,  "  For  their  sakes  I  sanctify  myself,"  John 
xvii,  19  ;  that  is,  I  separate  and  dedicate  myself 
to  be  a  sacrifice  to  God  for  them,  "  that  they 
also  may  be  sanctified  through  the  truth  ;"  that 
is,  that  they  may  be  cleansed  from  the  guilt  of 
sin.  Under  the  law  of  Moses,  there  was  a 
church  purity,  or  ceremonial  sanctification, 
which  might  be  obtained  by  the  observance  of 
external  rites  and  ordinances,  while  persons 
were  destitute  of  internal  purity  or  holiness. 
Every  defiled  person  was  made  "  common," 
and  excluded  from  the  privilege  of  a  right  to 
draw  nigh  to  God  in  his  solemn  worship ;  but 
in  his  purification  he  was  again  separated  to 
him,  and  restored  to  his  sacred  right.  Hence 
St.  Paul  speaks  of  "the  blood  of  bulls  and  goats, 
and  the  ashes  of  an  heifer  sprinkling  the  un- 
clean, as  sanctifying  unto  the  purifying  of  the 
flesh,"  Heb.  ix,  13.  These  things  were  in  re- 
ality of  no  moral  worth  or  value;  they  were 
merely  typical  institutions,  intended  to  repre- 
sent the  blessings  of  the  new  and  better  cove- 
nant, those  "  good  things  that  were  to  come  ;" 
and  therefore  God  is  frequently  spoken  of  in 
tho  prophets  as  despising  them,  namely,  in  any 
other  view  than  that  for  which  his  wisdom  had 
ordained  them,  Isaiah  i,  11-15;  Psalm  1,  8,  9 ; 
li,  16.  But  that  dispensation  is  now  at  an  end  ; 
under  the  New  Testament,  the  state  of  things 
ie  changed,  for  now  "neither  circumcision 
availeth  any  thing,  nor  uncircumcision,  but  a 
Dew  creature."  The  thing  signified,  namely, 
internal  purity  and  holiness,  is  no  less  neces- 
sary to  a  right  to  the  privileges  of  the  Gospel, 
than  the  observance  of  those  external  rites  was 
unto  the  privileges  of  the  law. 

S  W'CTUARY.     See  Temple. 

SANDALS,  at  first,  were  only  soles  tied  to 
the  feet  with  strings  or  thongs  ;  afterward  they 
were  covered:  and  at  last  they  called  even  shoes 
sandals.  When  Judith  went  to  the  camp  of 
Holofernes,  she  put  sandals  on  her  feet ;  and 
her  sandals  ravished  his  eyes,  Judith  x,  4 ; 
xvi,  9.  They  were  a  magnificent  kind  of  bus- 
kins proper  only  to  ladies  of  condition,  and 
such  as  dressed  themselves  for  admiration.  But 
there  were  sandals  also  belonging  to  men,  and 
of  mean  value.  We  read,  "  If  the  man  like 
not  to  take  his  brother's  wife,  then  let  his 
brother's  wife  go  up  to  the  gate  unto  the 
elders,  and  say,  My  husband's  brother  will 
not  perform  the  duty  of  a  husband's  brother; 
then  shall  his  brother's  wife  come  unto  him, 
in  the  presence  of  the  elders,  and  loose  his 
shoe  from  off  his  foot,  and  spit  in  his  face  ;  and 
shall  say,  So  shall  it  be  done  unto  that  man  that 
will  not  build  up  his  brother's  house.  And  his 
name  shall  be  called  in  Israel,  The  house  of 
him  who  hath  had  his  shoe  loosed,"  Deutero- 
nomy xxv,  7.  A  late  writer  observes  that  the 
word  rendered  "shoe," usually  means  "sandal," 
that  is,  n  mere  sole  fastened  on  the  foot  in  a 
very  simple  manner  ;  and  that  the  primary  and 
radical  meaning  of  the  word  rendered  face,  is 
surface,  the  superficies  of  any  thing.  Hence 
he  would  submit,  that  the  passage  may  be  to 
the  following  purpose  :  The  brother's  wife  shall 
loose  the  sandal  from  off  the   foot  of  her  hus- 


band's brother ;  and  shall  spit  upon  its  face  or 
surface,  (that  is,  of  the  shoe,)  and  shall  say, 
&c.  This  ceremony  is  coincident  with  certain 
customs  among  the  Turks.  We  are  told  that 
in  a  complaint  against  her  own  husband,  for 
withholding  himself  from  her  intimacy,  the  wife 
when  before  the  judge  takes  off  her  own  shoe, 
and  spits  upon  it ;  but  in  case  of  complaint 
against  her  husband's  brother,  6he  takes  off  his 
shoe  and  spits  upon  it. 

The  business  of  untying  and  carrying  the 
sandals  being  that  of  a  servant,  the  expressions 
of  the  Baptist,  "whose  shoes  I  am  not  worthy 
to  bear,"  "whose  shoe  latchet  I  am  not  worthy 
to  unloose,"  was  an  acknowledgment  of  his 
great  inferiority  to  Christ,  and  that  Christ  was 
his  Lord.  To  pull  off  the  sandals  on  entering 
a  sacred  place,  or  the  house  of  a  person  of  dis- 
tinction, was  the  usual  mark  of  respect.  They 
were  taken  care  of  by  the  attendant  servant. 
At  the  doors  of  an  Indian  pagoda,  there  are  as 
many  sandals  and  slippers  hung  up,  as  there 
are  hats  in  our  places  of  worship. 

SANHEDRIM,  SANHEDRIN,  or  SYN- 
EDRIUM,  among  the  ancient  Jews,  the  su- 
preme council,  or  court  of  judicature,  of  that 
republic ;  in  which  were  despatched  all  the 
great  affairs  both  of  religion  and  policy.  The 
word  is  derived  from  the  Greek  owfSpiov,  a  coun- 
cil, assembly,  or  company  of  people  sitting  to- 
gether ;  from  aiv,  together,  and  i?(5pa,  a  seat. 
Many  of  the  learned  agree,  that  it  was  insti- 
tuted by  Moses,  Numbers  xi ;  and  consisted  at 
first  of  seventy  elders,  who  judged  finally  of 
all  causes  and  affairs ;  and  that  they  subsisted, 
without  intermission,  from  Moses  to  Ezra, 
Deut.  xxvii,  1 ;  xxxi,  9  ;  Josh,  xxiv,  1,  31 :  Judg. 
ii,  7  ;  2  Chron.  xix,  8  ;  Ezek.  viii,  11.  Others 
will  have  it,  that  the  council  of  seventy  elders, 
established  by  Moses,  was  temporary,  and  did 
not  hold  after  his  death  ;  adding,  that  we  find 
no  sign  of  any  such  perpetual  and  infallible 
tribunal  throughout  the  whole  Old  Testament ; 
and  that  the  sanhedrim  was  first  s»t  up  in 
the  time  when  the  Maccabees,  or  Asnoneans, 
took  upon  themselves  the  administration  of  the 
government  under  the  title  of  high  priests,  and 
afterward  of  kings,  that  is,  after  the  persecu- 
tion of  Antiochus.  This  is  by  far  the  most 
probable  opinion.  The  Jews,  hovever,  con- 
tend  strenuously  for  the  antiquity  o:' their  great 
sanhedrim  :  M.  Simon  strengthens  ind  defends 
their  proofs,  and  M.  Le  Clerc  atacks  them. 
Whatever  may  be  the  origin  and  establishment 
of  the  sanhedrim,  it  is  certain  that  it  was  sub- 
sisting in  the  time  of  our  Saviour,  since  it  is 
spoken  of  in  the  Gospels,  Matt,  v,  21 ;  Mark 
xiii,  9  ;  xiv,  55  ;  xv,  1 ;  and  since  Jesus  Christ 
himself  was  arraigned  and  condemned  by  it ; 
that  it  was  held  at  Jerusalem  ;  and  that  the 
decision  of  all  the  most  important  affairs  among 
the  Jews  belonged  to  it.  The  president  of  this 
assembly  was  called  nasi,  or  prince  ;  his  deputy 
was  called  abbeth-din,  father  of  the  house  of  judg- 
ment ;  and  the  sub-deputy  was  called  chacan,  the 
wise :  the  rest  were  denominated  izekanim,  elders 
or  senators.  The  room  in  which  they  sat  was 
a  rotunda,  half  of  which  was  built  without  the 
temple,  and  half  within  ;  that  is,  one  semicircle 


SAN 


843 


SAP 


ot  the  room  was  within  the  compass  of  the 
temple ;  and  as  it  was  never  allowed  to  sit 
down  in  the  temple,  they  tell  us  this  part  was 
for  those  who  stood  up ;  the  other  half,  or  semi- 
circle, extended  without  the  holy  place,  and 
here  the  judges  sat.  The  nasi,  or  prince,  sat 
on  a  throne  at  the  end  of  the  hall,  having  his 
deputy  at  his  right  hand,  and  his  sub-deputy  at 
his  left;  the  other  senators  were  ranged  in 
order  on  each  side. 

The  sanhedrim  subsisted  until  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem,  but  its  authority  was  almost 
reduced  to  nothing,  from  the  time  in  which  the 
Jewish  nation  became  subject  to  the  Roman 
empire.  The  rabbins  pretend,  that  the  sanhe- 
drim has  always  subsisted  in  their  nation  from 
the  time  of  Moses  to  the  destruction  of  the 
temple  by  the  Romans ;  and  they  maintain  that 
it  consisted  of  seventy  counsellors,  six  out  of 
each  tribe,  and  Moses  as  president ;  and  thus 
the  number  was  seventy-one :  but  six  senators 
out  of  each  tribe  make  the  number  seventy-two, 
which,  with  the  president,  constitute  a  coun- 
cil of  seventy  .three  persons,  and  therefore  it 
has  been  the  opinion  of  some  authors  that  this 
was  the  number  of  the  members  of  the  sanhe- 
drim. As  to  the  personal  qualifications  of  the 
judges  of  this  court,  it  was  required  that  they 
should  be  of  untainted  birth  ;  and  they  were 
often  of  the  race  of  the  priests  or  Levites,  or  of 
the  number  of  inferior  judges,  or  of  the  lesser 
sanhedrim,  which  consisted  of  twenty-three 
judges.  They  were  to  be  skilful  in  the  written 
and  traditional  law  ;  and  they  were  obliged  to 
study  magic,  divination,  fortune  telling,  physic, 
astrology,  arithmetic,  and  languages.  It  was 
also  required,  that  none  of  them  should  be 
eunuchs,  usurers,  decrepid  or  deformed,  or 
gamesters;  and  that  they  should  be  of  mature 
age,  rich,  and  of  good  countenance  and  body. 
Thus  say  the  rabbins. 

The  authority  of  the  sanhedrim  was  very 
extensive.  This  council  decided  causes  brought 
before  it  by  appeal  from  inferior  courts.  The 
king,  high  priest,  and  prophets  were  subject  to 
its  jurisdiction.  The  general  officers  of  the 
nation  were  brought  before  the  sanhedrim. 
How  far  their  right  of  judging  in  capital  cases 
extended,  and  how  long  it  continued,  have 
been  subjects  of  controversy.  Among  the  rab- 
bins it  has  been  a  generally  received  opinion, 
that  about  forty  years  before  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem,  their  nation  had  been  deprived  of 
the  power  of  life  and  death.  And  most  au- 
thors assert,  that  this  privilege  was  taken  from 
them  ever  since  Judea  was  made  a  province  of 
the  Roman  empire,  that  is,  after  the  banish- 
ment of  Archelaus.  Others,  however,  main- 
tain that  the  Jews  had  still  the  power  of  life 
and  death  ;  but  that  this  privilege  was  restrict- 
ed to  crimes  committed  against  their  law,  and 
depended  upon  the  governor's  will  and  pleasure. 
In  the  time  of  Moses,  this  council  was  held  at 
the  door  of  the  tabernacle  of  the  testimony. 
As  soon  as  the  people  were  in  possession  of 
the  land  of  promise,  the  sanhedrim  followed 
the  tabernacle,  and  it  continued  at  Jerusalem, 
whither  it  was  removed,  till  the  captivity. 
During  the  captivity  it  was  kept  at  Babylon. 


After  the  return  from  Babylon,  it  remained  at 
Jerusalem,  as  it  is  said,  to  the  time  of  the 
sicarii  or  assassins  ;  afterward  it  was  removed 
to  Jamnia,  thence  to  Jericho,  to  Uzzah,  to 
Sepharvaim,  to  Bethsamia,  to  Sephoris,  and 
last  of  all  to  Tiberias,  where  it  continued  till 
its  utter  extinction.  Such  is  the  account  which 
the  Jews  give  of  their  sanhedrim.  But,  as 
stated  above,  much  of  this  is  disputed.  Petau 
fixes  the  beginning  of  the  sanhedrim  to  the 
period  when  Gabinius  was  governor  of  Judea, 
by  whom  were  erected  tribunals  in  the  five 
cities  of  Judea,  namely,  Jerusalem,  Gadara, 
Amathus,  Jericho,  and  Sephoris.  Grotius 
agrees  in  the  date  of  its  commencement  with 
the  rabbins,  but  he  fixes  its  termination  at  the 
beginning  of  Herod's  reign.  Basnage  places 
it  under  Judas  Maccabseus  and  his  brother  Jona- 
than. Upon  the  whole,  it  may  be  observed, 
that  the  origin  of  the  sanhedrim  has  not  been 
satisfactorily  ascertained  ;  and  that  the  council 
of  the  seventy  elders,  established  by  Moses,  was 
not  what  the  Hebrews  understood  by  the  name 
of  sanhedrim. 

Before  the  death  of  our  Saviour,  two  very 
famous  rabbins  had  been  presidents  of  the  san- 
hedrim, namely  Hillel  and  Schammai,  who  en- 
tertained very  different  opinions  on  several 
subjects,  and  particularly  that  of  divorce.  This 
gave  occasion  to  the  question  which  the  Pha- 
risees put  to  Jesus  Christ  upon  that  head,  Matt. 
xix,  3.  (See  Divorce.)  Hillel  had  Menahem 
for  his  associate  in  the  presidency  of  the  san- 
hedrim. But  the  latter  afterward  deserted  that 
honourable  post,  and  joined  himself  with  a 
great  number  of  his  disciples,  to  the  party  of 
Herod  Antipas,  who  promoted  the  levying  of 
taxes  for  the  use  of  the  Roman  emperors  with 
all  his  might.  These  were  probably  the  He- 
rodians  mentioned  in  the  Gospel,  Matt,  xxii,  16. 
To  Hillel  succeeded  Simeon  his  son,  who  by 
some  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  person  who 
took  Jesus  Christ  in  his  arms,  Luke  ii,  28,  and 
publicly  acknowledged  him  to  be  the  Messiah. 
If  this  be  the  case,  the  Jewish  sanhedrim  had  for 
president  a  person  that  was  entirely  disposed  to 
embrace  Christianity,  Gamaliel,  the  son  and 
successor  of  Simeon,  seems  to  have  been  also 
of  a  candid  disposition  and  character.  There 
were  several  inferior  sanhedrims  in  Palestine, 
all  depending  on  tte  great  sanhedrim  at  Jeru- 
salem. The  inferior  sanhedrim  consisted  each 
of  twenty-three  persons ;  and  there  was  one 
in  each  city  and  town.  Some  say,  that  to  have 
a  right  to  hold  a  sanhedrim,  it  was  requisite 
there  should  be  one  hundred  snd  twenty  inha- 
bitants in  the  place.  Where  the  inhabitants 
came  short  of  the  number  of  one  hundred  and 
twenty,  they  onlj  established  three  judges.  In 
the  great  as  well  as  the  inferior  sanhedrim 
were  two  scribes ;  the  one  to  write  down  the 
suffrages  of  those  who  were  for  condemnation, 
the  other  to  take  down  the  suffrages  of  those 
who  were  for  absolution. 

SAPPHIRE,  -hod,  Exod.  xxiv,  10;  xxviii, 
18  ;  Job  xxviii,  6,  16 ;  Cantic.  v,  14 ;  Isa.  liv, 
11;  Ezek.  i,  26;  x,  1;  xxviii,  13,  cdsHptipos, 
Rev.  xxi,  19,  only.  That  this  is  the  sapphire, 
there  can  be  no  doubt.     The  Septuagint,  the 


SAT 


844 


SCA 


Vulgate,  and  the  general  run  of  commentators, 
in,  11  lit  and  modern,  agree  in  this.  The  sap- 
phire  is  a  pellucid  gem.  In  its  finest  state  it 
is  extrerael]  beautiful  and  valuable,  and  second 
only  to  the  diamond  in  lustre,  hardness,  and 
ralue.  Its  propei  colour  is  pure  blue;  in  the 
choicest  specimens  it  is  of  the  deepest  azure  ; 
and  in  other*  varies  into  paleness,  in  shades 
of  all  degrees  between  that  and  a  pure  crystal 
brightness,  without  the  least  tinge  of  colour, 
but  with  a  lustre  much  superior  to  the  crystal. 
The  oriental  sapphire  is  the  most  beautiful 
and  rateable.  It  is  transparent,  of  a  fine  sky 
colour,  sometimes  variegated  with  veins  of  a 
u  bite  sparry  substance,  and  distinct  separate 
spots  of  a  gold  colour.  Whence  it  is  that  the  pro- 
phets describe  the  throne  of  God  like  unto  sap- 
phire, Ezek.  i,  26  ;  x,  1.  Isaiah,  liv,  11, 12,  pro- 
phesyingthe  future  grandeurof  Jerusalem,  says, 

"  Behold,  I  lav  thy  stones  in  cement  of  vermilion, 
And  th\  foundations  with  sapphires : 

ill  make  thy  battlements  of  rabies, 
And  thy  gates  ofcai  bunolee; 

An, I  the  whole  circuit  ofthy  walls  shall  be  of  precious 
stones." 

"These  seem,"  says  Bishop  Lowth,  "to  be 
general  images  to  express  beauty,  magnificence, 
purity,  strength,  and  solidity,  agreeably  to  the 
ideas  of  the  eastern  nations  ;  and  to  have  never 
been  intended  to  be  strictly  scrutinized,  or  mi- 
nutely and  particularly  explained,  as  if  they 
had  each  of  them  some  precise  moral  or  spirit- 
ual meaning."  Tobit,  xiii,  10,  17,  in  his  pro- 
phecy ofthc  final  restoration  of  Israel,  describes 
the  New  Jerusalem  in  the  same  oriental  man- 
ner :  "  For  Jerusalem  shall  be  built  up  with 
sapphires,  and  emeralds,  and  precious  stones; 
thy  walls,  and  towers,  and  battlements,  with 
pure  gold.  And  the  streets  of  Jerusalem  shall 
!«•  paved  with  the  taryl  and  carbuncle,  and 
with  stones  of  Ophir,'  Rev.  xxi,  18-21. 

SAK  VII,  the  wife  cf  Abraham,  and  his  sis- 
ter, as  he  himself  informs  us,  by  the  same 
father,  but  not  the  saim  mother,  Gen.  xx,  12. 

\  111!  Ml  \M. 

8  1RDIS,  a  city  of  Asa  Minor,  and  formerly 
the  capital  of  Crossus,  ting  of  the  Lydians. 
The  church  of  Sardis  wis  one  of  the  seven 
churches  of  Asia,  to  whhh  the  writer  of  the 
Apocalypse  was  directed  to  send  an  epistle, 
Rev.  iii",  1-3. 

SARDIUS,  otn,  so  called  from  its  redness, 
Exod.  xxviii,  17;  mix,  111  Ezek.  xxviii,  13; 
cipitos,  Rev.  xxi,  20 ;  a  precious  stone  of  a 
blood-red  colour.  It  took  its  Greek  name  from 
Sardis.  where  I  he  best  of  them  were  found. 
!  UDON  YX,  oaMvvl,  Rev.  xxi,  20.  A  pre- 
Itone  which  seems  to  have  its  name  from 
its  resemblance  partly  to  the  sardius  and  partly 
i"  the  onyx.  It  is  generally  tinged  with  black 
and  blood  colour,  which  are  distinguished  from 
•ach  other  by  eircles  or  rows,  so  distinct  that 
they  appear  to  he  the  erred  of  art. 

SATAN  signifies  an  adversary  or  enemy, 
ami  is  commonly  applied  in  the  Scriptures  to 
the  devil,  or  thechiefef  the  fallen  angels,  Uy 
collecting  the  passages  where  Satan,  or  the 
devil,  is  mentioned,  it  roaj  b nchided,  that 

he    fell    fr,„ii    heaven  with    his   company  ;   that 


God  cast  him  down  from  thence  for  the  punish- 
ment of  his  pride ;  that  by  his  envy  and 
malice,  sin,  death,  and  all  other  evils  came 
into  the  world ;  that,  by  the  permission  of 
God  he  exercises  a  sort  of  government  in  the 
world  over  subordinate  apostate  angels  like 
himself;  that  God  makes  use  of  him  to  prove 
good  men,  and  chastise  bad  ones ;  that  he  is  a 
lying  spirit  "in  the  mouth  of  false  prophets  and 
seducers ;  that  it  is  he,  or  his  agents,  that  tor- 
ment or  possess  men,  and  inspire  them  with 
evil  designs,  as  when  he  suggested  to  David, 
the  numbering  of  the  people,  to  Judas  to  be- 
tray his  Lord  and  Master,  and  to  Ananias  and 
Sapphira  to  conceal  the  price  of  their  field ; 
that  he  is  full  of  rage  like  a  roaring  lion,  and 
of  subtlety  like  a  serpent,  to  tempt,  to  betray, 
to  destroy,  and  to  involve  us  in  guilt  and  wick- 
edness ;  that  his  power  and  malice  are  restain- 
ed  within  certain  limits,  and  controlled  by  the 
will  of  God  ;  in  a  word,  that  he  is  an  enemy  to 
God  and  man,  and  uses  his  utmost  endeavours 
to  rob  God  of  his  glory,  and  men  of  their  souls. 
See  Devil  and  Demoniacs. 

SAUL,  the  son  of  Kish,  of  the  tribe  of  Ben- 
jamin, the  first  king  of  the  Israelites,  1  Sam. 
ix,  1,  2,  &c.  Saul's  fruitless  journey  when 
seeking  his  father's  asses  ;  (See  Ass;)  his  meet- 
ing the  Prophet  Samuel ;  the  particulars  fore- 
told to  him,  with  his  being  anointed  as  king, 
about  A.  M.  2909  ;  his  prophesying  along  with 
the  young  prophets ;  his  appointment  by  the 
lot ;  his  modesty  in  hiding  himself;  his  first 
victory  over  the  Ammonites  ;  his  rash  sacrifice 
in  the  absence  of  Samuel ;  his  equally  rash 
curse  ;  his  victories  over  the  Philistines  and 
Amalekites  ;  his  sparing  of  King  Agag  with  the 
judgment  denounced  against  him  for  it ;  his 
jealousy  and  persecution  of  David  ;  his  barba- 
rous massacre  of  the  priests  and  people  of  Nob  ; 
his  repeated  confessions  of  his  injustice  to  Da- 
vid, &c,  are  recorded  in  1  Sam.  ix-xxxi.  He 
reigned  forty  years,  but  exhibited  to  posterity 
a  melancholy  example  of  a  monarch,  elevated 
to  the  summit  of  worldly  grandeur,  who,  hav- 
ing cast  off  the  fear  of  Gf>d,  gradually  became 
the  slave  of  jealousy,  duplicity,  treachery,  and 
the  most  malignant  and  diabolical  tempers. 
His  behaviour  toward  David  shows  him  to  have 
been  destitute  of  every  generous  and  noble 
sentiment  that  can  dignifiy  human  nature  ;  and 
it  is  not  an  easy  task  to  speak  with  any  mode- 
ration of  the  atrocity  and  baseness  which  uni- 
formly mark  it.  His  character  is  that  of  a 
wicked  man,  "  waxing  worse  and  worse  ;"  but 
while  we  are  shocked  at  its  deformity,  it  should 
be  our  study  to  profit  by  it,  which  we  can  only  do 
by  using  it  as  a  beacon  to  warn  us,  "lest  we  also 
be  hardened  through  the  deceitftilness  of  sin." 

SCARLET,  nj^in,  Gen.  xxxviii,  28 ;  Exod. 
xxv,  4.  This  tincture  or  colour  expressed  by 
a  word  which  signifies  worm  colour,  was  pro- 
duced from  a  worm  or  insect  which  grew  in  a 
coccus,  or  excrescence  of  a  shrub  of  the  ilex 
kind,  which  Pliny  calls  "coccus  scolecius," 
the  wormy  berry,  and  Dioscorides  terms  "a 
small  dry  twig,  to  which  the  grains  adhere  like 
lentiles :"  but  these  grains,  as  a  great  author 
observes  on  Solinus,  "are  within  full  of  little 


SCO 


845 


SCO 


worms  or  maggots,  whose  juice  is  remarkable 
for  dying  scarlet,  and  making  that  famous 
colour  which  we  admire,  and  with  which  the 
ancients  were  enraptured.  We  retain  the 
name  in  the  cochineal,  from  the  opuntia  of 
America;  but  we  improperly  call  a  mineral 
colour  "vermilion,"  which  is  derived  from  ver. 
miculus,  a  little  worm.  The  shrub  on  which 
the  cochineal  insect  is  found  is  sometimes  call- 
ed the  "  kermez  oak,"  from  kermez,  the  Arabic 
word  both  for  the  worm  and  the  colour; 
whence  "  carmasinus,"  the  French  "  cramoisi," 
and  the  English  "  crimson." 

SCEPTRE,  a  word  derived  from  the  Greek, 
properly  signifies,  a  rod  of  command,  a  staff" of 
authority,  which  is  supposed  to  be  in  the  hands 
of  kings,  governors  of  a  province,  or  of  the 
chief  of  a  people,  Gen.  xlix,  10;  Numb,  xxiv, 
17  ;  Isa.  xiv,  5.  The  sceptre  is  put  for  the  rod 
of  correction,  and  for  the  sovereign  authority 
that  punishes  and  humbles,  Psalm  ii,  9 ;  Prov. 
xxii,  15.  The  term  sceptre  is  frequently  used 
for  a  tribe,  probably  because  the  prince  of  each 
tribe  carried  a  sceptre,  or  a  wand  of  command, 
to  show  his  dignity. 

SCEVA,  a  Jew,  and  chief  of  the  priests, 
Acts  xix,  14,  15,  16.  He  was  probably  a  per- 
son of  authority  in  the  synagogue  at  Ephesus, 
and  had  seven  sons. 

SCHISM,  from  <ry;(<7/«j,  a  rent  or  fissure.  In 
its  general  meaning,  it  signifies  division  or 
separation ;  and  in  particular,  on  account  of 
religion.  Schism,  is  properly  a  division  among 
those  who  stand  in  one  connection  or  fellow- 
ship ;  but  when  the  difference  is  carried  so  far 
that  the  parties  concerned  entirely  break  off 
all  communion  and  intercourse  one  with  an- 
other, and  form  distinct  connections  for  obtain- 
ing the  general  ends  of  that  religious  fellowship 
which  they  once  cultivated ;  it  is  undeniable 
there  is  something  different  from  the  schism 
spoken  of  in  the  New  Testament.  This  is  a 
separation  from  the  body.  Dr.  Campbell  shows 
that  the  word  schism  in  Scripture  does  not 
usually  signify  an  open  separation,  but  that 
men  may  be  guilty  of  schism  by  such  an  aliena- 
tion of  affection  from  their  brethren  as  violates 
the  internal  union  in  the  hearts  of  Christians, 
though  there  be  no  error  in  doctrine,  nor  sepa- 
ration from  communion. 

SCORPION,  mpj;,  Deut.  viii,  15;  1  Kings 
xii,  11,  14;  2Chron.  x,  11,  14;  Ezek.  ii,  6, 
tjKon-.ioi,  Luke  x,  19 ;  xi,  12  ;  Rev.  ix,  3;  Ecclus. 
xxvi,  7 ;  xxxix,  30.  Parkhurst  derives  the 
name  from  pjj,  to  press,  squeeze,  and  21,  much, 
greatly,  or  3np,  near,  close.  Calmet  remarks, 
that  "  it  fixes  so  violently  on  such  persons  as 
it  seizes  upon,  that  it  cannot  be  plucked  off 
without  difficulty  ;"  and  Martinius  declares  : 
Habent  scorpii  forfices  sen  f ureas  tanquam  bra- 
chia,  quibus  retinent  quod  apprehendunt,  post- 
quam  cauda  aculeo  punxerunt  :  "  Scorpions 
have  pincers  or  nippers,  with  which  they  keep 
hold  of  what  they  seize  after  they  have  wound- 
ed it  with  their  sting." 

The  scorpion,  el-akerb,  is  generally  two 
inches  in  length,  and  resembles  so  much  the 
lobster  in  form,  that  the  latter  is  called  by  the 
Arabs  akerb  d'clbahar,  the  "  sea  scorpion."     It 


has  several  joints  or  divisions  in  its  tail,  which 
are  supposed  to  be  indicative  of  its  age  ;  thus, 
if  it  have  five,  it  is  considered  to  be  five  years 
old.  The  poison  of  this  animal  is  in  its  tail, 
at  the  end  of  which  is  a  small,  curved,  sharp- 
pointed  sting,  similar  to  the  prickle  of  a  buck- 
thorn tree;  the  curve  being  downward,  it  turns 
its  tail  upward  when  it  strikes  a  blow.  The 
scorpion  delights  in  stony  places  and  in  old 
ruins.  Some  are  of  a  yellow  colour,  others 
brown,  and  some  black.  The  yellow  possess 
the  strongest  poison,  but  the  venom  of  each 
affects  the  part  wounded,  with  frigidity,  which 
takes  place  soon  after  the  sting  has  been  in- 
flicted. Dioscorides  thus  describes  the  effect 
produced  :  "  Where  the  scorpion  has  stung, 
the  place  becomes  inflamed  and  hardened ;  it 
reddens  by  tension,  and  is  painful  by  intervals, 
being  now  chilly,  now  burning.  The  pain 
soon  rises  high,  and  rages,  sometimes  more, 
sometimes  less.  A  sweating  succeeds,  attend- 
ed by  a  shivering  and  trembling ;  the  extremi- 
ties of  the  body  become  cold  ;  the  groin  swells  ; 
the  hair  stands  on  end ;  the  visage  becomes 
pale ;  and  the  skin  feels,  throughout  it,  the  sen- 
sation of  perpetual  prickling,  as  if  by  needles." 
This  description  strikingly  illustrates  Revela- 
tion ix,  3-5,  10,  in  its  mention  of  "the  torment 
of  a  scorpion,  when  he  striketh  a  man." 

Some  writers  consider  the  scorpion  as  a  spe- 
cies of  serpent,  because  the  poison  of  it  is 
equally  powerful :  so  the  sacred  writers  com- 
monly join  the  scorpion  and  serpent  together 
in  their'  descriptions.  Thus  Moses,  in  his 
farewell  address  to  Israel,  Deut.  viii,  15,  re- 
minds them,  that  God  "led  them  through  the 
great  and  terrible  wilderness,  wherein  were 
fiery  serpents  and  scorpions."  We  find  them 
again  united  in  the  commission  of  our  Lord  to 
his  disciples,  Luke  x,  19,  "I  give  you  power 
to  tread  upon  serpents  and  scorpions,  and  over 
all  the  power  of  the  enemy;"  and  in  his  direc- 
tions concerning  the  duty  of  prayer,  Luke  xi, 
11, 12,  "  If  a  son  shall  ask  bread  of  any  of  you 
that  is  a  father,  will  he  give  him  a  stone  ?  or 
if  he  shall  ask  an  egg,  will  be  offer  him  a 
scorpion  ?" 

The  scorpion  is  contrasted  with  an  egg,  on 
account  of  the  oval  shape  of  its  body.  The 
body  of  the  scorpion,  says  Lamy,  is  very  like 
an  egg,  as  its  head  can  scarcely  be  distinguish- 
ed ;  especially  if  it  be  a  scorpion  of  the  white 
kind,  which  is  the  first  species  mentioned  by 
jElian,  Avicenna,  and  others.  Bochart  has 
produced  testimonies  to  prove  that  the  scor- 
pions in  Judea  were  about  the  bigness  of  an 
egg.  So  the  similitude  is  preserved  between 
the  thing  asked  and  given.  The  Greeks  have 
a  proverb,  fori  -cpKrjs  exepniov,  instead  of  a  perch, 
or  fish,  a  scorpion. 

SCOURGE  or  WHIP.  This  punishment 
was  very  common  among  the  Jews,  Deut.  xxv, 
1  -3.  There  were  two  ways  of  giving  the  lash ; 
one  with  thongs,  or  whips,  made  of  ropes* 
ends,  or  straps  of  leather ;  the  other  with  rods, 
or  twigs.  St.  Paul  informs  us,  that  at  five 
different  times  he  received  thirty-nine  stripes 
from  the  Jews,  2  Cor.  xi,  24,  namely,  in  their 
synagogues,  and  before  their  courts  of  judg 


SCR 


846 


SCR 


ment.  For,  according  to  the  law,  punishment 
by  stripes  was  restricted  to  forty  at  one  beat- 
ing, Deut.  xxv,  3.  But  the  whip,  with  which 
these  6tripes  were  given,  consisting  of  three 
separate  cords,  and  each  stroke  being  account, 
ed  as  three  stripes,  thirteen  strokes  made  thirty- 
nine  stripes,  beyond  which  they  never  went. 
He  adds,  that  he  had  been  thrice  beaten  with 
rods,  namely,  by  the  Roman  lictors,  or  beadles, 
at  the  command  of  the  superior  magistrates. 

81  RIBES.  The  scribes  are  mentioned  very 
early  in  the  sacred  history,  and  many  authors 
suppose  that  they  were  of  two  descriptions, 
the  one  ecclesiastical,  the  other  civil.  It  is 
said,  "  Out  of  Zebulon  come  they  that  handle 
the  pen  of  the  writer,"  Judges  v,  14;  and  the 
rabbins  state,  that  the  scribes  were  chiefly  of 
the  tribe  of  Simeon  ;  but  it  is  thought  that  only 
those  of  the  tribe  of  Levi  were  allowed  to 
transcribe  the  Holy  Scriptures.  These  scribes 
are  very  frequently  called  wise  men,  and  coun- 
sellors ;  and  those  of  them  who  were  remark- 
able for  writing  well  were  held  in  great  esteem. 
In  the  reign  of  David,  Seraiah,  2  Sam.  viii, 
17,  in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah,  Shebna,  2  Kings 
xviii,  18,  and  in  the  reign  of  Josiah,  Shaphan, 
2  Kings  xxii,  3,  are  called  scribes,  and  are 
ranked  with  the  chief  officers  of  the  kingdom; 
and  Elishama  the  scribe,  Jer.  xxxvi,  12,  in  the 
reign  of  Jehoiakim,  is  mentioned  among  the 
princes.  We  read  also  of  the  "  principal  scribe 
of  the  host,"  or  army,  Jer.  lii,  25;  and  it  is 
probable  that  there  were  scribes  in  other  de- 
partments of  the  state.  Previous  to  the  Baby- 
lonian captivity,  the  word  scribe  seems  to  have 
been  applied  to  any  person  who  was  concern- 
ed in  writing,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  word 
secretary  is  with  us.  The  civil  scribes  are  not 
mentioned  in  the  New  Testament. 

It  appears  that  the  office  of  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal scribes,  if  this  distinction  be  allowed,  was 
originally  confined  to  writing  copies  of  the 
law,  as  their  name  imports ;  but  the  knowledge, 
thus  necessarily  acquired,  soon  led  them  to  be- 
come instructors  of  the  people  in  the  written 
law,  which,  it  is  believed,  they  publicly  read. 
Baruch  was  an  amanuensis  or  scribe  to  Jere- 
miah;  and  Ezra  is  called  "a  ready  scribe  in 
the  law  of  Moses,  having  prepared  his  heart  to 
seek  the  law  of  the  Lord,  and  to  do  it,  and  to 
teach  in  Israel  statutes  and  judgments,"  Ezra 
vii,  6, 10  ;  but  there  is  no  mention  of  the  scribes 
being  formed  into  a  distinct  body  of  men  till 
alter  the  cessation  of  prophecy.  When,  how- 
ever, there  were  no  inspired  teachers  in  Israel, 
no  divine  oracle  in  the  temple,  the  scribes  pre- 
sumed to  interpret,  expound,  and  comment 
upon  the  law  and  the  prophets  in  the  schools 
and  in  the  synagogues.  Hence  arose  ihose 
numberless  glosses,  and  interpretations,  and 
opinions,  n  bich  so  much  perplexed  and  pervert- 
ed the  text  instead  of  explaining  it  ;  and  hence 
arose  that  unauthorized  maxim,  which  was  the 
principal  source  of  all  the  Jewish  sects,  that 
the  ,,r,il  or  traditionary  law  was  of  Divine  ori- 
gin,  as  well  as  the  written  law  of  Moses.  Ezra 
had  examined  the  various  traditions  concern- 
ing the  ancient  and  approved  usages  of  the 
Jewish  church,  which  had  been  in  practice  be. 


fore  the  captivity,  and  were  remembered  by  the 
chief  and  most  aged  of  the  elders  of  the  peo- 
ple ;  and  he  had  given  to  some  of  these  tra- 
ditionary customs  and  opinions  the  sanction 
of  his  authority.     The  scribes,  therefore,  who 
lived  after  the  time  of  Simon  the  Just,  in  order 
to  give  weight  to  their  various  interpretations 
of  the  law,  at  first  pretended  that  they  also 
were  founded  upon  tradition,  and  added  them 
to  the  opinions  which  Ezra  had  established  as 
authentic ;  and  in  process  of  time  it  came  to 
be  asserted,  that  when  Moses  was  forty  days 
on  Mount  Sinai,  he  received  from  God  two 
laws,  the  one  in  writing,  the  other  oral ;  that 
this  oral  law  was  communicated  by  Moses  to 
Aaron  and  Joshua,  and  that  it  passed  unim- 
paired   and  uncorrupted   from   generation  to 
generation,  by  the  tradition  of  the  elders,  or 
great  national  council,  established  in  the  time 
of  Moses ;    and  that  this   oral  law  was  to  be 
considered  as   supplemental   and  explanatory 
of  the  written  law,  which  was  represented  aa 
being  in  many  places    obscure,    scanty,    and 
defective.      In  some  cases  they  were   led  to 
expound  the  law  by  the  traditions,  in  direct 
opposition   to  its  true   intent    and   meaning ; 
and  it  may  be  supposed  that  the  intercourse  of 
the  Jews  with  the  Greeks,  after  the  death  of 
Alexander,  contributed  much  to  increase  those 
vain  subtleties  with  which  they  had  perplexed 
and  burdened  the  doctrines  of  religion.     Dur- 
ing our  Saviour's  ministry,  the  serines  were 
those  who  made  the  law  of  Moses  their  par- 
ticular study,  and  who  were  employed  in  in- 
structing the  people.     Their  reputed  skill  in 
the  Scriptures  induced  Herod,  Matt,  ii,  4,  to 
consult  them  concerning  the  time  at  which 
the  Messiah  was  to  be  born.     And  our  Saviour 
speaks  of  them  as  sitting  in  Moses's  seat,  Matt, 
xxiii,  2,  which  implies  that  they  taught  the 
law  ;  and  he  foretold  that  he  should  be  betray- 
ed unto  the  chief  priests  and  unto  the  scribes, 
Matt,  xvi,  21,  and  that  they  should  put  him  to 
dtath,  which  shows  that  they  were  men  of 
great  power  and   authority  among  the  Jews. 
Scribes,    doctors  of  law,   and   lawyers,   were 
only  different  names  for  the  same  class  of  per- 
sons.    Those  who  in  Luke  v,  are  called  Phari- 
sees and  doctors  of  the  law,  are  soon  afterward 
called  Pharisees  and  scribes ;  and  he  who,  in 
Matt,  xxii,  35,  is  called  a  lawyer,  is,  in  Mark 
xii,  28,  called  one  of  the  scribes.     They  had 
scholars  under  their  care,  whom  they  taught 
the  knowledge  of  the  law,  and  who,  in  their 
schools,  sat  on  low  stools  just  beneath  their 
seats ;   which    explains   St.   Paul's  expression 
that  he  was  "brought  up  at  the  feet  of  Gama- 
liel," Acts  xxii,  3.     We  find  that  our  Saviour's 
manner  of  teaching  was  contrasted  with  that 
of  those  vain  disputers ;  for  it  is  said,  when  he 
had  ended  his  sermon  upon  the  mount,  "the 
people  were  astonished  at  his  doctrine ;  for  he 
taught  them  as  one  having  authority,  and  not 
as  the  scribes,"  Matt,  vii,  29.     By  the  time  of 
our  Saviour,  the  scribes  had,  indeed,  in  a  man- 
ner, laid  aside  the  written  law,  having  no  far- 
ther regard  to  that  than  as  it  agreed  with  their 
traditionary  expositions  of  it;  and  thus,  by  their 
additions,  corruptions,  and  misinterpretations. 


SEA 


S47 


SEC 


they  had  made  "  the  word  of  God  of  none  effect 
through  their  traditions,"  Matt,  xv,  6.  It  may- 
be observed,  that  this  in  a  great  measure  ac- 
counts for  the  extreme  blindness  of  the  Jews 
with  respect  to  their  Messiah,  whom  they  had 
been  taught  by  these  commentators  upon  the 
prophecies  to  expect  as  a  temporal  prince. 
Thus,  when  our  Saviour  asserts  his  divine 
nature,  and  appeals  to  "  Moses  and  the  pro. 
phets  who  spake  of  him,  the  people  sought  to 
slay  him,"  John  v;  and  he  expresses  no  sur- 
prise at  their  intention.  But  when  he  converses 
with  Nicodemus,  John  iii,  who  appears  to  have 
been  convinced  by  his  miracles  that  he  was  "a 
teacher  sent  from  God,"  when  he  "came  to 
Jesus  by  night,"  anxious  to  obtain  farther  in- 
formation concerning  his  nature  and  his  doc- 
trine, our  Lord,  after  intimating  the  necessity 
of  laying  aside  all  prejudices  against  the  spi- 
ritual nature  of  his  kingdom,  asks,  "Art  thou 
a  master  in  Israel,  and  knowest  not  these 
things  ?"  that  is,  knowest  not  that  Moses  and 
the  prophets  describe  the  Messiah  as  the  Son 
of  God  ?  and  he  then  proceeds  to  explain  in 
very  clear  language  the  dignity  of  his  person 
and  office,  and  the  purpose  for  which  he  came 
into  the  world,  referring  to  the  predictions  of 
the  ancient  Scriptures.  And  Stephen,  Acts 
vii,  just  before  his  death,  addresses  the  multi- 
tude by  an  appeal  to  the  law  and  the  prophets, 
and  reprobates  in  the  most  severe  terms  the 
teachers  who  misled  the  people.  Our  Lord, 
when  speaking  of  "them  of  old  time,"  classed 
the  "  prophets,  and  wise  men,  and  scribes,"  to- 
gether,  Matt,  xxiii,  34;  but  of  the  later  scribes 
he  uniformly  speaks  with  censure  and  indig- 
nation, and  usually  joins  them  with  tho  Pha- 
risees, to  which  sect  they  in  general  belonged. 
St.  Paul  asks,  1  Cor.  i,  20,  "  Where  is  the  wise  ? 
Where  is  the  scribe  ?  Where  is  the  disputer  of 
this  world  ?"  with  evident  contempt  for  such 
as,  "  professing  themselves  wise  above  what 
was  written,  became  fools." 

SCRIPTURE,  a  term  most  commonly  used 
to  denote  the  writings  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testament,  which  are  sometimes  called  The 
Scriptures,  sometimes  the  sacred  or  holy  wri- 
tings, and  sometimes  canonical  scripture.  See 
Bible. 

SEA.  The  Hebrews  gave  the  name  of  sea 
to  all  great  collections  of  water,  to  great  lakes 
or  pools.  Thus  the  sea  of  Galilee,  or  of  Tibe- 
rias, or  of  Cinnereth,  is  no  other  than  the  lake 
of  Tiberias,  or  Gennesareth,  in  Galilee.  The 
Dead  Sea,  the  sea  of  the  Wilderness,  the  sea  of 
the  East,  the  sea  of  Sodom,  the  sea  of  Salt,  or 
the  Salt  Sea,  the  sea  of  Asphaltites,  or  of  bitu- 
men, is  no  other  than  the  lake  of  Sodom.  The 
Arabians  and  orientals  in  general  frequently 
gave  the  name  of  sea  to  great  rivers,  as  the 
Nile,  the  Euphrates,  the  Tigris,  and  others, 
which,  by  their  magnitude,  and  by  the  extent 
of  their  overflowings,  seemed  as  little  seas,  or 
great  lakes.  In  Isa.  xi,  15,  these  words  par- 
ticularly apply  to  the  Nile  at  the  Delta. 

SEAL.  The  ancient  Hebrews  wore  their 
seals  or  signets,  in  rings  on  their  fingers,  or  in 
bracelets  on  their  arms,  as  is  now  the  custom 
in  the  east.    Haman  sealed  the  decree  of  King 


Ahasuerus  against  the  Jews  with  the  king's 
seal,  Esther  iii,  12.  The  priests  of  Bel  desired 
the  king  to  seal  the  door  of  their  temple  with 
his  own  seal.  The  spouse  in  the  Canticles, 
viii,  6,  wishes  that  his  spouse  would  wear  him 
as  a  signet  on  her  arm.  Pliny  observes,  that  the 
use  of  seals  or  signets  was  rare  at  the  time  of 
the  Trojan  war,  and  that  they  were  under  the 
necessity  of  closing  their  letters  with  several 
knots.  But  among  the  Hebrews  they  are  much 
more  ancient.  Judah  left  his  seal  as  a  pledge 
with  Tamar,  Gen.  xxxviii,  25.  Moses  says, 
Deut.  xxxii,  34,  that  God  keeps  sealed  up  in 
his  treasuries,  under  his  own  seal,  the  instru- 
ments of  his  vengeance.  Job  says,  ix,  7,  that 
he  keeps  the  stars  as  under  his  seal,  and  allows 
them  to  appear  when  he  thinks  proper.  He 
says  also,  "  My  transgression  is  sealed  up  in 
a  bag,"  Job  xiv,  7.  When  they  intended  to  seal 
up  a  letter,  or  a  book,  they  wrapped  it  round 
with  flax,  or  thread,  then  applied  the  wax  to 
it,  and  afterward  the  seal.  The  Lord  com- 
manded Isaiah  to  tie  up  or  wrap  up  the  book 
in  which  his  prophecies  were  written,  and  to 
seal  them  till  the  time  he  should  bid  him  pub- 
lish them,  Isaiah  viii,  16,  17.  He  gives  the 
same  command  to  Daniel,  xii,  4.  The  book 
that  was  shown  to  St.  John  the  evangelist, 
Rev.  v,  1 ;  vi,  1,  2,  &c,  was  sealed  with  seven 
seals.  It  was  a  rare  thing  to  affix  such  a  num- 
ber of  seals;  but  this  insinuated  the  great  im- 
portance and  secrecy  of  the  matter.  In  civil 
contracts  they  generally  made  two  originals  : 
one  continued  open,  and  was  kept  by  him  for 
whose  interest  tho  contract  was  made  ;  the 
other  was  sealed  and  deposited  in  some  public 
office. 

SECEDERS,  a  numerous  body  of  Presbyte- 
rians in  Scotland,  who,  in  the  last  century, 
seceded  from  the  Scotch  establishment.  They 
did  not,  as  they  have  uniformly  declared, 
secede  from  the  principles  of  the  church  of 
Scotland,  as  they  are  represented  in  her  con- 
fession of  faith,  catechisms,  longer  and  shorter, 
directory  for  worship,  and  form  of  Presbyte- 
rian government;  but  only  from  her  present 
judicatories,  that,  they  suppose,  have  departed 
from  her  true  principles.  A  sermon  preached 
by  Mr.  Ebenezer  Erskine,  of  Stirling,  at  the 
opening  of  the  synod  of  Perth  and  Sterling,  in 
1732,  gave  rise  to  this  party.  In  this  discourse, 
founded  on  Psalm  cxviii,  22,  "  The  stone  which 
the  builders  refused,"  &c,  he  boldly  testified, 
against  what  he  supposed  corruptions  in  the 
national  church  ;  for  which  freedom  the  synod 
voted  him  censurable,  and  ordered  him  to  be 
rebuked  at  their  bar.  He,  and  three  other 
ministers,  protested  against  this  sentence,  and 
appealed  to  the  next  assembly.  The  assembly, 
which  met  in  May,  1733,  approved  of  the  pro- 
ceedings of  the  synod,  and  ordered  Mr.  Erskine 
to  be  rebuked  at  their  bar.  He  refused  to  sub- 
mit to  the  rebuke  ;  whence  he  and  his  brethren 
were,  by  the  sentence  of  the  assembly,  sus- 
pended from  the  ministry.  Against  this,  he 
and  his  friends  protested  ;  and,  being  joined  by 
many  others,  both  ministers  and  elders,  declar- 
ing their  secession  from  the  national  church, 
they  did,  in  1736,  constitute  themselves  into 


848 


SEI 


an  ecclesiastical  court,  which  they  called  the 
Associate  Presbytery,  and  published  a  defence 
of  their  proceedings.  They  admit  that  the 
people  have  a  right  to  choose  their  own  pits, 
ton  :  that  the  Scriptures  are  the  supreme  judge 
by  which  all  controversies  must  be  determined; 
and  thai  Jesus  Chrisl  is  the  only  Head  of  his 
ehurch,  and  the  only  King  in  Zion. 

In  17 45,  the  seceding  ministers  were  become 
so  numerous,  that  they  were  erected  into  three 
different  presbyteries,  under  one  synod.  In 
17  17.  through  a  difference  in  civil  matters, 
they  were  divided  into  Burghers  and  Anti- 
Burghers.  Of  these  two  classes,  the  latter 
were  the  most  rigid  in  their  sentiments,  and 
associated,  therefore,  the  least  with  any  other 
body  of  Christians.  But  this  difference  has 
been  lately  healed,  and  no  longer  subsists, 
either  in  Scotland  or  America. 

BECHEM,  SICHEM,  SYCHEM,  or  SHEL 
CHE  M.  railed  also  Sychar  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, afterward  Neapolis,  and  in  the  present 
day  Nabloua,  Naplons,  Napolose,  and  Naplosa, 
(for  it  is  thus  variously  written,)  a  city  of  Sa- 
maria, near  the  parcel  of  ground  which  Jacob 
bought  of  Hamor,  the  father  of  Shechem,  and 
gave  to  his  son  Joseph.     Here  Joseph's  bones 
were  brought  out  of  Egypt  to  be  interred  ;  and 
on  the  same  piece  of  ground  was  the  well  call- 
ed Jacob's  well,  at  which  our  Saviour  sat  down 
when  he  had  the  memorable  conversation  with 
the  woman  of  Samaria,  John  iv,  which  caused 
her,  and  many  other  inhabitants  of  Sechem, 
or  Sychar,  as  it  is  there  called,  to  receive  him 
as  the  Messiah.     On  contemplating  this  place 
and  its  vicinity,  Dr.  E.  D.Clarke  says,  "The 
traveller  directing  his  footsteps  toward  its  an- 
cient sepulchres,  as  everlasting  as  the  rocks  in 
which  they  are  hewn,  is  permitted,  upon  the 
authority  of  sacred  and  indisputable  record,  to 
contemplate  the  spot  where  the  remains  of  Jo- 
seph, of  Eleazer,  and  of  Joshua,  were  severally 
deposited.     If  any  thing  connected  with  the 
memory  of  past  ages  be  calculated  to  awaken 
local  enthusiasm,  the  land  around  this  city  is 
preeminently  entitled  to  consideration.     The 
sacred  story  of  events  transacted  in  the  field 
of  Sichem,  from  our  earliest  years,  is  remem- 
bered with  delight ;  but  with  the  territory  be- 
fore our  eyes  where  those  events  took  place, 
and  in  the  v:ew  of  objects   existing  as   they 
were  described  above  three  thousand  years  ago, 
the  grateful  impression  kindles  into  ecstacy. 
the  valley,  we  beheld  'a  company  of 
Islmiaelites  coming  from  Cilead,'  as  in  the  days 
■  f  Reuben  andJudah,  '  with  their  camels  bear- 
ing spicery,  and  balm,  and  myrrh,'  who  would 
bave   purchased  another  Joseph  of  his 
brethren,  and  conveyed  him  as  a  slave  to  some 
Potipharin  Egypt.  Upon  the  hills  around  flocks 
and  berds  were  feeding,  as  of  old;  nor  in  the 
simple  garb   of  the  shepherds  of  Samaria  was 

thin-  any  thing  repugnant  to  the  notions  we 
may  entertain  of  the  appearance  presented  by 
the  son-  of  Jacob."  The  celebrated  well  .ailed 
ft  well,  but  which,  with  the  inhabitants 
of  s.. hem.  i.  known  by  the  name  of  Bir  Sa- 
maria, or  the  "  Well  of  Samaria,"  is  situated 
about  half  an  hour's  walk  east  of  the  town. 


SEEING.  To  see,  in  Scripture,  is  often 
used  to  express  the  sense  of  vision,  knowledge 
of  spiritual  things,  and  even  the  supernatural 
knowledge  of  hidden  things,  of  prophecy,  of 
visions,  of  ecstacies.  Whence  it  is  that  form- 
erly those  were  called  seers  who  afterward  were 
termed,  nubi,  or  prophets  ;  and  that  prophecies 
were  called  visions.  Moreover,  to  see,  is  used 
for  expressing  all  kinds  of  sensations.  It  is 
said  in  Exodus,  xx,  18,  that  the  Israelites  saw 
voices,  thunder,  lightning,  the  sounding  of  the 
trumpet,  and  the  whole  mountain  of  Sinai 
covered  with  clouds,  or  smoke.  And  St.  Aus- 
tin observes,  that  the  verb,  to  see,  is  applied  to 
all  the  five  natural  senses ;  to  see,  to  hear,  to 
smell,  to  taste,  to  touch.  "  To  see  goodness," 
is  to  enjoy  it.  "  To  see  the  goodness  of  the 
Lord,"  Psalm  xxvii,  13 ;  that  is,  to  enjoy  the 
mercy  or  blessing  which  God  hath  promised. 
"Blessed  are  the  pure  in  heart,  for  they  shall 
see  God ;"  that  is,  they  shall  have  the  perfect 
and  immediate  fruition  of  the  glorious  presence 
of  God  in  heaven  ;  or  they  shall  understand  the 
mysteries  of  salvation  ;  they  shall  perceive  the 
loving  kindness  of  God  toward  them  in  this 
life,  and  shall  at  length  perfectly  enjoy  him  in 
heaven. 

SEIR,  the  Horite,  whose  dwelling  was  to 
the  east  and  south  of  the  Dead  Sea,  in  the 
mountains  of  Seir,  Genesis  xiv,  6  ;  xxxvi,  20 ; 
Deuteronomy  ii,  12  ;  where  at  first  reigned  the 
descendants  of  Seir  the  Horite,  of  whom  Moses 
gives  us  a  list  in  Genesis  xxxvi,  20,  21-30 ; 
1  Chron.  38,  39,  &c.  The  posterity  of  Esau 
afterward  were  in  possession  of  the  mountains 
of  Seir,  and  Esau  himself  dwelt  there  when 
Jacob  returned  from  Mesopotamia,  Gen.xxxiii, 
3  ;  xxxiii,  14 ;  xxxvi,  8,  9. 

Seir,  Mount,  a  mountainous  tract,  extend- 
ing from  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Dead 
Sea,  to  the  gulf  of  Acaba,  or  Ezion-Geber. 
The  whole  of  this  tract  was  probably  before 
called  Mount  Hor,  and  was  inhabited  by  the 
Horites,  the  descendants,  as  it  is  thought,  of 
Hor,  who  is  no  otherwise  known,  and  whose 
name  is  now  only  retained  in  that  part  of  the 
plain  where  Aaron  died.  These  people  were 
driven  out  from  their  country  by  the  Edom- 
ites,  or  the  children  of  Esau,  who  dwelt  there 
in  their  stead,  and  were  in  possession  of  this 
region  when  the  Israelites  passed  by  in  their 
passage  from  Egypt  to  the  land  of  Canaan. 
The  country  had,  however,  been  previously 
overrun,  and  no  doubt  very  much  depopulated, 
by  the  invasion  ofChedorlaomer,  king  of  Elam. 
At  what  time  the  name  of  Hor  was  changed  to 
that  of  Seir  cannot  be  ascertained.  Mount 
Seir  rises  abruptly  on  its  western  side  from  the 
valleys  of  101  Ghor  and  El  Araha  ;  presenting 
an  impregnable  front  to  the  strong  country  of 
the  Edomite  mountaineers,  which  compelled 
the  Israelites,  who  were  unable  (if  permitted 
by  their  leader)  to  force  a  passage  through  this 
mountain  barrier,  to  skirt  its  western  base, 
along  the  great  valley  of  the  Ghor  and  Araba, 
and  so  to  "compass  the  land  of  Edom  by  the 
way  of  the  Red  Sea,"  that  is,  to  descend  to  its 
southern  extremity  at  Ezion-Geber,  as  they 
could  not  penetrate  it  higher  up.    To  the  south 


SEP 


849 


SEP 


ward  of  this  place  Burckliardt  observed  an 
opening  in  the  mountains,  where  he  supposed 
the  Israelites  to  have  passed.  This  passage 
brought  them  into  the  high  plains  on  the  east 
of  Mount  Seir,  which  are  so  much  higher  than 
the  valley  on  the  west,  that  the  mountainous 
territory  of  the  Edomites  was  every  where 
more  accessible :  a  circumstance  which  perhaps 
contributed  to  make  them  more  afraid  of  the 
Israelites  on  this  border,  whom  they  had  set 
at  defiance  on  the  opposite  one.  The  mean 
elevation  of  this  chain  cannot  be  estimated  at 
less  than  four  thousand  feet.  In  the  summer  it 
produces  most  of  the  European  fruits,  namely, 
apricots,  figs,  pomegranates,  olives,  apples,  and 
peaches  ;  while  in  winter  deep  snows  occasion- 
ally fall,  with  frosts,  to  the  middle  of  March. 
The  inhabitants,  like  those  of  most  mountain- 
ous regions,  are  very  healthy.  Burckhardt 
says,  that  there  was  no  part  of  Syria  in  which 
he  saw  so  few  invalids :  a  circumstance  which 
did  not  escape  the  observation  of  the  ancients  ; 
who  denominated  it,  Palastina  tertia  sive 
salutaris.    [Palestine  the  third  or  the  healthy.] 

SELAH.  This  expression  is  found  in  the 
Psalms  seventy-four  times,  and  thrice  in  the 
Prophet  Habakkuk.  The  interpreters  Sym- 
machus  and  Theodotion  generally  translate 
selah  by  diapsahna,  which  signifies  "a  rest"  or 
"  pause"  in  singing.  Jerom  and  Aquila  trans- 
late it  "  for  ever."  Some  moderns  pretend  that 
selah  has  no  signification,  and  that  it  is  only  a 
note  of  the  ancient  music,  whose  use  is  no 
longer  known  ;  and,  indeed,  selah  may  be  taken 
away  from  all  the  places  where  it  is  found 
without  interrupting  the  sense  of  the  psalm. 
Calmet  says  it  intimates  the  end,  or  a  pause, 
and  that  is  its  proper  signification  ;  but  as  it  is 
not  always  found  at  the  conclusion  of  the 
sense,  or  of  the  psalm  or  song,  so  it  is  highly 
probable  the  ancient  musicians  put  selah  in  the 
margin  of  their  psalters,  to  show  where  a  mu- 
sical pause  was  to  be  made,  or  where  the  tune 
ended. 

SELEUCIA,  a  city  of  Syria,  situated  upon 
the  Mediterranean,  near  the  place  where  the 
Orontes  discharges  itself  into  the  sea.  St. 
Paul  and  Barnabas  were  at  this  place  when 
they  embarked  for  Cyprus,  Acts  xiii,  4.  The 
same  city  is  mentioned  in  1  Mac.  xi,  8. 

SENNACHERIB,  king  of  Assyria,  son  and 
successor  of  Shalmaneser.  He  began  his  reign 
A.  M.  3290,  and  reigned  only  four  years.  He- 
zekiah,  king  of  Judah,  having  refused  to  pay 
him  tribute,  though  he  afterward  submitted, 
he  invaded  Judea  with  a  great  army,  took 
several  forts,  and  after  repeated,  insolent,  and 
blasphemous  messages,  besieged  Jerusalem ; 
but  his  army  being  suddenly  smitten  with  a 
pestilence,  which  cut  off  a  hundred  and  eighty- 
five  thousand  in  a  single  night,  he  returned  to 
Nineveh,  where  he  was  murdered  in  the  tem- 
ple of  Nisroch  by  his  sons  Adrammelech  and 
Sharezer,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  other  son, 
Esar-haddon,  2  Kings  xix,  7,  13,  37. 

SEPHARVAIM,    a    country    of   Assyria, 

2  Kings  xvii,  24,  31.     This  province  cannot 

now   be  exactly  delineated   in  respect  to  its 

situation.    The  Scripture  speaks  of  the  king  of 

55 


the  city  of  Sepharvaim,  which  probably  was 
the  capital  of  the  people  of  this  name,  2  Kings 
xix,  13 ;  Isaiah  xxxvii,  13. 

SEPTUAGINT.  Among  the  Greek  ver- 
sions of  the  Old  Testament,  says  Mr.  Home, 
the  Alexandrian  or  Septuagint  is  the  most 
ancient  and  valuable,  and  was  held  in  so  much 
esteem  both  by  the  Jews  as  well  as  by  the  first 
Christians,  as  to  be  constantly  read  in  the  syna- 
gogues and  churches.  Hence  it  is  uniformly 
cited  by  the  early  fathers,  whether  Greek  or 
Latin  ;  and  from  this  version  all  the  transla- 
tions into  other  languages  which  were  anciently 
approved  by  the  Christian  church  were  execut- 
ed, with  the  exception  of  the  Syriac ;  as  the 
Arabic,  Armenian,  Ethiopic,  Gothic,  and  old 
Italic  or  the  Latin  version  in  use  before  the 
time  of  Jerom  ;  and  to  this  day  the  Septuagint 
is  exclusively  read  in  the  Greek  and  most  other 
oriental  churches.  This  version  has  derived 
its  name  either  from  the  Jewish  account  of 
seventy-two  persons  having  been  employed  to 
make  it,  or  from  its  having  received  the  appro- 
bation of  the  sanhedrim  or  great  council  of 
the  Jews,  which  consisted  of  seventy,  or,  more 
correctly,  of  seventy-two  persons.  Much  un- 
certainty, however,  has  prevailed  concerning 
the  real  history  of  this  ancient  version ;  and 
while  some  have  strenuously  advocated  its 
miraculous  and  Divine  origin,  other  eminent 
philologists  have  laboured  to  prove  that  it  must 
have  been  executed  by  several  persons  and  at 
different  times.  According  to  one  account, 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  king  of  Egypt,  caused 
this  translation  to  be  made  for  the  use  of 
the  library  which  he  had  founded  at  Alex- 
andria, at  the  request  and  with  the  advice 
of  the  celebrated  Demetrius  Phalereus,  his 
principal  librarian.  For  this  purpose,  it  is  re- 
ported, that  he  sent  Aristeas  and  Andreas,  two 
distinguished  officers  of  his  court,  to  Jerusa- 
lem, on  an  embassy  to  Eleazar,  then  high 
priest  of  the  Jews,  to  request  of  the  latter  a 
copy  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  and  that  there 
might  also  be  sent  to  him  seventy-two  persons, 
six  chosen  out  of  each  of  the  twelve  tribes, 
who  were  equally  well  skilled  in  the  Hebrew 
and  Greek  languages.  These  learned  men 
were  accordingly  shut  up  in  the  island  of  Pha- 
ros ;  where,  having  agreed  in  a  translation  of 
each  period  after  a  mutual  conference,  Deme- 
trius wrote  down  their  version  as  they  dictated 
it  to  him ;  and  thus,  in  the  space  of  seventy- 
two  days,  the  whole  was  accomplished.  This 
relation  is  derived  from  a  letter  ascribed  to 
Aristeas  himself,  the  authenticity  of  which 
has  been  greatly  disputed.  If,  as  there  is  every 
reason  to  believe  is  the  case,  this  piece  is  a 
forgery,  it  was  made  at  a  very  early  period ; 
for  it  was  in  existence  in  the  time  of  Josephus, 
who  has  made  use  of  it  in  his  Jewish  Antiqui- 
ties. The  veracity  of  Aristeas's  narrative  was 
not  questioned  until  the  seventeenth  or  eigh- 
teenth century,  at  which  time,  indeed,  Biblical 
criticism  was,  comparatively,  in  its  infancy, 
Vives,  Scaliger,  Van  Dale,  Dr.  Prideaux,  and, 
above  all,  Dr.  Hody,  were  the  principal  writers 
in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries 
who  attacked  the  genuineness  of  the  pretended 


SEP 


850 


SEP 


narrative  of  Ariiteas  ;  and  though  it  was  ably 
vindicated  by  Bishop  Walton,  Isaac  Vossius, 
Winston,  Brett,  and  other  modern  writers,  the 
majority  of  the  learned  of  our  own  time  are 
fully  agreed  in  considering  it  as  fictitious. 
Philo,  the  Jew,  who  also  notices  the  Septua- 
gint  version,  was  ignorant  of  most  of  the  cir- 
cumstances narrated  by  Aristeas  ;  but  he  relates 
others  which  appear  not  less  extraordinary. 
According  to  him,  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  sent 
to  Palestine  for  some  learned  Jews,  whose 
number  he  docs  not  specify ;  and  these,  going 
over  to  the  island  of  Pharos,  there  executed  so 
many  distinct  versions,  all  of  which  so  exactly 
and  uniformly  agreed  in  sense,  phrases,  and 
words,  as  proved  them  to  have  been  not  com- 
mon  interpreters,  but  men  prophetically  in- 
spired  and  divinely  directed,  who  had  every 
word  dictated  to  them  by  the  Spirit  of  God 
throughout  the  entire  translation.  He  adds, 
that  an  annual  festival  was  celebrated  by  the 
Alexandrian  Jews  in  the  isle  of  Pharos,  where 
the  version  was  made,  until  his  time,  to  pre- 
servo  the  memory  of  it,  and  to  thank  God  for 
so  great  a  benefit. 

It  is  not  a  little  remarkable  that  the  Samari- 
tans have  traditions  in  favour  of  their  version 
of  the  Pentateuch,  equally  extravagant  with 
these  preserved  by  the  Jews.  In  the  Samari- 
tan chronicle  of  Abul  Phatach,  which  was 
compiled  in  the  fourteenth  century  from  an- 
cient and  modern  authors,  both  Hebrew  and 
Arabic,  there  is  a  story  to  the  following  effect : 
that  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  in  the  tenth  year 
of  his  reign,  directed  his  attention  to  the  dif- 
ference subsisting  between  the  Samaritans  and 
Jews  concerning  the  law,  the  former  receiving 
only  the  Pentateuch,  and  rejecting  every  other 
work  ascribed  to  the  prophets  by  the  Jews. 
In  order  to  determine  this  difference,  he  com- 
manded the  two  nations  to  send  deputies  to 
Alexandria.  The  Jews  entrusted  this  mission 
to  Osar,  the  Samaritans  to  Aaron,  to  whom 
several  other  associates  were  added.  Separate 
apartments  in  a  particular  quarter  of  Alexan- 
dria were  assigned  to  each  of  these  strangers, 
who  were  prohibited  from  having  any  personal 
intercourse,  and  each  of  them  had  a  Greek 
scribe  to  write  his  version.  Thus  were  the 
law  and  other  Scriptures  translated  by  the 
Samaritans ;  whose  version  being  most  care- 
fully examined,  the  king  was  convinced  that 
their  text  was  more  complete  than  that  of  the 
Jews.  Such  is  the  narrative  of  Abul  Phatach, 
divested,  however,  of  numerous  marvellous 
circumstances  with  which  it  has  been  deco- 
rated by  the  Samaritans,  who  are  not  surpassed, 
even  by  the  Jews,  in  their  partiality  for  idle 
legends. 

A  fact,  buried  under  such  a  mass  of  fables 
as  the  translation  of  the  Septuagint  has  been 
by  the  historians  who  have  pretended  to  record 
it,  necessarily  loses  all  its  historical  character, 
which,  indeed,  we  are  fully  justified  in  disre- 
ng  altogether.  Although  there  is  no 
doubt  but  that  some  truth  is  concealed  under 
tin*  load  of  fables,  yet  it  is  by  no  means  an 
easy  task  to  discern  the  truth  from  what  is 
false  ;    the  following,  however,  is  the  result 


of  our  researches  concerning  this   celebrated 
version  : — 

It  is  probable  that  the  seventy  interpreters, 
as  they  are  called,  executed  their  version  of  the 
Pentateuch  during  the  joint  reigns  of  Ptolemy 
Lagus  and  his  son  Philadelphus.  The  pseudo 
Aristeas,  Josephus,  Philo,  and  many  other 
writers  whom  it  were  tedious  to  enumerate, 
relate  that  this  version  was  made  during  the 
reign  of  Ptolemy  II.,  or  Philadelphus  ;  Joseph 
Ben  Gorion,  however,  among  the  rabbins, 
Theodoret,  and  many  other  Christian  writers, 
refer  its  date  to  the  time  of  Ptolemy  Lagus. 
Now,  these  two  traditions  can  be  reconciled 
only  by  supposing  the  version  to  have  been 
performed  during  the  two  years  when  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus  shared  the  throne  with  his  father ; 
which  date  coincides  with  the  third  and  fourth 
years  of  the  hundred  and  twenty-third  Olym- 
piad, that  is,  about  B.  C.  286  and  285.  Farther, 
this  version  was  neither  made  by  the  command 
of  Ptolemy,  nor  at  the  request  nor  under  the 
superintendence  of  Demetrius  Phalereus ;  but 
was  voluntarily  undertaken  by  the  Jews  for  the 
use  of  their  countrymen.  It  is  well  known, 
that,  at  the  period  above  noticed,  there  was  a 
great  number  of  Jews  settled  in  Egypt,  par- 
ticularly at  Alexandria :  these,  being  most 
strictly  observant  of  the  religious  institutions 
and  usages  of  their  forefathers,  had  their  san- 
hedrim or  grand  council  composed  of  seventy 
or  seventy-two  members,  and  very  numerous 
synagogues,  in  which  the  law  was  read  to  them 
on  every  Sabbath  ;  and  as  the  bulk  of  the  com- 
mon people  were  no  longer  acquainted  with 
Biblical  Hebrew,  the  Greek  language  alone 
being  used  in  their  ordinary  intercourse,  it  be- 
came necessary  to  translate  the  Pentateuch 
into  Greek  for  their  use.  This  is  a  far  more 
probable  account  of  the  origin  of  the  Alexan- 
drian version  than  the  traditions  above  stated. 
If  this  translation  had  been  made  by  public 
authority,  it  would  unquestionably  have  been 
performed  under  the  direction  of  the  sanhedrim, 
who  would  have  examined  and  perhaps  cor- 
rected it,  if  it  had  been  the  work  of  a  single 
individual,  previously  to  giving  it  the  stamp  of 
their  approbation,  and  introducing  it  into  their 
synagogues.  In  either  case  the  translation 
would  probably  be  denominated  the  Septuagint, 
because  the  sanhedrim  was  composed  of  seventy 
or  seventy-two  members.  It  is  even  possible 
that  the  sanhedrim,  in  order  to  ascertain  the 
fidelity  of  the  work,  might  have  sent  to  Pales- 
tine for  some  learned  men,  of  whose  assistance 
and  advice  they  would  have  availed  themselves 
in  examining  the  version.  This  fact,  if  it 
could  be  proved,  for  it  is  offered  as  a  mere  con- 
jecture, would  account  for  the  story  of  the 
king  of  Egypt's  sending  an  embassy  to  Jerusa- 
lem :  there  is,  however,  one  circumstance 
which  proves  that,  in  executing  this  transla- 
tion, the  synagogues  were  originally  in  con- 
templation, namely,  that  all  the  ancient  writers 
unanimously  concur  in  saying  that  the  Penta- 
teuch was  first  translated.  The  five  books  of 
Moses,  indeed,  were  the  only  books  read  in  the 
synagogues  until  the  time  of  Antiochus  Epi- 
phanes,  king  of  Syria;  who  having  forbidden 


SEP 


851 


SEP 


that  practice  in  Palestine,  the  Jews  evaded 
his  commands  by  substituting  for  the  Pen- 
tateuch the  reading  of  the  prophetic  books. 
When,  afterward,  the  Jews  were  delivered 
from  the  tyranny  of  the  kings  of  Syria,  they 
read  the  "law  and  the  prophets  alternately 
in  the  synagogues ;  and  the  same  custom 
was  adopted  by  the  Hellenistic  or  Greecising 
Jews. 

But,  whatever  was  the  real  number  of  the 
authors  of  the  version,  their  introduction  of 
Coptic  words,  such  as  oi<pi  a%i  pep(puv.  Sic,  as 
well  as  their  rendering  of  ideas  purely  Hebrew 
altogether  in  the  Egyptian  manner,  clearly 
prove  that  they  were  natives  of  Egypt.  Thus, 
they  express  the  creation  of  the  world,  not  by 
the  proper  Greek  word  /crisis,  but  by  yivzms,  a 
term  employed  by  the  philosophers  of  Alexan- 
dria to  express  the  origin  of  the  universe.  The 
Hebrew  word  tkummim,  Exodus  xxviii,  30, 
which  signifies  "  perfections,"  they  render 
aXriQua,  truth.  The  difference  of  style  also 
indicates  the  version  to  have  been  the  work 
not  of  one  but  of  several  translators,  and  to 
have  been  executed  at  different  times.  The 
best  qualified  and  most  able  among  them  was 
the  translator  of  the  Pentateuch,  who  was 
evidently  master  of  both  Greek  and  Hebrew : 
he  has  religiously  followed  the  Hebrew  text, 
and  has  in  various  instances  introduced  the 
most  suitable  and  best  chosen  expressions. 
From  the  very  close  resemblance  subsisting 
between  the  text  of  the  Greek  version  and  the 
text  of  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch,  Louis  De 
Dieu,  Selden,  Whiston,  Hassencamp,  and 
Bauer,  are  of  opinion  that  the  author  of  the 
Alexandrian  version  made  it  from  the  Samari- 
tan Pentateuch.  And  in  proportion  as  these 
two  correspond,  the  Greek  differs  from  the 
Hebrew.  This  opinion  is  farther  supported  by 
the  declarations  of  Origen  and  Jerom,  that  the 
translator  found  the  venerable  name  of  Jeho- 
vah, not  in  the  letters  in  common  use,  but  in 
very  ancient  characters ;  and  also  by  the  fact 
that  those  consonants  in  the  Septuagint  are 
frequently  confounded  together,  the  shapes  of 
which  are  similar  in  the  Samaritan,  but  not  in  the 
Hebrew,  alphabet.  This  hypothesis,  however 
ingenious  and  plausible,  is  by  no  means  deter- 
minate ;  and  what  militates  most  against  it  is, 
the  inveterate  enmity  subsisting  between  the 
Jews  and  Samaritans,  added  to  the  constant 
and  unvarying  testimony  of  antiquity,  that  the 
Greek  version  of  the  Pentateuch  was  executed 
by  Jews*  There  is  no  other  way  by  which 
to  reconcile  these  conflicting  opinions  than  by 
supposing  either  that  the  manuscript  used  by 
the  Egyptian  Jews  approximated  toward  the 
letters  and  text  of  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch, 
or  that  the  translators  of  the  Septuagint  made 
use  of  manuscripts  written  in  ancient  charac- 
ters. Next  to  the  Pentateuch,  for  ability  and 
fidelity  of  execution,  ranks  the  translation  of 
the  book  of  Proverbs,  the  author  of  which  was 
well  skilled  in  the  two  languages :  Michaehs 
is  of  opinion  that,  of  all  the  books  of  the  Sep- 
tuagint, the  style  of  the  Proverbs  is  the  best,  the 
translator  having  clothed  the  most  ingenious 
thoughts  in  as  neat  and  elegant  language  as 


was  ever  used  by  a  Pythagorean  sage,  to  ex- 
press his  philosophical  maxims. 

The  Septuagint  version,  though  originally 
made  for  the  use  of  the  Egyptian  Jews,  gra- 
dually acquired  the  highest  authority  among 
the  Jews  of  Palestine,  who  were  acquainted 
with  the  Greek  language,  and  subsequently  also 
among  Christians  :  it  appears,  indeed,  that  the 
legend  above  confuted,  of  the  translators  hav- 
ing been  divinely  inspired,  was  invented  in 
order  that  the  LXX.  might  be  held  in  the 
greater  estimation.  Philo,  the  Jew,  a  native  of 
Egypt,  has  evidently  followed  it  in  his  allego- 
rical expositions  of  the  Mosaic  law  ;  and  though 
Dr.  Hody  was  of  opinion  that  Josephus,  who 
was  a  native  of  Palestine,  corroborated  his 
work  on  Jewish  antiquities  from  the  Hebrew 
text,  yet  Salmasius,  Bochart,  Bauer,  and  others, 
have  shown  that  he  has  adhered  to  the  Septu- 
agint throughout  that  work.  How  extensively 
this  version  was  in  use  among  the  Jews,  ap- 
pears from  the  solemn  sanction  given  to  it  by 
the  inspired  writers  of  the  New  Testament,  who 
have  in  very  many  passages  quoted  the  Greek 
version  of  the  Old  Testament.  Their  example 
was  followed  by  the  earlier  fathers  and  doctors 
of  the  church,  who, with  the  exception  of  Origen 
and  Jerom,  were  unacquainted  with  Hebrew  : 
notwithstanding  their  zeal  for  the  word  of  God, 
they  did  not  exert  themselves  to  learn  the 
original  language  of  the  sacred  writings,  but 
acquiesced  in  the  Greek  representation  of  them, 
judging  it,  no  doubt,  to  be  fully  sufficient  for  all 
the  purposes  of  their  pious  labours.  The  Greek 
Scriptures  were  the  only  Scriptures  known  to 
or  valued  by  the  Greeks.  This  was  the  text 
commented  on  by  Chrysostom  and  Theodoret  ;■ 
it  was  this  which  furnished  topics  to  Athana 
sius,  Nazianzen,  and  Basil.  From  this  fount- 
ain the  stream  was  derived  to  the  Latin  church, 
first  by  the  Italic  or  Vulgate  translation  of  the 
Scriptures,  which  was  made  from  the  Septua- 
gint, and  not  from  the  Hebrew ;  and,  secondly, 
by  the  study  of  the  Greek  fathers.  It  was  by 
this  borrowed  light  that  the  Latin  fathers  illu- 
mined the  western  hemisphere  ;  and,  when  the 
age  of  Cyprian,  Ambrose,  Augustine,  and 
Gregory,  successively  passed  away,  this  was 
the  light  put  into  the  hands  of  the  next  dynasty 
of  theologists,  the  schoolmen,  who  carried  on 
the  work  of  theological  disquisition  by  the  aid 
of  this  luminary,  and  none  other.  So  that, 
either  in  Greek  or  in  Latin,  it  was  still  the  Sep- 
tuagint Scriptures  that  were  read,  explained, 
and  quoted  as  authority,  for  a  period  of  fifteen 
hundred  years. 

SEPTUAGINT  CHRONOLOGY  is  that 
which  is  formed  from  the  dates  and  periods  of 
time  mentioned  in  the  Septuagint  translation 
of  the  Old  Testament.  It  reckons  one  thousand 
five  hundred  years  more  from  the  creation  to 
Abraham  than  the  Hebrew  Bible.  Dr.  Kenni- 
cott,  in  the  dissertation  prefixed  to  his  Hebrew 
Bible,  has  shown  it  to  be  very  probable,  that 
the  chronology  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  since 
the  period  just  mentioned,  was  corrupted  by 
the  Jews  between  A.  D.  175  and  200  ;  and  that 
the  chronology  of  the  Septuagint  is  more 
agreeable  to  truth.     It  is  a  fact,  that,  during 


SEP 


852 


SER 


the  second  and  third  centuries,  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures  were  almost  entirely  in  the  hands 
of  the  Jews,  while  the  Septuagint  was  confined 
to  the  Christians.  The  Jews  had,  therefore,  a 
very  favourable  opportunity  for  this  corruption. 
The  following  is  the  reason  which  is  given  by 
the  oriental  writers  :  It  being  a  very  ancient 
tradition  that  Messiah  was  to  come  in  the  sixth 
chiliad,  because  he  was  to  come  in  the  last 
days,  founded  on  a  mystical  application  of  the 
six  days  of  the  creation,  the  contrivance  was 
to  shorten  the  age  of  the  world  from  about 
5500  to  3760 ;  and  thence  to  prove  that  Jesus 
could  not  be  the  Messiah.  Dr.  Kennicott  adds, 
that  some  Hebrew  copies,  having  the  larger 
chronology,  were  extant  till  the  time  of  Euse- 
bius,  and  some  till  the  year  700. 

SEPULCHRES.  The  descriptions  of  the 
eastern  sepulchres,  by  travellers,  serve  to 
explain  several  passages  of  Scripture.  Shaw 
says,  "  If  we  except  a  few  persons  who  are 
buried  within  the  precincts  of  some  sanctuary, 
the  rest  are  carried  out  at  a  small  distance 
from  their  cities  and  villages,  where  a  great 
extent  of  ground  is  allotted  for  that  purpose. 
Each  family  has  a  particular  portion  of  it, 
walled  in  like  a  garden,  where  the  bones  of 
their  ancestors  have  remained  undisturbed  for 
many  generations  :  for  in  these  inclosures  the 
graves  are  all  distinct  and  separate,  having  each 
of  them  a  stone  placed  upright,  both  at  the 
head  and  feet,  inscribed  with  the  name  of  the 
person  who  lieth  there  interred,  while  the  in- 
termediate space  is  either  planted  with  flowers, 
bordered  round  with  stone,  or  paved  all  over 
with  tiles.  The  graves  of  the  principal  citizens 
are  farther  distinguished  by  some  square  cham- 
bers or  cupolas  that  are  built  over  them,  Mark 
v,  3.  Now,  as  all  these  different  sorts  of  tombs 
and  sepulchres,  with  the  very  walls  likewise  of 
the  inclosures,  are  constantly  kept  clean, 
white-washed,  and  beautified,  they  continue  to 
this  day  to  be  an  excellent  comment  upon  that 
expression  of  our  Saviour,  where  he  mentions 
the  garnishing  of  the  sepulchres,  Matt,  xxiii, 
29  ;  and  again,  verse  27,  where  he  compares 
the  scribes,  Pharisees,  and  hypocrites,  to 
whited  sepulchres."  With  respect  to  the  demo- 
niacs who  are  said  by  St.  Matthew  to  come  out 
of  the  tombs,  Light  observes,  "I  trod  the 
ground  celebrated  for  the  miracle  of  the  un- 
clean spirit,  driven  by  our  Saviour  among  the 
swine.  The  tombs  still  exist  in  the  form  of 
caverns,  on  the  sides  of  the  hills  that  rise  from 
the  shore  of  the  lake;  and  from  their  wild  ap- 
pearance may  well  be  considered  the  habita- 
tion of  men  exceeding  fierce,  possessed  by  a 
devil ;  they  extend  at  a  distance  for  more  than 
a  mile  from  the  present  town."  In  the  account 
we  have  of  the  resurrection  of  Lazarus,  when 
Mary  went  suddenly  out  to  meet  Jesus,  the 
Jews  supposed  that  she  was  gone  to  the  grave, 
'•to  weep  there."  The  following  extract  from 
Buckingham  illustrates  this:  "Not  far  from 
the  spot  at  which  we  halted  to  enjoy  this  en- 
chanting view,  was  an  extensive  cemetry,  at 
which  we  noticed  the  custom  so  prevalent 
among  eastern  nations  of  visiting  the  tombs  of 
their  deceased  friends.      These  were  formed 


with  great  care,  and  finished  with  extraordina- 
ry neatness  :  and  at  the  foot  of  each  grave  was 
enclosed  a  small  earthen  vessel,  in  which  was 
planted  a  sprig  of  myrtle,  regularly  watered 
every  day  by  the  mourning  friend  who  visited 
it.  Throughout  the  whole  of  this  extensive 
place  of  burial  we  did  not  observe  a  single  grave 
to  which  this  token  of  respect  and  sorrow  was 
not  attached  ;  and,  scattered  among  the  tombs, 
in  different  quarters  of  the  cemetry,  we  saw  from 
twenty  to  thirty  parties  of  females,  sitting  near 
the  honoured  remains  of  some  recently  lost 
and  deeply  regretted  relative  or  friend,  and 
either  watering  their  myrtle  plants,  or  strewing 
flowers  over  the  green  turf  that  closed  upon 
their  heads."     See  Burial. 

SERPENT.  In  Egypt  and  other  oriental 
countries,  a  serpent  was  the  common  symbol 
of  a  powerful  monarch  ;  it  was  embroidered  on 
the  robes  of  princes,  and  blazoned  on  their 
diadem,  to  signify  their  absolute  power  and 
invincible  might,  and  that,  as  the  wound  in- 
flicted by  the  basilisk  is  incurable,  so  the  fatal 
effects  of  their  displeasure  were  neither  to  be 
avoided  nor  endured.  These  are  the  allusions 
involved  in  the  address  of  the  prophet,  to  the 
irreconcilable  enemies  of  his  nation  :  "  Rejoice 
not  thou,  whole  Palestina,  because  the  rod  of 
him  that  smote  thee  is  broken ;  for  out  of  the 
serpent's  roots  shall  come  forth  a  cockatrice, 
and  his  fruit  shall  be  a  fiery  flying  serpent," 
Isaiah  xiv,  29.  Uzziah,  the  king  of  Judah, 
had  subdued  the  Philistines  ;  but  taking  advan- 
tage of  the  weak  reign  of  Ahaz,  they  again 
invaded  the  kingdom  of  Judea,  and  reduced 
some  cities  in  the  southern  part  of  the  country 
under  their  dominion.  On  the  death  of  Ahaz, 
Isaiah  delivers  this  prophecy,  threatening  them 
with  a  more  severe  chastisement  from  the  hand 
of  Hezekiah,  the  grandson  of  Uzziah,  by  whose 
victorious  arms  they  had  been  reduced  to  sue 
for  peace  ;  which  he  accomplished,  when  "  he 
smote  the  Philistines,  even  unto  Gaza  and  the 
borders  thereof,"  2  Kings  xviii,  8.  Uzziah, 
therefore,  must  be  meant  by  the  rod  that  smote 
them,  and  by  the  serpent  from  whom  should 
spring  the  fiery  flying  serpent,  that  is,  Heze- 
kiah, a  much  more  terrible  enemy  than  even 
Uzziah  had  been.  But  the  symbol  of  regal 
power  which  the  oriental  kings  preferred  to  all 
others,  was  the  basilisk.  This  fact  is  attested 
by  its  Arabian  name  melechn,  from  the  Hebrew 
verb  malach,  "  to  reign ;"  from  its  Greek  name 
SaaiKianou  and  its  Latin  name  regulus :  all  oi 
which,  it  is  asserted,  referred  to  the  conspicu- 
ous place  it  occupied  among  the  regal  orna- 
ments of  the  east.  The  basilisk  is  of  a  reddish 
colour,  and  its  head  is  decorated  with  a  crest 
in  the  form  of  a  crown  ;  it  is  not  entirely  pros- 
trate, like  other  serpents,  but  moves  along  with 
its  head  and  half  the  body  erect;  the  other 
parts  sweep  the  ground  behind, 

And  wind  its  spacious  back  in  rolling  spires. 

All  the  other  species  of  serpents  are  said  to 
acknowledge  the  superiority  of  the  real  or  the 
fabled  basilisk,  by  flying  from  its  presence,  and 
hiding  themselves  in  the  dust.  It  is  also  sup- 
posed to  live  longer  than  any  other  serpent ; 


SER 


853 


SER 


the  ancient  Heathens  therefore  pronounced  it 
immortal,  and  placed  it  in  the  number  of  their 
deities ;  and  because  it  had  the  dangerous 
power,  in  general  belief,  of  killing  with  its 
pestiferous  breath  the  strongest  animals,  it 
seemed  to  them  invested  with  the  power  of 
life  and  death.  It  became,  therefore,  the 
favourite  symbol  of  kings  ;  and  was  employed 
by  the  prophet,  to  symbolize  the  great  and 
good  Hezekiah,  with  strict  propriety. 

2.  The  cerastes,  or  horned  snake.  The  only 
allusion  to  this  species  of  serpent  in  the  sacred 
volume  occurs  in  the  valedictory  predictions 
of  Jacob,  where  he  describes  the  character 
and  actions  of  Dan  and  his  posterity  :  "  Dan 
shall  be  a  serpent  by  the  way,  an  adder,  po'fl8>, 
in  the  path,  that  biteth  the  horse's  heels,  so 
that  his  rider  shall  fall  backward,"  Gen.  xlix, 
17.  It  is  indisputably  clear,  that  the  patriarch 
intended  some  kind  of  serpent ;  for  the  circum- 
stances will  not  apply  to  a  freebooter  watch- 
ing for  his  prey.  It  only  remains  to  investi- 
gate the  species  to  which  it  belongs.  The 
principal  care  of  the  Jewish  writers  is  to  ascer- 
tain the  etymology  of  the  name,  about  which 
their  sentiments  are  much  divided.  The  Ara- 
bian authors  quoted  by  Bochart  inform  us,  that 
the  sephiphon  is  a  most  pernicious  reptile,  and 
very  dangerous  to  man.  It  is  of  a  sandy  colour, 
variegated  with  black  and  white  spots.  The 
particulars  in  the  character  of  Dan,  however, 
agree  better  with  the  cerastes,  or  horned  snake, 
than  with  any  other  species  of  serpent.  It  lies 
in  wait  for  passengers  in  the  sand,  or  in  the 
rut  of  the  wheels  on  the  highway.  From  its 
lurking  place  it  treacherously  bites  the  horse's 
heels,  so  that  the  rider  falls  backward,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  animal's  hinder  legs  becoming 
almost  immediately  torpid  by  the  dreadful 
activity  of  the  poison.  The  cerastes  is  equally 
formidable  to  man  and  the  lower  animals ; 
and  the  more  dangerous,  because  it  is  not  easy 
to  distinguish  him  from  the  sand  in  which  he 
lies ;  and  he  never  spares  the  helpless  traveller 
who  unwarily  comes  within  his  reach.  Like  the 
cerastes,  Dan  was  to  excel  in  cunning  and  artifice, 
to  prevail  against  his  enemies  rather  by  his  policy 
in  the  cabinet  than  by  his  valour  in  the  field. 

3.  The  seraph,  or  fiery  flying  serpent,  to  a 
Biblical  student,  is  one  of  the  most  interesting 
creatures  that  has  yet  been  mentioned.  It 
bears  the  name  of  an  order  among  the  hosts 
of  heaven,  whom  Isaiah  beheld  in  vision, 
placed  above  the  throne  of  Jehovah  in  the 
temple  ;  the  brazen  figure  of  this  serpent  is 
supposed  to  be  a  type  of  our  blessed  Redeemer, 
who  was  for  our  salvation  lifted  up  upon  the 
cross,  as  the  serpent  was  elevated  in  the  camp 
of  Israel,  for  the  preservation  of  that  people. 
It  is  the  only  species  of  serpent  which  the 
almighty  Creator  has  provided  with  wings,  by 
means  of  which,  instead  of  creeping  or  leaping, 
it  rises  from  the  ground,  and  leaning  upon  the 
extremity  of  its  tail,  moves  with  great  velocity. 
It  is  a  native  of  Egypt,  and  the  deserts  of 
Arabia ;  and  receives  its  name  from  the  He- 
brew verb  seraph,  which  signifies  to  burn,  in 
allusion  to  the  violent  inflammation  which  its 
poison  produces,   or  rather  to  its  fiery  colour, 


which  the  brazen  serpent  was  intended  to 
represent.  Bochart  is  of  opinion,  that  the 
seraph  is  the  same  as  the  hydrus,  or,  as  Cicero 
calls  it,  the  serpent  of  the  waters.  For,  in  the 
book  of  Isaiah,  the  land  of  Egypt  is  called  the 
region  from  whence  come  the  viper  and  flying 
seraph,  or  burning  serpent.  jElian  says,  they 
come  from  the  deserts  of  Libya  and  Arabia,  to 
inhabit  the  streams  of  the  Nile ;  and  that  they 
have  the  form  of  the  hydrus. 

The  existence  of  winged  serpents  is.  attested 
by  many  writers  of  modern  times.  A  kind  of 
snakes  were  discovered  among  the  Pyrenees, 
from  whose  sides  proceeded  cartilages  in  the 
form  of  wings  ;  and  Scaliger  mentions  a  pea- 
sant who  killed  a  serpent  of  the  same  species 
which  attacked  him,  and  presented  it  to  the 
king  of  France.  Le  Blanc,  as  quoted  by  Bo- 
chart, says,  at  the  head  of  lake  Chiamay  are 
extensive  woods  and  vast  marshes,  which  it  is 
very  dangerous  to  approach,  because  they  are 
infested  with  very  large  serpents,  which,  raised 
from  the  ground  on  wings  resembling  those  of 
bats,  and  leaning  on  the  extremity  of  their  tails, 
move  with  great  rapidity.  They  exist,  it  is 
reported,  about  these  places  in  so  great  num- 
bers, that  they  have  almost  laid  waste  the 
neighbouring  province.  And,  in  the  same 
work,  Le  Blanc  affirms  that  he  had  seen  some 
of  them  of  immense  size,  which,  when  hungry, 
rushed  impetuously  on  sheep  and  other  tame 
animals.  But  the  original  term  {]Dij?D  does  not 
always  signify  flying  with  wings ;  it  often  ex- 
presses vibration,  swinging  backward  and  for- 
ward, a  tremulous  motion,  a  fluttering ;  and 
this  is  precisely  the  motion  of  a  serpent,  when 
he  springs  from  one  tree  to  another.  Niebuhr 
mentions  a  sort  of  serpent  at  Bassorah,  which 
they  call  heie  thiare.  "  They  commonly  keep 
upon  the  date  trees ;  and  as  it  would  be  labori- 
ous for  them  to  come  down  from  a  very  high 
tree,  in  order  to  ascend  another,  they  twist 
themselves  by  the  tail  to  a  branch  of  the 
former,  which,  making  a  spring  by  the  motion 
they  give  it,  throws  them  to  the  branches  of 
the  second.  Hence  it  is  that  the  modern  Arabs 
call  them  flying  serpents,  heie  thiare.  Admiral 
Anson  also  speaks  of  the  flying  serpents  that 
he  met  with  at  the  island  of  Quibo,  but  which 
were  without  wings."  From  this  account  it 
may  be  inferred,  that  the  flying  serpent  men- 
tioned in  the  prophet  was  of  that  species  of 
serpents  which,  from  their  swift  darting  mo- 
tion, the  Greeks  call  aconitias,  and  the  Romans, 
jaculus.  The  original  phrase  will  bear  another 
interpretation,  which,  perhaps,  approaches  still 
nearer  the  truth.  The  verb  siy  sometimes 
means  to  sparkle,  to  emit  coruscations  of  light. 
In  this  sense,  the  noun  n£>pn  frequently  occurs 
in  the  sacred  volume  ;  thus  Zophar  says  :  "The 
coruscation,  noyn,  shall  be  as  the  morning." 
The  word  in  the  verse  under  consideration 
may  therefore  refer  to  the  ruddy  colour  of  that 
serpent,  and  express  the  sparkling  of  the 
blazing  sunbeams  upon  its  scales,  which  are 
extremely  brilliant. 

4.  The  dragon.  In  Hebrew,  the  word  pjn 
signifies  either  a  dragon  or  a  whale.  As  the 
name  of  a  serpent,  it  frequently  denotes  one 


SER 


854 


SER 


of  anv  species  ;  as  when  the  rod  of  Moses  is 
said  to  have  been  turned  into  a  serpent,  pjnV 
i5ut,  in  its  more  strict  and  appropriate  appli- 
cation, it  is  the  proper  name  of  the  dragon, 
which  differs  from  the  serpent  chiefly  in  its 
i  r/c.  "  Three  kinds  of  dragons  were  formerly 
distinguished  in  India.  1.  Those  of  the  hills 
and  mountains.  2.  Those  of  the  valleys  and 
caves.  3.  Those  of  the  fens  and  marshes. 
The  first  is  the  largest,  and  covered  with  scales 
resplendent  as  burnished  gold.  They  have  a 
kind  of  beard  hanging  from  their  lower  jaw, 
their  aspect  is  frightful,  their  cry  loud  and 
shrill,  their  crest  bright  yellow,  and  they  have 
a  protuberance  on  their  heads,  as  the  colour 
of  a  burning  coal.  Those  of  the  flat  country 
are  of  a  silver  colour,  and  frequent  rivers,  to 
which  the  former  never  come.  Those  of  the 
marshes  aro  black,  6low,  and  have  no  crest. 
Their  bite  is  not  venomous,  though  the  crea- 
tures be  dreadful."  This  description  agrees  in 
every  particular  with  the  boa,  which  is  justly 
considered  as  the  proper  dragon.  But  so  great 
is  the  inconsistency  of  the  human  mind,  that 
the  creature  which  is  now  an  object  of  uni- 
versal dislike  was,  in  early  times,  honoured 
with  religious  worship  by  every  nation  of  the 
earth.  Rites  were  devised  and  temples  built 
to  its  honour ;  and  priests  were  appointed  to 
conduct  the  ceremonies.  These  miserable 
idolaters  appeared  before  the  altars  of  their 
contemptible  deity  in  gorgeous  vestments, 
their  heads  adorned  with  serpents,  or  with  the 
figures  of  serpents  embroidered  on  their  tiaras, 
when  the  creatures  themselves  were  not  to  be 
had ;  and  in  their  frantic  exclamations  cried 
out,  in  evident  allusion  to  the  triumph  which 
the  old  serpent  obtained  over  our  first  mother, 
Eva,  Eva.  So  completely  was  Satan  permit- 
ted to  insult  our  fallen  race,  that  the  serpent, 
his  chosen  agent  in  accomplishing  our  ruin, 
was  actually  raised  to  the  first  place  among  the 
deities  of  the  Heathen  world,  and  reverenced 
by  the  most  solemn  acts  of  worship.  The 
figure  of  the  serpent  adorned  the  portals  of  the 
proudest  temples  in  the  east. 

The  serpent  was  a  very  common  symbol  of  the 
sun  ;  and  ho  is  represented  biting  his  tail,  and 
with  his  body  formed  into  a  circle,  in  order  to 
indicate  the  ordinary  course  of  this  luminary ; 
and  under  this  form  it  was  an  emblem  of  time 
and  eternity.  The  serpent  was  also  the  sym- 
bol of  medicine,  and  of  the  gods  which  pre- 
sided over  it,  as  of  Apollo  and  ^Esculapius.  In 
most  of  the  ancient  rites  we  find  some  allusion 
to  the  serpent,  under  the  several  titles  of  Ob, 
Ops,  Python,  &c.  This  idolatry  is  alluded  to 
by  Moses,  Lev.  xx,  27.  The  woman  of  Endor, 
who  had  a  familiar  spirit,  is  called  Oub,  or  Ob, 
and  it  is  interpreted  Pythonissa  :  the  place 
where  she  resided,  says  the  learned  Mr.  Bryant, 
seems  to  have  been  named  from  the  worship 
then  instituted  ;  for  Endor  is  compounded  of 
En-ador,  and  signifies  fans  pithonis,  the  "foun- 
tain of  light,"  the  oracle  of  the  god  Ador ; 
which  orar'o  was  probably  founded  by  the 
Canaanites,  nnd  had  never  been  totally  sup- 
pressed. His  pillar  was  also  called  Abbadir, 
or  Abadir,  compounded  of  ab  and  adir,   and 


meaning  the  serpent  deity  Addir,  the  same  as 
Adorus.  In  the  orgies  of  Bacchus,  the  persons 
who  partook  of  the  ceremony,  used  to  carry 
serpents  in  their  hands,  and  with  horrid  screams 
call  upon  Eva  !  Eva !  Eva  being,  according  to 
the  writer  just  mentioned,  the  same  as  epha, 
or  opha,  which  the  Greeks  rendered  ophis,  and 
by  it  denoted  a  serpent,  and  containing  no 
allusion  to  Eve,  as  above  conjectured.  These 
ceremonies,  and  this  symbolic  worship,  began 
among  the  magi,  who  were  the  sons  of  Chus; 
and  by  them  they  were  propagated  in  various 
parts.  Wherever  the  Ammonians  founded  any 
places  of  wrorship,  and  introduced  their  rites, 
there  was  generally  some  story  of  a  serpent. 
There  was  a  legend  about  a  serpent  at  Colchis, 
at  Thebes,  and  at  Delphi ;  and  likewise  in  other 
places.  The  Greeks  called  Apollo  himself  Py- 
thon, which  is  the  same  as  Oupis,  Opis,  or  Oub. 
In  Egypt  there  was  a  serpent  named  Thermu- 
this,  which  was  looked  upon  as  very  sacred ; 
and  the  natives  are  said  to  have  made  use  of  it 
as  a  royal  tiara,  with  which  they  ornamented 
the  statues  of  Isis.  The  kings  of  Egypt  wore 
high  bonnets,  terminating  in  a  round  ball,  and 
surrounded  with  figures  of  asps  ;  and  the  priests 
likewise  had  the  representation  of  serpents 
upon  their  bonnets.  Abadon,  or  Abaddon, 
mentioned  in  the  Revelation,  ix,  11,  is  sup- 
posed by  Mr.  Bryant  to  have  been  the  name 
of  the  Ophite  god,  with  whose  worship  the 
world  had  been  so  long  infected.  This  wor- 
ship began  among  the  people  of  Chaldea,  who 
built  the  city  of  Ophis  upon  the  Tigris,  and 
were  greatly  addicted  to  divination,  and  to  the 
worship  of  the  serpent.  From  Chaldea  the 
worship  passed  into  Egypt,  where  the  serpent 
deity  was  called  Canoph,  Can-eph,  and  C'neph ; 
it  also  had  the  name  of  Ob,  or  Oub,  and  was 
the  same  as  the  Basiliscus,  or  royal  serpent, 
the  same  as  the  Thermuthis,  and  made  use  of 
by  way  of  ornament  to  the  statues  of  their  gods. 
The  chief  deity  of  Egypt  is  said  to  have  been 
Vulcan,  who  was  styled  Opas ;  he  was  the 
same  as  Osiris,  the  sun,  and  hence  was  often 
called  Ob-el,  or  Pytho,  sol ;  and  there  were 
pillars  6acred  to  him,  with  curious  hiero- 
glyphical  inscriptions  bearing  the  same  name, 
whence  among  the  Greeks,  w7ho  copied  from 
the  Egyptians,  every  thing  gradually  tapering 
to  a  point  was  styled  obelos,  or  obeliscus.  As 
the  worship  of  the  serpent  began  among  the 
sons  of  Chus,  Mr.  Bryant  conjectures  that  from 
thence  they  were  denominated  Ethiopians  and 
Aithiopians,  from  Ath-ope,  or  Ath-opes,  the 
god  whom  they  worshipped,  and  not  from  their 
complexion  :  the  Ethiopes  brought  these  rites 
into  Greece,  and  called  the  island  where  they 
first  established  them,  Ellopia,  Solis  Serpentis 
insula,  the  same  with  Eubcea,  or  Oubaia,  that 
is,  the  Serpent  Island.  The  same  learned  writer 
discovers  traces  of  the  serpent  worship  among 
the  Hyperboreans,  at  Rhodes,  named  Ophiusa, 
in  Phrygia,  and  upon  the  Hellespont,  in  the 
island  Cyprus,  in  Crete,  among  the  Athenians, 
in  the  name  of  Cecrops,  among  the  natives  of 
Thebes  in  Bceotia,  among  the  Lacedoemonians, 
in  Italy,  in  Syria,  &c,  and  in  the  names  of 
many  places,  as  well  as  the  people  where  the 


SER 


855 


SER 


Ophites  settled.  One  of  the  most  early  here- 
sies  introduced  into  the  Christian  church  was 
that  of  the  Ophitse,  who  introduced  serpents 
emblematically  among  their  rites.  This  is  seen 
in  many  of  the  medals,  the  relics  of  Gnosticism 
which  are  still  preserved. 

The  form  assumed  by  the  tempter  when  he 
seduced  our  first  parents,  has  been  handed 
down  in  the  traditions  of  most  ancient  nations ; 
and,  though  animals  of  the  serpent  tribe  were 
very  generally  worshipped  by  the  Pagans,  as 
symbols  of  the  Agathodemon  ;  they  were  like- 
wise viewed  as  types  or  figures  of  the  evil 
principle.  1.  One  of  the  most  remarkable 
accounts  of  the  primeval  tempter  under  the 
shape  of  a  serpent  occurs  in  the  Zend-Avesta 
of  the  ancient  Persians.  2.  To  the  dracontian 
Ahriman  of  the  Persians,  the  malignant  serpent 
caliya  of  Hindoo  theology  appears  to  be  very 
closely  allied.  He  is  represented,  at  least,  as 
the  decided  enemy  of  the  mediatorial  god ; 
whom  he  persecutes  with  the  utmost  virulence, 
though  he  is  finally  vanquished  by  his  celestial 
adversary.  3.  The  serpent  typhon  of  the  Egyp- 
tians, who  is  sometimes  identified  with  the 
ocean,  because  the  deluge  was  esteemed  the 
work  of  the  evil  principle ;  and  the  serpent 
python  of  the  Greeks,  who  is  evidently  the 
same  as  the  monster  typhon ;  appear  to  have 
similarly  originated,  in  the  first  instance,  from 
some  remembrance  of  the  form  which  Satan 
assumed  when  in  paradise.  Perhaps  also  the 
notion,  that  python  was  oracular, — a  notion 
which  caused  the  so  frequent  use  of  serpents 
in  the  rites  of  divination,  may  have  sprung 
from  a  recollection  of  the  vocal  responses 
which  the  tempter  gave  to  Eve  under  the  bor- 
rowed figure  of  that  reptile.  4.  We  may  still 
ascribe  to  the  same  source  that  rebellious  ser- 
pent whose  treason  seems  to  have  been  so  well 
remembered  among  the  inhabitants  of  Syria. 
Pherecydes,  a  native  of  that  country,  bestows 
upon  him  the  Greek  name  of  ophioneus,  or  the 
"  serpent  god  ;"  which,  in  fact,  is  a  mere  trans- 
lation of  the  Syriac  or  Chaldaic  nachash.  He 
represents  him  as  being  the  prince  of  those 
evil  spirits  who  contended  with  the  supreme 
god  Cronus,  and  who  in  consequence  were 
ejected  from  heaven.  Their  happiness  being 
thus  justly  forfeited,  they  were  henceforth 
plunged  in  the  depths  of  Tartarus,  hateful  and 
mutually  hating  each  other.  From  Syria  and 
the  east  the  legend  passed  into  Greece,  mingled, 
however,  with  allusions  to  the  deluge.  5.  The 
same  evil  being,  in  the  same  form,  appears 
again  in  the  mythology  of  the  Goths  or  Scy- 
thians. We  are  told  by  the  ancient  Scalds, 
that  the  bad  principle,  whom  they  denominate 
loke,  unites  great  personal  beauty  with  a  ma- 
lignant and  inconstant  nature :  and  he  is 
described  as  surpassing  all  creatures  in  the 
depth  of  his  cunning  and  the  artfulness  of  his 
perfidy.  Here  the  pristine  glory  and  majesty 
of  Satan,  before  the  lineaments  of  celestial 
beauty  were  defaced  by  his  rebellious  apostasy, 
seem  not  obscurely  to  be  alluded  to ;  while  the 
craft  and  malevolence,  which  mark  his  charac- 
ter as  a  fallen  angel,  are  depicted  with  sufficient 
accuracy. 


The  most  remarkable  corroboration,  how, 
ever,  of  the  Mosaic  history  is  to  be  found  in 
those  fables  which  involve  the  mythological 
serpent,  and  in  the  worship  which  was  so 
generally  offered  to  him  throughout  the  world. 
The  worship  of  the  serpent  may  be  traced  in 
almost  every  religion  through  ancient  Asia, 
Europe,  Africa,  America.  But  how  an  object 
of  abhorrence  could  have  been  exalted  into  an 
object  of  veneration,  must  be  referred  to  the 
subtlety  of  the  arch  enemy  himself,  whose  con- 
stant endeavour  has  been  rather  to  corrupt  than 
obliterate  the  true  faith,  that,  in  the  perpetual 
conflict  between  truth  and  error,  the  mind  of 
man  might  be  more  surely  confounded  and  de- 
based. Among  other  devices,  that  of  elevating 
himself  into  an  object  of  adoration,  has  ever 
been  the  most  cherished.  It  was  that  which 
he  proposed  to  our  Lord :  "  All  these  things 
will  I  give  thee,  if  thou  wilt  fall  down  and 
worship  me."  We  cannot,  therefore,  wonder 
that  the  same  being  who  had  the  presumption 
to  make  this  proposal  to  the  Son  of  God,  should 
have  had  the  address  to  insinuate  himself  into 
the  worship  of  the  children  of  men.  In  this 
he  was  unhappily  but  too  well  seconded  by  the 
natural  tendency  of  human  corruption.  The 
unenlightened  Heathen,  in  obedience  to  the 
voice  of  nature,  acknowledged  his  dependence 
upon  a  superior  being.  His  reason  assured 
him  that  there  must  be  a  God  ;  his  conscience 
assured  him  that  God  was  good ;  but  he  felt 
and  acknowledged  the  prevalence  of  evil,  and 
attributed  it,  naturally  to  an  evil  agent.  But 
as  the  evil  spirit,  to  his  unillumined  mind, 
seemed  as  omnipotent  as  the  good  agent,  he 
worshipped  both  ;  the  one,  that  he  might  pro- 
pitiate his  kindness ;  the  other  that  he  might 
avert  his  displeasure.  The  great  point  of  devil 
worship  being  gained,  namely,  the  acknow- 
ledgment of  the  evil  spirit  as  God,  the  transition 
to  idolatry  became  easy.  The  mind,  once  dark- 
ened by  the  admission  of  an  allegiance  divided 
between  God  and  Satan,  became  gradually 
more  feeble  and  superstitious,  until  at  length 
sensible  objects  were  called  in  to  aid  the  weak- 
ness of  degraded  intellect ;  and  from  their  first 
form  as  symbols,  passed  rapidly  through  the 
successive  stages  of  apotheosis,  until  they  were 
elevated  into  gods.  Of  these  the  most  remark- 
able was  the  serpent ;  upon  the  basis  of  tradi- 
tion, regarded,  first  as  the  symbol  of  the 
malignant  being;  subsequently  considered  ta- 
1-smanic  and  oracular  ;  and  lastly,  venerated 
and  worshipped  as  divine. 

SERPENT,  Brazen.  This  was  a  figure  of 
a  serpent,  called  above  the  seraph,  which  Moses 
caused  to  be  put  on  the  top  of  a  pole,  Num. 
xxi,  9,  that  all  those  bitten  by  the  serpent,  who 
should  look  upon  this  image,  might  be  healed. 
Our  Saviour,  in  the  Gospel  of  St.  John,  iii,  14, 
declares,  that  "  as  Moses  lifted  up  the  serpent 
in  the  wilderness,  even  so  must  the  Son  of 
man  be  lifted  up,"  alluding  to  his  own  death 
which,  through  faith,  was  to  give  life  to  the 
world.  The  brazen  serpent  was  preserved 
among  the  Israelites  down  to  the  time  of  He- 
zekiah  ;  who,  being  informed  that  the  people 
paid  a  superstitious  worship  to  it,  had  it  broken 


SEV 


856 


SHA 


in  pieces,  and  by  way  of  contempt  gave  it  the 
oame  of  Nehdibtan,  that  is  to  say,  a  brazen 
bauble  or  trifle,  9  Kings  xviii,  4.    See  Type. 

SERVANT.  This  word  generally  signifies 
,  llave.  For  formerly  among  the  Hebrews, 
;itici  the  neighbouring  nations,  the  greater  part 
of  servants  were  slaves,  that  is  to  say,  they 
belonged  absolutely  to  their  masters,  who  had 
a  right  to  dispose  of  their  persons,  their  bodies, 
goods,  and  even  of  their  lives,  in  some  cases. 
The  Hebrews  had  two  sorts  of  servants  or 
slavc6,  Leviticus  xxv,  44,  45,  &c.  Some  were 
strangers,  either  bought,  or  taken  in  the  wars. 
The  others  were  Hebrew  slaves,  who,  being 
poor,  sold  themselves,  or  were  sold  to  pay  their 
debts  ;  or  were  delivered  up  for  slaves  by  their 
parents,  in  cases  of  necessity.  This  sort  of 
Hebrew  slaves  continued  in  slavery  but  to  the 
year  of  jubilee  ;  then  they  might  return  to  lib- 
erty  again,  and  their  masters  could  not  retain 
them  against  their  wills.  If  they  would  con- 
tinue voluntarily  with  their  masters,  they  were 
brought  before  the  judges;  there  they  made  a 
declaration,  that  for  this  time  they  disclaimed 
the  privilege  of  the  law,  had  their  ears  bored 
with  an  awl,  by  applying  them  to  the  door- 
posts of  their  master,  Exod.  xxi,  2,  5-7,  &c; 
and  after  that  they  had  no  longer  any  power 
of  recovering  their  liberty,  except  at  the  next 
year  of  jubilee.  Servant  is  also  taken  for  a 
man  that  dedicates  himself  to  the  service  of 
another,  by  the  choice  of  his  own  will  and  in- 
clination. Thus  Joshua  was  the  servant  of 
Moses,  Elisha  of  Elijah,  Gehazi  of  Elisha ;  St. 
Peter,  St.  Andrew,  St.  Philip,  and  the  rest, 
were  servants  of  Jesus  Christ. 

S  ETH,  son  of  Adam  and  of  Eve,  was  born 
A.  M.  130,  Gen.  v,  3,  6,  10,  11.  Seth,  at  the 
age  of  one  hundred  and  five  years,  begat  Enos, 
A.  M.  235.  He  lived  after  this  eight  hundred 
and  seven  years,  in  all  nine  hundred  and  twelve 
years,  and  died  A.  M.  1042.  Seth  was  the  chief 
of  "the  children  of  God,"  as  the  Scripture 
calls  them,  Gen.  vi,  2;  that  is,  those  who  be- 
fore the  flood  preserved  true  religion  and  piety 
in  the  world,  while  the  descendants  of  Cain 
gave  themselves  up  to  wickedness.  The  inven- 
tion of  letters  and  writing  is  by  the  rabbins 
ascribed  to  this  patriarch. 

SEVEN.  The  number  seven  is  consecrated, 
in  the  holy  books  and  in  the  religion  of  the 
Jews,  by  a  great  number  of  events  and  myste- 
rious circumstances.  God  created  the  world 
in  the  space  of  seven  days,  and  consecrated 
the  seventh  day  to  repose.  This  rest  of  the 
seventh  day,  according  to  St.  Paul,  Heb.  iv,  4, 
intimates  eternal  rest.  And  not  only  the 
seventh  day  is  honoured  among  the  Jews,  by 
the  repose  of  the  Sabbath,  but  every  seventh 
year  is  also  consecrated  to  the  rest  of  the  earth, 
by  the  name  of  a  sabbatical  year ;  as  also  the 
seven  times  seventh  year,  or  forty-ninth  year, 
is  the  year  of  jubilee.  In  the  prophetic  style, 
I.  often  stands  for  seven  years,  Dan.  ix, 
24-2G.  Jacob  served  his  father-in-law  Laban 
seven  years  for  each  of  his  daughters.  Pha- 
raoh's mysterious  dream  represented  to  his 
imagination  seven  fat  oxen,  and  seven  lean 
ones;  seven  full   ears   of  corn,  and  as  many 


that  were  empty  and  shrivelled.  These  stood 
for  seven  years  of  plenty,  and  seven  of  scarci- 
ty. The  number  of  seven  days  is  observed 
in  the  octaves  of  the  great  solemnities  of  the 
passover,  of  tabernacles,  and  of  the  dedica- 
tion of  the  tabernacle  and  the  temple ;  the 
seven  branches  of  the  golden  candlestick,  the 
number  of  seyen  sacrifices  appointed  on  seve- 
ral occasions,  Numbers  xxvii,  11 ;  xxix,  17-21, 
&c.  Seven  trumpets,  seven  priests  that  sound- 
ed them,  seven  days  to  surround  the  walls  of 
Jericho,  Joshua  vi,  4,  6,  8.  In  the  Revelation, 
are  the  seven  churches,  seven  candlesticks, 
seven  spirits,  seven  stars,  seven  lamps,  seven 
seals,  seven  angels,  seven  phials,  seven  plagues, 
&c.  In  certain  passages,  the  number  seven  is 
put  for  a  great  number.  Isaiah,  iv,  1,  says 
that  seven  women  should  lay  hold  on  one  man, 
to  ask  him  to  marry  them.  Hannah,  the  mo- 
ther of  Samuel,  says,  1  Sam.  ii,  5,  that  she 
who  was  barren  should  have  seven  children. 
Jeremiah,  xv,  9,  makes  use  of  the  same  expres- 
sion. God  threatens  his  people  to  smite  them 
seven  times  for  their  transgressions,  Lev.  xxvi, 
24,  that  is  to  say  several  times.  The  Psalmist, 
speaking  of  very  pure  silver,  says  it  is  "puri- 
fied seven  times,"  Psalm  xii,  6.  And  elsewhere, 
"  Render  unto  our  neighbours  sevenfold  into 
their  bosom,"  Psalm  lxxix,  12;  punish  them 
severely,  and  as  often  as  they  deserve  it.  The 
slayer  of  Cain  was  to  be  punished  seven  times  ; 
but  of  Lamech  seventy  times  seven  times,  Gen. 
iv,  15,  24.  The  slothful  man  thinks  himself 
wiser  than  seven  men,  that  set  forth  proverbs, 
Prov.  xxvi,  16 ;  he  thinks  himself  of  more 
worth  than  many  wise  men.  St,  Peter  asks 
our  Saviour,  Matthew  xviii,  21,  22,  How  many 
times  should  he  forgive  his  brother  ?  till  seven 
times  ?  And  Christ  answers  him,  I  say  not 
only  seven  times,  but  seventy  times  seven ; 
meaning,  as  often  as  he  may  offend,  however 
frequent  it  may  be. 

SHARON,  Plain  of,  a  beautiful  and  spa- 
cious plain,  extending  from  Cassarea  to  Joppa 
on  the  sea  coast,  and  eastward  to  the  mount- 
ains of  Judea  ;  and  is  celebrated  for  its  wines, 
its  flowers,  and  its  pastures.  It  still  preserves 
some  portions  of  its  natural  beauty,  and  is 
adorned  in  the  spring  with  the  white  and  red 
rose,  the  narcissus,  the  white  and  orange  lily, 
the  carnation  and  other  flowers  ;  but  for  the 
rest  of  the  year  it  appears  little  better  than  a 
desert,  with  here  and  there  a  ruined  village, 
and  some  clumps  of  olive  trees  and  sycamores. 
This  name  was  almost  become  a  proverb,  to 
express  a  place  of  extraordinary  beauty  and 
friitfulness,  Isaiah  xxxiii,  9;  xxxv,  2.  But 
there  are  three  cantons  of  Palestine  known  by 
the  name  of  Sharon.  The  first,  according  to 
Eusebius  and  St.  Jerom,  is  a  canton  between 
Mount  Tabor  and  the  sea  of  Tiberias.  The 
second,  a  canton  between  the  city  of  Ccesarea 
of  Palestine  and  Joppa.  And  the  third  a  can- 
ton beyond  Jordan,  in  the  country  of  Basan, 
and  in  the  division  of  the  tribe  of  Gad.  Modern 
travellers  give  this  name  also  to  the  plain  that 
lies  between  Ecdippe  and  Ptolemais. 

SHAVING.  In  time  of  mourning  the  Jews 
shaved  their  heads,  and  neglected  to  trim  their 


SHE 


857 


SHE 


beards.  The  king  of  the  Ammonites  shaved  off 
half  the  beards  of  David's  ambassadors,  which 
was  the  greatest  insult  he  could  offer.  This  will 
appear  from  the  regard  which  the  easterns  have 
ever  paid  to  the  beard.  D'Arvieux  gives  a  re- 
markable instance  of  an  Arab  who,  having  re- 
ceived a  wound  in  his  jaw,  chose  to  hazard  his 
life  rather  than  to  suffer  his  surgeon  to  take 
off  his  beard.  It  was  one  of  the  most  infamous 
punishments  of  cowardice  in  Sparta,  that  they 
who  turned  their  backs  in  the  day  of  battle 
were  obliged  to  appear  abroad  with  one  half  of 
their  beard  shaved,  and  the  other  half  unshaved. 
The  easterns  considered  the  beard  as  venera- 
ble, because  it  distinguished  men  from  women, 
and  was  the  mark  of  freemen  in  opposition  to 
slaves.  It  was  still,  in  times  comparatively 
modern,  the  greatest  indignity  that  could  be 
offered  in  Persia.  Shah  Abbas,  king  of  that 
country,  enraged  that  the  emperor  of  Hindos- 
tan  had  inadvertently  addressed  him  by  a  title 
far  inferior  to  that  of  the  great  shah-in-shah,  or 
king  of  kings,  ordered  the  beards  of  the  ambas- 
sadors to  be  shaved  off,  and  sent  them  home  to 
their  master.  "One  of  the  buffoons  of  the 
bashaw,"  says  Belzoni,  "  took  it  into  his  head 
one  day,  for  a  frolic,  to  shave  his  beard,  which 
is  no  trifle  among  the  Turks ;  for  some  of 
them,  I  really  believe,  would  sooner  have  their 
head  cut  off  than  their  beard.  In  this  state  he 
went  home  to  his  women,  who  actually  thrust 
him  out  of  the  door  ;  and  such  was  the  disgrace 
of  cutting  off  his  beard,  that  even  his  fellow 
buffoons  would  not  eat  with  him  till  it  was 
grown  again." 

SHEAF.  After  the  feast  of  the  passover  the 
Jews  brought  a  sheaf  into  the  temple,  as  the 
first  fruits  of  the  barley  harvest,  Lev.  xxiii,  10, 
12 ;  and  these  were  the  ceremonies  that  were 
then  performed.  On  the  16th  of  the  month 
Nisan,  in  the  evening,  when  the  feast  day  of 
the  passover  was  ended,  and  the  second  day 
was  begun,  which  was  a  working  dav,  the  house 
of  judgment  deputed  three  men  to  go  in  so- 
lemnity, and  gather  the  sheaf  of  barley.  The 
inhabitants  of  the  neighbouring  cities  came 
together,  to  be  present  at  the  ceremony.  The 
barley  was  gathered  in  the  territory  of  Jeru- 
salem. The  deputies  demanded  three  times 
successively  if  the  sun  was  set ;  and  were 
as  often  answered  that  it  was.  Then  they 
demanded  three  times  if  they  might  be  per- 
mitted to  cut  the  sheaf,  and  permission  was  as 
often  granted.  They  reaped  it  out  of  three 
different  fields,  with  three  different  sickels, 
and  put  the  ears  into  three  boxes  to  carry  to 
the  temple.  This  sheaf  was  threshed  in  the 
court;  and  of  the  grain  they  took  a  full  omer, 
and  after  it  had  been  winnowed,  parched,  and 
bruised,  they  sprinkled  oil  over  it,  and  added  a 
handful  of  incense;  then  the  priest  who 
received  the  offering,  waved  it  before  the 
Lord  to  the  four  quarters  of  the  world,  cross- 
wise ;  he  cast  part  of  it  upon  the  altar,  and  the 
rest  was  his  own.  After  this  every  one  might 
begin  to  reap  the  harvest. 

SHEBA.  Of  "the  queen  of  Sheba,"  mention 
is  made  1  Kings  x,  1,  2,  &c  ;  2  Chron.  ix,  1,  2, 
&c  ;  Matt,  xii,  42;  Luke  xi,  31.  She  is  called 


"queen  of  the  south,"  and  was,  according  to 
some,  a  queen  of  Arabia ;  and,  according  to 
others,  a  queen  of  Ethiopia.  Josephus  says, 
that  Sheba  was  the  ancient  name  of  the  city 
of  Meroe,  before  Cambyses  gave  it  that  of  his 
sister ;  and  that  it  was  from  thence  the  queen 
came  of  whom  we  are  speaking.  This  opinion 
has  much  prevailed.  The  Abyssinians  at  this 
day,  maintain,  that  this  princess  was  of  their 
country,  and  that  her  posterity  reigned  there 
a  long  time.  They  preserve  a  catalogue  of 
them,  their  names  and  successions. 

SHEEP,  rw,  occurs  frequently,  and  |NX,  a 
general  name  for  both  sheep  and  goats,  con- 
sidered collectively  in  a  flock,  Arabic  zain. 
The  sheep  is  a  well  known  animal.  The  bene- 
fits which  mankind  owe  to  it  are  numerous.  Its 
fleece,  its  skin,  its  flesh,  its  tallow,  and  even  its 
horns  and  bowels  are  articles  of  great  utility  to 
human  life  and  happiness.  Its  mildness  and 
inoffensiveness  of  temper,  strongly  recommend 
it  to  human  affection  and  regard  ;  and  have 
designated  it  the  pattern  and  emblem  of  meek- 
ness, innocence,  patience,  and  submission.  It 
is  a  social  animal.  The  flock  follow  the  ram 
as  their  leader ;  who  frequently  displays  the 
most  impetuous  courage  in  their  defence : 
dogs,  and  even  men,  when  attempting  to  mo- 
lest them,  have  often  suffered  from  his  saga- 
cious and  generous  valour.  There  are  two 
varieties  of  sheep  found  in  Syria.  The  first, 
called  the  "Bidoween  sheep,"  differs  little  from 
the  large  breed  among  us,  except  that  the  tail 
is  somewhat  longer  and  thicker.  The  second 
is  much  more  common,  and  is  more  valued  on 
account  of  the  extraordinary  bulk  of  its  tail, 
which  has  been  remarked  by  all  the  eastern 
travellers.  The  carcass  of  one  of  these  sheep, 
without  including  the  head,  feet,  entrails,  and 
skin,  weighs  from  fifty  to  sixty  pounds,  of 
which  the  tail  makes  up  fifteen  pounds.  Some 
of  a  larger  size,  fattened  with  care,  will  some- 
times weigh  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds, 
the  tail  alone  composing  one  third  of  the  whole 
weight.  It  is  of  a  substance  between  fat  and 
marrow,  and  is  not  eaten  separately,  but  mixed 
with  the  lean  meat  in  many  of  their  dishes,  and 
often  also  used  instead  of  butter.  A  reference 
to  this  part  is  made  in  Exod.  xxix,  22;  Lev.  iii, 
9  ;  where  the  fat  and  the  tail  were  to  be  burnt 
on  the  altar  of  sacrifice.  Mr.  Street  considers 
this  precept  to  have  had  respect  to  the  health 
of  the  Israelites  ;  observing  that  "  bilious  dis- 
orders are  very  frequent  in  hot  countries  ;  the 
eating  of  fat  meat  is  a  great  encouragement 
and  excitement  to  them ;  and  though  the  fat 
of  the  tail  is  now  considered  as  a  delicacy,  it 
is  really  unwholesome."  The  conclusion  of 
the  seventeenth  verse,  which  is,  "Ye  shall  eat 
neither  fat  nor  blood,"  justifies  this  opinion. 
The  prohibition  of  eating  fat,  that  is  of  fat 
unmixed  with  the  flesh,  the  omentum  or  caul, 
is  given  also,  Lev.  vii,  23. 

SHEKEL,  bpv,  signifies  weight,  money, 
shekel,  siclus,  a  Hebrew  weight  and  money, 
Exod.  xxx,  23,  24 ;  2  Sam.  xiv,  26.  Shekel 
is  used  to  denote  the  weight  of  any  thing ;  as 
iron,  hair,  spices,  &c.  Dr.  Arbuthnot  makes 
the  weight  of  the  shekel  equal  to  9  dwt.  2i  gr. 


SHE 


858 


SHE 


English  troy  weight ;  and  the  value  equal  to 
2s.  3Jd.  sterling  money:  but  the  golden  she- 
kel  was  worth  12,  16s.  6<f.  English  money. 
Some  are  of  opinion  that  the  Jews  had  two 
kinds  of  shekels,  namely,  the  common  one 
already  noticed,  and  the  shekel  of  the  sanctu- 
ary, which  last  they  make  double  the  former. 
But  most  authors  make  them  the  same,  and 
think  that  the  word  sanctuary  is  added  to  ex- 
press a  just  and  exact  weight,  according  to  the 
standards  kept  in  the  temple  or  tabernacle. 
Moses,  Num.  xviii,  16,  and  Ezekiel,  xlv,  12, 
saw  that  the  skekel  was  worth  twenty  gerahs. 

SHEM,  the  son  of  Noah,  Gen.  vi,  10.  He 
was  born  A.  M.  1558.  It  is  the  opinion  of  the 
generality  of  commentators,  that  Shem  was 
younger  than  Japheth,  and  the  second  son  of 
Noah,  for  reasons  given  under  the  article  Ja- 
pheth. See  also  Gen.  ix,  23-25.  He  lived 
six  hundred  years,  and  died  A.  M.  2158.  The 
posterity  of  Shem  obtained  their  portion  in  the 
best  parts  of  Asia.  The  Jews  ascribe  to  Shem 
the  theological  tradition  of  the  things  that 
Noah  had  learned  from  the  first  men.  Shem 
communicated  them  to  his  children,  and  by 
this  means  the  true  religion  was  preserved  in 
the  world.  Some  have  thought  Shem  the  same 
as  Melchisedec,  and  that  he  himself  had  been 
at  the  school  of  Methuselah  before  the  deluge  : 
that  he  gave  to  Abraham  the  whole  tradition, 
the  ceremonies  of  the  sacrifices  of  religion, 
according  to  which  this  patriarch  afterward 
offered  his  sacrifices.  But  this  opinion  has  no 
adequate  support.  Lastly,  the  Jews  say,  that 
he  taught  men  the  law  of  justice,  and  the  man- 
ner of  reckoning  months  and  years,  and  the 
intercalations  of  the  months.  All  that  can  be 
said  as  to  these  speculations  is,  that  Noah  and 
all  his  sons  were  the  depositaries  of  the  know- 
ledge which  existed  among  men  before  the 
flood,  and  were  perhaps  both  specially  qualified 
by  God  first  to  attain  it,  and  then  to  transmit 
it  to  their  descendants.  Shem  had  five  sons, 
Elam,  Asher,  Arphaxad,  Lud,  and  Aran,  who 
peopled  the  richest  provinces  of  Asia. 

SHEPHERDS.  The  patriarchal  shepherds, 
rich  in  flocks  and  herds,  in  silver  and  gold, 
and  attended  by  a  numerous  train  of  servants 
purchased  with  their  money,  or  hired  from  the 
neighbouring  towns  and  villages,  acknowledge 
no  civil  superior  ;  they  held  the  rank,  and  ex- 
ercised the  rights,  of  sovereign  princes  ;  they 
concluded  alliances  with  the  kings  in  whose 
territories  they  tended  their  flocks  ;  they  made 
peace  or  war  with  the  surrounding  states  ;  and, 
in  fine,  they  wanted  nothing  of  sovereign  au- 
thority but  the  name.  Unfettered  by  the  cum- 
brous ceremonies  of  regal  power,  they  led  a 
plain  and  laborious  life,  in  perfect  freedom  and 
overflowing  abundance.  Refusing  to  confine 
themselves  to  any  particular  spot,  (for  the  pas- 
tures were  not  yet  appropriated,)  they  lived  in 
tents,  and  removed  from  one  place  to  another 
in  search  of  pasture  for  their  cattle.  Strangers 
in  the  countries  whore  they  sojourned,  they 
refused  to  mingle  with  the  permanent  settlers, 
to  occupy  their  towns,  and  to  form  with  them 
one  people.  They  w  re  conscious  of  their 
•trength,  and  jealous  of  their  independence ; 


and  although  patient  and  forbearing,  their  con- 
duct proved,  on  several  occasions,  that  they 
wanted  neither  skill  nor  courage  to  vindicate 
their  rights  and  avenge  their  wrongs.  In  the 
wealth,  the  power,  and  the  splendour  of  patri- 
archal shepherds,  we  discover  the  rudiments 
of  regal  grandeur  and  authority ;  and  in  their 
numerous  and  hardy  retainers,  the  germ  of 
potent  empires.  Hence  the  custom  so  preva- 
lent among  the  ancients,  of  distinguishing  the 
office  and  duties  of  their  kings  and  princes,  by 
terms  borrowed  from  the  pastoral  life :  Aga- 
memnon, shepherd  of  the  people,  'Aya/j/^vova 
not/iiva  \aSv,  is  a  phrase  frequently  used  in  the 
strains  of  Homer.  The  sacred  writers  very 
often  speak  of  kings  under  the  name  of  shep- 
herds, and  compare  the  royal  sceptre  to  the 
shepherd's  crook:  "He  chose  David  also  his 
servant,  and  took  him  from  the  sheep  folds  ; 
from  following  the  ewes  great  with  young,  he 
brought  him  to  feed  Jacob  his  people,  and  Is- 
rael his  inheritance.  So  he  fed  them  accord- 
ing to  the  integrity  of  his  heart,  and  guided 
them  by  the  skilfulness  of  his  hands."  And 
Jehovah  said  to  David  himself :  "  Thou  shalt 
feed  my  people  Israel,  and  thou  shalt  be  a  cap- 
tain over  Israel."  The  royal  Psalmist,  on  the 
other  hand,  celebrates  under  the  same  allu- 
sions, the  special  care  and  goodness  of  God 
toward  himself,  and  also  toward  his  ancient 
people.  "  The  Lord  is  my  shepherd,  I  shall 
not  want."  "  Give  ear,  O  shepherd  of  Israel, 
thou  that  leadest  Joseph  like  a  flock  ;  thou  that 
dwellest  between  the  cherubim,  shine  forth." 
In  many  other  places  of  Scripture,  the  church 
is  compared  to  a  sheep  fold,  the  saints  to  sheep, 
and  the  ministers  of  religion  to  shepherds,  who 
must  render,  at  last,  an  account  of  their  ad- 
ministration to  the  Shepherd  and  Overseer  to 
whom  they  owe  their  authority. 

The  patriarchs  did  not  commit  their  flocks 
and  herds  solely  to  the  care  of  menial  serv- 
ants and  strangers ;  they  tended  them  in  per- 
son, or  placed  them  under  the  superintendence 
of  their  sons  and  their  daughters,  who  were 
bred  to  the  same  laborious  employment,  and 
taught  to  perform,  without  reluctance,  the 
meanest  services.  Rebecca,  the  only  daugh- 
ter of  a  shepherd  prince,  went  to  a  consider- 
able distance  to  draw  water  ;  and  it  is  evident, 
from  the  readiness  and  address  with  which  she 
let  down  her  pitcher  from  her  shoulder,  and 
gave  drink  to  the  servant  of  Abraham,  and 
afterward  drew  for  all  his  camels,  that  she  had 
been  long  accustomed  to  that  humble  employ- 
ment. From  the  same  authority  we  know 
that  Rachel,  the  daughter  of  Laban,  kept  her 
father's  flocks,  and  submitted  to  the  various 
privations  and  hardships  of  the  pastoral  life, 
in  the  deserts  of  Syria.  The  patriarch  Jacob, 
though  he  was  the  son  of  a  shepherd  prince, 
kept  the  flocks  of  Laban,  his  maternal  uncle ; 
and  his  own  sons  followed  the  same  business, 
both  in  Mesopotamia,  and  after  his  return  to 
the  land  of  Canaan.  This  primeval  simplicity 
was  long  retained  among  the  Greeks.  Homer 
often  sends  the  daughters  of  princes  and  nobles 
to  tend  the  flocks,  to  wash  the  clothes  of  the 
family  at  the  fountain,  or  in  the  flowing  stream, 


SHE 


859 


SHE 


and  to  perform  many  other  menial  services. 
Adonis,  the  son  of  Cinyras,  a  king  of  Cyprus, 
fed  his  flocks  by  the  streaming  rivers  : 

Et  formosus  ores  adfiumina  pavit  Adonis. 

Vie.  Eel.  x,  1.  18. 

"  Along  the  streams  his  flock  Adonis  fed." 

Dryden. 
Andromache,  the  wife  of  Hector,  complains 
that  Achilles  had  slain  her  seven  brothers 
when  they  were  tending  their  flocks  and  herds. 
jEneas  pastured  his  oxen  on  Mount  Ida,  when 
Achilles  seized  them,  and  forced  the  Trojan 
hero  to  flee.  Phoebus  himself  was  a  keeper  of 
oxen  in  the  groves  and  valleys  of  Mount  Ida. 
This  custom  has  descended  to  modern  times ; 
for  in  Syria  the  daughters  of  the  Turcoman 
and  Arabian  shepherds,  and  in  India  the  Brah- 
min women  of  distinction,  are  seen  drawing 
water  at  the  village  wells,  and  tending  their 
cattle  to  the  lakes  and  rivers. 

The  flocks  and  herds  of  these  shepherds 
were  immensely  numerous.  The  sheep  of 
the  Bedoween  Arabs  in  Egypt,  and  probably 
throughout  the  east,  are  very  fine,  black-faced 
and  white-faced,  and  many  of  them  clothed  in 
a  brown  coloured  fleece  :  and  of  this  superior 
breed  the  ample  flocks  of  the  Syrian  shepherds 
consisted.  So  great  was  the  stock  of  Abraham 
and  Lot,  that  they  were  obliged  to  separate, 
because  "  the  land  was  not  able  to  bear  them." 
From  the  present  which  Jacob  made  to  his 
brother  Esau,  consisting  of  five  hundred  and 
eighty  head  of  different  sorts,  we  may  form 
some  idea  of  the  countless  numbers  of  great 
and  small  cattle  which  he  had  acquired  in  the 
service  of  Laban.  In  modern  times,  the  num- 
bers of  cattle  in  the  Turcoman  flocks,  which 
feed  on  the  fertile  plains  of  Syria,  are  almost 
incredible.  They  sometimes  occupy  three  or 
four  days  in  passing  from  one  part  of  the 
country  to  another.  Chardin  had  an  oppor- 
tunity of  seeing  a  clan  of  Turcoman  shepherds 
on  their  march,  about  two  days'  distance  from 
Aleppo.  The  whole  country  was  covered  with 
thern.  Many  of  their  principal  people  with 
whom  he  conversed  on  the  road,  assured  him, 
that  there  were  four  hundred  thousand  beasts 
of  carriage,  camels,  horses,  oxen,  cows,  and 
asses,  and  three  millions  of  sheep  and  goats. 
This  astonishing  account  of  Chardin  is  con- 
firmed by  Dr.  Shaw,  who  states,  that  several 
Arabian  tribes,  who  can  bring  no  more  than 
three  or  four  hundred  horses  into  the  field, 
are  possessed  of  more  than  as  many  thousand 
camels,  and  triple  the  number  of  sheep  and 
black  cattle.  Russel,  in  his  "  History  of 
Aleppo,"  speaks  of  vast  flocks  which  pass  that 
city  every  year,  of  which  many  sheep  are  sold 
to  supply  the  inhabitants.  The  flocks  and  herds 
which  belonged  to  the  Jewish  patriarchs  were 
not  more  numerous. 

The  care  of  such  overgrown  flocks,  says 
Paxton,  required  many  shepherds.  These 
were  of  different  kinds  ;  the  master  of  the 
family  and  his  children,  with  a  number  of 
herdsmen  who  were  hired  to  assist  them,  and 
felt  but  little  interest  in  the  preservation  and 
increase  of  their  charge.  In  Hebrew,  these 
persons,   so  different  in  station   and   feeling, 


were  not  distinguished  by  appropriate  names  ; 
the  master,  the  slave,  and  the  hired  servant, 
were  all  known  by  the  common  appellation  of 
shepherds.  The  distinction,  not  sufficiently 
important  to  require  the  invention  of  a  particu- 
lar term,  is  expressed  among  every  people  by 
a  periphrasis.  The  only  instance  in  the  Old 
Testament,  in  which  the  hired  servant  is  distin- 
guished from  the  master,  or  one  of  his  family, 
occurs  in  the  history  of  David,  where  he  is 
said  to  have  left  the  sheep,  idib>  by,  "  in  the 
hand  of  a  keeper,"  while  he  went  down  to 
visit  his  brethren,  and  the  armies  who  were 
fighting  against  the  Philistines  under  the  ban- 
ners of  Saul,  1  Samuel  xvii,  20.  This  word 
exactly  corresponds  with  the  Latin  term  custos, 
"  a  keeper,"  which  Virgil  uses  to  denote  a  hire- 
ling shepherd,  in  his  tenth  Eclogue  : 

Atque  utinam  ex  xohis  unus  vestrique  fuissem, 
Aut  custos  gregis,  aut  matures  vinitor  uvm. 

"  O  that  your  birth  and  business  had  been  mine, 
To  feed  the  flock  and  prune  the  spreading  vine  !" 

Wharton. 

In  such  extensive  pastoral  concerns,  the  vigi- 
lance and  activity  of  the  master  were  often 
insufficient  for  directing  the  operations  of  so 
many  shepherds,  who  were  not  unfrequently 
scattered  over  a  considerable  extent  of  coun- 
try. An  upper  servant  was  therefore  appoint, 
ed  to  superintend  their  labours,  and  take  care 
that  his  master  suffered  no  injury.  In  the 
house  of  Abraham,  this  honourable  station  was 
held  by  Eliezer,  a  native  of  Damascus,  a  serv- 
ant in  every  respect  worthy  of  so  great  and 
good  a  master.  The  numerous  flocks  of  Pha- 
raoh seem  to  have  required  the  superintending 
care  of  many  overseers,  Gen.  xlvii,  6.  Doeg, 
an  Edomite,  was  entrusted  with  the  whole 
pastoral  establishment  of  Saul,  1  Sam.  xxi,  7. 
But  in  the  reign  of  David,  the  important  office 
of  chief  herdsman  was  abolished,  and  the  vast 
flocks  and  herds  of  that  monarch  were  entrust, 
ed  to  a  number  of  superintendents;  animals  of 
the  same  species  forming  a  separate  flock,  un- 
der its  proper  overseer,  1  Chronicles  xxvii,  29. 
These  overseers,  in  the  language  of  the  He- 
brews, were  called  the  princes  of  the  flock ;  they 
were  treated  with  great  distinction,  and  seem 
to  have  been  selected  in  the  reign  of  David 
from  among  the  nobles  of  his  court.  Eumaeus, 
a  person  of  noble  birth,  agreeably  to  this  cus- 
tom, was  charged  with  the  care  of  the  herds 
of  swine  belonging  to  Ulysses.  The  office  of 
chief  shepherd  is  frequently  mentioned  by  the 
classic  authors  of  antiquity.  Diodorus  relates 
from  Ctesias,  that  Simma  was  overseer  of  the 
royal  flocks  under  Ninus,  king  of  Assyria. 
According  to  Plutarch,  one  Samo  managed  the 
flocks  and  herds  of  Neoptolemus,  the  king  of 
the  Molossians.  The  office  of  chief  shepherd 
was  also  known  among  the  Latins;  for,  in  the 
seventh  ^Eneid,  Tyrrheus  is  named  as  governor 
of  the  royal  flocks  : 

Tyrrhensque  pater,  eui  regia  parent 
Armenia,  et  late  custodia  credita  camp. 

"Their  father,  Tyrrheus,  did  his  fodder  bring; 
Tyrrheus,  chief  ranger  to  the  Latian  king." 

Dryden. 

I  And  Livy  informs  us,  that  Faustulus  held  the 


sin 


860 


SHO 


same  office  under  Numitor,  king  of  the  Latins. 
But  it  is  needless  to  multiply  quotations  ;  every 
scholar  knows  thai  the  Greek  and  Roman 
classics  abound  with  allusions  to  this  office, 
which  in  those  dayi  was  one  of  great  import- 
ance and  dignity,  on  the  faithful  discharge  of 
which  the  power  and  splendour  of  an  eastern 
potentate  greatly  depended.  The  office  of 
chief  shepherd,  therefore,  being  in  pastoral 
countries  one  of  great  trust,  of  high  responsi- 
bility, and  of  distinguished  honour,  is  with 
great  propriety  applied  to  our  Lord  by  the 
Apostle  Peter  :  "  And  when  the  chief  shepherd 
shall  appear,  ye  shall  receive  a  crown  of  glory 
which  fadeth  not  away,"  1  Peter  v,  4.  The 
same  allusion  occurs  in  these  words  of  Paul : 
"Now  the  God  of  peace,  that  brought  again 
from  the  dead  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  that 
great  shepherd  of  the  sheep,  through  the  blood 
of  the  everlasting  covenant,  make  you  perfect 
in  every  good  work  to  do  his  will,"  Hebrews 
xiii,  20. 

SHIBBOLETH,  "  an  ear  of  corn,"  was  a 
word  which  the  Gileadites  used  as  the  test  of 
an  Ephraimite.  For  the  Ephrairnites  could 
not,  from  disuse,  pronounce  the  Hebrew  letter 
shin  ;  therefore,  they  said  Sibboleth  instead  of 
Shibboleth,  Judges  xii,  6.  The  Greeks,  says 
Hartley,  have  not  the  sound  sh  in  their  lan- 
guage :  hence  they  are  liable  to  be  detected, 
like  the  Ephrairnites.  I  was  struck  with  this 
circumstance,  in  learning  Turkish  from  a 
Greek  tutor ;  pasha,  he  pronounced  pasa ; 
thimdi,  he  called  simdi;  Dervish,  Dervis,  &c. 
'Shibboleth  he  would,  of  course,  pronounce 
Sibboleth. 

SHIELD.     See  Arms. 

SHILOH,  Gen.  xhx,  10.  The  Hebrew  text 
is,  "until  Shiloh  come."  All  Christian  com- 
mentators agree,  that  this  word  ought  to  be 
understood  of  the  Messiah,  that  is,  of  Jesus 
Christ.  The  LXX.  read  it,  "  Until  the  coming 
of  him  to  whom  it  is  reserved."  It  must  be 
owned  that  the  signification  of  the  Hebrew 
word  Shiloh  is  not  well  known.  Some  trans- 
late the  clause,  "  The  sceptre  shall  not  depart 
from  Judah,  till  he  comes  to  whom  it  belongs ;" 
others,  "till  the  coming  of  the  peacemaker,  or 
the  pacific,  or  prosperity ;"  and  some,  "  The 
sceptre  shall  not  depart  from  Judah  till  its  end, 
its  ruin,"  till  the  downfall  of  the  kingdom  of 
the  Jews.  However,  this  much  is  clear,  that 
the  ancient  Jews  are  in  this  matter  agreed  with 
the  Christians,  in  acknowledging  that  the  word 
stands  for  Messiah,  the  King.  It  is  thus  that 
the  paraphrasts,  Onkelos  and  Jonathan,  and 
the  ancient  Hebrew  commentaries  upon  Gene- 
sis, and  the  Talnuulists  explain  it.  If  Jesus 
Christ  and  his  Apostles  did  not  make  use  of 
this  passage  to  prove  the  coming  of  the  Mes- 
siah, it  was  because  then  the  completion  of 
tins  prophecy  was  not  sufficiently  manifest. 
The  sceptre  still  continued  among  the  Jews; 
they  had  still  kind's  of  their  own  nation,  in 
the  persons  of  the  Herods ;  but  soon  after  the 
sceptre  whs  entirely  taken  away  from  them, 
and  a  people  began  to  be  gathered  to  Christ, 
out  of  the  Gentile  nations. 

2.  Shiloh,  a  celebrated  city  of  the  tribe  of 


Ephraim,  twelve  miles  from  Shechem,  Joshua 
xviii,  xix,  xxi.  It  was  in  this  place  that  the 
tabernacle  of  the  Lord  was  set  up,  when  the 
people  were  settled  in  the  country.  The  ark 
and  the  tabernacle  of  the  Lord  continued  at 
Shiloh  from  A.  M.  2560  till  2888,  when  it  was 
taken  by  the  Philistines,  under  the  administra- 
tion of  the  high  priest  Eli,  1  Sam.  iv.  Here 
the  Prophet  Ahijah  dwelt,  1  Kings  xiv,  2. 

SHINAR,  a  province  of  Babylonia,  where 
men  undertook  to  build  the  tower  of  Babel, 
Genesis  xi,  2 ;  x,  10.  Calneh  was  built  in 
this  country.  Amraphel  was  king  of  Shinar 
in  the  days  of  Abraham,  Genesis  xiv,  1.  See 
Babylon. 

SHISHAK,  king  of  Egypt,  declared  war 
against  Rehoboam  in  the  fifth  year  of  the  reign 
of  that  prince,  2  Chron.  xii,  2,  3,  &.c.  This 
Shishak,  according  to  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  was 
the  greatest  conqueror,  and  the  most  celebrated 
hero,  of  all  antiquity,  being  the  son  of  Am- 
nion, or  the  Egyptian  Jupiter,  and  known  to 
the  Greeks  by  the  name  of  Bacchus,  Osiris, 
and  Hercules  ;  was  the  Belus  of  the  Chaldeans, 
and  the  Mars  or  Mavors  of  the  Thracians,  &c. 
He  made  great  conquests  in  India,  Assyria, 
Media,  Scythia,  Phenicia,  Syria,  Judea,  &c. 
His  army  was  at  last  routed  in  Greece  by  Per- 
seus ;  which,  with  other  circumstances,  com- 
pelled him  to  return  home. 

SHITTIM,  SITTIM,  SITTAH,  onat", 
rev,  Exod.  xxv,  5,  10, 13,  23,  28 ;  xxvi,  26,  32, 
37;  xxvii,  1,  6;  xxx,  5;  xxxv,  7,  24;  xxxvi, 
20,  31,  36;  xxxvii,  1,  4, 10,  15, 25,  28 ;  xxxviii, 
1,  6 ;  Deut.  x,  3 ;  Isaiah  xii,  19.  What  par- 
ticular species  of  wood  this  is,  interpreters  are 
not  agreed.  The  LXX.  render  aarinra  ^v\a,  in- 
corruptible wood.  St.  Jerom  says,  the  shittim 
wood  grows  in  the  deserts  of  Arabia,  and  is 
like  white  thorn,  as  to  its  colour  and  leaves : 
but  the  tree  is  so  large  as  to  furnish  very  long 
planks.  The  wood  is  hard,  tough,  smooth, 
and  extremely  beautiful.  It  is  thought  that 
this  wood  is  the  black  acacia,  because  that,  it 
is  said,  is  the  most  common  tree  growing  in 
the  deserts  of  Arabia  ;  and  agrees  with  what 
the  Scriptures  say  of  the  shittim  wood.  The 
acacia  vera  grows  abundantly  in  Egypt,  in 
places  far  from  the  sea ;  in  the  mountains  of 
Sinai,  near  the  Red  Sea,  and  in  the  deserts. 
It  is  of  the  size  of  a  large  mulberry  tree.  The 
spreading  branches  and  larger  limbs  are  armed 
with  thorns  which  grow  three  together ;  the 
bark  is  rough;  the  leaves  are  oblong,  and  stand 
opposite  each  other ;  the  flowers,  though  some- 
times white,  are  generally  of  a  bright  yellow  ; 
and  the  fruit  which  resembles  a  bean,  is  con- 
tained in  pods  like  those  of  the  lupin.  "The 
acacia  tree,"  says  Dr.  Shaw,  "  being  by  much 
the  largest  and  most  common  tree  in  these 
deserts,  Arabia  Petrrea,  we  have  some  reason 
to  conjecture,  that  the  shittim  wood  was  the 
wood  of  the  acacia ;  especially  as  its  flowers 
are  of  an  excellent  smell,  for  the  shittah  tree 
is,  in  Isaiah  xii,  lit,  joined  with  the  myrtle  and 
other  fragrant  shrubs." 

SHOES.  To  put  off  the  shoes  from  one's 
feet,  was  an  act  of  reverence  to  the  Divine 
majesty  of  God,  Exod.  iii,  5.     It  was  likewise 


SHU 


861 


SID 


a  6ign  of  mourning  and  humiliation.  David 
went  up  the  ascent  of  Mount  Olivet  barefoot, 
2  Sam.  xv,  30;  Isa.  xx,  2,  4;  Ezek.  xxiv,  17. 
See  Sandal. 

SHOULDER.  To  give  or  lend  the  shoulder 
for  the  bearing  of  a  burden,  signifies  to  submit 
to  servitude.  "  Issachar  bowed  his  shoulder 
to  bear,  and  became  a  servant  unto  tribute," 
Gen.  xlix,  15.  And  Isaiah,  x,  27,  comforting 
Israel  with  the  promise  of  deliverance  from 
Assyria,  says,  "His  burden  shall  be  taken  away 
from  off  thy  shoulder."  The  Scripture  calls  that 
a  rebellious  shoulder,  a  withdrawing  shoulder, 
which  will  not  submit  to  the  yoke ;  and  to 
bear  it  together  with  joint  consent,  is  termed 
"  serving  with  one  shoulder."  To  bear  any 
thing  upon  the  shoulder,  is  to  sustain  it,  and  this 
is  applied  to  government  and  authority.  Thus 
Messiah  was  to  bear  the  government  upon  his 
shoulder  :  "  For  unto  us  a  child  is  born,  unto 
us  a  son  is  given :  and  the  government  shall 
be  upon  his  shoulder :  and  his  name  shall  be 
called  Wonderful,  Counsellor,"  &c,  Isa.  ix,  6  ; 
and  God  promises  Eliakim  the  son  of  Hilkiah, 
to  give  him  the  key  of  the  house  of  David, 
and  to  lay  it  upon  his  shoulder;  "  so  he  shall 
open,  and  none  shall  shut,  and  he  shall  shut,  and 
none  shall  open ;"  that  is,  the  sole  authority 
shall  rest  upon  him. 

SHUSHAN,  or  SUSA,  the  ancient  capital 
of  Persia,  seated  on  the  river  Ulai,  the  modern 
Abzal.  After  the  union  of  the  kingdoms  of 
Media  and  Persia  by  Cyrus,  Susa  was  made  the 
winter  residence  of  the  kings  of  Persia,  from 
its  southern  position,  and  the  shelter  afforded 
by  a  range  of  mountains  on  the  north  and  east, 
which  rendered  the  heat  insupportable  in  the 
summer  season ;  while  Ecbatana,  in  Media, 
from  its  greater  elevation,  and  more  northern 
situation,  was  preferred  at  this  season,  as  being 
more  cool  and  agreeable.  Here  the  transac- 
tions occurred  related  in  the  book  of  Esther. 
Here  also  Daniel  had  the  vision  of  the  ram 
with  two  horns,  and  the  goat  with  one  horn, 
&c,  in  the  third  year  of  Belshazzar's  reign. 
Susa  was  situated  in  the  ancient  province  of 
Elam,  or  Elymais,  called  also  Susiana,  and 
now  forming  a  part  of  Kuzestan.  It  has  for 
several  hundred  years,  like  Babylon,  been  re- 
duced to  a  heap  of  undistinguished  ruins.  Mr. 
Kinneir  says,  "  About  seven  or  eight  miles  to 
the  west  of  Dezphoul,  commence  the  ruins  of 
Shus,  stretching  not  less,  perhaps,  than  twelve 
miles,  from  one  extremity  to  the  other.  They 
extend  as  far  as  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Kerah  ; 
occupying  an  immense  space  between  that 
river  and  the  Abzal ;  and,  like  the  ruins  of 
Ctesiphon,  Babylon,  and  Kufa,  consist  of 
hillocks  of  eartb  and  rubbish,  covered  with 
broken  pieces  of  brick  and  coloured  tile.  The 
largest  and  most  remarkable  of  these  mounds 
stand  at  the  distance  of  about  two  miles  from 
the  Kerah.  The  first  is,  at  the  lowest  computa- 
tion, a  mile  in  circumference,  and  nearly  a 
hundred  feet  in  height ;  and  the  other,  although 
not  quite  so  high,  is  double  the  circuit  of  the 
former.  These  mounds  bear  some  resemblance 
to  the  pyramids  of  Babylon ;  with  this  difference, 
that  instead  of  being  entirely  made  of  brick, 


they  are  formed  of  clay  and  pieces  of  tile,  with 
irregular  layers  of  brick  and  mortar,  five  or  six 
feet  in  thickness,  to  serve,  it  should  seem,  as 
a  kind  of  prop  to  the  mass.  Large  blocks  of 
marble,  covered  with  hieroglyphics,  are  not 
unfrequently  here  discovered  by  the  Arabs 
when  digging  in  search  of  hidden  treasure  ; 
and  at  the  foot  of  the  most  elevated  of  the 
pyramids  stands  the  tomb  of  Daniel,  a  small 
and  apparently  a  modern  building,  erected  on 
the  spot  where  the  relics  of  that  prophet  are 
believed  to  rest.  The  site  of  the  city  of  Shus 
is  now  a  gloomy  wilderness,  infested  by  lions, 
hysenas,  and  other  beasts  of  prey.  The  dread  of 
these  furious  animals  compelled  Mr.  Monteith 
and  myself  to  take  shelter  for  the  night  within 
the  walls  that  encompass  Daniel's  tomb."  Of 
this  tomb  Sir  John  Malcom  observes,  that  "  it 
is  a  small  building,  but  sufficient  to  shelter 
some  dervishes  who  watch  the  remains  of  the 
prophet,  and  are  supported  by  the  alms  of 
pious  pilgrims  who  visit  the  holy  sepulchre. 
These  dervishes  are  now  the  only  inhabitants 
of  Susa ;  and  every  species  of  wild  beast  roams 
at  large  over  that  spot  on  which  some  of  the 
proudest  palaces  ever  raised  by  human  art 
once  stood."  He  also  observes,  respecting  the 
authenticity  of  this  tomb,  that  "  although  the 
building  at  the  tomb  of  Daniel  be  comparatively 
modern,  nothing  could  have  led  to  its  being 
built  where  it  is,  but  a  belief  that  this  was  the 
real  site  of  the  prophet's  sepulchre." 

SIDON,  or  ZIDON,  a  celebrated  city  and 
port  of  Phenicia,  and  one  of  the  most  ancient 
cities  in  the  world ;  as  it  is  supposed  to  have 
been  founded  by  Sidon,  the  eldest  son  of  Ca- 
naan, which  will  carry  it  up  to  above  two 
thousand  years  before  Christ.  But  if  it  was 
founded  by  Sidon,  his  descendants  were  driven 
out  by  a  body  of  Phenician  colonists,  or  Cushim 
from  the  east ;  who  are  supposed  either  to  have 
given  it  its  name,  or  to  have  retained  the  old 
one  in  compliment  to  their  god  Siton,  or  Da- 
gon.  Its  inhabitants  appear  to  have  early 
acquired  a  preeminence  in  arts,  manufactures, 
and  commerce;  and  from  their  superior  skill 
in  hewing  timber,  by  which  must  be  understood 
their  cutting  it  out  and  preparing  it  for  build- 
ing, as  well  as  the  mere  act  of  felling  it,  Sido- 
nian  workmen  were  hired  by  Solomon  to 
prepare  the  wood  for  the  building  of  his  temple. 
The  Sidonians  are  said  to  have  been  the  first 
manufacturers  of  glass ;  and  Homer  often 
speaks  of  them  as  excelling  in  many  useful 
and  ingenious  arts,  giving  them  the  title  of 
noWu«5<iAoi.  Add  to  this,  they  were,  if  not 
the  first  shipwrights  and  navigators,  the  first 
who  ventured  beyond  their  own  coasts,  and  in 
those  early  ages  engrossed  the  greatest  part  of 
the  then  commerce  of  the  world.  The  natural 
result  of  these  exclusive  advantages  to  the 
inhabitants  of  Sidon  was,  a  high  degree  of 
wealth  and  prosperity ;  and  content  with  the 
riches  which  their  trade  and  manufactures 
brought  them,  they  lived  in  ease  and  luxury, 
trusting  the  defence  of  their  city  and  property, 
like  the  Tyrians  after  them,  to  hired  troops  ; 
so  that  to  live  in  ease  and  security,  is  said  in 
Scripture  to  be  after  the  manner  of  the  Sido- 


SIL 


862 


SIM 


mans.  In  all  these  respects,  however,  Sidon 
was  totally  eclipsed  by  her  neighbour  and 
rival  Tyre  ;  whose  more  enterprising  inhabit. 
ants  pushed  their  commercial  dealings  to  the 
extremities  of  the  known  world,  raised  their 
city  to  a  rank  in  power  and  opulence  unknown 
before,  and  converted  it  into  a  luxurious  metro- 
polis, and  the  emporium  of  the  produce  of  all 
nations.  After  the  subversion  of  the  Grecian 
empire  by  the  Romans,  Sidon  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  latter;  who,  to  put  an  end  to  the 
frequent  revolt  of  the  inhabitants,  deprived  it 
of  its  freedom.  It  then  fell  successively  under 
the  power  of  the  Saracens,  the  Seljukian 
Turks,  and  the  sultans  of  Egypt ;  who,  in 
1289,  that  they  might  never  more  afford  shelter 
to  the  Christians,  destroyed  both  it  and  Tyre. 
But  it  again  somewhat  revived,  and  has  ever 
since  been  in  the  possession  of  the  Ottoman 
Turks. 

SIGN.  This  word  is  used  in  the  sense  of 
token  and  pledge ;  as,  when  the  Lord  gave  to 
Noah  the  rainbow,  as  a  sign  of  his  covenant, 
Gen.  ii,  12,  13  ;  and  when  he  appointed  to 
Abraham  the  use  of  circumcision,  as  the  seal 
of  the  covenant  he  had  made  with  him  and  his 
posterity,  Gen.  xvii,  11.  Sign  is  also  put  for 
a  miracle  :  "  Thou  shalt  do  these  signs  and 
wonders  in  the  midst  of  Egypt,"  Exodus  iv, 
7-9,  &c.  A  sign  or  token  is  often  put  for  the 
proof  or  evidence  of  a  thing :  For  example, 
"  This  shall  be  a  token  or  sign  unto  thee,  that 

1  have  sent  thee,"  Exod.  iii,  12.  "  Shew  me 
a  sign,  that  thou  talkest  with  me,"  Judges  vi, 
17,  that  is  a  proof.  "What  shall  be  the  sign," 
or  evidence,   "  that  the  Lord  will  heal  me  ?" 

2  Kings  xx,  8.  This  acceptation  agrees  with 
the  first  above  mentioned  ;  as  also  what  is  said 
in  Gen.  iv,  15,  "And  the  Lord  set  a  mark  or 
sign  upon  Cain ;"  he  gave  him  a  pledge  that 
his  life  should  not  be  taken  away.  The  signs 
of  heaven,  and  the  signs  of  the  magicians,  are 
the  phenomena  of  the  heavens,  and  the  impos- 
tures of  magicians,  which  they  made  use  of 
for  the  purposes  of  deception:  "The  Lord 
frratrateth  the  tokens  or  signs  of  the  liars,  and 
maketh  diviners  mad,"  Isaiah  xliv,  25.  "Be 
not  dismayed  at  the  signs  of  heaven,  for  the 
Heathen  are  dismayed  at  them,"  Jer.  x,  2.  To 
be  a  sign  was  farther  to  be  a  type,  or  predic- 
tion, of  what  should  happen.  Thus  the  Pro- 
phet Isaiah,  viii,  18,  "  Behold,  I  and  the  children 
whom  the  Lord  hath  given  me,  are  for  signs  and 
for  wonders  in  Israel."     See  also  Ezek.  iv,  3. 

SILAS,  or  Sylvanus,  was,  according  to  St. 
Luke,  Acts  xv,  22,  one  of  the  "  chief  men 
among  the  brethren,"  which  makes  it  probable, 
tint  he  was  of  the  number  of  the  seventy  dis- 
ciples. When  a  dispute  was  raised  at  Antioch 
about  the  observation  of  the  legal  ceremonies, 
they  chose  Paul,  Barnabas,  Judas,  and  Silas, 
to  go  to  Jerusalem,  to  advise  with  the  Apostles 
concerning  this  question.  He  is  thought  to 
be  the  same  Sihis  who  is  mentioned  by  the 
name  of  Sylvanus,  in  ihe  title  of  the  two  epis- 
tlesofSt.  i'aul  totheTheesalonians.  St.  Peter 
sent  his  first  epistle  by  him  from  Rome,  wherein 
he  styles  him  "a  faithful  brother."  Silas  joined 
himself  to  St.  Paul ;  and  after  Saul  and  Bar- 


nabas had  parted,  on  account  of  John  Mark, 
Acts  xv,  37-41,  Silas  followed  St.  Paul,  and 
went  with  him  to  visit  the  churches  of  Syria 
and  Cilicia. 

SILENCE.  This  word  not  only  signifies 
to  refrain  from  speaking;  but  also  in  the  style 
of  the  Hebrews,  it  is  taken  for,  "to  be  quiet, 
to  remain  immovable."  As  for  example : 
"  Sun,  stand  thou  still  upon  Gibeon,"  in  He- 
brew, be  silent.  "And  the  sun  stood  still,  and 
the  moon  stayed,"  Joshua  x,  12,  13,  or  were 
silent,  at  the  commandment  of  Joshua. 

SILO  AH,  the  same  as  Siloam,  Neh.  iii,  15 ; 
Luke  xiii,  4 ;  a  fountain  under  the  walls  of 
Jerusalem,  toward  the  east,  between  the  city 
and  the  brook  Kidron,  perhaps  the  same  with 
Enrogel.     Near  this  was  a  tower,  Luke  xiii,  4. 

SILK,  is>d.  As  the  word  which  is  render- 
ed "silk"  in  our  version  more  probably  meant 
cotton,  or  rather  muslin,  it  is  doubtful  whether 
silk  is  mentioned  expressly  in  the  Scripture, 
unless,  perhaps,  in  Isaiah  xix,  9,  where  we 
find  the  Hebrew  word  nipnc,  from  p"w,  yel- 
lowish, tawny ;  which  is  generally  the  natural 
colour  of  raw  silk ;  hence  the  Latin  sericum  : 
or  it  may  be  from  the  Seres,  a  nation  whence 
the  Greeks  and  Romans  first  obtained  the  arti- 
cle silk.  Calmet  remarks  that  the  ancient 
Greeks  and  Romans  had  but  little  knowledge 
of  the  nature  of  silk.  The  Seres  communi- 
cated their  silk  to  the  Persians,  from  whom  it 
passed  to  the  Greeks,  and  from  them  to  the 
Romans.  But  the  Persians  and  orientals  for  a 
long  time  kept  the  secret  of  manufacturing  it 
among  themselves.  Silk  was  first  brought  into 
Greece  after  Alexander's  conquest  of  Persia, 
and  came  into  Italy  during  the  flourishing 
times  of  the  Roman  empire ;  but  was  long  so 
dear  in  all  these  parts  as  to  be  worth  its  weight 
in  gold.  At  length  the  emperor  Justinian, 
who  died  in  the  year  365,  by  means  of  two 
monks,  whom  he  sent  into  India  for  that  pur- 
pose, procured  great  quantities  of  silk  worms' 
eggs  to  be  brought  to  Constantinople,  and  from 
these  have  sprung  all  the  silk  worms  and  all 
the  silk  trade  that  have  been  since  in  Europe. 
See  Flax.  • 

SILVER,  (pa,  Gen.  xx,  16;  apyvpwv,  1  Pet. 
i,  18  ;  Acts  iii,  4  ;  xx,  33  ;  a  well  known  metal, 
of  a  white  shining  colour ;  next  in  value  to 
gold.  It  does  not  appear  to  have  been  in  use 
before  the  deluge  ;  at  least  Moses  says  nothing 
of  it :  he  speaks  only  of  the  metals  brass  and 
iron,  Gen.  iv,  22.  But  in  Abraham's  time  it 
was  become  common,  and  traffic  was  carried 
on  with  it,  Gen.  xxiii,  2,  15.  Yet  it  was  not 
then  coined,  but  was  only  in  bars  or  ingots  ; 
and  in  commerce  was  always  weighed. 

SIMEON,  son  of  Jacob  and  Leah,  was 
born  A.  M.  2247,  Genesis  xxix,  33;  xxxiv,  25 
Jacob,  on  his  death  bed,  showed  his  indigna 
tion  against  Simeon  and  Levi  for  their  cruelty 
to  the  Shechemites,  Gen.  xlix,  5  :  "I  will  divide 
them  in  Jacob,  and  scatter  them  in  Israel." 
And  in  effect  these  two  tribes  were  scattered 
in  Israel.  As  to  Levi,  he  never  had  any  fixed 
lot  or  portion  ;  and  Simeon  received  only  a 
canton  that  was  dismembered  from  the  tribe 
of  Judah,  Joshua  xix,  1,  &.c,  and  some  other 


SIM 


863 


SIM 


lands  they  went  to  conquer  in  the  mountains 
of  Seir,  and  the  desert  of  Gedor,  1  Chronicles 
iv,  27,  39,  42. 

2.  Simeon,  a  holy  man,  who  was  at  Jerusa- 
lem, full  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  expecting  the 
redemption  of  Israel,  Luke  ii,  25,  26,  &c.  The 
Holy  Ghost  had  assured  him,  that  he  should 
not  die  before  he  had  seen  the  Christ  of  the 
Lord  ;  lie  therefore  came  into  the  temple, 
prompted  by  inspiration,  just  at  the  time  when 
Joseph  and  Mary  presented  Jesus  Christ  there, 
in  obedience  to  the  law.  Simeon  took  the 
child  into  his  arms,  gave  thanks  to  God,  and 
then  blessed  Joseph  and  Mary.  It  is  believed, 
with  good  reason,  that  he  died  soon  after  he 
had  given  his  testimony  to  Jesus  Christ.  Some 
have  conjectured,  that  Simeon,  who  received 
Jesus  Christ  into  his  arms,  was  the  same  as 
Simeon  the  Just,  the  son  of  Hillel,  and  master 
of  Gamaliel,  whose  disciple  St.  Paul  was.  See 
Sanhedrim. 

SIMON  MACCABEUS,  surnamed  Thossi, 
son  of  Mattathias,  and  brother  of  Judas  and 
Jonathan.  He  was  chief  prince  and  pontiff  of 
the  Jews  from  A.  M.  3860  to  3869,  and  was 
succeeded  by  John  Hyrcanus.  For  the  par- 
ticulars of  his  life  and  transactions,  see  1  Mac. 
ii,  65 ;  v,  17  ;  x,  74-82  ;  xii,  33,  &c ;  xiii,  1, 
&c ;  xiv,  4,  &c  ;  xv,  1,  &c. 

2.  Simon,  the  Canaanite,  an  Apostle  of  Jesus 
Christ.  It  is  doubtful  whether  the  name  of 
Canaanite  was  derived  to  him  from  the  city 
Cana  in  Galilee,  or  whether  it  should  not  be 
taken  according  to  its  signification  in  the  He- 
brew, by  deriving  it  from  the  root  kana,  "  to 
be  zealous,"  and  this  is  the  opinion  of  some 
learned  men.  See  Luke  vi,  15 ;  Acts  i,  13, 
where  he  is  surnamed  Zelotes ;  see  also  Matt. 
x,  4  ;  Mark  iii,  18. 

3.  Simon,  brother  of  our  Lord,  Matt,  xiii, 
55 ;  Mark  vi,  3  ;  that  is  to  say,  his  cousin- 
german,  being  son  of  Mary,  sister  to  the  holy 
virgin.  He  is  thought  to  be  the  same  with 
Simeon,  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  and  son  of 
Cleopas. 

4.  Simon  Magus.  Of  this  heretic,  or  rather 
father  of  heresy,  Dr.  Burton  gives  the  follow- 
ing account  : — Justin  Martyr,  about  A.  D.  140, 
presented  a  defence  of  Christianity  to  the  em- 
peror Antoninus  Pius,  in  which  he  mentions, 
as  a  well  known  fact,  that  Simon,  a  native  of 
Gittum,  a  village  in  Samaria,  came  to  Rome  in 
the  reign  of  Claudius,  was  looked  upon  there 
as  a  god,  and  had  a  statue  erected  to  him,  with 
a  Latin  inscription,  in  the  river  Tiber,  between 
the  two  bridges.  Justin  adds,  that  nearly  all 
the  Samaritans,  and  a  few  also  in  other  na- 
tions, acknowledged  and  worshipped  him  as 
the  supreme  God.  There  is  in  this  passage 
such  a  minute  detail,  such  a  confident  appeal 
to  the  emperor's  own  knowledge  of  what  the 
apologist  was  saying,  that  we  can  hardly  sup- 
pose the  story  to  be  false,  when  not  only  the 
emperor,  but  every  person  in  Rome  would  have 
been  able  to  detect  it.  I  would  observe,  also, 
that  Justin  Martyr  was  himself  a  native  of  Sa- 
maria; hence  he  was  able  to  name  the  very 
place  where  Simon  was  born ;  and  when  he 
says,  in  his  second  defence,  which  was  pre- 


sented  a  few  years  later,  "  I  have  despised  the 
impious  and  false  doctrine  of  Simon  which  is 
in  my  country;"  when  we  see  the  shame  which 
he  felt  at  the  name  of  Christian  being  assumed 
by  the  followers  of  that  impostor;  we  can  never 
believe  that  he  would  have  countenanced  tho 
story,  if  the  truth  of  it  had  not  been  notorious, 
much  less  would  he  have  given  to  his  own 
country  the  disgrace  of  originating  the  evil. 

Simon  Magus  was  a  native  of  Gittum,  a 
town  in  Samaria ;  and  it  is  stated  in  a  suspi- 
cious document  of  ancient  though  doubtful 
date,  that  he  studied  for  some  time  at  Alex- 
andria. Concerning  the  time  of  his  birth,  and 
of  his  first  rising  into  notice,  little  can  now  be 
known.  The  only  contemporary  document 
which  mentions  him  is  the  Acts  of  the  Apos- 
tles ;  and  we  there  read,  that,  when  Philip  the 
deacon  preached  the  Gospel  in  Samaria  after 
the  death  of  Stephen,  "there  was  a  certain 
man,  called  Simon,  which  beforetime  in  the 
same  city  used  sorcery,  and  bewitched  the  peo- 
ple of  Samaria,  giving  out  that  himself  was 
some  great  one ;  to  whom  they  all  gave  heed, 
from  the  least  to  the  greatest,  saying,  This  man 
is  the  great  power  of  God.  And  to  him  they 
had  regard,  because  that  of  long  time  he  had 
bewitched  them  with  sorceries,"  Acts  viii,  9-11. 
According  to  my  calculation,  the  death  of  Ste 
phen  happened  in  the  same  year  with  the  cru- 
cifixion of  our  Lord  ;  and  it  appears  from  the 
passage  now  quoted,  that  Simon's  celebrity  had 
begun  some  time  before.  We  are  then  told  that 
"  Simon  himself  believed  also  ;  and  when  he 
was  baptized,  he  continued  with  Philip,  and 
wondered,  beholding  the  miracles  and  signs 
which  were  done,"  Acts  viii,  13.  I  need  not 
mention  how  he  shortly  fell  away  from  the 
faith  which  he  had  embraced,  and  how  St. 
Peter  rebuked  him  for  thinking  that  the  gift 
of  God  might  be  purchased  for  money,  Acts 
viii,  20 ;  but  I  would  observe,  that  some  of 
those  persons  who  insist  upon  the  fact  that 
Simon  was  not  a  Christian  appear  to  have  for- 
gotten that  he  was  actually  baptized.  For  a 
time,  at  least,  he  believed  in  Jesus  Christ ;  and 
part  of  this  belief  he  appears  always  to  have 
retained  ;  that  is,  he  always  believed  that  Jesus 
Christ  was  a  being  more  than  human,  who 
came  from  God.  If  these  events  happened,  as 
I  have  supposed,  within  a  short  time  of  our 
Lord's  ascension,  the  fathers  had  good  reason 
to  call  Simon  Magus  the  parent  of  all  heresies  ; 
for  he  must  then  have  been  among  the  first 
persons,  beyond  the  limits  of  Jerusalem,  who 
embraced  the  Gospel ;  and  we  might  hope  that 
there  was  no  one  before  him  who  perverted  the 
faith  which  he  had  professed. 

From  the  detailed  account  which  we  have 
of  Simon  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  I  should 
be  inclined  to  infer  these  two  things:  1.  That 
St.  Luke  knew  no  earlier  instance  of  apostasy 
from  the  Gospel ;  and  he  mentions  this  because 
it  was  the  first :  and  2.  That  when  St.  Luke 
wrote  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  the  heresy  of 
Simon  was  widely  spread ;  and  therefore  he 
tells  his  readers  how  it  had  begun.  Concerning 
the  remainder  of  Simon's  life  we  know  little, 
and  in  that  little  it  is  difficult  to  separate  truth 


SIM 


864 


SIM 


troni  fiction.  I  should  be  inclined,  for  the  rea- 
sons given  above,  to  believe  the  account  of  Jus- 
tin  Martyr,  who  says  that  Simon  Magus  went 
to  Rome  in  the  reign  of  Claudius,  and  attracted 
numerous  followers.  Eusebius  quotes  this  pas- 
sage  of  Justin  Martyr  ;  but  he  adds,  upon  some 
other  authority,  which  he  docs  not  name,  that 
9t.  Peter  came  to  Rome  at  the  same  time;  and 
that,  in  consequence  of  his  preaching,  the 
popularity  of  the  impostor  was  entirely  destroy, 
ed.  This  would  be  a  most  interesting  and  im- 
portant fact,  it'  we  were  certain  of  its  being 
true  ;  but  Eusebius  contradicts  himself  in  his 
account  of  Simon  Magus  going  to  Rome  ;  and 
later  writers  have  so  embellished  the  story  of 
this  meeting,  and  made  the  death  of  Simon  so 
astonishingly  miraculous,  that  criticism  is  at  a 
loss  to  know  what  to  believe.  The  account 
which  we  have  of  Simon's  death  is,  in  a  few 
words,  as  follows :  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  be- 
ing both  at  Rome,  Simon  Magus  gave  out  that 
he  was  Christ;  and,  in  proof  of  his  assertion, 
ho  undertook  to  raise  himself  aloft  into  the 
air.  The  attempt  at  first  appeared  as  if  it 
would  succeed ;  but  the  two  Apostles  address- 
ing themselves  in  prayer  to  God,  the  impostor 
fell  to  the  ground,  and  his  death  ensued  shortly 
after.  It  is  difficult  to  give  this  marvellous 
narration,  without  forgetting  that  we  are  treat- 
ing of  a  grave  and  sacred  subject ;  and  the 
question  for  us  to  consider  is,  whether  we  are 
to  look  upon  the  whole  as  a  fiction,  or  whether, 
as  is  most  probable,  it  contains  a  basis  and 
groundwork  of  truth.  I  must  observe,  in  the 
first  place,  that  Arnobius,  who  did  not  write 
till  the  fourth  century,  is  the  first  person  who 
says  any  thingof  Simon's  death  at  all  approach- 
ing to  this  story;  nor  does  he  by  any  means 
give  it,  all  the  particulars  which  later  writers 
have  supplied.  It  will  be  observed,  also,  that 
Eusebius,  who  wrote  after  Arnobius,  does  not 
say  any  thing  of  Simon's  extraordinary  end  ; 
but  merely  states  that  his  credit  and  influence 
were  extinguished,  as  soon  as  St.  Peter  began 
to  preach  in  Home.  It  is  probable,  therefore, 
that  do  Greek  writer  before  the  time  of  Euse- 
bius had  mentioned  this  story ;  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  there  is  such  a  host  of  evidence, 
that  the  death  of  Simon  Magus  was  in  some 
way  or  other  connected  with  the  presence  of 
St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  at  Rome,  that  we  might 
be  carrying  our  skepticism  too  far  if  we  re- 
jected it. 

With  respect  to  the  doctrines  of  Simon 
Magus,  we  know  for  certain  that  Christ  held 
a  conspicuous  place  in  the  philosophy  which 
he  taught ;  but  to  define  with  accuracy  the 
various  points  of  this  philosophy,  is  a  difficult, 
if  not  impossible,  task.  The  fathers  perhaps 
may  be  suspected  of  laying  too  many  impieties 
to  the  charge  of  this  heretic  ;  and  sonic  of  their 
accounts  cannol  be  reconciled  with  each  other. 
Still,  however,  we  may  extract  from  their 
Writings  an  outline  of  the  truth;  and  in  this 
instance,  ,is  before,  I  would  attach  particular 
veighi  to  the  authority  of  Justin  Martyr.  That 
v.  nicr  Bays  that  nearly  all  the  inhabitants  of 
Samaria,  and  a  few  persons  in  other  countries, 
acknowledged  and  worshipped  Simon  Magus 


as  the  first  or  supreme  God:  and  in  another 
place  he  says  that  they  styled  him  God,  above 
all  dominion  and  authority  and  power.  Later 
writers  have  increased  the  blasphemy  of  this 
doctrine,  and  said  that  Simon  declared  himself 
to  the  Samaritans  as  the  Father,  to  the  Jews 
as  the  Son,  and  to  the  rest  of  the  world  as  the 
Holy  Ghost.  But  I  cannot  bring  myself  to 
believe  that  he  ever  advanced  so  far  in  wick- 
edness or  absurdity.  The  true  state  of  the 
case  may  perhaps  be  collected  from  the  words 
of  St.  Luke,  who  tells  us  that  Simon  gave 
himself  out  to  be  "some  great  one,"  and  that 
the  people  said  of  him,  "  This  man  is  the  great 
power  of  God,"  Acts  viii,  10.  Such  is  the 
title  which  he  bore  before  he  had  heard  of 
Christ ;  and  there  is  no  reason  to  think  that  he 
afterward  raised  his  pretensions,  and  identified 
himself  with  God.  He  gave  himself  out  as 
"the  great  power  of  God,"  that  is,  a  person 
in  whom  divine  power  resided :  and,  after  he 
had  heard  the  Apostles,  he  seems  to  have  so 
far  enlarged  his  doctrine,  as  to  have  said,  that 
the  God  whose  minister  he  was,  and  who  had 
always  been  worshipped  in  Samaria,  had  re- 
vealed himself  to  the  Jews  by  his  Son,  and  to 
the  rest  of  the  world  by  the  Holy  Ghost.  There 
is  reason  to  believe  that  he  declared  himself 
to  be  the  Christ  who  appeared  to  the  Jews ; 
or  rather,  he  said  that  the  same  spirit  which 
descended  upon  Jesus  had  descended  afterward 
upon  himself;  for  he  did  not  believe  that  Jesus 
had  a  real  body,  but  he  taught  that  he  was 
only  a  phantom.  To  this  he  added,  that  the 
Holy  Ghost,  by  which  God  was  revealed  to  the 
Gentiles,  resided  in  himself:  and  this  I  take  to 
be  the  real  origin  of  the  story,  that  he  was  the 
God  who  revealed  himself  as  the  Father  to  the 
Samaritans,  as  the  Son  to  the  Jews,  and  as  the 
Holy  Ghost  to  the  rest  of  the  world. 

Another  charge,  which  is  equally  difficult  to 
believe,  relates  to  a  female  companion,  whom 
he  is  said  to  have  declared  to  be  the  first  idea, 
or  conception,  which  he,  as  God,  put  forth 
from  his  mind.  By  another  mental  process, 
in  which  this  first  idea  was  a  partner,  he  pro- 
duced the  angels,  and  they  created  the  world. 
All  this  was  highly  mystical,  and  writers  have 
had  recourse  to  different  allegori^fe,  by  which  the 
absurdity  may  be  explained.  Tl  JtSimon  never 
identified  a  real  living  perj^n  with  an  idea 
emanating  from  the  mind  #\  God,  may,  I  think, 
be  assumed  as  certain./  But  we  see,  in  this 
story,  evident  traces  of  the  Gnostic  doctrines. 
Valcntinus,  in  the  Second  century,  made  the 
first  cause,  or  Bythus,  act  upon  2<yi),  or  'EiiWa, 
that  is,  upon  his  own  mind,  and  produce  the 
first  pair  of  teons.  This  then  was  the  doc- 
trine of  Simon  :  the  supreme  God,  by  a  mental 
process,  produced  different  orders  of  angels, 
and  they  created  the  world.  It  was  this  same 
God,  whose  first  or  principal  power  resided  in 
Simon  Magus.  But  when  later  writers  had  said 
that  he  actually  proclaimed  himself  as  God,  it 
followed  that  it  was  he,  who,  by  an  operation 
of  his  own  mind,  produced  the  angels.  If  I 
have  argued  rightly,  I  have  freed  the  doctrine 
of  Simon  Magus  from  some  of  its  impieties ; 
but  there  is  still  much  which  is  absurd,  and 


SIN 


865 


SIN 


much  which  is  impious ;  for  he  believed  that 
the  world  was  created,  not  by  the  supreme 
God,  but  by  inferior  beings :  he  taught  also, 
that  Christ  was  one  of  those  successive  gene- 
rations of  aeons  which  were  derived  from  God  ; 
not  the  aeon  which  created  the  world  ;  but  he 
was  sent  from  God  to  rescue  mankind  from 
the  tyranny  of  the  demiurgus,  or  creative  son. 
Simon  was  also  inventor  of  the  strange  notion, 
that  the  Jesus  who  was  said  to  be  born  and 
crucified  had  not  a  material  body,  but  was  only 
a  phantom.  His  other  doctrines  were,  that  the 
writers  of  the  Old  Testament  were  not  inspired 
by  the  supreme  God,  the  Fountain  of  good,  but 
by  those  inferior  beings  who  created  the  world, 
and  who  were  the  authors  of  evil.  He  denied  a 
general  resurrection  ;  and  the  lives  of  himself 
and  his  followers  are  said  to  have  been  a  con- 
tinued course  of  impure  and  vicious  conduct. 

Such  was  the  doctrine  and  the  practice  of 
Simon  Magus,  from  whom  all  the  pseudo- 
Christian  or  Gnostic  heresies  were  said  to  be 
derived.  Simon  himself  seems  to  have  been 
one  of  those  Jews  who,  as  we  learn  from 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  travelled  about  the 
country,  exorcising  evil  spirits.  But  he  was 
also  a  man  of  speculative  mind  ;  and,  having 
studied  the  doctrines  of  Plato,  he  entered  into 
the  questions  which  were  then  so  commonly 
agitated,  concerning  the  eternity  of  matter, 
and  the  origin  of  evil.  Hence  we  find  him 
embracing  the  opinion,  that  the  world  was 
created  by  angels,  who  were  themselves  pro- 
duced from  God.  This  was  a  corrupted  Pla- 
tonism.  Plato  imagined  that  the  ideas  which 
were  in  the  mind  of  the  Deity  created  intellect- 
ual beings :  Simon  taught  that  the  supreme  God 
by  an  operation  of  his  own  mind  produced  the 
angels.  The  first  intelligences  of  Plato  were 
employed  by  God  to  create  the  world :  Simon 
also  taught  that  the  angels,  or  aeons,  created 
the  world  ;  but  in  one  respect  the  Gnostics  had 
totally  changed  the  philosophy  of  Plato ;  for 
they  taught  that  the  angel,  or  angels,  who 
created  the  world,  acted  contrary  to  the  wishes 
of  the  supreme  God. 

SIN,  the  transgression  of  the  law,  or  want 
of  conformity  to  the  will  of  God,  1  John  iii,  4. 
Original  sin  is  that  whereby  our  whole  nature 
is  corrupted,  and  rendered  contrary  to  the 
nature  and  law  of  God ;  or,  according  to  the 
ninth  article  of  the  church  of  England,  "It  is 
that  whereby  man  is  very  far  gone  from  ori- 
ginal righteousness,  and  is,  of  his  own  nature, 
inclined  to  evil."  This  is  sometimes  called, 
"  indwelling  sin,"  Rom.  vii.  The  imputation 
of  the  sin  of  Adam  to  his  posterity,  is  also 
what  divines  call,  with  some  latitude  of  ex- 
pression, original  sin.  Actual  sin  is  a  direct 
violation  of  God's  law,  and  generally  applied 
to  those  who  are  capable  of  committing  moral 
evil ;  as  opposed  to  idiots  or  children,  who  have 
not  the  right  use  of  their  powers.  Sins  of 
omission  consist  in  leaving  those  things  undone 
which  ought  to  be  done.  Sins  of  commission 
are  those  which  are  committed  against  affirma- 
tive precepts,  or  doing  what  should  not  be 
done.  Sins  of  infirmity  are  those  which  arise 
from  ignorance,  surprise,  &c.  Secret  sins  are 
56 


those  committed  in  secret,  or  those  of  which, 
through  blindness  or  prejudice,  we  do  not 
see  the  evil,  Psalm  xix,  7-12.  Presumptuous 
sins  are  those  which  are  done  boldly  against 
light  and  conviction.  The  unpardonable  sin 
is,  according  to  some,  the  ascribing  to  tha 
devil  the  miracles  which  Christ  wrought  by 
the  power  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  This  sin,  or 
blasphemy,  as  it  should  rather  be  called,  many 
scribes  and  Pharisees  were  guilty  of,  who,  be- 
holding our  Lord  do  his  miracles,  affirmed  that 
he  wrought  them  by  Beelzebub,  the  prince  of 
devils,  which  was,  in  effect,  calling  the  Holy 
Ghost  Satan,  a  most  horrible  blasphemy  ;  and, 
as  on  this  ground  they  rejected  Christ,  and 
salvation  by  him,  their  sin  could  certainly  have 
no  forgiveness,  Mark  iii,  22-30.  No  one  there- 
fore could  be  guilty  of  this  blasphemy,  except 
those  who  were  spectators  of  Christ's  miracles. 
There  is,  however,  another  view  of  this  un- 
pardonable offence,  which  deserves  Considera- 
tion :  The  sin  or  blasphemy  against  the  Holy 
Ghost,  says  Bishop  Tomline,  is  mentioned  iri 
the  first  three  Gospels.  It  appears  that  all  the 
three  evangelists  agree  in  representing  the  sin 
or  blasphemy  against  the  Holy  Ghost  as  a 
crime  which  would  not  be  forgiven ;  but  no 
one  of  them  affirms  that  those  who  had  ascribed 
Christ's  power  of  casting  out  devils  to  Beelze- 
bub, had  been  guilty  of  that  sin,  and  in  St. 
Luke  it  is  not  mentioned  that  any  such  charge 
had  been  made.  Our  Saviour,  according  to 
the  account  in  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Mark,  en- 
deavoured to  convince  the  Jews  of  their  error ; 
but  so  far  from  accusing  them  of  having  com- 
mitted an  unpardonable  sin  in  what  they  had 
said  concerning  him,  he  declares  that  "whoso- 
ever speaketh  a  word  against  the  Son  of  man, 
it  shall  be  forgiven  him ;"  that  is,  whatever 
reproaches  men  may  utter  against  the  Son  of 
man  during  his  ministry,  however  they  may 
calumniate  the  authority  upon  which  he  acts, 
it  is  still  possible  that  hereafter  they  may  re- 
pent and  believe,  and  all  their  sins  may  be 
forgiven  them  ;  but  the  reviling  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  is  described  as  an  offence  of  a  far  more 
heinous  nature  :  "  The  blasphemy  against  the 
Holy  Ghost  shall  not  be  forgiven  unto  men.'* 
"  He  that  shall  blaspheme  against  the  Holy 
Ghost  hath  never  forgiveness."  "  Unto  him 
that  blasphemeth  against  the  Holy  Ghost  it 
shall  not  be  forgiven."  It  is  plain  that  this 
sin  against  the  Holy  Ghost  could  not  be  com- 
mitted while  our  Saviour  was  upon  earth,  since 
he  always  speaks  of  the  Holy  Ghost  as  not 
being  to  come  till  after  his  ascension  into 
heaven.  A  few  days  after  that  great  event, 
the  descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost  enabled  the 
Apostles  to  work  miracles,  and  communicated 
to  them  a  variety  of  other  supernatural  gifts. 
If  men  should  ascribe  these  powers  to  Beelze- 
bub, or  in  any  respect  reject  their  authority, 
they  would  blaspheme  the  Holy  Ghost,  from 
whom  they  were  derived ;  and  that  sin  would 
be  unpardonable,  because  this  was  the  comple- 
tion of  the  evidence  of  the  divine  authority  of 
Christ  and  his  religion  ;  and  they  who  rejected 
these  last  means  of  conviction,  could  have  no 
other  opportunity  of  being  brought  to  faith  in 


SIN 


866 


SIN 


Christ,  the  only  appointed  condition  of  pardon 
and  forgiveness.  The  greater  heinousn3ss  of 
the  sin  of  these  men  would  consist  in  their  re- 
jecting a  greater  body  of  testimony  ;  for  they 
are  supposed  to  be  acquainted  with  the  resur- 
rection of  our  Saviour  from  the  dead,  with  his 
ascension  into  heaven,  with  the  miraculous 
descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  with  the  super- 
natural powers  which  it  communicated  ;  cir- 
cumstances, all  of  which  were  enforced  by  the 
Apostles  when  they  preached  the  Gospel ;  but 
none  of  which  could  be  known  to  those  who 
refused  to  acknowledge  Jesus  as  the  Mes- 
siah during  his  actual  ministry.  Though  this 
was  a  great  sin,  it  was  not  an  unpardonable 
one,  it  might  be  remedied  by  subsequent  belief, 
by  yielding  to  subsequent  testimony.  But, 
on  the  other  hand,  they  who  finally  rejected 
the  accumulated  and  complete  evidence  of 
Jesus  being  the  Messiah,  as  exhibited  by  the 
inspired  Apostles,  precluded  themselves  from 
the  possibility  of  conviction,  because  no  farther 
testimony  would  be  afforded  them,  and  conse- 
quently, there  being  no  means  of  repentance, 
they  would  be  incapable  of  forgiveness  and 
redumption.  Hence  it  appears  that  the  sin 
against  the  Holy  Ghost  consisted  in  finally 
rejecting  the  Gospel  as  preached  by  the  Apos- 
tles, who  confirmed  the  truth  of  the  doctrine 
which  they  taught  "  by  signs  and  wonders, 
and  divers  miracles,  and  gifts  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,"  Hob.  ii,  4.  It  was  unpardonable,  be- 
cause (his  was  the  consummation  of  the  proofs 
afforded  to  tho  men  of  that  generation  of  the 
divine  mission  of  Christ.  This  sin  was  mani- 
festly distinct  from  all  other  sins ;  it  indicated 
an  invincible  obstinacy  of  mind,  an  impious 
and  unalterable  determination  to  refuse  the 
offered  mercy  of  God.  It  would  appear  from 
this,  that  those  only  committed  or  could  com- 
mit this  irremissible  offence,  who  were  wit- 
nesses of  the  mighty  works  wrought  by  the 
Holy  Spirit  in  tho  Apostles  alter  Christ's  as- 
cension and  the  day  of  pentecost.  Our  Lord's 
declaration  appears  chiefly  to  respect  the  Jews. 
This  view  will  serve  to  explain  those  passages 
in  the  Epistle  to  tho  Hebrews,  in  which  the 
hopeless  case  of  Jewish  apostates  is  described. 
But  see  Blasphemy. 

BIN,  Desert  of.  To  this  the  tenth  station 
the  Israelites  came  exactly  a  month  after  they 
left  Egypt.  And  here  again  they  murmured 
rot  "the  bread  and  the  flesh-pots  of  Egypt." 
So  the  Lord  gave  them  quails  for  a  day,  and 
manna  fot  forty  years,  till  they  came  to  the 
borders  of  Canaan)  On  this  occasion  the  in- 
stitution of  the  Sabbath  was  revived,  as  a  day 
of  rest,  which  had  been  intermitted  during 
lb-  ir  Egyptian  bondage.  On  this  day  there 
fell  no  manna,  but  on  the  preceding  they  were 
directed  t..  gather  two  days'  provision.  To 
perpetuate  the  memorial  of  "this  bread  from 
heaven"  to  future  generations,  a  pot  of  manna, 
•  huh  was  preserved  fresh,  by  a  standing  mira- 
cle, was  ordered  t<>  be  \;\u\  up  beside  the  ark  of 
the  '"vim. mi,  in  the  sanctuary,  Exod.  xvi. 

SINAI,  a  famous  mountain  of  Arabia  Pe- 

..n  which  God  gave  the  law  to  Moses, 

Exod.  \i\,  1  ;  xxiv,  If.;  ,\.vxi,  lt< ;  xxxiv,  2,  4, 


&c ;  Lev.  xxv,  1 ;  xxvi,  46.  It  stands  in  a 
kind  of  peninsula,  formed  by  the  two  arms  of 
the  Red  Sea;  one  extending  north,  called  the 
Gulf  of  Kolsom  ;  the  other  extending  east, 
called  the  Gulf  of  Elan.  The  Arabs  call 
Mount  Sinai  by  the  name  of  Tor,  that  is,  the 
mountain,  by  way  of  excellence  ;  or  Gibel 
Mousa,  "  the  mountain  of  Moses."  It  is  two 
hundred  and  sixty  miles  from  Cairo,  which  is 
a  journey  of  ten  days.  The  wilderness  of  Si- 
nai, where  the  Israelites  continued  encamped 
almost  a  year,  and  where  Moses  erected  the 
tabernacle  of  the  covenant,  is  considerably 
elevated  above  the  rest  of  the  country  ;  the 
ascent  to  it  is  very  craggy,  the  greater  part 
cut  out  of  the  rock  ;  then  one  comes  to  a  large 
space  of  ground,  which  is  a  plain  surrounded 
on  all  sides  by  rocks  and  eminences,  whose 
length  is  nearly  twelve  miles.  Toward  the 
extremity  of  this  plain,  on  the  north,  two  high 
mountains  appear ;  the  highest  is  called  Sinai, 
the  other  Horeb.  They  are  of  very  steep  as- 
cent, and  do  not  stand  on  much  ground  in 
comparison  to  their  extraordinary  height.  Si- 
nai is  at  least  one  third  part  higher  than  the 
other,  and  its  ascent  more  upright  and  diffi- 
cult. The  top  of  the  mountain  terminates  in 
an  uneven  and  rugged  space,  which  might 
contain  about  sixty  persons.  On  this  eminence 
is  built  a  little  chapel,  called  St.  Catherine's, 
where  it  is  thought  the  body  of  this  saint 
rested  for  three  hundred  and  sixty  years ;  but 
afterward  it  was  removed  into  a  church  at  the 
foot  of  the  mountain.  Near  this  chapel  issues 
a  fountain  of  very  good  fresh  water;  it  is  look- 
ed upon  as  miraculous,  it  not  being  conceiva- 
ble how  water  can  flow  from  the  brow  of  so 
high  and  so  barren  a  mountain.  Mount  Horeb 
stands  west  of  Sinai ;  so  that  at  sun-rising  the 
shadow  of  Sinai  covers  Horeb.  Beside  the 
little  fountain  at  the  top  of  Sinai,  there  is  an- 
other at  the  toot  of  Horeb,  which  supplies  the 
monastery  of  .St.  Catherine.  Five  or  six  paces 
from  thence  they  show  a  stone,  whose  height 
is  four  or  five  feet,  and  breadth  about  three, 
which  they  say  is  the  very  stone  from  whence 
Moses  caused  the  water  to  gush  out.  Its  colour 
is  of  a  spotted  grey ;  and  it  is,  as  it  were,  set  in 
a  kind  of  earth,  where  no  other  rock  appears. 
This  stone  has  twelve  holes  or  channels,  which 
are  about  a  foot  wide,  from  whence  they  say 
the  water  issued  which  the  Israelites  drank. 

"Sinai,"  says  Sandys,  "has  three  tops  of  a 
mavellous  height ;  that  on  the  west  side,  where 
God  appeared  to  Moses  in  a  bush,  fruitful  in 
pasturage,  far  lower  than  the  middlemost,  and 
shadowed  when  the  sun  riseth  thereon  ;  which 
is  that  whereon  God  gave  the  law  to  Moses, 
and  which  is  now  called  the  Mount  of  Moses, 
at  the  foot  of  which  stands  the  monastery 
called  St.  Catherine's,  from  which  there  were 
steps  formerly  up  to  the  very  top  of  the  mount- 
ain, and  were  computed  fourteen  thousand  in 
number.  At  present  some  of  them  are  broken, 
but  those  that  remain  are  well  made;  and  easy 
to  go  up  and  down.  There  are,  in  several 
places  of  the  ascent,  good  cisterns ;  and  espe- 
einlly  near  the  top,  a  fair  and  good  one.  The 
third  or  most  easterly  summit  is  called  by  the 


SIO 


867 


SLE 


veligious  in  those  parts,  Mount  Catherine  ;  on 
the  top  of  which  there  is  a  dome,  under  which 
they  say  was  interred  the  body  of  this  saint, 
brought  thither  by  angels  after  she  was  be- 
headed at  Alexandria."  One  may  judge  of  the 
height  of  St.  Catherine's  Mount,  which  cer- 
tainly is  not  so  high  as  that  of  Moses  by  a 
third  part,  from  this  circumstance,  that  Theve- 
not  found  much  snow  on  both  when  he  was 
there,  which  was  in  February.  The  monastery 
of  St.  Catherine  is  from  Cairo  some  eight  days' 
journey  over  the  deserts. 

SION,  or  ZION,  Mount,  a  mount  or  hill  on 
the  south  of  Old  Jerusalem  or  Salem,  and 
higher  than  that  on  which  the  ancient  city 
stood.  This  hill  was,  perhaps,  on  this  account, 
made  choice  of  by  the  Jebusites  for  building 
a  fort  or  citadel  upon ;  which  fort  was  taken 
by  David,  who  transferred  his  court  thither 
from  Hebron,  and  brought  the  ark  of  the  Lord 
and  set  it  in  a  tabernacle  or  tent  pitched  for  it. 
On  this  account  it  is,  that  this  hill  is  so  fre- 
quently styled  in  the  Psalms  the  "  holy  hill ;" 
and,  by  way  of  excellence,  is  used  in  the  poeti- 
cal language  of  Scripture  to  denote  the  whole 
city  of  Jerusalem.  Here  David  built  a  palace, 
and  a  city,  called  after  him  the  city  of  David  ; 
and  which  subsequently  formed  a  part  of 
Jerusalem,  enclosed  within  the  same  walls, 
although  a  great  part  of  the  hill  is  now  left 
without  them  ;  while,  on  the  contrary,  Cal- 
vary, which  is  supposed  to  have  stood  formerly 
without  the  walls,  is  now  enclosed  within 
them,  the  city  having  drawn  itself  round  about 
this  sacred  mount.  "  This  hill,"  says  M.  Cha- 
teaubriand, "is  of  a  yellowish  colour,  and  bar- 
ren appearance ;  open  in  form  of  a  crescent, 
toward  Jerusalem ;  and  is  about  as  high  as 
Montmartre  at  Paris,  but  rounder  at  the  top. 
This  sacred  summit  is  distinguished  by  three 
monuments,  or,  more  properly,  by  three  ruins, 
the  house  of  Caiaphas,  the  place  where  Christ 
celebrated  his  last  supper,  and  the  tomb  or 
palace  of  David.  From  the  top  of  the  hill 
you  see,  to  the  south,  the  valley  of  Ben  Hin- 
nom  ;  beyond  this,  the  field  of  blood,  purchased 
with  the  thirty  pieces  of  silver  given  to  Judas  ; 
the  hill  of  Evil  Counsel,  the  tombs  of  the 
judges,  and  the  whole  desert  toward  Hebron 
and  Bethlehem.  To  the  north,  the  wall  of 
Jerusalem,  which  passes  over  the  top  of  Sion, 
intercepts  the  view  of  the  city,  the  site  of 
which  gradually  slopes  toward  the  Valley  of 
Jehoshaphat." 

Dr.  Richardson  observes  of  Sion,  "At  the 
time  when  I  visited  this  sacred  ground,  one 
part  of  it  supported  a  crop  of  barley,  another 
was  undergoing  the  labour  of  the  plough,  and 
the  soil  turned  up  consisted  of  stones  and  lime 
mixed  with  earth,  such  as  is  usually  met  with 
in  the  foundations  of  ruined  cities.  It  is  nearly 
a  mile  in  circumference,  is  highest  on  the  west 
side,  and  toward  the  east  falls  down  in  broad 
terraces  on  the  upper  part  of  the  mountain, 
and  narrow  ones  on  the  side  as  it  slopes  down 
toward  the  brook  Kedron.  Each  terrace  is  di- 
vided from  the  one  above  it  by  a  low  wall  of  dry 
stone,  built  of  the  ruins  of  this  celebrated  spot. 
The  terraces  near  the  bottom  of  the  hill  are 


used  as  gardens,  and  are  watered  from  the  pool 
of  Siloam.  We  have  here  another  remarkable 
instance  of  the  special  fulfilment  of  prophecy. 
'  Therefore  shall  Zion  for  your  sakes  be  plough- 
ed as  a  field,  and  Jerusalem  shall  become  heaps,' 
Micah  hi,  12."  Mr.  Jolliffe  represents  the  hill 
of  Sion  as  net  more  raised  above  the  city  than 
the  Aventine  hill  above  the  Roman  forum ; 
but  conjectures  that  its  height,  from  its  base 
in  the  Valley  of  Gohinnon,  from  which  it  rises 
abruptly,  may  be  equivalent  to  some  of  the 
lowest  hills  which  encompass  Bath ;  that  is, 
if  the  estimate  be  correct,  about  three  hundred 
and  sixty  feet,  which  is  the  height  of  the  low- 
est of  the  hills  above  that  city. 

SISTER,  in  the  style  of  the  Hebrews,  has 
equal  latitude  as  brother.  It  is  used  not  only 
for  a  sister  by  natural  relation  from  the  same 
father  and  mother,  but  also  for  a  sister  only 
by  the  same  father  or  by  the  same  mother,  or 
a  near  relation  only.  Sarah  is  called  sister  to 
Abraham,  Gen.  xii,  13  ;  xx,  12,  though  only 
his  niece  according  to  some,  or  sister  by  the 
father's  side  according  to  others.  In  the  law, 
Lev.  xviii,  18,  it  is  forbidden  to  take  to  wife 
the  sister  of  a  wife  ;  to  marry  two  sisters  ;  or, 
according  to  some  interpreters,  to  marry  a 
second  wife,  having  one  already.  Literally, 
"Thou  shalt  not  take  a  wife  over  her  sister  to 
afflict  her ;"  as  if  meaning  to  forbid  polygamy. 
In  the  Gospels,  the  brothers  and  sisters  of  Jesus 
Christ  are  his  cousins,  children  of  the  sisters  of 
the  holy  virgin,  Matt,  xiii,  56 ;  Mark  vi,  3. 
SLAVE.  See  Servant. 
SLEEP,  Sleeping,  Slumbering,  is  taken 
either  for  the  sleep  or  repose  of  the  body ;  or 
for  the  sleep  of  the  soul,  which  is  supineness, 
indolence,  stupidity  ;  or  for  the  sleep  of  death. 
"  You  shall  sleep  with  your  fathers ;"  you  shall 
die,  as  they  are  dead.  Jeremiah,  li,  39,  threat- 
ens Babylon,  in  the  name  of  the  Lord,  with  a 
perpetual  sleep,  out  of  which  they  shall  not 
awake.  Daniel,  xii,  2,  speaks  of  those  that 
sleep  in  the  dust  of  the  grave.  "  Lazarus  our 
friend  sleepeth ;  let  us  go  and  awake  him," 
John  xi,  11 ;  he  is  dead,  let  us  go  and  raise 
him  up.  "Awake,  thou  that  sleepest,  and 
arise  from  the  dead,  and  Christ  shall  give  thee 
light,"  Eph.  v,  14.  Here  St.  Paul  speaks  to 
those  that  were  dead  in  sin  and  infidelity.  St. 
Peter  says  of  the  wicked,  "  Their  damnation 
sluinbereth  not,"  2  Peter  ii,  3.  God  is  not 
asleep,  he  will  not  forget  to  punish  them  in 
his  own  due  time.  Isaiah,  Ixv,  4,  speaks  of  a 
superstitious  practice  among  the  Pagans,  who 
went  to  sleep  in  the  temples  of  their  idols,  to 
obtain  prophetic  dreams :  "They  remain  among 
the  graves,  and  lodge  in  the  monuments."  The 
word,  which  we  translate  "  monuments,"  sig- 
nifies places  "kept"  or  "observed."  Some  in- 
terpret it  of  idol  temples,  some  of  caves  and 
dens,  in  which  the  Heathens  used  to  worship 
their  idols  ;  and  some  of  tombs  or  monuments 
for  dead  persons.  Thus  also  the  superstitious 
and  idolatrous  Jews,  in  contempt  of  the  pro- 
phets, and  of  the  temple  of  the  Lord,  went 
into  the  tombs  and  temples  of  idols  to  sleep 
there,  and  to  have  dreams  that  might  discover 
future  events  to  them.     The  Pagans  for  this 


SOC 


86S 


soc 


purpose  used  to  lie  upon  the  skins  of  the  sacri- 
ficed victims. 

BUNGS.    See  Arms. 

>MYRNA,  a  city  of  Asia  Minor,  and  one 
of  the  finest  in  all  the  Levant.  It  contended 
for  the  honour  of  giving  birth  to  Homer,  and 
its  title  is  by  many  thought  to  be  the  best 
founded.  The  Christian  church  in  Smyrna 
was  one  of  the  seven  churches  of  Asia  to 
which  the  Apostle  John  was  commanded  to 
address  an  epistle,  Rev.  ii,  8-10.  The  present 
Smyrna,  which  the  Turks  call  Esmir,  is  about 
four  miles  in  circumference,  and  contains  a 
population  of  about  a  hundred  thousand  souls. 
It  is  less  remarkable  for  the  elegance  of  its 
buildings  than  for  the  beauty  of  its  situation, 
the  extent  of  its  commerce,  and  the  riches  of 
its  inhabitants. 

SOCINIANS,  a  sect  so  called  from  Faustus 
Sooinus,  who  died  in  Poland  in  1604.  This 
celebrated  man  was  born  in  Tuscany,  and  was 
descended  from  an  ancient  and  noble  family. 
In  the  earlier  period  of  his  life  he  devoted  lit- 
tle time  to  literary  acquisitions,  but  he  was 
possessed  of  a  vigorous  understanding,  and  of 
that  steady  fortitude  which  qualified  him  for  the 
memorable  part  which  he  afterward  acted.  His 
connection  with  his  uncle  Laelius  probably  gave 
a  bias  to  his  mind  with  respect  to  religion.  He 
warmly  embraced  his  tenets,  and  he  spent  a 
great  part  of  his  days  in  studying  and  dissemi- 
nating them.  Having  left  his  native  country, 
he  visited  Poland ;  and  finally  he  settled  in  it 
for  the  express  purpose  of  propagating  his  own 
peculiar  views  of  religious  truth.  The  funda- 
mental principles  which  he  assumed  were,  the 
rejection  of  all  mystery  from  revelation,  and 
the  necessity  of  trying  its  doctrines  by  the 
light  of  reason  ;  and  he  rigorously  applied  this 
latter  maxim  in  conducting  his  theological  in- 
vestigations. He  inculcated  in  the  strictest 
sense,  the  unity  of  God;  considered  the  Word 
and  the  Holy  Ghost  as  attributes  of  the  su- 
preme Being ;  taught  that  Christ  was  a  man 
peculiarly  honoured  by  the  Almighty,  having 
been  born  through  the  operation  of  the  Spirit; 
and  that  he  was  so  highly  exalted,  in  conse- 
quence of  his  office  as  the  Saviour  of  the  world, 
that  he  might  be  styled  the  Son  of  God,  and 
ought  to  be  worshipped.  Struck  with  several 
declarations  of  our  Lord  which  seemed  to  im- 
ply that  he  had  descended  from  heaven,  and 
which  militated  against  his  leading  tenet  re- 
specting Jesus,  lie  endeavoured  to  evade  the 
application  of  them,  by  supposing  or  affirming 
that,  previous  to  the  commencement  of  our 
Saviour's  ministry,  he  had,  through  the  power 
of  God,  been  taken  up  to  the  celestial  regions, 
and  had  in  them  received  from  the  Almighty  the 
truths  which  he  was  commissioned  to  reveal. 

The  first  reception  of  Socinus  in  Poland, 
even  by  those  who  might  have  been  expected 
i"  welcome  him,  was  must  discouraging.  The 
irian  churches  which  had  been  previously 
established  in  that  kingdom,  differing  from 
him  in  several  points,  would  not  admit  him 
into  their  communion ;  and  he  had  to  encoun- 
ter the  enmity  of  the  great  majority  of  Chris- 
tians, who  abhorred  his  tenets,  and  branded 


them  as  impious.  But,  notwithstanding  all 
this,  and  although  he  was  visited  with  much 
suffering  and  affliction,  his  perseverance,  his 
talents,  and  his  zeal  soon  excited  admiration ; 
his  views  were  adopted  by  many  even  in  the 
highest  stations  of  life ;  his  principles  were 
embodied  in  a  catechism,  which,  though  not 
imposed  upon  his  followers,  they  read  with 
very  extensive  acquiescence ;  and  he  had  the 
satisfaction  of  beholding  the  sentiments  which 
he  had  long  cherished,  embraced  by  various 
churches  enjoying  the  protection  of  govern- 
ment, and  permitted  to  establish  seminaries 
of  education  by  whicli  the  impression  made  on 
the  public  mind  might  be  preserved  and  deep- 
ened. There  was  not,  however,  perfect  una- 
nimity of  faith  among  all  his  associates  who 
united  in  denying  the  divinity  of  our  Lord. 
Vast  numbers  of  these,  previous  to  their  having 
perused  the  papers  of  Laelius  Socinus,  had  so 
far  received  the  system  of  Arianism,  that  they 
believed  Christ  to  have  existed  before  he  en- 
tered into  the  world ;  and  although  many,  in 
consequence  of  the  reasonings  and  representa- 
tions of  Socinus,  abandoned  this  doctrine,  it 
was  retained  by  some,  who,  from  their- leader, 
were  called  Farnovians.  Socinus  conducted 
himself  toward  these  men  with  admirable  ad- 
dress. Fully  aware  that  the  tendency  of  their 
having  departed  so  far  from  the  orthodox  te- 
nets was  to  lead  them  to  still  farther  recession, 
and  sensible  that  his  own  system  naturally  and 
consequentially  resulted  from  what  they  rea- 
dily admitted,  he  used  every  method  to  conci 
liate  them,  and  he  permitted  them  to  remain 
with  his  followers,  upon  condition  of  their  not 
openly  insisting  on  the  preexistence  of  Christ. 
They  did,  however,  at  length  separate  from 
the  great  body  of  his  adherents  ;  but  they  gra- 
dually approached  nearer  and  nearer  to  them, 
and,  upon  the  death  of  Farnovius,  most  of  them 
incorporated  themselves  with  the  Socinians, 
and  all  trace  of  them  as  a  distinct  party  was 
obliterated. 

Socinus  was  much  more  agitated  by  the  pro- 
mulgation of  an  opinion  very  opposite  to  those 
now  mentioned.  As  might  have  been  antici- 
pated, there  were  some  who,  having  adopted 
the  sentiments  of  Laelius  Socinus  as  to  the 
simple  humanity  of  Christ,  deduced  from  this 
tenet  consequences  which  appeared  to  them 
obviously  to  flow  from  it,  although  these  had 
not  been  perceived  or  admitted  by  Laelius  him- 
self. A  striking  example  of  this  took  place  in 
the  time  of  Faustus  Socinus.  Francis  David, 
a  man  of  considerable  influence  among  the 
Unitarians,  being  the  superintendent  of  their 
churches  in  Transylvania,  maintained  that,  as 
Christ  was  born  just  like  other  men,  so  he  con- 
tinued, notwithstanding  his  exaltation,  to  be 
merely  a  human  being ;  and  that  therefore  all 
invocation  of  him,  and  worship  paid  to  him, 
were  to  be  shunned  as  impiety  or  idolatry. 
Socinus  inveighed  with  the  utmost  warmth 
against  this  opinion  ;  he  used  every  method  to 
induce  David  to  renounce  it ;  and,  at  the  de- 
sire of.  one  of  his  friends,  he  resided  for  a  con- 
siderable time  at  the  house  of  his  opponent, 
that  the  subject  at  issue  might  be  fully  and 


soc 


869 


SOC 


calmly  discussed.  He  failed,  however,  in  ac- 
complishing his  object.  David  persisted,  as 
he  had,  upon  the  ground  which  he  had  taken, 
good  reason  to  do,  in  asserting  the  doctrine 
which  he  had  announced ;  and  he  was  soon 
after  this  thrown  by  the  prince  of  Transylvania 
into  prison,  where  he  lingered  for  several  years, 
and  then  died  at  an  advanced  age.  It  has  been 
insinuated  that  Socinus  was  accessary  to  this 
cruel  deed  of  detesLable  persecution ;  and,  al- 
though attempts  have  been  made  to  wipe  off  the 
imputation,  there  is  too  much  cause  to  think 
that  it  is  not  wholly  unfounded.  Most  certain 
it  is,  that  he  had  it  much  at  heart  to  root  out 
what  he  viewed  as  the  heresy  of  David,  and 
that  the  support  of  it  after  the  death  of  the 
unhappy  sufferer  by  some  distinguished  Unita- 
rians gave  him  much  uneasiness.  It  is  not 
unlikely  that  the  zeal  which  he  thus  displayed 
arose  from  his  apprehension  that  the  tenets 
which  he  opposed  would  supplant  his  own,  and 
from  the  difficulty  that  he  must  have  experi- 
enced in  turning  aside  the  inferences  which 
were  affirmed  to  follow  from  what  he  admitted. 
If  such  was  the  case,  and  it  seems  in  many  re- 
spects more  probable  than  the  conjecture  of 
Mosheim,  that  it  is  to  be  attributed  to  the  dread 
of  rendering  the  sect  more  odious  than  it  actu- 
ally was,  we  have  a  striking  proof  of  his  discern- 
ment, though  at  the  expense  of  his  candour ; 
for  the  present  creed  of  Unitarianism  ap- 
proaches much  nearer  to  that  of  David  than 
to  the  doctrines  of  the  founder  of  Socinianism 
himself. 

But,  while  he  was  thus  disquieted  by  oppo- 
sition which,  after  the  liberty  with  which  he 
had  himself  departed  from  the  faith  of  the  most 
ancient  and  numerous  Christian  churches, 
should  have  created  no  surprise,  he  was  highly 
gratified  by  the  zeal  and  the  establishment  of 
his  followers.  Under  the  protection  of  the  am- 
ple toleration  which  they  enjoyed  in  Poland 
they  were  sedulous  in  their  attempts  to  im- 
print their  tenets  upon  those  among  whom 
they  lived,  and  to  send  these  tenets  abroad  to 
foreign  nations.  The  Anti-trinitarians  in  Po- 
land had  early  translated  the  Scriptures,  and 
their  successors  under  Socinus  composed  many 
works  with  the  design  of  defending  the  prin- 
ciples of  their  faith.  They  also  sent  missiona- 
ries to  propagate  their  views  and  to  disseminate 
the  books  which  supported  them,  anticipating 
success  similar  to  that  which  had  accompanied 
their  efforts  in  Transylvania.  But  in  Hungary 
and  in  Austria  they  were  successfully  opposed 
by  the  united  and  cordial  efforts  of  Catholics 
and  Protestants.  In  Holland  they  were  more 
fortunate ;  and  in  England  they  established  only 
one  congregation,  which  differed  in  some  points 
from  the  parent  sect,  and  which  soon  dwindled 
away. 

These  failures,  which  the  ardour,  the  ability, 
and  the  high  rank  of  many  who  engaged  in 
the  diffusion  of  Socinianism  were  unable  to 
prevent,  were  soon  followed  by  their  expulsion 
from  the  country  in  which  they  had  so  long 
remained  in  security  and  peace.  Toward  the 
middle  of  the  seventeenth  century  some  of  the 
students    attending    the    academy  at    Racow, 


wantonly  insulted  the  feelings  and  the  princi- 
ples of  the  Catholics,  by  a  contemptible  act  of 
outrage  against  a  crucifix,  which,  with  stones, 
they  threw  down  from  the  place  in  which  it 
had  been  erected.  By  men  warmly  attached 
to  their  own  religion,  and  who  had  at  all  times 
regarded  the  Socinians  as  undermining  its 
foundation,  this  youthful  excess  was  repre- 
sented as  confirming  all  the  charges  that  had 
been  made  against  the  community  to  which 
the  perpetrators  belonged,  and  they  determined 
to  exert  themselves  to  procure  their  punish- 
ment or  extirpation.  The  supporters  of  the 
established  religion  accordingly  applied  to  the 
diet  at  Warsaw ;  and,  notwithstanding  the  pow- 
erful influence  used  in  favour  of  the  Socinians, 
a  cruel  edict  was  passed,  abolishing  their  acade- 
my at  Racow,  banishing  the  learned  men  who 
had  taught  in  it,  breaking  the  printing  presses, 
and  shutting  up  the  churches.  This  edict  was 
carried  into  effect  with  much  severity;  but  it 
did  not  exhaust  the  enmity  now  cherished 
against  the  sect ;  for  within  a  few  years  after, 
by  a  solemn  act  of  the  Polish  diet,  they  were 
banished  from  the  territories  of  the  republic, 
and,  with  sad  departure  from  the  tolerant  and 
beneficent  spirit  of  the  Gospel,  death  was  de- 
nounced against  all  who  held  their  opinions, 
or  who  even  sheltered  and  protected  those  who 
entertained  them.  A  short  time  was  allowed 
to  the  unfortunate  victims  to  arrange  their  af- 
fairs before  they  bade  an  eternal  adieu  to  scenes 
which  all  the  ties  of  human  life  must  have  en- 
deared to  them  ;  but  this  period  was  abridged. 
Some,  however,  had  escaped  the  operation  of 
the  law,  and  had  remained  in  Poland  ;  but  three 
years  after  the  edict  was  renewed,  and  the 
Socinians  who  still  lingered  in  their  beloved 
country  were  driven  from  it  with  a  rigour  and 
an  inhumanity  reflecting  infamy  upon  those 
who  were  guilty  of  them,  and  leading  to  the 
most  melancholy  reflections  upon  that  dismal 
perversion  of  all  that  is  amiable  in  our  nature, 
which  has  so  often  been  effected  by  a  mistaken 
zeal  for  a  religion  breathing  the  tenderest  con- 
cern for  the  happiness  of  mankind.  The 
principles  of  Socinus  were,  notwithstanding, 
secretly  fostered,  and  various  causes  tended  to 
perpetuate  them  even  where  in  profession  they 
were  abjured.  The  propensity,  so  natural  to 
man,  of  dissipating  every  shade  of  mystery,  and 
casting  the  light  of  his  own  understanding 
around  the  subjects  of  his  contemplation,  did 
not  cease  to  operate ;  and  the  application  of 
this  principle,  so  gratifying  to  the  pride  of  hu- 
man reason,  carried  many  farther  than  even 
Socinus  had  probably  anticipated. 

The  Socinians  hold,  that  Jesus  Christ  was 
a  mere  man,  who  had  no  existence  before  he 
was  born  of  the  virgin  Mary ;  that  the  Holy 
Ghost  is  no  distinct  person  ;  but  that  the  Fa- 
ther only  is  truly  and  properly  God.  They 
own  that  the  name  of  God  is  given  in  Scripture 
to  Jesus  Christ,  but  contend  that  it  is  only  a  de- 
puted title ;  which,  however,  invests  him  with 
a  great  authority  over  all  creatures.  They 
deny  the  doctrine  of  satisfaction  and  imputed 
righteousness,  and  say,  that  Christ  only  preach- 
ed the  truth  to  mankind,  set  before  them  in 


SOL 


870 


SOL 


himself  &n  example  of  heroic  virtup,  and  scaled 
his  doctrines  with  liis  blood.  Original  sin  they 
esteem  a  mere  scholastic,  chimera.  Some  of 
them,  likewise,  maintain  the  sleep  of  the  soul, 
which,  they  say,  becomes  insensible  at  death, 
and  is  raised  again  with  the  body  at  the  resur- 
rection, when  the  good  shall  be  established  in 
the  possession  of  eternal  felicity,  while  the 
wicked  shall  be  consigned  to  a  fire  that  will 
torment  them,  not  eternally,  but  for  a  certain 
duration,  proportioned  to  their  demerits. 

SODo.V,  (he  capital  of  Pentapolis,  which 
for  some  tune  was  the  residence  of  Lot,  the 
nephew  of  Abraham.  The  history  of  its  de- 
struction is  given  in  the  book  of  Genesis.  See 
Abraham,  Lot,  and  Dead  Sea. 

SOLOMON,  or  SALOMON,  son  of  David 
and  Bathsheba,  was  born  A.M.  2971.  The 
Lord  loved  hii'i,  and  sent  Nathan  to  David  to 
grffc  Solomon  the  name  of  Jedidiah,  or,  "be- 
loved of  the  Lord,"  2  Sam.  xii,  24,  15.  This 
was  probably  when  Nathan  assured  David  that 
his  son  should  succeed  him,  and  that  he  should 
inherit  those  promises  which  had  been  made  to 
him  some  years  before,  when  he  had  conceived 
the  design  of  building  a  temple  to  the  Lord; 
for  then  God  declared,  by  the  prophet  Nathan, 
that  the  honour  of  building  a  temple  should  be 
reserved  for  his  son,  2  Sam.  vii,  5,  &.c.  Solo- 
mon, being  confirmed  in  his  kingdom,  con- 
tracted an  alliance  with  Pharaoh,  king  of 
Egypt,  and  married  his  daughter,  A.  M.  2291. 
He  brought  her  to  Jerusalem,  and  had  apart- 
ments for  her  in  the  city  of  David,  till  he 
should  build  her  a  palace,  which  he  did  some 
years  afterward,  when  he  had  finished  the 
temple.  It  is  thought  that  on  occasion  of  this 
marriage,  Solomon  composed  the  Canticles, 
which  are  a  kind  of  epithalamium.  The  Scrip- 
ture speaks  of  the  daughter  of  Pharaoh,  as 
contributing  to  pervert  Solomon,  1  Kings  xi, 
1,  2;  Neh.  xiii,  26;  and  it  is  very  likely,  that 
if  at  first  this  princess  might  seem  converted 
to  the  Lord,  she  afterward  might  retain  her 
private  disposition  to  idolatry,  and  might  en- 
gage her  husband  iti  it. 

Solomon,  accompanied  by  his  troops  and  all 
Israel,  went  up  to  Gibeon,  where  was  then  the 
brazen  altar,  upon  which  he  offered  a  thousand 
burnt-offerings.  The  night  following,  God  ap. 
peared  to  him  in  a  dream,  and  said,  "  Ask  of 
me  what  thou  wilt."  Solomon  begged  of  God 
a  wise  and  understanding  heart,  and  such  qua- 
lities as  were  necessary  for  the  government  of 
the  people  committed  to  him.  This  request 
pleased  the  Lord,  and  was  fully  granted  by 
him.  Solomon  returned  to  Jerusalem,  where 
he  offered  a  great  number  of  sacrifices  on  the 
altar  before  the  ark  of  the  Lord,  and  made  a 
great  feast  for  his  servants.  He  enjoyed  a 
profound  peace  throughout  his  dominions; 
Judah  and  Is-ael  lived  in  security;  and  his 
neighbours  either  paid  him  tribute,  or  were  his 
alius;  he  ruled  over  all  the  countries  am! 
kingdoms  from  the  Euphrates  to  the  Nile,  and 
his  dominions  extended  even  beyond  the  for- 
mer; he  bad  abundance  of  horses  and  chariots 

of  War;   he  exceeded  the  orientals,  and  all  the 
Egyptians,  in  wisdom  and  prudence ;  he  was 


the  wisest  of  mankind,  and  his  reputation  was 
spread  through  all  nations.  He  composed  or 
collected,  three  thousand  proverbs,  and  one 
thousand  and  five  canticles.  He  knew  the 
nature  of  plants  and  trees,  from  the  cedar  on 
Libanus  to  the  hyssop  on  the  wall ;  also  of 
beasts,  of  birds,  of  reptiles,  of  fishes.  There 
was  a  concourse  of  strangers  from  all  countries 
to  hear  his  wisdom,  and  ambassadors  from  the 
most  remote  princes. 

When  Hiram,  king  of  Tyre,  knew  that  So- 
lomon was  made  king  of  Israel,  he  sent  am- 
bassadors to  congratulate  him  on  his  accession 
to  the  crown.  Some  time  afterward,  Solomon 
desired  him  to  supply  wood  and  workmen,  to 
assist  in  building  a  temple  to  the  Lord.  Hiram 
gladly  undertook  this  service,  and  Solomon, 
on  his  part,  obliged  himself  to  give  twenty 
thousand  measures  of  wheat,  and  twenty  thou- 
sand measures  of  oil.  The  Hebrew  and  the 
Vulgate  have  only  twenty  measures  of  oil ; 
but  the  reading  ought  no  doubt  to  be  twenty 
thousand.  Solomon  began  to  build  the  tem- 
ple in  the  fourth  year  of  his  reign,  and  the  se- 
cond after  the  death  of  David ;  four  hundred 
and  eighty  years  after  the  exodus  from  Egypt. 
He  employed  in  this  great  work  seventy  thou- 
sand proselytes,  descendants  of  the  ancient 
Canaanites,  in  carrying  burdens,  fourscore 
thousand  in  cutting  stones  out  of  the  quarries, 
and  three  thousand  six  hundred  overseers  of 
the  works;  beside  thirty  thousand  Israelites 
in  the  quarries  of  Libanus. 

The  temple  was*  completed  in  the  eleventh 
year  of  Solomon,  so  that  he  was  but  seven 
years  in  performing  this  vast  work.  The  dedi- 
cation was  made  the  year  following,  A.  M.  3001. 
To  make  this  ceremony  the  more  august,  So- 
lomon chose  for  it  the  eighth  day  of  the  se- 
venth month  of  the  holy  year,  which  was  the 
first  of  the  civil  year,  and  answered  to  our 
October.  The  ceremony  of  the  dedication 
lasted  seven  days,  at  the  end  of  which  began 
the  feast  of  tabernacles,  which  continued  seven 
days  longer ;  so  that  the  people  continued  at 
Jerusalem  fourteen  or  fifteen  days,  from  the 
eighth  to  the  twenty-second  of  the  seventh 
month.  When  the  ark  was  placed  in  the  sanc- 
tuary, while  the  priests  and  Levites  were  cele- 
brating the  praises  of  the  Lord,  the  temple  was 
filled  with  a  miraculous  cloud,  so  that  the 
priests  could  no  longer  stand  to  perform  the 
functions  of  their  ministry.  Then  Solomon, 
being  on  his  throne,  prostrated  himself  with 
his  face  to  the  ground ;  and  rising  up,  and 
turning  toward  the  sanctuary,  he  addressed 
his  prayer  to  God,  and  besought  him  that  the 
house  which  he  had  built  might  be  acceptable 
to  him,  that  he  would  bless  and  sanctify  it, 
and  hear  the  prayers  of  those  who  should  ad- 
dress him  from  this  holy  place.  He  besought 
him  also  to  fulfil  the  promises  he  had  made  to 
David  his  servant  in  favour  of  his  family,  and 
of  the  kings  his  successors.  Then  turning 
himself  to  the  people,  he  solemnly  blessed 
them.  Fire  coming  down  from  heaven  con- 
sumed the.  victims  and  burnt  sacrifices  on  the 
altar,  and  the  glory  of  the  Lord  filled  the  whole 
temple.     On  this  day  the   king  caused  to  b<* 


SOL 


871 


SPI 


sacrificed  twenty-two  thousand  oxen,  and  one 
hundred  and  twenty  thousand  sheep  for  peace, 
offerings.  And  because  the  altar  of  burnt-of- 
ferings was  not  sufficient  for  all  these  victims, 
the  king  consecrated  the  court  of  the  people. 

Solomon  afterward  built  a  palace  for  him- 
self,  and  another  for  his  queen,  the  king  of 
Egypt's  daughter.     He  was  thirteen  years  in 
finishing   these    buildings,    and    employed    in 
them  whatever  the  most  exquisite  art,  or  the 
most  profuse  riches,  could  furnish.     The  pa- 
lace in  which  he  generally  resided  was  called 
the  house  of  the  forest  of  Lebanon ;  probably 
because  of  the  great  quantity  of  cedar  used  in 
it.    Solomon  also  built  the  walls  of  Jerusalem, 
and  the  place  called  Millo  in  this  city  ;  he  re- 
paired and  fortified  Hazor,   Megiddo,  Gezer, 
the  two  Bethhorons,  Upper  and  Lower,  Baal- 
ath,  and  Palmyra  in  the  desert  of  Syria.     He 
also  fortified  the  cities  where  he  had  maga- 
zines of  corn,  wine,  and  oil ;  and  those  where 
his  horses  and  chariots  were  kept.    He  brought 
under  his  government  the  Hittites,  the  Hivitcs, 
the  Amorites,  and  the   Perizzites,   which  re- 
mained in  the  land  of  Israel.     He  made  them 
tributaries,  and  compelled  them  to  work  at  the 
public  works.     He  fitted  out  a  fleet  at  Ezion- 
Geber,  and  at  Elath,  on  the  Red  Sea,  to  go  to 
Ophir.     Hiram,  king  of  Tyre,  furnished  him 
with  mariners,  who  instructed  the  subjects  of 
Solomon.      They  performed   this   voyage    in 
three  years,   and  brought   back    gold,   ivory, 
ebony,   precious  wood,    peacocks,    apes,    and 
other  curiosities.     In  one  voyage  they  brought 
Solomon  four  hundred  and  fifty  talents  of  gold, 
2  Chron.  ix,  21.     About  the  same  time,  the 
queen  of  Sheba  came  to  Jerusalem,  attracted 
by  the  great  fame  of  the  king.     She  brought 
rich    presents    of  gold,    spices,    and  precious 
stones ;    and    proposed    several    enigmas    and 
hard  questions,  to  which  Solomon  gave  her 
such   satisfactory    answers,   that    she    owned 
what  had  been  told   her  of  his  wisdom   and 
magnificence  was  far  short  of  what  she  had 
found.     The  king,  on  his  part,  made  her  rich 
presents  in  return. 

Solomon  was  one  of  the  richest,  if  not  the 
very  richest,  of  all  princes  that  have  ever 
lived ;  and  the  Scripture  expressly  tells  us  he 
exceeded  in  riches  and  wisdom  all  the  kings 
of  the  earth.  His  annual  revenues  were  six 
hundred  and  sixty-six  talents  of  gold,  without 
reckoning  tributes  from  kings  and  nations,  or 
paid  by  Israelites,  or  sums  received  for  cus- 
toms. The  bucklers  of  his  guards,  and  the 
throne  he  sat  on,  were  overlaid  with  gold. 
All  the  vessels  of  his  table,  and  the  utensils  of 
his  palaces,  were  of  gold.  From  all  parts  he 
received  presents,  vessels  of  gold  and  silver, 
precious  stuffs,  spices,  arms,  horses,  and  mules ; 
and  the  whole  earth  desired  to  see  his  face,  and 
to  hear  the  wisdom  which  God  had  put  into 
his  heart.  But  the  latter  actions  of  his  life 
disgraced  his  character.  Beside  Pharaoh's 
daughter,  he  married  wives  from  among  the 
Moabites,  Ammonites,  Idumeans,  Sidonians, 
and  Hittites.  He  had  seven  hundred  wives, 
who  were  so  many  queens,  beside  three  hun- 
dred concubines.     These  women  perverted  his 


heart  in  his  declining  age,  so  that  he  worship, 
ped  Ashtoreth,  goddess  of  the  Sidonians,  Mo- 
loch, idol  of  the  Ammonites,  and  Chemosh, 
god  of  the  Moabites.  To  these  he  built  tem- 
ples on  the  Mount  of  Olives,  over  against  and 
east  of  Jerusalem,  and  thus  insulted  openly 
the  Majesty  he  had  adored. 

Solomon  died  after  he  had  reigned  forty 
years,  A.  M.  3029.  He  might  be  about  fifty- 
eight  years  of  age  ;  for  he  was  about  eighteen 
when  he  began  to  reign.  Josephus  makes 
him  to  have  reigned  eighty  years  and  to  have 
lived  ninety-four  years ;  but  this  is  a  manifest 
error.  The  history  of  this  prince  was  written 
by  the  prophets  Nathan,  Ahijah,  and  Iddo. 
He  was  buried  in  the  city  of  David ;  and  Re- 
hoboam  his  son  reigned  in  his  stead.  Of  all 
the  ingenious  works  composed  by  Solomon,  we 
have  nothing  remaining  but  his  Proverbs,  Ec- 
clesiastes,  and  the  Canticles ;  that  is,  every 
literary  monument  respecting  him  has  perish- 
ed, except  those  written  under  inspiration — the 
inspired  history  which  registers  his  apostasy, 
and  his  own  inspired  works,  which,  in  all  the 
principles  they  contain,  condemn  his  vices. 
Some  have  ascribed  to  him  the  book  of  Wis- 
dom, and  Ecclesiasticus ;  but  these  were  writ- 
ten  by  Hellenistic  Jews. 

SOUL,  that  immortal,  immaterial,  active 
substance  or  principle  in  man,  whereby  he 
perceives,  remembers,  reasons,  and  wills.  See 
Materialism. 

SOWING.  Our  Lord,  in  his  parable  of  the 
sower,  says,  "  Some  seeds  fell  by  the  wayside, 
and  the  fowls  came  and  devoured  them." 
Buckingham,  in  his  Travels  in  Palestine,  re- 
marks, "  We  ascended  to  an  elevated  plain 
where  husbandmen  were  sowing,  and  some 
thousands  of  starlings  covered  the  ground,  as 
the  wild  pigeons  do  in  Egypt,  laying  a  heavy 
contribution  on  the  grain  thrown  into  the  fur- 
rows, which  are  not  covered  by  harrowing,  as 
in  Europe."  The  sowing  "  beside  all  waters," 
mentioned  by  Isaiah,  seems  to  refer  to  the 
sowing  of  rice,  which  is  done  on  low  grounds 
flooded,  and  prepared  for  sowing  by  being 
trodden  by  oxen  and  asses,  mid-leg  deep ;  thus, 
they  send  "  forth  thither  the  feet  of  the  ox  and 
the  ass." 

SPARROW,  -nox,  Gen.  vii,  14,  and  after- 
ward frequently ;  fpovOiov,  Matt,  x,  29 ;  Luke 
xii,  6,  7  ;  a  little  bird  every  where  known.  The 
Hebrew  word  is  used  not  only  for  a  sparrow, 
but  for  all  sorts  of  clean  birds,  or  for  those  the 
use  of  which  was  not  forbidden  by  the  law. 
That  the  sparrow  is  not  intended  in  Psalm  cii, 
7,  is  evident  from  several  circumstances ;  for 
that  is  intimated  to  be  a  bird  of  night,  one  that 
is  both  solitary  and  mournful ;  none  of  which 
characteristics  is  applicable  to  the  sparrow, 
which  rests  by  night,  is  gregarious  and  cheer- 
ful. It  seems  rather  to  mean  a  bird  melan- 
choly and  drooping,  much  like  one  confined 
in  a  cage.  See  Swallow. 
SPEECH.  See  Language. 
SPIDER,  e»33j?,  Job  viii,  14;  Isa.  lix,  5. 
An  insect  well  known,  remarkable  for  the 
thread  which  it  spins,  with  which  it  forms  a 
web  of  curious  texture,  but  so  frail  that  it  is 


SPI 


872 


STO 


exposed   to  bo  'broken  and   destroyed   by  the 
slightest  accident.     To  the  slenderness  of  this 
filmy  workmanship,  Job  compares  the  hope  of 
the  wicked.    This,  says  Dr.  Good,  was  "  doubt- 
less a   proverbial  allusion  ;    and  so  exquisite, 
that  it   is  impossible  to   conceive  any  figure 
that  can  more   fully  describe  the  utter  vanity 
of  the  hopes  and  prosperity  of  the  wicked." 
"  Deceiving  bliss  !  in  bitter  shame  it  ends, 
His  prop  •<  i  "I'uvl.,  which  an  insect  rends." 
So  Isaiah  says,  "  They  weave  the  web  of 
the  spider ;  of  their  webs  no  garment  shall  be 
made;    neither   shall   they    cover   themselves 
with  their  works." 

SPIKENARD,  tij.  By  this  was  meant  a 
highly  aromatic  plant  growing  in  the  Indies, 
called  "  nardostachys,"  by  Dioscorides  and 
Galen ;  from  whence  was  made  the  very  valu- 
able extract  or  unguent,  or  favourite  perfume, 
used  at  the  ancient  baths  and  feasts,  unguen- 
tum  nardmum,  unguentum  nardi  spicatas,  [the 
perfume  or  unction  of  spikenard,]  which  it  ap- 
pears from  a  passage  in  Horace,  was  so  valu- 
able, that  as  much  of  it  as  could  be  contained 
in  a  small  box  of  precious  stone,  was  con- 
sidered as  a  sort  of  equivalent  for  a  large  ves- 
sel of  wine,  and  a  handsome  quota  for  a  guest 
to  contribute  at  an  entertainment,  according 
to  the  custom  of  antiquity : 
Nardo  vina  merebere  : 

Nardi  parvus  onyx  eliciet  cadum. 
"  Brinj  you  the  odours,  and  a  cask  is  thine. 
Thy  little  box  of  ointment  shall  produce 
A  mighty  cask."  Francis. 

St.  Mark,  xiv,  3,  mentions  "  ointment  of 
spikenard  very  precious,"  which  is  said  to  be 
worth  more  than  three  hundred  denarii ;  and 
John,  xii,  3,  mentions  a  pound  of  ointment  of 
spikenard,  very  costly ;  the  house  was  filled 
with  the  odour  of  the  ointment ;  it  was  worth 
three  hundred  denarii.  It  is  not  to  be  sup- 
posed that  this  was  a  Syrian  production,  but 
the  true  "  atar"  of  Indian  spikenard  ;  an  un- 
guent, containing  the  very  essence  of  the 
plant,  and  brought  at  a  great  expense  from  a 
remote  country. 

SPIRIT,  in  Hebrew,  nn,  in  Greek,  Tzvcvpa, 
and  in  Latin,  spirittis,  is  in  the  Scriptures 
sometimes  taken  for  the  Holy  Ghost,  the  third 
person  of  the  Holy  Trinity.  The  word  signi- 
fies also  the  reasonable  soul  which  animates 
us,  and  continues  in  existence  even  after  the 
death  of  the  body  :  that  spiritual,  thinking  and 
reasoning  substance,  which  is  capable  of  eter- 
nal happiuess,  Num.  xvi,  22;  Acts  vii,  59. 
The  term  spirit  is  also  often  used  for  an  angel, 
a  demon,  and  a  ghost,  or  soul  separate  from 
the  body.  It  is  said,  in  Acts  xxiii,  8,  that  the 
Sadducees  denied  the  existence  of  angels  and 
spirits.  Jesus  Christ  appearing  to  his  diciples, 
said  to  them,  Luke  xxiv  39,  "  Handle  me  and 
tee,  for  a  spirit  hath  not  tlesh  and  bones,  as  ye 
see  me  have."  And  St.  Paul  calls  the  good 
angels  "  ministering  spirits,"  Heb.  i,  14.  In 
1  Sam.  xvi,  14  ;  xviii,  10  ;  xix  9,  it  is  said  that 
an  evil  spirit  from  the  Lord  troubled  Saul  :  and 
we  have  also  the  expression  unclean  spirits. 
Add  to  this,  spirit  is  sometimes  put  for  the  dis- 
position  of  the  heart  or  mind :  see  Num.  v 


14;  Zech.  xii,  10;  Luke  xiii,  11;  Isa.  xi,  2 
Discerning  of  spirits,  or  the  secret  charactei 
and  thoughts  of  men,  was  a  gift  of  God,  ana 
placed  among  the  miraculous  gifts  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  1  Cor.  xii,  10;  1  John  iv,  1. 

STAR,  in  Hebrew,  3313.  Under  the  name 
of  stars,  the  ancient  Hebrews  comprehended 
all  the  heavenly  bodies,  constellations,  and 
planets  ;  in  a  word,  all  the  luminaries,  the  sun 
and  moon  excepted.  The  number  of  the  stars 
was  looked  upon  as  infinite.  And  the  Psalm- 
ist, to  exalt  the  power  and  magnificence  of 
God,  says,  that  he  numbers  the  stars  and  calls 
them  by  their  names ;  and  so  are  they  put  to 
express  a  vast  multitude,  Gen.  xv,  5  ;  xxii,  17  ; 
Exod.  xxxiii,  13. 

STEPHEN,  the  first  martyr.  He  is  always 
put  at  the  head  of  the  seven  deacons ;  and 
it  is  believed  he  had  studied  at  the  feet  of 
Gamaliel.  As  he  was  full  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
and  of  zeal,  Acts  vi,  5,  6,  &c,  he  performed 
many  wonderful  miracles :  and  those  of  the 
synagogue  of  the  Libertines,  of  the  Cyrenians, 
of  the  Alexandrians,  and  others,  disputing 
with  him,  could  not  withstand  the  wisdom 
and  the  power  with  which  he  spoke.  Then 
having  suborned  false  witnesses,  to  testify  that 
they  had  heard  him  blaspheme  against  Moses, 
and  against  God,  they  drew  him  before  the 
sanhedrim.  Stephen  appeared  in  the  midst  of 
this  assembly,  with  a  countenance  like  that  of 
an  angel ;  and  the  high  priest  asking  him 
what  he  had  to  answer,  in  his  defence  he 
rapidly  traced  the  history  of  the  Jews,  show- 
ing that  they  had  always  opposed  themselves 
to  God  and  his  prophets ;  faithfully  upbraided 
them  with  the  hardness  of  their  hearts,  with 
their  putting  the  prophets  to  death,  and,  lastly, 
with  slaying  Christ  himself.  At  these  words 
they  were  filled  with  rage,  and  gnashed  their 
teeth  against  him.  But  Stephen,  lifting  up 
his  eyes  to  heaven,  calmly  exclaimed,  "  I  see 
the  heavens  opened,  and  the  Son  of  man  stand- 
ing at  the  right  hand  of  God."  Then  the  Jews 
cried  out,  and  stopped  their  ears  as  though 
they  had  heard  blasphemy,  and  falling  on 
him,  they  drew  him  out  of  the  city,  and 
stoned  him.  The  witnesses  laid  down  their 
clothes  at  the  feet  of  a  young  man  called  Saul, 
afterward  St.  Paul,  who  then  appears  to  have 
commenced  his  career  of  persecution.  "  And 
they  stoned  Stephen,  calling  upon  God,  and 
saying,  Lord  Jesus,  receive  my  spirit ;  and  he 
kneeled  down  and  cried  with  a  loud  voice, 
Lord,  lay  not  this  sin  to  their  charge.  And 
when  he  had  said  this,  he  fell  asleep,"  an  ex- 
ample of  the  majesty  and  meekness  of  true 
Christian  heroism,  and  as  the  first,  so  also  the 
pattern,  of  all  subsequent  martys.  His  Chris- 
tian brethren  forsook  not  the  remains  of  this 
holy  man  ;  but  took  care  to  bury  him,  and 
accompanied  his  funeral  with  great  mourning, 
Acts  viii,  2. 

STOICS,  a  sect  of  Heathen  philosophers, 
Acts  xvii,  18.  Their  distinguishing  tenets 
were,  that  God  is  underived,  incorruptible, 
and  eternal ;  possessed  of  infinite  wisdom  and 
goodness;  the  efficient  cause  of  all  the  quali 
ties  and    forms  of  things ;   and  the   constant 


STO 


873 


STO 


preserver  and  governor  of  the  world :  That 
matter,  in  its  original  elements,  is  also  unde- 
rived  and  eternal ;  and  is  by  the  powerful  en- 
ergy of  the  Deity  impressed  with  motion  and 
form :  That  though  God  and  matter  subsisted 
from  eternity,  the  present  regular  frame  of 
nature  had  a  beginning  originating  in  the  gross 
and  dark  chaos,  and  will  terminate  in  a  univer- 
sal conflagration,  that  will  reduce  the  world 
to  its  pristine  state :  That  at  this  period  all 
material  forms  will  be  lost  in  one  chaotic  mass  ; 
and  all  animated  nature  be  reunited  to  the 
Deity  :  That  from  this  chaotic  state,  however, 
the  world  will  again  emerge  by  the  energy  of 
the  efficient  principle  ;  and  gods,  and  men,  and 
all  forms  of  regulated  nature  be  renewed  and 
dissolved,  in  endless  succession :  And  that 
after  the  revolution  of  the  great  year  all  things 
will  be  restored,  and  the  race  of  men  will  re- 
turn to  life.  Some  imagined,  that  each  indi- 
vidual would  return  to  its  former  body;  while 
others  supposed,  that  similar  souls  would  be 
placed  in  similar  bodies.  Those  among  the 
stoics  who  maintained  the  existence  of  the  soul 
after  death,  supposed  it  to  be  removed  into  the 
celestial  regions  of  the  gods,  where  it  remains 
until,  at  the  general  conflagration,  all  souls, 
both  human  and  divine,  shall  be  absorbed  in 
the  Deity.  But  many  imagined  that,  before 
they  were  admitted  among  the  divinities,  they 
must  purge  away  their  inherent  vices  and  im- 
perfections, by  a  temporary  residence  in  some 
aerial  regions  between  the  earth  and  the  plan- 
ets. According  to  the  general  doctrine  of  the 
stoics,  all  things  are  subject  to  a  stern  irresisti- 
ble fatality,  even  the  gods  themselves.  Some 
of  them  explained  this  fate  as  an  eternal  chain 
of  causes  and  effects ;  while  others,  more  ap- 
proaching the  Christian  system,  describe  it  as 
resulting  from  the  divine  decrees — the  fiat  of 
an  eternal  providence.  Considering  the  sys- 
tem practically,  it  was  the  object  of  this  philo- 
sophy to  divest  men  of  their  passions  and 
affections.  They  taught,  therefore,  that  a  wise 
man  might  be  happy  in  the  midst  of  torture  ; 
and  that  all  external  things  were  to  him  in- 
different. Their  virtues  all  arose  from,  and 
centred  in,  themselves ;  and  self  approbation 
was  their  great  reward. 

STONE.  This  word  is  sometimes  taken  in 
the  sense  of  rock,  and  is  applied  figuratively  to 
God,  as  the  refuge  of  his  people.  See  Rock. 
The  Hebrews  gave  the  name  of  "stones"  to 
the  weights  used  in  commerce ;  no  doubt  be- 
cause they  were  originally  formed  of  stone. 
"Just  weights,"  is  therefore  in  Hebrew,  "just 
stones."  "The  corner  stone,"  or  "the  head 
stone  of  the  corner,"  is  a  figurative  representa- 
tion of  Christ.  It  is  the  stone  at  the  angle  of 
a  building,  whether  at  the  foundation  or  the 
top  of  the  wall.  Christ  was  that  corner  stone, 
which,  though  rejected  by  the  Jews,  became 
the  corner  stone  of  the  church,  and  the  stone 
that  binds  and  unites  the  synagogue  and  the 
Gentiles  in  the  unity  of  the  same  faith.  Some 
have  thought  the  showers  of  stones  cast  down 
by  the  Lord  out  of  heaven,  mentioned  several 
times  in  the  Old  Testament,  to  be  showers  of 
hail  of  extraordinary  size  ;  which  was  proba- 


bly the  case,  as  they  even  now  sometimes  oc- 
cur in  those  countries  in  a  most  terrific  and 
destructive  form,  and  show  how  irresistible  an 
agent  this  meteor  is  in  the  hands  of  an  offended 
God.  The  knives  of  stone  that  were  made  use 
of  by  the  Jews  in  circumcision,  were  not  en- 
joined by  the  law ;  but  the  use  of  them  was 
founded,  either  upon  custom,  or  upon  the  ex- 
perience that  this  kind  of  instrument  is  found 
to  be  less  dangerous  than  those  made  of  metal. 
Zipporah  made  use  of  a  stone  to  circumcise 
her  sons,  Exod.  iv,  25.  Joshua,  v,  2,  did  the 
same,  when  he  caused  such  of  the  Israelites  to 
be  circumcised  at  Gilgal,  as  had  not  received 
circumcision  during  their  journey  in  the  wil- 
derness. The  Egyptians,  according  to  Hero- 
dotus, made  use  of  knives  of  stone  to  open 
dead  bodies  that  were  to  be  embalmed ;  and 
Pliny  assures  us,  that  the  priests  of  the  mother 
of  the  gods  had  sharp  stones,  with  which  they 
cut  and  slashed  themselves,  which  they  thought 
they  could  not  do  with  any  thing  else  without 
danger.  Great  heaps  of  stones,  raised  up  for 
a  witness  of  any  memorable  event,  and  to  pre- 
serve the  remembrance  of  some  matter  of  great 
importance,  are  among  the  most  ancient  monu- 
ments. In  those  elder  ages,  before  the  use  of 
writing,  these  monuments  were  instead  of  in- 
scriptions, pyramids,  medals,  or  histories.  Ja- 
cob and  Laban  raised  such  a  monument  upon 
Mount  Gilead  in  memory  of  their  covenant, 
Gen.  xxxi,  46.  Joshua  erected  one  at  Gilgal, 
made  of  stones  taken  out  of  the  Jordan,  to 
preserve  the  memorial  of  his  miraculous  pas- 
sage over  this  river,  Josh,  iv,  5-7.  The  Israel- 
ites that  dwelt  beyond  Jordan  also  raised  one 
upon  the  banks  of  the  river,  as  a  testimony 
that  they  constituted  but  one  nation  with  their 
brethren  on  the  other  side,  Joshua  xxii,  10. 
Sometimes  they  heaped  up  such  a  collection 
of  stones  upon  the  burying  place  of  some 
odious  persons,  as  was  done  in  the  case  of 
Achan  and  Absalom,  Joshua  vii,  26 ;  2  Kings 
xviii,  17. 

A  "  heart  of  stone"  may  be  understood  seve- 
ral ways.  Job,  xli,  24,  speaking  of  the  levia- 
than, says,  that  "  his  heart  is  as  firm  as  a 
stone,  yea  as  hard  as  a  piece  of  the  nether 
millstone  :"  that  is,  he  is  of  a  very  extraordi- 
nary strength,  boldness,  and  courage.  It  is 
said,  1  Sam.  xxv,  37,  that  Nabal's  heart  died 
within  him,  and  he  became  as  a  stone,  when 
he  was  told  of  the  danger  he  had  incurred  by 
his  imprudence ;  his  heart  became  contracted 
or  convulsed,  and  this  was  the  occasion  of  his 
death,  Ezekiel,  xxxvi,  26,  says,  that  the  Lord 
will  take  away  from  his  people  their  heart  of 
stone,  and  give  them  a  heart  of  flesh  ;  that  is, 
he  will  render  them  contrite,  and  sensible  to 
spiritual  things.  "  I  will  give  him  a  white 
stone,"  Rev.  ii,  17 ;  that  is,  I  will  give  him 
full  and  public  pardon  and  absolution.  It  is 
spoken  in  allusion  to  an  ancient  custom  of  de- 
livering a  white  stone  to  such  as  they  acquitted 
in  judgment.  They  used  likewise  to  give  a 
white  stone  to  such  as  conquered  in  the  Gre- 
cian games. 

STORK,  n-pon,  Lev.  xi,  19 ;  Deut.  xiv,  18 ; 
Job  xxxix,  13;    Psalm  civ,  17;   Jer.  viii,  7; 


STR 


874 


STU 


Zech.  v,  9  ;  a  bird  similar  to  the  crane  in  size, 
)i;is  (lie  same  formation  as  to  the  bill,  neck,  legs, 
ami  body,  but  is  rather  more  corpulent.  The 
colour  of  the  crane  is  ash  and  black  ;  that  of 
the  stork  is  white  and  brown.  The  nails  of 
its  toes  are  also  very  peculiar;  not  being  claw- 
ed like  those  of  other  birds,  but  flat  like  the 
nails  of  a  man.  Il  has  a  very  long  beak,  and 
long  red  legs.  It  feeds  upon  serpents,  frogs, 
and  insects,  and  on  this  account  might  be 
reckoned  by  Mosea  among  unclean  birds.  As 
it  seeks  for  these  in  watery  places,  nature  has 
provided  it  with  long  legs  ;  and  as  it  flies  away, 
as  well  as  the  crane  and  heron,  to  its  nest  with 
its  plunder,  therefore  its  bill  is  strong  and  jag- 
ged, the  sharp  hooks  of  which  enable  it  to 
retain  its  slippery  prey.  It  has  long  been  re- 
markable for  its  love  to  its  parents,  whom  it 
never  forsakes,  but  tenderly  feeds  and  cherishes 
when  they  have  become  old,  and  unable  to  pro- 
vide for  themselves.  The  very  learned  and 
judicious  Bochart  has  collected  a  variety  of 
passages  from  the  ancients,  in  which  they  tes- 
tify this  curious  particular.  Its  very  name  in 
the  Hebrew  language,  chasida,  signifies  mercy 
or  piety  :  and  its  English  name  is  taken,  if  not 
directly,  yet  secondarily,  through  the  Saxon, 
from  the  Greek  word  aropyfi,  which  is  often 
used  for  natural  affection. 

The  s(ork  's  an  emblem  of  (rue  pie(y  ; 
Because,  whet]  age  lias  seiaed  ami  made  his  dam 
Unfit  for  flight,  the  grateful  young  one  takes 
His  mother  on  his  back,  provides  her  food, 
Repaying  thus  her  lender  care  ofhim 
Ere  he  was  lit  to  By.  Beaumont. 

It  is  a  bird  of  passage,  and  is  spoken  of  as 
such  in  Scripture :  "  The  stork  knoweth  her 
appointed  time,"  Jer.  viii,  7. 

Who  bid  the  stork,  Columbus-Uke,  explore 
Heavens  not  its  own,  and  worlds  unknown  before  7 
Who  calls  (he  council,  statPS  the  certain  day, 
Who  forms  the  phalanx,  and  who  points  the  way? 

Pope. 
Bochart  has  collected  several  testimonies  of 
the  migration  of  storks.  ^Elian  says,  that  in 
summer  time  they  remain  stationary,  but  at 
the  close  of  autumn  they  repair  to  Egypt,  Li- 
bya, and  Ethiopia.  "  For  about  the  space  of  a 
fortnight  before  they  pass  from  one  country  to 
another,"  says  Dr.  Shaw,  "they  constantly 
resort  together,  from  all  the  adjacent  parts,  in 
a  certain  plain  ;  and  there  forming  themselves, 
once  every  day,  into  a  '  douwannc,'  or  council, 
(according  to  the  phrase  of  these  eastern  na- 
tions,) are  said  to  determine  the  exact  time  of 
their  departure,  and  the  place  of  their  future 
abodes."    See  Swallow. 

STRANGER.  Moses  inculcated  and  en- 
forced by  numerous  and  by  powerful  consi- 
derations, as  well  as  by  various  examples  of 
benevolent  hospitality,  mentioned  in  the  book 
of  Genesis,  the  exhibition  of  kindness  and  hu- 
manity to  strangers.  There  were  two  classes 
of  persons  who,  in  reference  to  this  subject, 
were  denominated  strangers,  Dnj.  One  class 
were  those  who,  whether  Hebrews  or  foreign- 
ers, wore  destitute  of  a  home,  in  Hebrew 
DOVVl  The  others  were  persons  who,  though 
not  natives,  had  a  home  in  Palestine ;  the  lat- 
ter were  o'l),  strangers  or  foreigners,  in  the 


strict  sense  of  the  word.  Both  of  these  classes, 
according  to  the  civil  code  of  Moses,  were  to 
be  treated  with  kindness,  and  were  to  enjoy 
the  same  rights  with  other  citizens,  Lev.  xix, 
33,  34;  xxiv,  16,  22;  Num.  ix,  14;  xv,  14; 
Deut.  x,  18 ;  xxiii,  7 ;  xxiv,  17 ;  xxvii,  19.  In 
the  earlier  periods  of  the  Hebrew  state,  persons 
who  were  natives  of  another  country,  but  who 
had  come,  either  from  choice  or  from  necessity, 
to  take  up  their  residence  among  the  Hebrews, 
appear  to  have  been  placed  in.  favourable 
circumstances.  At  a  later  period,  namely,  in 
the  reigns  of  David  and  Solomon,  they  were 
compelled  to  labour  on  the  religious  edifices 
which  were  erected  by  those  princes;  as  we 
may  learn  from  such  passages  as  these  :  "And 
Solomon  numbered  all  the  strangers  that  were 
in  the  land  of  Israel,  after  the  numbering 
wherewith  David  his  father  had  numbered 
them  ;  and  they  were  found  a  hundred  and 
fifty  thousand  and  three  thousand  and  six 
hundred;  and  he  set  three  score  and  ten  thou- 
sand of  them  to  be  bearers  of  burdens,"  &c, 
1  Chron.  xxii,  2;  2  Chron.  ii,  1,  16,  17.  The 
exaction  of  such  laborious  services  from  fo- 
reigners was  probably  limited  to  those  who 
had  been  taken  prisoners  in  war ;  and  who, 
according  to  the  rights  of  war,  as  they  were 
understood  at  that  period,  could  be  justly  em- 
ployed in  any  offices,  however  low  and  how- 
ever laborious,  which  the  conqueror  thought 
proper  to  impose.  In  the  time  of  Christ,  the 
degenerate  Jews  did  not  find  it  convenient  to 
render  to  the  strangers  from  a  foreign  country 
those  deeds  of  kindness  and  humanity  which 
were  not  only  their  due,  but  which  were  de- 
manded in  their  behalf  by  the  laws  of  Moses. 
They  were  in  the  habit  of  understanding  by 
the  word  jn,  neighbour,  their  friends  merely, 
and  accordingly  restricted  the  exercise  of  their 
benevolence  by  the  same  narrow  limits  that 
bounded  in  this  case  their  interpretation ;  con- 
trary as  both  were  to  the  spirit  of  those  pas- 
sages which  have  been  adduced  above,  Lev. 
xix,  18. 

STREETS,  Corners  of.  Our  Lord  reproves 
the  Pharisees  for  praying  in  the  corners  of  the 
streets,  that  is,  choosing  public  places  for  what 
ought  to  have  been  private  devotion.  The 
Hindoos,  Mohammedans,  and  others  still  have 
this  practice.  "Both  Hindoos  and  Mussul- 
mans offer  their  devotions  in  the  most  public 
places ;  as,  at  the  landing  places  of  rivers,  in 
the  public  streets,  and  on  the  roofs  of  boats, 
without  the  least  modesty  or  attempt  at  con- 
cealment." "  An  aged  Turk,"  observes  Rich- 
ardson, "  is  particularly  proud  of  a  long  flow- 
ing white  beard,  a  well  shaved  cheek  and 
head,  and  a  clean  turban.  It  is  a  common 
thing  to  see  such  characters,  far  past  the 
bloom  of  life,  mounted  on  stone  seats,  with  a 
bit  of  Persian  carpet,  at  the  corner  of  the 
streets,  or  in  front  of  their  bazaars,  combing 
their  beards,  smoking  their  pipes,  or  drinking 
their  coffee,  with  a  pitcher  of  water  standing 
beside  them,  or  saying  their  prayers,  or  read- 
ing the  Koran." 

STUMBLING,  Stone  of.  "  We  set  out 
from  Argos  very  early  in  the  morning,"  saya 


STU 


875 


STU 


Hartley,  "  and  were  almost  eleven  hours  in 
reaching  Tripolitza.  The  road  is,  for  the  most 
part,  dreary ;  leading  over  lofty  and  barren 
hills,  the  principal  of  which  is  Mount  Parthc- 
nius.  In  England,  where  the  roads  are  so 
excellent,  we  do  not  readily  perceive  the  force 
and  just  application  of  the  Scriptural  figures, 
derived  from  a  '  stone  of  stumbling,  and  a  rock 
of  offence,'  Isaiah  viii,  14,  and  similar  pas- 
sages ;  but  in  the  east,  where  the  roads  are, 
for  the  most  part,  nothing  more  than  an  ac- 
customed track,  the  constant  danger  and  im- 
pediment arising  to  travellers  from  stones  and 
rocks  fully  explain  the  allusion." 

In  the  grand  description  which  Isainh  gives, 
lxiii,  13,  of  God  "  with  his  glorious  arm"  lead- 
ing his  people  through  the  Red  Sea,  it  is  said, 
"  That  led  them  through  the  deep,  as  a  horse 
in  the  wilderness,  that  they  should  not  stum- 
ble ;"  that  is,  who  preserved  them  from  falling 
amidst  the  numerous  inequalities  in  the  bed  of 
the  sea,  caused  in  some  instances  by  deep  ca- 
vities, and  in  others  by  abrupt  intervening 
rocks.  The  figure  is  a  very  natural  one,  es- 
pecially in  the  east,  where  the  Arabs  and 
Tartars  are  famed  for  their  dexterity  in  the 
management  of  even  bad  horses.  A  curious 
instance  of  this  occurs  in  Colonel  Campbell's 
"  Overland  Journey  to  the  East  Indies."  Speak- 
ing of  the  Tartar,  an  accredited  courier  of  the 
Turkish  government,  under  whose  guidance 
he  travelled  in  disguise  across  the  desert  from 
Aleppo  to  Mosul,  he  says,  "One  day,  after 
riding  about  four  miles  from  a  caravansera,  at 
which  we  had  changed  our  cattle,  I  found  that 
a  most  execrably  bad  horse  had  fallen  to  my 
lot.  He  was  stiff,  feeble,  and  foundered ;  in 
consequence  of  which  he  stumbled  very  much, 
and  I  every  minute  expected  that  he  would  fall 
and  roll  over  me.  I  therefore  proposed  to  the 
guide  to  exchange  with  me ;  a  favour  which 
he  had  hitherto  never  refused,  and  for  which 
I  was  the  more  anxious  as  the  beast  that  he 
rode  was  of  the  very  best  kind.  To  my  utter 
astonishment,  he  peremptorily  refused;  and  as 
this  had  been  a  day  of  unusual  taciturnity  on 
his  part,  I  attributed  his  refusal  to  peevishness 
and  ill  temper,  and  was  resolved  not  to  let  the 
matter  rest  there.  I  therefore  desired  the  in- 
teipreter  to  inform  him,  that  as  he  had  at 
Aleppo  agreed  to  change  horses  with  me  as 
often  as  I  pleased,  I  should  consider  our  agree- 
ment infringed  if  he  did  not  comply,  and 
would  write  to  the  consul  at  Aleppo  to  that 
effect.  As  soon  as  this  was  conveyed  to  him, 
he  seemed  strongly  agitated  by  anger,  yet  en- 
deavoured to  conceal  his  emotions  under  af- 
fected contempt  and  derision,  which  produced 
from  him  one  of  the  most  singular  grins  that 
ever  yet  marred  the  human  physiognomy.  At 
length  he  broke  forth: — 'You  will  write  to 
Aleppo,  will  you  ?  Foolish  Frank !  they  will 
not  believe  you,'  &c. — '  Why  do  you  not,  then,' 
said  I,  interrupting  him ;  '  why  do  you  not 
perform  your  promise  by  changing  horses, 
when  you  are  convinced  in  your  conscience 
(if  you  have  any)  that  it  was  part  of  our  agree- 
ment ?' — '  Once  for  all,  I  tell  you,'  interrupted 
he,  '  I  will  not  give  up  this  horse.     There  is 


not,'  said  he  gasconadingly, '  there  is  not  a  Mus- 
sulman that  ever  wore  a  beard,  not  to  talk  of 
a  wretched  Frank,  who  should  get  this  horse 
from  under  me.  I  would  not  yield  him  to  the 
Commander  of  the  Faithful  this  minute,  were 
he  in  your  place ;  and  I  have  my  own  reasons 
for  it.' — '  I  dare  say  you  have,'  returned  I,  '  love 
of  your  ease,  and  fear  of  your  bones.'  At  hear- 
ing this  he  grew  quite  outrageous;  called  Mo- 
hammed and  Allah  to  witness,  that  he  did  not 
know  what  it  was  to  fear  any  thing ;  declared 
that  he  was  convinced  some  infernal  spirit  had 
that  day  got  possession  of  me,  &c.  At  length 
observing  that  I  looked  at  him  with  sneering 
contemptuous  defiance,  he  rode  up  alongside 
of  me.  I  thought  it  was  to  strike,  and  pre- 
pared to  defend  myself.  I  was  however  mis- 
taken :  he  snatched  the  reins  out  of  my  hand, 
and  caught  hold  of  them  collected  close  at  the 
horse's  jaw,  then  began  to  flog  my  horse  and 
to  spur  his  own,  till  he  got  them  both  into  full 
speed :  nor  did  he  stop  there,  but  continued  to 
belabour  mine  with  his  whip  and  to  spur  his 
own,  driving  headlong  over  every  impediment 
that  came  in  our  way,  till  I  really  thought  he 
had  run  mad,  or  designed  to  kill  me.  Several 
times  I  was  on  the  point  of  striking  him  with 
my  whip,  in  order  to  knock  him  off  his  horse ; 
but  as  often  patience  providentially  came  in  to 
my  assistance,  and  whispered  to  me  to  forbear, 
and  see  it  out.  Meantime  I  considered  my- 
self as  being  in  some  danger ;  and  yet  such 
was  the  power  which  he  had  over  the  cattle, 
that  I  found  it  impossible  to  stop  him.  So, 
resigning  the  event  to  the  direction  of  Provi- 
dence, I  suffered  him,  without  a  farther  effort, 
to  proceed.  He  continued  this  for  some  miles, 
over  an  uncultivated  tract,  here  and  there  in- 
tersected with  channels  formed  by  rills  of  wa- 
ter in  the  periodical  rains,  thickly  set  with  low 
furze,  ferns,  and  other  dwarf  bushes,  and  bro- 
ken up  and  down  into  little  hills.  His  horse 
carried  him  clear  over  all;  and  though  mine 
was  every  minute  stumbling  and  nearly  down, 
yet,  with  a  dexterity  inexpressible  and  a  vigour 
altogether  amazing,  he  kept  him  up  by  the 
bridle,  and,  I  may  say,  carried  him  gallantly 
over  every  thing.  At  all  this  I  was  very  much 
astonished ;  and,  toward  the  end,  as  much 
pleased  as  astonished  ;  which  he  perceiving, 
cried  out  frequently  and  triumphantly,  'Be- 
hold, Frank,  behold !'  and  at  last,  drawing  in 
the  horses,  stopping  short,  and  looking  me  full 
in  the  face,  he  exclaimed,  '  Frank,  what  say 
you  now?'  For  some  time  I  was  incapable 
of  making  him  any  answer,  but  continued  sur- 
veying him  from  head  to  foot  as  the  most  ex- 
traordinary savage  I  had  ever  beheld ;  while 
he  stroked  his  whiskers  with  great  self-com- 
placency and  composure,  and  nodded  his  head 
every  now  and  then,  as  much  as  to  say,  'Look 
at  me !  Am  I  not  a  very  capital  fellow  V  We 
alighted  on  the  brow  of  a  small  hill,  whence 
was  to  be  seen  a  full  and  uninterrupted  pros- 
pect of  the  country  all  round.  The  interpreter 
coming  up,  the  Tartar  called  to  him,  and  de- 
sired him  to  explain  to  me  carefully  the  mean- 
ing of  what  he  was  about  to  say.  '  You  see 
those  mountains,'  said  he,  pointing  to  the  east; 


SUP 


876 


SUP 


they  are  in  the  province  of  Kurdestan,  and  I  from  God,  this  consciousness  of  divine  wrath 
inhabited  by  a  vile  race  of  robbers,   who  pay    and,  instead  of  seeking  in  moral   things  the 


homage  to  a  god  of  their  own,  and  worship  the 
devil  from  fear.  They  live  by  plunder ;  and 
often  descend  from  those  mountains,  cross 
the  Tigris  which  runs  between  them  and  us, 
and  plunder  and  ravage  this  country  in  bands 
of  great  number  and  formidable  strength,  car- 
rying away  into  slavery  all  they  can  catch, 
and  killing  all  who  resist  them.  This  country 
therefore,  for  some  distance  round  us,  is  very 
dangerous  to  travellers,  whose  only  safety  lies 
in  flight.  Now  it  was  our  misfortune  this 
morning  to  get  a  very  bad  horse.  Should  we 
meet  with  a  band  of  those  Curds,  what  could 
we  do  but  fly  ?  And  if  you,  Frank,  rode  this 
horse,  and  I  that,  we  could  never  escape ;  for 
I  doubt  you  could  not  keep  him  up  from  falling 
under  me,  as  I  did  under  you.  I  should  there. 
fore  come  down  and  be  taken ;  you  would  lose 
your  guide  and  miss  your  way ;  and  all  of  us 
would  be  undone.'  As  soon  as  the  interpreter 
had  explained  this  to  me,  '  Well,'  continued 
the  Tartar,  '  what  does  he  say  to  it  now  V — 
'  Why,  I  say,'  returned  I,  '  that  you  have 
spoken  good  sense  and  sound  reason  ;  and  I 
am  obliged  to  you.'  This,  when  fully  inter- 
preted, operated  most  pleasingly  upon  him, 
and  his  features  relaxed  into  a  broad  look  of 
satisfaction." 

SUPERSTITION  may  be  described  to  be 
either  the  careful  and  anxious  observation  of 
numerous  and  unauthorized  ceremonies  in  re- 
ligion, under  the  idea  that  they  possess  some 
virtue  to  propitiate  God  and  obtain  his  favour, 
or,  as  among  Pagans  and  others,  the  worship 
of  imaginary  deities,  and  the  various  means  of 
averting  evil  by  religious  ceremonies,  which  a 
heart  oppressed  witii   fears,   and  a  perverted 
fancy,   may  dictate  to  those   ignorant   of  the 
true  God,  and  the  doctrines  of  salvation.     Dr. 
Neander  observes,  The  consideration  of  human 
nature  and  history  shows  us  that  the  transition 
from  unbelief  to  superstition  is  always  easy. 
Both  these  conditions  of  the  human  heart  pro- 
ceed from  the  self-same  ground,  the  want  of 
that  which  may  be  properly  called  faith,  the 
want  of  a  life  in  God,  of  a  lively  communion 
with  divine   things  by  means  of  the  inward 
life;  that  is,  by  means  of  the  feelings.     Man, 
whose  inward  feelings  are  estranged  from  the 
divine  nature,  is  inclined,  sometimes  to  deny  the 
reality  of  that  of  which  he  has  nothing  within 
him,  and  for  the  conception  and  application 
of  which  to  himself  he  has  no  organ.    Or  else, 
the  irresistible  force  of  his  inward  nature  im- 
pels man  to  recognize  that  higher  power  from 
which  he  would  fain  free  himself  entirely,  and 
to  seek  that  connection  with  it  which  he  cannot 
but  feel  needful  to  his  comfort ;  but,  inasmuch 
as  he  is  without  any  real  inward  sympathy  of 
disposition  with  the  Divinity,  and  wants  a  true 
sense  of  holiness,  the  Divinity  appears  to  his 
darkened  religious  conscience  only  under  the 
form  of  power  and  arbitrary  rule.     His  con- 
science paints  to  him  this  power  as  an  angry 
and  avenging  power.      But  as  he  has  no  idea 
of  that  which  the  Divinity  really  is,  lie  cannot 
duly  understand  this  feeling  of  estrangement 


source  of  this  unquiet  feeling,  which  leaves 
him  no  rest  by  day  or  night,  and  from  which 
there  is  no  escape,  he  fancies  that  by  this  or 
that  action,  which  of  itself  is  perfectly  indiffer- 
ent, he  may  have  offended  this  higher  power, 
and  he  seeks  by  outward  observances  again  to 
reconcile  the  offended  power.  Religion  here 
becomes  a  source,  not  of  life,  but  of  death  ; 
the  source,  not  of  consolation  and  blessing,  but 
of  the  most  unspeakable  anxiety  which  tor- 
ments man  day  and  night,  with  the  spectres 
of  his  own  imagination.  Religion  here  is  no 
source  of  sanctification,  but  may  unite  in  man's 
heart  with  every  kind  of  untruth,  and  serve  to 
promote  it.  There  is  one  kind  of  superstition 
in  which,  while  man  torments  himself  to  the 
utmost,  he  still  remains  estranged  from  the 
true  nature  of  inward  holiness  ;  and  while  he 
is  restrained  from  many  good  works  of  charity 
by  his  constant  attendance  on  mischievous, 
arbitrary,  and  outward  observances,  he  is  still 
actuated  by  a  horror  of  any  great  sin,  a  super- 
stition in  which  man  avoids  pleasure  so  com- 
pletely that  he  falls  into  the  opposite  extreme  ; 
and  even  the  most  innocent  enjoyments, 
which  a  childlike  simplicity  would  receive  with 
thankfulness  from  the  hand  of  a  heavenly  Fa- 
ther, he  dares  not  indulge  in.  But  there  is 
also  another  kind  of  superstition,  which  makes 
it  easy  for  man,  by  certain  outward  observ- 
ances, to  silence  his  conscience  under  all  kinds 
of  sin,  and  which  therefore  serves  as  a  welcome 
support  to  it. 

SUPPER,  Lord's,  derives  its  name  from 
having  been  instituted  by  Jesus,  after  he  had 
supped  with  his  Apostles,  immediately  before 
he  went  out  to  be  delivered  into  the  hands  of 
his  enemies.  In  Egypt,  for  every  house  of 
the  children  of  Israel,  a  lamb  was  slain  upon 
that  night,  when  the  Almighty  punished  the 
cruelty  and  obstinacy  of  the  Egyptians  by  kill- 
ing their  first-born,  but  charged  the  destroy- 
ing angel  to  pass  over  the  houses  upon  which 
the  blood  of  the  lamb  was  sprinkled.  This 
was  the  original  sacrifice  of  the  passover.  In 
commemoration  of  it,  the  Jews  observed  the 
annual  festival  of  the  passover,  when  all  the 
males  of  Judea  assembled  before  the  Lord  in 
Jerusalem.  A  lamb  was  slain  for  every  house, 
the  representative  of  that  whose  blood  had 
been  sprinkled  in  the  night  of  the  escape  from 
Egypt.  After  the  blood  was  poured  under  the 
altar  by  the  priests,  the  lambs  were  carried 
home  to  be  eaten  by  the  people  in  their  tents 
or  houses  at  a  domestic  feast,  where  every 
master  of  a  family  took  the  cup  of  thanksgiv- 
ing, and  gave  thanks  with  his  family  to  the 
God  of  Israel.  Jesus  having  fulfilled  the  law 
of  Moses,  to  which  in  all  things  he  submitted, 
by  eating  the  paschal  supper  with  his  disciples, 
proceeded  after  supper  to  institute  a  rite,  which, 
to  any  person  that  reads  the  words  of  the  in- 
stitution without  having  formed  a  previous 
opinion  upon  the  subject,  will  probably  appear 
to  have  been  'intended  by  him  as  a  memorial 
of  that  event  which  was  to  happen  not  many 
hours  after.    "  lie  took  bread,  and  gave  thanks, 


SUP 


877 


SUR 


and  brake  it,  and  gave  it  unto  them,  saying, 
This  is  my  body  which  is  given  for  you  :  this 
do  in  remembrance  of  me.  Likewise  also  the 
cup  after  supper,  saying,  This  cup  is  the  new 
testament  in  my  blood,  which  is  shed  for  you," 
Luke  xxii,  19,  20.  He  took  the  bread  which 
was  then  on  the  table,  and  the  wine,  of  which 
some  had  been  used  in  sending  round  the  cup 
of  thanksgiving  ;  and  by  saying,  "  This  is  my 
body,  this  is  my  blood,  do  this  in  remembrance 
of  me,"  he  declared  to  his  Apostles  that  this 
was  the  representation  of  his  death  by  which 
he  wished  them  to  commemorate  that  event. 
The  Apostle  Paul,  not  having  been  present  at 
the  institution,  received  it  by  immediate  reve- 
lation from  the  Lord  Jesus  ;  and  the  manner 
in  which  he  delivers  it  to  the  Corinthians, 
1  Cor.  xi,  23-26,  implies  that  it  was  not  a 
rite  confined  to  the  Apostles  who  were  present 
when  it  was  instituted,  but  that  it  was  meant 
to  be  observed  by  all  Christians  till  the  end  of 
the  world.  "  As  often  as  ye  eat  this  bread, 
and  drink  this  cup,  ye  do  show  the  Lord's  death 
till  he  come."  Whether  we  consider  these 
words  as  part  of  the  revelation  made  to  St. 
Paul,  or  as  his  own  commentary  upon  the 
nature  of  the  ordinance  which  was  revealed  to 
him,  they  mark,  with  equal  significancy  and 
propriety,  the  extent  and  the  perpetuity  of  the 
obligation  to  observe  that  rite  which  was  first 
instituted  in  presence  of  the  Apostles. 

There  is  a  striking  correspondence  between 
this  view  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  as  a  rite  by 
which  it  was  intended  that  all  Christians 
should  commemorate  the  death  of  Christ,  and 
the  circumstances  attending  the  institution  of 
the  feast  of  the  passover.  Like  the  Jews,  we 
have  the  original  sacrifice  :  "  Christ  our  pass- 
over  is  sacrificed  for  us,"  and  by  his  substitu- 
tion our  souls  are  delivered  from  death.  Like 
the  Jews,  we  have  a  feast  in  which  that  sacri- 
fice, and  the  deliverance  purchased  by  it,  are 
remembered.  Hence  the  Lord's  Supper  was 
early  called  the  eucharist,  from  its  being  said 
by  St.  Luke,  "Jesus,  when  he  took  the  bread, 
gave  thanks ;"  and  his  disciples  in  all  ages, 
when  they  receive  the  bread,  keep  a  feast  of 
thanksgiving.  To  Christians,  as  to  Jews,  there 
is  "  a  night  to  be  much  observed  unto  the 
Lord,"  in  all  generations.  To  Christians,  as 
to  Jews,  the  manner  of  observing  the  night  is 
appointed.  To  both  it  is  accompanied  with 
thanksgiving. 

The  Lord's  Supper  exhibits,  by  a  significant 
action,  the  characteristical  doctrine  of  the 
Christian  faith,  that  the  death  of  its  author, 
which  seemed  to  be  the  completion  of  the  rage 
of  his  enemies,  was  a  voluntary  sacrifice,  so 
efficacious  as  to  supersede  the  necessity  of 
every  other ;  and  that  his  blood  was  shed  for 
the  remission  of  sins.  By  partaking  of  this 
rite,  his  disciples  publish  an  event  most  inte- 
resting to  all  the  kindreds  of  the  earth ;  they 
declare  that,  far  from  being  ashamed  of  the 
suffering  of  their  Master,  they  glory  in  his 
cross ;  and,  while  they  thus  perform  the  office 
implied  in  that  expression  of  the  Apostle,  "Ye 
do  show  forth  the  Lord's  death,"  they  at  the 
same  time  cherish   the  sentiments  by  which 


their  religion  ministers  to  their  own  consola- 
tion and  improvement.  They  cannot  remem- 
ber the  death  of  Christ,  the  circumstances 
which  rendered  that  event  necessary,  the  dis- 
interested love  and  the  exalted  virtues  of  their 
deliverer,  without  feeling  their  obligations  to 
him.  Unless  the  vilest  hypocrisy  accompany 
an  action,  which,  by  its  very  nature,  professes 
to  flow  from  warm  affection,  the  love  of  Christ 
will  constrain  them  to  fulfil  the  purposes  of 
his  death,  by  "  living  unto  him  who  died  for 
them ;"  and  we  have  reason  to  hope,  that,  in 
the  places  where  he  causes  his  name  to  be  re- 
membered, he  will  come  and  bless  his  people. 
As  the  object  of  faith  is  thus  explicitly  set  be- 
fore them  in  every  commemoration,  so  the 
renewed  exercise  of  that  faith,  whicli  the  ordi- 
nance is  designed  to  excite,  must  bring  renew- 
ed life,  and  a  deeper  experience  of  the  "  great 
salvation."     See  Sacrament. 

SURETY,  in  common  speech,  is  one  who 
gives  security  for  another ;  and  hence  it  has 
become  prevalent  among  theological  writers  to 
confound  it  with  the  terms  substitute  and  re- 
presentative, when  applied  to  Christ.  In  fact, 
the  word  "  surety"  occurs  only  once  in  our 
translation  of  the  Scriptures,  namely,  Heb.  vii, 
22  :  "  By  so  much  was  Jesus  made  the  surety 
of  a  better  covenant."  It  is  certainly  true  that 
the  Son  of  God,  in  all  that  he  has  done  or  is 
still  doing  as  Mediator,  may  be  justly  viewed 
as  the  surety  of  the  new  and  everlasting  cove- 
nant, and  as  affording  the  utmost  security  to 
believers  that,  as  the  Father  hath  given  all 
things  into  his  hands,  they  will  be  conducted 
with  effect,  and  all  the  exceeding  great  and 
precious  promises  of  that  covenant  assuredly  be 
accomplished.  But  this  does  not  appear  to  be 
the  precise  idea  which  the  Apostle  has  in  view 
in  the  above  passage.  This  has  been  suffi- 
ciently evinced  by  many  critics  and  commen- 
tators, particularly  by  Pierce,  Macknight,  and 
M'Leanj  in  their  notes  on  the  place.  The  sub- 
stance of  their  remarks  is,  that  the  original 
term  employed  by  the  Apostle,  and  which  oc- 
curs no  where  else  in  Scripture,  is  ryj  uos,  which 
is  derived  from  Zyyvs,  near,  and  signifies  one 
who  draws  near,  or  who  brings  others  near ; 
which  sense  of  the  word  will  not  very  well  ac- 
cord with  that  of  a  substitute  or  representative. 
The  Greek  commentators  very  properly  ex- 
plain the  word  by  fxcahris,  a  mediator.  Now, 
as  in  this  passage  a  comparison  is  stated  be- 
tween Jesus,  as  a  high  priest,  and  the  Levitical 
high  priests ;  and  as  the  latter  were  considered 
by  the  Apostle  to  be  the  mediators  of  the  Sinai 
covenant,  because  through  their  mediation  the 
Israelites  worshipped  God  with  sacrifices  ;  it  is 
evident  that  the  Apostle  in  this  passage  terms 
Jesus  the  High  Priest  or  Mediator  of  the  better 
covenant,  because,  through  his  mediation,  or 
in  virtue  of  the  sacrifice  which  he  offered  of 
himself  to  God,  believers  receive  all  the  bless- 
ings of  the  new  covenant.  And  as  in  verse  16 
the  Apostle  had  said  that  "  by  the  introduction 
of  a  better  hope  we  draw  near  to  God,"  he,  in 
verse  22,  very  properly  calls  Jesus  lyyvos,  "  he 
by  whom  we  draw  nigh,"  thereby  denoting  the 
effect  of  his  mediation.      From   the   whole, 


SWA 


878 


SWE 


therefore,  it  is  plain  that  the  word  "surety" 
in  this  place  is  equivalent  with  that  of  media, 
tor  or  high  priest. 

S\\  A  I, lit  >WS,  D«D,  B  bird  too  well  known  to 
need  description.  Our  translators  of  the  Bible 
have  riven  this  name  ti>  two  different  Hebrew 
words.  The  first,  -vm,  in  Psalm  lxxxiv,  3, 
and  Prov.  xxvi,  2,  is  probably  the  bird  which 
Forakal  mentions  among  the  migratory  birds 
of  Alexandria,  by  the  name  of  dururi;  and  the 
second,  -ojj?,  Isa.  xxxviii,  14,  and  Jer.  viii,  7, 
is  the  crane ;  but  the  word  D'D,  in  the  two  last 
places  rendered  in  our  version  "crane,"  is 
really  the  swallow.  So  the  Septuagint,  Vul- 
gate, and  two  ancient  manuscripts,  Theodo- 
tion,  and  Jerom,  render  it,  and  Bochart  and 
Lowth  follow  them.  Bochart  assigns  the  note 
of  this-  bird  for  the  reason  of  its  name,  and 
ingeniously  remarks  that  the  Italians  about 
Venice  call  a  swallow  zizilla,  and  its  twitter- 
ing zizilhirr.  The  swallow  being  a  plaintive 
bird,  and  a  bird  of  passage,  perfectly  agrees 
with  the  meaning  of  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah. 
The  annual  migration  of  the  swallow  has  been 
familiarly  known  in  every  age,  and  perhaps  in 
every  region  of  the  earth.  In  Psalm  lxxxiv,  3, 
it  is  said,  "  The  sparrow  hath  found  a  house, 
and  the  swallow  a  nest  for  herself,  where  she 
may  lay  her  young,  even  thine  altars,  O  Lord 
of  hosts."  By  the  altars  of  Jehovah  we  are  to 
understand  the  temple.  The  words  probably 
refer  to  the  custom  of  several  nations  of  anti- 
quity,— that  birds  which  built  their  nests  on 
the  temples,  or  within  the  limits  of  them,  were 
not  suffered  to  be  driven  away,  much  less 
killed ;  but  found  a  secure  and  uninterrupted 
dwelling.  Hence,  when  Aristodicus  disturbed 
the  birds'  nests  of  the  temple  of  Kumae,  and 
took  the  young  from  them,  a  voice,  according 
to  a  tradition  preserved  by  Herodotus,  is  said 
to  have  spoken  these  words  from  the  interior 
of  the  temple  :  "Most  villainous  of  men,  how 
darest  thou  to  drive  away  such  as  seek  refuge 
in  my  temple?"  The  Athenians  were  so  en- 
raged  at  Atarbes,  who  had  killed  a  sparrow 
which  Iniilt  on  the  temple  of  iEsculapius,  that 
they  killed  him.  Among  the  Arabs,  who  arc 
more  closely  related  to  the  Hebrews,  birds 
which  build  their  nests  on  the  temple  of  Mecca 
have  been  inviolable  from  the  earliest  times. 
In  the  very  ancient  poem  of  a  Dschorhatuidish 
prince,  published  by  a  Schulten,  in  which  he 
laments  that  his  tribe  had  been  deprived  of  the 
protection  of  the  sanctuary  of  Mecca,  it  is 
said, 

'  We  lament  (lie  house,  whose  dove 
Was  never  suffer'd  to  be  hurt : 
She  remain'd  dure  secure;  in  it,  also, 
The  sparrow  built  its  nest." 

In  another  ancient  Arabian  poet,  Nabega,  the 
Dhobianit  swears  "by  the  sanctuary  which 
affords  shelter  to  the  birds  which  seek  it  there." 
N  iebuni  says,  "I  will  observe,  that  among  the 
Mohammedans,  not  only  is  the  kaba  a  refuge  for 
the  pigeons,  but  also  on  the  mosques  over  the 
M  of  Ali  and  ll.iss<  in,  on  the  Dsjamea,  or 
chief  mosque,  at   Belle,  and   in  other  cities, 

pally  undisturbed."    And  Thevenot 

remarks :  "  Within  a  mosque  at  Oudjicum  lies 


interred  the  son  of  a  king,  called  Schah-Zadeh- 
Imam  Dgiafer,  whom  they  reckon  a  saint.  The 
dome  is  rough  cast  over ;  before  the  mosque 
there  is  a  court,  well  planted  with  many  high 
plane  trees,  on  which  we  saw  a  great  many 
.storks,  that  haunt  thereabout  all  the  year 
round."     See  Sparrow. 

SWAN,  ncB>Jn,  Lev.  xi,  18;  Deut.  xiv,  16. 
The  Hebrew  word  is  very  ambiguous,  for  in 
the  first  of  these  places,  it  is  ranked  among 
water-fowls ;  and  by  the  Vulgate,  which  our 
version  follows,  rendered  "  swan,"  and  in  the 
thirtieth  verse,  the  same  word  is  rendered 
"  mole,"  and  ranked  among  reptiles.  Some 
translate  it  in  the  former  place,  "  the  bat," 
which  they  justify  by  the  affinity  which  there 
is  between  the  bat  and  the  mole.  The  LXX. 
in  the  former  verse  render  it  zsopipvpluva,  the 
porphyrion,  or  "  purple  bird,"  probably  the 
"flamingo  ;"  and  in  the  latter,  "  ibis."  Park- 
hurst  shows  that  the  name  is  given  from  the 
creature's  breathing  in  a  strong  and  audible 
manner ;  and  Michaelis  learnedly  conjectures, 
that  inverse  eighteen,  and  Deut.  xiv,  16,  it  may 
mean  the  "  goose,"  which  every  one  knows  is 
remarkable  for  its  manner  of  "breathing  out" 
or  "  hissing,"  when  approached.  f 

SWEDENBORGIANS  denote  that  particu- 
lar denomination  of  Christians  who  admit  the 
testimony  of  Baron  Swedenborg,  and  receive 
the  doctrines  taught  in  the  theological  writings 
of  that  author.  Emanuel  Swedenborg  was  the 
son  of  a  bishop  of  West  Gothnia,  in  the  king- 
dom of  Sweden,  whose  name  was  Swedberg,  a 
man  of  considerable  learning  and  celebrity  in 
his  time.  The  son  was  born  at  Stockholm, 
January  29,  1688.  He  enjoyed  early  the  ad- 
vantages of  a  liberal  education,  and  being  na- 
turally endowed  with  uncommon  talents  for 
the  acquirement  of  learning,  his  progress  in 
the  sciences  was  rapid  and  extensive;  and  he 
soon  distinguished  himself  by  several  publica- 
tions in  the  Latin  language,  which  gave  proof 
of  equal  genius  and  erudition.  It  may  reason- 
ably be  supposed  that  under  the  care  of  his 
pious  and  reverend  father  our  author's  religious 
instruction  was  not  neglected.  This,  indeed, 
appears  plain  from  the  general  tenor  of  his 
life  and  writings,  which  are  marked  with 
strong  and  lively  characters  of  a  mind  deeply 
impressed  with  a  sense  of  the  divine  Being, 
and  of  all  the  relative  duties  thence  resulting. 
He  was  ennobled  in  the  year  1719,  by  Queen 
Ulrica  Eleonora,  and  named  Swedenborg,  from 
which  time  he  took  his  seat  with  the  nobles  of 
the  equestrian  order,  in  the  triennial  assembly 
of  the  states.  The  philosophical  works,  pub- 
lished in  Latin,  by  Baron  Swedenborg,  are  nu- 
merous ;  but  his  theological  works  are  said  to 
be  still  more  so. 

1.  The  first  and  principal  distinguishing 
doctrine  contained  in  the  writings  of  Baron 
Swedenborg,  and  maintained  by  his  followers, 
relates  to  the  person  and  character  of  Jesus 
Christ,  and  to  the  redemption  wrought  by  him. 
On  this  subject  it.  is  insisted  that  Jesus  Christ 
is  Jehovah,  manifested  in  the  flesh;  and  that 
he  came  into  the  world  to  glorify  his  human 
nature,  by  making  it  one  with  the  diviue.     It 


SWE 


879 


SWE 


is  therefore  insisted  farther  that  the  humanity 
of  Jesus  Christ  is  itself  divine,  by  virtue  of  its 
indissoluble  union  with  the'  indwelling  Father, 
agreeably  to  the  testimony  of  St.  Paul,  that, 
"in  Jesus  Christ  dwelleth  all  the  fulness  of  the 
Godhead  bodily,"  Col.  ii,  9  ;  and  that  thus,  as 
to  his  humanity,  he  is  the  Mediator  between 
God  and  man,  since  there  is  now  no  other 
medium  of  God's  access  to  man,  or  of  man's 
access  to  God,  but  this  divine  humanity,  which 
was  assumed  for  this  purpose.  Thus  it  is 
taught,  that  in  the  person  of  Jesus  Christ 
dwells  the  whole  Trinity  of  Father,  Son,  and 
Holy  Spirit ;  the  Father  constituting  the  soul 
of  the  above  humanity,  while  the  humanity 
itself  is  the  Son,  and  the  divine  virtue  or  ope- 
ration proceeding  from  it  is  the  Holy  Spirit ; 
forming  altogether  one  God,  just  as  the  soul, 
the  body,  and  operation  of  man,  form  one  man. 
On  the  subject  of  the  redemption  wrought  by 
this  incarnate  God,  it  is  lastly  taught  that  it 
consisted  not  in  the  vicarious  sacrifice  of 
Christ,  but  in  the  real  subjugation  of  the  pow- 
ers of  darkness  and  their  removal  from  man, 
by  continual  combats  and  victories  over  them, 
during  his  abode  in  the  world ;  and  in  the  con- 
sequent descent  to  man  of  divine  power  and 
life,  which  was  brought  near  to  him  in  the 
thus  glorified  humanity  of  this  victorious  God. 
They  who  receive  this  testimony  concerning 
Jesus  Christ  therefore  acknowledge  no  other 
God  but  him ;  and  believe  that  in  approaching 
his  divine  humanity,  they  approach,  at  the 
same  time,  and  have  communication  with,  all 
the  fulness  of  the  Godhead,  seeing  and  wor- 
shipping the  invisible  in  the  visible,  agreeably 
to  the  tenor  of  those  words  of  Jesus  Christ : 
"He  that  believeth  on  me  believeth  not  on  me, 
but  on  him  that  sent  me  ;  and  he  that  seeth  me, 
seeth  him  that  sent  me,"  John  xii,  44,  45. 

2.  A  second  doctrine  taught  by  the  same 
author  relates  to  the  sacred  Scripture,  or  word 
of  God,  which  is  maintained  to  be  divinely  in- 
spired throughout,  and,  consequently,  to  be 
the  repository  of  the  whole  will  and  wisdom 
of  the  most  high  God.  It  is,  however,  insisted, 
that  this  will  and  wisdom  are  not  in  all  places 
discoverable  from  the  letter  or  history  of  the 
sa.cred  pages,  but  lie  deeply  concealed  under 
the  letter.  For  it  is  taught  by  Baron  Sweden- 
borg,  that  the  sense  of  the  letter  of  the  holy 
word  is  the  basis,  the  continent,  and  the  firma- 
ment, of  its  spiritual  and  celestial  senses,  being 
written  according  to  the  doctrine  of  corres- 
pondencies between  things  spiritual  and  things 
natural,  and  thus  designed  by  the  Most  High 
as  the  vehicle  of  communication  of  the  eternal 
spiritual  truths  of  his  kingdom  to  the  minds  of 
men.  It  is  farther  endeavoured  to  be  shown 
that  Jesus  Christ  spake  continually  according 
to  this  same  doctrine,  veiling  divine  and  spi- 
ritual truths  under  natural  images,  especially  in 
his  parables,  and  thus  communicating  to  man 
the  most  important  mysteries  relative  to  him- 
self and  his  kingdom,  under  the  most  beautiful 
and  edifying  figures  taken  from  the  natural 
things  of  this  world.  Thus,  according  to  Ba- 
ron Swedenborg,  even  the  historical  parts  both 
of  the  Old  and  New  Testament  contain  vast 


stores  of  important  and  spiritual  wisdom  under 
the  outward  letter  ;  and  this  consideration,  as 
he  farther  asserts,  justifies  the  pages  of  divine 
revelation,  even  in  those  parts  which  to  a 
common  observer  appear  trifling,  nugatory, 
and  contradictory.  It  is  lastly  maintained, 
on  this  subject,  that  the  sacred  Scripture,  or 
word  of  God,  is  the  only  medium  of  communi- 
cation and  conjunction  between  God  and  man, 
and  is  likewise  the  only  source  of  all  genuine 
truth  and  knowledge  respecting  God,  his  king- 
dom, and  operation,  and  the  only  sure  guide 
for  man's  understanding,  in  whatever  relates 
to  his  spiritual  or  eternal  concerns. 

3.  The  next  branch  of  the  system  is  practi- 
cal, and  relates  to  the  life,  or  to  that  rule  of 
conduct  on  the  part  of  man  which  is  truly  ac- 
ceptable to  the  Deity,  and  at  the  same  time 
conducive  to  man's  eternal  happiness  and  sal- 
vation, by  conjoining  him  with  his  God.  This 
rule  is  taught  to  be  simply  this :  to  shun  all 
known  evils  as  sins  against  God,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  love,  to  cherish,  and  to  practise 
whatsoever  is  wise,  virtuous,  and  holy,  as 
being  most  agreeable  to  the  will  of  God,  and 
to  the  spirit  of  his  precepts.  On  this  subject 
it  is  strongly  and  repeatedly  insisted  that  evil 
must  of  necessity  remain  with  man,  and  prove 
his  eternal  destruction,  unless  it  be  removed 
by  sincere  repentance,  leading  him  to  note 
what  is  disorderly  in  his  own  mind  and  life  ; 
and,  when  he  has  discovered  it,  to  light  reso- 
lutely against  its  influence,  in  dependence  on 
the  aid  and  grace  of  Jesus  Christ.  It  is  insisted 
farther,  that  this  opposition  to  evil  ought  to 
be  grounded  on  the  consideration  that  all  evil 
is  against  God,  since,  if  evil  be  combated  from 
any  inferior  motive,  it  is  not  radically  removed, 
but  only  concealed,  and  on  that  account  is 
even  more  dangerous  and  destructive  than 
before.  It  is  added,  that  when  man  has  done 
the  work  of  repentance,  by  shunning  his  he- 
reditary evils  as  sins  against  God,  he  ought  to 
set  himself  to  the  practice  of  what  is  wise  and 
good  by  a  faithful,  diligent,  and  conscientious 
discharge  of  all  the  duties  of  his  station ;  by 
which  means  his  mind  is  preserved  from  a 
return  of  the  power  of  disorder,  and  kept  in 
the  order  of  heaven,  and  the  fulfilment  of  the 
great  law  of  charity. 

4.  A  fourth  doctrine  inculcated  in  the  same 
writings,  is  the  cooperation  on  the  part  of  man 
with  the  divine  grace  or  agency  of  Jesus 
Christ.  On  this  subject  it  is  insisted  that  man 
ought  not  indolently  to  hang  down  his  hands, 
under  the  idle  expectation  that  God  will  do 
every  thing  for  him  in  the  way  of  purification 
and  regeneration,  without  any  exertion  of  his 
own ;  but  that  he  is  bound  by  the  above  law 
of  cooperation  to  exert  himself,  as  if  the  whole 
progress  of  his  purification  and  regeneration 
depended  entirely  on  his  own  exertions ;  yet, 
in  exerting  himself,  he  is  continually  to  recol- 
lect, and  humbly  to  acknowledge,  that  all  his 
power  to  do  so  is  from  above,  agreeably  to  the 
declaration  of  Jesus  Christ,  "  Without  me  ye 
can  do  nothing,"  John  xv,  5. 

5.  A  fifth  and  last  distinguishing  doctrine 
taught  in  the  theological  writings  of  our  author, 


SWE 


880 


SWI 


relates  to  man's  connection  with  the  other 
world,  and  its  various  inhabitants.  On  this 
bubject,  it  is  insisted,  not  only  from  his  view  of 
the  sacred  Scriptures,  but  also  from  the  expe- 
rience of  the  author  himself,  that  every  man 
is  iii  continual  association  with  angels  and 
spirits,  and  that  without  such  association  he 
could  not  possibly  think  or  exert  any  living 
faculty.  It  is  insisted  farther,  that  man,  ac- 
cording to  his  life  in  the  world,  takes  up  his 
eternal  abode,  cither  with  angels  of  light,  or 
with  the  spirits  of  darkness  ;  with  the  former,  if 
he  is  wise  to  live  according  to  the  precepts 
of  God's  holy  word ;  or  with  the  latter,  if, 
through  folly  and  transgression,  he  rejects  the 
counsel  and  guidance  of  the  Most  High. 

Some  other  peculiar  doctrines  of  minor  im- 
portance might  be  enlarged  on  in  this  place 
if  it  was  deemed  necessary;  such  as  the  doc- 
trine concerning  the  human  soul,  as  being  in  a 
human  form;  concerning  the  marriage  of  the 
good  and  thetnie,  as  existing  in  the  holy  word, 
and  in  all  tilings  in  nature.  But  it  maybe 
observed  generally,  that  the  fundamental  error 
of  the  system  is  a  denial  of  the  divinity  of  Christ, 
while  it  appears  to  be  acknowledged,  and  of  the 
doctrine  of  the  atonement.  Many  true  things 
are  said  also  of  the  figurative  and  typical  cha- 
racter of  the  word  of  God  ;  but  the  interpreta- 
tion of  it  in  this  view  runs  into  the  wildest 
extravagance  for  want  of  principles  ;  while  the 
whole  is  clothed  with  mysticism  on  the  one 
hand  and  gross  and  carnal  conceptions  of 
spiritual  things  on  the  other.  There  is,  indeed, 
much  in  which  this  sect  agrees  with  other 
Christians,  and  much,  therefore,  that  is  true  in 
their  strange  system ;  but  it  is  unconnected 
with  other  great  and  vital  truths  of  the  Gospel ; 
and  is  joined  also  with  great  errors.  It  is  a 
dreamy  delusion,  which  defies  all  rational  de- 
fence :  it  rests  upon  the  assumed  experience  of 
a  man  of  gen. us,  it  is  true,  but  one  who  was 
n'li  always  in  his  wits. 

In  London,  and  some  of  the  other  cities  and 
great  towns  in  England,  places  of  public  worship 
have  been  opened,  for  the  express  purpose  of 
preaching  the  preceding  doctrines.  In  all 
such  places  particular  forms  of  prayer  have 
been  adopted,  in  agreement  with  the  ideas  of  the 
worshippers,  as  grounded  in  the  .eligious  sen- 
tirn  ts  above  stated,  especially  respecting  the 
supreme  object  of  adoration,  who  is  acknow- 
ledged to  be  the  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ, 
in  his  divine  humanity.  But  in  no  place  have 
any  peculiar  rites  and  ceremonies  been  intro- 
duced, the  worshippers  being  content  with 
retaining  the  celebration  of  the  two  sacra- 
ments of  baptism  and  the  holy  supper,  since  no 
other  rites  are  insisted  on  by  the  author  whose 
testimony  they  receive.  It  is  believed,  by  a 
large  majority  of  them,  that  it  was  never  his 
intention  that  any  particular  sect  should  be 
formed  upon  his  doctrines,  but  that  all  who 
receive  them,  whet  her  in  the  establishment,  or 
in  any  other  communion  of  Christians,  should 
be  at  perfect  liberty  either  to  continue  in  their 
former  communion,  or  to  quit  it,  as  their  con- 
■e  dictates.  England  appears  to  be  the 
country  where  the  system  has  been  most  ge- 


nerally received.  Baron  Swedenborg  had  many 
eccentricities ;  but  perhaps  the  most  remark- 
able circumstance  respecting  him,  was  his 
asserting,  that,  during  the  uninterrupted  period 
of  twenty-seven  years,  he  enjoyed  open  inter- 
course with  the  world  of  departed  spirits,  and 
during  that  time  was  instructed  in  the  internal 
sense  of  the  sacred  Scriptures,  hitherto  undis- 
covered !  This  is  a  correspondence  with  the 
invisible  world,  to  which  few  or  no  writers, 
before  or  since  his  time,  ever  pretended,  if  we 
except  the  Arabian  prophet. 

SWINE,  wn,  Lev.  xi,  7;  Deut.  xiv,  8; 
Psalm  lxxx,  13;  Prov.  xi,  22;  Isaiah  lxv,  4; 
lxvi,  3,  17  ;  x°'P°s>  Matt,  vii,  6;  viii,  30;  Mark 
v,  14 ;  Luke  viii,  33 ;  xv,  15 ;  the  plural  of 
hog,  an  animal  well  known.  In  impurity  and 
grossness  of  manners,  this  creature  stands 
almost  unrivalled  among  the  order  of  quad- 
rupeds; and  the  meanness  of  his  appearance 
corresponds  to  the  grossness  of  his  manners. 
He  has  a  most  indiscriminate,  voracious,  and 
insatiable  appetite.  The  Prophet  Isaiah,  lxv, 
4,  charges  his  degenerate  people  with  eating 
swine's  flesh,  and  having  broth  of  abomin- 
able things  in  their  vessels,  Isaiah  lxvi,  3. 
Conduct  so  contrary  to  their  solemn  engage- 
ments, so  hateful  in  the  sight  of  the  Holy  One, 
though  long  endured,  was  not  always  to  pass 
with  impunity.  "They  that  sanctify  them- 
selves, and  purify  themselves  in  the  gardens, 
behind  one  tree  in  the  midst,  eating  swine's 
flesh,  and  the  abomination,  and  the  mouse,  shall 
be  consumed  together,  saith  the  Lord,"  Isaiah 
lxvi,  17.  Such  a  sacrifice  was  an  abomination 
to  the  Lord,  because  the  eating  of  the  blood 
was  prohibited,  and  because  the  sacrifice  con- 
sisted of  swine's  flesh.  To  these  precepts  and 
threatenings,  which  were  often  enforced  by 
severe  judgments  may  be  traced  the  habitual 
and  unconquerable  aversion  of  the  latter  Jews 
to  the  use  of  swine's  flesh;  an  aversion  which 
the  most  alluring  promises  and  the  most  cruel 
sufferings  have  been  found  alike  insufficient 
to  subdue. 

In  such  detestation  was  the  hog  held  by 
the  Jews  that  they  would  not  so  much  as  pro- 
nounce its  name,  but  called  it  "  the  strange 
thing;"  and  we  read  in  the  history  of  the 
Maccabees,  that  Eleazer,  a  principal  scribe, 
being  compelled  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes  to 
open  his  mouth  and  receive  swine's  flesh,  spit 
it  forth,  and  went  of  his  own  accord  to  the 
torment,  choosing  rather  to  suffer  death  than 
to  break  the  law  of  God,  and  give  offence  to 
his  nation,  2  Mac.  vi,  18;  vii,  1.  It  is  ob- 
served that  when  Adrian  rebuilt  Jerusalem, 
he  set  up  the  image  of  a  hog,  in  bas-relief,  upon 
the  gates  of  the  city,  to  drive  the  Jews  away 
from  it,  and  to  express  the  greater  contempt 
for  that  miserable  people.  It  was  avarice,  a 
contempt  of  the  law  of  Moses,  and  a  design  to 
supply  the  neighbouring  idolaters  with  victims, 
that  caused  whole  herds  of  swine  to  be  fed  on 
the  borders  of  Galilee.  Whence  the  reason  is 
plain  of  Christ's  permitting  the  devils  to  throw 
the  swine  headlong  into  the  lake  of  Genesa- 
reth',  Matthew  viii,  32.  We  read,  in  Matthew 
vii,  6,    "  Give  not  that  which  is  holy  unto  the 


SYC 


881 


SYC 


dogs,  neither  east  ye  your  pearls  before  swine, 
lest  they  trample  them  under  their  feet,  and 
turn  again  and  rend  you."  There  is  a  similar 
maxim  in  the  Talmudical  writings  :  "  Do  not 
cast  pearls  before  swine ;"  to  which  is  added, 
by  way  of  explanation,  "  Do  not  offer  wisdom 
to  one  who  knows  not  the  value  of  it,  but  pro- 
fanes its  glory." 

SYCAMINE,  o-vicdpivos,  in  Arabic  sokam, 
Luke  xvii,  6.  This  is  a  different  tree  from  the 
eycamore,  mentioned  Luke  xix,  4.  Dios- 
corides  says  that  this  tree  is  the  mulberry, 
though  he  allows  that  some  apprehend  that  it 
is  the  same  with  the  sycamore.  Galen  has  a 
separate  article  on  the  sycamorus,  which  he 
speaks  of  as  rare,  and  mentions  as  having  seen 
it  at  Alexandria  in  Egypt.  The  Greeks  name 
the  morus  the  sycamine.  Grotius  says  the 
word  auKdjitvoi  has  no  connection  with  ovki^,  the 
fig-tree,  but  is  entirely  Syrian,  popl{>,  in  He- 
brew, o>Dpe>.  It  should  seem,  indeed,  to  be 
very  similar  to  the  mulberry,  as  not  only  the 
Latin,  but  the  Syriac  and  the  Arabic,  render 
it  by  morus;  and  thus  Coverdale's,  the  Rheim's, 
and  Purver's  English  translations  render  it  by 
the  mulberry ;  and  so  it  is  in  Bishop  Wilson's 
Bible. 

SYCAMORE,  niDpir,  o>Bpts>,  1  Kings  x,  27; 
1  Chron.  xxvii,  28;  2  Chron.  i,  15;  Psalm 
lxxviii,  47  ;  Isa.  ix,  9  ;  Amos  viii,  14;  avKo/jtopia, 
Luke  xix,  4;  a  large  tree,  according  to  the 
description  of  Theophrastus,  Dioscorides,  and 
Galen,  resembling  the  mulberry-tree  in  the 
leaf,  and  the  fig  in  its  fruit ;  hence  its  name, 
compounded  of  cvKitj  fig,  and  popo;,  mulberry ; 
and  some  have  fancied  that  it  was  originally 
produced  by  ingrafting  the  one  tree  upon  the 
other.  Its  fruit  is  palatable.  When  ripe  it  is 
soft,  watery,  somewhat  sweet,  with  a  little  of 
an  aromatic  taste.  The  trees  are  very  com- 
mon in  Palestine,  Arabia,  and  Egypt;  grow 
large,  and  to  a  great  height ;  and  though  their 
grain  is  coarse  are  much  used  in  building.  To 
change  sycamores  into  cedars,  Isa.  ix,  10, 
means,  to  render  the  buildings  of  cities,  and 
the  state  of  the  nation,  much  more  magnifi- 
cent than  before.  Dr.  Shaw  remarks,  that  as 
the  grain  and  texture  of  the  sycamore  is  re- 
markably coarse  and  spongy,  it  could  therefore 
stand  in  no  competition  at  all  with  the  cedar 
for  beauty  and  ornament.  We  meet  with  the 
same  opposition  of  cedars  to  sycamores  in 
1  Kings  x,  27,  where  Solomon  is  said  to  have 
made  silver  as  the  stones,  and  cedars  as  the 
sycamores  of  the  vale  for  abundance.  "  By  this 
mashal,  or  figurative  and  sententious  speech," 
says  Bishop  Lowth,  "they  boast,  in  this  place 
of  Isaiah,  that  they  shall  be  easily  able  to  re- 
pair their  present  losses,  suffered,  perhaps,  by 
ihe  first  Assyrian  invasion  under  Tiglath-Pi- 
leser,  and  to  bring  their  affairs  to  a  more  flou- 
rishing condition  than  ever."  The  wood  of  this 
tree  is  very  durable.  "  The  mummy  chests," 
says  Dr.  Shaw,  "and  whatever  figures  and  in- 
struments of  wood  are  found  in  the  catacombs, 
are  all  of  them  of  sycamore,  which,  though 
spongy  and  porous  to  appearance,  has,  not- 
withstanding, continued  entire  and  uncorrupt- 
ed  for  at  least  three  thousand  years.  From  its 
57 


value  in  furnishing  wood  for  various  uses,  from 
the  grateful  shade  which  its  wide-spreading 
branches  afforded,  and  on  account  of  the  fruit 
which  Mallet  says  the  Egyptians  hold  in  the 
highest  estimation,  we  perceive  the  loss  which 
the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Egypt  must  have 
felt  when  their  vines  were  destroyed  with  hail, 
and  their  sycamore  trees  with  frost,"  Psalm 
lxxviii,  47.  "The  sycamore,"  says  Mr.  Nor- 
den,  "  is  of  the  height  of  a  beech,  and  bears 
its  fruit  in  a  manner  quite  different  from  other 
trees;  it  has  them  on  the  trunk  itself,  which 
shoots  out  Little  sprigs,  in  form  of  grape  stalks, 
at  the  end  of  which  grow  the  fruit  close  to  one 
another,  almost  like  clusters  of  grapes.  The 
tree  is  always  green,  and  bears  fruit  several 
times  in  the  year,  without  observing  any  cer- 
tain seasons ;  for  I  have  seen  some  sycamores 
that  have  given  fruit  two  months  after  others. 
The  fruit,  has  the  figure  and  smell  of  real  figs, 
but  is  inferior  to  them  in  the  taste,  having  a  dis- 
gustful sweetness.  Its  colour  is  a  yellow,  in- 
clining to  an  ochre,  shadowed  by  a  flesh  co- 
lour. In  the  inside  it  resembles  the  common 
figs,  excepting  that  it  has  a  blackish  colouring 
with  yellow  spots.  This  sort  of  tree  is  pretty 
common  in  Egypt;  the  people,  for  the  greater 
part,  live  upon  its  fruit,  and  think  themselves 
well  regaled  when  they  have  a  piece  of  bread, 
a  couple  of  sycamore  figs,  and  a  pitcher  of 
water."  There  might  be  many  of  these  trees 
in  Judea.  David  appointed  a  particular  offi- 
cer, whose  sole  duty  it  was  to  watch  over 
the  plantations  of  sycamore  and  olive-trees, 
1  Chron.  xxviii,  28  ;  and  being  joined  with  the 
olive,  the  high  estimation  in  which  it  was  held  is 
intimated ;  for  the  olive  is  considered  as  one 
of  the  most  precious  gifts  which  the  God  of 
nature  has  bestowed  on  the  oriental  nations. 
There  seem  to  have  been  great  numbers  of 
them  in  Solomon's  time,  1  Kings  x,  27  ;  and  in 
the  Talmud  they  are  mentioned  as  growing  in 
the  plains  of  Jericho. 

One  curious  particular  in  the  cultivation  of 
the  fruit  must  not  be  passed  over.  Pliny, 
Dioscorides,  and  Theophrastus  observe  that  the 
fruit  must  be  cut  or  scratched,  either  with  the 
nail  or  with  iron,  or  it  will  not  ripen  ;  but  four 
days  after  this  process  it  will  become  ripe.  To 
this  same  purpose  Jerom,  on  Amos  vii,  14, 
says,  that  without  this  management  the  figs 
are  excessively  bitter.  These  testimonies,  to- 
gether  with  the  Septuagint  and  Vulgate  ver- 
sion, are  adduced  to  settle  the  meaning  of  the 
word  DVia,  in  Amos  vii,  14,  which  must  sig- 
nify scraping,  or  making  incisions  in  the  syca- 
more fruit ;  an  employment  of  Amos  before  he 
was  called  to  the  prophetic  office  :  "  I  was  no 
prophet,  neither  was  I  a  prophet's  son  ;  but  I 
was  a  herdman^  and  a  gatherer  of  sycamore 
fruit."  Hasselquist,  describing  the  ficus  syca- 
?vorus,  or  Scripture  sycamore,  sa3Ts,  "  It  buds 
the  latter  end  of  March,  and  the  fruit  ripens 
in  the  beginning  of  June.  At  the  time  when 
the  fruit  has  arrived  to  the  size  of  an  inch  di- 
ameter, the  inhabitants  pare  off  a  part  at  the 
centre  point.  They  say  that  without  this  paring 
it  would  not  come  to  maturity."  The  figs 
thus  prematurely  ripened   are   called  djumeis 


SYN 


882 


SYN 


ba-dri,  that  is,  "  precocious  sycamore  figs."  As 
the  sycamore  is  a  large  spreading  tree,  some- 
times shooting  up  to  a  considerable  height, 
we  see  the  reason  why  Zaccheus  climbed  up 
into  a  sycamore  tree  to  get  a  sight  of  our  Sa- 
viour. This  incident  also  furnishes  a  proof 
that  the  sycamore  was  still  common  in  Pales- 
tine ;  for  this  tree  stood  to  protect  the  travel- 
ler hy  the  side  of  the  highway. 

SYENE,  a  city  of  Egypt,  now  called  Assou- 
an, situated  at  its  southern  extremity.  Eze- 
kiel,  xxix,  10,  describing  the  desolation  to  be 
brought  upon  Egypt  says,  "  Therefore  thus 
saith  the  Lord,  Behold,  1  will  make  the  land 
of  Egypt  utterly  desolate,  from  the  tower  of 
Syene  even  to  the  border  of  Cush,"  or  Arabia, 
or,  as  some  read  it,  "from  Migdol  to  Syene,'' 
implying,  according  to  either  version  of  the 
passage,  the  whole  length  of  the  country  from 
north  to  south.  Tho  latitude  of  Syene,  accord- 
ing lo  Bruce,  is  24°  0'  45" ;  that  of  Alexan- 1 
andria,  31°  11'  33" ;  difference  7°  10'  48",  equal 
to  four  hundred  and  thirty  geographical  miles  [ 
on  the  meridian,  or  about  five  hundred  British 
miles ;  but  the  real  length  of  the  valley  of 
Egypt,  as  it  follows  the  windings  of  the  Nile, 
is  full  six  hundred  miles. 

SYNAGOGUE,  cwayuyh,  "an  assembly," 
Rev.  ii,  9 ;  iii,  9.  The  word  often  occurs  in 
the  Gospels  and  in  the  Acts,  because  Jesus 
Christ  and  his  Apostles  generally  went  to 
preach  in  those  places.  Although  the  sacri- 
fices could  not  be  offered,  except  in  the  taber- 
nacle or  the  temple,  the  other  exercises  of 
religion  were  restricted  to  no  particular  place. 
Accordingly  we  find  that  the  praises  of  God 
were  sung,  at  a  very  ancient  period,  in  the 
schools  of  the  prophets ;  and  those  who  felt 
any  particular  interest  in  religion,  were  assem- 
bled by  the  seers  on  the  Sabbath,  and  the  new 
moons,  for  prayers  and  religious  instruction, 
1  Sam.  x,  5-11  ;  xix,  18-24;  2  Kings  iv,  23. 
During  the  Babylonish  captivity,  the  Jews, 
who  were  then  deprived  of  their  customary  re- 
ligious privileges,  were  wont  to  collect  around 
some  prophet  or  other  pious  man,  who  taught 
them  and  their  children  in  religion,  exhorted  to 
good  conduct,  and  read  out  of  the  sacred  books, 
Ezek.  xiv,  1 ;  xx,  1 ;  Dan.  vi,  11 ;  Neh.  viii,  18. 
These  assemblies,  or  meetings,  became,  in  pro- 
gress of  time,  fixed  to  certain  places,  and  a 
regular  order  was  observed  in  them.  Such 
appears  to  have  been  the  origin  of  synagogues. 

In  speaking  of  synagogues,  it  is  worthy  to  be 
noticed,  that  there  is  nothing  said  in  respect 
to  the  existence  of  such  buildings  in  Palestine, 
during  the  reign  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes. 
They  arc,  therefore,  by  some  supposed  to.  have 
been  first  erected  under  the  Maccabean  prin- 
ces, but  that,  in  foreign  countries,  thoy  were 
much  more  ancient.  Whether  this  statement 
be  correct  or  not,  it  is  nevertheless  certain, 
that  in  the  time  of  the  Apostles,  there  were 
synagogues  wherever  there  were  Jews.  They 
were  built,  in  imitation  of  the  temple  of  Jeru- 
salem, with  a  court  and  porches,  as  is  the  case 
with  the  synagogues  in  the  east  at.  the  present 
day.  In  the  centre  of  the  court  is  a  chapel, 
supported  by  four  columns,  in  which,   on  an 


elevation  prepared  for  it,  is  placed  the  book  of 
the  law,  rolled  up.  This,  on  the  appointed 
days,  is  publicly  read.  In  addition  to  the 
chapel,  there  is  erected  within  the  court  a  large 
covered  hall  or  vestry,  into  which  the  people 
retire,  when  the  weather  happens  to  be  cold 
and  stormy,  and  each  family  has  its  particular 
seat.  The  uppermost  seats  in  the  synagogue, 
that  is,  those  which  were  nearest  the  chapel 
where  the  sacred  books  were  kept,  were  es- 
teemed peculiarly  honourable,  Matt,  xxiii,  6 ; 
James  ii,  3.  The  "  proseuchse,"  zspovcvxai,  are 
understood  by  some  to  be  smaller  synagogues, 
but  by  others  are  supposed  to  be  particular 
places  under  the  open  sky,  where  the  Jews  as- 
sembled for  religious  exercise.  But  Josephus 
calls  the  proseucha  of  Tiberias  a  large  house, 
which  held  very  many  persons.  See  Proseu- 
cha. The  Apostles  preached  the  Gospel  in 
synagogues  and  proseuchse,  and  with  their 
adherents  performed  in  them  all  the  religious 
services.  When  excluded,  they  imitated  the 
Jews  in  those  places,  where  they  were  too  poor 
to  erect  these  buildings,  and  held  their  reli- 
gious meetings  in  the  houses  of  individuals. 
Hence  we  not  only  hear  of  synagogues  in 
houses  in  the  Talmud,  but  of  churches  in 
houses  in  the  New  Testament,  Rom.  xvi,  5  ; 
1  Cor.  xvi,  19 ;  Col.  iv,  15 ;  Phil,  ii ;  Acts  iii, 
46;  v,  42.  The  Apostles  sometimes  hired  a 
house,  in  which  they  performed  religious  ser- 
vices, and  taught  daily,  Acts  xix,  9 ;  xx,  8. 
twayuyh  means  literally  a  convention  or  assem- 
bly, but  by  metonymy,  was  eventually  used  for 
the  place  of  assembling ;  in  the  same  way, 
that  tKK\rima,  which  means  literally  a  calling 
together,  or  convocation,  signifies  also  at  the 
present  time  the  place  of  convocation.  Syna- 
gogues were  sometimes  called  by  the  Jews 
schools ;  but  they  were  careful  to  make  an 
accurate  distinction  between  such,  and  the 
schools,  properly  so  called,  the  oitsmc,  or 
"  sublimer  schools,"  in  which  the  Talmud  was 
read,  while  the  law  merely  was  read  in  the 
synagogues,  which  they  placed  far  behind  the 
Talmud. 

The  mode  of  conducting  religious  instruc- 
tion and  worship  in  the  primitive  Christian 
churches  was  derived  for  the  most  part  from 
the  practice  which  anciently  prevailed  in  syna- 
gogues. But  there  were  no  regular  teachers 
in  the  synagogues  who  were  officially  qualified 
to  pronounce  discourses  before  the  people ;  al- 
though there  were  interpreters  who  rendered 
into  the  vernacular  tongue,  namely,  the  He- 
hrtfo-aramean,  the  sections,  which  had  been 
publicly  read  in  the  Hebrew. 

The  "  synagogue  preacher,"  jem,  whose 
business  it  is,  in  consequence  of  his  office,  to 
address  the  people,  is  an  official  personage  that 
lias  been  introduced  in  later  times ;  at  least  we 
find  no  mention  of  such  a  one  in  the  New 
Testament.  On  the  contrary,  in  the  time  of 
Christ,  the  person  who  read  the  section  for  the 
Sabbath,  or  any  other  person  who  was  respect- 
able for  learning  and  had  a  readiness  of  speech, 
addressed  the  people,  Luke  iv,  16-21  ;  Acts 
xiii,  5,  15 ;  xv,  21 ;  Matt,  iv,  23. 

The  other  persons  who  were  employed  in  the 


SYN 


883 


SYN 


services  and  government  of  the  synagogue,  in 
addition  to  the  one  who  read  the  Scriptures,  and 
the  person  who  rendered  them  into  the  verna- 
cular tongue,  were  as  follows:  1.  "The  ruler 
of  the  synagogue,"  ip^iowaywyos,  riD-Un  W\, 
who  presided  over  the  assembly,  and  invited 
readers  and  speakers,  unless  some  persons  who 
were  acceptable  voluntarily  offered  themselves, 
Mark  v,  22,  35-38 ;  Luke  viii,  41 ;  xiii,  14, 15 ; 
Acts  xiii,  15.  2.  "The  elders  of  the  syna- 
gogue," □1jpi,  wptofivTtpoi.  They  appear  to  have 
been  the  counsellors  of  the  head  or  ruler  of 
the  synagogue,  and  were  chosen  from  among 
the  most  powerful  and  learned  of  the  people, 
and  are  hence  called  apxiowdywyoi-,  Acts  xiii, 
15.  The  council  of  elders  not  only  took  a  part 
in  the  management  of  the  internal  concerns 
of  the  synagogue,  but  also  punished  transgres- 
sors of  the  public  laws,  either  by  turning  them 
out  of  the  synagogue,  or  decreeing  the  punish- 
ment of  thirty-nine  stripes,  John  xii,  42  ;  xvi, 
2;  2Cor.xi,  24.  3.  "The  collectors  of  alms," 
npnx  ifrOJ,  6tdKovot,  "deacons."  Although  every 
thing  which  is  said  of  them  by  the  Jews  was 
not  true  concerning  them  in  the  time  of  the 
Apostles,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  there  were 
such  officers  in  the  synagogues  at  that  time, 
Acts  vi.  4.  "  The  servants  of  the  synagogue," 
jrn,  vnrjpertis,  Luke  iv,  20 ;  whose  business  it 
was  to  reach  the  book  of  the  law  to  the  person 
who  was  to  read  it,  and  to  receive  it  back 
again,  and  to  perform  other  services.  The 
ceremonies  which  prevail  in  the  synagogues 
at  the  present  day  in  presenting  the  law 
were  not  observed  in  the  time  of  our  Saviour. 
5.  "The  messenger  or  legate  of  the  syna- 
gogue," max  rvl?tt>.  This  was  a  person  who 
was  sent  from  synagogues  abroad,  to  carry  alms 
to  Jerusalem.  The  name,  messenger  of  the 
synagogue,  was  applied  likewise  to  any  per- 
son, who  was  commissioned  by  a  synagogue, 
and  sent  forth  to  propagate  religious  know- 
ledge. A  person  likewise  was  denominated 
the  messenger,  or  angel,  ayycWos,  tj)$  ayycWos 
iKKXtiaiai,  &c,  who  was  selected  by  the  assembly 
to  recite  for  them  the  prayers  ;  the  same  that 
is  called  by  the  Jews  of  modern  times  the  syna- 
gogue singer,  or  cantilator,  Rev.  ii,  1,  8,  12, 
18 ;  iii,  1,  7,  14. 

The  Jews  anciently  called  those  persons 
who,  from  their  superior  erudition,  were  capa- 
ble of  teaching  in  the  synagogue,  D^D.nD, 
"shepherds,"  or  "pastors."  They  applied  the 
same  term,  at  least  in  more  recent  times,  to 
the  elders  of  the  synagogue,  and  also  to  the 
collectors  of  alms,  or  deacons.  The  ground 
of  the  application  of  this  term  in  such  a  way, 
is  as  follows:  the  word  djts  is,  without  doubt, 
derived  from  the  Greek  word  zzxipvos,  "  bread," 
or  "  a  fragment  of  bread  ;"  and,  as  it  is  used 
in  the  Targums,  it  corresponds  to  the  Hebrew 
verb  njn,  "to  feed."  It  is  easy  to  see,  there- 
fore, how  the  word  prifl  might  be  applied  to 
persons  who  sustained  offices  in  the  syna- 
gogue, in  the  same  way  as  njn  is  applied  to 
kings,  &c. 

We  do  not  find  mention  made  of  public  wor- 
ship in  the  synagogues,  except  on  the  Sabbath, 
Matthew  xii,  9  ;  Mark  i,  21 ;  iii,  1 ;  vi,  2 ;  Luke 


iv,  16,  32,  33;  vi,  6;  xiii,  10;  Acts  xiii,  14; 
xv,  21 ;  xvi,  13-25 ;  xvii,  2 ;  xviii,  4.  What 
is  said  of  St.  Paul's  hiring  the  school  of  one 
Tyrannus  at  Ephesus,  and  teaching  in  it  daily, 
is  a  peculiar  instance,  Acts  xix,  9,  10.  Yet 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  those  Jews  who 
were  unable  to  go  to  Jerusalem  attended  wor- 
ship on  their  festival  days,  as  well  as  on  the 
Sabbath,  in  their  own  synagogues,  Individuals 
sometimes  offered  their  private  prayers  in  the 
synagogue.  When  an  assembly  was  collected 
together  for  worship,  the  services  began,  after 
the  customary  greeting,  with  a  doxology.  A 
section  was  then  read  from  the  Mosaic  law. 
Then  followed,  after  the  singing  of  a  second 
doxology,  the  reading  of  a  portion  from  the 
prophets,  Acts  xv,  31 ;  Luke  iv,  16.  The  per- 
son whose  duty  it  was  to  perform  the  reading, 
placed  upon  his  head,  as  is  done  at  the  present 
day,  a  covering  called  tallith,  to  which  St.  Paul 
alludes,  2  Cor.  iii,  15.  The  sections  which 
had  been  read  in  the  Hebrew  were  rendered 
by  an  interpreter  into  the  vernacular  tongue, 
and  the  reader  or  some  other  man  then  ad- 
dressed the  people,  Luke  iv,  16;  Acts  xiii,  15. 
It  was  on  such  occasions  as  these,  that  Jesus, 
and  afterward  the  Apostles,  taught  the  Gospel. 
The  meeting,  as  far  as  the  religious  exercises, 
were  concerned,  was  ended  with  a  prayer,  to 
which  the  people  responded  Amen,  when  a; 
collection  was  taken  for  the  poor. 

The  customs  which  prevail  at  the  present 
day,  and  which  Vitringa  has  treated  of,  were 
not  all  of  them  practised  in  ancient  times. 
The  readers,  for  instance,  were  not  then,  as 
they  are  at  the  present  day,  called  upon  to  per- 
form, but  presented  themselves  voluntarily, 
Luke  iv,  16;  the  persons  also  who  addressed 
the  people  were  not  rabbins  expressly  appointed 
for  that  purpose,  but  were  either  invited  from 
those  present,  or  offered  themselves,  Acts  xiii, 
15;  Luke  iv,  17.  The  parts  to  be  publicly 
read,  likewise,  do  not  appear  to  have  been  pre- 
viously pointed  out,  although  the  book  was 
selected  by  the  ruler  of  the  synagogue,  Luke 
iv,  16.  Furthermore,  the  forms  of  prayer  that 
are  used  by  the  Jews  at  the  present  time 
do  not  appear  to  have  been  in  existence  in- 
the  time  of  Christ;  unless  this  may  perhaps 
have  been  the  case  in  respect  to  the  substance 
of  some  of  them,  especially  the  one  called 
lip  yD£>,  concerning  which  the  Talmudists,  at 
a  very  earlv  period,  gave  many  precepts. 

It  was  by  ministering  in  synagogues  that 
the  Apostles  gathered  the  churches.  They  re- 
tained also  essentially  the  same  mode  of  wor- 
ship with  that  of  the  synagogues,  excepting 
that  the  Lord's  Supper  was  made  an  additional 
institution,  agreeably  to  the  example  of  Christ, 
Acts  ii,  42;  xx,  7-11;  1  Cor.  xi,  16-34. 
They  were  at  length  excluded  from  the  syna- 
gogue and  assembled  at  evening  in  the  house  of 
some  Christian,  which  was  lighted  for  the  pur- 
pose with  lamps,  Acts  xx,  7-11.  The  Apostle, 
with  the  elders,  when  engaged  in  public  wor- 
ship, took  a  position  where  they  would  bo 
most  likely  to  be  heard  by  all.  The  first  ser- 
vice was  merely  a  fealutation  or  blessing, 
namely,  "The  Lord  be  with  you,"  or,  "  Peace 


SYN 


884 


SYN 


be  with  you."  Then  followed  the  doxologies 
and  prelexions,  the  same  as  in  the  synagogues. 
The  Apostle  then  addressed  the  people  on 
the  subject  of  religion,  and  urged  upon  them 
that  purity  of  life  which  it  required.  Prayer 
succeeded,  which  was  followed  by  the  com- 
meinoralion  of  the  Saviour's  death  in  the  break- 
ing and  distribution  of  bread.  The  meeting 
was  ended  by  taking  a  collection  for  the  poor, 
especially  thoso  at  Jerusalem,  2  Cor.  ix,  1-15. 

Those  who  held  some  office  in  the  church 
were  the  regularly  qualified  instructers  in 
these  religious  meetings ;  and  yet  laymen 
had  liberty  to  address  their  brethren  on  these 
occasions  the  same  as  in  the  synagogues ;  also 
to  sing  hymns,  and  to  pray ;  which,  in  truth, 
many  of  them  did,  especially  those  who  were 
supernaturally  gifted,  not  excepting  the  wo- 
men. Those  females  who  were  not  under  a 
supernatural  influence  were  forbidden  by  the 
Apostle  Paul  to  make  an  address  on  such  oc- 
casions, or  to  propose  questions ;  and  it  was 
enjoined  on  those  who  did  speak,  not  to  lay 
aside  their  veils,  1  Cor.  xi,  5 ;  xiv,  34-40. 
The  reader  and  the  speaker  stood ;  the  others 
sat ;  all  arose  in  the  time  of  prayer.  What- 
ever was  stated  in  a  foreign  tongue  was  imme- 
diately rendered  by  an  interpreter  into  the 
speech  in  common  use.  This  was  so  neces- 
sary, that  Paul  enjoined  silence  on  a  person 
who  was  even  endowed  with  supernatural  gifts, 
provided  an  interpreter  was  not  at  hand,  1  Cor. 
xiv,  1-33.  It  was  the  practice  among  the 
Greek  Christians  to  uncover  their  heads  when 
attending  divine  service,  1  Cor.  xi,  11-16; 
but  in  the  east,  the  ancient  custom  of  worship- 
ping with  tho  head  covered  was  retained.  In- 
deed, it  is  the  practice  among  the  oriental 
Christians  to  the  present  day,  not  to  uncover 
their  heads  in  their  religious  meetings,  except 
when  they  receive  the  eucharist. 

It  is  affirmed  that  in  the  city  of  Jerusalem 
alone  there  were  no  less  than  four  hundred 
and  sixty  or  four  hundred  and  eighty  syna- 
gogues. Every  trading  company  had  one  of 
its  own,  and  even  strangers  built  some  for 
those  of  their  own  nation.  Hence  we  find 
synagogues  of  the  Cyrenians,  Alexandrians, 
Cilicians,  and  Asiatics,  appointed  for  such  as 
came  up  to  Jerusalem  from  those  countries, 
Acts  vi,  9. 

SYNODS,  though  actually  synonymous  with 
Councils,  are  in  common  historical  parlance 
employed  to  designate  minor  ecclesiastical 
Conventions.  In  virtue  of  this  distinction 
councils  have  usually  claimed  for  themselves 
the  ample  epithet  of  (ecumenical  or  general, 
while  synods  have  long  been  known  only  by 
the  humbler  term  of  local  or  provincial.  In  the 
apostolic  age  four  local  assemblies  were  held, 
which  some  have  called  councils  and  others 
'•winds.  The  first  was  convened  for  the  elec- 
tion of  a  successor  to  Judas  in  the  apostleship, 
A«ts  i,  2G.  At  the  second,  seven  deacons 
were  chosen,  Acts  vi,  5.  The  third,  like  the 
two  which  preceded  it,  was  held  at  Jerusalem, 
according  to  sonic  authors,  A.  1).  47,  but,  ac- 
cording to  others,  A.  D.  51  ;  that  is.,  at  the 
latest,  eighteen  years  after  Christ's  ascension. 


It  originated  in  the  attempt  made  to  oblige  the 
Gentile  converts  at  Antioch  to  submit  to  the 
rite  of  circumcision.  St.  Paul  and  Barnabas 
opposed  this  attempt ;  and,  after  "  no  small 
dissension  and  disputation,"  it  was  determined, 
that  the  question  should  be  referred  to  the 
judgment  of  the  Apostles  and  elders  at  Jerusa- 
lem. Accordingly,  some  of  the  Apostles  and 
several  of  the  "  elders  came  together"  to  deli- 
berate on  the  propriety  of  dispensing  with  the 
ceremonial  law.  The  result  of  their  delibera- 
tions was,  that  the  Mosaic  ordinances,  being 
too  rigorous,  should  be  abrogated ;  and  that 
their  decision  should  be  communicated  to  "  the 
brethren  which  were  of  the  Gentiles,"  Acts  xv, 
1-30.  The  fourth  apostolic  synod  was  con- 
vened in  reference  to  the  toleration  of  legal 
rites,  Acts  xxi,  18.  With  respect  to  all  these, 
the  fact  is,  that,  instead  of  being  councils  or 
synods  in  any  proper  sense,  they  were  mere 
meetings  of  the  church  at  Jerusalem,  and  all  of 
them  ordinary  meetings  except  the  third,  when 
they  assembled  upon  the  request  of  the  depu- 
ties from  Antioch  who  came  to  ask  advice. 

Dr.  Neander,  speaking  of  the  origin,  use, 
and  abuse  of  synods,  says, — As  a  closer  bond  of 
union  was  early  formed  between  the  churches 
of  the  same  province,  so  also  the  Christian 
catholic  spirit  introduced  the  custom  that,  in 
all  pressing  matters,  controversies  on  doctrinal 
points,  things  relating  to  the  ecclesiastical  life, 
and  very  commonly  in  those  relating  to  church 
discipline,  general  deliberations  should  be  held 
by  deputies  from  these  churches.  Such  assem- 
blies become  familiar  to  us  in  the  controversies 
about  the  time  of  celebrating  Easter,  and  in  the 
transactions  about  the  Montanistic  prophecies, 
in  the  last  half  of  the  second  century.  But 
these  provincial  synods  appear,  for  the  first 
time,  as  a  constant  and  regular  institution, 
fixed  to  definite  times,  about  the  end  of  the 
second  or  the  beginning  of  the  third  century  ; 
and  it  was  in  this  case  a  peculiarity  of  one 
country,  where  particular  local  causes  may 
have  introduced  such  an  arrangement  earlier 
than  in  other  regions.  This  eountry  was,  in 
fact,  exactly  Greece,  where,  from  the  time  of 
the  Achaic  league,  the  system  of  confederation 
had  maintained  itself;  and  as  Christianity  is 
able  to  connect  itself  with  all  the  peculiarities 
of  a  people,  provided  they  contain  nothing  im- 
moral, and,  entering  into  them,  to  take  itself 
a  peculiar  form  resembling  them,  so,  also,  it 
might  easily  happen  that  here  the  civil  federal 
spirit  which  already  existed  worked  upon  the 
ecclesiastical  catholic  spirit,  and  gave  it  ear- 
lier than  in  other  regions  a  tolerably  good 
form,  so  that  out  of  the  representative  assem- 
blies of  the  civil  communities,  the  Amphicty- 
onic  councils,  were  formed  the  representative 
assemblies  of  the  ecclesiastical  communities, 
that  is,  the  provincial  synods.  As  the  Chris- 
tians, in  the  consciousness  that  they  are  no- 
thing, and  can  do  nothing,  without  the  Spirit 
from  above,  were  accustomed  to  begin  all  im- 
portant business  with  prayer,  they  prepared 
themselves  here,  also,  for  their  general  delibe- 
rations by  common  prayer,  at  the  opening  of 
these  assemblies,  to  Him  who  has  promised 


SYN 


885 


SYN 


that  he  will  enlighten  and  guide,  by  his  Spirit, 
those  who  believe  in  him,  if  they  will  give 
themselves  up  to  him  wholly,  and  that  he  will 
be  among  them,  where  they  are  gathered  to- 
gether in  his  name.  It  appears  that  this  regu- 
lar institution  met  at  first  with  opposition  as 
an  innovation,  so  that  Tertullian  felt  himself 
called  upon  to  stand  up  in  its  defence.  Never- 
theless, the  ruling  spirit  of  the  church  decided 
for  this  institution ;  and,  down  to  the  middle 
of  the  third  century,  the  annual  provincial 
synods  appear  to  have  been  general  in  the 
church,  as  we  may  conclude,  because  we  find 
them  prevalent,  at  the  same  time,  in  parts  of 
the  church  as  far  distant  from  each  other  as 
North  Africa  and  Cappadocia. 

These  provincial  synods  might  certainly  bo- 
come  very  useful  for  the  churches ;  and,  in 
many  respects,  they  did  become  so.  By  means 
of  a  general  deliberation,  the  views  of  indi- 
viduals might  mutually  be  enlarged  and  cor- 
rected ;  wants,  abuses,  and  necessary  reforms, 
might  thus  more  easily  be  mutually  communi- 
cated, and  be  deliberated  on  in  many  different 
points  of  view ;  and  the  experience  of  every 
individual,  by  being  communicated,  might  be 
made  useful  to  all.  Certainly,  men  had  every 
right  to  trust  that  Christ  would  be  among 
them,  according  to  his  promise,  and  would 
lead  those  who  were  assembled  in  his  name  by 
his  Spirit.  Certainly  it  was  neither  enthusi- 
asm nor  hierarchical  presumption,  if  the  depu- 
ties, collected  together  to  consult  upon  the 
affairs  of  their  churches,  and  the  pastors  of 
these  churches,  hoped  that  a  higher  Spirit  than 
that  of  man,  by  his  illumination,  would  show 
them  what  they  could  never  find  by  their  own 
reason,  whose  insufficiency  they  felt  deeply,  if 
it  were  left  to  itself.  It  would  far  rather  have 
been  a  proud  self-confidence,  had  they  been  so 
little  acquainted  with  the  shallowness  of  their 
own  heart,  the  poverty  of  human  reason,  and 
the  self-deceits  of  human  wisdom,  as  to  expect 
that  without  the  influence  of  that  higher  Spirit 
of  holiness  and  truth  they  could  provide  suffi- 
ciently for  the  advantage  of  their  churches. 
But  this  confidence,  in  itself  just  and  salutary, 
took  a  false  and  destructive  turn,  when  it  was 
not  constantly  accompanied  by  the  spirit  of 
humility  and  self-watchfulness,  with  fear  and 
trembling ;  when  men  were  not  constantly 
mindful  of  the  important  condition  under 
which  alone  man  could  hope  to  share  in  the 
fulfilment  of  that  promise,  in  that  divine  illu- 
mination and  guidance, — the  condition,  that 
they  were  really  assembled  in  the  name  of 
Christ,  in  lively  faith  in  him,  and  honest  devo- 
tion to  him,  and  prepared  to  sacrifice  their 
own  wills ;  and  when  the  people  gave  them- 
selves up  to  the  fancy,  that  such  an  assembly, 
whatever  might  be  the  hearts  of  those  who 
were  assembled,  had  unalienable  claims  to  the 
illumination  of  the  Holy  Spirit ;  for  then,  in 
the  confusion  and  the  intermixture  of  human 
and  divine,  men  were  abandoned  to  every  kind 
of  self-delusion ;  and  the  formula,  "  Spirilu 
Saneto  suggerente,"  "  By  the  suggestion  of 
the  Holy  Spirit,"  might  become  a  pretence 
and  sanction  for  all  the  suggestions  of  man's 


own  will.  And  farther,  the  provincial  synods 
would  necessarily  become  prejudicial  to  the 
progress  of  the  churches,  if,  instead  of  provid- 
ing for  the  advantage  of  the  churches  accord- 
ing to  the  changing  wants  of  each  period,  they 
wished  to  lay  down  unchanging  laws  in 
changeable  things.  Evil  was  it  at  last,  that 
the  participation  of  the  churches  was  entirely 
excluded  from  these  synods,  that  at  length  the 
bishops  alone  decided  every  thing  in  them, 
and  that  their  power,  by  means  of  their  con- 
nection with  each  other  in  these  synods,  was 
constantly  on  the  increase.  As  the  provincial 
synods  were  also  accustomed  to  communicate 
their  resolutions  to  distant  bishops  in  weighty 
matters  of  general  concernment,  they  were 
serviceable,  at  the  same  time,  toward  setting 
distant  parts  of  the  church  in  connection  with 
each  other,  and  maintaining  that  connection. 
In  the  second  century  after  the  birth  of 
Christ,  eight  local  synods  were  held  on  church 
affairs,  about  which  little  information  is  now 
extant,  except  that  they  related  to  the  heresy 
of  Montanus,  the  rebaptizing  of  heretics,  and 
the  time  for  celebrating  the  festival  of  Easter. 
In  the  third  century  eighteen  synods  were  held  ; 
the  principal  of  which  were,  that  of  Alexan- 
dria, against  Origen  ;  that  of  Africa,  against 
the  schismatic  Novatus ;  that  of  Antioch, 
against  the  heresy  of  Sabellius,  and  another 
in  the  same  city  against  Paul  of  Samosata ; 
that  of  Carthage,  against  such  persons  as  fell 
away  in  time  of  persecution  ;  and  that  of  Rome, 
against  Novatian  and  other  schismatics.  Prior 
to  the  assembling  of  the  first  general  council 
at  Nice,  A.  D.  325,  three  synods  were  held  at 
Sinuessa,  Cirtha,  and  Alexandria,  the  subjects 
discussed  in  which  are  unworthy  of  notice. 
Others  were  held,  the  discussions  in  which  are 
so  far  interesting  as  they  show  how  desirous 
the  Ante-Nicene  fathers  were  to  regulate  the 
doctrine  and  practice  of  the  church  according 
to  the  apostolic  model.  The  fourth  was  that 
of  Elvira,  which  rejected  by  its  thirty-sixth 
canon  any  use  whatever  even  of  pictures. 
"We  would  not,"  say  they,  "have  pictures 
placed  in  churches,  that  the  object  of  our 
worship  and  adoration  fhould  not  be  painted 
on  their  walls."  The  synod  at  Carthage  not 
having  brought  the  rival  pretensions  of  Caeci- 
lian  and  Majorinus  to  the  episcopate  of  that 
city  to  a  favourable  issue,  the  Emperors  Con- 
stantine  appointed  a  commission  (there  being 
so  few  bishops  present,  it  could  not  deserve 
any  other  t'tle)  to  sit,  first  at  Rome,  and  after- 
ward at  Aries,  for  the  purpose  of  rehearing 
the  mooter.  At  Aries,  it  was  decreed,  that 
Easter  should  be  celebrated  on  the  same  Sun- 
da  v  throughout  the  world ;  and  that  heretics, 
who  had  been  baptized  in  the  name  of  the  Tri- 
nity, should  not  be  rebaptized.  The  synods 
of  Ancyra  and  Neo-Csesarea  followed.  The 
tenth  canon,  decreed  by  the  latter,  shows  the 
sense  of  the  fathers  on  the  subject  of  celibacy  ■ 
namely,  "  If  deacons  declare  at  the  time  of 
their  ordination  that  they  would  marry,  they 
should  not  be  deprived  of  their  function  if  they 
did  marry."  Rigid  decrees  were  passed  gene 
rally  against  such  of  the  clergy  as  ate  meats 


SYN 


886 


SYN 


which  had  been  sacrificed  to  idols.  After  the 
fbremetitioned  synods,  two  were  convened  at 
Alexandria,  A.  D.  322,  against  Arius.  But 
their  acts  merge  in  the  subsequent  proceedings 
of  the  church.  From  the  termination  of  the 
council  of  Nice  to  the  next  oecumenical  coun- 
cil, A.  D.  381,  no  fewer  than  forty-three  sy- 
nods, eastern  and  western  were  convened. 
The  professed  object  of  these  meetings  was  the 
tranquillity  of  the  church  ;  yet,  from  the  un. 
happy  divisions  which  prevailed  in  these  as- 
semblies, their  deliberations  were  conducted 
will;  much  of  the  violence  of  party  feeling; 
and,  according  as  the  one  party  or  the  other 
prevailed,  they  severally  hurled  spiritual  thun- 
der-bolts against  their  doctrinal  rivals,  as  if 
against  the  enemies  of  God  himself.  Of  the 
synod  of  Sardica  a  separate  and  more  particu- 
lar account  will  he  subsequently  given,  be- 
cause on  the  authority  of  that  unimportant 
assembly  the  church  of  Rome  grounds  the 
right  of  appeal  to  itself  before  any  other  church. 
In  the  whole,  no  fewer  than  eighty-one  sy- 
nods were  assembled  throughout  the  universal 
church  in  this  century.  The  principal  sub- 
jects which  engaged  their  attention  related  to 
Arianism,  which  was  generally  rejected  by  the 
western  church  ;  but  experienced  various  vicis- 
situdes in  the  east,  according  to  the  view  taken 
of  it  by  the  reigning  power.  Unfortunately 
for  the  peace  of  the  church,  this  heresy  gave 
birth  to  numerous  others,  Marcellus,  Photi- 
nus,  Macodonius,  and  Priscilian,  were  seve- 
rally betrayed  by  their  violence  into  systems  no 
less  revolting  to  reason  and  common  sense 
than  the  Arian  impieties.  Of  sixty  synods 
which  were  convened  to  regulate  the  affairs  of 
the  church  between  the  second  and  third  gene- 
raJ  councils,  A.  D.  381-431,  more  than  half  of 
that  number  were  assembled  in  Africa  : — no 
inconsiderable  proof  of  the  vigilance  exercised 
by  the  local  bishops  over  the  interests  of  that 
portion  of  the  church  universal  committed  to 
their  care.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury many  synods  were  held,  some  eastern  and 
others  western,  but  none  of  them  possessed 
peculiar  interest.  In  the  commencement  of 
this  century,  Zosimus,  bishop  of  Rome,  ab- 
solved the  heresiarchs,  Pclagius  and  Cselestius, 
and  by  this  act  confinneo.  their  errors.  On  the 
latter  appealing  to  him  for  support,  Zosimus 
sent  the  Sardican  canon  to  a  council  held  at 
the  time  in  Carthage,  as  if  thai  canon  had  been 
decreed  by  the  council  of  Ni<*> ;  because  it 
allowed  the  right  of  appeal  to  the  see  of  Rome. 
The  African  council  rejected  it  wilh  disdain, 
having  found,  on  reference  to  the  eastern  pa- 
triarchs, that  no  such  canons  belonged  to  the 
Nicene  council,  or  were  ever  before  heard  of. 
Thus  was  the  reputed  infallible  head  of  ^n 
equally  infallible  church  detected  in  a  gross 
act  of  imposition ;  so  gross  as  to  compel  our 
good  Bishop  Jewel  to  call  Zosimus  "  a  forger 
and  falsifier  of  councils."  The  same  pope  pro- 
nounced his  unerring  judgment  in  the  dispute 
between  the  bishops  of  Aries  and  Vincennes ; 
while  Boniface,  his  successor,  under  the  influ- 
ence of  the  same  inerrant  principle  and  in  the 
plenitude  of  the  same  apostolic  power,  reversed 


that  judgment.  In  the  year  498,  Symmacnus 
and  Laurentius  were  elected  to  the  pontificate 
on  the  same  day  by  different  parties  ;  and  while 
they  maintained  the  validity  of  their  respective 
elections,  they  reciprocally  denounced  each 
other.  Where,  then,  did  infallibility  reside  be- 
fore Theodoric,  king  of  the  Goths,  gave  it  a 
supposed  habitation  in  the  person  of  Symma- 
chus  ?  Theodoric,  an  Arian,  and  consequently 
a  heretic  in  the  eyes  of  the  Romish  church, 
awarded  the  keys  of  St.  Peter  to  Symmachus  ; 
a  circumstance  which  must  have  vitiated  the 
boasted  apostolic  succession  in  the  bishops  of 
Rome,  and  therefore  have  destroyed  their  title 
to  infallibility  !  Cabals  and  intrigues  for  being 
elected  to  the  popedom  disgraced  the  com 
mencement  of  the  sixth  century.  Their  pre- 
vention in  future,  howrever,  was  decreed ;  and 
certain  rules,  having  in  view  the  peace  and 
order  of  the  western  church,  were  laid  down 
by  two  synods  convened  at  Rome  about  the 
same  time.  From  this  period  to  the  middle  of 
the  century,  upward  of  twenty  local  meetings 
of  the  clergy  were  held  in  different  parts  of 
Europe,  fifteen  in  Asia,  and  only  four  in  Afri- 
ca. The  directions  for  the  married  clergy, 
which  occasionally  present  themselves  to  view 
in  the  proceedings  of  these  synods,  prove  that 
celibacy  was  not  at  this  period  a  general  regu- 
lation ;  while  communion  in  both  kinds  appears 
to  have,  been  an  established  usage.  The  synods 
which  were  held  during  the  remainder  of  the 
sixth  century  were  confined  to  France  and 
Spain.  They  amount  in  number  to  twenty- 
six  ;  and,  like  the  rest  of  the  minor  class  which 
preceded  them,  canons  are  interspersed  among 
their  acts  which  have  in  view  the  security  of 
church  property,  and  the  rights,  privileges, 
and  powers  of  the  different  ranks  of  the  cler- 
gy. The  remaining  canons  relate  to  discipline, 
with  the  exception  of  the  few  which  were  at 
different  times  ordained  for  the  suppression  of 
heretical  opinions,  for  the  regulation  of  both 
the  married  and  celibate  clergy,  and  of  the 
fees  to  which  they  should  be  entitled  on  the 
performance  of  certain  duties.  In  none  of 
them  is  to  be  found  the  least  authority  for  the 
distinguishing  tenets  of  the  modern  church  of 
Rome  ;  so  that,  to  the  very  close  of  the  sixth 
century,  she  may  be  considered  as  being  ortho- 
dox, pure,  and  uncorrupt.  Whatever  defer- 
ence she  might  claim  as  an  elder  branch  of 
the  church  of  Christ,  she  raised  no  pretensions 
to  a  lordly  preeminence  over  the  rights  and 
privileges  of  other  churches.  Her  jurisdiction 
was  circumscribed  within  her  own  diocesan 
boundaries ;  and,  beyond  them,  none  was  de- 
manded. After  the  commencement  of  the 
seventh  century,  however,  a  complete  change 
took  place  in  this  respect,  so  that  if  a  compari- 
son be  instituted  between  the  tenets  which  the 
church  of  Rome  held  in  the  first  ages,  and  those 
which  she  subsequently  professed,  the  precise 
period  at  which  the  novelties  commenced  which 
now  distinguish  her  from  her  former  self  might 
easily  be  ascertained.  The  order  of  St.  Benedict, 
which  served  as  a  model  for  the  other  monastic 
fraternities  that  were  subsequently  instituted, 
was  founded  in  the  early  part  of  this  century 


SYN 


887 


SYN 


As  the  history  of  synods  after  the  sixth  cen- 
tury dwindles  down  into  a  meagre  narrative  of 
the  unjust  incroachments  and  corrupt  inno- 
vations of  the  church  of  Rome,  and  of  the 
ineffectual  struggles  of  Christian  churches  in 
various  parts  of  Europe  to  resist  his  usurpa- 
tion, we  shall  close  this  article  with  an  account 
of  the  popish  synod  of  Sardica  and  of  the  Pro- 
testant synod  of  Dort.  After  a  long  night  of 
darkness,  the  glimmerings  of  a  bright  day  were 
perceived  at  a  distance,  when,  in  the  fourteenth 
century,  our  celebrated  countryman,  the  im- 
mortal Wickliffe,  appeared  as  the  precursor  of 
the  reformation  from  popery.  The  light  in- 
creased during  the  succeeding  century,  when 
those  brave  witnesses  for  the  truth,  John  Huss 
and  Jerome  of  Prague,  suffered  martyrdom  ; 
and  the  sixteenth  century  was  favoured  with 
the  full  blaze  of  day  when  Luther  and  Melanc- 
thon  were  encouraged  and  supported  in  their 
benevolent  and  arduous  undertaking,  and  suc- 
ceeded in  putting  down  the  shadowy  forms  of 
superstition  and  idolatry.  Soon  was  the  great- 
est part  of  irradiated  Europe  called  upon  to 
rejoice  in  this  light ;  and  to  some  of  the  best 
patriots  in  those  countries  that  slighted  such 
an  opportunity,  their  own  culpable  supineness 
or  neglect  has  been  a  source  of  deep  national 
regret  from  one  generation  to  another. 

The  Synod  of  Sardica  was  held  A.  D.  347. 
The  Emperors  Constans  and  Constantius,  being 
anxious  to  restore  that  peace  to  the  church  of 
which  it  was  deprived  by  the  continuance  of 
Arius's  heresy,  agreed  to  convene  an  ecclesi- 
astical assembly  in  Sardica,  a  city  of  Majsia  on 
the  verge  of  their  respective  empires.  About 
a  hundred  western  and  seventy  eastern  bishops 
attended ;  but  altercation,  and  not  debate,  en- 
sued. The  smaller  party,  apprehensive  for 
their  personal  safety,  withdrew  to  a  town  in 
Thrace;  a  circumstance  that  disclosed  the  first 
symptoms  of  discord  and  schism  between  the 
Greek  and  Latin  churches.  Before  this  period 
the  right  of  appeal  from  all  other  churches  to 
the  see  of  Rome  had  not  been  claimed;  but 
from  it  we  date  the  first  aspirations  of  Roman 
pontiffs  to  lordly  preeminence,  and  they  bent 
their  restless  energies  to  establish  a  spiritual 
tyranny  over  all  the  nations  of  the  earth. 
Ecclesiastics,  excommunicated  by  the  oriental 
or  African  churches,  fled  to  Rome  for  refuge, 
one  after  another ;  and  as  the  bishop  of  that 
city  afforded  them  his  protection,  gratified  as 
he  was  at  every  occasion  which  made  it  neces- 
sary, they,  in  order  to  testify  their  gratitude, 
unwittingly  compromised  the  rights  of  the 
clergy,  when,  to  the  extent  of  their  individual 
sanction,  they  invested  him  with  the  appellant 
jurisdiction.  Among  the  refugees  at  Rome  was 
the  celebrated  bishop  of  Alexandria.  Athana- 
sius,  persecuted  by  the  Arian  party  in  the  east, 
knelt  as  a  suppliant  on  the  threshold  of  the 
Vatican.  Julius  gladly  espoused  his  cause, 
and  declared  him  to  have  been  illegally  con- 
demned ;  a  declaration  that  seemed  to  come 
with  authority,  but  which  the  eastern  bishops 
opposed  as  an  usurpation  of  undue  power. 
They  went  so  far  as  even  to  excommunicate 
Hosius,  Gaudentius,  Julius  the  bishop  of  Rome, 


and  others,  on  the  alleged  assumption  of  au- 
thority. They  maintained  the  principle  laid 
down  in  the  canons,  that  the  judgment  passed 
on  any  individual,  either  by  an  eastern  or 
western  synod,  ought  to  be  confirmed  by  the 
other.  And  while  they  complained  that  the 
bishops  of  the  west  should  disturb  the  whole 
church,  on  account  of  one  or  two  troublesome 
fellows,  they  accused  them  of  arrogantly  at- 
tempting to  establish  a  new  law  for  the  pur- 
pose of  empowering  themselves  to  reexamine 
what  had  been  already  determined.  Chry- 
sostom,  too,  in  his  distress,  implored,  at  a 
subsequent  period,  the  interference  of  Inno- 
cent, the  then  occupant  of  the  papal  chair, 
with  the  emperor  of  the  east,  for  the  purpose 
of  procuring  a  reversal  of  the  sentence  of  de- 
position pronounced  against  him  by  an  obscure 
synod  in  the  suburbs  of  Chalcedon.  But  that 
father  never  once  supposed  that  the  Roman 
pontiff  had  any  right  to  hear  his  cause.  His 
appeal  lay  to  the  supreme  tribunal  of  a  free 
and  general  council,  from  a  packed  assembly 
which  the  empress  Eudoxia  had  been  instru- 
mental in  calling  together,  in  order  to  effect 
his  ruin.  As  these  two  cases  of  Athanasius 
and  Chrysostom  are  pleaded  by  Romish  wri- 
ters in  support  of  the  appellant  authority  with 
which  they  invest  the  bishop  of  Rome,  it  is  a 
matter  of  importance  to  examine  the  stability 
of  this  ground-work,  on  which  is  laid  the  im- 
mense structure  of  papal  supremacy.  Hosius, 
who  presided  in  the  Sardican  synod,  as  he  did 
at  every  council  where  he  happened  to  be  pre- 
sent, is  reported  to  have  proposed  that  an  ap- 
peal should  be  made  to  Rome  out  of  respect  to 
the  chair  of  St.  Peter,  and  not,  as  was  ruled 
at  the  council  of  Nice,  to  the  bishops  of  the 
neighbouring  province,  when  any  decision  had 
been  come  to  in  a  provincial  synod.  But  what 
is  the  language  of  the  proposition  made  by 
Hosius  ?  "  If  it  be  a  favourite  object  with  you, 
let  us  honour  the  memory  of  Peter,  so  that  a 
letter  may  be  addressed  to  Julius,  bishop  of 
Rome,  by  those  who  decided  on  the  matter ; 
ilwi,  if  necessary,  the  judgment  may  be  re- 
viewed by  the  bishops  in  his  neighbourhood, 
and  that  he  may  appoint  some  to  hear  the 
cause."  Here  neither  canon  nor  Scripture  is 
referred  to ;  while  it  is  left  optional  with  the 
assembly  whether  deference  was  or  was  not  to 
be  paid  to  Julius,  who  is  simply  styled  owcnta. 
noiros,  "a  fellow  bishop."  The  fourth  canon 
of  this  synod  ordains,  "  that  an  archbishop, 
&c,  deposed  by  a  provincial  synod,  must  not 
be  expelled,  until  the  bishop  of  Rome  shall 
determine  whether  the  cause  shall  be  reexam- 
ined ;"  and  the  fifth  canon  decrees,  "  that  the 
bishop  of  Rome,  if  he  deem  it  proper,  shall 
order  a  rehearing  of  the  matter ;  that,  if  con- 
venient, he  shall  send  deputies  for  the  purpose  ; 
if  not,  that  he  should  leave  the  decision  of  the 
case  to  the  synod  itself."  From  the  third  and  ■ 
fourth  canons  it  appears  that  a  novelty  in  dis- 
cipline is  established,  and  made  obligatory  on 
the  churches  of  both  empires,  but  only  by  a 
handful  of  bishops  belonging  to  one  of  them; 
and  from  the  fifth,  that  the  bishop  of  Rome,  if 
he  deemed  a  judgment  erroneous,  might  con- 


SYN 


888 


SYN 


vene  a  new  council  and  srncl  deputies  to  it,  for 
the  purpose  of  reconsidering  the  matter.  These 
canons,  no  doubt,  were  very  flattering  to  the 
ambition  of  the  Roman  pontiff,  and,  accord- 
ingly, they  are  pleaded  in  behalf  of  his  supre- 
macy; but  how  preposterous  is  it  to  ascribe 
that  to  a  human  law,  which,  it  is  asserted, 
belongs  to  him  by  t.'ic  law  of  God !  There  are 
other  canons  regulating  the  intercourse  be- 
tween bishops  and  the  imperial  court;  after 
such  a  manner,  however,  as  to  make  the  bishop 
of  Rome  the  judge  of  the  propriety  of  the  pe- 
titions which  they  intended  to  prefer.  Not- 
withstanding all  this,  they  can  never  be  rescued 
from  the  imputation  of  being  forgeries.  For,  1. 
They  were  never  received  by  either  the  eastern 
or  African  church  as  general  laws.  At  the 
sixth  council  of  Carthage,  Austin  strenuously 
denied  the  right  of  appeal  to  the  Roman  see, 
although  a  letter  has  been  forged  in  his- name, 
strenuously  contending  for  it,  which  is  now 
deposited  among  the  pious  frauds  of  the  Vati- 
can. It  happened,  also,  in  the  early  part  of 
the  fifth  century,  that  Appiarius,  who  had  been 
excommunicated  by  the  African  bishops,  ap- 
plied to  Zosimns,  bishop  of  Rome.  This  pon- 
tiff forthwith  sent  them  the  Sardican  canon, 
which  conferred  on  him  the  right  of  appeal. 
This  they  indignantly  rejected,  inasmuch  as 
their  predecessors,  who  attended  the  council 
of  Sardica,  left  no  record  of  it ;  and  because 
the  eastern  patriarchs,  whom  they  consulted 
on  the  occasion,  not  only  disclaimed  all  know- 
ledge of  any  such  canon  being  in  existence, 
but  furnished  their  brethren  with  an  exact 
copy  of  the  Nicene  canons,  among  which  the 
Sardican  one  was  not  to  be  found.  2.  The 
Sardican  canons  were  not  inserted  in  the  code 
of  canons  approved  of  by  the  council  of  Chal- 
cedon.  3.  The  council  which  passed  them  is 
not  reckoned,  even  by  the  church  of  Rome,  as 
one  of  the  eighteen  general  councils,  whose 
authority  it  acknowledges ;  nor  does  Bellar- 
mine  himself  say  that  it  is  one  of  thos^  coun- 
cils which  his  church  receives  in  part  and 
rejects  in  part.  4.  When  the  western  bishops 
entreated  the  Emperor  Theodosius  to  summon  a 
council,  A.D.  407,  so  far  were  they  from  making 
any  allusion  to  the  doctrine  of  an  appeal  to  the 
Roman  see,  that  they  distinctly  disclaimed 
the  thought  of  such  a  prerogative,  and  only 
sought  the  fellowship  of  a  common  arbitration. 
5.  Lastly,  if,  as  the  historian  Sozomen  says, 
the  Sardican  synod  wrote  to  Julius,  bishop  of 
Rome,  to  apprize  him  of  what  they  had  done, 
and  of  their  decrees  being  drawn  up  in  the 
spirit  of  the  council  of  Nice,  the  purport  of  the 
letter  was  not  so  strong  as  that  which  they  ad- 
dressed to  the  church  of  Alexandria,  in  which 
they  pray  it  to  give  its  suffrage  to  the  deter- 
mination of  the  council,  additional  suspicions 
are  created.  From  all  these  circumstances 
taken  together,  it  is  evident  that  no  value  is  to 
be  attached  to  the  decrees  of  this  obscure 
council ;  and  that,  although  due  respect  was 

S>aid  to  St.  Peter's  chair,  it  was  no  acknow- 
edgment  of  the  superiority  of  its  possessor  as 
to  ecclesiastical  authority  or  jurisdiction. 
The  Synod  of  Dort.     The  Dutch  churches 


forsook  the  communion  of  the  corrupt  church 
of  Rome  soon  after  the  church  of  England  had 
cast  off  the  papal  yoke ;  and  they  were  gene- 
rously aided  in  their  endeavours  to  recover  their 
civil  and  religious  liberties  by  our  good  Queen 
Elizabeth  and  her  wise  counsellors.  The  first 
Christian  teachers  among  them  were  Luthe- 
rans ;  but  in  process  of  time,  the  celebrity  of 
Geneva  as  a  place  of  public  instruction  for 
ministers  of  religion  induced  the  majority  of 
the  candidates  for  the  ministry  to  repair  to 
that  university ;  and,  as  might  naturally  be  ex- 
pected, they  imported  into  the  Low  Countries 
the  peculiar  views  of  Calvin  and  Beza  on  the 
subject  of  predestination.  It  is  justly  observed 
by  Le  Vassor,  "  Some  learned  Hollanders  had 
boldly  defended  this  doctrine,  before  Arminius 
became  a  minister  at  Amsterdam  and  a  profes- 
sor at  Leyden,  and  likewise  before  Gomarus 
had  risen  up  against  him.  Their  writings  are 
still  extant;  although  it  is  true  that  certain  mi- 
nisters, who  were  too  hasty,  exerted  themselves 
to  bring  those  authors  and  their  productions  into 
disrepute  ;  but  the  states  of  Holland  uniformly 
checked  this  impetuous  zeal.  The  professors 
of  Leyden  were  allowed  a  perfect  liberty  of 
teaching  conformably  to  the  sentiments  of 
Melancthon ;  and  when  Arminius  was  called 
to  that  university,  his  opinions  were  generally 
known  ;  for  he  had  declared  them  in  the  church 
of  Amsterdam,  from  the  consistory  of  which 
he  received  very  honourable  testimonials.  Go- 
marus, and  many  others  of  the  same  opinion, 
having  entered  into  conversation  with  Armi- 
nius, made  no  scruple  of  acknowledging  im- 
mediately that  the  difference  of  sentiments 
which  existed  between  them  did  not  at  all 
concern  the  foundations  of  the  Reformation. 
True  it  is,  that  Gomarus  did  not  remain  long 
on  good  terms  with  Arminius.  Whether  he 
had  taken  umbrage  at  the  reputation  of  his 
new  colleague,  or  the  enemies  of  Arminius 
had  found  means  to  provoke  the  anger  of  Go- 
marus by  some  artful  insinuation  or  other , 
he  violently  set  his  face  against  a  man  whom, 
some  time  before,  he  looked  upon  as  orthodox." 
The  struggles  of  the  party  of  Arminius  in  Hol- 
land, after  the  death  of  that  great  man,  to 
obtain  a  toleration  for  their  opinions,  are  mat- 
ters of  history.  The  political  circumstances 
of  that  country  and  of  Europe  in  general  were 
at  that  period  very  peculiar,  and  exercised 
great  influence  in  the  convening  and  conduct- 
ing of  that  famous  ecclesiastical  assembly,  the 
synod  of  Dort ;  but  in  a  sketch  like  this,  they 
can  only  be  briefly  mentioned.  Frederic,  the 
elector  Palatine,  married  Elizabeth,  the  only 
daughter  of  our  King  James  the  First ;  he  was 
nephew  to  Maurice  the  prince  of  Orange  :  and 
ho  sent  his  Heidelberg  divines  to  the  synod  to 
assist  his  uncle  in  the  condemnation  of  the 
Remonstrant  party,  as  the  Arminians  were 
generally  called,  and  to  gratify  his  polemical 
father-in-law  in  the  overthrow  of  the  heretical 
Vorstius.  In  return,  he  naturally  expected 
both  of  his  relations  to  aid  him  in  his  grand 
enterprise  of  seizing  on  the  crown  of  Bohe- 
mia ;  in  which,  soon  after  the  banishment  of 
the  Remonstrants,  he  completely  succeeded, — 


SYN 


889 


SYN 


though  he  subsequently  lost  that  crown  and 
all  his  hereditary  possessions,  and  embroiled 
nearly  the  whole  of  Protestant  Europe  in  the 
famous  thirty  years'  war. 

The  Remonstrants,  according  to  Nichols, 
in  the  ample  notes  to  his  translation  of  the 
"  Works  of  Arminius,"  had  long  wished  to 
have  their  "  Five  Points"  of  doctrine  brought 
for  adjudication  either  before  a  provincial  sy- 
nod, to  prepare  matters  for  a  national  one  ;  or 
to  have  them  brought  at  once  before  a  gene- 
ral council  of  Protestant  divines.  But  the  Cal- 
vinists  would  listen  to  neither  of  these  equitable 
proposals.  If  a  provincial  synod  were  con- 
vened, especially  in  that  province  (Holland) 
which  most  needed  such  a  remedy,  these  men 
well  knew,  from  trial,  how  difficult  it  would 
be  to  combat  and  refute  the  strong  and  popu- 
lar arguments  of  the  Remonstrants,  when  both 
parties  were  placed  nearly  on  an  equality  in 
the  same  assembly  ;  and  if  a  general  council  of 
Protestants  was  summoned  together,  they  were 
certain  that  the  principles  of  Arminius  would, 
without  demur,  be  recognized  as  integral  parts 
of  Scripture  verity,  and  consequently  entitled 
not  only  to  toleration,  (which  was  all  that  the 
Remonstrants  had  desired,)  but  to  the  especial 
patronage  of  the  civil  authorities.  The  latter 
result  was  anticipated,  from  the  immense  pre- 
ponderance which  the  Lutheran  divines,  from 
all  the  small  states  of  Germany,  and  from  other 
parts  of  the  north  of  Europe,  would  have  had 
in  such  a  council.  Numerous  state  papers  on 
this  subject  were  written  by  the  public  function- 
aries of  the  different  provinces  in  the  year 
1617;  among  which  those  of  the  composition 
of  the  learned  Grotius,  who  conducted  the 
arguments  in  favour  of  a  general  council,  are 
very  conspicuous  for  the  superior  ability  which 
they  display.  A  national  synod  was  therefore 
the  sole  remedy  which  the  wisdom,  or  rather 
the  worldly  prudence,  of  the  Calvinists  could 
discover  for  removing  the  maladies  under 
which  the  churches  of  Holland  were  at  that 
time  labouring.  In  showing  cause  for  their 
preference,  they  were  placed  in  an  awkward 
dilemma ;  for  they  perceived,  that  the  strong- 
est reasons  to  be  adduced  for  the  adoption  of 
this  measure  would  extend  too  far,  and  might, 
in  the  hands  of  their  able  antagonists,  be  made 
to  apply  with  greater  cogency  to  the  conven- 
ing of  a  general  council. 

The  designs  which  Prince  Maurice  had  long 
cherished  against  the  ancient  liberties  and  in- 
ternal jurisdiction  of  the  states,  "each  of  which 
possessed  by  the  act  of  union  the  complete 
management  of  its  own  affairs,)  were  then  in 
a  course  of  execution.  By  the  forcible  and 
illegal  removal  of  the  old  burgomasters  and 
governors,  and  the  appointment  of  new  ones  ; 
hy  the  preponderance  which  these  newly  elected 
individuals  gave  to  their  own  party  in  their 
election  of  persons  to  fill  the  higher  offices  of 
state  in  the  various  towns  which  had  been  ill- 
affected  toward  Calvinism  and  arbitrary  power; 
and  by  the  untrue  and  scandalous  reports  which 
were  invented  and  industriously  propagated  re- 
specting the  alleged  secret  intentions  of  Bar- 
nevelt  and  the  Armjnians  to  deliver  up  their 


country  to  the  Spaniards ;  the  prince  was 
enabled  to  succeed  in  his  ambitious  enterprises. 
To  the  party,  therefore,  that  had  forwarded  his 
views  he  willingly  gave  all  the  weight  of  his 
influence,  and  that  of  the  States  General,  the 
majority  of  whom,  in  virtue  of  the  late  unlaw- 
ful changes  effected  in  the  provinces,  were 
favourable,  not  only  to  Calvinism,  but  to  any 
measure  which  the  prince  might  think  fit  to 
propose.  It  was  in  allusion  to  the  revolution, 
thus  craftily  completed,  that  Bogerman,  as 
president  of  the  synod  of  Dort,  told  Episcopius, 
in  a  sarcastic  style,  as  Hales  tells  us,  "  You 
may  remember  what  you  told  the  foreign  di- 
vines in  your  letter  to  them,  that  there  had  of 
late  been  a  great  metamorphosis  in  the  state ; 
you  are  no  longer  judges  and  men  in  power, 
but  persons  under  citation."  In  such  a  state 
of  affairs,  an  ordinance  of  government  was 
easily  obtained  for  convening  a  national  synod, 
which  was  to  consist  of  native  divines  appointed 
by  the  different  classes  and  presbyteries,  of  civil 
deputies  chosen  out  of  each  province  by  the 
states,  and  of  foreign  divines  deputed  by  such 
churches  as  had  adopted  both  the  platform  and 
the  doctrine  of  Geneva.  The  temper  and  in- 
tolerant conduct  of  the  various  ecclesiastical 
meetings  with  whom  rested  the  inland  appoint- 
ments, had  been  but  too  apparent ;  and  time 
had  not  mollified  their  intolerant  principles ; 
for,  under  the  new  order  of  things,  and  with 
the  sanction  of  the  fresh  race  of  magistrates, 
they  were  emboldened  to  effect  a  schism  in 
many  of  the  chief  towns,  and  forcibly  to  exclude 
the  Arminian  ministers  from  the  churches 
which  they  occupied.  In  other  towns,  in 
which  these  bold  practices  could  not  be  at- 
tempted with  any  probability  of  success,  they 
employed  the  ecclesiastical  arms  of  the  classes, 
provincial  synods,  and  other  packed  vestry- 
meetings,  the  members  of  which  (consisting 
generally  of  Calvinists)  summoned  before  them 
all  the  chief  Arminian  pastors  in  the  various 
districts,  accused  them  of  holding  heterodox 
opinions  on  the  subject  of  predestination,  and 
suspended  or  expelled  them  from  the  ministry 
This  work  df  expulsion  and  suspension  was 
carried  on  by  the  dominant  party,  even  during 
the  time  in  which  the  fate  of  Arminianism  was 
in  a  course  of  determination  by  the  synod  of 
Dort :  so  that,  had  that  far-famed  and  reverend 
assembly  decided  in  favour  of  a  toleration  of 
the  Arminian  doctrines,  the  minor  church 
meetings  had  left  few  ministers  of  that  per- 
secuted denomination  to  profit  from  such  a 
decision.  The  Calvinistic  account  of  this 
summary  and  iniquitous  process  is  thus  given, 
in  the  preface  to  the  acts  of  the  National  Sy- 
nod :  "  And  since  there  were  several  pastors  in 
that  province,  [Guelderland,]  some  of  whom 
had  been  suspected  of  many  other  errors  beside 
the  Five  Points  of  the  Remonstrants,  others  of 
them  had  illegally  intruded  into  the  office  of 
the  ministry,  while  others  were  men  of  profli- 
gate habits;  certain  persons  of  this  description 
being  cited  before  the  [provincial]  synod  [of 
Guelderland  and  Zutphen,  held  at  Arnheim,  in 
July,  1618,]  were  suspended  from  the  ministry 
for  some  of  the  before-mentioned  reasons,  and 


SYN 


890 


SYN 


by  no  means  on  account  of  the  opinion  con- 
tained in  the  Five  Points  of  the  Remonstrants, 
which  was  reserved  for  the  cognizance  of  the 
national  synod.  The  trial  of  the  rest  of  these 
men  being  dismissed  in  the  name  of  the  synod, 
was  committed  to  a  deputation  from  their  body, 
to  whom  the  states  added  certain  of  their  own 
delegates.  When  they  had  fully  investigated 
the  cases  of  these  men  in  their  classes,  they 
suspended  some  of  them  from  the  ministry,  and 
entirely  removed  others."  In  the  very  able 
memorial  which  the  Remonstrants,  on  their 
arrival  at  the  synod,  presented  to  the  foreign 
members,  it  is  justly  observed,  respecting  those 
who  were  accused  of  having  taught,  beside  the 
Five  Points,  those  doctrines  which  were  con- 
trary  to  the  fundamentals  of  faith :  "  Such 
particular  cases  do  not  in  any  manner  affect 
the  common  cause  of  the  Remonstrants,  but 
concern  those  alone  who  may  be  found  guilty 
of  them.  Nor  are  we  adverse  to  the  issuing 
of  ecclesiastical  censures  against  such  persons, 
provided  they  be  lawfully  put  upon  their  trials, 
and  fairly  heard  in  defence  of  themselves 
against  such  charges."  Because  the  members 
of  these  Calvinistic  provincial  synods  could 
not  be  long  absent  from  their  respective  con- 
gregations, such  galloping  commissions  as 
these,  endowed  with  ample  powers,  were  ap- 
pointed to  traverse  every  province  in  which 
Arminianism  had  been  planted  ;  and  they  soon 
showed  to  the  world  the  most  compendious 
method  of  rooting  out  reputed  heresies.  Their 
track  through  the  land  resembled  that  of  the 
angel  of  destruction  ;  it  was  marked  by  an- 
guish, mourning,  aud  desolation.  After  this 
detail,  established  by  the  synodical  documents 
themselves,  few  words  will  suffice  to  point  out 
the  purely  Calvinistic  constitution  of  the  synod 
of  Dort.  When  very  few  Remonstrant  minis- 
ters remained  in  the  land,  except  such  as  were 
ejected  from  the  church  or  under  suspension, 
it  was  no  difficult  matter  to  procure  an  assem- 
blage of  men  that  were  of  one  heart  respecting 
the  main  object  that  was  then  sought  to  be 
accomplished. 

In  the  original  order  for  holding  the  synod, 
and  in  the  list  appended  to  it,  as  they  were 
both  passed  by  the  States  General,  no  mention 
was  made  of  inviting  any  other  churches,  ex- 
cept those  of  England,  France,  the  Palatinate, 
Hesse,  and  Switzerland,  and  it  was  a  matter 
postponed  for  farther  deliberation,  whether 
any  invitation  should  be  transmitted  to  the 
churches  of  Bremen,  Brandenburgh,  Geneva, 
and  Nassau.  The  clergy  of  the  principality 
of  Anhalt  were  not  invited  to  the  synod,  be- 
cause their  opinions  were  understood  to  be 
similar  to  those  of  the  Remonstrants,  the  an- 
cient confession  adopted  by  their  churches 
being  decided  on  the  subject  of  conditional 
predestination.  The  divines  of  Bremen  were 
viewed  as  men  inclined  too  much  to  moderate 
counsels,  and  on  that  account  improper  repre- 
sentatives in  an  assembly  that  intended  to  carry 
every  proposition  with  the  unanimity  of  force. 
The  divines  of  Brandenburgh  were  the  last  of 
those  invited.  Indeed  no  invitation  was  trans- 
mitted to  them,  till  the  state  and  temper  of 


their  churches  had  been  ascertained  with  tole- 
rable accuracy ;  and  when  it  was  generally 
thought  that  the  deputies  from  that  electorate 
were  tractable  and  would  follow  in  the  train 
of  the  Contra-Remonstrants,  it  was  determined 
to  summon  them  to  the  synod.  It  was  for 
some  time  a  matter  of  doubt  with  the  leading 
men  of  Holland,  whether  they  ought  to  invite 
the  divines  of  Geneva  and  Nassau,  two  of  the 
greatest  nurseries  of  Calvinism,  to  be  present 
at  the  synod.  The  cause  of  this  demur  was, 
to  avoid  the  appearance  of  partiality,  which 
they  justly  thought  all  the  world  would  have 
imputed  to  them  had  they  convened  an  assem- 
bly consisting  only  of  Calvinistic  doctors.  To 
keep  up  this  semblance  of  moderation,  the  sy- 
nodical summons  was  not  transmitted  to  thoso 
divines  when  they  were  sent  to  the  churches 
of  other  states  and  countries.  But  when 
Prince  Maurice's  schemes  of  secular  aggran- 
dizement and  political  power  had  succeeded 
beyond  his  utmost  wishes,  they  no  longer 
studied  to  "avoid  the  appearance  of  evil,"  but 
boldly  summoned  all  those  divines  about  whose 
presence  at  the  synod  they  had  formerly  hesi- 
tated. This  was  a  most  notable  and  certain 
method  of  procuring  a  strict  Calvinian  unifor- 
mity in  the  members.  On  this  topic,  Hales,  in 
his  letters  from  Dort,  to  the  English  ambassa- 
dor at  the  Hague,  says,  "  For  a  general  con- 
fession of  faith,  at  least  so  far  as  those  churches 
stretch  who  have  delegates  here  in  the  synod, 
I  think  his  project  very  possible,  there  being 
no  point  of  faith  in  which  they  differ."  Great 
interest  was  made  at  the  court  of  France,  to 
procure  the  attendance  of  deputies  from  the  re- 
formed churches  of  that  country  ;  but  the  king 
of  France  prohibited  the  Protestant  clergy 
within  his  dominions  from  becoming  members 
of  the  synod,  or  assisting  at  its  deliberations. 

The  letters  of  the  States  General,  inviting 
the  foreign  divines  to  the  national  synod,  were 
issued  on  the  25th  of  June,  1618;  and  the 
members  were  summoned  to  meet  together  in 
the  city  of  Dort,  on  the  first  day  of  November 
in  the  same  year.  The  letters  of  invitation  to 
the  divines  of  the  united  provinces  were  dated 
Sept.  20th,  and  the  synod  of  Dort  was  formally 
opened  Nov.  13th.  Whosoever  casts  his  eye 
over  the  list  of  the  foreign  divines  that  com- 
posed this  last  of  Protestant  councils,  will  find 
scarcely  one  man  who  had  not  distinguished 
himself  by  his  decided  opposition  to  the  doc- 
trine of  conditional  predestination,  and  who 
was  not  consequently  disqualified  from  acting 
the  part  of  an  impartial  judge  of  the  existing 
religious  differences,  or  that  of  a  peace-maker. 
This  caused  the  famous  Daniel  Tilenus  to  ob- 
serve, that  "no  persons  were  summoned  to 
Dort  who  were  not  well  known  to  be  zealous 
promoters  of  Calvin's  predestination.  In  for- 
mer ages,  men  were  accustomed,  first  to  go  to  the 
councils,  and  then  to  declare  their  sentiments: 
just  the  reverse  of  this  is  the  practice  in  our 
days ;  for  no  one  could  be  admitted  into  the 
synod  of  Dort  unless  he  had  previously  mani- 
fested the  bearing  of  his  opinions." 

It  will  be  perceived  from  the  preceding  state- 
ment, by  what  kind  of  ecclesiastical  manage- 


SYN 


891 


SYN 


ment  the  Remonstrants  had  been  excluded  from 
having  any  deputies  in  the  synod  of  Dort.  So 
completely  had  the  Calvinistic  plan  of  exclu- 
sion succeeded,  that  three  of  the  members 
from  Utrecht  were  the  only  Remonstrants  in 
that  synod.  The  reason  of  their  being  there 
at  all,  was,  because  that  province  was  almost 
equally  divided  between  Remonstrant  and  Cal- 
vinist  churches,  and  it  had  been  agreed  that 
three  of  each  denomination  should  be  summon- 
od.  But  so  obnoxious  were  the  persons  as 
well  as  the  doctrines  of  the  Remonstrants  to 
their  adversaries,  that  they  would  not  allow 
even  those  three  individuals  to  have  a  place  in 
the  seat  of  judgment.  In  the  twenty-fourth 
session,  it  was  unanimously  declared,  that 
they  could  only  be  reputed  as  cited  persons ; 
however,  as  the  Acts  express  it,  "that  this 
synod  might  not  be  exposed  to  calumnies,  as  if 
they  wished  to  exclude  them,  it  was  allowed 
them  to  sit  among  the  judges"  on  five  condi- 
tions, the  chief  of  which  were,  "  that  while  the 
affairs  of  the  Remonstrants  were  under  discus- 
sion, they  should  not  disturb  the  proceedings 
of  the  synod  by  unseasonable  interruptions, 
and  not  acquaint  their  party  with  any  thing 
done  or  said  in  the  synod,  which  concerned 
their  cause."  Two  of  them,  after  a  day's  de- 
liberation, united  themselves  with  their  suffer- 
ing brethren  ;  and  the  third,  who  was  a  lay- 
man, had  seen  enough  of  the  partial  conduct 
of  that  venerable  assembly  to  induce  him  to 
absent  himself  from  their  farther  deliberations. 
As  the  Remonstrants  formed  no  part  of  the 
members  convened,  it  was  debated,  in  the 
fourth  session,  how  they  ought  to  be  summon- 
ed. It  was  proposed  and  resolved,  that  a  let- 
ler  should  be  composed  and  sent  to  the  whole 
bod}^  that  they  might  depute  three  out  of  each 
province  as  deputies  to  the  synod.  The  presi- 
dent Bogerman  then  inquired,  if  all  the  Re- 
monstrants were  to  be  admitted ;  the  president 
of  the  lay  commissioners  answered,  that  the 
ecclesiastical  president  and  the  secretaries 
should  receive  a  private  explanation  from  him 
respecting  their  numbers.  In  the  interview 
which  the  two  presidents  and  the  secretaries 
had  together,  they  concerted  matters  so  well, 
that  next  day  the  preceding  resolution  for  wri- 
ting to  the  whole  body  was  withdrawn  for 
amendment ;  and  it  was  finally  agreed,  that  it 
should  be  left  to  the  determination  of  the  lay 
commissioners,  what  persons,  and  how  many, 
should  be  convened.  These  gentlemen  select- 
ed thirteen  of  the  Remonstrants,  to  each  of 
whom  they  addressed  a  letter  of  citation,  com- 
manding them  to  appear  before  the  synod, 
"within  fourteen  days  after  the  receipt  of  it 
without  any  tergiversation,  excuse,  or  excep- 
tion, that  in  it  they  might  freely  propose,  ex- 
plain, and  defend  the  before-mentioned  five 
points  as  far  as  they  were  able  and  should  deem 
to  be  necessary."  In  the  mean  time  the  Re- 
monstrants, without  knowing  the  resolution 
of  the  svnod,  had  deputed  three  of  their  body 
from  Leyden,  to  obtain  leave  for  their  appear- 
ance at  the  synod,  in  a  competent  number  and 
under  eafe  conduct  to  defend  their  cause.  On 
making  their  request  known  to  the  lay  com- 


missioners, they  were  informed  of  the  resolu. 
tion  which  had  passed  the  synod  only  the  pre- 
ceding day.  To  which  they  replied,  that  it 
was  unreasonable  to  cite  those  to  justify  them- 
selves who  were  both  ready  and  willing  to 
come  of  their  own  accord ;  and  that  if  they 
persisted  in  proceeding  with  their  plan  of  cita- 
tion, they  would  by  that  act  furnish  just  cause, 
not  only  to  them,  but  to  all  good  men,  to  en- 
tertain strange  notions  and  suspicions  of  the 
synodical  proceedings.  Not  being  permitted  to 
choose  those  men  from  their  own  body  whom 
they  deemed  the  best  qualified  to  state  and 
defend  their  cause,  they  accounted  it  an  addi- 
tional hardship,  that  their  enemies  should  as- 
sume that  unlawful  authority  to  themselves. 
But  neither  at  that  time  nor  afterward,  when 
they  wished  to  add  two  of  the  most  accom- 
plished of  the  brethren  to  their  number,  were 
their  representations  of  the  least  avail.  On 
the  sixth  of  December  these  valiant  defenders 
of  the  truth  arrived,  and  requested,  by  a  depu- 
tation, to  be  allowed  a  few  days  to  unpack 
their  books,  arrange  their  papers,  &c.  But 
they  were  commanded  immediately  to  appear 
in  a  body  before  the  synod,  and  to  prefer  their 
own  request.  They  were  introduced  by  their 
brethren  of  Utrecht,  and  ordered  to  sit  down 
at  a  long  table  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  hall. 
Episcopius  then,  with  the  permission  of  the 
president,  addressed  an  apostolic  greeting  to  the 
synod ;  and,  having  repeated  the  request  pre- 
viously made,  he  said,  that  "  the  cited  Remon- 
strants appeared  there  to  defend  their  good  and 
righteous  cause  before  that  venerable  assem- 
bly, by  reasons  and  arguments  drawn  from  the 
word  of  God, — or  else  to  be  confuted  and  better 
informed  from  the  same  word.  In  reference 
to  the  favour  which  they  had  asked,  they  left  it 
to  the  discretion  of  the  commissioners  of  the 
States  General,  being  ready  on  their  parts,  im- 
mediately and  without  delay,  to  engage  in  a 
conference,  if  that  should  be  required."  Then 
were  they  desired  to  withdraw  into  a  chamber 
prepared  for  them  adjoining  the  hall  of  the  sy- 
nod. After  some  time  spent  in  deliberation,  they 
were  recalled,  and  informed  by  the  president, 
that  they  would  be  expected  at  the  synod  next 
morning  at  nine  o'clock.  He  added,  according 
to  Hales,  "that  they  came  not  to  conference, 
neither  did  the  synod  profess  themselves  an 
adverse  party  against  them.  Conferences  had 
been  heretofore  held  to  no  purpose.  They  ought 
to  have  heeded  the  words  of  the  letters  by  which 
they  were  cited.  They  were  called  not  to  con- 
ference, but  to  propose  their  opinions  with 
their  reasons,  and  leave  it  with  the  synod  to 
judge  of  them."  Episcopius  replied,  that  it 
was  not  necessary  so  nicely  to  criticise  the 
word  conference,  and  that  they  had  come  there 
with  no  other  view  than  to  treat  about  the  doc- 
trines which  were  controverted,  according  to 
the  summons  which  they  had  received.  The 
next  day,  December  7th,  the  Remonstrants 
were  called  in,  when  after  Episcopius  had  de- 
sired and  obtained  leave  to  speak,  he  uttered 
an  oration,  the  delivery  of  which  occupied 
nearly  two  hours,  and  which,  on  account  of 
the  noble  sentiments  contained  in  it,  deserves 


s\  \ 


S92 


SYN 


to  be  record.'.!  in  tetters  of  gold.  The  grace- 
fulness, force,  and  energv  with  which  it  was 
epoken,  made  such  an  impression  on  the  audi- 
tory as  drew  tears  from  several  of  them,  and 
even  from  some  of  the  states'  deputies.  This 
effect  gave  mighty  umbrage  to  the  choleric 
Bogemian,  who,  as  president,  according  to  Mr. 
HUM'S  account,  "signified  unto  Episcopius, 
that,  because  there  were  in  his  speech  many 
things  considerable,  he  was  therefore  to  deliver 
the  copy  of  it.  Epiecopiufl  replied,  that  he  had 
none  handsomely  written:  if  the  synod  would 
have  patience,  he  would  cause  a  fair  transcript 
to  be  drawn  for  them.  But  this  excuse  would 
not  serve;  fair  or  foul,  deliver  it  up  he  must, 
and  so  he  did."  In  the  session,  December  10, 
after  the  president  had  ceased  to  speak,  lie  de- 
sired the  Remonstrants  to  proceed  witli  their 
explanation  and  defence  of  the  five  points. 
They  requested  leave  to  have  a  paper  read  by 
Episcopius.  Bogerman  would  not  consent  to 
this;  but  the  lay  president  ordered  another  of 
the  Remonstrants,  Bernard  Dwinglo,  to  read 
it.  This  very  convincing  document  was  ad- 
dressed to  the  synod,  and  consisted  of  two 
parts.  It  may  be  seen  at  full  length  in  the 
acts,  and  is  in  every  respect  worthy  of  the 
great  men  whose  holy  cause  it  defended.  The 
first  part  declared,  that  the  Remonstrants  did 
not  own  tlte  members  of  the  synod  for  lawful 
judges,  because  the  great  majority  of  them, 
with  the  exception  of  the  foreign  divines,  were 
their  professed  enemies  ;  and  that  most  of  the 
inland  divines  then  assembled,  as  well  as  those 
whose  representatives  they  were,  had  been 
guilty  of  the  unhappy  schism  Which  was  made 
in  the  churches  of  Holland.  The  second  part 
contained  the  twelve  qualifications,  of  which  the 
Remonstrants  thought  a  well  constituted  synod 
should  consist.  The  observance  of  the  stipu- 
lations  proposed  in  it,  they  would  gladly  have 
obtained  from  the  synod,  averring  that  they 
were  exceedingly  equitable,  and  that  the  Pro- 
testants had  offered  similar  conditions  for  the 
guidance  of  the  Papists,  and  the  Calvinists  for 
the  direction  of  the  Lutherans.  The  produc- 
tion of  such  a  mass  of  evidence  from  writers 
of  the  Calvinistic  persuasion,  in  favour  of  a 
toleration  and  moderate  measures,  and  against 
the  principle  of  interested  parties  usurping  the 
place  of  judges, — gave  dreadful  offence  to  that 
powerful  body  in  the  synod,  and  especially 
when  they  were  charged  with  being  at  once 
plaintiff",  judge,  and  jury.  No  one  can  form 
an  adequate  conception  of  the  scene  which  fol- 
lowed the  reading  of  this  document.  Boger- 
man,  the  Remonstrants,  the  lay  president,  and 
the  commissioners,  were  warm  interlocutors 
during  that  session  and  t he  succeeding  one 
wlnrh  was  held  in  the  afternoon  of  the  same 
day.  Bohemian  laboured  hard  to  show,  that, 
by  denying  the  competency  and  impartial  con- 
Htitution  of  the  tribunal  before  which  they  were 
■ommoned,  they  in  reality  were  guilty  df  dis- 
affection to  the  higher  powers,  who  had  ap- 
pointed and  convened  the  synod;  and  that,  by 
charging  the  majority  of  the  members  with  be- 
ing the  authors  of  tin-  schism,  they  had  in 
effect  accused  the  prince  of  Orange  and  the 


States  General,  because  those  great  personages 
had  frequented  the  separate  meetings.  In  re- 
ference to  the  latter  circumstance,  which  ex- 
ceedingly galled  him  and  the  inland  divines,  he 
said,  "  The  proper  time  has  not  yet  arrived  for 
discussing  it.  But  when  it  shall  have  been 
proved  to  the  synod,  what  kind  of  doctrine  is 
sanctioned  by  the  church,  those  who  have 
departed  from  it,  and  who  are  consequently 
guilty  of  the  schism,  will  appear  in  their  true 
colours."  Charles  Niellius,  one  of  the  Walloon 
ministers,  answered  in  behalf  of  the  Remon- 
strants, that  though  they  acknowledged  the 
authority  of  the  states,  and  held  the  synod  in 
due  estimation,  yet  it  was  as  lawful  for  them 
to  challenge  this  synod,  as  for  several  of  the 
Christian  fathers  who  challenged  some  of  the 
ancient  councils,  and  their  ancestors  that  of 
Trent.  The  laws  themselves  allowed  men  for 
certain  reasons  to  challenge  even  sworn  judges. 
But  it  was  never  known,  that  any  law  allowed 
parties  to  be  judges.  Nor  was  it  equitable, 
that  those  who  had  previously  separated  from 
the  Remonstrants  should  sit  in  the  synod  to  try 
them,  after  they  had  by  such  separation  pre- 
judged their  doctrine  and  entered  into  mutual 
engagements  to  procure  its  condemnation. 
Episcopius  then  said,  "  Mr.  President,  if  you 
were  in  our  places  and  we  in  yours,  would  you 
submit  to  our  judgment  ?"  Bogerman  replied, 
"If  it  had  so  happened,  we  must  have  endured 
it ;  and  since  government  has  ordered  mat- 
ters in  a  different  way,  it  becomes  you  to  bear 
it  with  patience."  Episcopius  rejoined,  "  It  is 
one  thing  to  acknowledge  a  person  for  a  judge, 
and  it  is  another  to  bear  with  patience  the 
sentence  which  he  may  impose.  We  also  will 
endure  it ;  but  our  consciences  cannot  be  per- 
suaded to  acknowledge  you  for  the  judges  of 
our  doctrines,  since  you  are  our  sworn  adversa- 
ries, and  have  churches  totally  separated  from 
ours." 

On  the  morning  of  the  next  day,  the  Remon- 
strants, being  called  in,  were  urged  by  the 
synod  to  present  their  objections  in  writing 
against  the  Confession  and  Catechism.  Before 
they  proceeded  to  do  that,  they  craved  permis- 
sion to  read  another  document :  after  some 
demur,  leave  was  granted,  when  Dwinglo  read 
a  paper  which  commenced  thus:  "The  cele- 
brated Paraaus,  in  his  Irenicum,  prudently  ob- 
serves, that  he  would  advise  no  man  to  approach 
any  council  in  which  the  same  persons  had  to 
appear  in  the  character  of  both  adversaries  and 
judges."  The  rest  of  the  paper  wTas  occupied 
in  wiping  off"  the  aspersions  which  had  been 
cast  upon  them  in  the  four  preceding  sessions, 
and  particularly  the  foul  charge  of  their  want 
of  respect  for  the  constituted  authorities  of 
their  country.  They  declared,  that  in  case 
men  of  peaceable  dispositions  had  been  deputed 
to  the  synod,  as  the  States  General  had  intended, 
and  such  men  as  had  never  been  concerned  in 
making  or  promoting  these  unhappy  divisions, 
they  would  have  had  little  reason  to  offer  ex- 
ceptions against  such  a  synod.  This  document 
concluded  with  a  protest.  After  the  delivery 
of  this  protest,  the  synod  invented  various 
methods  to  vex  the  cited  Remonstrants  and  lo 


SYN 


893 


SYN 


impede  the  prosecution  of  their  cause.  Among 
those  methods  one  of  the  most  artful  was,  to 
ask  them  questions  singly,  and  not  in  a  body, 
with  an  evident  design  to  entrap  them  in  their 
answers.  They  had  with  the  greatest  injustice 
chosen  those  Remonstrants  whom  they  thought 
proper,  to  be  cited  as  guilty  persons  at  the  bar 
of  the  synod,  without  the  least  regard  to  the 
useful  or  splendid  qualifications  of  the  indi- 
viduals thus  selected.  Of  the  six  prudent  and 
accomplished  men  who  had  represented  the 
Remonstrant  party  at  the  celebrated  Hague 
Conference  in  1611,  only  three  were  summoned 
to  the  present  synod;  and  though  those  who 
appeared  on  this  occasion  were  generally  men 
of  good  natural  talents  and  sound  understand- 
ings, and  well  versed  in  the  matters  under  dis- 
cussion, yet  they  were  not  all  endowed  with 
the  gift  of  rendering  a  ready  and  extempore 
reply  in  Latin  to  every  question  that  might  be 
suddenly  asked  ;  and  if  they  had  possessed  such 
a  gift  in  an  eminent  degree,  it  would  still  have 
been  necessary  that  they  should  have  had  time 
for  reflection,  and  for  each  to  compare  his  own 
views  and  reasons  with  those  of  his  brethren. 
This  request,  however,  which  cannot  be  viewed 
as  a  favour  but  as  an  act  of  justice,  was  almost 
without  exception  refused.  Having  presented 
to  the  synod  their  opinions  relative  to  the  Five 
Points  and  their  remarks  on  the  Catechism  and 
Confession,  the  Remonstrants  wished  to  enter 
on  the  "  proposing,  explanation,  and  defence 
of  them,  as  far  as  they  were  able  or  should 
think  necessary,"  according  to  the  very  terms 
of  the  letters  by  which  they  had  been  cited  ;  but 
the  synod  in  opposition  to  the  plain  and  obvi- 
ous meaning  which  those  expressions  conveyed, 
decided  that  it  was  a  privilege  belonging  to 
themselves  alone  to  judge  how  far  the  Remon- 
strants might  be  permitted  to  enter  into  the 
explanation  and  defence  of  their  doctrines. 
This  was  accounted  an  act  of  great  injustice 
by  the  Remonstrants,  who  also  alleged,  that 
"  they  did  not  feel  many  scruples  about  the 
doctrine  of  election,  but  that  it  was  reprobation 
in  which  the  chief  difficulty  lay."  They  were 
very  desirous,  therefore,  of  having  reprobation 
discussed  in  the  first  instance  :  but  the  Calvin- 
ists  of  those  days  wished  to  keep  unconditional 
reprobation  enshrined  in  the  dark  penetralia  of 
their  temples,  only  to  be  produced,  as  oppor- 
tunity might  serve,  for  their  own  private  pur- 
poses, either  to  terrify  the  careless  among  their 
hearers,  or  to  quicken  the  occasionally  sluggish 
current  of  congregational  benevolence.  It  was 
not  to  be  expected,  therefore,  that  the  Calvin- 
ists  of  the  synod  would  allow  the  Remonstrants 
to  give  reprobation  that  prominence  in  their  dis- 
cussions to  which  it  was  justly  entitled.  In 
one  of  the  debates  which  these  two  questions 
produced,  Bogerman  again  took  advantage  of 
the  disingenuous  trickery  which  we  have  just 
exposed,  and  asked  Pynakker,  one  of  the  cited 
ministers,  "  Do  you  imagine  the  synod  will 
suffer  the  Remonstrants  to  examine  the  doc- 
trine of  reprobation  ?"  Pynakker  replied, 
"  Yes,  I  do  :  because,  as  this  is  the  chief  source 
of  the  troubles  of  the  church,  it  ought  to  be 
first  discussed."     Perceiving  either   that   his 


meaning  was  not  correctly  understood,  or  that 
he  had  expressed  it  in  an  imperfect  manner, 
Pynakker  immediately  explained  himself  by 
adding,  that  by  first  he  meant  chiefly,  (both  of 
which  significations  the  Latin  word  conveys,) 
and  by  acknowledging  that  election  ought  to 
have  the  precedence  of  discussion.  When 
relating  this  occurrence,  Poppius  remarks, 
"  This,  being  received  in  a  wrong  sense,  was 
imputed  to  all  of  us,  as  though  we  were  unani 
mously  of  opinion,  that  the  discussion  of  the 
doctrine  of  reprobation  ought  to  precede  that 
of  election.  Upon  this  question  the  foreign 
divines  and  others  were  desired  by  the  president 
to  deliver  their  sentiments.  However,  the  ex- 
pression imputed  to  us  was  employed  by  none 
of  us,  much  less  by  all.  But  this  was  their 
manner:  if  one  of  us,  in  the  name  of  all,  said 
any  thing  that  proved  advantageous  to  the  rest, 
the  president  seemed  much  displeased  at  our 
unanimity :  then  we  were  told  that  we  were 
cited  singly  and  personally,  and  that  we  did 
not  compose  a  society  or  corporation.  But 
when  any  of  us  happened  to  employ  a  word 
that  was  capable  of  being  wrested  to  our  com- 
mon injury  and  misconstrued,  then  what  was 
said  by  one  was  certain  to  be  imputed  to  all ! " 
After  gaining  a  favourable  opportunity  like 
this,  Bogerman  always  hastily  dismissed  the 
cited  persons ;  and  on  this  occasion  he  dwelt 
largely,  in  their  absence,  on  Pynakker's  expres- 
sion, and  persuaded  the  foreign  divines  that  the 
proposal  of  the  Remonstrants,  to  treat  of  repro- 
bation before  election,  was  a  sine  qua  non,  and 
that  without  it  was  granted  to  them  they  would 
not  proceed.  This  alarmed  all  the  Calvinistic 
brotherhood,  who  rose  vi  et  armis,  delivered 
seriatim  their  objections  to  such  a  bold  pro- 
ceeding, and  thought,  with  the  professor  of 
Heidelberg,  "that  it  was  unreasonable  for  the 
Remonstrants  to  disturb  the  consciences  of  the 
elect  on  account  of  God's  judgments  against 
the  reprobated,  and  to  plead  the  cause  of  the 
latter,  as  though  they  had  been  hired  to  under- 
take the  defence  of  those  who  had  by  the  just 
judgment  of  God  been  rejected ;  and  that  for 
these  reasons  the  synod  neither  could  nor 
ought  to  grant  the  Remonstrant  brethren  any 
farther  liberty,  unless  the  members  designed  to 
expose  the  orthodox  doctrine  of  predestination 
to  be  openly  ridiculed."  Finding  this  great 
aversion  in  the  synod  to  the  precedence  of 
reprobation,  the  Remonstrants  proposed,  since 
they  were  forbidden  to  explain  or  defend  their 
sentiments  viva  voce,  "to  explain  their  doc- 
trines in  writing,  beginning  with  the  article 
of  election,  and  proceeding  to  that  of  repro- 
bation ;  to  defend  their  doctrines,  and  to  refute 
the  contrary  opinions  of  the  Contra-Remon- 
strants  and  of  those  whom  they  consider 
orthodox :  but  that,  in  case  this  explanation 
or  defence  seems  to  be  defective,  they  would 
answer  in  writing  the  questions  which  the 
president  might  think  proper  to  propose  to 
them,  or  in  oral  communications  by  those  of 
their  body  whom  they  might  judge  best  quali- 
fied for  that  purpose.  And  that  the  liberty 
which  they  desired  might  not  appear  unlimited, 
they  bound  themselves  to  proceed  in   such  a 


SV.N 


894 


tSYN 


Banner  U  should  Dot  savour  in  tin;  least  of  an 
insolent  licentiousness:  and  that  their  discus- 
might  not  be  extended  too  far,  the  lay 
commissioners  w  ere  empowered  to  curtail  them 
at  pleasure."  But  these  very  equitable  terms, 
which  were  much  worse  than  those  which  the 
unsophisticated  and  grammatical  sense  of  the 
citatorv  letters  held  out  to  them,  were  rejected 
by  the  syimd,  at  the  instigation  and  by  the 
management  of  the  president,  who,  after  having 
had  recourse  to  his  old  trick  of  propounding 
questions  to  each  of  the  cited  persons,  and 
after  procuring  against  them  three  or  four 
synodieal  censures,  had  them  at  length,  (Jan. 
14th,)  dismissed  from  the  synod,  with  every 
mark  of  contumely  and  scorn  which  he  could 
invent.  Bogerman  had  previously  busied  him- 
self in  extracting  the  opinions  of  the  Remon- 
strants from  such  writings  of  theirs  as  had 
been  published  long  before,  and  in  forming 
them  into  articles,  to  be  separately  discussed 
by  the  synod.  This  passing  of  judgment  on 
the  Remonstrants  from  the  testimony  of  their 
own  writings,  was  an  employment  which 
Deodatus  and  his  colleague  from  Geneva  had 
at  one  of  the  earliest  sessions  mentioned  as 
very  desirable,  and  in  which  they  appeared 
eager  to  engage.  Any  one  who  attentively 
reads  the  Acts  of  the  synod,  and  compares 
them  with  the  private  accounts  both  of  Re- 
monstrants and  Contra-Remonstrants  will  find, 
that  this  had  also  been  the  intention  of  the 
president  from  the  very  commencement,  and 
that  all  his  shifting  schemes  and  boisterous 
conduct  was  intended  to  irritate  the  Remon- 
strants, who  possessed  more  patience  than  he 
had  contemplated,  and  who  were  therefore  to 
be  removed  from  the  synod  by  a  greater  exer- 
cise of  art  and  with  greater  difficulty.  But  one 
of  the  greatest  injuries  of  which  the  Remon- 
strants had  to  complain,  was,  that  the  book 
from  which  their  supposed  opinions  were 
chiefly  collected,  was  the  production  of  a 
declared  enemy,  who  wrote  a  highly  coloured 
account  of  a  conference  respecting  the  Five 
Points,  in  which  he  pretended  that  the  Cal- 
vmists  had  obtained  a  complete  victory.  A 
Remonstrant  author  had  also  written  an  able 
statement  of  the  same  conference,  and  had 
claimed  a  triumph  for  his  party.  The  latter 
would  therefore  have  certainly  been  the  most 
proper  authority  from  which  to  extract  the  real 
opinions  of  his  body. 

Bui  though  dismissed  from  their  farther 
attendance  on  the  synod,  the  Remonstrants 
were  not  permitted  to  depart  from  Dort ;  the 
stales'  commissioners  having  charged  them 
not  to  quit  the  town,  without  their  special  per- 
mission.  The  president,  in  his  speech  dimissory, 

had  said,  that  they  would  receive  an  intimation 

when  the  synod  had  any  farther  occasion  for 

them.      When  a  Remonstrant  deputy,  by  leave 

of  the  acting  burgomaster  of  Dort,  who  was 

1  the  commissioners,  had  hastily  gone  to 

it,  to  visit  one  of  his  children  thai    was 

expected  soon  to  die,  he  was  on   his  return 

I  t..  an  account  for  his  conduct,  and  the 

•  r  order  repeated.     In  the  course  of  their 

detention  at  Doit  during  eight  months,  they 


were  as  strictly  watched  as  if  they  had  been 
condemned  malefactors.  One  of  them  whose 
sister  lay  on  her  death-bed  and  earnestly  de- 
sired to  see  him,  could  not  obtain  permission 
to  visit  her  while  she  lived ;  and  after  her  de- 
cease he  was  not  allowed  to  attend  her  funeral. 
Another,  whose  wife  was  near  the  time  of  her 
accouchinent,  wished,  like  a  good  family  man, 
to  be  at  home  for  a  few  dayB  at  that  critical 
period ;  but  his  request  was  refused.  When 
the  uncle  of  another  of  them  was  at  the  point 
of  death,  he  longed  for  the  presence  of  his 
nephew,  to  receive  his  dying  commands,  and 
to  benefit  him  by  his  counsels  and  prayers ; 
but  the  wishes  of  the  good  old  man  could  not 
be  gratified.  After  his  death,  the  nephew  was 
not  allowed  to  look  after  the  pressing  concerns 
of  his  orphan  cousins,  although  his  uncle  had 
appointed  him  their  legal  guardian.  None  of 
these  favours,  though  reasonable  and  asked 
with  much  humility,  could  be  obtained  from 
the  high  bigots,  in  whose  hands,  at  that  time, 
was  vested  the  personal  liberty  of  the  perse- 
cuted and  cited  Remonstrants.  Toward  the 
close  oi  February,  the  magistrates  of  different 
towns  deposed  from  the  ministry  three  of  the 
cited  Remonstrant  ministers  who  were  present 
at  the  synod,  and  sent  regular  notices  to  their 
families,  speedily  to  quit  the  parsonage  houses 
which  they  severally  occupied.  These  three 
good  men,  being  heartily  tired  of  the  strict 
durance  in  which  they  had  been  held  since 
their  arrival  at  Dort,  represented  to  the  states' 
commissioners,  that,  as  they  were  not  now  in 
the  ministry,  they  could  no  longer  be  con- 
sidered amenable  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
synod :  this  was  the  very  argument  of  the 
commissioners,  when,  at  the  commencement 
of  the  synod,  the  Remonstrants  had  wished  to 
have  associated  with  them  the  two  recently 
deposed  ministers,  Grevinchovius  and  Gculart. 
Though,  for  very  obvious  reasons,  at  that  early 
stage  of  the  business,  they  would  permit  no 
Remonstrants  to  appear  among  the  cited,  "ex- 
cept such  as  were  actually  in  the  exercise  of 
the  ministry ;"  yet  they  would  not  listen  to  the 
same  argument  when  it  militated  against  their 
favourite  purposes :  and  the  three  ministers 
were  commanded  to  remain  at  Dort  with  their 
brethren.  One  of  the  three,  however,  whose 
wife  then  far  advanced  in  pregnancy,  had  been 
ordered  to  leave  her  house  within  eight  days, 
ventured  to  return  to  Horn,  and  to  assist  her 
to  remove  from  their  former  dwelling.  But, 
on  his  arrival,  he  found  her  already  removed  to 
another  house ;  and  his  return  to  Dort  was 
speedily  required  by  the  higher  powers.  To 
expedite  his  departure,  two  or  three  of  the  Cal- 
vinist  magistrates  employed  their  official  au- 
thority in  a  manner  the  most  reprehensible  : 
they  placed  him,  like  a  criminal,  in  the  town 
wagon  openly  before  his  own  door,  though  he 
had  provided  a  carriage  for  himself  on  the  out- 
side of  the  town,  to  which  he  wished  to  have 
retired  privately  and  without  noise.  A  tumult 
ensued  between  the  populace  who  were  at 
tached  to  their  good  pastor,  and  the  soldiers 
whom  the  magistrates  had  placed  before  his 
house  two  hours  before  his  departure.    On  his 


SYN 


895 


SYN 


return  to  Dort,  he  was  severely  examined  be- 
fore the  commissioners  respecting  the  unhappy 
commotion  ;  but  being  convinced  that  he  had 
not  been  at  all  to  blame  in  that  affair,  they 
passed  it  over  in  silence.     At  different  times 
the  Remonstrants  wished  to  depute  a  few  of 
their  small  body  to  the  Hague,  to  make  a  proper 
representation  of  the  manner  in  which  they 
were  treated  by  the  synod  ;  but  this  indulgence 
was  invariably  refused.     Their  only  resource 
then  was,  to  write  to  their  high  mightinesses  an 
account  of  their  proceedings,  and  to  implore 
their  interference  and  protection.      But  such 
an  attempt,  in  that  posture  of  their  affairs,  was 
unavailing  ;  for  their  doom  was  already  sealed. 
Soon  after  their  appearance  at  Dort,  the  magis- 
trates of  that  city  issued  a  proclamation,  com- 
manding the  inhabitants,  all  of  whom  were 
celebrated  for  their  attachment  to  Calvin,  to 
refrain  from  insulting  any  of  the  foreign  or 
native  professors,  divines,  or  other  persons  that 
were  called  to  appear  at  the  synod,  on  pain  of 
summary  punishment  to  the  offenders.     This 
document  was  not  required  for  the  protection 
of  the  Calvinists ;  but  the  persecuted  Remon- 
strants   were    such  objects  of  hatred    to  the 
populace,  as    scarcely  to  be  allowed   to  paes 
along  the   streets  without   being   maltreated. 
This  bad  spirit  was  excited  and  encouraged  by 
the  violent   sermons  which   were  fulminated 
against  them,  from  the  different  pulpits  in  the 
city.    Whenever  these  good  men  were  required 
to  be  in  attendance,  (and  they  were  liable  to  be 
summoned  from  their  lodgings  at  a  few  minutes' 
notice,)  they  were  not  permitted  to  enter  the 
large  hall  in  which  the  synodical  sessions  were 
held,  but  were  ordered  to  wait  the  pleasure  of 
that  venerable  body  in  an  ante-chamber,  the 
door  of  which  was  generally  locked,  and  the 
passage  leading  to  it  guarded  by  two  or  three 
of  the  police,  who  hindered  them  from  holding 
any  communication    with   their   friends,   and 
kept  them  in  as  strict  durance  as  if  they  had 
been  convicted  of  some  capital  offence.      At 
the  formal  conclusion  of  the  principal  business 
of  the  synod,  May  the  6th,  when  the  farther 
attendance  of  the  foreign  divines  was  declared 
to  be  no  longer  necessary,  the  Remonstrants 
were  summoned  from  their  lodgings,  and  waited 
upon  the  lay  commissioners,  at  six  o'clock  in 
the  evening,  when  the  resolution  and  censure  of 
the  synod  were  read  to  them  in  Latin  by  Hein- 
sius,  the  secretary;  in  which  they  were  accused 
of  "  having  corrupted  the  true  religion,  dissolved 
the  unity  of  the  church,  given  grievous  cause 
of  scandal,  and  shown  themselves  contuma- 
cious and  disobedient:  for  these  several  reasons, 
the   synod  prohibited   them   from  the  farther 
exercise  of  their  ministry,  deprived   them  of 
their  offices  in  the  church  and  university,  and 
declared   them    incapable  of  performing  any 
ecclesiastical  function,  till,  by  sincere  repent- 
ance, they  should  have  given  the  church  full 
satisfaction,  and,  being  thus  reconciled  to  her, 
should  be  re-admitted  into  her  communion." 
They  were  then  required  to  wait  at  Dort  till 
farther  orders  from  their  high  mightinesses ; 
and  when  they  requested  to  have  a  copy  of  the 
synodical  censure  and  sentence  against  them, 


they  were  as  usual  refused.     On  the  24th  of 
May,  the  cited  Remonstrants  were  summoned 
to  appear    before    three    new    commissioners 
whom  the  States  General   had  deputed   from 
their  body,  when  each  of  them  was  called  into 
the  room  and   separately  interrogated ;    after 
which,  he  who   had   been  last  called  in   was 
ordered  into  another  room,  and  prevented  from 
holding  any  communication   with  those  who 
had  not  been  ushered  into  the  presence  of  the 
commissioners.      The  proposal  and  questions 
addressed  to  each  of  them  were  in  substance 
the  following  :  "  Since  you  have  been  deprived 
by  the  synod,  the  States  General  have  directed 
us  to  ask  you  the  following  questions  :  Whether 
you  are,  notwithstanding  this  decision,  resolved 
to  act  as  ministers  ?     Or  whether  you  will  be 
content  in  future  to  lead  quiet  and  peaceable 
lives  in  obedience  to  the  government,  as  pri- 
vate    burghers,   without  any   place   or  office, 
abstaining  from  all  ecclesiastical  ministrations 
in  any  meeting  of  the  people  of  your  sect,  from 
all  manner  of  teaching  and  preaching,  exhort- 
ing,  reading,   administering   the   sacraments, 
visiting  the  sick,  writing  letters,  or  transmit- 
ting papers  ? — It  is  the  intention  of  their  high 
mightinesses  to  allow  to  those  who  shall  con- 
form to  these  requisitions  such  a  competency 
as  may  enable  them  to  live  comfortably  either 
in  or  out  of  these  united  provinces,  as  their 
own  choice  may  determine."     In  addition  to 
these  things,  Episcopius  was  required  to  pro- 
mise, "  not  to  write  either  letters  or  books  to 
confirm  the  people  in  the  sentiments  of  the 
Remonstrants,  or  to  seduce  them  from  the  doc- 
trine of  the  synod."  All  of  them  professed  their 
willingness  to  obey  their  governors  in  all  such 
matters  as  might  be  performed  with  a  safe  con- 
science, to  live  peaceably  themselves,  and  to 
exhort  all  others  to  the  same  practice.     They 
also  expressed  their  readiness  to  refrain  from 
the  exercise  of  their  ecclesiastical  functions  in 
the  public  churches;  but  none  of  them,  except 
Leo,  could  reconcile  it  to  their  consciences  to 
abstain  from  feeding  in  smaller  assemblies  the 
flock  of  Christ  over  which  the  Holy  Ghost  had 
made  them  overseers.     The  majority  of  them 
added,  "  Not  only  those  who  abuse  or  squander 
away  their  talent  will  be  punished,  but  those 
also  who  bury  it  in  the  earth,  either  through 
fear  of  trouble  or  hope  of  advantage.     It  is 
therefore  our  duty  to  place  our  lights  on  can- 
dlesticks, and   not  to  hide  or   smother   them 
under  a  bushel  or  an  easy  bed ;    and  we  hope 
your  lordships  will  neither  hinder  us,  nor  be 
displeased  with  us  for  so  doing."     In  a  sub- 
sequent interview  with  the  commissioners,  the 
Remonstrants  proved,  that  their  reasons  for 
continuing  the  exercise  of  their  ministry  had 
formerly  received  the  sanction  of  the  States 
General  themselves  :    for  at  the  treaty  of  Co- 
logne, in   1579,   their   high  mightinesses  had 
insisted,    "that   subjects    who    professed  any 
religion  different  from  that  which  was  esta. 
blished,  could  not  satisfy  their  consciences  by 
foregoing   its    exercise."      But,   after    several 
unavailing  conferences  together,  the  commis- 
sioners left  them  in  a  state  of  suspense  and 
confinement,  about  twenty  days  longer.  During 


SYN 


896 


SYN 


f  liat  time,  several  reports  were  brought  to  them 
from  various  quarters,  "that  some  great  ca- 
lamity was  impending;"  and  they  were  seri- 
ously advised  to  avoid  it  by  a  timely  flight. 
They  were  likewise  informed  of  Barneveldt's 
execution,  and  of  the  perpetual  imprisonment 
to  which  Grotiue  and  Hogerbeets  had  been 
sentenced  ;  and  that  several  of  their  brethren 
in  the  ministry,  who  had  lately  attended  a 
meeting  at  Rotterdam  about  their  affairs  in 
general,  had  been  taken  into  custody,  and 
brought  to  the  Hague,  for  that  offence.  They 
thought,  however,  that  all  these  reports  were 
only  intended  to  create  an  artificial  alarm,  and 
to  induce  them  to  attempt  an  escape, — thus 
delivering  their  enemies  from  the  hatred  to 
which  they  would  be  exposed  by  their  farther 
rigorous  proceedings.  But  their  firmness  on 
that  occasion  corresponded  with  all  their  pre- 
vious conduct,  and  they  refused  to  dishonour 
their  good  cause  by  flight,  or  any  other  act  of 
cowardice.  On  the  3d  of  July,  after  having 
been  summoned  from  Dort  to  the  Hague,  they 
appeared  before  the  States  General,  and  when 
they  had  been  called  in  singly  before  their  lord- 
ships, some  time  was  spent  to  induce  each  of 
them  to  sign  the  act  of  cessation  from  the 
ministry.  But  to  these  renewed  solicitations 
they  separately  returned  the  same  modest 
answer  as  that  which  they  had  delivered  at 
Dort.  After  allowing  them  two  days  for  far- 
ther deliberation,  their  lordships  on  the  fifth 
of  the  same  month,  having  heard  a  repetition 
of  their  refusal,  passed  a  resolution  to  banish 
them  "  out  of  the  united  provinces  and  the 
jurisdiction  thereof,  without  ever  being  allowed 
to  return  till  the  said  states  be  fully  satisfied 
that  they  are  ready  to  subscribe  the  said  act  of 
cessation,  and  till  they  have  obtained  special 
leave  from  their  high  mightinesses  for  that 
purpose,  on  pain,  in  case  of  non-compliance, 
of  being  treated  as  disturbers  of  the  public 
peace,  for  an  example  to  others."  Episcopius 
delivered  a  short  speech,  in  which,  among 
other  matters,  he  reminded  their  high  mighti- 
nesses, "  that  they  had  been  invited  to  a  free 
synod,  and  had  received  frequent  verbal  pro- 
mises of  a  safo  conduct."  To  this  speech  they 
did  not  deign  a  reply,  but  ordered  the  Remon- 
strants to  be  conducted  into  another  room,  and 
to  have  the  door  locked  and  bolted,  while  the 
provost  and  his  officers  attended  on  the  outside 
for  purposes  of  intimidation.  Alter  being  kept 
some  time  in  this  kind  of  imprisonment  they 
u  ere  at  Length  permitted  to  depute  to  their  high 
mightinesses  two  of  their  body,  who  requested 
that  they  might  have  leave  to  adjust  their  do- 
mestic affairs,  to  oollect  what  was  owing-  to 
them,  and  to  pay  their  debts,  that  their  wives 
and  children  might  not  be  rendered  miserable 
and  turned  naked  into  the  st  roets.  They  offered 
to  give  unexceptionable  security  for  their  re- 
turn at  such  a  period  and  to  such  places  as  their 
lordehips  might  require,  \\  bile  they  were 
preferring  this  request,  the  rleer  Muis  often 
interrupted  them,  and  at  last  sarcastically  told 
th»m  "not  to  be  so  greatly  concerned  about 
their  families;  for  if  they  had  received  an 
extraordinary    call    from    God    to    serve    his 


church,  he  would  undoubtedly  support  them 
after  an  extraordinary  manner."  But  the  only 
favour  which  the  Remonstrants  could  obtain, 
was,  the  deferring  of  their  departure  till  four 
o'clock  the  next  morning,  provided  each  of 
them  would  promise  to  retire  to  his  lodgings 
without  speaking  to  any  body,  and  to  be  ready 
at  the  appointed  early  hour  next  day.  Each 
of  them  had  fifty  guilders  allowed  for  his  travel- 
ling expenses,  and  a  copy  of  the  sentence  of 
the  States  General.  But  it  was  between  nine 
and  ten  o'clock  the  next  day,  before  the  magis- 
trates removed  them  in  nine  wagons  toward 
Walvvick  in  Brabant,  the  place  of  banishment 
which  they  had  desired,  where  they  arrived 
after  a  journey  of  three  days.  The  canons  of 
Dort,  as  the  grand  test  of  Calvinism,  were  then 
carried  triumphantly  by  the  synodists  through- 
out the  land  ;  and  every  clergyman,  professor, 
and  schoolmaster,  that  refused  to  sign  them, 
was  deprived  of  his  benefice  and  compelled  to 
lay  aside  his  functions.  Several  of  them,  in 
addition  to  their  deprivation,  were  also  banished 
out  of  the  country,  to  various  parts  on  the  con- 
tinent. So  ended  these  proceedings  of  the 
Synod  of  Dort  as  to  these  suffering  men  ;  pro- 
ceedings which  would  have  disgraced  the  worst 
age  of  popery ! 

While  in  a  state  of  banishment,  these  ex- 
cellent ministers  of  Christ  Jesus  provided  for 
the  spiritual  wants  of  their  destitute  flocks  ; 
and,  at  the  imminent  hazard  of  life  and  liberty, 
discharged  in  person,  as  often  as  they  found 
opportunity,  the  duties  of  the  pastoral  office. 
After  the  death  of  Prince  Maurice,  in  1C31, 
they  were  permitted  to  return  to  their  native 
country,  and  to  resume  the  peaceable  exercise 
of  their  ministry.  But  the  immense  literary 
labours  in  which  they  were  compelled  to  en- 
gage during  this  troublous  period  have,  by  the 
admirably  over-ruling  acts  of  Divine  Provi- 
dence, been  rendered  most  valuable  blessings 
to  the  whole  of  Christendom.  Such  doctrines 
and  principles  were  then  brought  under  dis- 
cussion, as  served  to  enlighten  every  country 
in  Europe  on  the  grand  subject  of  civil  and 
religious  liberty,  the  true  nature  of  which  has 
from  that  time  been  better  understood,  and  its 
beneficial  effects  more  generally  appreciated 
and  enjoyed. 

We  subjoin  their  opinions  on  the  "  Five 
Points"  in  dispute  between  them  and  the 
Contra-Remonstrants,  translated  from  the  La- 
tin papers  which  they  presented  to  the  synod. 
It  is,  however,  necessary  for  the  reader  to  be 
apprized,  that,  in  framing  these  doctrinal  ar- 
ticles, which  served  them  as  texts  or  theses 
for  some  most  valuable  dissertations  on  various 
cognate  subjects,  they  intended  rather  to  ex- 
pose the  unguarded  assertions  and  extravagant 
dogmas  of  their  theological  adversaries,  than 
to  exhibit  a  simple  statement  of  their  own 
sentiments. 

I.  On  predestination.  1.  God  has  not  de- 
creed to  elect  any  one  to  eternal  life  or  to 
reprobate  any  man  from  it,  in  an  order  prior 
to  that  by  which  he  has  decreed  to  create  that 
man,  without  any  insight  into  any  antecedent 
obedience  or  disobedience,  but  according  to  his 


SYN 


897 


SYN 


own  good  pleasure,  to  demonstrate  the  glory 
of  his  mercy  and  justice,  or  of  his  power  or 
absolute  dominion.  2.  As  the  decree  of  God 
concerning  both  the  salvation  and  the  destruc- 
tion of  every  man  is  not  the  decree  of  an  end 
absolutely  [intenti]  fixed,  it  follows  that  neither 
are  such  means  subordinated  to  that  decree  as 
through  them  both  the  elect  and  the  reprobate 
may  efficaciously  and  inevitably  be  brought  to 
the  destined  end.  3.  Wherefore,  neither  did 
God  with  this  design  in  one  man  Adam  create 
all  men  in  an  upright  condition,  nor  did  he  or- 
dain the  fall  or  even  its  permission,  nor  did  he 
withdraw  from  Adam  necessary  and  sufficient 
grace,  nor  does  he  now  cause  the  Gospel  to  be 
preached  and  men  to  be  outwardly  called,  nor 
does  he  confer  on  them  the  gifts  of  the  Holy 
►Spirit, — [he  has  done  none  of  these  things  with 
the  design]  that  they  should  be  means  by  which 
he  might  bring  some  of  mankind  to  life  ever- 
lasting, and  leave  others  of  them  destitute  of 
eternal  life.  Christ  the  Mediator  is  not  only 
the  executor  of  election,  but  also  the  founda- 
tion of  the  very  decree  of  election  itself.  The 
reason  [causa]  why  some  men  are  efficaciously 
called,  justified,  persevere  in  faith,  and  are 
glorified,  is  not  because  they  are  absolutely 
elected  to  life  eternal :  nor  is  the  reason  why 
others  are  deserted  and  left  in  the  fall,  have 
not  Christ,  bestowed  upon  them,  or,  farther, 
why  they  are  inefficaciously  called,  are  hard- 
ened and  damned,  because  these  men  are  ab- 
solutely reprobated  from  eternal  life.  4.  God 
has  not  decreed,  without  the  intervening  of 
actual  sins,  to  leave  by  far  the  greater  part  of 
mankind  in  the  fall,  and  excluded  from  all 
hope  of  salvation.  5.  God  has  ordained  that 
Christ  shall  be  the  propitiation  for  the  sins  of 
the  whole  world ;  and,  in  virtue  of  this  decree, 
he  has  determined  to  justify  and  save  those 
who  believe  in  him,  and  to  administer  to  men 
the  means  which  are  necessary  and  sufficient 
for  faith,  in  such  a  manner  as  he  knows  to  be 
befitting  his  wisdom  and  justice.  But  he  has 
not  in  any  wise  determined,  in  virtue  of  an 
absolute  decree,  to  give  Christ  as  a  Mediator 
for  the  elect  only,'  and  to  endow  them  alone 
with  faith  through  an  effectual  call,  to  justify 
them,  to  preserve  them  in  the  faith,  and  to 
glorify  them.  6.  Neither  is  any  man  by  some 
absolute  antecedent  decree  rejected  from  life 
eternal,  nor  from  means  sufficient  to  attain 
it :  so  that  the  merits  of  Christ,  calling,  and 
all  the  gifts  of  the  Spirit,  are  capable  of  pro- 
fiting all  men  for  their  salvation,  and  are  in 
reality  profitable  to  all  men,  unless  by  an  abuse 
of  these  blessings  they  pervert  them  to  their 
own  destruction.  But  no  man  whatever  is  des- 
tined to  unbelief,  impiety,  or  the  commission 
of  sin,  as  the  means  and  cau'Ses  of  his  damna- 
tion. 7.  The  election  of  particular  persons  is 
[peremptoria]  absolute,  from  consideration  of 
their  faith  in  Jesus  Christ  and  their  perse- 
verance, but  not  without  consideration  of  their 
faith  and  of  their  perseverance  in  true  faith  as 
a  prerequisite  condition  in  electing  them.  8. 
Reprobation  from  eternal  life  is  made  accord- 
ing to  the  consideration  of  preceding  unbelief 
and  perseverance  in  unbelief,  but  not  without 
58 


consideration  of  preceding  unbelief  or  perse- 
verance in  unbelief.  9.  All  the  children  of 
believers  are  sanctified  in  Christ ;  so  that  not 
one  of  them  perishes  who  departs  out  of  this 
life  prior  to  the  use  of  reason.  But  some  chil- 
dren of  believers  who  depart  out  of  this  life  in 
their  infancy,  and  before  they  have  in  their 
own  persons  committed  any  sin,  are  on  no  ac- 
count to  be  reckoned  in  the  number  of  the  re- 
probate :  so  that  neither  is  the  sacred  laver  of 
baptism,  nor  are  the  prayers  of  the  church,  by 
any  means  capable  of  profiting  them  to  salva- 
tion. 10.  No  children  of  believers  who  have 
been  baptized  in  the  name  of  the  Father,  of 
the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  who  live 
in  the  state  of  their  infancy,  are  by  an  absolute 
decree  numbered  among  the  reprobate. 

II.  On  the  universality  of  the  merit  of  Christ. 

1.  The  price  of  redemption  which  Christ  of- 
fered to  his  Father  is  in  and  of  itself  not  only 
sufficient  for  the  redemption  of  the  whole  hu- 
man race,  but  it  has  also,  through  the  decree, 
the  will,  and  the  grace  of  God  the  Father,  been 
paid  for  all  men  and  every  man ;  and  there- 
fore no  one  is  by  an  absolute  and  antecedent 
decree  of  God  positively  excluded  from  all 
participation  in  the  fruits  of  the  death  of  Christ. 

2.  Christ,  by  the  merit  of  his  death,  has  [hac- 
tenus]  thus  far  reconciled  God  the  Father  to  the 
whole  of  mankind, — that  he  can  and  will,  with- 
out injury  to  his  justice  and  truth,  enter  into 
and  establish  a  new  covenant  of  grace  with 
sinners  and  men  obnoxious  to  damnation.  3. 
Though  Christ  has  merited  for  all  men  and 
for  every  man  reconciliation  with  God  and  for- 
giveness of  sins,  yet,  according  to  [pactum] 
the  tenor  or  terms  of  the  new  and  gracious  co- 
venant, no  man  is  in  reality  made  a  partaker  of 
the  benefits  procured  by  the  death  of  Christ  in 
any  other  way  than  through  faith ;  neither  are 
the  trespasses  and  offences  of  sinful  men  forgiv- 
en prior  to  their  actually  and  truly  believing  in 
Christ.  4.  Those  only  for  whom  Christ  has 
died  are  obliged  to  believe  that  Christ  has  died 
for  them.  But  those  whom  they  call  repro- 
bates, and  for  whom  Christ  has  not  died,  can 
neither  be  obliged  so  to  believe,  nor  can  they 
be  justly  condemned  for  the  contrary  unbelief; 
but  if  such  persons  were  reprobates,  they 
would  be  obliged  to  believe  that  Christ  has 
not  died  for  them. 

III.  &  IV.  On  the  operation  of  grace  in  the 
conversion  of  man.  1.  Man  has  not  saving 
faith  from  and  of  himself,  nor  has  he  it  from 
the  powers  of  his  own  free  will ;  because  in  a 
state  of  sin  he  is  able  from  and  of  himself  to 
think,  will,  or  do  nothing  that  is  good,  nothing 
that  is  indeed  saving  good ;  of  which  descrip- 
tion, in  the  first  place,  is  saving  faith.  But  it 
is  necessary  that,  by  God  in  Christ  through 
his  Holy  Spirit,  he  should  be  regenerated  and 
renewed  in  his  understanding,  affections,  will, 
and  in  all  his  powers,  that  he  may  be  capable 
of  rightly  understanding,  meditating,  willing, 
and  performing  such  things  as  are  savingly 
good.  2.  We  propound  the  grace  of  God  to  be 
the  beginning,  the  progress,  and  the  comple- 
tion of  every  good  thing ;  so  that  even  the  man 
who  is  born  again  is  not  able  without  this  pre- 


SYN 


898 


SYN 


ceding  and  prcvenient,  this  exciting  and  fol- 
lowing, this  accompanying  and  cooperating 
grace,  to  think,  to  will,  or  to  perform  any  good, 
or  to  resist  any  temptations  to  evil:  so  that 
good  works,  and  the  good  actions  which  any 
one  is  abl."*  to  find  out  by  thinking,  are  to  be 
ascribed  to  the  grace  of  God  in  Christ.  3. 
Yet  we  do  not  believe  that  all  the  zeal,  care, 
study,  and  pains,  whicli  are  employed  to  obtain 
salvation,  before  faith  and  the  Spirit  of  reno- 
vation, are  vain  and  useless  ;  much  less  do  we 
believe  that  they  are  more  hurtful  to  man  than 
useful  and  profitable.  But,  on  the  contrary, 
we  consider  that  to  hear  the  word  of  God,  to 
mourn  on  account  of  the  commission  of  sin, 
and  earnestly  to  seek  and  desire  saving  grace 
and  the  Spirit  of  renovation,  (none  of  which 
is  any  man  capable  of  doing  without  divine 
grace,)  are  not  only  not  hurtful  and  useless, 
but  that  they  are  rather  most  useful  and  ex- 
ceedingly necessary  for  obtaining  faith  and  the 
Spirit  of  renovation.  4.  The  will  of  man  in  a 
lapsed  or  fallen  state,  and  before  the  call  of 
God,  has  not  the  capability  and  liberty  of 
willing  any  good  that  is  of  a  saving  nature ; 
and  therefore  we  deny  that  the  liberty  of  will- 
ing as  well  what  is  a  saving  good  as  what  is  an 
evil  is  present  to  the  human  will  in  every  state 
or  condition.  5.  Efficacious  grace,  by  which 
any  man  is  converted,  is  not  irresistible :  and 
though  God  so  affects  the  will  of  man  by  his 
word  and  the  inward  operation  of  his  Spirit,  as 
to  confer  upon  him  a  capability  of  believing, 
or  supernatural  power,  and  actually  [faciat] 
causes  man  to  believe ;  yet  man  is  of  himself 
capable  to  spurn  and  reject  this  grace  and  not 
believe,  and  therefore,  also,  to  perish  through 
his  own  culpability.  (>.  Although,  according 
to  the  most  free  and  unrestrained  will  of  God, 
there  is  very  great  disparity  or  inequality  of 
divine  grace,  yet  the  Holy  Spirit  either  be- 
stows, or  is  ready  to  bestow,  upon  all  and  upon 
every  one  to  whom  the  word  of  faith  is  preach- 
ed, as  much  grace  as  is  sufficient  to  promote 
[suis  gradibus]  in  ks  gradations  the  conversion 
of  men  ;  and  therefore  grace  sufficient  for  faith 
and  conversion  is  conceded  not  only  to  those 
whom  God  is  said  to  lie  willing  to  save  ac- 
cording to  his  decree  of  absolute  election,  but 
likewise  to  those  who  are  in  reality  not  con- 
verted. 7.  Man  is  able,  by  the  grace  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  to  do  more  good  than  he  actually 
does,  and  to  omit  more  evil  than  he  actually 
omits.  Neither  do  we  believe  that  God  [sim. 
pliriler]  absolutely  wills  that  man  should  do  no 
more  good  than  that  which  he  does,  and  to 
omit  no  more  evil  than  that  which  he  omits; 
nor  do  we  believe  it  to  have  been  detcrminately 
decreed  from  all  eternity  thai  each  of  such  acts 
should  be  bo  done  or  omitted.  8.  Whomsoever 
God  calls  he  calls  them  seriously,  that  is,  with 
i  re  and  not  with  a  dissembled  intention 
and  will  of  saving  them.  Neither  do  we  sub- 
to  the  opinion  of  those  persons  who 
assert  that  God  outwardly  calls  certain  men 
whom  he  docs  not  will  to  call  inwardly,  that 
is,  whom  he  is  unwilling  to  be  truly  converted, 
even  prior  to  their  rejection  of  the  grace  of 
calling.     9.  There  is  not  in  God  a  secret  will 


of  that  kind  which  is  so  opposed  to  his  will 
revealed  in  his  word,  that  according  to  this 
same  secret  will  he  does  not  will  the  conver- 
sion and  salvation  of  the  greatest  part  of  those 
whom,  by  the  word  of  his  Gospel,  and  by  his 
revealed  will,  he  seriously  calls  and  invites  to 
faith  and  salvation.  10.  Neither  [hie]  on  this 
point  do  we  admit  of  a  holy  dissimulation,  as 
it  is  the  manner  of  some  men  to  speak,  or  of 
a  twofold  person  in  the  Deity.  11.  It  is  not 
true,  that,  through  the  force  and  efficacy  of 
the  secret  will  of  Gcd  or  of  the  divine  decree, 
not  only  are  all  good  things  necessarily  done, 
but  likewise  all  evil  things ;  so  that  whosoever 
commit  sin,  they  are  not  able,  in  respect  to  the 
divine  decree,  to  do  otherwise  than  commit 
sin  ;  and  that  God  wills,  decrees,  and  [procurat] 
is  the  manager  of  men's  sins,  and  of  their  in- 
sane, foolish,  and  cruel  actions,  also  of  the 
sacrilegious  blasphemy  of  his  own  name  ;  that 
he  moves  the  tongues  of  men  to  blaspheme, 
&,c.  12.  We  also  consider  it  to  be  a  false  and 
horrible  dogma,  that  God  by  secret  means  im- 
pels men  to  the  commission  of  those  sins 
which  he  openly  prohibits  ;  that  those  who  sin 
do  not  act  in  opposition  to  the  true  will  of  God 
and  that  which  is  properly  so  called  ;  that  what 
is  unjust,  that  is,  what  is  contrary  to  God's 
command,  is  agreeable  to  his  will ;  nay,  far- 
ther, that  it  is  a  real  and  capital  fault  to  do  the 
will  of  God. 

V.  On  the  perseverance  of  true  believers  in 
faith.  1.  The  perseverance  of  believers  in 
faith  is  not  the  effect  of  that  absolute  decree 
of  God  by  which  he  is  said  to  have  elected  or 
chosen  particular  persons  circumscribed  with 
no  condition  of  their  obedience.  2.  God  fur- 
nishes true  believers  with  supernatural  powers 
or  strength  of  grace,  as  much  as  according  to 
his  infinite  wisdom  he  judges  to  suffice  for 
their  perseverance,  and  for  their  overcoming 
the  temptations  of  the  devil,  the  flesh,  and  the 
world;  and  on  the  part  of  God  stands  nothing 
to  hinder  them  from  persevering.  3.  It  is 
possible  for  true  believers  to  fall  away  from 
true  faith,  and  to  fall  into  sins  of  such  a  de- 
scription as  cannot  consist  with  a  true  and 
justifying  faith ;  nor  is  it  only  possible  for 
them  thus  to  fall,  but  such  lapses  not  unfrc- 
quently  occur.  4.  True  believers  are  capable 
by  their  own  fault  of  falling  into  flagrant 
crimes  and  atrocious  wickedness,  to  persevere 
and  die  in  them,  and  therefore  finally  to  fall 
away  and  to  perish.  5.  Yet  though  true  be- 
lievers sometimes  fall  into  grievous  sins,  and 
such  as  destroy  the  conscience,  we  do  not  be- 
lieve that  they  immediately  fall  away  from  all 
hope  of  repentance  ;  but  we  acknowledge  this 
to  be  an  event  not  impossible  to  occur,— that 
God,  according  t^  the  multitude  of  his  mercies 
may  again  call  them  by  his  grace  to  repent- 
ance ;  nay,  we  are  of  opinion  that  such  a  re- 
calling has  often  occurred,  although  such  fallen 
believers  cannot  be  "  most  fully  persuaded" 
about  this  matter  that  it  will  certain'y  and 
undoubtedly  take  place.  6.  Therefore  do  wo 
with  our  whole  heart  and  soul  reject  the  fol 
[owing  dogmas,  which  are  daily  affirmed  in  va- 
rious publications  extensively  circulated  among 


SYN 


899 


SYN 


the  people  :  namely,  (1.)  "True  believers  can- 
not possibly  sin  with  deliberate  counsel  and 
design,  but  only  through  ignorance  and  infir- 
mity." (2.)  "  It  is  impossible  for  true  believers, 
through  any  sins  of  theirs,  to  fall  away  from 
the  grace  of  God."  (3.)  "A  thousand  sins, 
nay,  all  the  sins  of  the  whole  world,  are  not 
capable  of  rendering  election  vain  and  void." 
If  to  this  be  added,  "  Men  of  every  description 
are  bound  to  believe  that  they  are  elected  to 
salvation,  and  therefore  are  incapable  of  fall- 
ing from  that  election,"  we  leave  men  to  think 
what  a  wide  window  such  a  dogma  opens  to 
carnal  security.  (4.)  "  No  sins,  however  great 
and  grievous  they  may  be,  are  imputed  to  be- 
lievers ;  nay,  farther,  all  sins,  both  present  and 
future,  are  remitted  to  them."  (5.)  "  Though 
true  believers  fall  into  destructive  heresies, 
into  dreadful  and  most  atrocious  sins,  such  as 
adultery  and  murder,  on  account  of  which  the 
church,  according  to  the  institution  of  Christ, 
is  compelled  to  testify  that  it  cannot  tolerate 
them  in  its  outward  communion,  and  that  un- 
less such  persons  be  converted,  they  will  have 
no  part  in  the  kingdom  of  Christ ;  yet  it  is 
impossible  for  them  totally  and  finally  to  fall 
away  from  faith."  7.  As  a  true  believer  is 
capable  at  tho  present  time  of  being  assured 
concerning  the  integrity  of  his  faith  and  con- 
science, so  he  is  able  and  ought  to  be  at  this 
time  assured  of  his  own  salvation  and  of  the 
saving  goodwill  of  God  toward  him.  On  this 
point  we  highly  disapprove  of  the  opinion  of 
the  papists.  8.  A  true  believer,  respecting 
the  time  to  come,  can  and  ought,  indeed,  to 
be  assured  that  he  is  able,  by  means  of  watch- 
ing, prayer,  and  other  holy  exercises,  to  perse- 
vere in  the  true  faith ;  and  that  divine  grace 
will  never  fail  to  assist  him  in  persevering. 
But  we  cannot  see  how  it  is  possible  for  him 
to  be  assured  that  he  will  never  afterward  be 
deficient  in  his  duty,  but  that  he  will  persevere, 
in  this  school  of  Christian  warfare,  in  the  per- 
formance of  acts  of  faith,  piety,  and  charity, 
as  becomes  believers ;  neither  do  we  consider 
it  to  be  a  matter  of  necessity  that  a  believer 
should  be  assured  of  such  perseverance. 

Under  the  article  Pelagians  has  been  shown 
the  line  of  distinction  which  the  Remonstrants 
drew  between  their  doctrines  and  those  of 
Pelagius ;  and  the  following  are  the  just  dis- 
tinctions, which  they  presented  to  the  synod 
of  Dort,  between  Semi-Pelagianism  and  Ar- 
minianism  :  "  But  we  must  declare,  likewise, 
what  our  judgment  is  respecting  Semi-Pela- 
gianism.  The  Massilians,  after  the  time  of 
Pelagius,  partly  corrected  his  error  and  partly 
retained  it ;  on  which  account  they  received 
from  Prosper  the  appellation  of  the  relics  or 
remains  of  Pelagius,  and  are  commonly  styled 
Semi-Pelagians.  They  allowed  the  existence 
of  prevenient  grace,  but  only  that  which  pre- 
cedes or  goes  before  good  works ;.  not  that 
also  which  precedes  the  commencement  of 
faith  and  of  a  good  will,  by  which  they  be- 
hoved that  man  preceded  God, — yet  this  not 
always,  but  only  sometimes :  On  the  contrary 
we  say,  that  God  precedes  or  goes  before  the 
beginning  of  faith  and  of  a  good  will ;  and  that 


it  is  of  grace  both  that  our  will  be  excited  to 
begin  well,  and  likewise,  that,  being  thus  pre- 
pared, it  be  led  through  to  the  grace  of  rege- 
neration. The  Semi-Pelagians  asserted,  that 
man,  through  the  previous  dispositions  which 
had  been  implanted  in  his  nature,  obtained 
grace  as  a  reward ;  and,  however  they  might 
sometimes  decline  the  use  of  the  term  merit, 
they  by  no  means  excluded  merit  itself:  But 
we  deny,  that,  through  the  endeavours  of  na- 
ture, man  merits  grace.  The  opinion  of  the 
Semi-Pelagians  was,  that,  for  the  preservation 
of  the  grace  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  we  want  no- 
thing more  than  that  which  either  by  nature 
we  may  have,  or  that  which  we  may  once  ob- 
tain in  conjunction  with  grace :  But  we  ac- 
knowledge, that,  in  order  to  our  perseverance 
in  good,  special  grace  is  likewise  required. 

"  Wherefore  we  are  unjustly  accused  of 
Semi-Pelagianism  by  the  Contra-Remonstrants, 
since  we  condemn  in  the  Semi-Pelagians  those 
things  which  the  church  universal  formerly 
condemned  in  them.  Yet  these  are  great 
signs  of  inconstancy  and  consequently  of  a 
false  judgment, — that  while  some  among  them 
fasten  Pelagianism  upon  us  and  others  Semi- 
Pelagianism,  there  are  others  who  declare  that 
we  are  nearly  and  almost  Semi-Pelagians,  all 
of  them  having  chosen  and  employed  these 
epithets  only  for  purposes  of  odium.  Our  con- 
clusion therefore  is,  that  we  derogate  nothing 
from  divine  grace,  but  acknowledge  its  super- 
natural and  unmerited  acts,  and  their  absolute 
necessity  for  the  work  of  conversion.  But,  on 
the  other  hand,  we  frankly  confess,  that  the 
indifferency  or  liberty  of  the  will  is  not  taken 
away  by  grace,  but  that  it  is  perfected  for  the 
better  ;  and  that  the  will  is  not  necessitated,  or 
so  determined  toward  good  as  not  to  be  able 
to  do  the  opposite. 

"  This  was  also  the  judgment  of  all  anti- 
quity and  of  the  church  universal ;  and  the 
orthodox  accounted  this  way  to  be  the  safest, 
which  lay  between  two  precipices,  the  one 
that  of  the  Manichees,  the  other  that  of  the 
Pelagians.  St.  Jerom  says,  '  We  thus  preserve 
free  will,  that  we  do  not  deny  to  it  the  help 
which  it  requires  in  every  thing  which  it  per- 
forms,' Dialog,  adversus  Pelagium.  And  St. 
Augustine,  who  was  at  other  times  a  most 
fierce  defender  of  absolute  election,  judiciously 
observes,  in  his  forty-sixth  letter  to  Valenti- 
nus,  '  If  there  be  no  grace  of  God,  how  does 
he  save  the  world  ?  And  if  there  be  no  free 
will,  how  does  he  judge  the  world?'  And,  as 
St.  Bernard  says,  in  the  commencement  of  his 
book  On  Grace  and  Free  Will,  'Take  away 
free  will,  and  there  will  be  nothing  to  be  saved  ; 
take  away  grace,  and  there  will  then  be  no- 
thing from  which  salvation  can  come.'  We 
have  had  regard  to  both  of  them ;  lest,  if  we 
denied  the  existence  of  freedom  in  the  will,  we 
should  encourage  the  sloth  and  listlcssness  of 
men ;  or  if  the  existence  of  grace,  we  should 
give  up  the  reins  to  pride  and  haughtiness. — 
From  these  quotations  [and  others  which  they 
give]  it  is  evident  that  the  opinion  of  the  fa- 
thers was,  that  free  will  and  grace  so  com- 
pletely   conspire    together,    that    free   will    is 


SYR 


900 


TAB 


perfected  by  grace,  and  not  destroyed;  the 
destruction  of  the  will  in  this  case  being  a 
calumny  invented  by  the  Pelagians,  which  was 
nneraUy  refuted  by  the  patrons  of  grace." 

For  other  particulars  relating  to  general  re- 
demption consult  the  articles  Arminiamsm, 
Baxtkhiamsm,  Cai.vi.msm,  Churcb  of  England, 
and  LoCTHUNS. 

SN  i:  \<  IU8E,  a  famous  city  of  Sicily,  seated 
on  the  e.ist  side  of  the  island,  Acts  xxviii,  12. 

SYRIA,  that  part  of  Asia  which,  bathed  by 
the   Mediterranean   on  the  west,   had   to   the 
nortli  Mounl  Taurus,  to  the  east  the  Euphrates 
and  a  small  portion  of  Arabia,  and  to  the  south 
Judea,  or  Palestine.     The  orientals  called  it 
Aram.    The  name,  which  has  been  transmitted 
to  us  by  the  Greeks,  is  a  corruption  or  abridg- 
ment of  Assyria,  which  was  first  adopted  by 
the  Ionians,  who  frequented  these  coasts  after 
the   Assyrians  of  Nineveh  had   reduced  that 
country  to  be  a  province  of  their  empire,  about 
B.C.  750.     By  the  appellation  of  Syria  is  ordi- 
narily meant  the  kingdom  of  Syria,  of  which, 
since  the  reign  of  the  Seleucida?,  Antioch  has 
been  the  capital.     The  government  of  Syria 
was  for  a  long  time  monarchical ;  but  some  of 
its  towns,  which  formed  several  states,  were 
republics.      With  regard  to  religion,  the  Sy- 
rians were    idolaters.     The  central   place   of 
their  worship  was  Hieropolis,  in  which  was  a 
magnificent  temple,  and  near  the  temple  a  lake 
that  was  reputed  sacred.     In  this  temple  was 
an  oracle,  the  credit  of  which  the  priests  used 
every  method  to  support.      The  priests  were 
distributed    into   various    classes,  and   among 
thein  were  those  who  were  denominated  Galli, 
and  who  voluntarily  renounced  the  power  of 
transmitting  the  succession  in  their  own  fa- 
milies.     The    Syrians    had    bloody   sacrifices. 
Among  the  religious  ceremonies  of  the    Sy- 
rians, one  was  that  any  one  who  undertook  a 
journey  to  Hieropolis  began  with  shaving  his 
head  and  eye-brows.     He  was  not  allowed  to 
bathe,    except    in    cold   water,    to    drink    any 
liquor,  nor  to  lie  on  any  but  a  hard  bed,  before 
the  term  of  his  pilgrimage  was  finished.  When 
the  pilgrims  arrived,  they  were  maintained  at 
the  public  expense,  and  lodged  with  those  who 
engaged  to  instruct  them  in  the  sacred  rites 
and  ceremonies.    All  the  pilgrims  were  marked 
on  the  neck  and   wrists.     The  youth  conse- 
crated to  the  goddess  the  first-fruits  of  their 
beard  and  hair,  which  was  preserved   in   the 
temple,  in  a  vessel  of  gold  or  silver,  on  which 
was    inscribed   the   name   of  the   person  who 
made  the  ottering.     The  sight  of  a  dead  per- 
son rendered  it  unfit  for  any  one  to  enter  into 
the  temple  during   the  whole  day.      The  dy- 
nasties  of  Syria  nuiy  be  distributed  into  two 
classes;  those  that  are  made  known  to  us  in 
the  sacred   writings,  or  in  the  works  of  Jose- 
(thus,  acknowledged  by  the  orientals;  and  the 
Seleucidan    kings,    successors   of  Alexander, 
with  whom  '.ve  are  acquainted  by  Greek  au- 
thors.   The  monarchy  of  Syria  continued  two 

hundred  and  liflv-seven  years, 

JYRO  PHENIC1  \.  or  PHENIC]  \  PRO. 
PER,  called  Syro  or  Syrian  Phenicia  from 
bein(f  included  in  the  kingdom  of  Syria.     It 


implies  that  part  of  the  coast  of  Canaan  on  the 
Mediterranean  in  which  the  cities  of  Tyre  and 
Sidon  were  situated ;  and  this  same  country, 
called  Syro-Phenicia  in  the  Acts,  is  in  the 
Gospels  called  the  coasts  of  Tyre  and  Sidon. 
The  woman  also  called  a  Syro-Phenician  in 
Mark  vii,  26,  is  in  Matt,  xv,  22,  called  a  Ca- 
naanitish  woman,  because  that  country  was 
still  inhabited  by  the  descendants  of  Canaan, 
of  whom  Sidon  was  the  eldest  son. 

TABERNACLE,  in  Hebrew,  biK,  in  Greek, 

ctk>;i*)j,  a  word  which  properly  signifies  a  tent,  but 
is  particularly  applied  by  the  Hebrews  to  a  kind 
of  building  in  the  form  of  a  tent,  set  up  by  the 
express  command  of  God,  for  the  performance 
of  religious  worship,  sacrifices,  &c,  during  the 
journeyings  of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness ; 
and  after  their  settlement  in  the  land  of  Ca- 
naan made  use  of  for  the  same  purpose,  till 
the  temple  was  built  in  Jerusalem.    The  taber- 
nacle was  covered  with  curtains  and  skins.    It 
was  divided  into  two  parts,  the  one  covered, 
and  properly  called  the   tabernacle,   and   the 
other  open,  called  the  court.    The  covered  part 
was  again  divided  into  two  parts,  the  one  call- 
ed holy,  and  the  other  called  the  holy  of  holies. 
The  curtains  which  covered  it  were  made  of 
linen  of  several  colours  embroidered.     There 
were  ten   curtains,  twenty-eight  cubits  long, 
and  four  in  breadth.     Five  curtains  together 
made  two  coverings,  which,  being  made  fast 
together,  enveloped  all  the  tabernacle.     Over 
the  rest  there  were  two  other  coverings,  the 
one  of  goat's  hair,  and  the  other  of  sheep  skins. 
These  vails  or  coverings  were  laid  on  a  square 
frame  of  planks,  resting  on  bases.    There  were 
forty-eight  large  planks,  each  a  cubit  and  a 
half  wide,  and  ten  cubits  high  ;  twenty  of  them 
on  each  side,  and  six  at  one  end  to  the  west- 
ward ;  each  plank  was  supported  by  two  silver 
bases  ;  they  were  let  into  one  another,  and  held 
by  bars  running  the  length  of  the  planks.   The 
holy  of  holies  was  parted  from  the  rest  of  the 
tabernacle  by  a  curtain,  made  fast  to  four  pillars 
standing  ten  cubits  from  the  end.     The  whole 
length  of  the  tabernacle  was  thirty-two  cubits, 
that  is,  about  fifty  feet ;  and  the  breadth  twelve 
cubits,  or  nineteen  feet.   The  end  was  thirty  cu- 
bits high  ;  the  upper  curtain  hung  on  the  north 
and  south  sides  eight  cubits,  and  on  the  east 
and  west  four  cubits.    The  court  was  a  place  a 
hundred  cubits  long,  and  fifty  in  breadth,  in- 
closed by  twenty  columns,  each  of  them  twenty 
cubits  high,  and  ten  in  breadth,  covered  with 
silver,  and  standing  on  copper  bases,  five  cu- 
bits distant  from  each  other,  between  which 
there  were  curtains  drawn,  and  fastened  with 
hooks.      At  the    east   end  was   an    entrance 
twenty   cubits   wide,  covered  with   a  curtain 
hanging  loose.     In  the  tabernacle  was  the  ark 
of  the  covenant,  the  table  of  shew  bread,  the 
golden  candlestick,  and  the  altar  of  incense  ; 
and  in  the  court  opposite  to  the  entrance  of 
the  tabernacle,  or  holy  place,  stood  the  altar 
of  burnt-offerings,  and  the  laver  or  bason  for 
the  use  of  the  priests. 

The  tabernacle  was  finished  on  the  first  day 
of  the  first  month  of  the  second  year  after  the 


TAB 


901 


TAB 


departure  out  of  Egypt,  A.  M.  2514.  When 
it  was  set  up,  a  dark  cloud  covered  it  by  day, 
and  a  fiery  cloud  by  'night.  Moses  went  into 
the  tabernacle  to  consult  the  Lord.  It  was 
placed  in  the  midst  of  the  camp,  and  the  He- 
brews were  ranged  in  order  about  it,  according 
to  their  several  tribes.  "When  the  cloud  arose 
from  oft"  the  tabernacle,  they  decamped ;  the 
priests  carried  those  things  which  were  most 
sacred,  and  the  Levites  all  the  several  parts  of 
the  tabernacle.  Part  of  the  tribes  went  before, 
and  the  rest  followed  after,  and  the  baggage 
of  the  tabernacle  marched  in  the  centre.  The 
tabernacle  was  brought  into  the  land  of  Canaan 
by  Joshua,  and  set  up  at  Gilgal.  Here  it  rest- 
ed till  the  land  was  conquered.  Then  it  was 
removed  to  Shiloh,  and  afterward  to  Nob.  Its 
next  station  was  Gibeah,  and  here  it  continued 
till  the  ark  was  removed  to  the  temple. 

The  word  also  means  a  frail  dwelling,  Job 
xi,  14;  and  is  put  for  our  bodies,  2  Cor.  v,  1. 

TABERNACLES,  Feast  of,  a  solemn  fes- 
tival of  the  Hebrews,  observed  after  harvest, 
on  the  fifteenth  day  of  the  month  Tisri,  Lev. 
xxiii,  34—44.  It  was  one  of  the  three  great 
solemnities,  wherein  all  the  males  of  the  Is- 
raelites were  obliged  to  present  themselves 
before  the  Lord ;  and  it  was  instituted  to  com- 
memorate the  goodness  of  God,  who  protected 
them  in  the  wilderness,  and  made  them  dwell 
in  tents  or  booths  after  they  came  out  of  Egypt. 
(See  Feasts.)  This  feast  continued  eight  days, 
of  which  the  first  and  last  days  were  the  most 
solemn,  Lev.  xxiii,  34,  &c.  It  was  not  allowed 
to  do  any  labour  on  this  feast,  and  particular 
sacrifices  were  offered,  which,  together  with 
the  other  ceremonies  used  in  celebrating  this 
festival,  were  as  follows  :  The  first  day  of  the 
feast  they  cut  down  branches  of  the  hand- 
somest trees,  with  their  fruit,  branches  of  palm 
trees,  and  such  as  were  fullest  of  leaves,  and 
boughs  of  the  willow  trees  that  grew  upon  the 
sides  of  brooks,  Neh.  viii,  16.  These  they 
brought  together,  and  waved  them  toward  the 
four  quarters  of  the  world,  singing  certain 
songs.  These  branches  were  also  called  ho- 
sanna,  because  when  they  carried  them  and 
waved  them,  they  cried  Hosanna ;  not  unlike 
what  the  Jews  did  at  our  Saviour's  entry  into 
Jerusalem,  Matthew  xxi,  8,  9.  On  the  eighth 
day  they  performed  this  ceremony  oftener,  and 
with  greater  solemnity,  than  upon  the  other 
days  of  the  feast.  They  called  this  day  hosanna 
rabba,  or  "the  great  hosanna." 

TABLES  OF  THE  LAW.  Those  that 
were  given  to  Moses  upon  Mount  Sinai  were 
written  by  the  finger  of  God,  and  contained  the 
decalogue  or  ten  commandments  of  the  law, 
as  they  are  rehearsed  in  Exodus  xx.  Many 
questions  have  been  started  about  these  tables  ; 
about  their  matter,  their  form,  their  number, 
he  that  wrote  them,  and  what  they  contained. 
Some  oriental  authors  make  them  amount  to 
ten  in  number,  others  to  seven ;  but  the  He- 
brews reckon  but.  two.  Some  suppose  them  to 
have  been  of  wood,  and  others  of  precious 
stones.  Moses  observes,  Exod.  xxxii,  15,  that 
these  tables  were  written  on  both  sides.  Many 
think  they  were  transparent,  so  that  they  might 


be  read  through ;  on  one  side  toward  the 
right,  and  on  the  other  side  toward  the  left. 
Others  will  have  it,  that  the  lawgiver  only 
makes  this  observation,  that  the  tables  were 
written  on  both  sides,  because  generally  in 
writing  tables  they  only  wrote  on  one  side. 
Others  thus  translate  the  Hebrew  text :  "  They 
were  written  on  the  two  parts  that  were  con- 
tiguous to  each  other;"  because,  being  shut 
upon  one  another,  the  two  faces  that  were 
written  upon  touched  one  another,  so  that  no 
writing  was  seen  on  the  outside.  Some  think 
that  the  same  ten  commandments  were  written 
on  each  of  the  two  tables,  others  that  the  ten 
were  divided,  and  only  five  on  one  table,  and 
five  on  the  other.  The  words  which  intimate 
that  the  tables  were  written  by  the  finger  of 
God,  some  understand  simply  and  literally ; 
others,  of  the  ministry  of  an  angel ;  and  others 
explain  them  merely  to  signify  an  order  of  God 
to  Moses  to  write  them.  The  expression, 
however,  in  Scripture  always  signifies  imme- 
diate divine  agency.     See  Decalogue. 

TABOR,  a  mountain  not  far  from  Kadesh, 
in  the  tribe  of  Zebulun,  and  in  the  confines  of 
Issachar  and  Naphtali.  It  has  its  name  from 
its  eminence,  because  it  rises  up  in  the  midst 
of  a  wide  champaign  country,  called  the  Valley 
of  Jezreel,  or  the  great  plain.  Maundrell  tells 
us  that  the  area  at  the  top  of  this  mountain  is 
enclosed  with  trees,  except  to  the  south,  from 
whence  there  is  the  most  agreeable  prospect 
in  the  world.  Many  have  believed  that  our 
Lord's  transfiguration  took  place  on  this  mount- 
ain. This  place  is  mentioned,  1  Sam.  x,  3.  It 
is  minutely  described  by  both  Pococke  and 
Maundrell.  The  road  from  Nazareth  lies  for 
two  hours  between  low  hills  ;  it  then  opens  into 
the  plain  of  Esdraelon.  At  about  two  or  three 
furlongs  within  the  plain,  and  six  miles  from 
Nazareth,  rises  this  singular  mount,  which  is 
almost  entirely  insulated,  its  figure  represent- 
ing a  half  sphere.  "  It  is,"  says  Pococke, 
"one  of  the  finest  hills  I  ever  beheld,  being  a 
rich  soil  that  produces  excellent  herbage,  and 
is  most  beautifully  adorned  with  groves  and 
clumps  of  trees.  The  ascent  is  so  easy,  that 
we  rode  up  the  north  side  by  a  winding  road. 
Some  authors  mention  it  as  near  four  miles 
high,  others  as  about  two  :  the  former  may  be 
true,  as  to  the  winding  ascent  up  the  hill.  The 
top  of  it,  about  half  a  mile  long,  and  near  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  broad,  is  encompassed  with  a 
wall,  which  Josephus  says  was  built  in  forty 
days  :  there  was  also  a  wall  along  the  middle 
of  it,  which  divided  the  south  part,  on  which 
the  city  stood,  from  the  north  part,  which  is 
lower,  and  is  called  the  meidan,  or  place,  being 
probably  used  for  exercises  when  there  was  a 
city  here,  which  Josephus  mentions  by  the 
name  of  Ataburion.  Within  the  outer  wall  on 
the  north  side  are  several  deep  fosses,  out  of 
which,  it  is  probable,  the  stones  were  dug  to 
build  the  walls ;  and  these  fosses  seem  to  have 
answered  the  end  of  cisterns,  to  preserve  the 
rain  water,  and  were  also  some  defence  to  the 
city.  There  are  likewise  a  great  number  of 
cisterns  under  ground  for  preserving  the  rain 
water.     To  the  south,  where  the  ascent  was 


TAB 


5J02 


TAD 


most  easy,  there  are  fosses  out  on  tlic  outside, 
to  reader  the  access  t<>  the  walla  more  difficult. 
Some  of  the  fates,  also,  of  the  old  city  remain, 
as  Buh-ilJioiiiilt,  '  the  gate  of  the  winds,'  to 
the  west  ;  and  ItaL.cl-ktibbe,  'the  arched  gate,' 
;i  small  one  to  the  south.  Antiochus,  king  of 
Syria,  took  tin'  fortress  on  the  top  of  this  hill. 
Vespasian,  also,  got  possesion  of  it;  and,  after 
that,  Josephus  fortified  it  with  strong  walls. 
But  what  has  made  it  more  famous  than  any 
thins  else  is  the  common  opinion,  from  the 
time  of  St.  Jerom,  that  the  transfiguration  of 
our  Saviour  was  on  this  mountain."  Van  Eg- 
mont  and  Heyman  give  the  following  account : 
"  This  mountain,  though  somewhat  rugged  and 
difficult,  we  ascended  on  horseback,  making 
m  \iial  circuits  round  it,  which  took  us  up 
about  three  quarters  of  an  hour.  It  is  one  of 
the  highest  in  the  whole  country,  being  thirty 
stadia,  or  about  four  English  miles,  a  circum- 
stance that  rendered  it  more  famous.  And  it 
is  the  most  beautiful  I  ever  saw,  with  regard 
to  verdure,  being  every  where  decorated  with 
small  oak  trees,  and  the  ground  universally 
enamelled  with  a  variety  of  plants  and  flow- 
ers, except  on  the  south  side,  where  it  is  not 
so  fully  covered  with  verdure.  On  this  mount- 
ain are  great  numbers  of  red  partridges,  and 
some  wild  boars  ;  and  we  were  so  fortunate  as 
to  see  the  Arabs  hunting  them.  We  left,  but 
not  without  reluctancy,  this  delightful  place, 
and  found  at  the  bottom  of  it  a  mean  village, 
called  Deboura,  or  Tabour,  a  name  said  to  be 
derived  from  the  celebrated  Deborah  mentioned 
in  Judges." 

Pococke  notices  this  village,  which  stands 
on  a  rising  ground  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Tabor 
westward  ;  and  the  learned  traveller  thinks, 
that  it  may  be  the  same  as  the  Daberath,  or 
Dabcrah  mentioned  in  the  book  of  Joshua,  as 
on  the  borders  of  Zabulon  and  Issachar. 
"Any  one,"  he  adds,  "who  examines  the 
fourth  chapter  of  Judges,  may  see  that  this  is 
probably  the  spot  where  Barak  and  Deborah 
met  at  Mount  Tabor  with  their  forces,  and 
Went  to  pursue  N.sera  :  and  on  this  account, 
it  might  have  its  name  from  that  great  pro- 
phetess, who  then  judged  and  governed  Israel; 
for  Josephus  relates,  that  Deborah  and  Barak 
gathered  the  army  together  at  this  mountain." 

"  From  the  top  of  Tabor,"  says  Maundrell, 
"you  have  a  prospect  which,  if  nothing  else, 
will  reward  the  labour  of  ascending  it.  It  is 
impossible  for  man's  eyes  to  b  hold  a  higher 
gratification  of  this  nature.  On  the  north- 
west you  discern  at  a  distance  the  Mediterra- 
nean, ami  all  round  you  have  the  spacious  and 
beautiful  plains  of  Esdroelon  and  Galilee. 
Turning  a  little  southward,  you  have  in  view 
the  high  mountains  of  Giiboa,  fatal  to  Saul  and 
his  sons.  Due  east  you  discover  the  sea  of 
Tiberias,  distant  about  one  day's  journey.  A 
few  points  to  the  north  appears"  that  which 
call  the  mount  of  Beatitudes.  Not  far 
from  this  little  hill  is  the  city  Saphet  :  it  stands 
upon  a  very  eminent  ami  conspicuous  mount- 
ain, and  is  seen  far  and  near."  Beyond  this 
II  a  much  higher  mountain,  capped  with 
snow,  a  part  of  the  chain  of  Antilibanus.     To 


the  south-west  is  Carmel,  and  on  the  south  the 
hills  of  Samaria. 

TADMOR,  a  city  built  by  Solomon,  1  Kings 
ix,  18,  afterward  called  Palmyra;  situated  in 
a  wilderness  of  Syria,  upon  the  borders  of 
Arabia  Deserta,  inclining  toward  the  Eu- 
phrates. Josephus  places  it  two  days'  jour- 
ney from  the  Euphrates,  and  six  days'  journey 
from  Babylon.  He  says  there  is  no  water  any 
where  else  in  the  wilderness,  but  in  this  place. 
At  the  present  day  there  are  to  be  seen  vast 
ruins  of  this  city.  There  was  nothing  more 
magnificent  in  the  whole  east.  There  are  still 
found  a  great  number  of  inscriptions,  the  most 
of  which  are  Greek,  and  the  other  in  the  Pal- 
myrenian  character.  Nothing  relating  to  the 
Jews  is  seen  in  the  Greek  inscriptions ;  and 
the  Palmyrenian  inscriptions  are  entirely  un- 
known, as  well  as  the  language  and  the  cha 
racter  of  that  country.  The  city  of  Tadmor 
preserved  this  name  to  the  time  of  the  conquest 
by  Alexander  the  Great :  then  it  had  the  name 
of  Palmyra  given  to  it,  which  it  preserved  for 
several  ages.  About  the  middle  of  the  third 
century,  it  became  famous,  because  Odenatus 
and  Zenobia,  his  queen,  made  it  the  seat  of 
their  empire.  When  the  Saracens  became 
masters  of  the  east,  they  restored  its  ancient 
name  of  Tadmor  to  it  again,  which  it  has  al- 
ways preserved  since.  It  is  surrounded  by 
sandy  deserts  on  all  sides.  It  is  not  known 
when,  nor  by  whom,  it  was  reduced  to  the 
ruinous  condition  in  which  it  is  now  found. 
It  may  be  said  to  consist  at  present  of  a  forest 
of  Corinthian  pillars,  erect  and  fallen.  So 
numerous  are  these,  consisting  of  many  thou- 
sands, that  the  spectator  is  at  a  loss  to  connect 
or  arrange  them  in  any  order  or  symmetry,  or 
to  conceive  what  purpose  or  design  they  could 
have  answered.  "  In  the  space  covered  by 
these  ruins,"  says  Volney,  "we  sometimes  find 
a  palace  of  which  nothing  remains  but  the 
court  and  walls  ;  sometimes  a  temple,  whose 
peristyle  is  half  thrown  down  ;  and  now  a 
portico,  a  gallery,  or  triumphal  arch.  Here 
stand  groups  of  columns,  whose  symmetry  is 
destroyed  by  the  fall  of  many  of  them  ;  there 
we  see  them  ranged  in  rows  of  such  length, 
that,  similar  to  rows  of  trees,  they  deceive 
the  sight,  and  assume  the  appearance  of  con- 
tinued walls.  If  from  this  striking  scene  we 
cast  our  eyes  upon  the  ground,  another  almost 
as  varied  presents  itself.  On  all  sides  we  be- 
hold nothing  but  subverted  shafts,  some  whole, 
others  shattered  to  pieces  or  dislocated  in  their 
joints;  and  on  which  side  soever  we  look,  the 
earth  is  strewed  with  vast  stones  half  buried, 
with  broken  entablatures,  mutilated  friezes, 
disfigured  reliefs,  effaced  sculptures,  violated 
tombs,  and  altars  defiled  by  dust." 

It  is  probable,  says  Mansford,  that,  although 
Tadmor  is  said  to  have  been  built  by  Solomon, 
or,  in  other  words,  to  have  been  erected  by 
him  into  a  city,  it  was  a  watering  station  be- 
tween Syria  and  Mesopotamia  before  ;  with 
perhaps  accommodations  suited  to  the  mode  of 
travelling  in  those  times,  as  we  read  of  palm- 
trees  being  found  there,  which  are  not  trees 
that  come  by  chance  in  these  desert  regions. 


TAR 


903 


TAR 


The  mere  circumstance  of  wholesome  water 
being  afforded  by  any  spot  in  such  a  country 
was  sufficient  to  give  it  importance,  and  to 
draw  toward  it  the  stream  of  communication, 
for  whatever  purpose.  This  was  probably  the 
condition  of  Tadmor  long  before  it  received 
its  name  and  its  honours  from  Solomon.  But, 
after  all,  what  motive  could  there  be  to  induce 
a  peaceable  king,  like  Solomon,  to  undertake 
a  work  so  distant,  difficult,  and  dangerous  ? 
There  is  but  one  which  at  all  accords  with  his 
character,  or  the  history  of  the  times, — com- 
mercial enterprise.  Solomon  was  at  great 
pains  to  secure  himself  in  the  possession  of 
the  ports  of  Elath  and  Ezion-Geber  on  the  Red 
Sea,  and  to  establish  a  navy  for  his  Indian  com. 
merce,  or  trade  to  Ophir, — in  all  ages  the  great 
source  of  wealth.  The  riches  of  India,  thus 
brought  into  Judea,  were  from  thence  dissem- 
inated over  those  countries  of  the  north  and 
west  at  that  time  inhabited  or  known ;  while 
the  same  country,  Judea,  became,  for  a  season, 
like  Tyre,  the  point  of  return  and  exchange 
of  the  money  and  the  commodities  of  those 
countries,  the  centre  of  communication  be- 
tween the  east  and  the  west. 

TALENT,  a  measure  of  weight  among  the 
ancients,  equivalent  to  sixty  maneh,  or  one 
hundred  and  thirteen  pounds  ten  ounces  one 
pennyweight  and  ten  grains.  The  value  of  a 
talent  of  silver  was  three  hundred  and  forty-two 
pounds  three  shillings  and  nine-pence,  and  a 
talent  of  gold  was  equal  to  five  thousand  four 
hundred  and  seventy-five  pounds  sterling.  In 
the  writings  of  the  evangelists,  the  term  is  em- 
ployed to  denote  the  various  gifts  or  opportu- 
nities for  usefulness  which  the  Lord  of  heaven 
confers  upon  his  servants,  and  for  which  he 
will  call  them  to  give  in  their  account  at  the 
last  day,  Matt,  xxv,  15;  Luke  xix,  12. 

TALITHA-CUMI,  the  words  that  Jesus 
Christ  made  use  of  when  he  raised  up  the 
daughter  of  Jairus,  chief  of  the  synagogue  of 
Capernaum.  They  are  not  pure  Hebrew,  but 
Syriac,  and  eignify,  "  My  daughter,  arise," 
Mark  v,  41. 

TALMUD.  See  Jews. 
TARE,  Matt,  xiii,  25-27,  29,  30,  36,  38, 
40.  It  is  not  easy  to  determine  what  plant  or 
weed  is  here  intended,  as  the  word  zizania  is 
neither  mentioned  in  any  other  part  of  Scrip- 
ture, nor  in  any  ancient  Greek  writer.  Some 
Greek  and  Latin  fathers  have  made  use  of  it, 
as  have  also  Suidas  and  Phavorinus  :  but  it  is 
probable  that  they  have  all  derived  it  from  this 
text.  As  this  Gospel  was  first  written  in  Syrian, 
it  is  probably  a  word  belonging  to  that  lan- 
guage. Buxtorf  gives  several  interpretations, 
but  at  last  concludes  with  submitting  it  to  the 
decision  of  others.  In  a  treatise  in  the  Mish- 
na,  called  "Kilayim,"  which  treats  expressly 
of  different  kinds  of  seeds,  a  bastard  or  de- 
generate wheat  is  mentioned  by  the  name 
of  qui;,  which  the  very  sound,  in  pronouncing, 
proves  to  be  the  sanle  as  the  zizanion ;  and 
which  may  lead  to  the  true  derivation  of  the 
word,  that  is,  from  the  Chaldee  jj,  "a  kind,"  or 
"  species"  of  grain,  namely,  whence  the  corrupt 
Hebrew  or  Syriac  n^jj,  which  in  the  ancient 


Syriac   version   answers  to  the  Greek  (ifavja, 
Matt,  xiii,  25,  &e.     In   Psalm  cxliv,  13,  the 
words  jp'jn  |?n,  are  translated,  "all  manner  of 
store  ;"  but  they  properly  signify  "  from  species 
to  species."     Might  not  the  Chaldee  word  pjif, 
and   the   Greek  word  ^dviov,  come  from  th6 
psalmist's  ;r-jr,  which  might  have  signified  a 
"mixture"  of  grain  of  any  kind,  and  be  here 
used  to  point  out  the  mixing  bastard  or  dege- 
nerate  wheat    among  the   good   seed-wheat  ? 
Mintert  says,  that  "it  is  a  kind  of  plant,  not 
unlike  corn  or  wheat,  having  at  first  the  same 
sort  of  stalk,  and  the  same  viridity,  but  bring- 
ing forth  no  fruit,  at  least  none  good  :"  and  he 
adds,  from  John  Melchior,  "  ^dviov  does  not 
signify  every  weed  in   general   which   grows 
among  corn,  but  a  particular  seed,  known  in 
Canaan,   which  was  not   unlike  wheat,   but, 
being  put  into  the  ground,  degenerated,  and 
assumed   another    nature   and    form."      Park- 
hurst,  and  Dr.  Campbell,  render  it  "  the  dar- 
nel," "lolium  temulentum."     The  same  plant 
is   called    "  zizana"  by  the    Spaniards ;    as  it 
appears  to  be  zuvan,  by  the  Turks  and  Arabs. 
"  It  is  well  known  to  the  people  at  Aleppo," 
says  M.  Forskal ;  "it  grows  among  corn.     If 
the  seeds  remain  mixed  with  the  meal,  they 
occasion    dizziness   to   those  who  eat  of  the 
bread.     The  reapers  do  not  separate  the  plant ; 
but  after  the  threshing,  they  reject  the  seeds 
by  means  of  a  van  or  sieve."     Other  travellers 
mention,  that  in  some  parts  of  Syria,  the  plant 
is  drawn  up  by  the  hand  in  the  time  of  harvest, 
along  with  the  wheat,   and  is  then   gathered 
out,  and  bound  up  in  separate  bundles.     In  the 
parable  of  the  tares,  our  Lord  states  the  very 
same  circumstances.     They  grew  among  the 
grain  ;  they  were  not  separated  by  the  tillers, 
but  suffered  to  grow  up  together  till  the  har- 
vest ;  they  were  then  gathered  from  among  the 
wheat  with  the  hand,  and  bound  up  in  bundles. 
TARGUM.     See  Jews. 
TARSHISH,    a    country    of    this    name, 
whither  Solomon  sent  his  fleets,   1  Kings  x, 
22 ;  2  Chron.  ix,  11.     There  is  a  multitude  of 
different    opinions    concerning    this    country. 
Josephus,  and  the   Chaldee  and  Arabic  para- 
phrasts,  explain  it  of  Tarsus,  a  city  of  Cilicia; 
the  Septuagint,  St.  Jerom,  and  Theodoret,  un- 
derstand  it  of  Carthage.      The   Arabian   ge- 
ographer will  have  it  to  be  Tunis  in  Africa. 
Bochart  makes  it  to  be  Tartessus,  an  island  in 
the   Straits   of  Gades.     By  Tarshish,    M.   Le 
Clerc  understands  Thassus,  an  island  and  city 
in  the  iEgean   sea.     Grotius  thinks  that  the 
whole  ocean  was  called  Tarshish,  because  of 
the  famous  city  of  Tartessus,  now  mentioned. 
Sanctius  believes  the  sea  in  general  to  be  called 
Tarshish,  and  that  the  ships  of  Tarshish  were 
those  that  are  employed  in  voyages  at  sea,  in 
opposition  to  the  small  vessels  that  are  used 
only   in    most   navigable    rivers.     The    LXX. 
translate  Tarshish  sometimes    by  "  the  sea  ;" 
and  the  Scripture  gives  the  names  of  ships  ot 
Tarehish  to  those  that  were  fitted  out  at  Ezion- 
Geber,  on  the  Red  Sea,  and  which  sailed  upon 
the  ocean,  as  well  as  to  those  that  were  fitted 
out  at  Joppa,  and  in  the  ports  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean.    Therefore,  when  we  see  ships  fitted 


TEM 


904 


TEM 


Ml  up""  the  feed  Sea,  or  at  Ezion-Gtfber,  in 
order  lo  go  to  Tsrshish,  we  must  conclude  one 
pf  these  two  things,  either  that  there  were  two 
,  ountries  called  Tarshish,  one  upon  the  ocean, 
and  another  upon  the  Mediterranean,  or  that 
ships  of  Tarshisb  in  general  signifies  nothing 
else  but  ships  able  to  bear  a  long  voyage  ;  large 
merchant  ships,  in  opposition  to  the  small  craft 
intended  for  a  home  trade  in  navigable  rivers. 

TARSUS,  the  capital  of  Cilicia,  and  the 
native  city  of  St.  Paul,  Acts  ix,  11 ;  xxi,  39. 
Some  think  it  obtained  the  privileges  of  a  Ro- 
man colony  because  of  its  firm  adherence  to 
Julius  CeBsar  ;  and  this  procured  the  inhabitants 
the  favour  of  being  acknowledged  citizens  of 
Rome,  which  St.  Paul  enjoyed  by  being  born 
in  it.  Others  maintain  that  Tarsus  was  only 
a  free  city,  but  not  a  Roman  colony,  in  the 
time  of  St.  Paul,  and  that  his  privilege  as  a 
Roman  citizen  was  founded  upon  some  other 
right,  perhaps  gained  by  his  ancestors. 

IK  VkS.  The  prayer  of  David,  "Put  my 
tears  into  thy  bottle,"  is  unintelligible  without 
an  acquaintance  with  ancient  customs.  "  This 
passage,"  says  Burder,  "  seems  to  intimate  that 
the  custom  of  putting  tears  into  the  ampulla?, 
or  urnal  lachrymales,  so  well  known  among 
the  Romans,  was  more  anciently  in  use  among 
the  eastern  nations,  and  particularly  the  He- 
brews. These  urns  were  of  different  materials, 
some  of  glass,  some  of  earth  ;  as  may  be  seen 
in  the  work  of  Montfaucon,  where  also  may 
lie  seen  the  various  forms  or  shapes  of  them. 
These  urns  were  placed  on  the  sepulchres  of 
the  deceased,  as  a  memorial  of  the  distress  and 
affection  of  their  surviving  relations  and 
friends.  It  will  be  difficult  to  account  for  this 
expression  of  the  psalmist,  but  upon  this  sup- 
position. If  this  be  allowed,  the  meaning  will 
be,  '  Let  my  distress,  and  the  tears  I  shed  in 
consequence  of  it,  be  ever  before  thee,  excite 
thy  kind  remembrance  of  me,  and  plead  with 
thee  to  grant  tho  relief  I  stand  in  need  of.' " 

TEMPLE,  the  bouse  of  God  ;  properly  the 
temple  of  Solomon.  David  first  conceived  the 
design  of  building  a  house  somewhat  worthy 
of  the  divine  majesty,  and  opened  his  mind  to 
the  Prophet  Nathan,  2  Sam.  vii ;  1  Chron. 
xvii ;  xxii,  8,  &c.  Odd  accepted  of  his  <rood 
intentions,  but  refused  him  the  honour.  Solo- 
mon laid  the  foundation  of  the  temple,  A.  M. 
299-2,  completed  it  in  3000,  and  dedicated  it  in 
3001,  1  Kings  viii,  2  ;  2  Chron.  v,  vi,  vii.  Ac- 
cording to  the  opinion  of  some  writers,  there 
were  three  temples,  namely,  the  first,  erected 
by  Solomon  ;  the  second,  by  Zerubbabel,  and 
Joshua  the  high  priest ;  and  the  third,  by  Herod, 
a  few  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ.  But 
this  opinion  is  very  properly,  rejected  by  the 
•lews;  who  do  not  allow  the  third  to  be  a  new 
temple,  but  only  the  second  temple  repaired 
and  beautified  :  and  this  opinion  corresponds 
with  the  prophecy  of  Haggai,  ii,  9,  "that,  the 
glory  of  this  latter  house,"  the  temple  built  by 
Zerubbabel,  "should  be  greater  than  that  of 
the  former}"  which  prediction  was  uttered 
with  reference  to  the  .Messiah's  honouring  it 
with  his  presenee  and  ministry.  The  first  tem- 
ple is  that  which  usually  boars  the  name  of 


Solomon  ;  the  materials  for  which  were  pro- 
vided by  David  before  his  death,  though  the 
edifice  was  raised  by  his  son.  It  stood  on 
Mount  Moriah,  an  eminence  of  the  mountain, 
ous  ridge  in  the  Scriptures  termed  Mount  Zion, 
Psalm  exxxii,  13, 14,  which  had  been  purchased 
by  Araunah,  or  Oman,  the  Jebusite,  2  Sam. 
xxiv,  23,  24  ;  1  Chron.  xxi,  25.  The  plan,  and 
the  whole  model  of  this  superb  structure,  were 
formed  after  that  of  the  tabernacle,  but  of  much 
larger  dimensions.  It  was  surrounded,  except 
at  the  front  or  east  end,  by  three  stories  of 
chambers,  each  five  cubits  square,  which 
reached  to  half  the  height  of  the  temple  ;  and 
the  front  was  ornamented,  with  a  magnificent 
portico,  which  rose  to  the  height  of  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty  cubits  :  so  that  the  form  of 
the  whole  edifice  was  not  unlike  that  of  some 
ancient  churches,  which  have  a  lofty  tower  in 
tlie  front,  and  a  low  aisle  running  along  each 
side  of  the  building.  The  utensils  for  the  sa- 
cred service  were  the  same ;  excepting  that 
several  of  them,  as  the  altar,  candlestick,  &c, 
were  larger,  in  proportion  to  the  more  spacious 
edifice  to  which  they  belonged.  Seven  years 
and  six  months  were  occupied  in  the  erection 
of  the  superb  and  magnificent  temple  of  Solo- 
mon, by  whom  it  was  dedicated,  A.  M.  3001, 
B.  C.  999,  with  peculiar  solemnity,  to  the  wor- 
ship of  the  Most  High  ;  who  on  this  occasion 
vouchsafed  to  honour  it  with  the  Shechinah,  or 
visible  manifestation  of  his  presence.  Various 
attempts  have  been  made  to  describe  the  pro- 
portions and  several  parts  of  this  structure  ;  but 
as  scarcely  any  two  writers  agree  on  this  sub- 
ject, a  minute  description  of  it  is  designedly 
omitted.  It  retained  its  pristine  splendour  only 
thirty -three  or  thirty-four  years,  when  Shishak, 
king  of  Egypt,  took  Jerusalem,  and  carried 
away  the  treasures  of  the  temple  ;  and  after 
undergoing  subsequent  profanations  and  pil- 
lages, this  stupendous  building  was  finally 
plundered  and  burnt  by  the  Chaldeans  undei 
Nebuchadnezzar,  A.  M.  3416,  or  B.  C.  584, 
2  Kings  xxv,  13-15 ;  2  Chron.  xxxvi,  17-20. 

After  the  captivity,  the  temple  emerged  from 
its  ruins  being  rebuilt  by  Zerubbabel,  but  with 
vastly  inferior  and  diminished  glory;  as  appears 
from  the  tears  of  the  aged  men  who  had  beheld 
the  former  structure  in  all  its  grandeur,  Ezra 
iii,  12.  The  second  temple  was  profaned  by 
order  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  A.  M.  3837, 
B.  C.  163,  who  caused  the  daily  sacrifices  to  be 
discontinued,  and  erected  the  image  of  Jupiter 
Olympus  on  the  altar  of  burnt-offering.  In 
this  condition  it  continued  three  years,  1  Mac. 
iv,  42,  when  Judas  Maccabaeus  purified  and 
repaired  it,  and  restored  the  sacrifices  and  true 
worship  of  Jehovah.  Some  years  before  the 
birth  of  our  Saviour,  the  repairing  and  beau- 
tifying of  this  second  temple,  which  had  become 
decayed  in  the  lapse  of  five  centuries,  was  under- 
taken by  Herod  the  Great,  who  for  nine  years 
employed  eighty  thousand  workmen  upon  it, 
and  spared  no  expense  to  render  it  equal,  if  not 
superior,  in  magnitude,  splendour,  and  beauty, 
to  any  thing  among  mankind.  Josephus  calls 
it  a  work  the  most  admirable  of  any  that  had 
ever  been  seen  or  heard  of,  both  for  its  curious 


TEM 


905 


TEM 


structure  and  its  magnitude,  and  also  for  the 
vast  wealth  expended  upon  it,  as  well  as  for 
the  universal  reputation  of  its  sanctity.  But 
though  Herod  accomplished  his  original  design 
in  the  time  above  specified,  yet  the  Jews  con- 
tinued to  ornament  and  enlarge  it,  expending 
the  sacred  treasure  in  annexing  additional 
buildings  to  it;  so  that  they  might  with  great 
propriety  assert,  that  their  temple  had  been 
forty  and  six  years  in  building,  John  ii,  20. 

Before  we  proceed  to  describe  this  venerable 
edifice,  it  may  be  proper  to  remark,  that  by  the 
temple  is  to  be  understood  not  only  the  fabric 
or  house  itself,  which  by  way  of  eminence  is 
called  the  temple,  namely,  the  holy  of  holies, 
the  sanctuary,  and  the  several  courts  both  of 
the  priests  and  Israelites,  but  also  all  the  nu- 
merous chambers  and  rooms  which  this  pro- 
digious edifice  comprehended  ;  and  each  of 
which  had  its  respective  degree  of  holiness, 
increasing  in  proportion  to  its  contiguity  to 
the  holy  of  holies.  This  remark  it  will  be 
necessary  to  bear  in  mind,  lest  the  reader  of 
Scripture  should  be  led  to  suppose,  that  what- 
ever is  there  said  to  be  transacted  in  the  temple 
was  actually  done  in  the  interior  of  that  sacred 
odifice.  To  this  infinite  number  of  apartments, 
into  which  the  temple  was  disposed,  our  Lord 
refers,  John  xiv,  2  ;  and  by  a  very  striking  and 
magnificent  simile,  borrowed  from  them,  he 
represents  those  numerous  seats  and  mansions 
of  heavenly  bliss  which  his  Father's  house  con- 
tained, and  which  were  prepared  for  the  ever- 
lasting abode  of  the  righteous.  The  imagery 
is  singularly  beautiful  and  happy,  when  con- 
sidered as  an  allusion  to  the  temple,  which  our 
Lord  not  unfrequently  called  his  Father's  house. 

The  second  temple,  originally  built  by  Ze- 
rubbabel  after  the  captivity,  and  repaired  by 
Herod,  differed  in  several  respects  from  that 
erected  by  Solomon,  although  they  agreed  in 
others. 

The  temple  erected  by  Solomon  was  more 
splendid  and  magnificent  than  the  second  tem- 
ple, which  was  deficient  in  five  remarkable 
things  that  constituted  the  chief  glory  of  the 
first :  these  were,  the  ark  and  the  mercy  seat ; 
the  shechinah,  or  manifestation  of  the  divine 
presence,  in  the  holy  of  holies  ;  the  sacred  fire 
on  the  altar,  which  had  been  first  kindled  from 
heaven  ;  the  urim  and  thummim  ;  and  the  spirit 
of  prophecy.  But  the  second  temple  surpassed 
the  first  in  glory ;  being  honoured  by  the  fre- 
quent presence  of  our  divine  Saviour,  agreeably 
to  the  prediction  of  Haggai,  ii,  9.  Both,  how- 
ever, were  erected  upon  the  same  site,  a  very 
hard  rock,  encompassed  by  a  very  frightful 
procipice ;  and  the  foundation  was  laid  with 
incredible  expense  and  labour.  The  super- 
structure was  not  inferior  to  this  great  work : 
the  height  of  the  temple  wall,  especially  on  the 
south  side,  was  stupendous.  In  the  lowest 
places  it  was  three  hundred  cubits,  or  four 
hundred  and  fifty  feet,  and  in  some  places  even 
greater.  This  most  magnificent  pile  was  con- 
structed with  hard  white  stones  of  prodigious 
magnitude.  The  temple  itself,  strictly  so  called, 
which  comprised  the  portico,  the  sanctuary,  and 
the  holy  of  holies  formed  only  a  small  part  of 


the  sacred  edifice  on  Mount  Moriali,  being  sur- 
rounded by  spacious  courts,  making  a  square  of 
half  a  mile  in  circumference.  It  was  entered 
through  nine  gates,  which  were  on  every  side 
thickly  coated  with  gold  and  silver ;  but  there 
was  one  gate  without  the  holy  house,  which 
was  of  Corinthian  brass,  the  most  precious 
metal  in  ancient  times,  and  which  far  surpassed 
the  others  in  beauty.  For  while  these  were  of 
equal  magnitude,  the  gate  composed  of  Corin- 
thian brass  was  much  larger ;  its  height  being 
fifty  cubits,  and  its  doors  forty  cubits,  and  its 
ornaments  both  of  gold  and  silver  being  far 
more  costly  and  massive.  This  is  supposed  to 
have  been  the  "gate  called  Beautiful"  in  Acts 
iii,  2,  where  Peter  and  John,  in  the  name  of 
Christ,  healed  a  man  who  had  been  lame  from 
his  birth.  The  first  or  outer  court,  which  en 
compassed  the  holy  house  and  the  other  courts, 
was  named  the  court  of  the  Gentiles ;  because 
the  latter  were  allowed  to  enter  into  it,  but 
were  prohibited  from  advancing  farther.  It 
was  surrounded  by  a  range  of  porticoes,  or 
cloisters,  above  which  were  galleries,  or  apart- 
ments, supported  by  pillars  of  white  marble, 
each  consisting  of  a  single  piece,  and  twenty- 
five  cubits  in  height.  One  of  these  was  called 
Solomon's  porch,  or  piazza,  because  it  stood 
on  a  vast  terrace,  which  he  had  originally  raised 
from  a  valley  beneath,  four  hundred  cubits  high, 
in  order  to  enlarge  the  area  on  the  top  of  the 
mountain,  and  make  it  equal'  to  the  plan  of 
his  intended  building;  and  as  this  terrace  was 
the  only  work  of  Solomon  that  remained  in 
the  second  temple,  the  piazza  which  stood 
upon  it  retained  the  name  of  that  prince.  Here 
it  was  that  our  Lord  was  walking  at  the  feast 
of  dedication,  John  x,  23;  and  that  the  lame 
man,  when  healed  by  Peter  and  John,  glorified 
God  before  all  the  people,  Acts  iii,  11.  This 
superb  portico  is  termed  the  royal  portico  by 
Josephus,  who  represents  it  as  the  noblest 
work  beneath  the  sun,  being  elevated  to  such 
a  prodigious  height,  that  no  one  could  look 
down  from  its  flat  roof  to  the  valley  below, 
without  being  seized  with  dizziness ;  the  sight 
not  reaching  to  such  an  immeasurable  depth. 
The  south-east  corner  of  the  roof  of  this  por- 
tico, where  the  height  was  the  greatest,  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  the  vsrcpi'yiov,  pinnacle,  or 
extreme  angle,  whence  Satan  tempted  our 
Saviour  to  precipitate  himself,  Matt,  iv,  5 ; 
Luke  iv,  9.  This  also  was  the  spot  where  it 
was  predicted  that  the  abomination  of  deso- 
lation, or  the  Roman  ensigns,  should  stand, 
Daniel  ix,  27  ;  Matt,  xxiv,  15.  Solomon's  por- 
tico was  situated  in  the  eastern  front  of  the 
temple,  opposite  to  the  mount  of  Olives,  where 
our  Saviour  is  said  to  have  sat  when  his  disci- 
ples came  to  show  him  the  grandeur  of  its 
various  buildings,  of  which,  grand  as  they 
were,  he  said,  the  time  was  approaching  when 
one  stone  should  not  be  left  upon  another, 
Matt,  xxiv,  1-3.  This  outer  court  being  as- 
signed to  the  Gentile  proselytes,  the  Jews,  who 
did  not  worship  in  it  themselves,  conceived  that 
it  might  lawfully  be  put  to  profane  uses :  for 
here  we  find  that  the  buyers  and  sellers  of 
animals  for   sacrifices,  and  also  the  money- 


TEM 


906 


TEM 


.hangers,    bad    stationed    themselves;    until 
Christ,  awing  then  into  submission  by 
the  grandeur  and  dignity  of  his  person  and 
behaviour,  expelled  them;  telling  them  that  it 
iraa  the  house  of  prayer  for  all  nations,  and 
was  not  to  be  profaned,   Matt,  xxi,  12,  13; 
Mark  xi,  15-17.      Within  the  court  of  the  Gen- 
tiles stood   the  court  of  the  Israelites,  divided 
into  two  parts,  or  courts;  the  outer  one  being 
appropriated  to  the  women,  and  the  inner  one 
to  the  men.     The  court  of  the  women  was 
separated  from  that  of  the  Gentiles  by  a  low 
stone  wall,  or  partition,  of  elegant  construc- 
tion, on  which  stood  pillars  at.  equal  distances, 
with  inscriptions  in  Greek  and  Latin,  importing 
that  DO  alien  should  enter  into  the  holy  place. 
To  this  wall  St.  Paul  most  evidently  alludes  in 
Eph.  ii,  13,  14 :  "  But  now  in  Christ  Jesus,  ye, 
wlio  sometimes  were  far  off,  are  made  nigh  by 
the  blood  of  <  'luist :   for  he  is  our  peace,  who 
hath  made  both  one,   (united  both  Jews  and 
Gentiles  into  one  church,)  and  hath  broken 
down  the  middle  wall  of  partition  between  us  ;" 
having  abolished  the  law  of  ordinances,   by 
which,  as  by  the  wall  of  separation,  both  Jews 
and  Gentiles  were  not  only  kept  asunder,  but 
also  at  variance.     In  this  court  was  the  trea- 
sury, over  against  which  Christ  sat,  and  beheld 
how  the  people  threw  their  voluntary  offerings 
into  it,  for  furnishing  the  victims  and  other 
things  necessary  for  the  sacrifices,  Mark  xii,  41 ; 
John  viii,  20.     From  the  court  of  the  women, 
which  was  on  higher  ground  than  that  of  the 
Gentiles,  there  was  an  ascent  of  fifteen  steps 
into  the  inner  or  men's  court :    and  so  called 
because  it  was  appropriated  to  the  worship  of 
the  male  Israelites.     In  these  two  courts,  col- 
lectively termed  the  court  of  the  Israelites,  were 
the  people  praying,  each  apart  by  himself,  for 
the  pardon  of  his  sins,  while  Zacharias  was 
offering  incense  within  the  sanctuary,  Luke 
i,  10.     Within  the  court  of  the  Israelites  was 
that  of  the  priests,  which  was  separated  from 
it   by  a  low  wall,  one  cubit  in  height.     This 
enclosure  surrounded  the  altar  of  burnt-offer- 
ings, and  to  it  the  people  brought  their  oblations 
and  sacrifices  ;  but  the  priests  alone  were  per- 
mitted to  enter  it.      From   this  court  twelve 
steps  ascended  to  the  temple,  strictly  so  called  ; 
which  was  divided  into  three  parts,  the  portico, 
the  outer  sanctuary,  and  the  holy  place.     In 
the  portico  was  suspended  the  splendid  votive 
offerings  made  by  the  piety  of  various  individu- 
als. Among  other  treasures,  there  was  a  golden 
table  given    by   Pompey,   and  several   golden 
vm.s  of  exquisite  workmanship,  as  well  as  of 
immense  size;  for  Josephus  relates,  that  there 
were  clusters  as  tall  as  a  man.     And  ho  adds, 
thai  all  around  were  fixed  up  and  displayed  the 
spoils  and  trophies  taken  by  Herod  from  the 
barbarians  and  Arabians.     These  votive  offer- 
ings, it  should  see,, i,  v.  ere  visible  at  a  distance  ; 
for  when  Jesus  Christ  was  sitting  on  the  mount 

of  Olives,  and  his  disciples  called  his  attention 

to  the  temple,  they  pointed  oul  to  him  the  gifts 

with  which  it  was  adorned,  Luke  xxi,  ",.     This 

porch  had  a  very  large  portal  ,,r  gate,  which, 

id  of  folding  doors,  was  furnished  with  a 

costly  Babylonian  roil,  of  many  colours,  that 


mystically  denoted  the  universe.  From  this  the 
sanctuary,  or  holy  place,  was  separated  from 
the  holy  of  holies  by  a  double  veil,  which  is 
supposed  to  have  been  the  veil  that  was  rent 
in  twain  at  our  Saviour's  crucifixion  ;  thus  em- 
blematically pointing  out  that  the  separation 
between  Jews  and  Gentiles  was  abolished  ;  and 
that  the  privilege  of  the  high  priest  was  com- 
municated to  all  mankind,  who  might  hence- 
forth have  access  to  the  throne  of  grace  through 
the  one  great  Mediator,  Jesus  Christ,  Heb.  x, 
19-22.  The  holy  of  holies  was  twenty  cubits 
square  :  into  it  no  person  was  admitted  but  the 
high  priest,  who  entered  it  once  a  year  on  the 
great  day  of  atonement,  Exod.  xxx,  10 ;  Lev. 
xvi,  2,  15,  34 ;  Heb.  ix,  2-7. 

Magnificent  as  the  rest  of  the  sacred  edifice 
was,  it  was  infinitely  surpassed  in  splendour 
by  the  inner  temple,  or  sanctuary.  Its  appear- 
ance, according  to  Josephus,  had  every  thing 
that  could  strike  the  mind,  or  astonish  the 
sight :  for  it  was  covered  on  every  side  with 
plates  of  gold  ;  so  that  when  the  sun  rose  upon 
it,  it  reflected  so  strong  and  dazzling  an  efful- 
gence, that  the  eye  of  the  spectator  was 
obliged  to  turn  away,  being  no  more  able  to 
sustain  its  radiance  than  the  splendour  of  the 
sun.  To  strangers  who  were  approaching,  it 
appeared  at  a  distance  like  a  mountain  covered 
with  snow ;  for  where  it  was  not  decorated 
with  plates  of  gold,  it  was  extremely  white 
and  glistering.  On  the  top  it  had  sharp-pointed 
spikes  of  gold,  to  prevent  any  bird  from  resting 
upon  it,  and  polluting  it.  There  were,  con- 
tinues the  Jewish  historian,  in  that  building, 
several  stones  which  were  forty-five  cubits  in 
length,  five  in  height,  and  six  in  breadth. 
"  When  all  these  things  are  considered,"  says 
Harwood,  "how  natural  is  the  exclamation  of 
the  disciples,  when  viewing  this  immense  build- 
ing at  a  distance  :  '  Master,  see  what  manner 
of  stones'  (jzoTavol  \(9oi,  '  what  very  large  ones') 
'  and  what  buildings  are  here !'  Mark  xiii,  1  : 
and  how  wonderful  is  the  declaration  of  our 
Lord  upon  this,  how  unlikely  to  be  accomplished 
before  the  race  of  men  who  were  then  living 
should  cease  to  exist !  '  Seest  thou  these  great 
buildings  ?  There  shall  not  be  left  one  stone 
upon  another  that  shall  not  be  thrown  down.' 
Improbable  as  this  prediction  must  have  ap- 
peared to  the  disciples  at  that  time,  in  the  short 
space  of  about  thirty  years  after  it  was  exactly 
accomplished;  and  this  most  magnificent  tem- 
ple, which  the  Jews  had  literally  turned  into  a 
den  of  thieves,  through  the  righteous  judg- 
ment of  God  upon  that  wicked  and  abandoned 
nation,  was  utterly  destroyed  by  the  Romans 
A.  D.  70,  or  73  of  the  vulgar  era,  on  the  same 
month,  and  on  the  same  day  of  the  month, 
when  Solomon's  temple  had  been  razed  to  the 
ground  by  the  Babylonians  !" 

Both  the  first  and  second  temples  were  con- 
templated by  the  Jews  with  the  highest  reve- 
rence. Of  their  affectionate  regard  for  the  first 
temple,  and  for  Jerusalem,  within  whose  walls 
it  was  built,  we  have  several  instances  in  those 
Psalms  which  were  composed  during  the  Ba- 
bylonish captivity;  and  of  their  profound 
veneration   for   the   second  temple   we   have 


TER 


907 


TES 


repeated  examples  in  the  New  Testament. 
They  could  not  bear  any  disrespectful  or  dis- 
honourable thing  to  be  said  of  it.  The  least 
injurious  slight  of  it,  real  or  apprehended,  in- 
stantly awakened  all  the  choler  of  a  Jew,  and 
was  an  affront  never  to  be  forgiven.  Our  Sa- 
viour, in  the  course  of  his  public  instructions, 
having  said,  "  Destroy  this  temple,  and  in  three 
days  I  will  raise  it  up  again,"  John  ii,  19,  it  was 
construed  into  a  contemptuous  disrespect,  de- 
signedly thrown  out  against  the  temple ;  his 
words  instantly  descended  into  the  heart  of  the 
Jews,  and  kept  rankling  there  for  some  years; 
for,  upon  his  trial,  this  declaration,  which  it 
was  impossible  for  a  Jew  ever  to  forget  or  to 
forgive,  was  immediately  alleged  against  him, 
as  big  with  the  most  atrocious  guilt  and  im- 
piety :  they  told  the  court  they  had  heard  him 
publicly  assert,  "  I  am  able  to  destroy  this 
temple,"  Matt,  xxvi,  61.  The  rancour  and 
virulence  they  had  conceived  against  him 
for  this  speech,  was  not  softened  by  all  the 
affecting  circumstances  of  that  wretched  death 
they  saw  him  die ;  even  as  he  hung  upon  the 
cross,  with  triumph,  scorn,  and  exultation, 
they  upbraided  him  with  it,  contemptuously 
shaking  their  heads,  and  saying,  "  Thou  that 
destroyest  the  temple,  and  buildest  it  in  three 
days,  save  thyself!  If  thou  be  the  Son  of 
God,  come  down  from  the  cross  !"  Matt,  xxvii, 
40.  It  only  remains  to  add,  that  it  appears, 
from  several  passages  of  Scripture,  that  the 
Jews  had  a  body  of  soldiers  who  guarded  the 
temple,  to  prevent  any  disturbances  during 
the  ministration  of  such  an  immense  number 
of  priests  and  Levites.  To  this  guard  Pilate 
referred,  when  he  said  to  the  chief  priests  and 
Pharisees  who  waited  upon  him  to  desire  he 
would  make  the  sepulchre  secure,  "Ye  have  a 
watch,  go  your  way,  and  make  it  as  secure  as 
ye  can,"  Matt,  xxvii,  65.  Over  these  guards 
one  person  had  the  supreme  command,  who  in 
several  places  is  called  the  captain  of  the  tem- 
ple, or  officer  of  the  temple  guard.  "And  as 
they  spake  unto  the  people,  the  priests  and  the 
captain  of  the  temple  and  the  Sadducees  came 
upon  them,"  Acts  iv,  1 ;  v,  25,  26;  John  xviii, 
12.     Josephus  mentions  such  an  officer. 

TENT  MAKER.  St.  Paul,  according  to  the 
practice  of  the  Jews,  who,  however  opulent, 
always  taught  their  children  some  trade,  ap- 
pears to  have  been  a  tent  maker.  This,  how- 
ever, is  understood  by  some  moderns  to  mean 
a  maker  of  tent  cloth,  St.  Paul  being  a  Cilician, 
a  country  which  produced  a  species  of  rough- 
haired  goats,  from  which  the  Cilicians  manu- 
factured a  thick  and  coarse  cloth,  much  used  for 
tents.  The  fathers,  however,  say  that  he  made 
military  tents,  the  material  of  which  was  skins. 

TERAPHIM.  It  is  said,  Gen.  xxxi,  19,  that 
Rachel  had  stolen  the  images  {teraphim)  of 
her  father.  What  then  were  these  teraphim? 
The  Septuagint  translate  this  word  by  "oracle," 
and  sometimes  by  "  vain  figures."  Aquila  ge- 
nerally translates  it  by  "  figures."  It  appears, 
indeed,  from  all  the  passages  in  which  this 
word  is  used,  that  they  were  idols  or  supersti- 
tious figures.  Some  Jewish  writers  tell  us  the 
teraphim  were  human  heads  placed  in  niches, 


and  consulted  by  way  of  oracles.  Others  think 
they  were  talismans  or  figures  of  metal  cast 
and  engraven  under  certain  aspects  of  the  pla- 
nets, to  which  they  ascribed  extraordinary 
effects.  All  the  eastern  people  are  much  ad- 
dicted to  this  superstition,  and  the  Persians 
still  call  them  lelefin,  a  name  nearly  approach- 
ing to  teraphim.  M.  Jurieu  supposes  them  to 
have  been  a  sort  of  dii  penates,  or  household 
gods ;  and  this  appears  to  be,  perhaps,  the 
most  probable  opinion. 

TESTAMENT.  The  property  or  estate  of 
the  father  fell,  after  his  decease,  into  the  pos- 
session of  his  sons,  who  divided  it  among  them- 
selves equally,  with  this  exception,  that  the 
eldest  son  had  two  portions.  The  father  ex- 
pressed his  last  wishes  or  will  in  the  presence 
of  witnesses,  and  probably  in  the  presence  of 
the  heirs,  2  Kings  xx,  1.  At  a  more  recent 
period  the  will  was  made  out  in  writing. 
The  portion  that  was  given  to  the  sons  of  con- 
cubines depended  altogether  upon  the  feelings 
of  the  father.  Abraham  gave  presents  to 
what  amount  is  not  known,  both  to  Ishmael 
and  to  the  sons  whom  he  had  by  Keturah,  and 
sent  them  away  before  his  death.  It  does  not 
appear  that  they  had  any  other  portion  in  the 
estate.  But  Jacob  made  the  sons  whom  he 
had  by  his  concubines  heirs  as  well  as  the 
others,  Gen.  xxi,  8-21 ;  xxv,  1-6 ;  xlix,  1-27. 
Moses  laid  no  restrictions  upon  the  choice  of 
fathers  in  this  respect ;  and  we  should  infer 
that  the  sons  of  concubines,  for  the  most  part, 
received  an  equal  share  with  the  other  sons, 
from  the  fact,  that  Jephtha,  the  son  of  a  concu- 
bine, complained  that  he  was  excluded  without 
any  portion  from  his  father's  house,  Judg.  xi, 
1-7.  The  daughters  not  only  had  no  portion 
in  the  estate,  but,  if  they  were  unmarried,  were 
considered  as  making  a  part  of  it,  and  were 
sold  by  their  brothers  into  matrimony.  If  they 
had  no  brothers,  or  if  they  had  died,  the  daugh- 
ters then  took  the  estate,  Num.  xxvii,  1-8.  If 
any  one  died  intestate,  and  without  offspring, 
the  property  was  disposed  of  according  to 
Num.  xxvii,  8-11.  The  servants  or  the  slaves 
in  a  family  could  not  claim  any  share  in  the 
estate  as  a  right ;  but  the  person  who  made  a 
will,  might,  if  he  chosev  make  them  his  heirs, 
Gen.  xv,  3.  Indeed,  in  some  instances,  those 
who  had  heirs,  recognized  as  such  by  law,  did 
not  deem  it  unbecoming  to  bestow  the  whole 
or  a  portion  of  their  estates  on  faithful  and 
deserving  servants,  Prov.  xvii,  2.  The  widow 
of  the  deceased,  like  his  (laughters,  had  no 
legal  right  to  a  share  in  the  estate.  The  sons, 
however,  or  other  relations,  were  bound  to 
afford  her  an  adequate  maintenance,  unless  it 
had  been  otherwise  arranged  in  the  will.  She 
sometimes  returned  back  again  to  her  father's 
house,  particularly  if  the  support  which  the 
heirs  gave  her  was  not  such  as  had  been  pro- 
mised, or  was  not  sufficient,  Gen.  xxxviii,  11. 
See  also  the  story  of  Ruth.  The  prophets  very 
frequently,  and  undoubtedly  not  without  cause, 
exclaim  against  the  neglect  and  injustice  shown 
to  widows,  Isa.  i,  17;  x,  2;  Jer.vii,  6;  xxii,  3; 
Ezek.  xxii,  7;  Exod.  xxii,  22-24;  Deut.  x,  18; 
xxiv,  17. 


THE 


908 


THE 


TKSTI  \l<>\  Y.  :i  witnessing,  evidence,  or 
proof,  Acta  riv,  :t.  The  whole  Scripture  or 
word  of  God,  which  declares  what  is  to  be 
believed,  practised,  and  expected  by  us,  is 
called  God's  "testimony,"  and  sometimes  in 
the  plural  "testimonies,"   Psalm  xix,  7.    The 

two   tallies  of  stone    on   which    the   law  or  ten 

commandments  were  written,  which  were  wit- 
nesses of  that   covenant  made   between  Cod 

and   his  ] pie,  and   testified  what   it  was  that 

God  had  required  of  them,  have  the  same  title, 
Exod.  xxv,  16,21;  xxxi,  18. 

TETRARCH,  a  sovereign  prince  that  has 
the  fourth  part  of  a  state,  province,  or  king- 
dom under  his  dominion,  without  wearing  the 
diadem,  or  bearing  the  title  of  king,  Matt,  xiv, 
1;  Luke  iii,  1,  19;  ix,  7;  Acts  xiii,  1. 

THEOPHILUS,  one  to  whom  St.  Luke 
addresses  the  books  of  his  Gospel  and  Acts  of 
the  Apostles,  which  he  composed,  Acts  i,  1; 
Luke  i,  3.  It  is  doubted  whether  the  name 
Theophilus  be  here  the  proper  name  of  a  man, 
or  an  appellative  or  common  name,  which,  ac- 
cording to  its  etymology,  may  stand  for  any 
good  man,  or  a  lover  of  God.  Some  think 
this  name  is  generic,  and  that  St.  Luke's  de- 
sign here  is  to  address  his  work  to  those  that 
love  God ;  but  it  is  much  more  probable  that 
this  Theophilus  was  a  Christian  to  whom  the 
evangelist  lias  dedicated  those  two  works  ;  and 
the  epithet  of  "  most  excellent,"  which  is  given 
to  him,  shows  him  to  have  been  a  man  of  great 
quality.  CEcumenius  concludes  from  thence 
that  he  was  governor  or  intendant  of  some 
province,  because  such  a  personage  had  gene- 
rally the  title  of  "most  excellent"  given  to 
him.  G  rutins  conjectures  he  might  be  a  magis- 
trate of  Achaia,  converted  by  St.  Luke. 

THERAPEUTiE.  One  particular  pheno- 
menon which  resulted  from  the  theosophico- 
ascetie  spirit  among  the  Alexandrian  Jews, 
was  the  sect  of  the  Therapeutas.  Their  head 
quarters  were  at  no  great  distance  from  Alex- 
andria, in  a  quiet  pleasant  spot  on  the  shores 
of  the  Lake  Morris,  where  they  lived,  like  the 
anchorites  in  later  periods,  shut  up  in  se- 
parate cells,  and  employed  themselves  in  no- 
thing but  prayer,  and  the  contemplation  of 
divine  things.  An  allegorical  interpretation 
of  Scripture  was  the  foundation  of  their  specu- 
lations ;  and  they  had  old  theosophical  writings 
which  gave  them  this  turn.  They  lived  only 
on  bread  and  water,  and  accustomed  themselves 
to  fasting.  They  only  ate  in  the  evening,  and 
many  fasted  for  several  days  together.  They 
met  together  every  Sabbath  day,  and  every 
seven  weeks  they  held  a  still  more  solemn  as- 
sembly, because  the  number  seven  was  pecu- 
liarly holy  in  their  estimation.  They  then 
celebrated  a  simple  love-feast,  consisting  of 
;  with  salt  and  hyssop;  theosophical  dis- 
cussions were  held,  and  the  hymns  which  they 
had  from  their  old  traditions  were  rang;  and 
mystical  dances,  bearing  reference  to  the  won. 
derful  works  of  God  with  the  fathers  of  their 
people,  wen  continued,  amidst  choral  songs, 
to  ■  late  hour  in  the  night.  Many  men  of  dis- 
tinguished learning  have  considered  this  sect 
U  nothing  but  a  scion  of  the  Essenes,  trained 


up  under  the  peculiar  influence  of  the  Egyp- 
tian spirit. 

THESSALONIANS,  Christians  of  Thessa- 
lonica,  to  whom  St.  Paul  sent  two  epistles.  It 
is  recorded  in  the  Acts,  that  St.  Paul,  in  his 
first  journey  upon  the  continent  of  Europe, 
preached  the  Gospel  at  Thessalonica,  at  that 
time  the  capital  of  Macedonia,  with  considera- 
ble success  ;  but  that  after  a  short  stay  he  was 
driven  thence  by  the  malice  and  violence  of 
the  unbelieving  Jews.  From  Thessalonica  St. 
Paul  went  to  Berea,  and  thence  to  Athens,  at 
both  which  places  he  remained  but  a  short 
time.  From  Athens  he  sent  Timothy  to  Thes- 
salonica, to  confirm  the  new  converts  in  their 
faith,  and  to  inquire  into  their  conduct.  Timo- 
thy, upon  his  return,  found  St.  Paul  at  Corinth. 
Thence,  probably  in  A.  D.  52,  St.  Paul  wrote 
the  First  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians ;  and  it 
is  to  be  supposed  that  the  subjects  of  which  it 
treats,  were  suggested  by  the  account  which 
lie  received  from  Timothy.  It  is  now  generally 
believed  that  this  was  written  the  first  of  all 
St.  Paul's  epistles,  but  it  is  not  known  by 
whom  it  was  sent  to  Thessalonica.  The 
church  there  consisted  chiefly  of  Gentile  con- 
verts, 1  Thess.  i,  9.  St.  Paul,  after  saluting 
the  Thessalonian  Christians  in  the  name  of 
himself,  Silas,  and  Timothy,  assures  them  that 
he  constantly  returned  thanks  to  God  on  their 
account,  and  mentioned  them  in  his  prayers ; 
he  acknowledges  the  readiness  and  sincerity 
with  which  they  embraced  the  Gospel,  and  the 
great  reputation  which  they  had  acquired  by 
turning  from  idols  to  serve  the  living  God, 
1  Thess.  i ;  he  reminds  them  of  the  bold  and 
disinterested  manner  in  which  he  had  preached 
among  them  ;  comforts  them  under  the  perse- 
cutions which  they,  like  other  Christians,  had 
experienced  from  their  unbelieving  country- 
men, and  informs  them  of  two  ineffectual  at- 
tempts which  he  had  made  to  visit  them  again, 
1  Thess.  ii ;  and  that,  being  thus  disappointed, 
he  had  sent  Timothy  to  confirm  their  faith, 
and  inquire  into  their  conduct;  he  tells  them 
that  Timothy's  ciecount  of  thein  had  given 
him  the  greatest  consolation  and  joy  in  the 
midst  of  his  affliction  and  distress,  and  that  he 
continually  prayed  to  God  for  an  opportunity  of 
seeing  them  again,  and  for  their  perfect  estab- 
lishment in  the  Gospel,  1  Thess.  iii ;  he  exhorts 
to  purity,  justice,  love,  and  quietness,  and  dis- 
suades them  against  excessive  grief  for  their 
deceased  friends,  1  Thess.  iv ;  hence  he  takes 
occasion  to  recommend  preparation  for  the 
last  judgment,  the  time  of  which  is  always 
uncertain  ;  and  adds  a  variety  of  practical  pre- 
cepts. He  concludes  with  his  usual  benedic- 
tion. This  epistle  is  written  in  terms  of  high 
commendation,  earnestness,  and  affection. 

It  is  generally  believed  that  the  messenger 
who  carried  the  former  epistle  into  Macedonia, 
upon  his  return  to  Corinth,  informed  St.  Paul 
that  the  Thessalonians  had  inferred,  from 
some  expressions  in  it,  that  the  coming  of 
Christ  and  the  final  judgment  were  near  at 
hand,  and  would  happen  in  the  time  of  many 
who  were  then  alive,  1  Thess.  iv,  15,  17 ;  v,  6. 
The  principal  design  of  the  Second  Epistle  to 


THO 


909 


THO 


the  Thessalonians  was  to  correct  that  error, 
and  prevent  the  mischief  which  it  would  natu- 
rally occasion.  It  was  written  from  Corinth, 
probably  at  the  end  of  A.  D.  52.  St.  Paul 
begins  with  the  same  salutation  as  in  the  for- 
mer epistle,  and  then  expresses  his  devout 
acknowledgments  to  God  for  the  increasing 
faith  and  mutual  love  of  the  Thessalonians  in 
the  midst  of  persecution;  he  represents  to 
them  the  rewards  which  will  be  bestowed  upon 
the  faithful,  and  the  punishment  which  will 
be  inflicted  upon  the  disobedient,  at  the  com- 
ing of  Christ,  2  Thess.  i ;  he  earnestly  entreats 
them  not  to  suppose,  as  upon  authority  from 
him,  or  upon  any  other  ground,  that  the  last 
day  is  at  hand ;  he  assures  them,  that  before 
that  awful  period  a  great  apostasy  will  take 
place,  and  reminds  them  of  some  information 
which  he  had  given  them  upon  that  subject 
when  he  was  at  Thessalonica ;  he  exhorts  them 
to  steadfastness  in  their  faith,  and  prays  to 
God  to  comfort  their  hearts,  and  establish  them 
in  every  good  word  and  work,  2  Thess.  ii;  he 
desires  their  prayers  for  the  success  of  his 
ministry,  and  expresses  his  confidence  in  their 
sincerity ;  he  cautions  them  against  associating 
with  idle  and  disorderly  persons,  and  recom- 
mends diligence  and  quietness.  He  adds  a 
salutation  in  his  own  hand,  and  concludes  with 
his  usual  benediction. 

THESSALONICA,  a  celebrated  city  in  Ma- 
cedonia, and  capital  of  that  kingdom,  standing 
upon  the  Thesmaic  Sea.  Stephen  of  Byzan- 
tium says  that  it  was  improved  and  beautified 
by  Philip,  king  of  Macedon,  and  called  Thes- 
salonica in  memory  of  the  victory  that  he  ob- 
tained over  the  Thessalians.  Its  old  name  was 
Thesma.  The  Jews  had  a  synagogue  here, 
and  their  number  was  considerable,  Acts  xvii. 

THIEF.  Among  the  Hebrews  theft  was 
not  punished  with  death :  "  Men  do  not  de- 
spise a  thief  if  he  steal  to  satisfy  his  soul  when 
he  is  hungry.  But  if  he  be  found,  he  shall  re- 
store sevenfold  ;  he  shall  give  all  the  substance 
of  his  house,"  Prov.  vi,  30,31.  The  law  al- 
lowed the  killing  of  a  night-robber,  because  it 
was  supposed  his  intention  was  to  murder  as 
well  as  to  rob,  Exod.  xxii,  2.  It  condemned  a 
common  thief  to  make  double  restitution,  Exod. 
xxii,  4.  If  he  stole  an  ox  he  was  to  restore 
it  fivefold ;  if  a  sheep,  only  fourfold,  Exod. 
xxii,  1 ;  2  Sam.  xii,  6.  But  if  the  animal  that 
was  stolen  was  found  alive  in  his  house  he 
only  rendered  the  double  of  it.  If  he  did  not 
make  restitution,  they  seized  what  was  in  his 
house,  put  it  up  to  sale,  and  even  sold  the  per- 
son himself  if  he  had  not  wherewithal  to  make 
satisfaction,  Exod.  xxii,  3. 

THOMAS,  the  Apostle,  otherwise  called 
Didymus,  which  in  Greek  signifies  a  twin, 
Matt,  x,  3 ;  Luke  vi,  15.  We  know  no  par- 
ticulars of  his  life  till  A.  D.  33,  John  xi,  16; 
xiv,  5,  6  ;  xx,  24-29  ;  xxi,  1-13.  Ancient  tra- 
dition says,  that  in  the  distribution  which  the 
Apostles  made  of  the  several  parts  of  the 
world,  wherein  they  were  to  preach  the  Gos- 
pel, the  country  of  the  Parthians  fell  to  the 
share  of  St.  Thomas.  It  is  added,  that  he 
preached  to  the  Medes,  Persians,  Carmanians, 


Hircanians,  Bactrians,  &c.  Several  of  the 
fathers  inform  us  that  he  also  preached  in  the 
East  Indies,  &c. 

THORN.  A  general  name  for  several  kinds 
of  prickly  plants.  1.  In  the  curse  denounced 
against  the  earth,  Gen.  iii,  18,  its  produce  is 
threatened  to  be  "thorns  and  thistles,"  "mil  f\p, 
in  the  Septuagint  hic&vQas  k<u  rpiSoXov^.  St.  Paul 
uses  the  same  words,  Heb.  vi,  8,  where  the  last 
is  rendered  "briers;"  they  are  also  found  Hos. 
x,  8.  The  word  kutz  is  put  for  "  thorns,"  in 
other  places,  as  Exod.  xxii,  6  ;  Judges  viii,  7  ; 
Ezek.  ii,  6;  xxviii,  24;  but  we  are  uncertain 
whether  it  means  a  specific  kind  of  thorn,  or 
may  be  a  generic  name  for  all  plants  of  a 
thorny  kind.  In  the  present  instance  it  seems 
to  be  general  for  all  those  obnoxious  plants, 
shrubs,  «fec,  by  which  the  labours  of  the  hus- 
bandman are  impeded,  and  which  are  only  fit 
for  burning.  If  the  word  denotes  a  particular 
plant,  it  may  be  the  "  rest-harrow,"  a  perni- 
cious prickly  weed,  which  grows  promiscu- 
ously with  the  large  thistles  in  the  uncultivated 
grounds,  and  covers  entire  fields  and  plains, 
in  Egypt  and  Palestine.  From  the  resem- 
blance of  the  Hebrew  dardar,  to  the  Arabic 
word  dardargi,  Scheuchzer  supposes  the  emeus 
to  be  intended.  2.  nm,  from  its  etymology, 
must  be  a  kind  of  thorn,  with  incurvated 
spines,  like  fish  hooks,  similar  to  those  of  the 
North  American  "witch  hazel."  Celsius  says 
that  the  same  word,  and  of  the  same  original 
in  Arabic,  is  the  "black  thorn,"  or  "  sloe  tree," 
the  prumis  spinosa  of  Linnaeus.  3.  CD>TD.  It 
is  impossible  to  determine  what  plants  are 
intended  by  this  word.  Meninski  says  that 
serbin,  in  the  Persic  language,  is  the  name  of 
a  tree  bearing  thorns.  In  Eccles.  vii,  6,  and 
Nahum  i,  10,  they  are  mentioned  as  fuel  which 
quickly  burns  up ;  and  in  Hosea  ii,  6,  as  ob- 
structions or  hedges ;  it  may  be  the  lycium 
Afrum.  4.  jiSd,  mentioned  Josh,  xxiii,  13 ; 
Ezek.  ii,  6,  xxviii,  24.  From  the  vexatious 
character  as'cribed  to  this  thorn  in  the  places 
just  referred  to,  compared  with  Num.  xxxiii,  55 ; 
Judges  ii,  3;  it  is  probably  the  hantuffa,  as 
described  by  Bruce.  5.  By  craf,  Num.  xxxiii, 
55,  may  be  intended  goads,  or  sharp-pointed 
sticks,  like  those  with  which  cattle  were 
driven.  6.  The  rw,  Isa.  v,  6  ;  x,  17,  must 
mean  some  noxious  plant  that  overruns  waste 
grounds.  7.  The  word  CD^x,  Num.  xxxiii,  55; 
Josh,  xxiii,  13;  Isa.  v,  5.  It  seems,  from  its 
application,  to  describe  a  bad  kind  of  thorn. 
Hiller  supposes  it  to  be  the  vepris.  Perhaps  it 
is  the  rhamnus  paliurus,  a  deciduous  plant  or 
tree,  a  native  of  Palestine,  Spain,  and  Italy. 
It  will  grow  nearly  to  the  height  of  fourteen 
feet,  and  is  armed  with  sharp  thorns,  two  of 
which  are  at  the  insertion  of  each  branch,  one 
of  them  straight  and  upright,  the  other  bent 
backward.  8.  o'Jp'D,  translated  "  briers," 
Judges  viii,  16.  "There  is  no  doubt  but  this 
word  means  a  sharp,  jagged  kind  of  plant :  the 
difficulty  is  to  fix  on  one,  where  so  many  offer 
themselves.  The  Septuagint  preserves  the 
original  word.  We  should  hardly  think  Gide- 
on went  far  to  seek  these  plants.  The  thorns 
are  expressly  said  to  be  from  the  wilderness,. 


THO 


910 


THR 


.niiimi  hard  byi    probably  the  barkanim 

;r, .1.1  the  .-nine  place.  In  our  country 
thii  v...ul<l  li'i'l  ub  to  the  blackberry  bashes  on 

.unions;  but  it  might  not  be  so  around 
Succeth.  There  is  a  plant  mentioned  by  Has- 
Belquist,  whose  oame  and  properties  somewhat 
resembl*  those  which  are  required  in  the  bar. 
kannn  of  this  passage  :  "  Nabka  pnliurus  Athe- 
ruei,  is  the  nabka  of  the  Arabs.  There  is  every 
appearance  that  this  is  the  tree  which  furnished 
the  crown  of  thorns  which  was  put  on  the 
head  <>f  our  Lord.  It  is  common  in  the  east. 
A  plant  more  proper  for  this  purpose  could  not 
be  >.lected;  for  it  is  armed  with  thorns,  its 
branches  are  pliant,  and  its  leaf  of  a  deep  green 
like  that  of  ivy.  Perhaps  the  enemies  of 
Christ  chose  this  plant,  in  order  to  add  insult 
to  injury  by  employing  a  wreath  approaching 
in  appearance  that  which  was  used  to  crown 
emperors  and  generals."  In  the  New  Testa- 
ment, the  Greek  word  translated  "thorn,"  is 
aKavdu  ;  Matt,  vii,  16,  xiii,  7,  xxvii,  29,  John 
xix,  2.  The  note  of  Bishop  Pearce  on  Matt, 
xxvii,  2l>,  is  this:  "The  word  aKavBHv  may  as 
well  he  the  plural  genitive  case  of  the  word 
okjvOos,  as  of  anaiQa  ;  if  of  the  latter,  it  is  rightly 
translated  '  of  thorns,'  but  the  former  would 
signify  what  we  call  '  bear's  foot,'  and  the 
French  branche  ursine.  This  is  not  of  the 
thorny  kind  of  plants,  but  is  soft  and  smooth. 
Virgil  calls  it  mollis  acanthus.  So  does  Pliny  : 
and  Pliny  the  elder  says  that  it  is  Itevis, 
"  smooth  ;"  and  that  it  is  one  of  those  plants 
that  are  cultivated  in  gardens.  I  have  some- 
where read,  but  cannot  at  present  recollect 
where,  that  this  soft  and  smooth  herb  was  very 
common  in  and  about  Jerusalem.  I  find  no- 
thing in  the  New  Testament  concerning  this 
crown  which  Pilate's  soldiers  put  on  the  head 
of  Jesus,  to  incline  one  to  think  that  it  was  of 
thorns,  and  intended,  as  is  usually  supposed, 
to  put  him  to  pain.  The  reed  put  into  his 
hand,  and  the  scarlet  robe  on  his  back,  were 
meant  only  as  marks  of  mockery  and  contempt. 
One  may  also  reasonably  judge  by  the  soldiers 
being  said  to  plat  this  crown,  that  it  was  not 
composed  of  such  twigs  and  leaves  as  were  of 
a  thorny  nature.  1  do  not  find  that  it  is  men- 
tioned by  any  of  the  primitive  Christian  wri- 
ters as  an  instance  of  the  cruelty  used  toward 
our  Saviour  before  he  was  led  to  crucifixion, 
till  the  lime  of  Tertullian,  who  lived  after 
Jesus'  death  at  the  distance  of  above  one  hun- 
dred and  sixty  years.  He  indeed  seems  to  have 
understood  ixavOiiv  in  the  sense  of  thorns,  and 
sayt,  '  Quale  om  te,  Jesus  Christus  sertum  pro 

UITOgtfe  sr.ru  suiiit?  Ex  spinis,  opinor,  et  tr'u 
Itulis:  [What  kind  of  a  crown,  I  beseech  you, 
did  Jesus  Christ  sustain  '  One  made  of  thorns 
and  trusties,  I  think.]  The  total  silence  of 
Polv«arp,  Barnabas,  Clemens  Romanus,  and 
all  the  ether  Christian  writers  whose  works  are 
new  extant,  and  who  wrote  before  Tertullian, 
in  particular,  will  give  some  weight  to  incline 
oue  in  think  thai  this  crown  was  not  platted 
with  thorns.  But  as  this  is  a  point  on  which 
Ul'  h  '..■  i.i.i  ufficient  evidence,  I  leave  it  al- 
"xwl  in  the  sa state  of  uncertainty  in  which 

I  found  it."      >(.c  G.VKDL.N. 


THRESHING  FLOORS,  among  the  an- 
cient Jews,  were  only,  as  they  are  to  this  day 
in  the  cast,  round  level  plats  of  ground  in  the 
open  air,  where  the  corn  was  trodden  out  by 
oxen,  the  libyca  area  of  Horace.  Thus,  Gi- 
deon's floor,  Judges  vi,  37,  appears  to  have 
been  in  the  open  air ;  as  was  likewise  that  of 
Araunah  the  Jebusite  ;  else  it  would  not  have 
been  a  proper  place  for  erecting  an  altar  and 
offering  sacrifice.  In  Hosea  xiii,  3,  we  read 
of  the  chaff'  which  is  driven  by  the  whirlwind 
from  the  floor.  This  circumstance  of  the 
threshing  floor's  being  exposed  to  the  agitation 
of  the  wind  seems  to  be  the  principal  reason 
of  its  Hebrew  name ;  which  may  be  farther 
illustrated  by  the  direction  which  Hesiod  gives 
his  husbandman  to  thresh  his  corn  in  a  place 
well  exposed  to  the  wind.  From  the  eibove 
account  it  appears  that  a  threshing  floor  (ren- 
dered in  our  textual  translation  "  a  void  place") 
might  well  be  near  the  entrance  of  the  gate  of 
Samaria,  and  that  it  might  afford  no  improper 
place  in  which  the  kings  of  Israel  and  Judah 
could  hear  the  prophets,  1  Kings  xxii,  10 ;  2 
Chron.  xviii,  9  ;  Psalm  i,  4. 

THRONE  is  used  for  that  magnificent  seat 
on  which  sovereign  princes  usually  sit  to  re- 
ceive the  homage  of  their  subjects,  or  to  give 
audience  to  ambassadors;  where  they  appear 
with  pomp  and  ceremony,  and  from  whence 
they  dispense  justice ;  in  a  word,  the  throne, 
the  sceptre,  the  crown,  are  the  ordinary  sym- 
bols of  royalty  and  regal  authority.  The 
Scripture  commonly  represents  the  Lord  as 
sitting  upon  a  throne  ;  sometimes  it  is  said  that 
the  heaven  is  his  throne,  and  the  earth  his 
footstool,  Isaiah  lxvi,  1.  The  Son  of  God  is 
also  represented  as  sitting  upon  a  throne,  at 
the  right  hand  of  his  Father,  Psalm  ex,  1  ; 
Heb.  i,  8;  Rev.  iii,  21.  And  Jesus  Christ 
assures  his  Apostles  that  they  should  sit  upon 
twelve  thrones,  to  judge  the  twelve  tribes  of 
Israel,  Luke  xxii,  30.  Though  a  throne  and 
royal  dignity  seem  to  be  correlatives,  or  terms 
that  stand  in  reciprocal  relation  to  each  other, 
yet  the  privilege  of  sitting  on  a  throne  has  been, 
sometimes  granted  to  those  that  were  not 
kings,  particularly  to  some  governors  of  im- 
portant provinces.  We  read  of  the  throne  of 
the  governor  of  this  side  the  river ;  the  throne, 
in  other  words,  of  the  governor  for  the  king  of 
Persia  of  the  provinces  belonging  to  that  em- 
pire on  the  west  of  the  Euphrates.  So  D'Her- 
belot  tells  us  that  a  Persian  monarch  of 
aftertimes  gave  the  governor  of  one  of  his 
provinces  permission  to  seat  himself  in  a  gilded 
chair,  when  he  administered  justice;  which 
distinction  was  granted  him  on  account  of  the 
importance  of  that  post,  to  which  the  guarding 
a  pass  of  great  consequence  was  committed. 
This  province,  he  tells  us,  is  now  called  Shir- 
van,  but  was  formerly  named  Serir-aldhahab, 
which  signifies,  in  Arabic,  "  the  throne  of 
gold."  To  which  he  adds,  that  this  privilege 
was  granted  to  the  governor  of  this  province, 
as  being  the  place  through  which  the  northern 
nations  used  to  make  their  way  into  Persia  ; 
on  which  account,  also,  a  mighty  rampart  or 
wall  was  raised  there. 


TIM 


911 


TIM 


In  the  Revelation  of  St.  John,  we  find  the 
twenty-four  elders  sitting  upon  as  many  thrones 
in  the  presence  of  the  Lord  ;  "  and  they  fall 
down  before  him  that  sat  on  the  throne,  &c, 
and  cast  their  crowns  before  the  throne." 
Many  of  the  travellers  in  eastern  countries 
have  given  descriptions  highly  illustrative  of 
this  mode  of  adoration.  Thus  Bruce,  in  his 
Travels,  says,  "  The  next  remarkable  ceremony 
in  which  these  two  nations  (of  Persia  and 
Abyssinia)  agreed  is  that  of  adoration,  invio- 
lably observed  in  Abyssinia  to  this  day,  as  often 
as  you  enter  the  sovereign's  presence.  This  is 
not  only  kneeling,  but  absolute  prostration  ; 
you  first  fall  upon  your  knees,  then  upon  the 
palms  of  your  hands,  then  incline  your  head  and 
body  till  your  forehead  touches  the  ground  ; 
and,  in  case  you  have  an  answer  to  expect,  you 
lie  in  that  posture  till  the  king,  or  somebody 
from  him,  desires  you  to  rise."  And  Stewart 
observes,  "We  marched  toward  the  emperor 
with  our  music  playing,  till  we  came  within 
about  eighty  yards  of  him,  when  the  old  mo- 
narch, alighting  from  his  horse,  prostrated 
himself  on  the  earth  to  pray,  and  continued 
some  minutes  with  his  face  so  close  to  the 
earth,  that,  when  we  came  up  to  him,  the  dust 
remained  upon  his  nose." 

The  circumstance  of  "  casting  their  crowns 
before  the  throne"  may  be  illustrated  by  several 
cases  which  occur  in  history.  That  of  Herod, 
in  the  presence  of  Augustus,  has  been  already 
mentioned.  (See  Herod.)  Tiridates,  in  this 
manner,  did  homage  to  Nero,  laying  the  ensigns 
of  his  royalty  at  the  statue  of  Caesar,  to  receive 
them  again  from  his  hand.  Tigranes,  king  of 
Armenia,  did  the  same  to  Pompey.  In  the 
inauguration  of  the  Byzantine  Caesars,  when 
the  emperor  comes  to  receive  the  sacrament, 
he  puts  off  his  crown.  "  This  short  expedi- 
tion," says  Malcolm,  "  was  brought  to  a  close 
by  the  personal  submission  of  Abool  Fyze 
Khan,  who,  attended  by  all  his  court,  proceeded 
to  the  tents  of  Nadir  Shah,  and  laid  his  crown, 
and  other  ensigns  of  royalty,  at  the  feet  of  the 
conqueror,  who  assigned  him  an  honourable 
place  in  his  assembly,  and  in  a  few  days  after- 
ward restored  him  to  his  throne." 

THYATIRA,  a  city  of  Lydia,  in  Asia  Mi 
nor,  and  the  seat  of  one  of  the  seven  churches 
in  Asia.  It  was  situated  nearly  midway  be- 
tween Pergamos  and  Sardis,  and  is  still  a 
tolerable  town,  considering  that  it  is  in  the 
hands  of  the  Turks,  and  enjoys  some  trade, 
chiefly  in  cottons.  It  is  called  by  that  people 
Ak-hisar,  or  White  Castle. 

TIBERIAS,  a  city  situated  in  a  small  plain, 
surrounded  by  mountains,  on  the  western  coast 
of  the  sea  of  Galilee,  which,  from  this  city, 
was  also  called  the  sea  of  Tiberias.  Tiberias 
was  erected  by  Herod  Antipas,  and  so  called 
in  honour  of  Tiberius  Cresar.  He  is  supposed 
to  have  chosen,  for  the  erection  of  his  new 
city,  a  spot  where  before  stood  a  more  obscure 
place  called  Chenereth  or  Cinnereth,  which 
also  gave  its  name  to  the  adjoining  lake  or  sea. 

TIMBRELS.     See  Music. 

TIMOTHEUS,  commonly  called  Timothy, 
a  disciple  of  St.  Paul.     He  was  a  native  of 


Lystra  in  Lycaonia.  His  father  was  a  Gentile  ; 
but  his  mother,  whose  name  was  Eunice,  was 
a  Jewess,  Acts  xvi,  1,  and  educated  her  son 
with  great  care  in  her  own  religion,  2  Tim.  i, 
5 ;  iii,  15.  To  this  young  disciple  St.  Paul 
addressed  two  epistles ;  in  the  first  of  which 
he  calls  him  his  "  own  son  in  the  faith,"  1 
Tim.  i,  2  ;  from  which  expression  it  is  inferred 
that  St.  Paul  was  the  person  who  converted 
him  to  the  belief  of  the  Gospel ;  and  as,  upon 
St.  Paul's  second  arrival  at  Lystra,  Timothy  is 
mentioned  as  being  then  a  disciple,  and  as 
having  distinguished  himself  among  the  Chris- 
tians of  that  neighbourhood,  his  conversion, 
as  well  as  that  of  Eunice  his  mother,  and  Lois 
his  grandmother,  must  have  taken  place  when 
St.  Paul  first  preached  at  Lystra,  A.  D.  46. 
Upon  St.  Paul's  leaving  Lystra,  in  the  course 
of  his  second  apostolical  journey,  he  was  in- 
duced to  take  Timothy  with  him,  on  account 
of  his  excellent  character,  and  the  zeal  which, 
young  as  he  was,  he  had  already  shown  in  the 
cause  of  Christianity  ;  but  before  they  set  out, 
St.  Paul  caused  him  to  be  circumcised,  not  as 
a  thing  necessary  to  his  salvation,  but  to  avoid 
giving  offence  to  the  Jews,  as  he  was  a  Jew  by 
the  mother's  side,  and  it  was  an  established 
rule  among  the  Jews  that  partus  sequitur 
ventrem.  Timothy  was  regularly  appointed  to 
the  ministerial  office  by  the  laying  on  of  hands, 
not  only  by  St.  Paul  himself,  but  also  by  the 
presbytery,  1  Tim.  iv,  14;  2  Tim.  i,  6.  From 
this  time  Timothy  acted  as  a  minister  of  the 
Gospel ;  he  generally  attended  St.  Paul,  but 
was  sometimes  employed  by  him  in  other 
places  ;  he  was  very  diligent  and  useful,  and  is 
always  mentioned  with  great  esteem  and  affec- 
tion by  St.  Paul,  who  joins  his  name  with  his 
own  in  the  inscription  of  six  of  his  epistles.  He 
is  sometimes  called  bishop  of  Ephesus,  and  it 
has  been  said  that  he  suffered  martyrdom  in 
that  city,  some  years  after  the  death  of  St. 
Paul. 

The  principal  design  of  St.  Paul's  First  Epis- 
tle to  Timothy  was  to  give  him  instructions 
concerning  the  management  of  the  church  of 
Ephesus ;  and  it  was  probably  intended  that  it 
should  be  read  publicly  to  the  Ephesians,  that 
they  might  know  upon  what  authority  Timo- 
thy acted.  After  saluting  him  in  an  affection- 
ate manner,  and  reminding  him  of  the  reason 
for  which  he  was  left  at  Ephesus,  the  Apostle 
takes  occasion,  from  the  frivolous  disputes 
which  some  Judaizing  teachers  had  introduced 
among  the  Ephesians,  to  assert  the  practical 
nature  of  the  Gospel,  and  to  show  its  superi- 
ority over  the  law ;  he  returns  thanks  to  God 
for  his  own  appointment  to  the  apostleship, 
and  recommends  to  Timothy  fidelity  in  the  dis- 
charge of  his  sacred  office ;  he  exhorts  that 
prayers  should  bo  made  for  all  men,  and  espe- 
cially for  magistrates  ;  he  gives  directions  for 
the  conduct  of  women,  and  forbids  their  teach- 
ing in  public  ;  he  describes  the  ([unifications 
necessary  for  bishops  and  deacons,  and  speaks 
of  the  mysterious  nature  of  the  Gospel  dispen- 
sation ;  he  foretels  that  there  will  be  apostates 
from  the  truth,  and  false  teachers  in  the  latter 
times,  and  recommends  to  Timothy  purity  of 


TIM 


912 


TIM 


manners  and  ini|irovement  of  his  spiritual  gills; 
he  rivet  him  particular  directions  for  his  be- 
haviour  toward  persons  in  different  situations 
in  lit'<\  ami  instructs  him  in  several  points  of 
Christian  discipline;  he  cautions  him  against 
false  teachers,  gives  him  several  precepts,  and 
solemnly  charges  him  to  be  faithful  to  Ids  trust. 
That  the  Second  Epistle  to  Timothy  was 
written  while  St.  Paul  was  under  confinement 
•i  Rome,  appears  from  the  two  following  pas- 
sages:  "  Be  not  thou  therefore  ashamed  of  the 
tony  of  our  Lord,  uor  of  me  his  prisoner," 
'„'  Timothy  i,  8.  "The  Lord  give  mercy  unto 
the  house  of  Onesiphorus;  for  he  oft  refreshed 
me,  and  was  not  ashamed  of  my  chain;  but 
w  hen  he  was  at  Rome,  he  sought  me  out  very 
diligently,  and  found  me,"  2  Tim.  i,  16,  17. 
The  epistle  itself  will  furnish  us  with  several 
arguments  to  prove  that  it  could  not  have  been 
written  during  St.  Paul's  first  imprisonment. 
1.  It  is  universally  agreed  that  St.  Paul  wrote 
his  epistles  to  the  Ephesians,  Colossians,  Phi- 
lippiane,  and  to  Philemon,  while  he  was  con- 
fined the  first  time  at  Rome.  In  no  one  of 
these  epistles  does  he  express  any  apprehen- 
sion for  his  life;  and  in  the  two  last  mention- 
ed we  have  seen  that,  on  the  contrary,  he 
expresses  a  confident  hope  of  being  soon  libe- 
rated ;  but  in  this  epistle  he  holds  a  very  differ- 
ent language  :  "  I  am  now  ready  to  be  offered, 
and  the  time  of  my  departure  is  at  hand.  I 
have  fought  a  good  fight,  I  have  finished  my 
course,  I  have  kept  the  faith.  Henceforth 
there  is  laid  up  for  me  a  crown  of  righteous- 
ness, which  the  Lord,  the  righteous  Judge, 
shall  give  me  at  that  day,"  2  Tim.  iv,  6,  &c. 
The  danger  in  which  St.  Paul  now  was,  is  evi- 
dent from  the  conduct  of  his  friends,  when  he 
made  his  defence  :  "  At  my  first  answer  no  man 
stood  with  me,  but  all  men  forsook  me,"  2  Tim. 
iv,  16.  This  expectation  of  death,  and  this 
imminent  danger,  cannot  be  reconciled  either 
with  the  general  tenor  of  his  epistles  written 
during  his  first  confinement  at  Rome,  with  the 
nature  of  the  charge  laid  against  him  when  he 
was  carried  thither  from  Jerusalem,  or  with 
St.  Luke's  account  of  his  confinement  there  ; 
for  we  must,  remember  that  in  A.  D.  C3,  Nero 
had  not  begun  to  persecute  the  Christians  ; 
that  none  of  the  Roman  magistrates  and  offi- 
cers who  heard  the  accusations  against  St, 
Paul  at  Jerusalem  thought  that  he  had  com- 
mitted any  offence  against  the  Roman  govern- 
ment ;  that  at  Rome  St.  Paul  was  completely 
out  of  the  power  of  the  Jews;  and,  so  little 
was  he  there  considered  as  having  been  guilty 
of  any  capital  crime,  that  he  was  suffered  to 
dwell  "two  whole  years,"  that  is,  the  whole 
time  of  his  confinement,  "in  his  own  hired 
house,  and  to  receive  all  that  came  in  unto 
him,  preaching  t|„.  word  of  God,  and  teaching 
those  things  which  concern  the  Lord  Jesus 
Chrial  with  all  confidence,  no  man  forbidding 
him,"  A.is  xxviii.  30,  31.  2.  From  the  inscrip- 
tions Of  the  epistles  to  the  Colossians,   Philip. 

phuia,  mmI  Philemon,  il  is  cortain  that  Timothy 

■  i  -  ■  ""  St.  Paul  in  ins  tiist  imprisonment  at 

Koine;   bul    this   epifltle    implies   that  .Timothy 
ibaent.     :t.   St.  Paul   tells  the  Colossians 


that  Mark  salutes  them,  and  therefore  lie  was 
at  Rome  with  St.  Paul  in  his  first  imprison- 
ment ;  but  he  was  not  at  Rome  when  this  epis- 
tle was  written,  for  Timothy  is  directed  to 
bring  him  with  him,  2  Tim.  iv,  11.  4.  Demas, 
also,  was  with  St.  Paul  when  he  wrote  to  the 
Colossians  :  "  Luke,  the  beloved  physician, 
and  Demas,  greet  you,"  Col.  iv,  14.  In  this 
epistle  he  says,  "  Demas  has  forsaken  me,  hav- 
ing loved  this  present  world,  and  is  departed 
into  Thcssalonica,"  2  Tim.  iv,  10.  It  may  be 
said  that  this  epistle  might  have  been  written 
before  the  others,  and  that  in  the  intermediate 
time  Timothy  and  Mark  might  have  come  to 
Rome,  more  especially  as  St.  Paul  desires 
Timothy  to  come  shortly,  and  bring  Mark  with 
him.  But  this  li3Tpothesis  is  not  consistent 
with  what  is  said  of  Demas,  who  was  with  St. 
Paul  when  he  wrote  to  the  Colossians,  and  had 
left  him  when  he  wrote  this  second  epistle  to 
Timothy  ;  consequently  the  epistle  to  Timothy 
must  be  posterior  to  that  addressed  to  the  Co- 
lossians. The  case  of  Demas  seems  to  have 
been,  that  he  continued  faithful  to  St.  Paul 
during  his  first  imprisonment,  which  was  at- 
tended with  little  or  no  danger ;  but  deserted 
him  in  the  second,  when  Nero  was  persecuting 
the  Christians,  and  St.  Paul  evidently  consider- 
ed himself  in  great  danger.  5.  St.  Paul  tells 
Timothy,  "  Erastus  abode  at  Corinth,  but  Tro- 
phimus  have  I  left  at  Miletum  sick,"  2  Tim. 
iv,  20.  These  were  plainly  two  circumstances 
which  had  happened  in  some  journey  which 
St.  Paul  had  taken  not  long  before  he  wrote 
this  epistle,  and  since  he  and  Timothy  had 
seen  each  other ;  but  the  last  time  St.  Paul 
was  at  Corinth  and  Miletum,  prior  to  his  first 
imprisonment  at  Rome,  Timothy  was  with  him 
at  both  places ;  and  Trophinms  could  not  have 
been  then  left  at  Miletum,  for  we  find  him  at 
Jerusalem  immediately  after  St.  Paul's  arrival 
in  that  city ;  "  for  they  had  seen  before  with 
him  in  the  city  Trophimus,  an  Ephesian,  whom 
they  supposed  that  Paul  had  brought  into  the 
temple,"  Acts  xxi,  29.  These  two  facts  must 
therefore  refer  to  some  journey  subsequent  to 
the  first  imprisonment ;  and,  consequently,  this 
epistle  was  written  during  St.  Paul's  second  im- 
prisonment at  Rome,  and  probably  in  A.  D.  65, 
not  long  before  his  death.  It  is  by  no  means 
certain  where  Timothy  was  when  this  epistle 
was  written  to  him.  It  seems  most  probable 
that  he  was  somewhere  in  Asia  Minor,  since 
St.  Paul  desires  him  to  bring  the  cloak  with 
him  which  he  had  left  at  Troas,  2  Tim.  iv,  13; 
and  also  at  the  end  of  the  first  chapter,  he  speaks 
of  several  persons  whose  residence  was  in  Asia. 
Many  have  thought  that  he  was  at  Ephesus ; 
but  others  have  rejected  that  opinion,  because 
Troas  does  not  lie  in  the  way  from  Ephesus  to 
Rome,  whither  he  was  directed  to  go  as  quickly 
as  he  could.  St.  Paul,  after  his  usual  saluta 
tion,  assures  Timothy  of  his  most  affectionate 
remembrance  ;  he  speaks  of  his  own  apostle- 
ship  and  of  his  sufferings  ;  exhorts  Timothy  to 
be  steadfast  in  the  true  faith,  to  be  constant 
and  diligent  in  the  discharge  of  his  ministerial 
office,  to  avoid  foolish  and  unlearned  questions, 
and  to  practise  and  inculcate  the  great  duties  of 


TIT 


913 


TIT 


the  Gospel ;  he  describes  the  apostasy  and  gene- 
ral wickedness  of  the  last  days,  and  highly  com- 
mends the  Holy  Scriptures  ;  he  again  solemnly 
exhorts  Timothy  to  diligence  ;  speaks  of  his 
own  danger,  and  of  his  hope  of  future  reward  ; 
and  concludes  with  several  private  directions, 
and  with  salutations. 

TIN,  iW,  Num.  xxxi,  22 ;  Isa.  i,  25  ;  Ezek. 
xxii,  18,  20 ;  xxvii,  12 ;  a  well-known  coarse 
metal,  harder  than  lead.  Mr.  Parkhurst  ob- 
serves, that  Moses,  in  Num.  xxxi,  22,  enume- 
rates all  the  six  species  of  metals.  The  Lord, 
by  the  Prophet  Isaiah,  having  compared  the 
Jewish  people  to  silver,  declares,  "  I  will  turn 
my  hand  upon  thee,  and  purge  away  thy  dross, 
and  remove  all  "p^'TSi  thy  particles  of  tin :" 
where  Aquila,  Symmachus,  and  Theodotion 
have  Kaoatrepov  cov,  and  the  Vulgate  stannum 
tuum,  "thy  tin  ;"  but  the  LXX.  avipovs,  wicked 
ones.  This  denunciation,  by  a  comparison  of 
the  preceding  and  following  context,  appears 
to  signify  that  God  would,  by  a  process  of 
judgment,  purify  those  among  the  Jews  who 
were  capable  of  purification,  as  well  as  destroy 
the  reprobate  and  incorrigible,  Jer.  vi,  29,  30 ; 
ix,  7 ;  Mai.  iii,  3  ;  Ezek.  xii,  18,  20.  In  Ezek. 
xxvii,  12,  Tarshish  is  mentioned  as  furnishing 
"7113  ;  and  Bochart  proves  from  the  testimonies 
of  Diodorus,  Pliny,  and  Stephanus,  that  Tar- 
tessus  in  Spain,  which  he  supposes  the  an. 
cient  Tarshish,  anciently  furnished  tin.  As 
Cornwall  in  very  ancient  times  was  resorted  to 
for  this  metal,  and  probably  first  by  the  Pheni- 
ciaus,  some  have  thought  that  peninsula  to  be 
the  Tarshish  of  the  Scriptures ;  a  subject  which, 
however,  from  the  vague  use  of  the  word,  is 
involved  in  much  uncertainty.     See  Tarshish. 

TITHES.  We  have  nothing  more  ancient 
concerning  tithes,  than  what  we  find  in  Gen. 
xiv,  20,  that  Abraham  gave  tithes  to  Melchise 
dec,  king  of  Salem,  at  his  return  from  his  ex- 
pedition against  Chedorlaomer,  and  the  four 
kings  in  confederacy  with  him.  Abraham 
gave  him  tithe  of  all  the  booty  he  had  taken 
from  the  enemy.  Jacob  imitated  this  piety  of 
his  grandfather,  when  he  vowed  to  the  Lord 
the  tithe  of  all  the  substance  he  might  ac- 
quire in  Mesopotamia,  Gen.  xxviii,  22.  Un- 
der the  law,  Moses  ordained,  "All  the  tithe 
of  the  land,  whether  of  the  seed  of  the  land, 
or  of  the  fruit  of  the  tree,  is  the  Lord's ; 
it  is  holy  unto  the  Lord.  And  if  a  man  will  at 
all  redeem  aught  of  his  tithes,  he  shall  add 
thereto  the  fifth  part  thereof.  And  concerning 
the  tithe  of  the  herd,  or  of  the  flock,  even  of 
whatsoever  passeth  under  the  rod,  the  tenth 
shall  be  wholly  unto  the  Lord,"  Lev.  xxvii, 
30-32.  The  Pharisees,  in  the  time  of  Jesus 
Christ,  to  distinguish  themselves  by  a  more 
scrupulous  observance  of  the  law,  did  not  con- 
tent themselves  with  paying  the  tithe  of  the 
grain  and  fruits  growing  in  the  fields  ;  but  they 
also  paid  tithe  of  the  pulse  and  herbs  growing 
in  their  gardens,  which  was  more  than  the 
law  required  of  them.  The  tithes  were  taken 
from  what  remained,  after  the  offerings  and 
fir6t  fruits  were  paid.  They  brought  the  tithes 
to  the  Levites  in  the  city  of  Jerusalem,  as  ap- 
pears from  Josephus  and  Tobit,  i,  6.  The  Le- 
59 


vites  set  apart  the  tenth  part  of  their  tithes  for 
the  priest ;  because  the  priests  did  not  receive 
them  immediately  from  the  people,  and  the 
Levites  were  not  to  meddle  with  the  tithes  they 
had  received,  before  they  had  given  the  priests 
such  a  part  as  the  law  assigned  them.  Of  those 
nine  parts  that  remained  to  the  proprietors, 
after  the  tithe  was  paid  to  the  Levites,  they 
took  still  another  tenth  part,  which  was  either 
sent  to  Jerusalem  in  kind,  or,  if  it  was  too  far, 
they  sent  the  value  in  money ;  adding  to  it  a 
fifth  from  the  whole  as  the  rabbins  inform  us. 
This  tenth  part  was  applied  toward  celebrating 
the  festivals  in  the  temple,  which  bore  a  near 
resemblance  to  the  agapce,  or  love  feasts  of  the 
first  Christians.  Thus  are  those  words  of  Deu- 
teronomy understood  by  the  rabbins:  "Thou 
shalt  truly  tithe  all  the  increase  of  thy  seed, 
that  the  field  bringeth  forth  year  by  year.  And 
thou  shalt  eat  before  the  Lord  thy  God,  in  the 
place  which  he  shull  choose  to  place  his  name 
there,  the  tithe  of  thy  corn,  of  thy  wine,  and 
of  thy  oil,  and  of  the  firstlings  of  thy  herds  and 
of  thy  flocks  :  that  thou  mayest  learn  to  fear 
the  Lord  thy  God  always,"  Deut.  xiv,  22,  23. 
Tobit  i,  6,  says,  that  every  three  years  he 
punctually  paid  his  tithe  to  strangers  and  pro- 
selytes. This  was  probably  because  there 
were  neither  priests  nor  Levites  in  the  city 
where  he  dwelt.  Moses  speaks  of  this  last 
kind  of  tithe  :  "  At  the  end  of  three  years  thou 
shalt  bring  forth  all  the  tithe  of  thine  increase 
the  same  year,  and  shalt  lay  it  up  within  thy 
gates.  And  the  Levite,  (because  he  hath  no  part 
nor  inheritance  with  thee,)  and  the  stranger, 
and  the  fatherless,  and  the  widow,  which  are 
within  thy  gates,  shall  come,  and  shall  eat  and 
be  satisfied ;  that  the  Lord  thy  God  may  bless 
thee  in  all  the  work  of  thine  hand  which  thou 
doest,"  Deut.  xiv,  28 ;  xxvi,  12.  It  is  thought 
that  this  tithe  was  not  different  from  the  second 
kind  before  noticed,  except  that  in  the  third 
year  it  was  not  brought  to  the  temple,  but  was 
used  upon  the  spot  by  every  one  in  the  city  of 
his  habitation.  So,  properly  speaking,  there 
were  only  two  sorts  of  tithes,  that  which  was 
given  to  the  Levites  and  priests,  and  that  which 
was  applied  to  making  feasts  of  charity,  either 
in  the  temple  of  Jerusalem,  or  in  other  citiea. 
Samuel  tells  the  children  of  Israel,  that  the 
king  they  had  a  mind  to  have  over  them  would 
"  take  the  tenth  of  their  seed,  and  of  their  vine- 
yards, and  give  to  his  officers,  and  his  serv- 
ants. He  will  take  the  tenth  of  your  sheep, 
and  ye  shall  be  his  servants,"  1  Sam.  viii,  15, 
17.  Yet  it  does  not  clearly  appear  from  the 
history  of  the  Jews,  that  they  regularly  paid 
any  tithe  to  their  princes.  But  the  manner  in 
which  Samuel  expresses  himself,  seems  to  in- 
sinuate that  it  was  looked  upon  ae  a  common 
right  among  the  kings  of  the  east.  At  this 
day,  the  Jews  no  longer  pay  any  tithe  ;  at  least 
they  do  not  think  themselves  obliged  to  do  it, 
except  it  be  those  who  are  settled  in  the  terri- 
tory of  Jerusalem,  and  the  ancient  Judea.  For. 
there  are  few  Jews  now  that  have  any  lands 
of  their  own,  or  any  flocks.  They  only  give 
something  for  the  redemption  of  the  first-born, 
to  those  who  have  any  proofs  of  their  being 


TIT 


914 


TOB 


descended  from  the  race  of  the  priests  or  Le  rites. 
However,  wc  are  assured,  that  such  among  the 
Jews  as  would  be  thought  to  be  very  strict  and 
religious  give  the  tenth  part  of  their  whole  in- 
Dome  to  the  poor. 

TITUS.  It  is  remarkable  that  Titus  is  not 
mentioned  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  The 
few  particulars  which  are  known  of  him,  are 
collected  from  the  epistles  of  St.  Paul.  We 
learn  from  them  thai  he  was  a  Greek,  Gal.  ii,  3; 
but  it  is  not  recorded  to  what  city  or  country 
he  belonged.  From  St.  Paul's  calling  him  "his 
own  son  according  to  the  common  faith,"  Ti- 
tus i,  4,  it  is  concluded  that  he  was  converted 
by  him ;  but  we  have  no  account  of  the  time 
or  place  of  his  conversion.  He  is  first  men- 
tioned as  going  from  Antioch  to  the  council  at 
Jerusalem,  A.  D.  49,  Gal.  ii,  1,  &c  ;  and  upon 
that  occasion  St.  Paul  says  that  he  would  not 
allow  him  to  be  circumcised,  because  he  was 
born  of  Gentile  parents.  He  probably  accom- 
panied St.  Paul  in  his  second  apostolical  jour- 
ney, and  from  that  time  he  seems  to  have  been 
constantly  employed  by  him  in  the  propagation 
of  the  Gospel ;  he  calls  him  his  partner  and 
fellow-helper,  2  Cor.  viii,  23.  St.  Paul  sent 
him  from  Ephosus  with  his  First  Epistle  to  the 
Corinthians,  and  with  a  commission  to  inquire 
into  the  state  of  the  church  at  Corinth  ;  and  he 
sent  him  thither  again  from  Macedonia  with 
his  Second  Epistle,  and  to  forward  the  collec- 
tions for  the  saints  in  Judea.  From  this  time 
we  hear  nothing  of  Titus  till  he  was  left  by 
St.  Paul  in  Crete,  after  his  first  imprisonment 
at  Rome,  to  "set  in  order  the  things  that  were 
wanting,  and  to  ordain  elders  in  every  city," 
Titus  i,  5.  It  is  probable  that  he  went  thence 
to  join  St.  Paul  at  Nicopolis,  Titus  iii,  12  ;  that 
they  went  together  to  Crete  to  visit  the  churches 
there,  and  thence  to  Rome.  During  St.  Paul's 
second  imprisonment  at  Rome  Titus  went  into 
Dalmatia,  2  Tim.  iv,  10  ;  and  after  the  apostle's 
death,  he  is  said  to  have  returned  into  Crete, 
and  to  have  died  there  in  the  ninety-fourth 
year  of  his  age :  he  is  often  called  bishop  of 
Crete  by  ecclesiastical  writers.  St.  Paul  always 
speaks  of  Titus  in  terms  of  high  regard,  and 
intrusted  him,  as  we  have  seen,  with  commis- 
sions of  great  importance.  It  is  by  no  means 
•  iri.iin  from  what  place  St.  Paul  wrote  this 
epistle  ;  but  as  he  desires  Titus  to  come  to  him 
at  Nicopolis,  and  declares  his  intention  of 
passing  the  winter  there,  some  have  supposed 
that,  when  he  wrote  it  he  was  in  the  neigh, 
bourhood  of  that  city,  either  in  Greece  or 
Macedonia;  others  have  imagined  that  he 
wrote  it  from  Colosse,  but  it  is  difficult  to  say 
upon  what  ground.  As  it  appears  that  St. 
Paul,  mil  long  before  he  wrote  this  epistle,  had 
let'l  Tiius  in  Crete  for  the  purposo  of  regulating 
the  affairs  of  the  church,  and  at  the  time  he 
wrote  it  had  determined  to  pass  the  approaching 
Whiter  at  Nicppolis,  and  as  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles  do  not  give  any  account  of  St.  Paul's 
inginthal  island,  or  <>f -visiting  that  city, 
is  is  concluded  thai  this  epistle  was  written  after 
his  first  imprisonment  at  Rome,  and  probably 
in  A.  D.  fi4.  It  may  be  considered  as  some 
confirmation  of  that  opinion,  that   there   is  a 


great  similarity  between  the  sentiments  and 
expressions  of  this  epistle  and  of  the  First 
Epistle  to  Timothy,  which  was  written  in  that 
year.  It  is  not  known  at  what  time  a  Christian 
church  was  first  planted  in  Crete  ;  but  as  some 
Cretans  were  present  at  the  first  effusion  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  at  Jerusalem,  Acts  ii,  11,  it  is  not 
improbable  that,  upon  their  return  home,  they 
might  be  the  means  of  introducing  the  Gospel 
among  their  countrymen.  Crete  is  said  to  have 
abounded  with  Jews ;  and  from  the  latter  part 
of  the  first  chapter  of  this  epistle  it  appears 
that  many  of  them  were  persons  of  very  profli- 
gate lives,  even  after  they  had  embraced  the 
Gospel.  The  principal  design  of  this  epistle 
was  to  give  instructions  to  Titus  concerning 
the  management  of  the  churches  in  the  dif- 
ferent cities  of  the  island  of  Crete,  and  it  was 
probably  intended  to  be  read  publicly  to  the 
Cretans,  that  they  might  know  upon  what 
authority  Titus  acted.  St.  Paul,  after  his  usual 
salutation,  intimates  that  he  was  appointed  an 
apostle  by  the  express  command  of  God,  and 
reminds  Titus  of  the  reason  of  his  being  left 
in  Crete  ;  he  describes  the  qualifications  neces- 
sary for  bishops,  and  cautions  him  against  per- 
sons of  bad  principles,  especially  Judaizing 
teachers,  whom  he  directs  Titus  to  reprove 
with  severity ;  he  informs  him  what  instruc- 
tions he  should  give  to  people  in  different 
situations  of  life,  and  exhorts  him  to  be  ex- 
emplary in  his  own  conduct ;  he  points  out  the 
pure  and  practical  nature  of  the  Gospel,  and 
enumerates  some  particular  virtues  which  he 
was  to  inculcate,  avoiding  foolish  questions  and 
frivolous  disputes ;  he  instructs  him  how  he  is 
to  behave  toward  heretics  and  concludes  with 
salutations. 

TIZRI,  or  TISRI,  the  first  Hebrew  month 
of  the  civil  year,  and  the  seventh  of  the  sacred 
year,  answering  to  the  moon  of  September. 
On  the  first  day  of  this  month  was  kept  the 
feast  of  trumpets,  because  the  beginning  of 
the  civil  year  was  proclaimed  with  the  sound 
of  trumpets. 

TOB,  a  country  of  Palestine,  lying  beyond 
Jordan,  in  the  northern  part  of  the  portion  of 
Manasseh.  To  this  district  Jephthah  retired, 
when  he  was  driven  away  by  his  brethren, 
Judges  xi,  3,  5.  It  is  also  called  Tobie,  or 
Tubin,  1  Mac.  v,  13 ;  and  the  inhabitants  of 
this  canton  were  called  Tubieni.  It  is  sup- 
posed to  be  the  same  as  Ishtob,  one  of  the 
small  principalities  of  Syria,  which  appears, 
like  the  other  little  kingdoms  in  its  neighbour- 
hood, to  have  been  swallowed  up  in  the  king- 
dom of  Damascus.  This  principality  furnished 
twelve  thousand  men  to  the  confederacy  formed 
by  the  Syrians  and  Ammonites  against  David, 
2  Sam.  x. 

TOBIAH,  an  Ammonite,  an  enemy  to  the 
Jews.  He  was  one  of  those  who  strenuously 
opposed  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple,  after  the 
return  from  the  captivity  of  Babylon,  Neh.  ii, 
10  ;  iv,  3 ;  v,  1, 12, 14.  This  Tobiah  is  called 
"the  servant,"  or  "slave,"  in  some  parts  of 
Nehemiah  ;  probably  because  he  was  of  a  ser- 
vile condition.  However,  he  was  of  great 
consideration  in  the  land  of  the  Samaritans. 


TOK 


915 


TOP 


<of  which  he  was  governor  with  Sanballat. 
This  Tobiah  married  the  daughter  of  Shecha- 
niah,  one  of  the  principal  Jews  of  Jerusalem, 
Neh.  vi,  18,  and  had  a  powerful  party  in  Jeru- 
salem itself,  who  were  opposed  to  that  of  Nehe- 
miah.  He  maintained  a  correspondence  by 
letter  with  this  party  against  the  interest  of 
Nehemiah,  vi,  17-19;  but  that  prudent  gover- 
nor, by  his  wisdom  and  moderation,  defeated 
all  their  machinations.  After  some  time,  Ne- 
hemiah was  obliged  to  return  to  Babylon, 
subsequent  to  having  repaired  the  walls  of 
Jerusalem.  Tobiah  took  this  opportunity  to 
come  and  dwell  at  Jerusalem ;  and  even  obtained 
of  Eliashib,  who  had  the  care  of  the  house 
of  the  Lord,  to  have  an  apartment  in  the  tem- 
ple. But  at  Nehemiah's  return  from  Babylon, 
some  years  after,  he  drove  Tobiah  out  of  the 
courts  of  the  temple,  and  threw  his  goods  out 
of  the  holy  place,  Neh.  xiii,  4-8.  From  this 
time  the  Scripture  makes  no  farther  mention 
of  Tobiah.  It  is  probable  he  retired  to  San- 
ballat at  Samaria. 

TOGARMAH,  the  third  son  of  Gomer,  Gen. 
x,  4.  The  learned  are  divided  as  to  what  coun- 
try he  peopled.  Josephus  and  St.  Jerom  were 
of  opinion,  that  Togarmah  was  the  father  of 
the  Phrygians :  Eusebius,  Theodoret,  and  Isi- 
dorus  of  Seville,  that  he  peopled  Armenia:  the 
Chaldee  and  the  Talmudists  are  for  Germany. 
Several  moderns  believe  that  the  children  of 
Togarmah  peopled  Turcomania  in  Tartary  and 
Scythia.  Bochart  is  for  Cappadocia  :  he  builds 
upon  what  is  said  in  Ezekiel  xxvii,  14,  "  They 
of  the  house  of  Togarmah  traded  in  thy  fairs," 
that  is,  at  Tyre,  "  with  horses  and  horsemen 
and  mules."  He  proves  that  Cappadocia  was 
famous  for  its  excellent  horses  and  its  asses. 
He  observes  also,  that  certain  Gauls,  under 
the  conduct  of  Trocmus,  made  a  settlement 
at  Cappadocia,  and  were  called  Trocmi,  or 
Throgmi.  The  opinion,  says  Calmet,  which 
places  Togarmah  in  Scythia  and  Turcomania, 
seems  to  stand  upon  the  best  foundation. 

TOKENS,  TESSERAE,  or  TICKETS, 
were  written  testimonials  to  character,  much 
in  use  in  the  primitive  church.  By  means  of 
letters,  and  of  brethren  who  travelled  about, 
even  the  most  remote  churches  of  the  Roman 
empire  were  connected  together.  When  a 
Christian  arrived  in  a  strange  town,  he  first 
inquired  for  the  church  ;  and  he  was  here  re- 
ceived as  a  brother,  and  provided  with  every 
thing  needful  for  his  spiritual  or  corporeal 
sustenance.  But  since  deceivers,  spies  with 
evil  intentions,  and  false  teachers  abused  the 
confidence  and  the  kindness  of  Christians, 
some  measure  of  precaution  became  necessary, 
in  order  to  avert  the  many  injuries  which  might 
result  from  this  conduct.  An  arrangement  was 
therefore  introduced,  that  only  such  travelling 
Christians  should  be  received  as  brethren  into 
churches  where  they  were  strangers,  as  could 
produce  a  testimonial  from  the  bishop  of  the 
church  from  which  they  came.  They  called 
these  church  letters,  which  were  a  kind  of  tes- 
sera hospitales,  [tickets  of  hospitality,]  by  which 
the  Christians  of  all  quarters  of  the  world  were 
brought    into    connection,  epistola,  or    litercc 


format (P-,  [formal  letters,]  ypdjipaTa  rtru^ci^tia, 
because,  in  order  to  avoid  forgery,  they  were 
made  after  a  certain  schema,  (tu7to;,  forma,)  or 
else,  epistolce  communicatoria-,  [epistles  of  fel- 
lowship,] ypdnnara  koivuivikoi,  because  they  con- 
tained a  proof  that  those  who  brought  them 
were  in  the  communion  of  the  church,  as  well 
as  that  the  bishops,  who  mutually  sent  and 
received  such  letters,  were  in  connection  toge- 
ther by  the  communion  of  the  church  ;  and 
afterward  these  church  letters,  epistolce  clerical, 
were  divided  into  different  classes,  according 
to  the  difference  of  their  purposes. 

TONGUE.  This  word  is  taken  in  three 
different  senses.  1.  For  the  material  tongue,  or 
organ  of  speech,  James  iii,  5.  2.  For  the  tongue 
or  language  that  is  spoken  in  any  country, 
Deut.  xxviii,  49.  (See  Language.)  3.  For  good 
or  bad  discourses,  Prov.  xii,  18 ;  xvii,  20. 
Tongue  of  the  sea  signifies  a  gulf.  To  gnaw 
the  tongue,  Rev.  xvi,  10,  is  a  token  of  fury, 
despair,  and  torment.  The  gift  of  tongues  was 
that  which  God  granted  to  the  apostles  and- 
disciples  assembled  at  Jerusalem  on  the  day  of 
pentecost,  Acts  ii.  The  tongue  of  angels,  a 
kind  of  hyperbole  made  use  of  by  St.  Paul, 
1  Cor.  xiii,  1. 

TOO'I'H.  It  was  ordered  by  the  law  of  reta- 
liation, that  they  should  give  tooth  for  tooth, 
Exod.  xxi,  24.  The  opinion  that  it  is  every 
man's  right  and  duty  to  do  himself  justice,  and 
to  revenge  his  own  injuries,  is  by  no  means 
eradicated  from  among  the  Afghans,  a  people 
of  India,  to  the  southward  of  Cashmere,  and 
according  to  a  paper  in  the  Asiatic  Researches, 
supposed  to  be  descended  from  the  Jews  ;  and 
the  right  of  society,  even  to  restrain  the  rea- 
sonable passions  of  individuals,  and  to  take 
the  redress  of  wrongs  and  the  punishment  of 
crimes  into  its  own  hands,  is  still  very  imper- 
fectly understood ;  or,  if  it  is  understood,  is 
seldom  present  to  the  thoughts  of  the  people  ; 
for  although,  in  most  parts  of  their  country, 
justice  might  now  be  obtained  by  other  means, 
and  though  private  revenge  is  every  where 
preached  against  by  the  mollahs,  priests,  and 
forbidden  by  the  government,  yet  it  is  still 
lawful,  and  even  honourable  in  the  eyes  of  the 
people,  to  seek  that  mode  of  redress.  The  in- 
jured party  is  considered  to  be  entitled  to  strict 
retaliation  on  the  aggressor.  If  the  offender 
be  out  of  his  power,  he  may  wreak  his  ven- 
geance on  a  relation,  and,  in  some  cases,  on 
any  man  in  the  tribe.  If  no  opportunity  of 
exercising  this  right  occurs,  he  may  defer  his 
revenge  for  years  ;  but  it  is  disgraceful  to  ne- 
glect or  abandon  it  entirely ;  and  it  is  incum- 
bent on  his  relations,  and  sometimes  on  his 
tribe,  to  assist  him  in  his  retaliation.  To  gnash 
the  teeth  is  a  token  of  sorrow,  rage,  despair, 
Psalm  xxxv,  16,  &c.  God  breaks  the  teeth  of 
the  wicked,  Psalm  iii,  7.  Cleanness  of  teeth 
denotes  famine,  Amos  iv,  C.  The  wicked  com- 
plain, that  the  "  fathers  have  eaten  sour  grapes, 
and  their  children's  teeth  are  set  on  edge," 
Eznk.  xviii,  2,  to  signify,  that  the  children  have 
suffered  for  their  transgressions. 

TOl'AZ,  mOB,  Exod.  xxviii,  17;  xxxix,  10; 
Job  xxviii,  19  ;  Ezck.  xxviii,  13;  rondfyov,  Rev. 


TRA 


916 


TRA 


m,  iiO  ;  a  precious  stone  of  a  pale  dead  green, 
with  a  mixture  of  yellow  ;  and  sometimes  of 
fine  yellow,  like  gold.  It  is  very  hard,  and 
takes  a  fine  polish.  We  have  the  authority  of 
the  Septnagint  and  Josephus  for  ascertaining 
this  stone.  The  oriental  topazes  are  most  cs- 
teemed.  Those  of  Ethiopia  were  celebrated  for 
their  wonderful  lustre,  Job  xxviii,  19. 

TOPHET.  It  is  thought  that  Tophet  was 
the  butchery,  or  place  of  slaughter,  at  Jerusa- 
lem, lying  to  the  south  of  the  city,  in  the  valley 
of  the  children  of  Ilinnom.  It  is  also  said, 
that  a  large  fire  was  constantly  kept  there  for 
burning  carcasses,  garbage,  and  other  filth 
brought  thither  from  the  city.  It  was  the  place 
where  they  burned  the  remains  of  images  and 
false  gods,  &c,  Isa.  xxx,  33.  Others  think  the 
name  Tophet  was  given  to  the  valley  of  Hin- 
nom,  from  the  beating  of  drums,  (the  word 
toph  signifying  a  drum,)  which  accompanied 
the  sacrifices  of  infants  that  were  offered  there 
to  the  god  Moloch.  For  the  manner  of  per- 
forming those  sacrifices  in  Tophet,  see  Moloch. 

TOWER.  "The  tower  of  the  flock,"  or  the 
tower  of  Ader,  Micah  iv,  8.  It  is  said  this 
tower  was  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Bethlehem, 
Gen.  xxxv,  21,  and  that  the  shepherds,  to  whom 
the  angel  revealed  the  birth  of  our  Saviour, 
were  near  to  this  tower,  Luke  ii,  8,  15.  Many 
interpreters  assert,  that  the  passage  of  Micah, 
in  which  mention  is  made  of  the  tower  of  the 
flock  :  "  And  thou  tower  of  the  flock,  the 
strong  hold  of  the  daughter  of  Zion,"  is  to  be 
understood  of  the  city  of  Bethlehem,  out  of 
which  our  Saviour  was  to  come.  Others  main- 
tain, that  the  prophet  speaks  of  the  city  of 
Jerusalem,  in  which  there  was  a  tower  of  this 
name,  through  which  the  flocks  of  sheep  were 
driven  to  the  sheep-market.  "  From  the  tower 
of  the  watchmen  to  the  fenced  city,"  2  Kings 
xvii,  9.  This  form  of  speaking  expresses  in 
general  all  the  places  of  the  country,  from  the 
least  to  the  greatest.  The  towers  of  the  watch- 
men, or  of  the  shepherds,  stood  alone  in  the 
midst  of  the  plain,  in  which  the  shepherds  and 
herdsmen  who  looked  after  the  flocks,  or 
watchmen,  might  lodge.  King  Uzziah  caused 
several  towers  to  be  built  for  the  shepherds  in 
the  desert,  and  made  many  cisterns  there, 
because  he  had  a  great  number  of  flocks,  2 
Chronicles  xxvi,  10.  The  tower  of  the  flock, 
and  that  which  Isaiah,  v,  2,  notices,  which 
was  built  in  the  midst  of  a  vineyard,  were  of 
the  same  kind. 

Tower  of  Babel.    See  Babei,. 

Tower  of  Shechbh  was  a  citadel,  or  fortress, 
Btanding  upon  a  higher  ground  than  the  rest 
of  the  city,  and  capacious  enough  to  contain 
above  a  thousand  persons.  This  tower,  filled 
with  the  inhabitants  of  Shechem,  was  burned 
by  Abimelech  down  to  tho  very  ground,  toge- 
ther with  those  who  had  taken  refuge  in  it 

TRACHONITlS,Lnkeiii,l.  This  province 
had  Arabia  Deserts  to  the  east,  Batanca  to  the 
west,  Korea  to  the  south,  and  the  country  of 
Damascus  to  the  north.  It  belonged- rat  her  to 
Arabia  than  Palestine;  was  a  rocky  province 
and  served  as  a  shelter  for  thieves  and  deprd 


TRADITION.     See  Cabbala. 

TRANSFIGURATION  OF  CHRIST.  This 
event  relates  to  a  very  remarkable  occurrence 
in  the  history  of  our  Lord's  life,  which  is  re- 
corded by  three  of  the  evangelists,  Matthew 
xvii ;  Mark  ix  ;  Luke  ix.  The  substance  of 
what  we  learn  from  their  accounts  is,  that  upon 
a  certain  occasion  Jesus  took  Peter,  James,  and 
John,  into  a  high  mountain  apart  from  all  other 
society,  and  that  he  was  there  transfigured 
before  them ;  his  face  shining  as  the  sun,  and 
his  raiment  white  as  the  light ;  that  moreover 
there  appeared  unto  them  Moses  and  Elias, 
conversing  with  him  ;  and  that  while  they 
spake  together  on  the  subject  of  his  death, 
which  was  soon  afterward  to  take  place  at 
Jerusalem,  a  bright  cloud  overshadowed  them, 
and  a  voice  out  of  the  cloud  proclaimed,  "  This 
is  my  beloved  Son,  in  whom  I  am  well  pleased." 
The  Apostle  Peter,  adverting  to  this  memorable 
occurrence,  says,  "  We  have  not  followed  cun- 
ningly devised  fables,  when  we  made  known 
unto  you  the  power  and  coming  of  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  but  were  eye-witnesses  of  his 
majesty.  For  he  received  from  God  the  Father 
honour  and  glory,  when  there  came  such  a 
voice  to  him  from  the  excellent  glory,  This  is 
my  beloved  Son,  in  whom  I  am  well  pleased. 
And  this  voice  which  came  from  heaven  we 
heard,  when  we  were  with  him  in  the  holy 
mount,"  2  Peter  i,  16-18.  This  event  is  to  be 
considered  :  1.  As  a  solemn  confirmation  of 
the  prophetic  office  of  Christ.  2.  As  designed 
to  support  the  faith  of  the  disciples,  which  was 
to  be  deeply  tried  by  his  approaching  humilia- 
tions ;  and  to  afford  consolation  to  the  human 
nature  of  our  Lord  himself,  by  giving  him  a. 
foretaste  of  "  the  joy  set  before  him."  3.  As 
an  emblem  of  humanity  glorified  at  the  resur- 
rection. 4.  As  declaring  Christ  to  be  superior 
to  Moses  and  Elias,  the  giver  and  the  restorer 
of  the  law.  5.  As  an  evidence  to  the  disciples 
of  the  existence  of  a  separate  state,  in  which 
good  men  consciously  enjoy  the  felicity  of 
heaven.  6.  As  a  proof  that  the  bodies  of  good 
men  shall  be  so  refined  and  changed,  as,  like 
Elias,  to  live  in  a  state  of  immortality,  and  in 
the  presence  of  God.  7.  As  exhibiting  the 
sympathy  which  exists  between  the  church  in 
heaven  and  the  church  on  earth,  and  the  in- 
struction which  the  former  receives  from  the 
events  which  take  place  in  the  latter : — Moses 
and  Illias  conversed  with  our  Lord  on  his  ap- 
proaching death,  doubtless  to  receive,  not  to 
convey  information.  8.  As  maintaining  the 
grand  distinction,  the  infinite  difference,  be- 
tween Christ  and  all  other  prophets :  he  is 
■"  the  son."  "  This  is  my  beloved  Son,  hear 
fiiin."  It  has  been  observed,  with  much  truth, 
that  the  condition  in  which  Jesus  Christ  ap- 
peared among  men,  humble,  weak,  poor,  and 
despised,  was  a  true  and  continual  transfigu- 
ration ;  whereas,  the  transfiguration  itself,  in 
which  he  showed  himself  in  the  real  splendour 
of  his  glory,  was  his  true  and  natural  condition. 

TRANSUBSTANTIATION.  The  Lord's 
Supper  being  observed  in  commemoration  of 
the  death  of  Christ,  which  was  the  sacrifice 
offered  for  the  sins  of  men,  the  idea  of  a  sacri- 


TRA 


917 


TRA 


rice  was  early  conjoined  with  it;  and  finally,  it 
came  to  be  regarded  not  merely  as  the  symbol 
of  a  sacrifice,  but  in  some  sense  a  sacrifice 
itself.  There  was  also  another  cause  which 
contributed  to  this  belief.  It  was  the  anxious 
wish  of  some  of  the  fathers  to  give  to  their 
religion  a  degree  of  splendour,  which  might 
make  a  powerful  impression  upon  the  senses. 
Under  the  Jewish  economy,  the  numerous  sacri- 
fices that  were  offered,  in  a  remarkable  degree 
riveted  the  attention ;  and,  with  reference  to 
this,  it  became  customary  to  hold  forth  the 
Lord's  Supper  as  the  great  sacrifice  in  the 
Christian  church.  This  mode  of  speaking 
quickly  gained  ground ;  it  is  often  used  by 
Cyprian,  although  he  plainly  understood  it  in 
a  mystical  sense ;  and  the  ordinance  of  tbe 
supper  was  not  unfrequently  styled  the  cucha- 
ristical  sacrifice.  It  was  very  early  the  practice 
to  hold  up  the  elements,  previous  to  their  being 
distributed,  to  the  view  of  the  people,  probably 
to  excite  in  them  more  effectually  devout  and 
reverential  feelings  ;  and  this  laid  the  founda- 
tion for  that  adoration  of  them  which  was,  at 
a  subsequent  period,  as  we  shall  soon  find,  ex- 
tensively introduced. 

For  several  ages,  says  Dr.  Cook,  the  state  of 
opinion  respecting  the  sacramental  elements 
was,  that  they  were  memorials  of  Christ's 
death,  but  that,  agreeably  to  his  own  declara- 
tion, his  body  and  blood  were,  in  some  sense, 
present  with  them.  The  questions,  however, 
what  was  the  nature  of  that  presence  ?  and 
what  were  the  physical  consequences  as  to  the 
bread  and  the  wine  ?  however  much  we  may 
conceive  these  points  to  have  been  involved  in 
the  opinion  actually  held,  or  the  language  ac- 
tually used,  seem  not  to  have  been  for  a  long 
period  much  agitated,  or,  at  all  events,  not 
authoritatively  decided,  although  the  Roman 
Catholic  writers  gladly  and  triumphantly  bring 
forward  the  expressions  that  were  so  often 
used  from  the  earliest  age,  in  support  of  the 
tenet  which  their  church  at  length  espoused. 
But  it  was  not  to  be  supposed  that  the  curiosity 
of  man  would  be  permanently  arrested  at  the 
threshold  of  this  most  mysterious  inquiry ; 
and  accordingly  a  definite  theory,  with  respect 
to  it,  was,  in  the  ninth  century,  avowed,  and 
zealously  defended.  Pascasius  Radbert,  a 
monk,  and  afterward  abbot  of  Corbey  in 
Picardy,  published  a  treatise  concerning  the 
sacrament  of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ,  in 
which  he  did  not  hesitate  to  maintain  the  fol- 
lowing most  extraordinary  positions  :  "That 
after  the  consecration  of  the  bread  and  wine 
in  the  Lord's  Supper,  nothing  remained  of 
these  symbols  but  the  outward  form  or  figure 
under  which  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ  were 
really  and  locally  present;  and  that  this  body 
so  present  was  the  identical  body  that  had 
been  born  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  had  suffered  on 
the  cross,  and  had  been  raised  from  the  dead." 
The  publication  of  notions  so  decidedly  at 
war  with  all  which  human  beings  must  credit, 
excited,  as  might  have  been  expected,  as- 
tonishment and  indignation  ;  and,  accordingly, 
many  writers  exerted  their  talents  against  it. 
Among    these  was    the    celebrated    Johannes 


Scotus,  who  laid  the  axe  to  the  root  of  the 
tree,  and,  shaking  off  all  that  figurative  lan- 
guage which  had  been  so  sadly  abused,  dis- 
tinctly and  powerfully  stated,  that  the  bread 
and  wine  used  in  the  eucharist  were  the  signs 
or  symbols  of  the  absent  body  and  blood  of 
Christ.  The  light  of  reason  and  truth  was, 
however,  too  feeble  to  penetrate  through  the 
darkness  which  during  this  age  was  spread 
over  the  minds  and  understandings  of  men. 
No  public  declaration,  indeed,  as  to  the  nature 
of  the  sacramental  elements  was  made  ;  and 
even  the  popes  did  not  interpose  their  high  and 
revered  authority  with  regard  to  it ;  but  there 
seems  little  doubt  that  the  opinion  of  Pascasius 
was  adopted  by  the  greater  part  of  the  western 
church,  although  it  is  not  likely  that  much 
deference  was  paid  to  his  explanations  of  it. 
The  question  was  again  agitated,  and  attracted 
more  notice  than  it  had  ever  before  done,  in 
the  course  of  the  eleventh  century.  Several 
theologians,  distinguished  for  the  period  at 
which  they  lived,  shocked  with  the  grossness 
and  absurdity  of  the  conversion  which  had 
been  defended,  strenuously  opposed  it.  Among 
these  Berenger  holds  the  most  conspicuous 
place,  both  on  account  of  the  zeal  and  ability 
which  he  displayed,  and  the  cruel  and  un 
christian  manner  in  which  he  was  resisted. 
About  the  commencement  of  the  century,  he 
began  to  inculcate  that  the  bread  and  wine  of 
the  eucharist  were  not  truly  and  actually,  but 
only  figuratively,  and  by  similitude,  the  body 
and  blood  of  Christ ;  and  a  doctrine  so  rational 
obtained  many  adherents  in  France,  Italy,  and 
England.  He  was,  however,  encountered  by 
a  host  of  opponents,  numbers  of  whom  pos- 
sessed the  highest  situations  in  the  church ; 
and  the  church  itself,  either  from  having  per- 
ceived that  the  doctrine  which  he  laboured  to 
confute  was  grateful  to  the  people,  or,  what  is 
more  likely,  tended  to  exalt  the  powers  and  to 
increase  the  influence  and  wealth  of  the  priest- 
hood, declared  against  him,  various  councils 
having  been  assembled,  and  having  pronounced 
their  solemn  decrees  in  condemnation  of  what 
he  taught.  The  councils  did  not  rest  their 
hope  of  overcoming  Berenger  upon  tbe  strength 
of  the  reasoning  which  they  could  urge  against 
him  :  they  took  a  much  more  summary  method, 
and  threatened  to  put  him  to  death  if  he  did 
not  recant.  At  one  synod  held  at  Rome,  under 
the  immediate  eye  of  the  pope,  the  fathers  of 
whom  it  consisted  so  successfully  alarmed 
Berenger,  that,  not  having  sufficient  vigour  of 
mind  to  stand  firm  against  their  cruelty,  he 
confessed  that  he  had  been  in  error,  and  subscri- 
bed the  following  declaration  composed  by  one 
of  the  cardinals  :  "The  bread  and  wine  which 
are  placed  on  the  altar  are,  after  consecration, 
not  merely  a  sacrament,  symbol,  or  figure,  but 
even  the  true  body  and  blood  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  which  is  handled  by  the  hands  of  the 
priests,  and  broken  and  chewed  by  the  teeth 
of  the  faithful."  He  had  no  sooner  escaped 
from  the  violence  which  he  had  dreaded,  than 
he  shrunk  from  the  tenet  to  which  he  had  been 
forced  to  give  his  assent,  and  he  again  avowed 
his  original  sentiments ;   but  he  was  afterward 


TRA 


918 


TRA 


turned  aside  from  his  integrity  by  the  arts  and 
the  infamous  persecution  of  new  councils,  al- 
though be  died  adhering  lo  the  spirituality  of 
Christ's  presence  ill  the  eucharist.  From  this 
time  the  strange  opinion  of  Pascasius  rapidly 
gained  ground,  Being  supported  by  all  the  in- 
fluence of  popes  anil  councils ;  but  there  had 
not  yet  been  devised  a  term  which  clearly  ex- 
pressed what  Wits  really  implied  in  that  opinion. 
In  the  next  century,  the  ingenuity  of  some 
theologian  invented  what  was  wanting;  the 
change  that  takes  place  on  the  elements  after 
consecration  having  been  denominated  by  him 
transubstantiation.  Still,  however,  some  lati- 
tude was  afforded  to  those  who  interpreted  the 
epithet;  but  this  in  the  thirteenth  century  was 
taken  away,  a  celebrated  council  of  the  Late- 
ran,  attended  by  no  fewer  than  four  hundred 
and  twelve  bishops,  and  eight  hundred  abbots 
and  priors,  having,  at  the  instigation  of  Inno- 
cent the  Third,  one  of  the  most  arrogant  and 
presumptuous  of  the  pontiffs,  explicitly  adopted 
transubstantiation  as  an  article  of  faith,  in  the 
monstrous  form  in  which  it  is  now  held  in  the 
popish  church,  and  denounced  anathemas 
against  all  who  hesitated  to  give  their  assent. 
The  opposition  which  after  this  was  made  to 
a  doctrine  so  revolting  to  the  senses  and  the 
reason,  was  very  feeble,  insomuch  that  it  may, 
in  consequence  of  the  decree  of  the  Lateran 
council,  be  considered  as  having  become  the 
established  faith  of  the  western  church.  In 
the  Greek  church  it  was  long  resisted,  and, 
indeed,  was  not  embraced  till  the  seventeenth 
century,  a  time  at  which  it  might  have  been 
thought  that  it  could  not  have  extended  the 
range  of  its  influence. 

After  transubstantiation  was  thus  sanction- 
ed, a  change  necessarily  took  place  with 
respect  to  various  parts  of  the  service  used  in 
administering  the  eucharist.  That  solemn 
service  was  now  viewed  as  an  actual  sacrifice 
or  offering  of  the  body  of  Christ  for  the  sins 
of  men,  and  the  elevation  of  the  host  was  held 
forth  as  calling  for  the  adoration  and  worship 
of  believers  ;  so  that  an  ordinance  mercifully 
designed  to  preserve  the  pure  influence  of  the 
most  spiritual  and  elevated  religion,  became 
the  instrument,  in  the  hands  of  ignorant  or 
corrupt  men,  of  introducing  the  most  senseless 
and  degrading  idolatry.  When  the  Reforma- 
tion shook  the  influence  of  the  church,  and 
brought  into  exercise  the  intellectual  faculties 
of  man,  the  subject  of  the  eucharist  demanded 
and  received  the  closest  and  most  anxious 
attention.  It  might  have  been  naturally  sup- 
posed, that  when  Luther  directed  his  vigorous 
mind  to  point  out  and  to  condemn  the  abuses 
which  had  been  sanctioned  in  the  popish 
church,  he  would  not  have  spared  a  doctrine 
the  most  irrational  and  objectionable  which 
that  church  avows,  and  that  he  would  have 
vindicated  the  holy  ordinance  of  the  Lord's 
Supper  from  the  abomination  with  which  it  had 
been  associated.  He  did,  indeed,  object  to 
transubstantiation,  but  he  did  so  with  a  degree 
of  hesitation  truly  astonishing,  although  that 
sii  displayed  by  many  of  the  first 
reformers.     He  declared  that  he  saw  no  war- 


rant  for  believing  that  the  bread  and  wine  were 
actually  changed  into  the  body  and  blood  of 
Christ ;  but  he  adhered  to  the  literal  import  of 
our  Saviour's  words,  teaching  that  his  body 
and  blood  were  received,  and  that  they  were 
in  some  incomprehensible  manner  conjoined 
or  united  with  the  bread  and  wine.  It  is  quite 
evident,  that  although  this  system  got  rid  of 
one  difficulty  by  leaving  the  testimony  of  the 
senses  as  to  the  bread  and  wine  unchallenged, 
yet  it  is  just  as  incomprehensible  as  the  other, 
assumes  as  a  fact  what  the  senses  cannot  dis- 
cern, and  involves  in  it  difficulties  equally 
repugnant  to  the  plainest  dictates  of  reason. 
Powerful  accordingly  as  most  deservedly  was 
his  ascendency,  and  great  as  was  the  venera- 
tion with  which  he  was  contemplated,  he  was 
upon  this  point  happily  opposed  ;  his  colleague, 
the  celebrated  Carlostadt,  openly  avowing, 
that  when  our  Lord  said  of  the  bread,  "  This 
is  my  body,"  he  pointed  to  his  own  person, 
and  thus  taught  that  the  bread  was  merely  the 
sign  or  emblem  of  it.  Luther  warmly  resisted 
this  opinion ;  Carlostadt  was  obliged,  surely  in 
little  consistency  with  the  fundamental  princi- 
ple of  Protestantism,  in  consequence  of  having 
professed  it,  to  leave  Wirtemberg ;  and  although 
it  procured  some  adherents,  yet  as  it  rested 
upon  an  assertion  of  which  there  could  be  no 
proof,  it  was  never  extensively  disseminated, 
and  was  ultimately  abandoned  by  Carlostadt 
himself.  The  discussion,  however,  which  he 
had  commenced  stimulated  others  to  the  con- 
sideration of  the  subject,  and  led  Zuinglius, 
who  had  previously  often  meditated  upon  it, 
and  CEcolampadius,  two  of  the  most  distin- 
guished reformers,  to  submit  to  the  public  the 
doctrine,  that  the  bread  and  wine  are  only 
symbols  of  Christ's  body  and  blood,  but  that 
the  body  of  our  Lord  was  in  heaven,  to  which 
after  his  resurrection  he  had  ascended.  Luther 
composed  several  works  to  confute  the  opinions 
of  Zuinglius.  At  the  commencement  of  the 
controversy  respecting  the  eucharist  among 
the  defenders  of  the  Protestant  faith,  there 
seem  to  have  been  only  two  opinions,  that  of 
Luther,  asserting  that  the  body  and  blood  of 
Christ  were  actually  with  the  bread  and  wine, 
and  that  of  Zuinglius,  CEcolampadius,  and 
Bucer,  that  the  bread  and  wine  were  the  em- 
blems or  signs  of  Christ's  body  and  blood,  no 
other  advantage  being  derived  from  partaking 
of  them  than  the  moral  effect  naturally  result- 
ing from  the  commemoration  of  an  event  so 
awful  and  so  deeply  interesting  as  the  cruci- 
fixion of  our  Redeemer.  Calvin  soon  published 
what  may  be  regarded  as  a  new  view  of  the 
subject.  Admitting  the  justness  of  the  inter- 
pretation of  our  Lord's  words  given  by  Zuin- 
glius, he  maintained  that  spiritual  influence 
was  conveyed  to  worthy  partakers  of  the  Lord's 
Supper,  insomuch  that  Christ  may  be  said  to 
be  spiritually  present  with  the  outward  ele- 
ments. The  sentiments  of  this  most  eminent 
theologian  made  a  deep  impression  upon  the 
public  mind  ;  and  although  the  churches  of 
Zurich  and  Berne  long  adhered  to  the  creed  of 
Zuinglius,  yet,  through  the  perseverance  and 
dexterity    of    Calvin,    the    Swiss    Protestant 


TRA 


919 


TRA 


churches  at  length  united  with  that  of  Geneva 
in  assenting  to  the  spiritual  presence  of  Christ 
in  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  In 
other  countries,  too,  he  saw  many  adhering  to 
what  he  had  taught,  and  carrying  to  as  great 
length  as  it  could  be  carried  what,  under  his 
system,  must  be  termed  the  allegorical  language 
which  he  recommended.  The  French  Fro- 
testants  in  their  confession  thus  express  them- 
selves :  "We  aflirm  that  the  holy  supper  of 
our  Lord  is  a  witness  to  us  of  our  union  with 
the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  because  that  he  is  not 
only  once  dead  and  raised  up  again  from  the 
dead  for  us,  but  also  he  doth  indeed  feed  and 
nourish  us  with  his  flesh  and  blood.  And 
although  he  be  now  in  heaven,  and  shall  re- 
main there  till  he  come  to  judge  the  world,  yet 
we  believe  that,  by  the  secret  and  incompre- 
hensible virtue  of  his  Spirit,  he  doth  nourish 
and  quicken  us  with  the  substance  of  his  body 
and  blood.  But  we  say  that  this  is  done  in  a 
spiritual  manner  ;  nor  do  we  hereby  substitute 
in  place  of  the  effect  and  truth  an  idle  fancy 
and  conceit  of  our  own ;  but  rather,  because 
this  mystery  of  our  union  with  Christ  is  so 
high  a  thing  that  it  surmounteth  all  our  senses, 
yea  and  the  whole  order  of  nature,  and  in 
short,  because  it  is  celestial,  it  cannot  be  com- 
prehended but  by  faith."  Knox,  who  revered 
Calvin,  carried  into  Scotland  the  opinions  of 
that  reformer;  and  in  the  original  Scottish 
confessions,  similar  language,  though  some- 
what more  guarded  than  that  which  has  been 
just  quoted,  is  used:  "We  assuredly  believe 
that  in  the  supper  rightly  used,  Christ  Jesus  is 
so  joined  with  us,  that  he  becometh  the  very 
nourishment  and  food  of  our  souls.  Not  that 
ive  imagine  any  transubstantiation, — but  this 
union  and  communion  which  we  have  with  the 
body  and  blood  of  Christ  Jesus  in  the  right  use 
of  the  sacrament,  is  wrought  by  the  operation 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,  who  by  true  faith  carrieth 
us  above  all  things  that  are  visible,  carnal,  and 
earthly,  and  maketh  us  to  feed  upon  the  body 
and  blood  of  Christ  Jesus.  We  most  assuredly 
believe  that  the  bread  which  we  break  is  the 
communion  of  Christ's  body,  and  the  cup 
which  we  bless  is  the  communion  of  his  blood  ; 
so  that  we  confess  and  undoubtedly  believe, 
that  the  faithful  in  the  right  use  of  the  Lord's 
table  so  do  eat  the  body  and  drink  the  blood 
of  the  Lord  Jesus,  that  he  reraaineth  in  them 
and  they  in  him ;  yea,  that  they  are  so  made 
flesh  of  his  flesh,  and  bones  of  his  bones,  that 
as  the  eternal  Godhead  hath  given  to  the  flesh 
of  Christ  Jesus  life  and  immortality,  so  doth 
Christ  Jesus's  flesh  and  blood,  eaten  and 
drunken  by  us,  give  to  us  the  same  preroga- 
tives." The  church  of  Scotland,  which  did 
not  long  use  this  first  confession,  seems  to 
have  seen,  in  the  course  of  the  following  cen- 
tury, the  propriety,  if  not  of  relinquishing,  yet 
of  more  cautiously  employing  the  phraseology 
now  brought  into  view ;  for  in  the  Westminster 
confession,  which  is  still  the  standard  of  faith 
in  that  church,  there  is  unquestionably  a  great 
improvement  in  the  style  which  has  been 
adopted  in  treating  of  this  subject.  In  it  the 
compilers  declare,  that  "the  outward  elements 


in  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper  duly  set 
apart  to  the  uses  ordained  by  Christ,  have  such 
relation  to   him   crucified,   as  that   truly,  yet 
sacramentally  only,  they  are  sometimes  called 
by  the  name   of  the    things   they  represent ; 
namely  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ,  albeit  in 
substance  and   nature  they  still  remain  truly 
and  only  bread  and  wine,  as  they  were  before." 
Then  after  most  powerfully  exposing  the  ab- 
surdity of  transubstantiation,   representing  it 
as  repugnant  not   to  Scripture   alone,  but  to 
reason    and    common    sense,    they    proceed  : 
"Worthy  receivers,   outwardly  partaking   of 
the  visible  elements  in  this  sacrament,  do  then 
also  inwardly  by  faith,  really  and  indeed,  yet 
not  carnally  and  corporally,  but  spiritually,  re- 
ceive and  feed  upon  Christ  crucified,  and  all 
benefits  of  his  death  :  the  body  and  blood  of 
Christ  being  then  not  corporally  or  carnally 
in,  with,  or  under  the  bread  and  wine,  yet  as 
really  but  spiritually  present  to  the  faith   of 
believers  in  that  ordinance,  as  the  elements 
themselves  are  to  their  outward  senses."     The 
church  of  England  was  in  its  first  reformation 
from    popery  inclined   to  adhere    to    the   Lu- 
therans ;  but  in  the  time  of  Edward  the  Sixth, 
a  more  correct  and  Scriptural  view  seems  to 
have  been  taken.     In  the  thirty-nine  articles, 
the  present  creed  of  the  English  church,  it  is 
said   of  this  ordinance:   "The  supper  of  the 
Lord  is  not  only  a  sign  of  the  love  that  Chris- 
tians ought  to  have  among  themselves  one  to 
another,  but  rather  it  is  a  sacrament  of  our 
redemption  by  Christ's  death  ;  insomuch  that, 
to  such  as  rightly,   worthily,  and  with  faith 
receive  the  same,  the  bread  which  we  break  is 
a  partaking  of  the  body  of  Christ,  and  like- 
wise the  cup  is  a  partaking  of  the  blood  of 
Christ."'     This  strong   language  is,  however, 
in  the  same  article,  so  modified,  as  to  show 
that  all  which  was  intended  by  it  was  to  repre- 
sent the  spiritual  influence  conveyed  through 
the  Lord's  Supper ;  for  it  is  taught,  "  that  the 
body  of  Christ  is  given,  taken,  and  eaten   in 
the  supper,  only  after  a  heavenly  and  spiritual 
manner."     The   idea   of   Zuinglius,    that   the 
Lord's  Supper  is  merely  a  commemoration  of 
Christ's    death,   naturally  producing  a  moral 
effect  upon  the  serious  and  considerate  mind, 
has  been  held  by  members   of  both  the   esta- 
blished   churches    in    Great    Britain.     It  was 
vigorously  defended,   about  the  beginning  of 
last  century,   by   Bishop  Hoadly,  in    a   work 
which  he  entitled,   "  A  plain  Account  of  the 
Nature   and   Ends   of  the   Sacrament    of  the 
Lord's  Supper  ;"  and  it  has  more  recently  been 
supported   by  Dr.  Bell,  in   a  treatise  denomi- 
nated "  An  Attempt  to  ascertain  the  Autho- 
rity, Nature,  and  Design  of  the  Lord's  Supper." 
The   ingenuity   of  particular  individuals  has 
been  exerted  in  giving  other  peculiar  illustra- 
tions of  the  subject.     Cud  worth  and  Bishop 
Warburton,  for  example,  represented  the  sacra- 
ment of  the  supper  under  the  view  of  a  feast, 
upon  a  sacrifice ;  but  such  speculations  have 
not  influenced  the  faith  of  any  large  denomina- 
tion of  Christians. 

TRAVELLING.     The  mode  in  which  the 
patriarchs  performed  their  pastoral  migrations 


TRK 


920 


TRE 


will  be  illustrated,  with  several  differences  in 
circumstances,  by  the  following  extract  from 
Parsons' Travels  :  "Itw&a  entertaining  enough 

to  see  the  horde  of  Arabs  decamp,  as  nothing 
could  be  more  regular.  First  went  the  sheep 
and  goat  herds,  each  with  their  flocks  in  divi- 
sions, according  as  the  chief  of  each  family 
directed ;  then  followed  the  camels  and  asses, 
loaded  with  the  tents,  furniture,  and  kitchen 
utensils ;  these  were  followed  by  the  old  men, 
women,  boys,  and  girls,  on  foot.  The  children 
that  cannot  walk  are  carried  on  the  backs  of 
the  young  women,  or  the  boys  and  girls;  and 
the  smallest  of  the  lambs  and  kids  are  carried 
under  the  arms  of  the  children.  To  each  tent 
belong  many  dogs,  among  i  which  are  some 
greyhounds  ;  some  tents  have  from  ten  to 
tourteen  doge,  and  from  twenty  to  thirty  men, 
women,  and  children,  belonging  to  it.  The 
procession  js  closed  by  the  chief  of  the  tribe, 
whom  they  call  emir  and  father,  (emir  means 
prince,i  mounted  on  the  very  best  horse,  and 
surrounded  by  the  heads  of  each  family,  all  on 
horses,  with  many  servants  on  foot.  Between 
each  family  is  a  division  or  space  of  one  hun- 
dred yards,  or  more,  when  they  migrate  ;  and 
such  great  regularity  is  observed,  that  neither 
camels,  a6ses,  sheep,  nor  dogs,  mix,  but  each 
keeps  to  the  division  to  which  it  belongs,  with- 
out the  least  trouble.  They  had  been  here 
eight  days,  and  were  going  four  hours' journey 
to  the  north-west,  to  another  spring  of  water. 
This  tribe  consisted  of  about  eight  hundred 
and  fifty  men,  women,  and  children.  Their 
flocks  of  sheep  and  goats  were  about  five 
thousand,  beside  a  great  number  of  camels, 
horses,  and  asses.  Horses  and  greyhounds 
they  breed  and  train  up  for  sale  :  they  neither 
kill  nor  sell  their  ewe  lambs.  At  set  times  a 
chapter  in  the  Koran  is  read  by  the  chief  of 
each  family,  either  in  or  near  each  tent,  the 
whole  family  being  gathered  round,  and  very 
attentive."  Instead  of  the  Koran  of  modern 
times,  let  us  conceive  of  Abraham,  and  other 
patriarchal  emirs,  collecting  their  numerous 
dependents  and  teaching  them  the  true  reli- 
gion, and  we  then  see  with  what  truth  they 
are  called  the  Lord's  "  prophets." 

TREASURE.  The  Hebrew  word  signifies 
any  thing  collected  together,  provisions,  or 
magazines.  So  they  say,  a  treasure  of  corn, 
of  wine,  of  oil,  of  honey,  Jer.  xli,  8;  treasures 
of  gold,  silver,  brass,  Ezek.  xxviii,  4 ;  Dan. 
xi,  43.  Snow,  winds,  hail,  rain,  waters,  are 
in  the  treasuries  of  God,  Psalm  exxxv,  7 ;  Jer. 
li,  16.  The  wise  men  opened  their  treasures, 
Matt,  ii,  11,  that  is,  their  packets,  or  bundles, 
to  offer  presents  to  our  Saviour.  Joseph  ac- 
quainted his  brethren,  when  they  found  their 
money  returned  in  their  sacks,  that  God  had 
given  them  treasures,  Genesis  xliii,  23.  The 
treasures  of  the  house  of  God,  whether  in  sil- 
ver, com,  wine,  or  oil,  were  under  the  care  of 
the  Levites.  The  kings  of  Judah  had  also 
keepers  of  the  treasures  both  in  city  and  coun- 
try, 1  Chron.  xxvii,  95  ;  and  the  places  where 
these  magazines  were  laid  up  were  called  trea- 
sure cities.  Pharaoh  compelled  the  Hebrews 
to  build  luin  tnamre  cities,  or  magazines. 


TREE  is  the  first  and  largest  of  the  vege. 
table  kind,  consisting  of  a  single  trunk,  out  of 
which  spring  forth  branches  and  leaves.  Heat 
is  so  essential  to  the  growth  of  trees,  that  wo 
see  them  grow  larger  and  smaller  in  a  sort  of 
gradation  as  the  climates  in  which  they  stand 
are  more  or  less  hot.  The  hottest  countries 
yield,  in  general,  the  largest  and  tallest  trees, 
and  those,  also,  in  much  greater  beauty  and 
variety  than  the  colder  do  ;  and  even  those 
plants  which  are  common  to  both  arrive  at  a 
much  greater  bulk  in  the  southern  than  in  the 
northern  climates  ;  nay,  there  are  some  regions 
so  bleak  and  chill,  that  they  raise  no  vegetables 
at  all  to  any  considerable  height.  Greenland, 
Iceland,  and  similar  places,  afford  no  trees  at 
all ;  and  the  shrubs  which  grow  in  them  are 
always  little  and  low.  In  the  warmer  climates, 
where  trees  grow  to  a  moderate  size,  any  acci- 
dental diminution  of  the  common  heat  is  found 
very  greatly  to  impede  vegetation  ;  and  even 
in  England  the  cold  summers  we  sometimes 
have  give  us  an  evident  proof  of  this  in  the 
scarcity  of  produce  from  all  our  large  fruit 
trees.  Heat,  whatever  be  the  producing  cause, 
acts  as  well  upon  vegetation  one  way  as  an- 
other. Thus  the  heat  of  manure,  and  the 
artificial  heat  of  coal  fires  in  stoves,  are  found 
to  supply  the  place  of  the  sun.  Great  numbers 
of  the  eastern  trees,  in  their  native  soil,  flower 
twice  in  a  year,  and  some  flower  and  bear  ripe 
fruit  all  the  year  round ;  and  it  is  observed  of 
these  last,  that  they  are  at  once  the  most  fre- 
quent and  the  most  useful  to  the  inhabitants  ; 
their  fruits,  which  always  hang  on  them  in 
readiness,  containing  cool  juices,  which  are 
good  in  fevers,  and  other  of  the  common  dis- 
eases of  hot  countries.  The  umbrageous 
foliage,  with  which  the  God  of  providence  has 
generally  furnished  all  trees  in  warm  climates, 
affords  a  most  refreshing  and  grateful  shade  to 
those  who  seek  relief  from  the  direct  and  hurt- 
ful rays  of  a  tropical  sun. 

The  Land  of  Promise  cannot  boast,  like 
many  other  countries,  of  extensive  woods  ;  but 
considerable  thickets  of  trees  and  of  reeds  some- 
times arise  to  diversify  and  adorn  the  scene. 
Between  the  Lake  Samochonites  and  the  sea 
of  Tiberias,  the  river  Jordan  is  almost  con- 
cealed by  shady  trees  from  the  view  of  the 
traveller.  When  the  waters  of  the  Jordan  are 
low,  the  Lake  Samochonites  is  only  a  marsh, 
for  the  most  part  dry  and  overgrown  with 
shrubs  and  reeds.  In  these  thickets,  among 
other  ferocious  animals,  tlie  wild  boar  seeks  a 
covert  from  the  burning  rays  of  the  sun.  Large 
herds  of  them  are  sometimes  to  be  seen  on  the 
banks  of  the  river,  near  the  sea  of  Tiberias, 
lying  among  the  reeds,  or  feeding  under  the 
trees.  Such  moist  and  shady  places  are  in  all 
countries  the  favourite  haunts  of  these  fierce 
and  dangerous  animals.  Those  marshy  coverts 
are  styled  woods  in  the  sacred  Scriptures ;  for 
the  wild  boar  of  the  wood  is  the  name  which 
that  creature  receives  from  the  royal  psalmist : 
"  The  boar  out  of  the  wood  doth  waste  it ;  and 
the  wild  beast  of  the  field  doth  devour  it," 
Psalm  lxxx,  13.  The  wood  of  Ephraim,  where 
the  battle  was  fought  between  the  forces  of 


TRE 


921 


TRI 


Absalom  and  the  servants  of  David,  was  pro- 
bably  a  place  of  the  same  kind;  for  the  sacred 
historian  observes,  that  the  wood  devoured 
more  people  that  day  than  the  sword,  2  Sam. 
xviii,  8.  Some  have  supposed  the  meaning  of 
this  passage  to  be,  that  the  soldiers  of  Absalom 
were  destroyed  by  the  wild  beasts  of  the  wood ; 
but  it  can  scarcely  be  supposed,  that  in  the 
reign  of  David,  when  the  Holy  Land  was 
crowded  with  inhabitants,  the  wild  beasts  could 
be  so  numerous  in  one  of  the  woods  as  to  cause 
such  a  destruction.  But,  supposing  the  wood 
of  Ephraim  to  have  been  a  morass  covered  with 
trees  and  bushes,  like  the  haunts  of  the  wild 
boar  near  the  banks  of  Jordan,  the  difficulty  is 
easily  removed.  It  is  certain  that  such  a  place 
has  more  than  once  proved  fatal  to  contending 
armies,  partly  by  suffocating  those  who  in  the 
hurry  of  flight  inadvertently  venture  over  places 
incapable  of  supporting  them,  and  partly  by 
retarding  them  till  their  pursuers  come  up  and 
cut  them  to  pieces.  In  this  manner  a  greater 
number  of  men  than  fell  in  the  heat  of  battle 
may  be  destroyed.  It  is  probable,  however, 
that  nothing  more  is  intended  by  the  sacred 
historian,  than  the  mention  of  a  fact  familiar 
to  military  men  in  all  ages,  and  whatever  kind 
of  weapons  were  then  employed  in  warfare, — 
that  forests,  especially  such  thick  and  impassa- 
ble forests  as  are  common  in  warm  countries, 
constitute  the  very  worst  ground  along  which 
a  discomfited  army  can  be  compelled  to  retreat. 
Their  orderly  ranks  are  broken ;  the  direction 
which  each  warrior  for  his  own  safety  must 
take  is  uncertain ;  and  while  one  tumultuous 
mass  is  making  a  pass  for  itself  through  inter- 
vening brushwood  and  closely  matted  jungle, 
and  another  is  hurrying  along  a  different  path 
and  encountering  similar  or  perhaps  greater 
impediments,  the  cool  and  deliberate  pursuers, 
whether  archers  or  sharp  shooters,  enjoy  an 
immense  advantage  in  being  able  to  choose 
their  own  points  of  annoyance,  and  by  flank 
or  cross  attacks  to  kill  their  retreating  foes, 
with  scarcely  any  risk  to  themselves,  but  with 
immense  carnage  to  the  routed  army. 

Several  critics  imagine  that  by  Tin  yy,  ren- 
dered "  goodly  trees,"  Lev.  xxiii,  40,  the  citron 
tree  is  intended,  nay  yj?,  rendered  "thick 
trees"  in  the  same  verse,  and  in  Neh.  viii,  15  ; 
Ezek.  xx,  28,  is  the  myrtle,  according  to  the 
rabbins,  the  Chaldee  paraphrase,  Syriac  ver- 
sion, and  Deodatus.  The  word  'jtpN,  translated 
"grove"  in  Gen.  xxi,  33,  has  been  variously 
translated.  Parkhurst  renders  it  an  oak,  and 
says,  that  from  this  word  may  be  derived  the 
name  of  the  famous  asylum,  opened  by  Romu- 
lus between  two  groves  of  oak  at  Rome.  On 
the  other  hand,  Celsius,  Michaelis,  and  Dr. 
Geddes  render  it  the  tamarisk,  which  is  a  lofty 
and  beautiful  tree,  and  grows  abundantly  in 
Egypt  and  Arabia.  The  same  word  in  1  Sam. 
xxii,  6;  xxxi,  13,  is  rendered  "a  tree."  It 
must  be  noted  too,  that  in  the  first  of  these 
places,  the  common  version  is  equally  obscure 
and  contradictory,  by  making  ramah  a  proper 
name  :  it  signifies  hillock  or  bank.  Of  the 
trees  that  produced  precious  balsams  there  was 
one  in  particular  that  long  flourished  in  Judea, 


having  been  supposed  to  have  been  an  object 
of  great  attention  to  Solomon,  which  was  after- 
ward transplanted  to  Matarea,  in  Egypt,  where 
it  continued  till  about  two  hundred  and  fifty 
years  ago,  according  to  Maillet,  who  gives  a 
description  of  it,  drawn,  it  is  supposed,  from 
the  Arabian  authors,  in  which  he  says,  "This 
shrub  had  two  very  differently  coloured  barks, 
the  one  red,  the  other  perfectly  green ;  that 
they  tasted  strongly  like  incense  and  turpen- 
tine, and  when  bruised  between  the  fingers 
they  smelt  very  nearly  like  cardamoms.  This 
balsam,  which  was  extremely  precious  and 
celebrated,  and  was  used  by  the  Coptic  church 
in  their  chrism,  was  produced  by  a  very  low 
shrub ;  and  it  is  said,  that  all  those  shrubs  that 
produced  balsams  are  every  where  low,  and  do 
not  exceed  two  or  three  cubits  in  height." 

Descriptions  of  the  principal  trees  and  shrubs 
mentioned  in  Holy  Writ  the  reader  will  find 
noticed  in  distinct  articles  under  their  several 
denominations. 

TRIBE.  Jacob  having  twelve  sons,  who 
were  the  heads  of  so  many  great  families,  whicli 
altogether  formed  a  great  nation ;  every  one 
of  these  families  was  called  a  tribe.  But  Ja- 
cob on  his  death  bed  adopted  Ephraim  and 
Manasseh,  the  sons  of  Joseph,  and  would  have 
them  also  to  constitute  two  tribes  of  Israel, 
Gen.  xlviii,  5.  Instead  of  twelve  tribes,  there 
were  now  thirteen,  that  of  Joseph  being  divided 
into  two.  However,  in  the  distribution  of 
lands  to  each  which  Joshua  made  by  the  order 
of  God,  they  counted  but  twelve  tribes,  and 
made  but  twelve  lots.  For  the  tribe  of  Levi, 
which  was  appointed  to  the  service  of  the  ta- 
bernacle of  the  Lord,  had  no  share  in  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  land,  but  only  some  cities  in 
which  to  dwell,  and  the  first  fruits,  tithes,  and 
oblations  of  the  people,  which  was  all  their 
subsistence.  The  twelve  tribes  continued 
united  under  one  head,  making  but  one  state, 
one  people,  and  one  monarchy,  till  after  the 
death  of  Solomon.  Then  ten  of  the  tribes  of 
Israel  revolted  from  the  house  of  David,  and 
received  for  their  king  Jeroboam,  the  son  of 
Nebat;  and  only  the  tribes  of  Judali  and  Ben- 
jamin continued  under  the  government  of  Re- 
in iboam.  This  separation  may  be  looked  upon 
as  the  chief  cause  of  those  great  misfortunes 
that  afterward  happened  'm  those  two  king- 
doms, and  to  the  whole  Hebrew  nation.  For, 
first,  it  was  the  cause  of  the  alteration  and 
change  of  the  old  religion,  and  of  the  ancient 
worship  of  their  forefathers.  Jeroboam  the 
son  of  Nebat  substituted  the  worship  of  golden 
calves  for  the  worship  of  the  true  God  ;  which 
was  the  occasion  of  the  ten  tribes  forsaking 
the  temple  of  the  Lord.  Secondly,  this  schism 
caused  an  irreconcilable  hatred  between  the  ten 
tribes,  and  those  of  Judah  and  Benjamin,  and 
created  numerous  wars  and  disputes  between 
them.  The  Lord,  being  provoked,  delivered 
them  up  to  their  enemies.  Tiglath-Pileser 
first  took  away  captive  the  tribes  of  Reuben, 
Gad,  Naphtali,  and  the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh, 
which  were  beyond  Jordan,  and  carried  them 
beyond  the  Euphrates,  2  Kings  xv,  29;  1  Chron. 
v,  26 ;  A.  M.  3264.     Some  years  after,  Shal- 


TIM 


922 


TRI 


i-r  kiiisT  of  Assyria  look  the  city  of  Sa- 
tnaria,  destroyed  it,  took  away  the  rest  of  the 
inhabitants  of  (araer,  carried  them  beyond  the 
Euphrates,  and  sent  otlicr  inhabitants  into  the 
country  to  cultivate  and  possess  it,  2  Kings 
wii,  ii ;  xviii,  10,  11.  Tims  ended  the  king- 
dom of  the  ten  tribes  of  Israel,  A.  M.  3283. 
As  to  the  tribes  of  Judah  and  Benjamin,  who 
remained  under  the  goverpmenl  of  the  kings 
of  the  family  of  David,  they  continued  a  much 
longer  time  in  their  own  country.  But  at  last, 
after  they  had  filled  up  the  measure  of  their 
iniquity,  God  delivered  them  ail  into  the  hands 
of  their  enemies..  Nebuchadnezzar  took  the 
city  of  Jerusalem,  entirely  ruined  it,  and  took 
away  all  the  inhabitants  of  Judah  and  Benja- 
min to  Babylon,  and  the  other  provinces  of  his 
empire,  A.  ftf.  .'JUG.  The  return  from  this 
captivity  is  stated  in  the  books  of  Ezra  and 
Nehemiah.     See  Jews. 

TRIBUTE.  The  Hebrews  acknowledged 
none  for  sovereign  over  them  but  God  alone  ; 
whence  Josephus  calls  their  government  a  the- 
ocracy, or  divine  government.  They  acknow- 
ledged the  sovereign  dominion  of  God  by  a 
tribute,  or  capitation  tax,  of  half  a  shekel  a 
head,  which  every  Israelite  paid  yearly,  Exod. 
xxx,  IS.  Our  Saviour,  in  the  Gospel,  thus 
reasons  with  St.  Peter :  "  What  thinkest  thou, 
Simon?  of  whom  do  the  kings  of  the  earth 
take  custom  or  tribute  ?  of  their  own  children, 
or  of  strangers  ?"  Matt,  xvii,  25,  meaning,  that 
as  he  was  the  Son  of  God,  he  ought  to  be  ex- 
empt from  this  capitation  tax.  We  do  not 
find  that  either  the  kings  or  the  judges  of  the 
Hebrews,  when  they  were  themselves  Jews, 
demanded  any  tribute  of  them.  Solomon,  at 
the  beginning  of  his  reign,  1  Kings  xi,  22,  33  ; 
2  Chron.  viii,  9,  compelled  the  Canaanites, 
who  were  left  in  the  country,  to  pay  him  tri- 
bute, and  to  perform  the  drudgery  of  the  pub- 
lic works  he  had  undertaken.  As  to  the  chil- 
dren of  Israel,  he  would  not  suffer  one  of  them 
to  be  employed  upon  them,  but  made  them  his 
soldiers,  ministers,  and  chief  officers,  to  com- 
mand his  armies,  his  chariots,  and  his  horse- 
men. Vet,  afterward,  toward  the  end  of  his 
reign,  he  imposed  a  tribute  upon  them,  and 
made  them  work  at  the  public  buildings, 
1  Kings  v,  13,  14;  ix,  15;  xi,  27  ;  which  much 
alienated  their  minds  from  him,  and  sowed  the 
seeds  of  that  discontent  which  afterward  ap- 
peared in  an  open  revolt,  by  the  rebellion  of 
Jeroboam,  the  son  of  Ncbat ;  who  was  at  first 
indeed  obliged  to  take  shelter  in  Egypt.  But 
afterward  the  defection  became  general,  by  the 
total  revolt  of  the  ten  tribes.  Hence  it  was, 
that  the  Israelites  saiil  to  Rehoboam  the  son 
of  Solomon.  '-Thy  fat  her  made  our  yoke  griev- 
BOW  therefore,  make  thou  the  grievous 
service  of  thy  father,  and  the  heavy  yoke 
which  b<'  put  up.m  us.  lighter,  and  we  will 
thee,"  1  Kings  \ii.  1.  It  is  needless  to 
rve,  thai  the  Israelites  were  frequently 
subdued  by  foreign  princes,  who  laid  great 
taxes  and  tribute  upon  them,  to  which  fear 
and  necessity  compelled  them  to  submit.  Yet 
in  the  latter  times,  that  is,  after  Archelaus  had 
been  banished  to  Vienne  in  France,  in  the  sixth 


year  of  the  vulgar  era,  and  after  Judea  was  re- 
duced to  a  province,  Augustus  sent  Quirinius 
into  this  country  to  take  a  new  poll  of  the 
people,  and  to  make  a  new  estimate  of  their 
substance,  that  he  might  thereby  regulate  the 
tribute  that  every  one  was  to  pay  to  the  Ro- 
mans. Then  Judas,  surnamed  the  Galilean, 
formed  a  sedition,  and  made  an  insurrection, 
to  oppose  the  levying  of  this  tribute.  See  in 
St.  Matthew  xxii,  1G,  17,  &c,  the  answer  that 
Jesus  Christ  returned  to  the  Pharisee,  who 
came  with  an  insidious  design  of  tempting 
him,  and  asked  him,  whether  or  not  it  was 
lawful  to  pay  tribute  to  Csesar  ?  and  in  John 
viii,  33,  where  the  Jews  boast  of  having  never 
been  slaves  to  any  body,  of  being  a  free  na- 
tion, that  acknowledged  God  only  for  master 
and  sovereign. 

TRINITY.  That  nearly  all  the  Pagan  na- 
tions of  antiquity,  says  Bishop  Tomline,  in  their 
various  theological  systems,  acknowledged  a 
kind  of  Trinity,  has  been  fully  evinced  by  those 
learned  men  who  have  made  the  Heathen  my- 
thology the  subject  of  their  elaborate  inquiries. 
The  almost  universal  prevalence  of  this  doc- 
trine in  the  Gentile  kingdoms  must  be  con- 
sidered as  a  strong  argument  in  favour  of  its 
truth.  The  doctrine  itself  bears  such  striking 
internal  marks  of  a  divine  original,  and  is  so 
very  unlikely  to  have  been  the  invention  of 
mere  human  reason,  that  there  is  no  way  of 
accounting  for  the  general  adoption  of  so  sin 
gular  a  belief,  but  by  supposing  that  it  was  re- 
vealed by  God  to  the  early  patriarchs,  and  that 
it  was  transmitted  by  them  to  their  posterity. 
In  its  progress,  indeed,  to  remote  countries, 
and  to  distant  generations,  this  belief  became 
depraved  and  corrupted  in  the  highest  degree ; 
and  he  alone  who  brought  "  life  and  immor- 
tality^ to  light,"  could  restore  it  to  its  original 
simplicity  and  purity.  The  discovery  of  the 
existence  of  this  doctrine  in  the  early  ages, 
among  the  nations  whose  records  have  been 
the  best  preserved,  has  been  of  great  service  to 
the  cause  of  Christianity,  and  completely  re- 
futes the  assertion  of  infidels  and  skeptics,  that 
the  sublime  and  mysterious  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity  owres  its  origin  to  the  philosophers  of 
Greece.  "  If  we  extend,"  says  Mr.  Maurice, 
"  our  eye  through  the  remote  region  of  anti- 
quity, we  shall  find  this  very  doctrine,  which 
the  primitive  Christians  are  said  to  have  bor- 
rowed from  the  Platonic  school,  universally 
and  immemorially  flourishing  in  all  those  coun- 
tries where  history  and  tradition  have  united 
to  fix  those  virtuous  ancestors  of  the  human 
race,  who,  for  their  distinguished  attainments 
in  piety,  were  admitted  to  a  familiar  inter- 
course with  Jehovah  and  the  angels,  the  divine 
heralds  of  his  commands."  The  same  learned 
author  justly  considers  the  first  twTo  verses  of 
the  Old  Testament  as  containing  very  strong, 
if  not  decisive,  evidence  in  support  of  the  truth 
of  this  doctrine:  Elohim,  a  noun  substantive 
of  the  plural  number,  by  which  the  Creator  is 
expressed,  appears  as  evidently  to  point  to- 
ward a  plurality  of  persons  in  the  divine  na- 
ture, as  the  verb  in  the  singular,  with  which 
it  is  joined,  does  to  the  unity  of  that  nature  : 


TRI 


923 


TRI 


"In  the  beginning  God  created ;"  with  strict 
attention  to  grammatical  propriety,  the  passage 
should  be  rendered,  "  In  the  beginning  Gods 
created,"  but  our  belief  in  the  unity  of  God  for- 
bids  us  thus  to  translate  the  word  Elohim. 
Since,  therefore,  Elohim  is  plural,  and  no  plu- 
ral can  consist  of  less  than  two  in  number, 
and  since  creation  can  alone  be  the  work  of 
Deity,  we  are  to  understand  by  this  term  so 
particularly  used  in  this  place,  God  the  Father, 
and  the  eternal  Logos,  or  Word  of  God  ;  that 
Logos  whom  St.  John,  supplying  us  with  an 
excellent  comment  upon  tins  passage,  says, 
was  in  the  beginning  with  God,  and  who  also 
was  God.  As  the  Father  and  the  Son  are  ex- 
pressly pointed  out  in  the  first  verse  of  this 
chapter,  so  is  the  Third  Person  in  the  blessed 
Trinity  not  less  decisively  revealed  to  us  in 
Gen.  i,  2 :  "  And  the  Spirit  of  God  moved  upon 
the  face  of  the  waters:"  "brooded  upon"  the 
water,  incubavit,  as  a  hen  broods  over  her  eggs. 
Thus  we  see  the  Spirit  exerted  upon  this  oc- 
casion an  active  effectual  energy,  by  that  ener- 
gy agitating  the  vast  abyss,  and  infusing  into 
it  a  powerful  vital  principle. 

Elohim  seems  to  be  the  general  appellation 
by  which  the  Triune  Godhead  is  collectively 
distinguished  in  Scripture ;  and  in  the  concise 
history  of  the  creation  only,  the  expression, 
bara  Elohim,  "  the  Gods  created,"  is  used  above 
thirty  times.  The  combining  this  plural  noun 
with  a  verb  in  the  singular  would  not  appear 
«o  remarkable,  if  Moses  bad  uniformly  adhered 
to  that  mode  of  expression  ;  for  then  it  would 
be  evident  that  he  adopted  the  mode  used  by 
the  Gentiles  in  speaking  of  their  false  gods  in 
the  plural  number,  but  by  joining  with  it  a 
singular  verb  or  adjective,  rectified  a  phrase 
that  might  appear  to  give  a  direct  sanction  to 
the  error  of  polytheism.  But,  in  reality,  the 
reverse  is  the  fact;  for  in  Deut.  xxxii,  15,  17, 
and  other  places,  he  uses  the  singular  number 
of  this  very  noun  to  express  the  Deity,  though 
not  employed  in  the  august  work  of  creation  : 
"He  forsook  God,"  Eloah;  "they  sacrificed 
to  devils  not  to  God,"  Eloah.  But  farther, 
Moses  himself  uses  this  very  word  Elohim 
with  verbs  and  adjectives  in  the  plural.  Of 
this  usage  Dr.  Allix  enumerates  many  other 
striking  instances  that  might  be  brought  from 
the  Pentateuch  ;  and  other  inspired  writers  use 
it  in  the  same  manner  in  various  parts  of  the 
Old  Testament,  Job  xxxv,  10  ;  Joshua  xxiv,  19  ; 
Psalm  cix,  1 ;  Ecclesiastes  xii,  3 ;  2  Samuel 
vii,  23.  It  must  appear,  therefore,  to  every 
reader  of  reflection,  exceedingly  singular,  that 
when  Moses  was  endeavouring  to  establish  a 
theological  system,  of  which  the  unity  of  the 
Godhead  was  the  leading  principle,  and  in 
which  it  differed  from  all  other  systems,  he 
should  make  use  of  terms  directly  implicative 
of  a  plurality  in  it ;  yet  so  deeply  was  the  awful 
truth  under  consideration  impressed  upon  the 
mind  of  the  Hebrew  legislator,  that  this  is  con- 
stantly done  by  him ;  and,  indeed,  as  Allix  has 
observed,  there  is  scarcely  any  method  of 
speaking  from  which  a  plurality  in  Deity  may 
be  inferred,  that  is  not  used  either  by  himself 
in  the  Pentateuch,  or  by  the  other    inspired 


writers  in  various  parts  of  the  Old  Testament, 
A  plural  is  joined  with  a  verb  singular,  as  in 
the  passage  cited  before  from  Genesis  i,  1 ;  a 
plural  is  joined  with  a  verb  plural,  as  in  Gen. 
xxxv,  7,  "  And  Jacob  called  the  name  of  the 
place  El-beth-el,  because  the  Gods  there  ap- 
peared to  him ;"  a  plural  is  joined  with  an 
adjective  plural,  Joshua  xxiv,  19,  "  You  cannot 
serve  the  Lord  ;  for  he  is  the  holy  Gods."  To 
these  passages,  if  we  add  that  remarkable  one 
from  Ecclesiastes,  "  Remember  thy  Creators  in 
the  days  of  thy  youth,"  and  the  predominant ' 
use  of  the  terms,  Jehovah  Elohim,  or,  the 
"  Lord  thy  Gods,"  which  occur  a  hundred 
times  in  the  law,  (the  word  Jehovah  implying 
the  unity  of  the  essence,  and  Elohim  a  plu- 
rality in  that  unity,)  we  must  allow  that  nothing 
can  be  more  plainly  marked  than  this  doctrine 
in  the  ancient  Scriptures. 

Though  the  august  name  of  Jehovah  in  a 
more  peculiar  manner  belongs  to  God  the 
Father,  yet  is  that  name,  in  various  parts  of 
Scripture,  applied  to  each  person  in  the  holy 
Trinity.  The  Hebrews  considered  that  name 
in  so  sacred  a  light,  that  they  never  pro- 
nounced it,  and  used  the  word  Adonai  instead 
of  it.  It  was,  indeed,  a  name  that  ranked  first 
among  their  profoundest  cabala ;  a  mystery, 
sublime,  ineffable,  incommunicable.  It  was 
called  tetragrammaton,  or  the  name  of  four 
letters,  and  these  letters  are  jod,  he,  vau,  he, 
the  proper  pronunciation  of  which,  from  long 
disuse,  is  said  to  be  no  longer  known  to  the 
Jews  themselves.  This  awful  name  was  first, 
revealed  by  God  to  Moses  from  the  centre  of 
the  burning  bush ;  and  Josephus,  who,  as  well 
as  Scripture,  relates  this  circumstance,  evinces 
his  veneration  for  it,  by  calling  it  the  name 
which  his  religion  did  not  permit  him  to  men- 
tion. From  this  word  the  Pagan  title  of  Iao 
and  Jove  is,  with  the  greatest  probability,  sup- 
posed to  have  been  originally  formed ;  and  in 
the  Golden  Verses  of  Pythagoras,  there  is  an 
oath  still  extant  to  this  purpose,  "  By  Him  who 
has  the  four  letters."  As  the  name  Jehovah, 
however,  in  some  instances  applied  to  the  Son 
and  the  Holy  Spirit,  was  the  proper  name  of 
God  the  Father,  so  is  Logos  in  as  peculiar  a 
manner  the  appropriated  name  of  God  the  Son. 
The  Chaldee  Paraphrasts  translate  the  original 
Hebrew  text  by  Mimra  da  Jehovah,  literally, 
"the  Word  of  Jehovah,"  a  term  totally  dif- 
ferent, as  Bishop  Kidder  has  incontestably 
proved,  in  its  signification,  and  in  its  general 
application  among  the  Jews,  from  the  Hebrew 
dabar,  which  simply  means  a  discourse  or 
decree,  and  is  properly  rendered  by  pithgam. 
In  the  Septuagint  translation  of  the  Bible,  a 
work  supposed  by  the  Jews  to  have  been  under- 
taken by  men  immediately  inspired  from  above, 
the  former  term  is  universally  rendered  Abyoq, 
and  it  is  so  rendered  and  so  understood  by 
Philo  and  all  the  more  ancient  rabbins.  The 
name  of  the  third  person  in  the  ever  blessed 
Trinity  has  descended  unaltered  from  the  day6 
of  Moses  to  our  own  time ;  for,  as  well  in  the 
sacred  writings  as  by  the  Targumists,  and  by 
the  modern  doctors  of  the  Jewish  church,  he 
is  styled  Ruach  Hakhodesh,  the  Holy  Spirit. 


TIM 


924 


TRI 


He  is  sometimes,  however,  in  the  rabbinical 
book.-j.  denominated  by  Shechiilfch,  or  glory  of 
Jehovah  :  in  some  places  be  is  called  Sephirah, 
..r  W  1^1  'hi 1 1  ;  : i  ■  ■  4 1  in  others  I  lie  Binah,  or  Under- 
standing. From  the  enumeration  of  these  cir- 
cumstances, it  must  be  sufficiently  evident  to 
the  iiimil  which  unites  piety  and  reflection,  that 
so  t'.ir  from  being  silent  upon  the  subject,  the 
ancient  Scriptures  commence  with  an  avowal 
of  this  doctrine,  and  that,  in  fact,  the  creation 
was  the  result  of  the  joint  operations  of  the 
*  Trinity. 

If  the  argument  above  offered  should  still  ap. 
pear  inconclusive,  the  twenty-sixth  verse  of  the 
first  chapter  of  Genesis  contains  so  pointed  an 
attest  at  inn  to  the  truth  of  it,  that,  when  duly 
considered,  it  must  stagger  the  most  hardened 
skeptic  ;  for  in  that  text  not  only  the  plurality 
is  unequivocally  expressed,  but  the  act  which 
is  the  peculiar  prerogative  of  Deity  is  men- 
tioned together  with  that  plurality,  the  one 
circumstance  illustrating  the  other,  and  both 
being  highly  elucidatory  of  this  doctrine : 
"  And  God  (Elohim)  said,  Let  us  make  man  in 
our  image,  after  our  likeness."  Why  the  Deity 
should  speak  of  himself  in  the  plural  number, 
unless  that  Deity  consisted  of  more  than  one 
person,  it  is  difficult  to  conceive ;  for  the 
answer  given  by  the  modern  Jews,  that  this  is 
only  a  figurative  mode  of  expression,  implying 
the  high  dignity  of  the  speaker,  and  that  it  is 
usual  for  earthly  sovereigns  to  use  this  language 
by  way  of  distinction,  is  futile,  for  two  reasons. 
In  the  first  place  it  is  highly  degrading  to  the 
Supreme  Majesty  to  suppose  he  would  take  his 
model  of  speaking  and  thinking  from  man, 
though  it  is  highly  consistent  with  the  vanity 
of  man  to  arrogate  to  himself,  as  doubtless 
was  the  case  in  the  licentiousness  of  succeed- 
ing ages,  the  style  and  imagined  conceptions 
of  Deity  ;  and  it  will  be  remembered,  that  these 
solemn  words  were  spoken  before  the  creation 
of  any  of  those  mortals,  whose  false  notions  of 
greatness  and  sublimity  the  Almighty  is  thus 
impiously  supposed  to  adopt.  In  truth,  there 
does  not  seem  to  be  any  real  dignity  in  an  ex- 
pression, which,  when  used  by  a  human  sove- 
reign in  relation  to  himself,  approaches  very 
near  to  absurdity.  The  genuine  fact,  however, 
appears  to  be  this.  When  the  tyrants  of  the 
east  first  began  to  assume  divine  honours,  they 
assumed  likewise  the  majestic  language  appro- 
priated to,  and  highly  becoming,  the  Deity,  but 
totally  inapplicable  to  man.  The  error  was 
propagated  from  age  to  age  through  a  long 
succession  of  despots,  and  at  length  Judaic 
apostasy  arrived  at  such  a  pitch  of  profane 
absurdity,  as  to  affirm  that  very  phraseology 
to  be  horn. wed  from  man  which  was  the  ori- 
ginal and  peculiar  language  of  the  Divinity. 
It  was,  indeed,  remarkably  pertinent  when 
applied  to  Deity  ;  for,  in  a  succeeding  chapter, 
we  have  mi. re  decisive  authority  for  what  is 
thus  asserted,  where  the  Lord  God  himself 
says,  "Behold,  the  man  is  become  as  one  of 
i  very  singular  expression,  which  some 
Jewish  commentators,  with  equal  effrontery, 
contend  was  spoken  by  the  Deity  to  the  conn- 
ed of  angels,  that,  according  to  their  assertions, 


attended  him  at  the  creation.  From  the  name 
of  the  Lord  God  being  used  in  so  emphatical  a 
manner,  it  evidently  appears  to  be  addressed  to 
those  sacred  persons  to  whom  it  was  before 
said,  "  Let  us  make  man ;"  for  would  indeed 
the  omnipotent  Jehovah,  presiding  in  a  less 
dignified  council,  use  words  that  have  such  an 
evident  tendency  to  place  the  Deity  on  a  level 
with  created  beings  ? 

The  first  passage  to  be  adduced  from  the 
New  Testament  in  proof  of  this  important  doc- 
trine of  the  Trinity,  is,  the  charge  and  com- 
mission which  our  Saviour  gave  to  his  apostles, 
to  "  go  and  teach  all  nations,  baptizing  them 
in  the  name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,"  Matt,  xxviii,  19.  The  Gos- 
pel is  every  where  in  Scripture  represented  as 
a  covenant  or  conditional  offer  of  eternal  sal- 
vation from  God  to  man  ;  and  baptism  was  the 
appointed  ordinance  by  which  men  were  to  be 
admitted  into  that  covenant,  by  which  that 
offer  was  made  and  accepted.  This  covenant 
being  to  be  made  with  God  himself,  the  ordi- 
nance must  of  course  be  performed  in  his  name  ; 
but  Christ  directed  that  it  should  be  performed 
in  the  name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and 
of  the  Holy  Ghost. ;  and  therefore  we  conclude 
that  God  is  the  same  as  the  Father,  the  Son, 
and  the  Holy  Ghost.  Since  baptism  is  to  be 
performed  in  the  name  of  the  Father,  the  Son, 
and  the  Holy  Ghost,  they  must  be  all  three 
persons  ;  and  since  no  superiority  or  difference 
whatever  is  mentioned  in  this  solemn  form  of 
baptism,  we  conclude  that  these  three  persons 
are  all  of  one  substance,  power,  and  eternity. 
Are  we  to  be  baptized  in  the  name  of  the 
Father,  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
and  is  it  possible  that  the  Father  should  be 
self-existent,  eternal,  the  Lord  God  Omnipo- 
tent ;  and  that  the  Son,  in  whose  name  we  are 
equally  baptized,  should  be  a  mere  man,  born 
of  a  woman,  and  subject  to  all  the  frailties  and 
imperfections  of  human  nature  ?  or,  is  it  pos- 
sible that  the  Holy  Ghost,  in  whose  name  also 
we  are  equally  baptized,  should  be  a  bare  energy 
or  operation,  a  quality  or  power,  without  even 
personal  existence  ?  Our  feelings,  as  well  as  our 
reason,  revolt  from  the  idea  of  such  disparity. 
This  argument  will  derive  great  strength 
from  the  practice  of  the  early  ages,  and  from 
the  observations  which  we  meet  with  in  several 
of  the  ancient  fathers  relative  to  it.  We  learn 
from  Ambrose,  that  persons  at  the  time  of  their 
baptism,  declared  their  belief  in  the  three  per- 
sons of  the  Holy  Trinity,  and  that  they  were 
dipped  in  the  water  three  times.  In  his  Treatise 
upon  the  Sacraments  he  says,  '*  Thou  wast 
asked  at  thy  baptism,  Dost  thou  believe  in  God 
the  Father  Almighty  ?  and  thou  didst  reply,  I 
believe,  and  thou  wast  dipped ;  and  a  second 
time  thou  wast  asked,  Dost  thou  believe  in 
Jesus  Christ  the  Lord  ?  thou  didst  answer 
again,  I  believe,  and  thou  wast  dipped;  a  third 
time  the  question  was  repeated,  Dost  thou  be- 
lieve in  the  Holy  Ghost  f  and  the  answer  was, 
I  believe,  then  thou  wast  dipped  a  third  time." 
It  is  to  be  noticed,  that  the  belief,  here  ex- 
pressed separately,  in  the  three  persons  of  the 
Trinity,  is  precisely  the  same  in  all.     Tertul. 


TR1 


925 


TRI 


lian,  Basil,  and  Jerom,  all  mention  this  prac- 
tice of  trine  immersion  as  ancient;  and  Jerom 
says,  "We  are  thrice  dipped  in  the  water,  that 
the  mystery  of  the  Trinity  may  appear  to  be 
but  one.  We  are  not  baptized  in  the  names 
of  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost,  but  in  one 
name,  which  is  God's ;  and,  therefore,  though 
we  be  thrice  put  under  water  to  represent  the 
mystery  of  the  Trinity,  yet  it  is  reputed  but 
one  baptism."  Thus  the  mysterious  union 
of  the  Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost, 
as  one  God,  was,  in  the  opinion  of  the  purer 
ages  of  the  Christian  church,  clearly  expressed 
in  this  form  of  baptism.  By  it  the  primitive 
Christians  understood  the  Father's  gracious 
acceptance  of  the  atonement  offered  by  the 
Messiah  ;  the  peculiar  protection  of  the  Son, 
our  great  High  Priest  and  Intercessor  ;  and 
the  readiness  of  the  Holy  Ghost  to  sanctify,  to 
assist,  and  to  comfort  all  the  obedient  follow- 
ers of  Christ,  confirmed  by  the  visible  gift  of 
tongues,  of  prophecy,  and  divers  other  gifts  to 
the  first  disciples.  And  as  their  great  Master's 
instructions  evidently  distinguished  these  per- 
sons from  each  other,  without  any  difference 
in  their  authority  or  power,  all  standing  forth  as 
equally  dispensing  the  benefits  of  Christianity, 
as  equally  the  objects  of  the  faith  required  in 
converts  upon  admission  into  the  church,  they 
clearly  understood  that  the  Father,  the  Son, 
and  the  Holy  Ghost,  were  likewise  equally  the 
objects  of  their  grateful  worship :  this  fully 
appears  from  their  prayers,  doxologies,  hymns, 
and  creeds,  which  are  still  extant. 

The  second  passage  to  be  produced  in  sup- 
port of  the  doctrine  now  under  consideration, 
is,  the  doxology  at  the  conclusion  of  St.  Paul's 
Second  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians,  "The  grace 
of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  the  love  of  God,  and 
the  fellowship  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  be  with  you." 
The  manner  in  which  Christ  and  the  Holy 
Ghost  arc  here  mentioned,  implies  that  they 
are  persons,  for  none  but  persons  can  confer 
grace  or  fellowship ;  and  these  three  great 
blessings  of  grace,  love,  and  fellowship,  being 
respectively  prayed  for  by  the  inspired  apostle 
from  Jesus  Christ,  God  the  Father,  and  the 
Holy  Ghost,  without  any  intimation  of  dis- 
parity, we  conclude  that  these  three  persons 
are  equal  and  Divine.  This  solemn  benedic- 
tion may  therefore  be  considered  as  another 
proof  of  the  Trinity,  since  it  acknowledges  the 
divinity  of  Jesus  Christ  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 
The  third  passage  is  the  following  salutation 
or  benediction  in  the  beginning  of  the  Revela- 
tion of  St.  John  :  "  Grace  and  peace  from  Him 
which  is,  and  which  was,  and  which  is  to  come ; 
and  from  the  seven  spirits  which  are  before 
his  throne,  and  from  Jesus  Christ."  Here  the 
Father  is  described  by  a  periphrasis  taken 
from  his  attribute  of  eternity;  and  "the  seven 
spirits"  is  a  mystical  expression  for  the  Holy 
Ghost,  used  upon  this  occasion  either  because 
the  salutation  is  addressed  to  seven  churches, 
every  one  of  which  had  partaken  of  the  Spirit, 
or  because  seven  was  a  sacred  number  among 
the  Jews,  denoting  both  variety  and  perfection, 
and  in  this  case  alluding  to  the  various  gifts, 
administrations,  and  operations   of  the  Holy 


Ghost.  Since  grace  and  peace  are  prayed  for 
from  these  three  persons  jointly  and  without 
discrimination,  we  infer  an  equality  in  their 
power  to  dispense  those  blessings ;  and  we 
farther  conclude  that  these  three  persons  toge- 
ther constitute  the  Supreme  Being,  who  is 
alone  the  object  of  prayer,  and  is  alone  the 
Giver  of  every  good  and  of  every  perfect  gift. 
It  might  be  right  to  remark,  that  the  seven 
spirits  cannot  mean  angels,  since  prayers  are 
never  in  Scripture  addressed  to  angels,  nor  are 
blessings  ever  pronounced  in  their  name.  It 
is  unnecessary  to  quote  any  of  the  numerous 
passages  in  which  the  Father  is  singly  called 
God,  as  some  of  them  must  be  recollected  by 
every  one,  and  the  divinity  of  the  Father  is 
not  called  in  question  by  any  sect  of  Chris- 
tians ;  and  those  passages  which  prove  the 
divinity  of  the  Son  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
separately,  will  be  more  properly  considered 
under  those  heads.  In  the  mean  time  we  may 
observe,  that  if  it  shall  appear  from  Scripture, 
that  Christ  is  God,  and  the  Holy  Ghost  is  God, 
it  will  follow,  since  we  are  assured  that  there 
is  but  one  God,  that  the  three  persons,  the 
Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost,  by  a 
mysterious  union,  constitute  the  one  God,  or, 
as  it  is  expressed  in  the  first  article  of  the 
church  of  England :  "  There  is  a  Trinity  in 
Unity  ;  and  in  the  unity  of  this  Godhead  there 
be  three  Persons  of  one  substance,  power,  and 
eternity,  the  Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy 
Ghost." 

The  word  Trinity  does  not  occur  in  Scrip- 
ture, nor  do  we  find  it  in  any  of  the  early 
confessions  of  faith  ;  but  this  is  no  argument 
against  the  doctine  itself,  since  we  learn  from 
the  fathers  of  the  first  three  centuries,  that  the 
divinity  of  the  Son  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost  was, 
from  the  days  of  the  Apostles,  acknowledged 
by  the  catholic  church,  and  that  those  who 
maintained  a  contrary  opinion  were  considered 
as  heretics ;  and  as  every  one  knows  that  nei- 
ther the  divinity  of  the  Father,  nor  the  unity 
of  the  Godhead,  was  ever  called  in  question  at 
any  period,  it  follow^ that  the  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity  in  Unity  has  been  in  substance,  in 
all  its  constituent  parts,  always  known  among 
Christians.  In  the  fourth  century  it  became 
the  subject  of  eager  and  general  controversy ; 
and  it  was  not  till  then  that  this  doctrine  was 
particularly  discussed.  While  there  was  no- 
denial  or  dispute,  proof  and  defence  were  un- 
necessary :  Nurtquid  enim  perfects  de  Trinitate 
tractatum  est,  antequam  oblatrarent  Ariani  ? 
But  this  doctrine  is  positively  mentioned  as 
being  admitted  among  catholic  Christians,  by 
writers  who  lived  long  before  that  age  of  con- 
troversy. Justin  Martyr,  in  refuting  the  charge 
of  atheism  urged  against  Christians,  because 
they  did  not  believe  in  the  gods  of  the  Heathen, 
expressly  says,  "  We  worship  and  adore  the 
Father,  and  the  Son  who  came  from  him  and 
taught  us  these  things,  and  the  prophetic 
Spirit ;"  and  soon  after,  in  the  same  apology, 
he  undertakes  to  show  the  reasonableness  of 
the  honour  paid  by  Christians  to  the  Father  in 
the  first  place,  to  the  Son  in  the  second,  and 
to  the  Holy  Ghost  in  the  third ;  and  says,  that 


TR1 


926 


TRI 


tln'ir  assigning  the  second  place  to  a  crucified 
man,  was,  by  unbelievers,  denominated  mad- 
ness, because  they  \\  ere  ignorant  of  the  mystery, 
which  In'  thru  proceeds  to  explain.  Athena- 
goras,  in  replying  to  the  same  charge  of  atheism 
urged  against  Christians,  because  they  refused 
to  worship  the  false  gods  of  the  Heathen,  says, 
"  Who  would  not  wonder,  when  he  knows  that 
we,  who  call  upon  God  the  Father,  and  God 
the  Si. ii,  .mil  God  the  Holy  Spirit,  showing 
their  power  in  the  unity,  and  their  distinction 
m  order,  should  be  called  atheists  ?"  Clement 
of  Alexandria  not  only  mentions  three  divine 
persons,  but  invokes  them  as  one  only  God. 
Prnxeas,  Sabellius,  and  other  Unitarians,  ac- 
cused the  orthodox  Christians  of  tritheism, 
which  is  of  itself  a  clear  proof  that  the  ortho- 
dox worshipped  the  Father,  the  Son,  and  the 
Holy  Ghost;  and  though  in  reality  they  con- 
sidered these  three  persons  as  constituting  the 
one  true  God,  it  is  obvious  that  their  enemies 
might  easily  represent  that  worship  as  an  ac- 
knowledgment of  three  Gods.  Tertullian,  in 
writing  against  Praxeas,  maintains,  that  a 
Trinity  rationally  conceived  is  consistent  with 
truth,  and  that  unity  irrationally  conceived 
forms  heresy.  He  had  before  said,  in  speak- 
ing of  the  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost,  that 
"  there  are  three  of  one  substance,  and  of  one 
condition,  and  of  one  power,  because  there  is 
one  God  :"  and  he  afterward  adds,  "  The  con- 
nection of  the  Father  in  the  Son,  and  of  the 
Son  in  the  Comforter,  makes  three  united 
together,  the  one  with  the  other ;  which  three 
are  one  thing,  not  one  person ;  as  it  is  said,  I 
and  the  Father  are  one  thing,  with  regard  to 
the  unity  of  substance,  not  to  the  singularity 
of  number :"  and  he  also  expressly  says,  "  The 
Father  is  God,  and  the  Son  is  God,  and  the 
Holy  Ghost  is  God  ;"  and  again,  "  The  Father, 
the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost,  believed  to  be 
three,  constitute  one  God."  And  in  another 
part  of  his  works  he  says,  "There  is  a  Trinity 
of  one  Divinity,  the  Father,  and  the  Son,  and 
the  Holy  Ghost."  And  Tertullian  not  only 
maintains  these  doctrines4^t  asserts  that  they 
!>rior  to  any  heresy,  aTuftwd,  indeed,  been 
the  faith  of  Christians  from  the  first  promul- 
gation of  the  Gospel.  To  these  writers  of  the 
second  century,  we  may  add  Origen  and 
Cyprian  in  the  third;  the  former  of  whom 
mentions  baptism  (alluding  to  its  appointed 
form)  as  "the  source  and  fountain  of  graces 
to  him  who  dedicates  himself  to  the  divinity 
of  the  adorable  Trinity."  And  the  latter,  after 
reciting  the  same  form  of  baptism,  says  that 
"by  it  Christ  delivered  the  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity,  unto  which  mystery  or  sacrament  the 
nations  were  to  be  baptized."  It  would  bo  easy 
to  multiply  quotations  upon  this  subject;  but 
these  are  amply  sufficient  to  show  the  opinions 
"t  the  early  fathers,  and  to  refute  the  assertion 
that  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinin  was  an  inven- 

1 ,'tl"'  fourth  century.     To  these  positive 

-Mil--  may  l„-  subjoined  a  negative  argu. 
menl  :  those  who  acknowledged  the  divinity 
of  Christ  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  are  never 
called  heretic  bj  any  writer  of  the  first  three 
centuries;  and  ibis  ,  ireumstance   is  surely  a 


strong  proof  that  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity 
was  the  doctrine  of  the  primitive  church;  more 
especially,  since  the  names  of  those  who  first 
denied  the  divinity  of  Christ  and  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  are  transmitted  to  us  as  of  persons 
who  dissented  from  the  common  faith  of"  Chris- 
tians. 

But  while  we  contend  that  the  doctrine  of 
the  Trinity  in  Unity  is  founded  in  Scripture, 
and  supported  by  the  authority  of  the  early 
Christians,  we  must  acknowledge  that  it  is  not 
given  to  man  to  understand  in  what  manner 
the  three  persons  are  united,  or  how,  separately 
and  jointly,  they  are  God.  It  would,  perhaps, 
have  been  well,  if  divines,  in  treating  this 
awful  and  mysterious  subject,  had  confined 
themselves  to  the  expressions  of  Scripture  ;  for 
the  moment  we  begin  to  explain  it  beyond  the 
written  word  of  God,  we  plunge  ourselves  into 
inextricable  difficulties.  And  how  can  it  be 
otherwise  ?  Is  it  to  be  expected  that  our  finite 
understandings  should  be  competent  to  the  full 
comprehension  of  the  nature  and  properties  of 
an  infinite  Being  ?  "  Can  we  find  out  the 
Almighty  to  perfection,"  Job  xi,  7  ;  or  pene- 
trate into  the  essence  of  the  Most  High  ?  "God 
is  a  Spirit,"  John  iv,  24,  and  our  gross  concep- 
tions are  but  ill-adapted  to  the  contemplation 
of  a  pure  and  spiritual  Being.  We  know  not 
the  essence  of  our  own  mind,  nor  the  precise 
distinction  of  its  several  faculties  ;  and  why 
then  should  we  hope  to  comprehend  the  per- 
sonal characters  which  exist  in  the  Godhead  ? 
"  If  I  tell  you  earthly  things,  and  you  under- 
stand them  not,  how  shall  ye  understand  if  I 
tell  you  heavenly  things?"  When  we  attempt 
to  investigate  the  nature  of  the  Deity,  whose 
existence  is  commensurate  with  eternity,  by 
whose  power  the  universe  was  created,  and  by 
whose  wisdom  it  is  governed  ;  whose  presence 
fills  all  space,  and  whose  knowledge  extends  to 
the  thoughts  of  every  man  in  every  age,  and 
to  the  events  of  all  places,  past,  present,  and  to 
come,  the  mind  is  quickly  lost  in  the  vastness 
of  these  ideas,  and,  unable  to  find  any  sure 
guide  to  direct  its  progress,  it  becomes,  at  every 
step,  more  bewildered  and  entangled  in  the 
endless  mazes  of  metaphysical  abstraction. 
"God  is  a  God  that  hideth  himself."  "We 
cannot  by  searching  find  out  God."  "  Behold, 
God  is  great,  and  we  know  him  not,"  Job  xxiii, 
9  ;  xi,  7  ;  xxxvi,  26.  "  Such  knowledge  is  too 
wonderful  and  excellent  for  us  ;  it  is  high  ;  we 
cannot  attain  unto  it,"  Psalm  exxxix,  6.  It  is 
for  us,  simply  and  in  that  docile  spirit  which 
becomes  us,  to  receive  the  testimony  of  God  as 
to  himself,  and  to  fix  ourselves  upon  that  firm- 
est of  all  foundations,  and  most  rational  of  all 
evidence,  "  Thus  saith  the  Lord." 

TRIUMPHS,  Military.  The  Hebrews,  un- 
der  the  direction  of  inspired  prophets,  celebra- 
ted their  victories  by  triumphal  processions, 
the  women  and  children  dancing,  and  playing 
upon  musical  instruments,  and  singing  hymns 
and  songs  of  triumph  to  the  living  and  true 
God.  The  song  of  Moses  at  the  Red  Sea, 
which  was  sung  by  Miriam  and  the  women  of 
Israel  to  the  dulcet  beat  of  the  timbrel,  is  a 
majestic  example  of  the  triumphal  hymns  of 


TR1 


927 


TRI 


the  ancient  Hebrews.  The  song  of  Deborah 
and  Barak,  after  the  decisive  battle  in  which 
Sisera  lost  his  life,  and  Jabin  his  dominion  over 
the  tribes  of  Israel,  is  a  production  of  the  same 
sort,  in  which  the  spirit  of  genuine  heroism 
and  of  true  religion  are  admirably  combined. 
But  the  song  which  the  women  of  Israel 
chanted  when  they  went  out  to  meet  Saul  and 
his  victorious  army,  after  the  death  of  Goliath, 
and  the  discomfiture  of  the  Philistines,  pos- 
sesses somewhat  of  a  different  character,  turn- 
ing chiefly  on  the  valorous  exploits  of  Saul 
and  the  youthful  champion  of  Israel :  "And  it 
came  to  pass,  as  they  came,  when  David  was 
returned  from  the  slaughter  of  the  Philistine, 
that  the  women  came  out  of  all  the  cities  of 
Israel,  singing  and  dancing,  to  meet  King  Saul 
with  tabrets,  with  joy,  and  with  instruments  of 
music  :  and  the  women  answered  one  another 
as  they  played,  and  said,  Saul  hath  slain  his 
thousands,  and  David  his  ten  thousands,"  1 
Sam.  xviii,  6,  7.  But  the  most  remarkable  fes- 
tivity, perhaps,  on  the  records  of  history,  was 
celebrated  by  Jehoshaphat,  the  king  of  Judah, 
in  a  succeeding  age.  When  that  religious 
prince  led  forth  his  army  to  battle  against  a 
powerful  confederacy  of  his  neighbours,  he 
appointed  a  band  of  sacred  music  to  march  in 
front,  praising  the  beauty  of  holiness  as  they 
went  before  the  army,  "  and  to  say,  Praise  the 
Lord,  for  his  mercy  endureth  for  ever."  After 
the  discomfiture  of  their  enemies,  he  assembled 
his  army  in  the  valley  of  Beracha,  near  the 
scene  of  victory,  where  they  resumed  the  an- 
them of  religious  praise:  "Then  they  returned, 
every  man  of  Judah  and  Jerusalem,  and  Jeho- 
shaphat in  the  fore  front  of  them,  to  go  again 
to  Jerusalem  with  joy  ;  for  the  Lord  had  made 
them  to  rejoice  over  their  enemies.  And  they 
came  to  Jerusalem  with  psalteries,  and  harps, 
and  trumpets,  unto  the  house  of  the  Lord," 
2  Chron.  xx,  21,  27.  Instead  of  celebrating  his 
own  heroism,  or  the  valour  of  his  troops,  on 
this  memorable  occasion,  that  excellent  prince 
sung  with  his  whole  army  the  praises  of  the 
Lord  of  hosts,  who  disposes  of  the  victory 
according  to  his  pleasure.  This  conduct  was 
becoming  the  descendant  and  successor  of  Da- 
vid, the  man  according  to  God's  own  heart, 
and  a  religious  people,  the  peculiar  inheritance 
of  Jehovah. 

The  Roman  conquerors  used  to  carry  branch- 
es of  palm  in  their  hands  when  they  went  in 
triumph  to  the  capitol ;  and  sometimes  wore 
the  toga  palmata,  a  garment  with  the  figures  of 
palm  trees  upon  it,  which  were  interwoven  in 
the  fabric.  In  the  same  triumphant  attitude, 
the  Apostle  John  beheld  in  vision  those  who 
had  overcome  by  the  blood  of  the  lamb,  stand- 
ing "before  the  throne,  clothed  with  white 
robes,  and  palms  in  their  hands,"  Rev.  vii,  9. 
The  highest  military  honour  which  could  be 
obtained  in  the  Roman  state,  was  a  triumph, 
or  solemn  procession,  in  which  a  victorious 
general  and  his  army  advanced  through  the 
city  to  the  capitol.  He  set  out  from  the  Cam- 
pus Martius,  and  proceeded  along  the  Via 
Triumphalis,  and  from  thence  through  the  most 
public  places  of  the  city.     The  streets  were 


strewed  with  flowers,  and  the  altars  smoked 
with  incense.  First  went  a  numerous  band  of 
music,  singing  and  playing  triumphal  songs  ; 
next  were  led  the  oxen  to  be  sacrificed,  having 
their  horns  gilt,  and  their  heads  adorned  with, 
fillets  and  garlands ;  then,  in  carriages,  were 
brought  the  spoils  taken  from  the  enemy;  also 
golden  crowns  sent  by  the  allied  and  tributary 
states.  The  titles  of  the  vanquished  nations 
were  inscribed  on  wooden  frames  ;  and  images 
or  representations  of  the  conquered  countries 
and  cities  were  exhibited.  The  captive  leaders 
followed  in  chains,  with  their  children  and 
attendants  ;  after  the  captives  came  the  lictors, 
having  their  faces  wreathed  with  laurel,  fol- 
lowed by  a  great  company  of  musicians  and 
dancers,  dressed  like  satyrs,  and  wearing  crowns 
of  gold ;  in  the  midst  of  whom  was  a  panto- 
mime, clothed  in  a  female  garb,  whose  business 
it  was,  with  his  looks  and  gestures,  to  insult 
the  vanquished  ;  a  long  train  of  persons  fol- 
lowed, carrying  perfumes  ;  after  them  came  the 
general,  dressed  in  purple,  embroidered  with 
gold,  with  a  crown  of  laurel  on  his  head,  a 
branch  of  laurel  in  his  right  hand,  and  in  his 
left  an  ivory  sceptre,  with  an  eagle  on  the  top, 
his  face  painted  with  vermilion,  and  a  golden 
ball  hanging  from  his  neck  on  his  breast ;  he 
stood  upright  in  a  gilded  chariot,  adorned  with 
ivory,  and  drawn  by  four  white  horses,  attended 
by  his  relations,  and  a  great  crowd  of  citizens, 
all  in  white.  His  children  rode  in  the  chariot 
along  with  him  ;  his  lieutenants  and  military 
tribunes,  commonly  by  his  side.  After  the  ge- 
neral followed  the  consuls  and  senators,  on 
foot ;  and  the  whole  procession  was  closed  by 
the  victorious  army  drawn  up  in  order,  crowned 
with  laurel,  and  decorated  with  the  gifts  which 
they  had  received  for  their  valour,  singing 
their  own  and  their  general's  praises.  The 
triumphal  procession  was  not  confined  to  the 
Romans  ;  the  Greeks  had  a  similar  custom  ; 
for  the  conquerors  used  to  make  a  procession 
through  the  middle  of  their  city,  crowned  with 
garlands,  repeating  hymns  and  songs,  and 
brandishing  their  spears  ;  the  captives  followed 
in  chains,  and  all  their  spoils  were  exposed  to 
public  view. 

The  great  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles  alludes  to 
these  splendid  triumphal  scenes  in  his  Epistle 
to  the  Ephesians,  where  he  mentions  the  glo- 
rious ascension  of  his  Redeemer  into  heaven  : 
"  When  he  ascended  up  on  high,  he  led  capti- 
vity captive,  and  gave  gifts  unto  men,"  Eph. 
iv,  8.  These  words  are  a  quotation  from  the 
sixty-eighth  Psalm,  where  David  in  spirit  de- 
scribes the  ascension  of  Messiah  in  very  glow- 
ing colours  :  "  The  chariots  of  God  are  twenty 
thousand,  even  thousands  of  a^jgels  :  the  Lord 
is  among  them,  as  in  Sinai,  in  the  holy  place. 
Thou  hast  ascended  on  high,  thou  hast  led 
captivity  captive,"  or  an  immense  number  of 
captives ;  "  thou  hast  received  gifts  for  men  ; 
yea,  for  the  rebellious  also  ;  that  the  Lord  God 
might  dwell  among  them.  Blessed  be  the  Lord, 
who  daily  loadeth  us  with  his  benefits,  even 
the  God  of  our  salvation.  Selah,"  Psalm  lxviii, 
17-19.  Knowing  the  deep  impression  which 
such  an  allusion  is  calculated  to  make  on  the 


IK" 


928 


TRU 


mind  of  •■  people  familiarly  acquainted  with 
triumphal  scenes,  the  Apostle  returns  to  it  in 
.•■  hich  was  v.  ritten 
about  tin-  same  time :  "H  ring  spoiled  princi- 
■  pow  era,  he  mode  a  Bhow  of  them 
openly,  triumphing  over  tliem  in  it,"  Col.  n,  15. 

obtaining  a  « iplete  victory  over  all  his 

.  nemies,  lie  ascended  in  splendour  and  triumph 
mto  his   Father's  presence   on  the  clouds  of 

ii,  the  chariots  <d'  tin"  Most  High,  thou- 
i  of  holy  angels  attending  in  his  train;  he 
lad  the  devil  and  all  his  angels,  together  with 
■in,  the  world,  and  death,  as  his  spoils  of  war, 
and  captives  in  chains,  and  exposed  them  to 
(•pen  contempt  and  shame,  in  the  view  of  all 
his  angelic  attendants,  triumphing  like  a  glo- 
rious conqueror  over  them,  in  virtue  of  his 
cross,  upon  which  he  made  complete  satisfac- 
tion for  sin,  and  by  his  own  strength,  without 
the  assistance  of  any  creature,  destroyed  him 
that  had  the  power  of  death,  that  is,  the  devil. 
\         •*    might]    princes  were   accustomed  to 

i  largesses  among  the  people,  and  reward 
their  companions  in  arms  with  a  liberal  hand, 
when,  laden  with  the  spoils  of  vanquished  na- 
tions, they  returned  in  triumph  to  their  capital ; 
so  the  Conqueror  of  death  and  hell,  when  he 

■  ed  in-  above  all  heavens,  and  sat  down 
in  the  midst  of  the  throne,  shed  forth  blessings 
of  his  grace  and  Hal]  Spirit,  upon  people  of 
evi  ry  tongue  and  id' every  nation. 

Tin"  officers  and  soldiers,  also,  were  rewarded 
according  to  their  merit.  Among  the  Romans, 
the  nobl  -t  reward  which  a  soldier  could  re- 
was  the  crown,  made  of  leaves.  Alluding 
to  tins  high  distinction,  the  Apostle  says  to  his 
son  Timothy,  "  I  have  fought  a  good  fight; 
henceforth  there  is  laid  up  for  me  a  crown  of 
righteousness,  which  the  Lord,  the  righteous 
Judge,  will  give  me  at  that  day;  and  not  to 
me  only,  hut  unto  all  them  also  that  love  his 
appearing,"  -1  Tim.  iv,  7,  8.  And  lest  any  one 
should  imagine  that  the  Christian's  crown  is 
perishable  in  its  nature,  and  soon  fades  away, 
like  a  crown  of  oak  leaves,  the  Apostle  Peter 
•  the  faithful  soldier  of  Christ  that  his 

■  is  infinitely  more  valuable  and  lasting: 
i  •  shall  receive  a  crown  of  glorythat  fadeth 

not  aw.v,"  I  I'eter  v,  I.  And  this  account  is 
co, .tinned  by  St.  James:  "  Blessed  is  the  man 
that  endureth  temptation;  for  when  he  is  tried, 
be  shall  receive  the  crown  of  life,  which  the 
Lord  hath  promised  to  them  that  love  him," 
fiiiies  i,  ]•_>.  The  military  crowns  were  con- 
ferred by  the  general  in  presence  of  his  army; 
and  such  as  received  them,  after  a  public  eulo- 
gium  on  their  valour,  were  placed  next  his 
n.      The   Christian    also   receives   his  OH. 

merited  reward  erom  the  hand  of  the  Captain 

"""  ;  "  Be  thou  faithful  unto  death, 
sad  I  will  give  thee  a  crown  of  life,"  Rev.  ii,  III. 
And,  lilv  the  brave  veteran  of  ancient  times, 

be  is  promoted  t,,  :,  place  ,,,.:ir  ]us  |iiini  .  ,.To 

bun  that  overcometh,  will   I  grant  to  sit  with 

'">'  'hro,„  ,   ilao overcame  ami 

n  wnb  my  father  .m  hi.  throne  " 

.  2L.  ' 

TROAS     •  city  of  Phrygia,  or  of  Gdynia, 

*       pent,  beving  the  old  city  of 


Troy  to  the  north,  and  that  of  Assos  to  the 
south.  Sometimes  the  name  of  Troas  is  put 
for  the  province,  wherein  the  city  of  Troy 
stood.  St.  Paul  was  at  Troas,  when  he  had 
the  vision  of  the  Macedonian  inviting  him  to 
come  and  preach  in  that  kingdom,  Acts  xvi,  8. 
Beside  this,  the  Apostle  was  several  times  at 
Troas  ;  but  we  know  nothing  particular  of  his 
transactions  there,  Acts  xx,  5,  6  ;  2  Cor.  ii,  14  ; 
2  Tim.  iv,  13. 

TROPfflMUS,  a  disciple  of  St.  Paid,  and  an 
Ephesian  by  birth.  He  came  from  Ephesus  to 
( '( ninth  with  the  Apostle,  and  kept  him  company 
in  his  whole  journey  from  Corinth  to  Jerusalem, 
A.  I).  58,  Acts  xx,  4.  When  St.  Paul  was  in 
the  temple  there,  the  Jews  laid  hold  of  him, 
crying  out,  "  Men  of  Israel,  help ;  this  is  the 
man  that  teacheth  all  men  every  where  against 
the  people,  and  the  law,  and  this  place  ;  and 
farther,  brought  Creeks  also  into  the  temple, 
and  hath  polluted  this  holy  place,"  Acts  xxi, 
28,  29.  And  this  they  said,  because  certain 
Jews  of  Ephesus  having  seen  Trophimus  with 
St.  Paul  in  the  city,  whom  they  looked  upon 
as  a  Gentile,  imagined  that  St.  Paul  had  intro- 
duced him  into  the  temple.  The  whole  city 
was  immediately  in  an  uproar,  and  St.  Paul  was 
secured.  Trophimus  afterward  accompanied 
St.  Paul ;  for  that  Apostle  writes  to  Timothy, 
that  he  had  left  Trophimus  sick  at  Miletus, 
2  Tim.  iv,  20. 

TRUMPET.  The  Lord  commanded  Moses 
to  make  two  trumpets  of  beaten  silver,  to  be 
employed  in  calling  the  people  together  when 
they  were  to  decamp,  Num.  x,  2,  3,  &c.  They 
also  chiefly  made  use  of  these  trumpets,  to 
proclaim  the  beginning  of  the  civil  year,  the 
beginning  of  the  Sabbatical  year,  and  the 
beginning  of  the  jubilee,  Lev.  xxv,  9,  10. 
Josephus  says,  that  these  trumpets  were  near 
a  cubit  long ;  and  had  a  tube,  or  pipe,  of  the 
thickness  of  a  common  flute.  Their  mouths 
were  only  wide  enough  to  be  blown  into,  and 
their  ends  were  like  those  of  a  modern  trum- 
pet. At  first  there  were  but  two  in  the  camp, 
but  afterward  a  greater  number  were  made. 
Even  in  the  time  of  Joshua  there  were  seven 
of  them,  Joshua  vi,  4.  At  the  dedication  of 
t  he  1  ample  of  Solomon  six-score  priests  sounded 
as  many  trumpets,  2  Chron.  v,  12.  Beside  the 
sacred  trumpets  of  the  temple,  the  use  of  which 
was  restrained  to  the  priests  only,  in  war  there 
were  others,  which  the  generals  sometimes 
employed  for  gathering  their  troops  together. 
For  example,  Ehud  sounded  the  trumpet,  to 
assemble  the  Israelites  against  the  Moabites, 
who  oppressed  them,  and  whose  king  Eglon 
he  had  lately  slain,  Judg.  vi,  27.  Gideon  took 
a  trumpet  in  his  hand,  and  gave  every  one  of 
his  people  one,  when  he  assaulted  the  Mi- 
dianites,  Judges  vii,  2,  16.  Joab  sounded  the 
trumpet,  to  give  the  signal  of  retreat  to  his 
soldiers,  in  the  battle  against,  those  of  Abner's 
party,  and  in  that  against  Absalom ;  and  lastly, 
in  the  pursuit  of  Sheba  the  son  of  Bichri, 
2  Sam.  ii,  38;  xviii,  L6;  xx,  22.  The  feast 
of  trumpets  was  kept  on  the  first  day  of  the 
seventh  month  of  the  sacred  year,  the  first  of 
the  civil  year.     See  Music. 


TYC 


929 


TYP 


TRUTH  is  used,  1.  In  opposition  to  false- 
hood, lies,  or  deceit,  Prov.  xii,  17,  &c.  2.  It 
signifies  fidelity,  sincerity,  and  punctuality  in 
keeping  promises ;  and  to  truth  taken  in  this 
sense  is  generally  joined  mercy  or  kindness,  as 
in  Gen.  xxiv,  27,  and  other  places  of  Scripture. 
3.  Truth  is  put  for  the  true  doctrine  of  the 
Gospel,  Galatians  iii,  1.  4.  Truth  is  put  for 
the  substance  of  the  types  and  ceremonies  of 
the  law,  John  i,  17. 

TUBAL,  the  fifth  son  of  Japheth.  The 
Scripture  commonly  joins  together  Tubal  and 
Meshech,  which  makes  it  thought  that  they 
peopled  countries  bordering  upon  each  other. 
The  Chaldee  interpreters,  by  Tubal  and  Me- 
shech understand  Italy  and  Asia,  or  rather  Au- 
sonia.  Josephus  accounts  them  to  be  Iberia 
and  Cappadocia.  St.  Jerom  affirms  that  Tubal 
represents  the  Spaniards,  heretofore  called 
Iberians.  Bochart  is  very  copious  in  proving, 
that  by  Meshech  and  Tubal  are  intended  the 
Muscovites  and  the  Tibarenians. 

TUBAL-CAIN,  or  THUBAL-CAIN,  son 
of  Lamech  the  bigamous,  and  of  Zillah, 
Gen.  ix,  29.  The  Scriptures  tell  us,  that  he 
was  the  father  and  inventor,  or  master,  of 
the  art  of  forging  and  managing  iron,  and  of 
making  all  kinds  of  iron- work.  There  is  great 
reason  to  believe  that  this  was  the  Vulcan  of 
the  Heathens. 

TURTLE,  itn,  rpvy&v,  Gen.xv,  9  ;  Lev.  i,  14; 
v,  7,  11;  xii,  6,  8;  xiv,  22,  30;  xv,  14,  29; 
Num.  vi,  10;  Psalm  lxxiv,  19;  Cant,  ii,  12; 
Jer.  viii,  7 ;  rpvy&iv,  Luke  ii,  24.  We  have  the 
authority  of  the  Septuagint,  the  Targum,  and 
of  all  the  ancient  interpreters,  for  understand- 
ing this  of  the  turtle.  Indeed,  it  is  one  of 
those  evident  instances  in  which  the  name  of 
the  bird  is  by  onomatopceia  formed  from  its  note 
or  cry.  The  turtle  is  mentioned  among  mi- 
gratory birds  by  Jeremiah  viii,  7,  and  in  this 
sense  differs  from  the  rest  of  its  family,  which 
are  all  stationary.  The  fact  to  which  the  pro- 
phet alludes  is  attested  by  Aristotle  in  these 
words  :  "  The  pigeon  and  the  dove  are  always 
present,  but  the  turtle  only  in  summer :  that 
bird  is  not  seen  in  winter."  And  in  another 
part  of  his  work,  he  asserts  that  the  dove 
remains,  while  the  turtle  migrates.  Varro,  and 
other  ancient  writers,  make  the  like  statement. 
Thus  Solomon,  Cant,  ii,  12,  mentions  the  return 
of  this  bird  as  one  of  the  indications  of  spring : 
"  The  voice  of  the  turtle  is  heard  in  the  land." 
See  Dove. 

TYCHICUS,  a  disciple  of  St.  Paul,  whom 
the  Apostle  often  employed  to  carry  his  letters 
to  the  several  churches.  He  was  of  the  province 
of  Asia,  and  accompanied  St.  Paul,  when,  in 
A.  D.  58,  he  made  his  journey  from  Corinth 
to  Jerusalem,  Acts  xx,  4.  It  was  he  that 
carried  the  epistle  to  the  Colossians,  that  to 
the  Ephesians,  and  the  first  to  Timothy.  St. 
Paul  did  not  send  him  merely  to  carry  his  let- 
ters, but  also  to  learn  the  state  of  the  churches, 
and  to  bring  him  an  account  of  them.  Where- 
fore he  calls  him  his  dear  brother,  a  faithful 
minister  of  the  Lord,  and  his  companion  in  the 
service  of  God,  Eph.  vi,  21,  22;  Col.  iv,  7,  8. 
He  had  thoughts  also  of  sending  him  into  Crete, 
60 


to  preside  over  that  church  in  the  absence  of 
Titus,  iii,  12. 

TYPE.  This  word  is  not  frequently  used 
in  Scripture ;  but  what  it  signifies  is  supposed 
to  be  very  frequently  implied.  We  usually 
consider  a  type  as  an  example,  pattern,  or 
general  similitude  to  a  person,  event,  or  thing 
which  is  to  come  :  and  in  this  it  differs  from  a 
representation,  memorial,  or  commemoration 
of  an  event,  &c,  which  is  past.  The  Spirit  of 
God  has  adopted  a  variety  of  means  to  indicate 
his  perfect  foreknowledge  of  all  events,  and 
his  power  to  control  them.  This  is  some- 
times declared  by  express  verbal  prophecy ; 
sometimes  by  specific  actions  performed  by 
divine  command ;  and  sometimes  by  those 
peculiar  events,  in  the  lives  of  individuals,  and 
the  history  or  religious  observances  of  the  Is- 
raelites, which  were  caused  to  bear  a  designed 
reference  to  some  parts  of  the  Gospel  history. 
The  main  point,  says  Chevallier,  in  an  inquiry 
into  these  historical  types,  is  to  establish  the 
fact  of  a  preconcerted  connection  between  the 
two  series  of  events.  No  similarity,  in  itself, 
is  sufficient  to  prove  such  a  correspondence. 
Even  those  recorded  in  Scripture  are  recorded 
under  very  different  circumstances.  If  the  first 
event  be  declared  to  be  typical,  at  the  time 
when  it  occurs,  and  the  second  correspond 
with  the  prediction  so  delivered,  there  can  be 
no  doubt  that  the  correspondence  was  designed. 
If,  before  the  occurrence  of  the  second  event, 
there  be  delivered  a  distinct  prophecy,  that  it 
will  happen,  and  will  correspond  with  some 
previous  event;  the  fulfilment  of  the  prophecy 
furnishes  an  intrinsic  proof,  that  the  person 
who  gave  it  spake  by  divine  inspiration.  It 
may  not,  from  this  fact,  follow,  that  the  two 
events  were  connected  by  a  design  formed 
before  either  of  them  occurred  :  but  it  certainly 
does  follow,  that  the  second  event,  in  some 
measure,  had  respect  to  the  first ;  and  that 
whatever  degree  of  connection  was,  by  such  a 
prophet,  assumed  to  exist,  did  really  exist.  If, 
again,  no  specific  declaration  be  made,  respect- 
ing the  typical  character  of  any  event  or  per- 
son, until  after  the  second  event  has  occurred, 
which  is  then  declared  to  have  been  prefigured  ; 
the  fact  of  preconcerted  connection  will  rest 
solely  upon  the  authority  of  the  person  who 
advances  the  assertion.  But,  if  we  know,  from 
other  sources,  that  his  words  are  the  words  of 
truth,  our  only  inquiry  will  be,  if  he  either  dis- 
tinctly asserts,  or  plainly  infers,  the  existence 
of  a  designed  correspondence.  The  fact,  then, 
of  a  preconcerted  connection  between  two 
series  of  events,  is  capable  of  being  established 
in  three  ways  :  and  the  historical  types  may  be 
accordingly  arranged  in  three  principal  di- 
visions. Some  of  them  afford  intrinsic  evi- 
dence, that  the  Scriptures,  which  record  them, 
are  given  by  inspiration  of  God ;  the  others 
can  be  proved  to  exist  only  by  assuming  that 
fact :  but  all,  when  once  established,  display 
the  astonishing  power  and  wisdom  of  God ; 
and  the  importance  of  that  scheme  of  redemp- 
tion, which  was  ushered  into  the  world  with 
such  magnificent  preparations.  In  contem- 
plating this  wonderful  system,  we  discern  one 


TYP 


930 


TYR 


mat  intention  interwoven,  not  only  into  the 
and  extraordinary  events 
of  Um  lii-iory  of  t lie  Israelite*,  but  into  the 
ordinary  traiwactione  of  the  lives  of  selected 
m.iiviciui^.  even  from  the  creation  of  the 
world.  Adam  was  "the  figure  of  him  that 
u..s  i,,  come,'!  Romans  v,  It.  Melchisedec 
was  "made  like  unto  the  Son  of  God,"  Heb. 
vii,  3.  Abraham,  in  tbo  course  of  events  in 
which  he  waa  engaged  bj  the  especial  command 
of  Heaven,  was  enahlcd  to  see  Christ's  day, 
John  viii,  56 ;  and  Isaac  was  received  from 
the  dead  "  in  a  figure,"  Heb.  xi,  19.  At  a  later 
period,  the  paschal  lamb  was  ordained  to  be 
sacrificed,  not  only  as  a  memorial  of  the  im- 
mediate deliverance,  which  it  was  instituted  to 
procure  and  to  commemorate,  but  also  as  a 
continued  memorial  of  that  which  was  to  be 
"  fulfilled  in  the  kingdom  of  God,"  Luke  xxii, 
Hi.  Koeea  was  raised  up  to  deliver  the  people 
of  Israel ;  to  be  to  them  a  lawgiver,  a  prophet, 
a  priest ;  and  to  possess  the  regal  authority,  if 
not  the  title  of  king.  But,  during  the  early 
period  of  his  life,  he  was  himself  taught,  that 
one  great  prophet  should  be  raised  up  like  unto 
him:  before  his  death  he  delivered  the  same 
prophecy  to  the  people  :  and,  after  that  event, 
the  Israelites  continually  looked  for  that  faith, 
ful  prophet,  who  should  return  answer  to  their 
inquiries,  1  Mace,  iv,  46;  xiv,  41.  Their  pro- 
phets all  pointed  to  some  greater  lawgiver,  who 
should  introduce  a  new  law  into  their  hearts, 
and  inscril>e  them  upon  their  minds,  Jer.  xxxi, 
33.  The  whole  people  of  Israel  were  also 
made,  in  some  instances,  designedly  repre- 
sentative of  Christ:  and  the  events,  which 
occurred  in  their  national  history,  distinctly 
referred  to  him.  During  their  wanderings  in 
the  wilderness,  God  left  not  himself  without 
witness,  which  should  bear  reference  to  the 
great  scheme  of  the  Gospel.  They  ate  spiritual 
meat.  It  was  an  emblem  of  the  true  bread  of 
life,  which  came  down  from  heaven,  John  vi, 
32.  "  They  drank  of  that  spiritual  Rock  that 
followed  them :  and  that  Rock  was  Christ," 
1  Cor.  x,  4.  They  were  destroyed  of  serpents ; 
and  a  brazen  serpent  was  lifted  up  on  a  pole, 
that  whosoever  looked  might  live.  It  was  a 
sensible  figure  of  the  Son  of  man,  who  was, 


over  his  enemies.  And  the  peaceable  dominion 
of  Solomon  prefigured  that  eternal  rest  and 
peace,  which  remaineth  to  the  people  of  God. 
In  a  still  later  age,  the  miraculous  preservation 
of  the  Prophet  Jonah  displayed  a  sign,  which 
was  fulfilled  in  the  resurrection  of  Christ.  And 
when  the  temple  was  rebuilt,  Joshua,  the  son  of 
Josedech,  the  high  priest,  and  his  fellows,  were 
set  forth  as  "  men  of  sign,"  representatives  of 
the  Branch,  which  should,  in  the  fulness  of  time, 
be  raised  up  to  the  stem  of  Jesse,  Zech.  hi,-  8  ; 
Isa.  xi,  1.  The  illustration,  then,  to  be  derived 
from  the  historical  types  of  the  Old  Testament, 
is  found  diffused  over  the  whole  period,  which 
extends  from  the  creation  of  the  world,  to  the 
time  when  vision  and  prophecy  were  sealed. 
And  all  the  light,  which  emanates  from  so 
many  various  points,  is  concentrated  in  the 
person  of  Christ. 

TYRANNUS.  It  is  said  in  Acts  xix,  9 
that  St.  Paul  being  at  Ephesus,  and  seeing  that 
the  Jews  to  whom  he  preached,  instead  of 
being  converted,  were  rather  more  hardened 
and  obstinate,  he  withdrew  from  their  society, 
nor  went  to  preach  in  their  synagogue,  but 
taught  every  day  in  the  school  of  one  Tyran- 
nus.  It  is  inquired,  Who  was  this  Tyrannus? 
Some  think  him  to  have  been  a  prince  or  great 
lord,  who  accommodated  the  Apostle  with  his 
house,  in  which  to  receive  and  instruct  his 
disciples.  But  the  generality  conclude,  that 
Tyrannus  was  a  converted  Gentile,  a  friend 
of  St.  Paul,  to  whom  he  withdrew. 

TYRE,  or  Tyrus,  was  a  famous  city  of  Phe- 
nicia.  Its  Hebrew  name  is  "lis  or  -tf,  which 
signifies  a  rock.  The  city  of  Tyre  was  allotted 
to  the  tribe  of  Asher,  Joshua  xix,  29,  with  the 
other  maritime  cities  of  the  same  coast ;  but  it 
does  not  appear  that  the  Asherites  ever  drove 
out  the  Canaanites.  Isaiah,  xxiii,  12,  calls 
Tyre  the  daughter  of  Sidon,  that  is,  a  colony 
from  it.  Homer  never  speaks  of  Tyre,  but 
only  of  Sidon.  Josephus  says,  that  Tyre  was 
built  not  above  two  hundred  and  forty  years 
before  the  temple  of  Solomon ;  which  would 
be  in  A.  M.  2760,  two  hundred  years  after 
Joshua.  Tyre  was  twofold,  insular  and  conti- 
nental. Insular  Tyre  was  certainly  the  most 
ancient ;    for  this  it  was  which  was  noticed 


in  like  manner  to  be  lifted  up;  "  that  whosoever    by  Joshua:  the  continental  city,  however, 
t.i-lic  veth  in  him  should  not  perish,  but  have    being  more  commodiously  situated,  first  grew 

*■!  O  r  ti    i  1      1  if**    "       1  ,  lIi  i.       ■■■         1  £  I >. ..    t .1 ..         4 1 — :~ *       * :j i.1 J       1     it C 


eternal  life,"  John  iii,  15.  Beside,  their  re- 
ligious ordinances  were  only  "  a  figure  for  the 
time  then  present,"  Heb.  ix,  9.  Their  taber- 
nacle was  made  after  the  pattern  of  heavenly 
things,  Heb.  viii,  5 j  Exod.  xxv,  9,  40;  and 
irai  intended  to  prefigure  the  "greater  and 
more  perfect  tabernacle,  not  made  with  hands," 
Heb.  IX,  11.  The  high  priest  was  a  living  re- 
pnsent.Uive  of  the  great  "  High  Priest  of  our 
profession,"  Heb.  iii,  1:  and  the  Levitical 
nerificea  plainly  had  respect  to  the  one  great 
sacrifice  lor   sins.      Joshua  the   son  of  Nun 


into  consideration,  and  assumed  the  name  of 
Palietyrus,  or  Old  Tyre.  Want  of  sufficient 
attention  to  this  distinction,  has  embarrassed 
both  the  Tyrian  chronology  and  geography. 
Insular  Tyre  was  confined  to  a  small  rocky 
island,  eight  hundred  paces  long,  and  four 
hundred  broad,  and  could  never  exceed  two 
miles  in  circumference.  But  Tyre,  on  the  op- 
posite coast,  about  half  a  mile  from  the  sea, 
was  a  city  of  vast  extent,  since  many  centuries 
after  its  demolition  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  the 
scattered  ruins  measured  nineteen  miles  round, 


nted  Jeaua  in  name  :  and  by  his  earthly  as  we  learn  from  Pliny  and  Strabo.  Of  these, 
conquest*    in    some    measure   prefigured    the    the  most  curious  and  surprising  are,  the  cis- 

Y  triumphs  of  his  Lord.  In  a  sub-  terns  of  Roselayne,  designed  to  supply  the  city 
sequent  period,  David  was  no  indistinct  type  with  water;  of  which  there  are  three  still  en- 
ot  Uw  Messiah  the  Prince,"  Dan.  ix,  25,  for  tire;  about  one  or  two  furlongs  from  the 
aiongtm.e  humbled,  and  at  length  triumphant |  sea,  so  well  described  by  Maundrcll,  for  their 


TYR 


931 


TYR 


curious  construction  and  solid  masonry.  Old 
Tyre  withstood  the  mighty  Assyrian  power, 
having  been  besieged  in  vain,  by  Shalmaneser, 
for  five  years ;  although  he  cut  off  their  sup- 
plies of  water  from  the  cisterns;  which  they 
remedied  by  digging  wells  within  the  city.  It 
afterward  held  out  thirteen  years  against  Ne- 
buchadnezzar, king  of  Babylon,  and  was  at 
length  taken ;  but  not  until  the  Tyrians  had 
removed  their  effects  to  the  insular  town,  and 
left  nothing  but  the  bare  walls  to  the  victor, 
which  he  demolished.  What  completed  the 
destruction  of  the  city  was,  that  Alexander 
afterward  made  use  of  these  materials  to  build 
a  prodigious  causeway,  or  isthmfls,  above  half 
a  mile  long,  to  the  insular  city,  which  revived, 
as  the  phoenix,  from  the  ashes  of  the  old,  and 
grew  to  great  power  and  opulence,  as  a  mari- 
time state;  and  which  he  stormed  after  a  most 
obstinate  siege  of  five  months.  Pococke  ob- 
serves, that  "  there  are  no  signs  of  the  ancient 
city ;  and  as  it  is  a  sandy  shore,  the  face  of 
every  thing  is  altered,  and  the  great  aqueduct 
is  in  many  parts  almost  buried  in  the  sand." 
Thus  has  been  fulfilled  the  prophecy  of  Eze- 
kiel :  "  Thou  shall,  be  built  no  more  :  though 
thou  be  sought  for,  yet  shalt  thou  never  be 
found  again,"  Ezek.  xxvi,  21.  The  fate  of 
insular  Tyre  has  been  no  les6  remarkable. 
When  Alexander  stormed  the  city,  he  set  fire 
to  it.  This  circumstance  was  foretold.  "  Tyre 
did  build  herself  a  strong  hold,  and  heaped  up 
silver  as  the  dust,  and  fine  gold  as  the  mire  of 
the  streets.  Behold,  the  Lord  will  cast  her 
out,  and  he  will  smite  her  power  in  the  sea, 
and  she  shall  be  devoured  with  fire,"  Zech.  ix, 
3,  4.  After  this  terrible  calamity,  Tyre  again 
retrieved  her  losses.  Only  eighteen  years  after, 
she  had  recovered  such  a  share  of  her  ancient 
commerce  and  opulence,  as  enabled  her  to 
stand  a  siege  of  fourteen  months  against  An- 
tigonus,  before  he  could  reduce  the  city ;  but 
after  this,  Tyre  fell  alternately  under  the  do- 
minion of  the  kings  of  Syria  and  Egypt,  and 
then  of  the  Romans,  until  it  was  taken  by  the 
Saracens,  about  A.  D.  639,  retaken  'by  the 
Crusaders,  A.  D.  1124;  and  at  length  sacked 
and  razed  by  the  Mamelukes  of  Egypt,  with 
Sidon,  and  other  strong  towns,  that  they  might 
no  longer  harbour  the  Christians,  A.D.  1289. 
/  The  final  desolation  of  Tyre  was  thus  fore- 
told :  "  I  will  scrape  her  dust  from  her,  and 
make  her  like  the  top  of  a  rock  :  it  shall  be  a 
place  for  the  spreading  of  nets  in  the  midst  of 
the  sea  :  for  I  have  spoken  it,  saith  the  Lord 
God."  "  I  will  make  thee  like  the  top  of  a 
rock :  thou  shalt  be  a  place  to  spread  nets 
upon  :  thou  shalt  be  built  no  more ;  for  I  the 
Lord  have  spoken  it,  saith  the  Lord  God." 
Nothing  can  be  more  literally  and  astonish- 
ingly executed  than  this  sentence.  Huetius 
relates  of  one  Hadrianus  Parvillerius,  that 
"  when  he  approached  the  ruins  of  Tyre,  and 
beheld  the  rocks  stretched  forth  to  the  sea,  and 
the  great  stones  scattered  up  and  down  on  the 
shore,  made  clean  and  smooth  by  the  sun  and 
waves  and  wind,  and  useful  only  for  the  drying 
of  fishermen's  nets,  many  of  which  happened 
at  that  lime  to  be  spread  thereon,  it  brought  to 


his  memory  the  prophecy  of  Ezekiel  concern- 
ing  Tyre,  that  such  should  be  its  fate."  Maun- 
drell,  who  visited  the  Holy  Land,  A.D.  1697, 
describes  it  thus  :  "  This  city,  standing  in  the 
sea  upon  a  peninsula,  promises  at  a  distance,- 
something  very  magnificent ;  but  when  you 
come  to  it,  you  find  no  similitude  of  that  glory 
for  which  it  was  so  renowned  in  ancient  times, 
and  which  the  Prophet  Ezekiel  describes,  xxvi, 
xxvii,  xxviii.  On  the  north  side  it  has  an  old 
Turkish  ungarrisoned  castle  ;  beside  which, 
you  see  nothing  here  but  a  mere  Babel  of 
broken  walls,  pillars,  vaults,  &c ;  there  being 
not  so  much  as  one  entire  house  left !  Its  pre- 
sent inhabitants  are  only  a  few  poor  wretches 
harbouring  themselves  in  the  vaults,  and 
subsisting  chiefly  by  fishing  :  who  seem  to  be 
preserved  in  this  place  by  Divine  Providence, 
as  a  visible  argument  how  God  has  fulfilled  his 
word  concerning  Tyre,  namely,  that  it  should 
be  as  the  top  of  a  rock ;  a  place  for  fishers  to 
dry  their  nets  upon,  Ezek.  xxvi,  14."  Hassel- 
quist,  who  saw  it  since,  in  A.  D.  1751,  observes 
as  follows :  "  None  of  those  cities  which  were 
formerly  famous  are  so  totally  ruined  as  Tyre, 
now  called  Zur,  except  Troy.  Zur  now  scarcely 
can  be  called  a  miserable  village,  though  it  was 
formerly  Tyre,  the  queen  of  the  sea.  Here 
are  about  ten  inhabitants,  Turks  and  Chris, 
tians,  who  live  by  fishing."  Bruce,  who  visited 
this  country  about  eighty  years  after  Maun- 
drell,  says,  that  "  passing  by  Tyre  from  curi- 
osity, I  came  to  be  a  mournful  witness  of  the 
truth  of  that  prophecy,  that  Tyre,  the  queen 
of  nations,  should  be  a  rock  for  fishers  to  dry 
their  nets  on."  Mr.  Buckingham,  who  visited 
it  in  1816,  represents  it  as  containing  about 
eight  hundred  substantial  stone-built  houses, 
and  from  five  to  eight  thousand  inhabitants. 
But  Mr.  Jowett,  on  the  authority  of  the  Greek 
archbishop,  reduces  this  number  to  less  than 
four  thousand ;  namely,  one  thousand  two 
hundred  Greek  Catholics,  one  hundred  Maron- 
ites,  one  hundred  Greeks,  one  thousand  Mon- 
tonalis,  and  one  hundred  Turks.  Mr.  Jowett 
observed  numerous  and  beautiful  columns 
stretched  along  the  beach,  or  standing  in  frag- 
ments half  buried  in  the  sand,  that  has  been 
accumulating  for  ages  :  "the  broken  aqueduct, 
and  the  ruins  which  appear  in  its  neighbour- 
hood, exist  as  an  affecting  monument  of  the 
fragile  and  transitory  nature  of  earthly  gran- 
deur." Mr.  Joliffe  states,  that  there  now  exist 
scarcely  any  traces  of  this  once  powerful  city. 
"  Some  miserable  cabins,  ranged  in  irregular 
lines,  dignified  with  the  name  of  streets,  and 
a  few  buildings  of  a  rather  better  description, 
occupied  by  the  officers  of  government,  com- 
pose  nearly  the  whole  of  the  town.  It  still 
makes,  indeed,  some  languishing  efforts  at 
commerce,  and  contrives  to  export  annually 
to  Alexandria  cargoes  of  silk  and  tobacco; 
but  the  amount  merits  no  consideration.  The 
noble  dust  of  Alexander,  traced  by  the  imagi- 
nation till  found  stopping  a  beer  barrel,  would 
scarcely  afford  a  stronger  contrast  of  grandeur 
and  debasement,  than  Tyre,  at  the  period  of 
being  besieged  by  that  conqueror,  and  the  mo 
dern  town  of  Tsour  erected  on  its  ashes." 


TYR 


932 


TYR 


As  commercial  cities,  says  Mansfurd,  an- 
,„•„!  Alexandria  and  London  may  be  consi- 
dered as  approaching  tin-  Dearest  to  Tyre.    But 

M.ln.i,  during  the  whole  of  her  prosper- 
ous daya,  ires  subject  to  foreign  rule;  and 
London,  great  as  are  her  commerce  and  her 
wealth,  and  poaeeeeing  as  she  does  almost  a 
monopoly  of  what  has  hi  all  ages  been  the 
most  enviable  and  most  lucrative  branch  of 
trade,  that  with  the  oust,  does  not  centre  in 
herself,  as  Tyre  did,  without  a  rival  and  with- 
out competition,  the  trade  of  all  nations,  and 
hold  an  absolute  monopoly,  not  of  one,  but  of 
every  branch  of  commerce.  Fur  the  long  pe- 
riod of  a  thousand  years,  not  a  single  produc- 
tion of  the  east  passed  lo  the  west,  or  of  the 
treat  to  the  cast,  but  by  the  merchants  of  Tyre. 
Nor  for  many  ages  were  any  ships  found  but 
those  of  Tyre  daring  enough  to  pass  the  straits 
of  the  Bed  Sea  on  one  side,  or  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean on  the  other.  While  the  vessels  of 
other  countries  were  groping  along  their  coasts, 
clinging  to  their  landmarks,  and  frightened  at 
a  breeze,  the  ships  of  Tyre  were  found  from 
Spain,  if  not  from  Britain,  on  the  west,  to  the 
coast  of  Malabar  and  Sofala  on  the  east  and 
south.  No  wonder  that  her  merchants  were 
princes,  and  that  they  lived  in  a  style  of  mag- 
nificence unknown  in  any  other  country  in 
the  same  age  ;  or  that  she  should  be  considered 
a  desirable  prey  by  the  conquerors  of  the  times. 
But  enterprise  and  wealth  did  not  alone  com- 
plete the  character  of  the  Tynans ;  they  had 
an  undoubted  claim  to  valour  of  no  common 
order.  Their  city,  which  possessed  scarcely 
any  torritory  beyond  their  own  walls,  main- 
tained a  siege  of  thirteen  years  (the  longest  in 
history  except  that  of  Ashdod)  against  the 
whole  power  of  Babylon  ;  and  another  of  seven 
months  against  Alexander,  whose  successes 
had  afforded  no  instance  of  similar  delay. 
And  in  neither  case  had  the  captors  much  to 
boast  of,  as  the  Tyrians  had  shipped  off  their 
most  valuable  property  to  Carthage;  and  in 
the  former  particularly,  as  has  been  already 
related,  they  so  effectually  secured  or  sacri- 
ficed the  whole,  that  the  soldiers  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar found  nothing  to  reward  them  for  their 
length  of  labour,  during  which,  by  excessive 
t'"l  and  heat,  "their  heads  were  made  bald, 
and  their  very  shoulders  peeled,"  but  vacant 
■treats,  and  houses  already  sacked.  Carthage, 
Dtica,  and  Cadiz,  are  celebrated  monuments 
of  the  power  of  Tyre  on  the  Mediterranean, 
and  in  the  west.  She  extended  her  navigation 
•■veu  into  the  ocean,  and  carried  her  commerce 
beyond  England  to  the  north,  and  the  Canaries 
to  the  until.  Her  connections  with  the  east, 
though  less  known,  were  not  less  consider- 
able; the  islands  of  Tyroa  and  Aradna,  (the 
■  n. Mien,  Barnaul,)  in  the  Persian  Gulf.    The 

of  Faran  and  Phomicum  Oppidum,  on 
•  he  lt.-,|  Sen,  ,,,  rums  even  in  the  time  of  the 

i,  prove  thai  the  Tyrians  had  long  fre 
wonted  the  coast  of  Arabia  and  the  Indian 
Bea.     Hiii,  through  the  vicissitudes  of  time 

reduced  to  a  miserable  village,  has  no 
other  trade  than  the  exportation  of  a  few  sacks 
"    '    r"    l",,   r;lu'  BOtton,  nor  any  merchant, 


says  Volney,  but  a  single  Greek  factor  in  the 
service  of  the  French  Saide,  (Sidon,)  who 
scarcely  makes  sufficient  profit  to  maintain 
his  family.  In  allusion  to  Tyre  in  her  better 
days,  Forbes  observes,  when  speaking  of  Su- 
rat,  "  The  bazars,  filled  with  costly  merchan- 
dise ;  picturesque  and  interesting  groups  of 
natives  on  elephants,  camels,  horses,  and 
mules ;  strangers  from  all  parts  of  the  globe, 
in  their  respective  costume  ;  vessels  building 
on  the  stocks,  others  navigating  the  river ;  to- 
gether with  Turks,  Persians,  and  Armenians, 
on  Arabian  chargers ;  European  ladies  in  splen- 
did carriages,  the  Asiatic  females  in  hackeries 
drawn  by  oxen  ;  and  the  motley  appearance  of 
the  English  and  nabob's  troops  on  the  fortifi- 
cations, remind  us  of  the  following  description 
of  Tyre,  '  O  thou  that  art  situate  at  the  entry 
of  the  sea,  which  art  a  merchant  of  the  peo- 
ple for  many  ;«les,'  &c,  Ezek.  xxvii,  3.  This 
is  a  true  picture  of  oriental  commerce  in  an- 
cient times ;  and  a  very  exact  description  of 
the  port  and  the  bazars  of  Surat,  at  the  pre- 
sent day." 

Dr.  Vincent  has  given  the  following  able 
illustration  of  the  trade  of  Tyre  as  described 
in  Ezek.  xxvii,  which  must  be  considered  as 
one  of  the  most  ample  and  early  accounts  ex- 
tant. The  learned  author  has  rendered  the 
Hebrew  names  into  others  better  known  in  the 
geography  of  more  recent  times : — Tyre  pro- 
duced from  Hermon,  and  the  mountains  near 
it,  fir  for  planking  ;  and  from  Libanus,  cedars 
for  masts.  From  Bashan,  east  of  the  sea  of 
Galilee,  oaks  for  oars.  From  Greece,  or  the 
Grecian  isles,  ivory  to  adorn  the  benches  or  the 
waists  of  the  galleys.  From  Egypt,  linen,  or- 
namented with  different  colours,  for  sails,  or 
flags,  or  ensigns.  From  Peloponnesus,  blue  and 
purple  cloths  for  awnings.  From  Sidon  and 
Aradus,  mariners ;  but  Tyre  itself  furnished 
pilots  and  commanders.  From  Gebal,  or  Bib- 
los,  on  the  coast  between  Tripolis  and  Berytus, 
caulkers.  From  Persia  and  Africa,  mercenary 
troops.  From  Aradus,  the  troops  that  garri- 
soned Tyre  with  the  Gamadim.  From  Tar- 
shish,  or  by  distant  voyages  toward  the  west, 
and  toward  the  east,  great  wealth,  iron,  tin, 
lead,  and  silver.  Tin  implies  Britain  or  Spain, 
or  at  least  a  voyage  beyond  the  Straits  of  Her- 
cules. From  Greece,  and  the  countries  bor- 
dering on  Pontus,  slaves,  and  brass  ware. 
From  Armenia,  horses,  horsemen,  and  mules. 
From  the  Gulf  of  Persia,  and  the  isles  within 
that  gulf,  horns  (tusks)  of  ivory,  and  ebony. 
The  export  to  these  isles  was  the  manufac- 
ture of  Tyre.  From  Syria,  emeralds,  purple, 
broidered  work,  fine  linen,  coral,  and  agate. 
The  exports  to  Syria  were  the  manufactures 
of  Tyre  in  great  quantities.  From  Judah  and 
Israel,  the  finest  wheat,  honey,  oil,  and  bal- 
sam. From  Damascus,  wine  of  Chalybonk 
(the  country  bordering  on  the  modern  Alep- 
po,) and  wool  in  the  fleece.  The  exports  to 
Damascus  were  costly  and  various  manufac- 
tures. From  the  tribe  of  Dan,  situated  near- 
est to  the  Philistines,  the  produce  of  Arabia, 
bright  or  wrought  iron,  cassia  »r  cinnamon,  and 
the  calamus  aramaticus.     In  conducting  the 


UNB 


933 


UNB 


transport  of  these  articles,  Dan  went  to  and 
fro,  that  is,  formed  or  conducted  the  caravans. 
By  one  interpretation,  the}'  are  said  to  come 
from  Uzal ;  and  Uzal  is  suid  to  be  Sana,  the 
capital  of  Yemen,  or  Arabia  Felix.  From  the 
Gulf  of  Persia,  rich  cloth  for  the  decoration 
of  chariots  or  horsemen.  From  Arabia  Pe- 
tra?a  and  Hedjaz,  lambs,  and  rams,  and  goats. 
From  Sabea  and  Oman,  the  best  of  spices. 
From  India,  gold,  and  precious  stones.  From 
Mesopotamia,  from  Carrhae,  and  Babylonia, 
the  Assyrians  brought  all  sorts  of  exquisite 
things ;  that  is,  fine  manufacture,  blue  cloth, 
and  broidered  work,  or  fabric  of  various  co. 
lours,  in  chests  of  cedar  bound  with  cords, 
containing  rich  apparel.  If  these  articles  were 
obtained  farther  from  the  east,  may  they  not 
be  the  fabrics  of  India,  first  brought  to  Assy. 
ria  by  the  Gulf  of  Persia,  or  by  caravans  from 
Karmania  and  the  Indus,  and  then  conveyed 
by  the  Assyrians,  in  other  caravans,  to  Tyre 
and  Syria  ?  In  this  view,  the  care  of  package, 
the  chests  of  cedar,  and  the  cording  of  the 
chests,  are  all  correspondent  to  the  nature  of 
such  a  transport.  From  Tarshish  the  ships 
came  that  rejoiced  in  the  markets  of  Tyre  : 
they  replenished  the  city,  and  made  it  glorious 
in  the  midst  of  the  sea,  Ezek.  xxvii,  5-25. 
Dr.  Vincent  observes,  that  from  the  Tarshish 
last  mentioned  the  ships  returned  to  the  ports 
in  the  Red  Sea ;  as  from  the  nineteenth  to  the 
twenty-fourth  verse  every  particular  relates  to 
the  east,  while  that  referred  to  in  the  twelfth 
implies  the  west — Spain,  or  beyond.  We  have 
here  some  light  thrown  on  the  obscurity 
which  surrounds  the  situation  of  this  distant 
and  unknown  place.  There  is,  indeed,  a  clear 
reference  to  two  distinct  places,  or  parts  of  the 
world,  denominated  Tarshish ;  perhaps  from 
those  very  circumstances,  their  distance,  and 
the  little  that  was  known  respecting  them. 
That  one  was  situated  westward,  and  reached 
by  a  passage  across  the  Mediterranean,  is  cer- 
tain from  other  parts  of  Scripture ;  that  the 
other  was  eastward,  or  southward,  on  the  coast 
of  Arabia,  India,  or  Africa,  is  equally  certain. 
See  Tarshish,  and  Ophir. 

UNBELIEF  or  INFIDELITY  is  a  want 
of  credence  in  the  word  of  God  ;  or  it  may  be 
defined,  a  calling  in  question  the  divine  vera- 
city, in  what  God  hath  either  testified,  pro- 
mised, or  threatened  ;  and  thus  it  is  the  opposite 
of  faith,  which  consists  in  crediting  what  God 
hath  said,  John  iii,  18,  33.  It  is  said  that  the 
Jews  could  not  enter  into  the  promised  land, 
"because  of  their  unbelief,"  Heb.  iii,  18,  19. 
And  the  Apostle,  teaching  the  believing  He- 
brews what  instruction  they  should  deduce 
from  that  portion  of  the  history  of  their  fore- 
fathers, says,  as  the  words  literally  translated 
would  run,  "  We  are  evangelized  as  well  as 
they  were  ;  but  the  word  which  they  heard  did 
not  profit  them,  not  being  mixed  with  faith  in 
them  that  heard  it,"  Heb.  iv,  2.  The  meaning 
is,  We  Christians  are  favoured  with  the  good 
news  of  the  heavenly  rest,  as  well  as  Israel  in 
the  wilderness  were  with  the  good  news  of  the 
earthly  rest  in  Canaan  ;  but  the  word   which 


they  heard  concerning  that  rest  did  not  profit 
them,  because  they  did  not  believe  it.  Hence 
it  appears  that  faith  and  unbelief  are  not  con- 
fined to  the  spiritual  truths  and  promises  of  the 
Gospel  of  Christ,  but  respect  any  truth  which 
God  may  reveal,  or  any  promise  which  he  may 
make  even  concerning  temporal  things.  It  is 
a  crediting  or  discrediting  God  in  what  he 
says,  whatever  be  the  subject.  Christ  could 
not  do  many  mighty  works  in  his  own  coun- 
try, because  of  their  unbelief,  Matt,  vi,  5,  G ; 
their  mean  opinion  of  him,  and  contempt  of 
his  miracles,  rendered  them  unfit  objects  to 
have  miracles  wrought  upon  or  among  them. 
The  Apostles'  distrust  of  Christ's  promises,  of 
enabling  them  to  cast  out  devils,  rendered  them 
incapable  of  casting  one  out,  Mark  xvii,  16  ; 
and  St.  Peter's  distrust  of  his  Master's  power 
occasioned  his  sinking  in  the  water,  Matt,  xiv, 
30,  31.  The  unbelief  for  which  the  Jews  were 
broken  off  from  their  being  a  church  was  their 
denial  of  Christ's  Messiahship,  their  contempt 
and  refusal  of  him,  and  their  violent  persecu- 
tion of  his  cause  and  members,  Rom.  xi,  20. 
Adverting  to  the  infidelity  which  prevailed 
among  the  educated  class  of  Heathens  when 
Christianity  first  appeared  in  the  world,  Dr. 
Neander  observes  : — It  was  Christianity  which 
first  presented  religion  under  the  form  of  ob- 
jective truth,  as  a  system  of  doctrines  perfectly 
independent  of  all  individual  conceptions  of 
man's  imagination,  and  calculated  to  meet  the 
moral  and  religious  wants  of  man's  nature, 
and  in  that  nature  every  where  to  find  some 
point  on  which  it  might  attach  itself.  The  re 
iigions  of  antiquity,  on  the  contrary,  consist  of 
many  elements  of  various  kinds,  which,  either 
by  the  skill  of  the  first  promulgator,  or,  in  the 
length  of  years,  by  the  impress  of  national  pe- 
culiarities, were  moulded  together  into  one 
whole.  By  the  transmission  of  tales,  half 
mythical,  and  half  historical,  by  forms  and 
statutes  bearing  the  impress  of  religious  feel 
ings  or  ideas,  mingled  with  multifarious  poems, 
which  showed  a  powerful  imaginative  spirit, 
rugged  indeed,  or,  if  animated  by  the  spirit  of 
beauty,  at  least  devoid  of  that  of  holiness, — all 
these  varied  materials  were  interwoven  so  com- 
pletely into  all  the  characters,  customs,  and 
relations,  of  social  life,  that  the  religious  mat- 
ter could  no  longer  be  separated  from  the  mix- 
ed mass,  nor  be  disentangled  from  the  indi- 
vidual nature  of  the  life  and  political  character 
of  each  people  with  which  it  was  interwoven. 
There  was  no  religion  generally  adapted  to 
human  nature,  only  religions  fitted  to  each 
people.  The  Divinity  appeared  here,  not  as 
free  and  elevated  above  nature ;  not  as  that 
which,  overruling  nature,  might  form  and  illu- 
minate the  nature  of  man  ;  but  was  lowered  to 
the  level  of  nature,  and  made  subservient  to  it. 
Through  this  principle  of  deifying  the  powers 
of  nature,  by  which  every  exertion  of  bare  pow- 
er, even  though  immoral,  might  be  received 
among  the  objects  of  religious  veneration,  the 
idea  of  holiness  which  beams  forth  from  man's 
conscience  must  continually  have  been  thrown 
into  the  back  ground  and  overshadowed.  The 
old  lawgivers  were  well  aware  how  closely  the 


t  Ni: 


934 


UNB 


mau.t. nan.  -    of  an   individual  state    religion 

japend i  the  maintenance  of  the  individual 

tor  of  the  1 pie,  and   their  civil  and 

;,  virtues.  Tbej  were  well  aware  that 
when  ooca  this  onion  ia  dissolved  no  power 
can  restore  i1  again.  Therefore  we  find,  espe- 
,  i:,iiv  in  ft ,  where  politics  were  tin;  ruling 

,n,  ■  watchfulness  after  the  most  puncti- 
lio,,- observance  of  traditional  religious  cere- 
monii  $,  and  a  jealous  aversion  to  any  innova. 
lions  in  religion.  The  belief  of  a  divine  origin 
existence  is  a  first  principle  in  man's 
nature,  ami  he  is  irresistibly  impelled  to  ascend 
from  many  to  One.  This  very  feeling  showed 
itself  even  in  the  polytheism  of  national  reli- 
gions, under  the  idea  of  a  highest  God,  or  a 
rather  of  the  gods.  Among  those  who  gave 
themselves  up  to  the  consideration  of  divine 
things,  and  to  reflection  upon  them,  this  idea 
of  an  origina]  unity  must  have  been  more  clear- 
lv  recognized,  and  must  have  formed  the  cen- 
tre poirU  of  all  their  inward  religious  life  and 
thought.  The  imagination  of  the  people  was 
to  be  engaged  with  the  numerous  powers  and 
energies  flowing  forth  from  that  one  highest, 

f,  while  to  the  contemplation  of  that  uni- 
ty, only  a  small  number  of  exalted  spirits,  the 
initiated  leaders  of  the  multitude,  could  elevate 
themselves.  The  one  God  was  the  God  of 
philosophers  alone.  The  ruling  opinion  of  all 
the  thinking  men  of  antiquity,  from  which  all 
religious  legislation  proceeded,  was,  that  pure 
religious  truth  could  not  he  proposed  to  the 
multitude,  hut  only  such  a  mixture  of  fiction, 
poetry,  and  truth,  as  would  serve  to  represent 
religious  notions  in  such  a  manner  that  they 
might  make  an  impression  on  men,  whose  only 
guide  was  their  senses.  The  principle  of  a  so 
called  firaut  j>iti  |  pious  fraud]  was  prevalent  in 
all  the  legislation  of  antiquity.  But  how 
miserable  would  be  the  case  of  mankind,  if 
the  higher  b,ond,  connecting  human  affairs 
with  heaven,  could  only  be  united  by  means 
of  lies ;  if  lies  were  necessary  in  order  to  re- 
strain the  greater  portion  of  mankind  from 
evil!  And  what  could  their  religion  in  such 
a  case  effect  ?  It  could  not  impart  holy  dispo- 
sitions to  the  inward  heart  of  man ;  it  could 
only  restrain  the  open  outbreaking  of  evil  that 
exi  ted  in  the  heart,  by  the  power  of  fear. 
falsehood,  which  cannot  he  arbitrarily  im- 
posed on  ho  mail  nature,  would  never  have 
been  aide  to  obtain  this  influence,  had  not  a 
truth,  wlinh  is  sure  to  make  itself  felt  by  hu- 
man nature,  been  working  through  it, — had 
not  the  beltef  111  an  unseen  Clod,  on  whom  man 
universally    feels    himself  dependent,    and    to 

whom  be  feels  himself  attracted, — had  not  the 
impulse  toward  an  invisible  world,  which  is 
implanted  in  the  human  heart, — been  able  to 
work  also  through  thi>  covering  of  supersti- 
tion. The  geographer  Strabo  thinks  that,  in 
the  same  manner  that  mythical  tales  and  fables 

arc  tic,  iH'ul  t',,r  children,  so  also  they  are  neces. 

Ibr  the  uneducated  and  uninformed,  who 
are  m  soma  sort   children,  and  also  for  those 

who  an-  half  educated;  for  even  with  them 
«  ia  no)  sufficiently  powerful,  and  thev 

are  not  nble  1o  free  themselves  from  the  habits 


they  have  acquired   as  children.     This   is,  in. 
deed,  a  sad  condition  of  humanity,  when   the 
seed  of  holiness,  which  can  develope  itself  only 
in  the  whole  course  of  a  life,  cannot  he  strewn 
in  the  heart  of  the  child,   and   when   mature 
reason  must  destroy  that  which  was  planted  in 
the  early  years  of  infancy  !    when  holy  truth 
cannot  form  the  foundation  of  the  future  de- 
velopement  of  life  from  the  earliest  dawn  of 
childish  consciousness!    The  thinking  Roman 
statesmen  also  of  the  time  at  which  Christian- 
ity appeared,  as  Varro,  for  instance,  distinguish 
between  the  theologia  philosophica  [philosophi- 
cal theology]  and   the  theologia  civilis,  [civil 
theology,]  which  contradicts  the  principles  of 
the  former,  as  Gotta  in  Gicero  distinguished 
between  the  belief  of  Gotta,  and  the  belief  of 
the  Pontifex.    The  philosopher  required  in  re- 
ligion a   persuasion   grounded   on    reasoning ; 
the  citizen,  the  statesman,  followed  the  tradi 
tion  of  his  ancestors  without  inquiry.      Sup. 
pose  now  this  theologia  civilis,  and  this  theolo- 
gia philosophica  to  proceed  together,  without 
a  man's  wishing  to  set  the  opposition  between 
the  two  in  a  very  clear  light  to  himself;  that 
the  citizen  and  the  statesman,  the  philosopher 
and  the  man,  could  be  united  in  the  same  indi- 
vidual with  contradictory  sentiments,  (a  divi- 
sion which  in  the  same  man  is  very  unnatural,) 
and  then  he  would  perhaps  sayr,  "  Philosophi- 
cal reason  conducts  to  a  different  result  from 
that  which  is  established  by  the  state  religion  ; 
but  the  latter  has  in  its  favour  the  good  for- 
tune which  the  state  has  enjoyed  in  the  exercise 
of  religion  handed  down  from  our  ancestors. 
Let  us  follow  experience  even  where  we  do 
not    thoroughly  understand."      Thus    speaks 
Gotta,  and  thus  also  many  Romans  of  educa- 
tion in  his  lime,  either  more  or  less  explicitly. 
Or  perhaps  we  may  suppose,  that  men  openly 
expressed  this  contradict  ion,  and  did  not  scruple 
to  assign  the  pure  truth  to  the  theologia  philo- 
sophica, and  to  declare  the  theologia  civilis  only 
a  matter  of  politics.     In  the  east,  which  is  less 
subject  to  commotions,  where  tranquil   habits 
of  life  were  more  common,  and  where  a  mysli 
cal  spirit  of  contemplation,  accompanying  and 
spiritualizing   the   symbolical    religion   of  the 
people,  was  more  prevalent  than  an  intellectual 
cultivation  opposed  to  it,  and  developing  itself 
independently,  it  was  possible  that  this  kind  of 
esoteric  and  exoteric  religion  should  proceed 
hand  in  hand  without,  change  for  many  cen- 
turies.    But   it  was  otherwise  with  the  more 
stirring  spirits  and  habits  of  the  west.     Here 
this  independently  proceeding  developement  of 
the  intellect  must  have  been  at  open  war  with 
the  religion  of  the  people  ;  and  as  intellectual 
culture,  spread  itself  more  widely,  so  also  must 
a  disbelief  of  the  popular  religion  have  been 
more  extensively  diffused  ;  and,  in  consequence 
of  the  intercourse  between  the   people  and  the 
educated  classes,  this  disbelief  must  also  have 
found  its  way  at  last  among  the  people  them- 
selves;  more  especially  since,  as  this  percep- 
tion of  the.  nothingness  of  the  popular  religion 
spread  itself  more  widely,  there  would  naturally 
be  many  who  would  not,  with  the  precaution 
of  the  men  of  old,  hide  their  new  illumination 


UNB 


935 


UNB 


from  the  multitude,  but  would  think  themselves 
bound  to  procure  for  it  new  adherents,  without 
any  regard  to"  the  injury  of  which  they  might 
be  laying  the  foundations,  without  inquiring 
of  themselves,  whether  they  had  any  thing  to 
offer  to  the  people  in  the  room  of  that  of  which 
they  robbed  them  ;  in  the  room  of  their  then 
source  of  tranquillity  under  the  storms  of  life  ; 
instead  of  that  which  taught  them  moderation 
under  affliction  ;  and,  lastly,  in  the  place  of 
their  then  counterpoise  against  the  power  of 
wild  desires   and   passions.     Men  saw,  in  the 
religious  systems  of  different  nations   which 
then  came  into  contact  with  each  other  in  the 
enormous  empire  of  Rome,  nothing  but  utter 
contradiction  and  opposition.    The  philosophi- 
cal systems  also  exhibited  nothing  but  opposi- 
tion of  sentiments,  and  left  those  who  could 
see  in  the  moral  consciousness  no  criterion  of 
truth  to  doubt  whether  there  were  any  such 
thing  or  not.     In  this  sense,  as  representing 
the  opinions  of  many  eminent  and  cultivated 
Romans,   with  a  sneer  at  all  desire  for  truth, 
Pilate  made  the  sarcastic  inquiry,   "  What  is 
truth  ?"     Many  contented  themselves  with    a 
shallow  lifeless  deism,  which  visually  takes  its 
rise  where  the  thirst  after  a  living  union  with 
heaven  is  wanting  ;  a  system  which,  although 
it  denies  not  the  existence  of  a  God,  yet  drives 
it  as  far  into  the  back  ground  as  possible  ;  a 
listless  God  !  who  suffers  every  thing  to  take 
its  own  course,  so  that  all  belief  in  any  inward 
connection    between    this    Divinity  and  man, 
any  communication  of  this  Divinity  to  man, 
would  seem  to  this  system  fancy  and  enthusi- 
asm !    The  world  and  human  nature  remain  at 
least  free  from  God.     This  belief  in  God,  if  we 
can  call  it  a  belief,  remains  dead  and  fruitless, 
exercising  no  influence  over  the  life  of  man. 
The  belief  in  God  here  produced  neither  the 
desire  after  that  ideal  perfection  of  holiness, 
the  contemplation  of  which  shows  at  the  same 
time  to  man  the  corruption  of  his  own  nature, 
so    opposite  to  that  holiness ;    nor  that    con- 
sciousness of  guilt  by  which  man,  contemplat- 
ing the  holiness  of  God  within  him,  feels  him- 
self estranged  from  God  ;  nor  does  this  belief 
impart  any  lively  power  of  sanctification.   Man 
is   not  struck  by  the  inquiry,   "  How  shall  I, 
unclean  as  I  am,  approach  the  holy  God,  and 
stand  before  him,  when  he  judges  me  accord- 
ing to  the  holy  law  which  he  has  himself  en- 
graven on  my  conscience  ?    What  shall  I  do 
to  become  free  from  the  guilt  which  oppresses 
me,  and  again  to  attain  to  communion  with 
him  ?"    To  make  inquiries  such  as  these,  this 
spirit  of  deism  considers  as  fanaticism  ;  and  it 
casts  away  from  itself  all  notions  of  God's  an- 
ger, judgments,  or  punishments,  as  representa- 
tions arising  only  from  the  limited  nature  of 
the  human  understanding.      More  lively  and 
penetrating  spirits,  who  felt  in  the  world  an 
infinite  Spirit,  which  animated  all  things,  fell 
into  an  error  of  quite  an  opposite  nature  to  this 
deism,  which  removed  God  too  far  from  the 
world  ;  namely  into  a  pantheism,  which  con- 
fused God  and  the  world,  which  was  just  as 
little  calculated  to  bestow  tranquillity  and  con- 
solation.    They  conceived  God  only  as  the  in- 


finite Being  elevated  above  frail  man,  and  not 
as  being  connected  with  him,  attracting  him 
to  himself,  and  lowering  himself  down  to  him. 
It  was  only  the  greatness,  not  the  holiness  nor 
the  love,  of  God  which  filled  their  souls.     Yet 
the  history  of  all  ages  proves  that  man  cannot 
for  any  length  of  time  disown  the  desire  for 
religion  implanted  in  his  nature.     Whenever 
man,  entirely  devoted  to  the  world,  has  for  a 
long  time  wholly  overwhelmed  the  perception 
of  the  Divinity  which  exists  in  his  nature,  and 
has  long  entirely  estranged  himself  from  divine 
things,  these  at  last  prevail  over  humanity  with 
greater  force.     Man   feels  that  something   is 
wanting  to  his  heart,  which  can  be  replaced  to 
him  by  nothing   else ;   he  feels  a  hollowness 
within  him   which  can   never  be  satisfied  by 
earthly  things,  and  can  find  satisfaction  and 
blessing  suited  to  his  condition  in  the  Divinity 
alone,  and  an  irresistible  desire  impels  him  to 
seek  again  his  lost  connection  with  Heaven. 
The  times  of  the  dominion  of  superstition  also, 
as   history  teaches   us,    are    always  times   of 
earthly  calamity;    for    the    moral    corruption 
which    accompanies   superstition    necessarily, 
also,  destroys  all  the   foundations  of  earthly 
prosperity.     Thus  the  times  in  which  supersti- 
tion extended  itself  among  the  Romans  were 
those  of  the  downfall  of  civil  freedom,  and  of 
public  suffering  under  cruel  despots.   But,  how- 
ever, the  consequences  of  these  evils  conducted 
man,  also  to  their  remedy  ;  for  by  distress  from 
without  man  is  brought  to  the  consciousness  of 
his  own  weakness,  and  his  dependence  on  a 
higher  than  earthly  power  ;  and  when  he  is  for- 
saken by  human  help,  he  is  compelled  to  seek  it 
here.     Man  becomes  induced  to  look  upon  his 
misfortunes  as  the  punishments  of  a  higher  Be- 
ing, and  to  seek  for  means  by  which  he  may  se- 
cure again  for  himself  the  favour  of  that  Being. 
The  need  of  a  connection  with  Heaven,  from 
which  man  felt  himself  estranged,  and  dissatis- 
faction with  the  cold  and  joyless  present,  ob- 
tained a  more  ready  belief  for  the  picture  which 
mythology  presented,  of  a  golden  age,  when 
gods  and  men  lived  together  in  intimate  union  ; 
and  warm  imaginations  looked  back  on  such  a 
state  with  longing  and  desire.     This  belief  and 
this  desire,  it  must  be  owned,  were  founded  on 
a  great  truth  which  man  could  rightly  appre- 
hend only  through  Christianity  ;  and  this  de- 
sire was  a  kind  of  intimation  which  pointed  to 
Christianity.     From    the    nature   of  the  case, 
however,  it  is  clear  that  a  fanatical  zeal,  where 
the  heat  of  passion  concealed  from  man  the 
hollowness  and  falsehood  of  his  faith,  might 
be  created  for  a  religion,  to  which  man  only 
betook  himself  as  a  refuge  in  his  misery,  and 
in  his  dread  of  the  abyss  of  unbelief ;  a  religion 
which  no  longer  served  for  the  developement 
of  man's  nature,  and  into  which,  nevertheless, 
he  felt  himself  driven  back  from  the  want  of 
any  other ;  and  that  men  must  use  every  kind 
of  power  and  art  to  uphold  that  which  was  in 
danger  of  falling  from  its  own  internal  weak- 
ness, and  to  defend  that  which  was  unable  to 
defend   itself  by  its   own  power.     Fanaticism 
was  therefore  obliged  to  avail   itself  of  every 
kind  of  power  in  the  struggle  with  Christianity, 


I'M 


936 


UNI 


,„  or.l.M  to  uphold  Heathenism,  which  was  fast 
■inking  by  its  own  weakness.     Although  the 

i,s  had  from  tl Ideal  times  heen  noted 

for  their  repugnance  to  all  foreign  sorts  of  re- 
ligions worship,  ye(  this  trait  of  the  old  Roman 
,  I,  tractor  had  with  many  altogether  disappear- 
ed.    Because  the  old  national  temples  of  the 

tni  had  lost  their  respect,  in  many  dispo- 
sitions man  was  inclined  to  bring  in  to  their 

nice  foreign  modes  of  worship.     Those 

i  obtained  the  readiest  admission  were 
■Och  as  consisted  of  mysterious,  symbolical 
custom*,  and  striking,  sounding  forms.  As  is 
always  the  case,  men  looked  for  some  special 
and  higher  power  in  what  is  dark  and  myste- 
rious. The  very  simplicity  of  Christianity  be- 
came therefore  a  ground  of  hatred  to  it. 

I  \K  i 'UN,  dht,  Num.  xxiii,  22;  xxiv,  8; 
Deut.  xxxiii,  17  ;  Job  xxxix,  9,  10  ;  Psalm  xxii, 
21;  xxix,  6;  xcii,  10;  Isa.  xxxiv,  7.  In  each 
of  these  places  it  is  rendered  in  the  Septuagint 
fioiitcpux,  except  in  Isaiah,  where  it  is  uSpoi,  the 
great  or  miishti/  ones.  Barrow,  in  his  "Travels 
in  Southern  Africa,"  has  given  a  drawing  of 
the  head  of  the  unicorn,  "  a  beast  with  a  single 
horn  projecting  from  the  forehead ;"  accom- 
panied with  such  details  as,  he  thinks,  offer 
strong  arguments  for  the  existence  of  such 
animals  in  the  country  of  the  Bosjesmans. 
He  observes  that  this  creature  is  represented 
as  a  "solid-ungulous  animal  resembling  a  horse, 
with  an  elegantly  shaped  body,  marked  from 
the  shoulders  to  the  flanks  with  longitudinal 
xtripes  or  bands."  Still  he  acknowledges  that 
the  animal  to  which  the  writer  of  the  book  of 
Job,  who  was  no  mean  natural  historian,  makes 
a  poetical  allusion,  has  been  supposed,  with 
great  plausibility,  to  be  the  one-horned  rhino- 
ceros ;  and  that  Moses  also  very  probably  meant 
the  rhinoceros,  when  he  mentions  the  unicorn 
as  having  the  strength  of  God. 

"  There  are  two  animals,"  says  Bruce, 
"  named  frequently  in  Scripture,  without 
naturalists  being  agreed  what  they  are.  The 
one  is  the  behemoth,  the  other  the  reem;  both 
mentioned  as  types  of  strength,  courage,  and 
independence  on  man  ;  and,  as  such,  exempted 
from  the  ordinary  lot  of  beasts,  to  he  subdued 
by  him,  or  reduced  under  his  dominion.  The 
behemoth,  then,  I  take  to  be  the  elephant ;  his 

iv  is  well  known,  and  my  only  business 
is  with  the  reem,  which  I  suppose  to  be  the 
rhinoceros.  The  derivation  of  this  word,  hpth 
in  the  Hebrew  and  F.thiopie,  seems  to  be  from 
srectness,  or  standing  straight.  This  is  cer- 
tainly no  particular  quality  in  the  animal  itself, 
which  is  not  more,  nor  even  so  much  erect  as 
many  other  quadrupeds,  for  its  knees  are  rather 
crooked;  but  it  is  from  the  circumstance  and 
manner  in  which  his  horn  is  placed.  The 
horns  ..fall  ether  animals  are  inclined  to  some 

•  -I  parallelism  \\  iththe  nose,  orusfrontis, 

[front  bone.]   The  horn  of  the  rhinoceros  alone 

i  perpendicular  to   this  bone,   on 

•'  'l  stands  at  right  angles;  thereby  pos- 

•"CMing  a  great. t  purchase  or  power,  as  a  lever, 

than  „„y  horn  could  possibly  have  in  any  other 

'•"•     Tins  situation  of  the  horn  is  very 

nappily  alluded  to  in  the  sacred  writings     •  My 


horn  shall  thou  exalt  like  the  horn  of  a  reem, 
Psalm  xcii,  10.  And  the  horn  here  alluded  to 
is  not  wholly  figurative,  but  was  really  an 
ornament  worn  by  great  men  in  the  days  of 
victory,  preferment,  or  rejoicing,  when  they 
were  anointed  with  new,  sweet,  or  fresh  oil ; 
a  circumstance  which  David  joins  with  that  of 
erecting  the  horn.  Balaam,  a  priest  of  Midian, 
and  so  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  haunts  of 
the  rhinoceros,  and  intiinatelyr  connected  with 
Ethiopia,  for  they  themselves  were  shepherds 
of  that  country,  in  a  transport,  from  contem- 
plating the  strength  of  Israel,  whom  he  was 
brought  to  curse,  says,  that  they  had  as  it  were 
the  strength  of  the  reem,  Num.  xxiii,  22.  Job, 
xxxix,  9,  10,  makes  frequent  allusion  to  his 
great  strength,  ferocity,  and  indocility.  Isaiah, 
xxxiv,  7,  who  of  all  the  prophets  seems  to  have 
known  Egypt  and  Ethiopia  the  best,  when 
prophesying  about  the  destruction  of  Idumea, 
says,  that  the  reem  shall  come  down  with  the 
fat  cattle  :  a  proof  that  he  knew  his  habitation 
was  in  the  neighbourhood.  In  the  same  man- 
ner as  when  foretelling  the  desolation  of  Egypt, 
he  mentions,  as  one  manner  of  effecting  it,  the 
bringing  down  the  fly  from  Ethiopia,  Isa.  vii, 
18,  19,  to  meet  the  cattle  in  the  desert  and 
among  the  bushes,  and  destroy  them  there, 
where  that  insect  did  not  ordinarily  come  but 
on  command,  Exodus  viii,  22,  and  where  the 
cattle  fled  every  year,  to  save  themselves  from 
that  insect. 

"  The  rhinoceros  in  Geez  is  called  arweharish, 
and  in  the  Amharic  auraris,  both  which  names 
signify  the  large  wild  beast  with  the  horn. 
This  would  seem  as  if  applied  to  the  species 
that  had  but  one  horn.  The  Ethiopic  text 
renders  the  word  reem,  arwe  harish,  and  this 
the  Septuagint  translates  fiovdncpus,  or  unicorn. 
If  the  Abyssinian  rhinoceros  had  invariably 
two  horns,  it  seems  to  me  improbable  the  Sep- 
tuagint would  call  him  fiovdictpuis,  especially  as 
they  must  have  seen  an  animal  of  this  kind 
exposed  at  Alexandria  in  their  time,  when  first 
mentioned  in  history,  at  an  exhibition  given 
to  Ptolemy  Philadelphia,  at  his  accession  to 
the  crown,  before  the  death  of  his  father.  The 
principal  reason  for  translating  the  word  reem 
unicorn,  and  not  rhinoceros,  is  from  a  preju- 
dice that  he  must  have  but  one  horn.  But 
this  is  by  no  means  so  well  founded,  as  to  be 
admitted  as  the  only  argument  for  establishing 
the  existence  of  an  animal,  which  never  has 
appeared  after  the  search  of  so  many  ages. 
Scripture  speaks  of  the  horns  of  the  unicorn, 
Deut.  xxxiii,  17  ;  Psalm  xxii,  21  ;  so  that  even 
from  this  circumstance  the  reem  may  be  the 
rhinoceros  as  the  rhinoceros  may  be  the  uni- 
corn." 

In  the  book  of  Job,  xxxix,  9,  10,  the  reem  is 
represented  as  an  unmanageable  animal,  which, 
although  possessed  of  sufficient  strength  to 
labour,  sternly  and  pertinaciously  refused  to 
bend  his  neck  to  the  yoke. 

Will  the  reem  submit  to  serve  thee 7 

Will  he,  indeed,  abide  at  thy  crib 7 

(   nisi  thou  make  his  harness  bind  the  reem  tothefurrowt 

Will  he,  forsooth,  plough  up  the  valley9  for  thee? 

Wilt  thou  rely  on  him  for  his  great  strength, 


UNI 


937 


UNI 


And  commit  thy  labour  unto  him  J 

Wilt  thou  trust  him  that  he  may  bring  home  thy  grain, 

And  gather  in  thy  harvest? 

The  rhinoceros,  in  size,  is  only  exceeded  by 
the  elephant ;  and  in  strength  and  power  is 
inferior  to  no  other  creature.  He  is  at  least 
twelve  feet  in  length,  from  the  extremity  of 
the  snout  to  the  insertion  of  the  tail ;  six  or 
seven  feet  in  height,  and  the  circumference  of 
the  body  is  nearly  equal  to  its  length.  He  is 
particularly  distinguished  from  the  elephant 
and  all  other  animals  by  the  remarkable  and 
offensive  weapon  he  carries  upon  his  nose. 
This  is  a  very  hard  horn,  solid  throughout, 
directed  forward,  and  has  been  seen  four  feet 
in  length.  Mr.  Browne,  in  his  Travels,  says, 
■that  the  Arabians  call  the  rhinoceros  abu-kurn, 
"father  of  the  one  horn."  The  rhinoceros  is 
very  hurtful,  by  the  prodigious  devastation 
which  he  makes  in  the  fields.  This  circum- 
stance peculiarly  illustrates  the  passage  from 
Job.  Instead  of  trusting  him  to  bring  home 
the  grain,  the  husbandman  will  endeavour  to 
prevent  his  entry  into  the  fields,  and  hinder 
his  destructive  ravages.  In  a  note  upon  this 
passage,  Mr.  Good  says,  "  The  original  reem, 
by  all  the  older  translators  rendered  rhinoceros, 
or  unicorn,  is  by  some  modern  writers  supposed 
to  be  the  bubalus,  bison,  or  wild  ox.  There 
can  be  no  doubt  that  rhinoceros  is  the  proper 
term ;  for  this  animal  is  universally  known  in 
Arabia,  by  the  name  of  reem,  to  the  present 
day."  The  rhinoceros,  though  next  in  size, 
yet  in  docility  and  ingenuity  greatly  inferior, 
to  the  elephant,  has  never  yet  been  tamed,  so 
as  to  assist  the  labours  of  mankind,  or  to  ap- 
pear in  the  ranks  of  war.  The  rhinoceros  is 
perfectly  indocile  and  untractable,  though  nei- 
ther ferocious  nor  carnivorous.  He  is  among 
large  animals  what  the  hog  is  among  smaller 
ones,  brutal  and  insensible  ;  fond  of  wallowing 
in  the  mire,  and  delighting  in  moist  and  marshy 
situations  near  the  banks  of  rivers.  He  is, 
however,  of  a  pacific  disposition ;  and,  as  he 
feeds  on  vegetables,  has  i'ow  occasions  for  con- 
flict. He  neither  disturbs  the  less,  nor  fears 
the  greater,  beasts  of  the  forest,  but  lives 
amicably  with  all.  He  subsists  principally  on 
large  succulent  plants,  prickly  shrubs,  and  the 
branches  of  trees ;  and  lives  to  the  age  of 
seventy  or  eighty  years. 

UNITARIANS,  a  comprehensive  term,  in- 
cluding all  who  believe  the  Deity  to  subsist  in 
one  person  only.  The  chief  article  in  the  reli- 
gious system  of  the  Unitarians  is,  that  Christ 
was  a  mere  man.  But  they  consider  him  as 
the  great  instrument  in  the  hands  of  God  of 
reversing  all  the  effects  of  the  fall ;  as  the  ob- 
ject of  all  the  prophecies  from  Moses  to  his 
own  time ;  as  the  great  bond  of  union  to  vir- 
tuous and  good  men,  who,  as  Christians,  make 
one  body  in  a  peculiar  sense.  The  Socinian 
creed  was  reduced  to  what  Dr.  Priestley  calls 
Humanitarianism,  by  denying  the  miraculous 
conception,  the  infallibility,  and  the  impecca- 
bility of  the  Saviour ;  and,  consequently,  his 
right  to  any  divine  honours  or  religious  wor- 
ship. As  to  those  texts  which  declare  that 
Jesus  Christ  "  knew  no  sin,"  &c,  his  followers 


explain  them  in  the  sense  in  which  it  is  said 
of  believers,  "Whosoever  is  born  of  God  doth 
not  commit  sin,"  1  John  iii,  9.  Or,  if  this  be 
not  satisfactory,  Dr.  Priestley  refers  us  to  the 
"Theological  Repository,"  "in  which,"  he 
says,  "  I  think  I  have  shown  that  the  Apostle 
Paul  often  reasons  inconclusively ;  and,  there- 
fore, that  he  wrote  as  any  other  person  of  his 
turn  of  mind  or  thinking,  and  in  his  situation, 
would  have  written,  without  any  particular 
inspiration.  Facts,  such  as  I  think  I  have 
there  alleged,  are  stubborn  things,  and  all 
hypotheses  must  be  accommodated  to  them." 
Nor  is  this  sentiment  peculiar  to  Dr.  Priestley. 
Mr.  Belsham  says,  "The  Unitarian  doctrine 
is,  that  Jesus  of  Nazareth  was  a  man  consti- 
tuted in  all  respects  like  other  men,  subject  to 
the  same  infirmities,  the  same  ignorance,  pre- 
judices, and  frailties ;  descended  from  the 
family  of  David,  the  son  of  Joseph  and  Mary, 
though  some  indeed  still  adhere  to  the  popular 
opinion  of  the  miraculous  conception  ;  that  he 
was  born  in  low  circumstances,  having  no 
peculiar  advantages  of  education  or  learning, 
but  that  he  was  a  man  of  exemplary  character; 
and  that,  in  conformity  to  ancient  prophecy, 
he  was  chosen  and  appointed  by  God  to  intro- 
duce a  new  moral  dispensation  into  the  world, 
the  design  of  which  was  to  abolish  the  Jewish 
economy,  and  to  place  believing  Gentiles  upon 
an  equal  ground  of  privilege  and  favour  with 
the  posterity  of  Abraha'm;  in  other  words,  he 
was  authorized  to  reveal  to  all  mankind,  with- 
out distinction,  the  great  doctrine  of  a  future 
life,  in  which  men  shall  be  rewarded  according 
to  their  works."  Mr.  Belsham  goes  on  to 
state  the  Unitarian  opinion  to  be,  that  Jesus 
was  not  conscious  of  his  high  character  till 
after  his  baptism  ;  that  he  afterward  spent 
some  time  in  the  wilderness,  where  he  was 
invested  with  miraculous  powers,  and  favoured 
with  heavenly  visions,  like  St.  Paul,  2  Cor.xii, 
in  which  he  supposed  himself  taken  up  into 
heaven,  and  in  consequence  of  which  he  speaks 
of  his  descent  from  heaven  ;  that  he  exercised 
his  ministry  on  earth  for  the  space  of  a  year 
or  more,  and  then  suffered  death  upon  the 
cross,  not  to  exhibit  the  evil  of  sin,  or  in  any 
sense  to  make  atonement  for  it,  but  as  a  martyr 
to  the  truth,  and  as  a  necessary  preliminary 
to  his  resurrection,  which  they  consider  as  a 
pledge  of  the  resurrection  of  mankind.  Many 
also  believe  that  Jesus  maintained  some  per- 
sonal and  sensible  connection  with  the  church 
during  the  apostolic  age,  and  the  continuance 
of  miraculous  powers  in  the  church.  They 
farther  believe  that  he  is  appointed  to  revisit 
the  earth,  and  to  judge  the  world, — a  difficult 
task  one  would  suppose,  if  "  he  be  constituted," 
as  said  above,  "in  all  respects  like  other  men, 
subject  to  the  same  ignorance,  prejudices, 
frailties,"  &c  !  So  this  blasphemous  system 
contains,  in  this  respect,  and  in  almost  every 
other,  its  own  refutation.     See  Socinians. 

The  creed  which  the  celebrated  council  of 
Nice  established,  says  Grier,  in  his  "Epitome 
of  General  Councils,"  is  that  which  Christians 
now  profess  ;  the  errors  and  impieties  which  it 
condemned  are  those  which,  according  to  the 


I  \l 


938 


UNI 


Socinus,  hi'  followeri  of  the 
.  iii  .1.1  v  have  moulded  into  theii  antichris- 
ii.ui  mttni.  Anus,  ■  presbyter  in  the  clmrcli 
of  Uezandria,  ••  man  of  consummate  talenl 
aad  address,  bul  of  a  cold  and  speculative 
mind,  impiously  maintained  tli.it  there  had 
bam  .1  time  when  the  Bon  of  God  was  not; 
thai  he  w  is  capable  of  virtue  and  vice;  and 
iii  1 1  in-  was  a  creature, and  mutable  as  creatures 
an !  It  i-  true  thai  Anus  held  a  qualified 
preezistence,  when  he  said  that  God  created 
the  Son  from  nothing  before  he  created  the 
world;  in  other  words,  that  the  Sun  was  the 
first  of  created  beings ;  but  such  preezistence 
doss  not  imply  coexistence  or  coetemity  with 
tin-  Father.      Vfter  this  manner  did  he  deny 

the  divinity  of  the  S and   his  coetemity 

with  the  rather.  Seduced  l>y  the  pride  of 
reasoning,  no  less  than  by  Ins  fondness  for 
novelty,  did  he  likewise  meet  the  ipooteiav,  as 
it  is  called,  or  the  tenet  of  the  Son  being  of 
tin-  same  substance  with  the  Father.  The 
blasphemies  of  Alius  consisted  in  the  denial 
<>f  Christ's  being  either  co-eternal  or  consub- 
Btantial  with  God.  After  a  lapse  of  twelve 
centuries,  Socinus  lowered  him  another  step 
by  declaring  lus  inferiority  to  the  Father;  for 
that  he,  as  well  as  all  other  things,  was  sub- 
ject to  the  supreme  Creator  of  the  universe; 
mil  although  he  held  his  mere  humanity,  yet, 
inconsistently  enough,  he  would  offer  him 
divine  Worship!  Inconsistently  it  may  he 
said,  because  the  Socinian,  on  his  own  princi- 
ples, thereby  incurs  the  guilt  of  idolatry  as- 
much  as  the  Roman  Catholic  who  worships 
the  Virgin  Mary,  a  mere  created  being.  The 
Unitarian,  or  Humanitarian,  sinks  the  cha- 
racter ofthe  Saviour  still  lower,  by  withholding 
all  worship  from  him:  and  while  he  considers 
him  as  a  mere  man,  and  therefore  as  not  pos. 
ig  the  attributes  of  the  Deity,  with  an 
inconsistency  as  singular  as  that  of  Socinus, 
he  acknowledges  his  divinity  so  as  to  call  him 
God  ;  as  if  the  terms  Deity  and  Divinity  Lore 
different  significations,  or  as  if  the  principle 
which  constituted  the  essence  ofthe  Godhead 
able  from  the  Godhead  itself!  It 
should  be  observed,  that  the  lowest,  denomina- 
lion  of  unbelievers  in   the  descending  scale, 

namely,  Lhe  modern  Unitarii sombineswith 

lus  own  peculiar  errors  and  impieties  all  the 
errors  and  impieties  of  both  Anus  ami  Socinus 
together  with  an  absolute  denial  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  being  ■  divine  Person.  Having  touched 
on  the  shadee-of  difference  which  exist  between 

""'    p»UoW6Ti    Of    krius    and    Socinus,   a    more 

nunute  detail  of  the  division  and  subdivision 
"i  the  classes  into  which  they  may  be  rano-ed 

""v""1  '"■  "";" ptabletothe  reader:  Arians 

•md  Semi,  triana  constituted  the  original  dis 

Unction;  thai  of  a  subsequent  day  was  hip-fa 

The   high    Brians  entertain 

news  ofthe  mediatorial  influence 

"'  *-hrtat,and  believe  in  the  entire  Scriptures- 

'"     "".  i"t"  lhe  opposite  extreme' 

;•;    ne'ther    high    nor   low    Arians   consider" 

'    to  be   truly  God.     The  old    Socinians 

"'l""'1"1  miraculous  conception,  and  the 

•ovsbap  ofthe  s,,n  ,  the  modem  Socinians  do 


not ;  a  circumstance  that  identifies  the  modern 
.Socinian  with  the  Unitarian.  Some  hi<rh 
Arians,  such  as  Dr.  Samuel  Clarke,  &c, 
thought  that  Christ  might  he  worshipped ; 
others  of  them  affect  to  have  no  distinct  notion 
of  w  bat  the  Holy  Ghost  meant,  and  to  believe 
that  worship  is  not  to  he  addressed  to  Christ, 
but  through  Christ !  These,  variations  in  the 
Unitarian  creed  have  been  deduced  from  the 
evidence  of  Unitarians  themselves,  given  before 
the  Commissioners  of  Education  Inquiry  in 
Ireland  in  18'26,  as  detailed  in  their  Report  to 
Parliament  ;  a  <  ircumstance  that  renders  them 
the  more  valuable,  as  it  imparts  to  them  a  living, 
speaking  authority.  It  must,  however,  be  ob- 
served, that  motley  as  they  are,  they  all  ter- 
minate in  one  point,  the  rejection  of  Christ's 
divinity  ;  and  that,  diversified  as  the  distinctions 
appear  to  be,  they  all  will  be  ultimately  found 
to  be  without  a  shadow  of  difference.  In 
short,  Arians,  Socinians,  Unitarians,  &c,  not 
only  agree  with  each  other  in  their  anti- 
christian  scheme;  but  can  scarcely  be  said  to 
differ  from  the  infidel  Musselmans,  who  are 
taught  by  their  Koran  to  regard  Christ  as  a 
great  prophet,  and  the  forerunner  of  their 
own.  With  Deism  doubtless  Unitarianism  has 
an  intimate  alliance.  For  Deists  reject  all  the 
doctrines  of  the  Christian  revelation,  while 
Unitarians  reject   all    its   peculiar    doctrines  : 

1.  The  Trinity  of  Persons  in    the  Godhead. 

2.  The  divinity  of  Christ.  3.  The  personality 
of  the  Holy  Spirit.  4.  The  miraculous  birth 
of  Christ.  5.  The  atonement  of  Christ.  6. 
The  sanctification  of  the  Spirit.  7.  The  ex- 
istence of  angels  and  spirits ;  8.  And,  therefore, 
ofthe  devil  and  his  angels.  "  In  what,  then," 
says  the  learned  Dr.  Burgess,  bishop  of  Salis- 
bury, after  this  enumeration  of  the  peculiar 
doctrines  of  Christianity,  "does  Unitarianism 
differ  from  Deism  ?  Deists  deny  the  essential 
doctrines  of  Christianity  by  rejecting  the  whole 
of  the  Christian  revelation  ;  Unitarians  reject 
the  Christian  revelation  by  denying  all  its  pe- 
culiar and  essential  doctrines." 

UNIVERSALISTS.  Those  who  believe 
that  Christ  so  died  for  all,  that,  before  he  shall 
have  delivered  up  his  mediatorial  kingdom,  all 
fallen  creatures  shall  be  brought  to  a  partici- 
pation of  the  benefits  of  his  death,  in  their 
restoration  to  holiness  and  happiness.  They 
are  called  also  Universal  Restorationists,  and 
their  doctrine,  the  doctrine  of  universal  restora- 
tion. Some  of  its  friends  have  maintained  it, 
also,  under  the  name  of  universal  salvation  ; 
but  perhaps  the  former  name  is  that  by  which 
it  should  be  distinguished;  forthe  Universalists 
do  not  hold  any  universal  exemption  from 
future  punishment,  but  merely  the  recovery  of 
all  those  that  shall  have  been  exposed  to  it.* 
They  have  likewise  a  jus*,  claim  to  this  title  on 
other  grounds ;  for  their  doctrine,  which  in- 
cludes the  restoration,  or  "  restitution  of  all 
the    intelligent  offspring  of  God,"    or    of  all 

*  This  uki\  I..-  true  in  respect  to  the  Universalists  in 
Europe;  but  in  America  there  are  those  who  deny  any 

inline  punial hi  whatever,     In  this  country  also  they 

have  formed  themselves  into  separate  and  distinct. 
nciettes     Ah   Ed  .  . 


UNI 


939 


UPP 


"  lapsed  intelligences,"  seems  to  embrace  even 
the  fallen  angels.  They  admit  the  reality  and 
equity  of  future  punishment, ;  but  they  contend 
that  it  will  be  corrective  in  its  nature,  and 
limited  in  its  duration.  They  teach  the  doc- 
trine of  election,  but  not  in  the  exclusive 
Calvinistic  sense  of  it.  They  suppose  that 
God  has  chosen  some  for  the  good  of  all  ;  and 
that  his  final  purpose  toward  all  is  intimated 
by  his  calling  his  elect  the  first-born  and  the 
lirst-fruits  of  his  creatures,  which,  say  they, 
implies  other  branches  of  his  family,  and  a 
future  ingathering  of  the  harvest  of  mankind. 
They  teach,  also,  that  the  righteous  shall  have 
part  in  the  first  resurrection,  shall  bo  blessed 
and  happy,  and  be  made  priests  and  kings  to 
God  and  to  Christ  in  the  millennial  kingdom, 
and  that  over  them  the  second  death  shall  have 
no  power ;  that  the  wicked  will  receive  a 
punishment  apportioned  to  their  crimes  ;  that 
punishment  itself  is  a  mediatorial  work,  and 
founded  upon  mercy,  and,  consequently,  that 
it  is  a  means  of  humbling,  subduing,  and  finally 
reconciling  the  sinner  to  God.  They  add,  that 
the  words  rendered  "  eternal,"  "  everlasting," 
"for  ever,"  and  "for  ever  and  ever,"  in  the 
Scriptures,  are  frequently  used  to  express  the 
duration  of  things  that  have  ended  or  must 
end ;  and  if  it  is  contended  that  these  words 
are  sometimes  used  to  express  proper  eternity, 
they  answer,  that  then  the  subject  with  which 
the  words  are  connected  must  determine  the 
sense  of  them  ;  and  as  there  is  nothing  in  the 
nature  of  future  punishment  which  can  be 
offered  as  a  reason  why  it  should  be  endless, 
they  infer  that  the  above  words  ought  always 
to  be  taken  in  a  limited  sense  when  connected 
with  the  infliction  of  misery. 

Those  who  deny  the  eternity  of  future  pun- 
ishments have  not  formed  themselves  into  any 
separate  body  or  distinct  society ;  but  are  to 
be  found  in  most  Christian  countries,  and 
among  several  denominations.  Their  doc- 
trines form  part  of  the  creed  of  some  Arians, 
as  of  Mr.  Whiston  ;  of  many  Deists,  as  of  Mr. 
Hobbes,  Mr.  Tindal,  &c  ;  and  of  most  So- 
cinians.  Nor  need  we  be  surprised  that  liber- 
tines and  atheists  hold  it,  and  that  they  strive 
to  bring  others  over  to  their  opinion.  "  The 
tyranny  of  priests,"  said  Dupont  the  atheist, 
in  the  national  convention,  December,  1792, 
"  extends  their  opinion  to  another  life,  of 
which  they  have  no  other  idea  than  that  of 
eternal  punishment ;  a  doctrine  which  some 
men  have  hitherto  had  the  good  nature  to 
believe.  But  these  prejudices  must  now  fall : 
we  must  destroy  them,  or  they  will  destroy  us." 
The  Mennonites  in  Holland  have  long  held  the 
doctrine  of  the  Universalists  ;  the  people  called 
Dunkers,  or  Tunkers,  in  America,  descended 
from  the  Cerman  Baptists,  hold  it ;  and  also 
the  Shakers.  Excellent  refutations  of  this 
specious  system  have  been  published  by  the 
Rev.  S.  Jerram,  and  the  Rev.  Daniel  Isaac. 

The  Arminians  are  sometimes  called  "  Uni- 
versalists," on  account  of  their  holding  the 
tenet  of  general  redemption  ;  in  opposition  to 
the  Calvinists,  who,  from  their  specifically 
restricting  the  saving  grace  of  God  to  certain 


fore  ordained  individuals,  receive  the  deno- 
mination of  "  Particularists."  By  the  epithet 
"  Hypothetical  Universalists,"  are  designated 
on  the  continent  those  who  have  adopted  the 
theological  system  of  Amyraut  and  Cameron, 
but  who  are  better  known  in  this  country  as 
"  Baxterians."  See  Amyraut,  Baxterianism, 
and  Cameron. 

UPPER  ROOM.     The  principal  rooms  an- 
ciently in  Judea  were  those  above,  as  they  are 
to  this  day  at  Aleppo ;  the  ground  floor  being 
chiefly  made  use  of  for  their  horses  and  ser- 
vants.    "The  house  in  which  I  am  at  present 
living,"  says,  Jowett,  "  gives  what  seems  to  be 
a  correct  idea  of  the  scene  of  Entychus'  falling 
from  the  upper  loft  while  St.  Paul  was  preach- 
ing, Acts  xx,  6-12.     According  to  our  idea  of 
houses,  the  scene  is  very  far  from  intelligible ; 
and,  beside  this,  the   circumstance  of  preach- 
ing generally  leaves  on  the  mind  of  cursory 
readers  the  notion  of  a  church.     To  describe 
this   house,  which   is  not  many  miles  distant 
from  the  Troad,  and   perhaps,   from  the  un- 
changing character  of  oriental  customs,  nearly 
resembles   the    houses   then    built,    will    fully 
illustrate    the    narrative.      On    entering    my 
host's  door,  we  find  the  first  floor  entirely  used 
as  a  store  :  it  is  filled  with  large  barrels  of  oil, 
the  produce  of  the  rich  country  for  many  miles 
round  :  this  space,  so  far  from  being  habitable, 
is  sometimes  so  dirty  with  the  dripping  of  the 
oil,  that  it  is  difficult  to  pick  out  a  clean  footing 
from  the  door  to  the  first  step  of  the  staircase. 
On  ascending,  we  find  the  first  floor,  consisting 
of  an  humble  suit  of  rooms,  not  very  high ; 
these  are  occupied  by  the  family  for  their  daily 
use.     It  is  on  the    next    story  that   all  their 
expense   is  lavished  :  here  my  courteous  host 
has  appointed  my  lodging:  beautiful  curtains 
and  mats,  and  cushions  to  the   divan,  display 
the  respect  with  which  they  mean  to  receive 
their  guest.     Here,  likewise,  their  splendour, 
being  at  the  top  of  the  house,  is  enjoyed  by  the 
poor  Greeks  with  more   retirement,  and  less 
chance  of  molestation  from  the  intrusion  of 
Turks  :  here,  when  the  professors  of  the  college 
waited    upon  me  to  pay  their  respects,  they 
were    received  in    ceremony,   and   sat   at  the 
window.     The  room  is  both  higher  and  also 
larger  than  those  below  ;  it  has  two  projecting 
windows ;    and  the  whole   floor   is   so   much 
extended  in  front  beyond  the  lower  part  of  the 
building,  that  the  projecting  windows  consid- 
erably overhang  the  street.     In  such  an  upper 
room,  secluded,  spacious,  and  commodious,  St. 
Paul  was   invited  to   preach    his    parting  dis- 
course.     The  divan,  or  raised  seat,  with  mats 
or   cushions,    encircles   the    interior   of  each 
projecting  window  ;  and  I  have  remarked  that 
when  the   company  is  numerous,  they  some- 
times place  large  cushions  behind  the  company 
seated  on  the  divan  ;  so  that  a  second  tier  of 
company,  with  their  feet  upon  the  seat  of  the 
divan,  are  sitting  behind,  higher  than  the  front 
row.     Eutychus,  thus  sitting,  would  be  on  a 
level  with  the  open  window ;  and,  being  over- 
come with  sleep,  he  would  easily  fall  out  from 
the  third  loft  of  the  house  into  the  street,  and 
be  almost  certain,  from  such  a  height,  to  lose 


i  i;i 


940 


URI 


h,j  hi".-.     Thither   St.   Paul   went  down,  and 

ooaaforted  the  alar d  companj   by  bringing 

op  Eotycboi  alive,      ti  ia  noted   thai  'there 
« or.' mam  lighti  in  the  upper  chamber.'    The 

plentj  of  oil  in  tins  neighbourhood 

would  enable  them  to  afford  many  lamps;  the 

of  the**  and   h   much  company  would 

the  drowsiness  of  Eutychus,  at  that  late 

Imiir,  and   be    t  he   occasion,    likewise,  of  the 
windows  being  open." 

I  KIM  and  THUMMIM.  The  high 
priests  of  the  Jews,  we  are  told,  consulted  God 
in  the  mod  important  affairs  of  their  common- 
wealth, and  received  answers  by  the  Urim  and 
Thummiin.  What  these  were,  is  disputed 
among  the  critics.  Josephus,  and  some  others, 
imagine  the  answer  was  returned  by  the  stones 
of  the  breastplate  appearing  with  an  unusual 
lustre  when  it  was  favourable,  or  in  the  con- 
trary ease  dim.  Others  suppose,  that  the  Uriin 
and  Thummim  were  something  enclosed  be- 
tv.  ii'ii  the  folding  of  the  breastplate ;  this  some 
will  have  to  be  the  tetragrammaton,  or  the 
word  ."iin\  Jehovah.  Christophorus  de  Castro, 
and  after  him  Dr.  Spencer,  maintain  them  to 
be  two  little  images  shut  up  in  the  doubling  of 
the  breastplate,  which  gave  the  oracular  answer 
from  thence  by  an  articulate  voice.  Accord- 
ingly, they  derive  them  from  the  Egyptians, 
who  consulted  their  lares,  and  had  an  oracle, 
or  teraphim,  which  they  called  Truth.  This 
opinion,  however,  has  been  sufficiently  confuted 
by  the  learned  Dr.  1'ocockc  and  by  Witsius. 
The  more  common  opinion  among  Christians 
concerning  the  oracle  by  Urim  and  Thummim, 
and  which  Dr.  Prideaux  espouses,  is,  that  when 
the  high  priest  appeared  before  the  veil,  clothed 
with  his  ephod  and  breastplate,  to  ask  counsel 
of  God,  the  answer  was  given  with  an  audible 
voice  from  the  mercy  seat,  within  the  veil ;  but, 
it  has  been  observed,  that  this  account  will  by 
no  means  agree  with  the  history  of  David's 
consulting  the  oracle  by  Abiathar,  1  Sam.  xxiii, 
9,  11;  xxx,  7,  8;  because  the  ark,  on  which 
was  the  mercy  »  at,  was  then  at  Kirjathjearim  ; 
whereas  David  was  in  the  one  case  at  Ziklag, 
and  in  the  other  in  the  forest  of  Hareth. 
Braunius  and  Hottingcr  have  adopted  another 
opinion  :  they  suppose,  that,  when  Moses  is 
commanded  to  put  in  the  breastplate  the  Urim 
and  Thummim,  signifying  lights  and  perfec- 
tions in  the  plural  number,  it  was  meant  that 
ho  should  make  choice  of  the  most  perfect  set 
of  stones,  and  have  them  so  polished  as  to  give 
the  brightest  lustre;  and,  on  this  hypothesis, 
the  usr  of  the  Urim  and  Thummim,  or  of  these 
exquisitely    polished  jewels,  was   only   to   be  a 

symbol  ox  t      divine  presence,  and  of  the  light 
and  perfection  of  the    prophetic    inspiration; 
and,  as  such,  constantly  to  be  worn  by  the  high 
priest  m  the  exercise  of  his  sacred  function, 
Ij  m  consulting  the  oracle. 
Michailia  observes:  That  in  making  distri- 
butions of  property,  and  in   eases  of  disputes 
••■  to  in,  um  [mine]  and  tu u m,  [thine,]  re. 
bad  U)  the  lot,  in  default  of  any 
other  melius  of  decision,  will  naturally  be  sup- 
posed.   The  whole  land  was  partitioned  by  lot; 
and  that,  m  after  times,  the  lot  continued  to 


be  used,  even  in  courts  of  justice,  we  see  from 
Prov.  xvi,  33  ;  xviii,  18 ;  where  we  are  expressly 
taught  to  remember,  that  it  is  Providence  which 
maketh  the  choice,  and  that  therefore  we  ought 
to  be  satisfied  with  the  decision  of  the  lot,  as 
the  will  of  God.  It  was  for  judicial  purposes, 
in  a  particular  manner,  that  the  sacred  lot 
called  Urim  and  Thummim  was  employed  ;  and 
on  this  account  the  costly  embroidered  pouch, 
in  which  the  priest  carried  this  sacred  lot  on 
his  breast,  was  called  the  judicial  ornament. 
"  But  was  this  sacred  lot  used  likewise  in  cri- 
minal trials  ?"  Yes,  says  Michaelis,  only  to 
discover  the  guilty,  to  convict  them  ;  for  in 
the  only  two  instances  of  its  use  in  such  cases 
which  occur  in  the  whole  Bible,  namely,  in 
Joshua  vii,  14-18,  1  Sam.  xiv,  37-45,  we  find 
the  confessions  of  the  two  delinquents,  Achan 
and  Jonathan,  annexed.  It  appears  also  to 
have  been  used  only  in  the  case  of  an  oath 
being  transgressed  which  the  whole  people  had 
taken,  or  the  leader  of  the  host  in  their  name, 
but  not  in  the  case  of  other  crimes ;  for  an 
unknown  murder,  for  example,  was  not  to  be 
discovered  by  recourse  to  the  sacred  lot. 

The  inner  sanctuary,  within  the  veil  of  the 
tabernacle,  observes  Dr.  Hales,  or  most  holy 
place,  was  called  the  oracle,  1  Kings  vi,  16, 
because  there  the  Lord  communed  with  Moses, 
face  to  face,  and  gave  him  instructions  in  cases 
of  legal  difficulty  or  sudden  emergency,  Exod. 
xxv,  22 ;  Num.  vii,  89  ;  ix,  8 ;  Exod.  xxxiii,  11; 
a  high  privilege  granted  to  none  of  his  succes- 
sors.     After  the  death  of  Moses   a  different 
mode  was  appointed  for  consulting  the  oracle 
by  the  high  priest,  who  put  on  "  the  breast- 
plate of  judgment,"  a  principal   part    of  the 
pontifical  dress,  on  which  were  inscribed  the 
words  Urim  and  Thummim,  emblematical  of 
divine  illumination  ;  as  the  inscription  on  his 
mitre,  "  Holiness  to  the  Lord,"  was  of  sancti- 
fication,  Exod.  xxviii,  30-37 ;  Lev.  viii,  8.  Thus 
prepared,  he  presented  himself  before  the  Lord 
to  ask  counsel  on  public  matters,  not  in  the 
inner  sanctuary,  which  he    presumed    not  to 
enter,  except    on   the   great  day   of  national 
atonement,  but  without  the  veil,  with  his  face 
toward  the  ark  of  the  covenant,  inside  ;  and 
behind  him,  at  some  distance,  without  the  sanc- 
tuary, stood  Joshua,  the  judge,  or  person  who 
wanted  the  response,  which  seems  to  have  been 
given  with  an  audible  voice  from  within  the 
veil,  Num.  xxvii,  21,  as  in  the  case  of  Joshua, 
vi,  6-15;  of  the  Israelites  during  the  civil  war 
with  Benjamin,  Judges  xx,  27,  28 ;  on  the  ap- 
pointment of  Saul  to  be  king,  when  he  hid 
himself,  1  Sam.  x,  22-24;    of  David,  1  Sam. 
xxii,  10  ;  xxiii,  2-12 ;  xxx,  8 ;  2  Sam.  v,  23,  24 ; 
of  Saul,  1  Sam.  xxviii,  6.     This  mode  of  con- 
sultation subsisted  under  the  tabernacle  erected 
by   Moses   in    the    wilderness,  and   until    the 
building  of  Solomon's  temple  ;  after  which  we 
find  no  instances  of  it.     The  oracles  of  th6 
Lord  were  thenceforth  delivered  by  the  pro- 
phets ;  as  by  Ahijah  to  Jeroboam,  1  Kings  xi, 
29 ;  by  Shemaiah  to  Rehoboam,  1  Kings  xii,  22  ; 
by  Elijah  to  Ahab,  1  Kings  xvii,  1 ;  xxi,  17-29; 
by  Michaiah  to  Ahab  and  Jehoshaphat,  1  Kings 
xxii,  7  ;  by  Elisha  to  Jehoshaphat  and  Jehoram, 


uz 


941 


VEI 


2  Kings  iii,  11-14;  by  Isaiah  to  Hezekiah,  2 
Kings  xix,  6-34 ;  xx,  1-11 ;  by  Huldah  to 
Josiah,  2  Kings  xxii,  13-20 ;  by  Jeremiah  to 
Zedekiah,  Jer.  xxxii,  3-5,  &c.  After  the  Ba- 
bylonish captivity,  and  the  last  of  the  prophets, 
Haggai,  Zechariah,  and  Malachi,  the  oracle 
ceased  ;  but  its  revival  was  foretold  by  Ezra, 
ii,  63,  and  accomplished  by  Christ,  who  was 
himself  the  oracle,  under  the  old  and  new  cove- 
nants, Gen.  xv,  1 ;  John  i,  1.  See  Breastplate. 

USURY,  profit  or  gain  from  lending  money 
or  goods.  Moses  enacted  a  law  to  the  effect 
that  interest  should  not  be  taken  from  a  poor 
person,  neither  for  borrowed  money,  nor  for 
articles  of  consumption,  for  instance,  grain, 
which  was  borrowed  with  the  expectation  of 
being  returned,  Exod.xxii,  25;  Lev.xxv,  35-37. 
A  difficulty  arose  in  determining  who  was  to 
be  considered  a  poor  person  in  a  case  of  this 
kind  ;  and  the  law  was  accordingly  altered  in 
Deut.  xxiii,  20,  21,  and  extended  in  its  opera- 
tion to  all  the  Hebrews,  whether  they  had  more 
or  less  property ;  so  that  interest  could  be 
lawfully  taken  only  of  foreigners.  As  the 
system  of  the  Jews  went  to  secure  every  man's 
paternal  inheritance  to  his  own  family,  they 
could  not  exact  it  from  their  brethren,  but  only 
from  strangers.  As  the  law  of  nature  does  not 
forbid  the  receipt  of  moderate  interest  in  the 
shape  of  rent,  for  the  use  of  lands  or  houses, 
neither  does  it  prohibit  it  for  the  loan  of  money 
or  goods.  When  one  man  trades  with  the 
capital  of  another,  and  obtains  a  profit  from  it, 
he  is  bound  in  justice  to  return  a  part  of  it  to 
his  benefactor,  who,  in  the  hands  of  God,  has 
been  a  second  cause  of  "  giving  him  power  to 
get  wealth."  But  should  Divine  Providence 
not  favour  the  endeavours  of  some  who  have 
borrowed  money,  the  duty  of  the  lenders  is  to 
deal  gently  with  them,  and  to  be  content  with 
sharing  in  their  losses,  as  they  have  been 
sharers  in  their  gains.  The  Hebrews  were 
therefore  exhorted  to  lend  money,  &c,  as  a 
deed  of  mercy  and  brotherly  kindness,  Deut. 
xv,  7-11 ;  xxiv,  13.  And  hence  it  happens  that 
we  find  encomiums  every  where  bestowed  upon 
those  who  were  willing  to  lend  without  insist- 
ing upon  interest  for  the  use  of  the  thing  lent, 
Psalm  xv,  15;  xxxvii,  21,  26;  cxii,  5;  Prov. 
xix,  17 ;  Ezek.  xviii,  8.  This  regulation  in  re- 
gard to  taking  interest  was  very  well  suited  to 
the  condition  of  a  state  that  had  been  recently 
founded,  and  which  had  but  very  little  mer- 
cantile dealings  ;  and  its  principle,  though  not 
capable  of  being  generally  introduced  into  com- 
munities that  are  much  engaged  in  commerce, 
may  still  be  exercised  toward  those  who  stand 
toward  us  in  the  relation  of  brethren. 

UZ,  Land  of,  the  country  of  Job.  As  there 
were  three  persons  of  this  name,  namely,  the 
son  of  Aram,  the  son  of  Nahor,  and  the  grand- 
son of  Seir  the  Horite,  commentators  are  di- 
vided in  their  opinion  as  to  the  situation  of  the 
country  meant  by  the  land  of  Uz.  Bochart, 
Spanheim,  Calmet,  Wells,  and  others,  place  it 
in  Arabia  Deserta.  Michaelis  places  it  in  the 
valley  of  Damascus  ;  which  city  was,  in  fact, 
built  by  Uz,  the  grandson  of  Shern.  Archbishop 
Magee,  Bishop  Lowth,  Dr.  Hales,  Dr.  Good, 


and  others  with  more  reason,  fix  the  scene  of 
the  history  of  Job  in  Idumea.  This  is  also  the 
opinion  of  Mr.  Home,  who  refers  for  a  confir- 
mation of  it  to  Lam.  iv,  21,  where  Uz  is  ex- 
pressly said  to  be  in  Edom ;  and  to  Jer.  xlix, 

7,  8,  20  ;  Ezek.  xxv,  13 ;  Amos  i,  11,  12  ;  Obad. 

8,  9,  where  both  Teman  and  Dedan  are  de- 
scribed as  inhabitants  of  Edom.  In  effect,  says 
Mr.  Home,  nothing  is  clearer  than  that  the 
history  of  an  inhabitant  of  Idumea  is  the  sub- 
ject of  the  poem  which  bears  the  name  of  Job, 
and  that  all  the  persons  introduced  into  it  were 
Idumeans,  dwelling  in  Idumea ;  in  other  words, 
Edomite  Arabs. 

VEIL.  Women  were  wont  to  cover  their 
faces  with  veils  in  token  of  modesty,  of  re- 
verence, and  subjection  to  their  husbands, 
Gen.  xxiv,  65 ;  1  Cor.  xi,  3,  &c.  In  modern 
times,  the  women  of  Syria  never  appear  in  the 
streets  without  their  veils.  These  are  of  two 
kinds,  the  furragi  and  the  common  Aleppo 
veil ;  the  former  being  worn  by  some  of  the 
Turkish  women  only,  the  latter  indiscrimi- 
nately by  all.  The  first  is  in  the  form  of  a  large 
cloak,  with  long  straight  sleeves,  and  a  square 
hood  hanging  flat  on  the  back  ;  it  is  sometimes 
made  of  linen,  sometimes  of  a  shawl  or  cloth. 
This  veil,  reaching  to  the  heels,  conceals  the 
whole  of  the  dress,  from  the  neck  downward  ; 
while  the  head  and  face  are  covered  by  a  large 
white  handkerchief  over  the  head  dress  and 
forehead,  and  a  smaller  one  tied  transversely 
over  the  lower  part  of  the  face,  hanging  down 
on  the  neck.  Many  of  the  Turkish  women, 
instead  of  the  smaller  handkerchief,  use  a  long 
piece  of  black  crape  stiffened,  which,  sloping 
a  little  from  the  forehead,  leaves  room  to 
breathe  more  freely.  In  this  last  way,  the 
ladies  are  completely  disguised ;  in  the  former, 
the  eyes  and  nose  remaining  visible,  they  are 
easily  known  by  their  acquaints  aces.  The 
radid  is  a  species  of  veil,  which  Calmet  sup- 
poses is  worn  by  married  women,  as  a  token 
of  their  submission  and  dependence,  and 
descends  low  down  on  the  person.  To  lift  up 
the  veil  of  a  virgin  is  reckoned  a  gross  insult ; 
but  to  take  away  the  veil  of  a  married  woman 
is  one  of  the  greatest  indignities  that  she  can 
receive,  because  it  deprives  her  of  the  badge 
which  distinguishes  and  dignifies  her  in  that 
character,  and  betokens  her  alliance  to  her 
husband,  and  her  interest  in  his  affections. 
This  is  the  reason  why  the  spouse  so  feelingly 
complains :  "  They  took  away  my  veil,  Tn, 
from  me,"  Cant,  v,  7.  When  it  is  forcibly 
taken  away  by  the  husband,  it  is  equivalent  to 
divorce,  and  justly  reckoned  a  most  severe 
calamity ;  therefore,  God  threatened  to  take 
away  the  ornamental  dresses  of  the  daughters 
of  Zion,  including  the  radidim,  the  low  descend- 
ing veils  :  "  In  that  day  the  Lord  will  take  away 
the  changeable  suits  of  apparel,  and  the  man- 
tles, and  the  fine  linen,  and  the  hoods,  and  the 
veils,"  Isaiah  iii,  18,  &c. 

The  ordinary  Aleppo  veil  is  a  linen  sheet, 
large  enough  to  cover  the  whole  habit  from 
head  to  foot,  and  is  brought  over  the  face  in  a 
manner  to  conceal  all  but  one  eye.     This  ia 


VIN 


942 


VIN 


perhaps  allude. i  to  try  the  bridegroom  in  these 
words:  "Thoa  had  ravished  my  heart  with 
."  Cant,  iv,  9.  In  Barbary, 
when  the  ladies  appear  in  public,  they  always 
toKi  themselves  u|>  so  closely  in  tlit-ir  hykes, 
that,  even  will t  their  veils,  one  can' discover 

little  of  their  faces.  But,  in  the  summer 
months,  w  hen  thoy  retire  to  their  country  Beats, 

walk  abroad  with  less  caution;  though, 

then,  on  the  approach  of  a  stranger,  they 
always  •  1  r •  •  t»  their  veils,  as  Rehekah  did  on  the 
approach  of  Isaac  But,  although  they  are  so 
closely  wrapped  up,  thai  those  who  look  at 
them  cannot  see  even  tln'ir  hands,  still  less 
their  face,  yet  ii  is  reckoned  indecent  in  a  man 
to  ti.\  bis  eyes  upon  them;  he  must  let  them 
pass  ail  In. oi  seeming  at  all  to  observe  them. 
When  a  lady  of  distinction,  says  Hanway, 
travels  on  horseback,  she  is  not  only  veiled, 
but  has  generally  a  servant,  who  runs  or  rides 
I  if  fore    her    to  clear   the    way;    and  on   such 

lions  the  men,  even  in  the  market  places, 
always  turn  their  backs  till  the  women  are  past, 
it  being  thought  the  highest  ill  manners  to  look 
at  them.  A  lady  in  the  east  considers  herself 
degraded  when  she  is  exposed  to  the  gaze  of 
the  other  sex,  which  accounts  for  the  conduct 
of  V.u-liii  in  refusing  to  obey  the  command  of 
the  kin^.  Their  ideas  of  decency,  on  the  other 
hand,  forbid  a  virtuous  woman  to  lay  aside  or 
even  (•>  lifl  up  her  veil  in  the  presence  of  the 
other  aaz.  .^  1 1  <  ■  who  ventures  to  disregard  this 
prohibition  inevitably  ruins  her  character. 
From  that  moment  she  is  noted  as  a  woman 
of  easy  virtue,  and  her  act  is  regarded  as  a 
ignal  for  intrigue.  Pitts  informs  us  that  in 
Barbary  the  courtezan  appears  in  public  with- 
out her  veil;  and,  in  Prov.  vii,  13,  14,  the 
harlot  exposes  herself  in  the  same  indecent 
manner:  "So  hi  i  mght  him,  and  kissed  him, 
and  with  an  impudent  face,"  a  face  uncovered 
and  shameless,  "  said  unto  him,  I  have  peace- 
offerings  with  me,  this  day  have  1  paid  my 
rows."  But  it  inusi  nevertheless  be  remarked; 
that,  at  different  tunes,  and  in  different  parts 
of  the  east,  the  use,  or  partial  use  of  the  veil 

has  greatly  varied. 

VUiE,  |0.i,  Gen,  xl,9;  o/ureAos,  Matt,  xxvi,  29; 
Mirk  riv,  25;  Luke  \.\u,  18;  John  xv,  4,  5; 
James  ,,,.  12;  Rev.  xiv,  19;  a  noble  plant  of 
the  creeping  kind,  famous  for  its  fruit,  or 
grapes,  and  the  liquor  they  afford.  The  vine 
»  •'  conun  'ii  name  or  genus,  including  several 
andej  it;  and  Moses,  to  distinguish  the 
true  vine,  or  that   from  which  wine  is  made, 

from  the  rest,  calls  it,  I  lie  wine  vine,  Num.  vi,4. 

s"""'  "•'  the  other  sorts  were  of  a  poisonous 

quality,    as    appears     from     the     story     related 

■l ng  the  miraculous  Beta  of  Elisha,  2  Kings 

lv':,'-)'  "       See  Grapes.)     The  expression  of 

"sitting  every  man  under  bis  own   vine,"  pro. 

bably  alludes  to  ilia  delightful  .•astern  arbours 

Whil  I.   were  partly  c posed  of  vines,      ('apt 

•      en,  in  like  manner,  speaks  of  vine  arbours 

u  con.....,.,  in  the  Egyptian  ...aniens;  and  the 

'     '  WV<     .■    .1   in   Dr.  SI, aw  gives  us  the 

Pgure  ..l  an  ancient  one.     Plantations  of  trees 

',"""  ' wsare  found  rory  useful  in  hot  coun- 

m  an  agreeable  coolness,    The 


ancient  Israelites  seem  to  have  made  use  of  the 
same  means,  and  probably  planted  fruit  trees, 
rather  than  other  kinds,  to  produce  that  effect. 
"  II  is  their  manner  in  many  places,"  says  Sir 
Thomas  Rowe's  chaplain,  speaking  of  the 
country  of  the  Great  Mogul,  "to  plant  about 
and  among  their  buildings,  trees  which  grow 
high  and  broad,  the  shadow  whereof  keeps 
their  houses  by  far  more  cool :  this  I  observed 
in  a  special  manner,  when  we  were  ready  to 
enter  Amadavar;  for  it  appeared  to  us  as  if  we 
had  been  entering  a  wood  rather  than  a  city." 
"  Immediately  on  entering,"  says  Turner,  "  I 
was  ushered  into  the  court  yard  of  the  aga, 
whom  I  found  smoking  under  a  vine,  sur- 
rounded by  horses,  servants,  and  dogs,  among 
which  I  distinguished  an  English  pointer." 

There  were  in  Palestine  many  excellent 
vineyards.  Scripture  celebrates  the  vines  of 
Sorek,  of  Sebamah,  of  Jazer,  of  Abel.  Pro- 
fane authors  mention  the  excellent  wines  of 
Gaza,  Sarepta,  Libanus,  Saron,  Ascalon,  and 
Tyre.  Jacob,  in  the  blessing  which  he  gave 
Judah,  "  Binding  his  foal  unto  the  vine,  and 
his  ass's  colt  unto  the  choice  vine,  he  washed 
his  garments  in  wine,  and  his  clothes  in  the 
blood  of  grapes,"  Gen.  xlix,  11;  he  showed  the 
abundance  of  vines  that  should  fall  to  his  lot. 
"Joseph  is  a  fruitful  bough,  even  a  fruitful 
bough  by  a  well,  whose  branches  hang  over 
the  wall,"  Gen.  xlix,  22.  "  To  the  northward 
and  westward,"  says  Morier,  "  are  several  vil- 
lages, interspersed  with  extensive  orchards  and 
vineyards,  the  latter  of  which  are  generally  en- 
closed by  high  walls.  The  Persian  vine  dressers 
do  all  in  their  power  to  make  the  vine  run  up 
the  wall,  and  curl  over  on  the  other  side,  which 
they  do  by  tying  stones  to  the  extremity  of  the 
tendril.  The  vine,  particularly  in  Turkey  and 
Greece,  is  frequently  made  to  entwine  on  trel- 
lises around  a  well,  where,  in  the  heat  of  the 
day,  whole  families  collect  themselves,  and  sit 
under  the  shade." 

Noah  planted  the  vine  after  the  deluge,  and  is 
supposed  to  have  been  the  first  who  cultivated  it, 
Gen.  ix,  20.  Many  are  of  opinion  that  wine  was 
not  unknown  before  the  deluge ;  and  that  this 
patriarch  only  continued  to  cultivate  the  vine 
alter  that  event,  as  he  had  done  before  ii:  but 
the  fathers  think  that  he  knew  not  the  force 
of  wine,  having  never  used  it  before,  nor  having 
ever  seen  any  one  use  it.  He  was  the  first  that 
gathered  the  juice  of  the  grape,  and  preserved 
it  till  by  fermentation  it  became  a  potable  liquor. 
Before  him  men  only  ate  the  grapes  like  other 
fruit.  The  law  of  Moses  did  not  allow  the 
planters  of  vineyards  to  eat  the  fruit  before  the 
fifth  year,  Lev.  xix,  24,  25.  The  Israelites  were 
also  required  to  indulge  the  poor,  the  orphan, 
and  the  stranger,  with  the  use  of  the  grapes  on 
the  seventh  year.  A  traveller  was  allowed  to 
gather  and  eat  the  grapes  in  a  vineyard  as  he 
pass,.!  along,  but  he  was  not  permitted  to  carry 
any  away,  Dent,  xxiii,  24.  The  scarcity  of 
fuel,  .specially  wood,  in  most  parts  of  the  east, 
is  bo  :_rreat,  that  they  supply  it  with  every  thing 
capable  of  burning ;  cow  dung  dried,  roots, 
parings  of  fruits,  withered  stalks  of  herbs  and 
flowers,  Matthew  vi,  30.     Vine  twigs  are  par- 


VIN 


943 


VOC 


ticularly  mentioned  as  used  for  fuel  in  dressing 
their  food,  by  D'  Arvieux,  La  Roque,  and  others : 
Ezekiel  says,  in  his  parable  of  the  vine,  used 
figuratively  for  the  people  of  God,  "  Shall  wood 
be  taken  thereof  to  do  any  work  ?  Or  will  men 
take  a  pin  of  it  to  hang  any  vessel  thereon  ? 
Behold,  it  is  cast  into  the  fire  for  fuel,"  Ezekiel 
xv,  3,  4.  "  If  a  man  abide  not  in  me,"  saith 
our  Lord,  "he  is  cast  forth  as  a  branch"  of  the 
vine,  "  and  is  withered  ;  and  men  gather  them, 
and  cast  them  into  the  fire,  and  they  are  burned," 
John  xv,  6. 

VINEGAR,  ynn,  Num.  vi,  3 ;  Ruth  ii,  14 ; 
Psalm  Ixix,  21 ;  Prov.  x,  26 ;  xxv,  20 ;  8fe, 
Matt,  xxvii,  48  ;  Mark  xv,  36  ;  John  xix,  29,  30  ; 
an  acid  produced  by  a  second  fermentation  of 
vinous  liquors.  The  law  of  the  Nazarite  was 
that  he  should  "  separate  himself  from  wine  and 
strong  drink,  and  should  drink  no  vinegar  of 
wine,  nor  vinegar  of  strong  drink,  nor  any  liquor 
of  grapes."  This  is  exactly  the  same  prohibition 
that  was  given  in  the  case  of  John  the  Baptist, 
Luke  i,  15,  otvov  km  oiVtpa  oil  fifi  rzirn  wine  and  sikeru 
he  shall  not  drink.  Any  inebriating  liquor,  says 
Jerom,  is  called  sicera,  whether  made  of  corn, 
apples,  honey,  dates,  or  other  fruits.  One  of 
the  four  prohibited  drinks  among  the  Moham- 
medans in  India  is  called  sakar,  which  signifies 
inebriating  drink  in  general,  but  especially  date 
wine.  From  the  original  word,  probably,  we 
have  our  term  cider  or  sider,  which  among  us, 
exclusively  means  the  fermented  juice  of  apples. 
Vinegar  was  used  by  harvesters  for  their  re- 
freshment. Boaz  told  Ruth  that  she  might 
come  and  dip  her  bread  in  vinegar  with  his 
people.  Pliny  says,  "  Aceto  gumma  vis  in  rcfri- 
gerando.'1''  [There  is  the  greatest  power  in 
vinegar,  in  cooling.]  It  made  a  very  cooling 
beverage.  It  was  generally  diluted  with  water. 
When  very  strong,  it  affected  the  teeth  disa- 
greeably, Prov.  x,  26.  In  Proverbs  xxv,  20, 
the  singing  of  songs  to  a  heavy  heart  is  finely 
compared  to  the  contrariety  or  colluctation 
between  vinegar  and  nitre  ;  untimely  mirth  to 
one  in  anxiety  serves  only  to  exasperate,  and 
as  it  were  put  into  a  ferment  by  the  intrusion. 

The  Emperor  Pescennius  Niger  gave  orders 
that  his  soldiers  should  drink  nothing  but 
vinegar  on  their  marches.  That  which  the 
Roman  soldiers  offered  to  our  Saviour  at  his 
crucifixion,  was,  probably,  the  vinegar  they 
made  use  of  for  their  own  drinking.  Constan- 
tine  the  Great  allowed  them  wine  and  vinegar 
alternately,  every  day.  This  vinegar  was  not 
of  that  sort  which  we  use  for  salads  and  sauces ; 
but  it  was  a  tart  wine  called  pesca,  or  sera. 
They  make  great  use  of  it  in  Spain  and  Italy, 
in  harvest  time.  They  use  it  also  in  Holland, 
and  on  shipboard,  to  correct  the  ill  taste  of 
the  water. 

VIPER,  njJDN,  Job  xx,  16 ;  Isaiah  xxx,  6 ; 
lix,  5 ;  ixtSva,  Matt,  iii,  7 ;  xii,  34 ;  xxiii,  33 ; 
Luke  iii,  7 ;  Acts  xxviii,  3 ;  a  serpent  famed 
for  the  venomousness  of  its  bite,  which  is  one 
of  the  most  dangerous  poisons  in  the  animal 
kingdom.  So  remarkable,  says  Dr.  Mead,  lias 
the  viper  been  for  its  venom,  that  the  remotest 
antiquity  made  it  an  emblem  of  what  is  hurtful 
and  destructive.     Nay,  so  terrible  was  the  na- 


ture of  these  creatures,  that  they  were  very 
commonly  thought  to  be  sent  as  executioners  of 
divine  vengeance  upon  mankind,  for  enormous 
crimes  which  had  escaped  the  course  of  justice. 
An  instance  of  such  an  opinion  as  this  we  have 
in  the  history  of  St.  Paul,  Acts  xxviii,  whom 
the  people  of  Melita,  when  they  saw  the  viper 
leap  upon  his  hand,  presently  concluded  to  be 
a  murderer;  and  as  readily  made  a  god  of  him 
when,  instead  of  having  his  hand  inflamed,  or 
falling  down  dead,  one  or  other  of  which  is 
usually  the  effect  of  these  bites,  he  without 
any  harm  shook  the  reptile  into  the  fire  :  it 
being  obvious  enough  to  imagine  that  he  must 
stand  in  a  near  relation  at  least  to  the  gods 
themselves,  who  could  thus  command  the  mes- 
sengers of  their  vengeance,  and  counterwork 
the  effects  of  such  powerful  agents. 

VISION,  the  act  of  seeing ;  but,  in  Scripture, 
it  generally  signifies  a  supernatural  appearance, 
either  by  dream  or  in  reality,  by  which  God 
made  known  his  will  and  pleasure  to  those  to 
whom  it  was  vouchsafed,  Acts  ix,  10,  12 ;  xvi, 
9,  xxvi,  13;  2  Cor.  xii,  1.  Thus,  in  the  earli- 
est times,  to  patriarchs,  prophets,  and  holy 
men  God  sent  angels,  he  appeared  to  them 
himself  by  night  in  dreams,  he  illuminated 
their  minds,  he  made  his  voice  to  be  heard  by 
them,  he  sent  them  ecstasies,  and  transported 
them  beyond  themselves,  and  made  them  hear 
things  that  eye  had  not  seen,  ear  had  not  heard, 
and  which  had  not  entered  into  the  heart  of 
man.  The  Lord  showed  himself  to  Moses, 
and  spoke  to  him  when  he  was  at  the  mouth 
of  the  cave.  Jesus  Christ  manifested  himself 
to  his  Apostles,  in  his  transfiguration  upon  the 
mount,  and  on  several  other  occasions  after  his 
resurrection.  God  appeared  to  Abraham  under 
the  form  of  three  travellers;  he  showed  him- 
self to  Isaiah  and  Ezekiel,  in  the  splendour  of 
his  glory.  Vision  is  also  used  for  the  prophe- 
cies written  by  the  prophets.  The  beatific 
vision  denotes  the  act  of  angels  and  glorified 
spirits  beholding  in  heaven  the  unveiled  splen- 
dours of  the  Lord  Jehovah,  and  privileged  to 
contemplate  his  perfections  and  plans  in  and 
by  himself. 

VOCATION,  or  CALLING,  is  a  gracious 
act  of  God  in  Christ,  by  which,  through  his 
word  and  Spirit,  he  calls  forth  sinful  men,  who 
are  liable  to  condemnation  and  placed  under 
the  dominion  of  sin,  from  the  condition  of  the 
animal  life,  and  from  the  pollutions  and  cor- 
ruptions of  this  world,  2  Tim.  i,  9;  Matt,  xi, 
28  ;  1  Peter  ii,  9,  10  ;  Gal.  i,  4  ;  2  Peter  ii,  20  ; 
Romans  x,  13-15;  1  Peter  iii,  19;  Gen.  vi,  3, 
unto  "the  fellowship  of  Jesus  Christ,"  and  of 
his  kingdom  and  its  benefits  ;  that,  being  united 
unto  him  as  their  head,  they  may  derive 
from  him  life,  sensation,  motion,  and  a  pleni- 
tude of  every  spiritual  blessing,  to  the  glory  of 
God  and  their  own  salvation,  1  Cor.  i,  9 ;  Gal. 
ii,  20 ;  Eph.  i,  3,  6 ;  2  Thess.  ii,  13,  14.  The 
end  intended  is,  that  they  who  have  been  called 
answer  by  faith  to  God  and  to  Christ  who  give 
the  call,  and  that  they  thus  become  the  cove- 
nanted people  of  God  through  Christ  the  Me- 
diator of  the  new  covenant ;  and,  after  having 
become  believers  and  parties  to  the  covenant, 


vow 


944 


VUL 


that  they  love,  fear,  honour;,  and  Worship  God 
and  Christ,  render  in  all  tilings  obedience  to 
the  divine  precepts  "in  righteousness  and  true 

Imliiiis.-."  and  thai  by  this  means  tliey  "make 
their  calling  and  election  sure,"  Prov.  i,  24; 
II.  S.  in.  7  :  Rot.  i'i,  30;  Eph.  ii,  11-16;  Titus 
,,,.  -,  Deut.  vi,  I.  5j  Jer.  xxxii,  38,39;  Luke 
75;  9  Peter  i,  1,  10.  The  glory  of  God, 
who  is  supremely  wise,  good,  merciful,  just, 
powerful,  is  so  luminously  displayed  in 
this  communication  both  of  his  grace  and 
glory,  u  deservedly  to  raise  into  rapturous 
admiration  the  minds  of  angels  and  of  men, 
and  to  employ  (heir  loosened  tongues  in  cele- 
brating the  praises  of  Jehovah,  Rev.  iv,  8-11 ; 
\ .  -   lo.     See  <  Ialung. 

VOW,  a  promise  made  to  God,  of  doing 
some  good  thing  hereafter.  The  use  of  vows 
is  observable  throughout  Scripture.  When 
Jacob  went  into  .Mesopotamia,  he  vowed  to 
God  the  tenth  of  his  estate,  and  promised  to 
uri'er  it  at  Bethel,  to  the  honour  of  God,  Gen. 
x.wiii.  22.  Moses  enacts  several  laws  for  the 
regulation  and  execution  of  vows.  A  man 
might  devote  himself,  or  his  children,  to  the 
Lord.  Jephthah  devoted  his  daughter,  Judges 
xi,  30,  31,  Samuel  was  vowed  or  consecrated 
to  the  service  of  the  Lord  before  his  birth,  by 
his  pious  mother  Hannah ;  and  was  really 
offered    to    him,    to   serve  in  the  tabernacle, 

I  Sain,  i,  SI,  Sic.  If  a  man  and  woman  vowed 
themselves  to  the  Lord,  they  were  obliged  to 
adhere  strictly  to  his  service,  according  to  the 
conditions  of  the  vow  ;  but  in  some  cases  they 
might  be  redeemed.  A  man  from  twenty  years 
of  age  till  sixty,  gave  fifty  shekels  of  silver; 
and  a  woman  thirty,  Lev.  xxvii,  3.  From  the 
age  of  rive  years  to  twenty,  a  man  gave  twenty 
shekels,  and  a  woman  ten  ;  from  a  month  old 
to  five  years,  they  gave  for  a  boy  five  shekels, 
and  for  a  girl  three.  A  man  of  sixty  years  old, 
or  upward,  gave  fifteen  shekels,  and  a  woman 
of  the  same  age  gave  ten.  If  the  person  was 
poor,  and  could  not  procure  this  sum,  the  priest 
imposed  s  ransom  upon  him,  according  to  his 
abilities.  If  any  one  had  vowed  an  animal 
that  was  clean,  he  had  not  the  liberty  of  re- 
deeming it,  or  of  exchanging  it,  but  was  obliged 

I I  ■  tacfinee  it  to  the  Lord.  If  it  was  an  unclean 
animal,  and  such  as  was  not  allowed  to  be 
sacrificed,  the  priest  made  a  valuation  of  it; 
and  if  the  proprietor  would  redeem  it,  he  added 
a  fifth  part  to  the  value,  by  way  of  forfeit. 
They  did  the  same  in  proportion,  when  the 
thing  vowed  was  a  house  or  a  field.  They 
could  not  devote  the  first  born,  because  in  their 
own  nature  they  belonged  to  the  Lord,  Lev. 
cxvii,  28,  29.  \\  batever  was  devoted  by  way 
of  anathema,  could  not  be  redeemed,  of  what- 
ever nature  or  Quality  it  was.     An  animal  was 

th,   and   other  things  were  devoted 

r  lo  the    Lord.     The  consecration   of 

particular  kind  of  vow.    The 

and  promises  of  children  were  void,  of 

■  .  sxeepl  they  were  ratified  either  by  the 

'  "it  i  onsen!  ef  then-  parents.    It 

was  the  sajBH  with  the  vows  of  a  married  wo- 

they  »en  of  no  validity,  except  con. 

rirtn-,1  by  the  express  or  tacit  consent  of  her 


husband,  Num.  xxx.  But  widows,  or  liberated 
wives,  were  bound  by  their  vows,  whatever 
they  were. 

Whosoever  invokes  the  awful  name  of  God 
to  witness  any  untruth,  knowing  it  to  be  such, 
is  guilty  of  taking  it  in  vain.  Our  Lord  did  not 
mean  to  preclude  solemn  appeals  to  heaven, 
whether  oaths  or  vows,  in  courts  of  justice,  or 
in  important  compacts.  For  an  oath,  or  appeal 
to  the  greatest  of  all  beings,  as  the  Searcher 
of  hearts,  to  witness  a  transaction,  and  to 
punish  falsehood  or  perjury,  is  necessary,  for 
putting  an  end  to  all  strife  or  controversy 
among  men,  to  promote  confirmation  or  se- 
curity of  property,  Heb.  vi,  16.  And  it  was 
sanctioned  by  the  example  of  God,  swearing 
by  himself,  Genesis  xxii,  15 ;  Heb.  vi,  17,  18 ; 
and  by  the  example  of  the  patriarchs  and  saints 
of  old ;  thus  Abraham  swore  by  the  most  high 
God,  Creator  of  heaven  and  earth,  Gen.  xiv, 
22 ;  the  transjordanite  tribes,  by  the  God  of 
gods,  the  Lord,  Joshua  xxii,  22.  And  the  law 
prescribed,  "Thou  shalt  fear  the  Lord  thy  God, 
and  serve  him,  and  shalt  swear  by  his  name," 
Deut.  vi,  13.  And  afterward,  "  All  Judah  re- 
joiced at  the  oath,  for  they  had  sworn  unto 
the  Lord  with  a  loud  voice,  with  all  their  heart, 
and  sought  him  with  their  whole  desire :  and 
he  was  found  of  them ;  and  the  Lord  gave 
them  rest  round  about,"  2  Chron.  xv,  14,  15. 
And  a  highly  gifted  Apostle  uses  the  following 
most  solemn  asseveration,  "  The  God  and 
Father  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  who  is  blessed 
for  evermore,  knoweth  that  I  lie  not,"  2  Cor. 
xi,  31.  See  the  vows  of  the  priests  and  Levites, 
to  put  away  strange  wives,  Ezra  x,  5 ;  and  to 
take  no  usury  from  their  brethren,  Neh.  x,  29. 
St.  Paul  also  vowed  a  vow,  which  he  performed, 
Acts  xviii,  18 ;  xxi,  23.  Our  Lord,  therefore, 
reenacted  the  lawT,  while  he  guarded  against 
the  abuse  of  it,  by  prohibiting  all  oaths  in  com- 
mon conversation,  as  a  profanation  either  of 
God's  name,  where  that  was  irreverently  used, 
or  where  any  of  his  works  was  substituted 
instead  of  the  awful  and  terrible  name  of  the 
Lord,  which  the  Jews,  through  superstitious 
dread,  at  length  ceased  to  use,  from  misinter- 
pretation of  Deut.  xxviii,  58  :  "  But  I  say  unto 
you,  Swear  not  at  all,"  in  common  conversa- 
tion, by  any  of  your  usual  oaths,  "  neither  by 
heaven,  for  it  is  God's  throne ;  nor  by  the  earth, 
for  it  is  his  footstool,"  &c.  For,  by  the  de- 
testable casuistry  of  the  scribes  and  Pharisees, 
some  oaths  were  reckoned  binding,  others  not, 
as  we  learn  from  the  sequel ;  thus,  to  swear  by 
the  temple,  the  altar,  heaven,  &c,  they  con- 
sidered as  not  binding  :  but  to  swear  by  the 
gold  of  the  temple,  by  the  gift  on  the  altar,  &c, 
they  considered  as  binding ;  the  absurdity  and 
impiety  of  which  practice  is  well  exposed  by 
our  Lord  in  Matt,  xxiii,  16-22. 

VULGATE,  a  very  ancient  Latin  transla- 
tion of  the  Bible  ;  and  the  only  one  the  church 
of  Rome  acknowledges  to  be  authentic.  The 
ancient  Vulgate  of  the  Old  Testament  was 
translated  almost  word  for  word,  from  the 
Greek  of  the  Septuagint.  The  author  of  the 
version  is  not  known.  It  was  a  long  time 
known  by  the  name  of  the  Italic,  or  old  ver 


VUL 


945 


VUL 


S10J1 ;  as  being  of  very  great  antiquity  in  the 
Latin  church;  It  was  the  common,  or  vulgar 
version,  before  St.  Jerom  made  a  new  one  from 
the  Hebrew  original,  with  occasional  references 
to  the  Septuagint ;  whence  it  has  its  name 
Vulgate.  Nobilius,  in  1558,  and  F.  Morin,  in 
1628,  gave  new  editions  of  it;  pretending  to 
have  restored  and  re-collated  it  from  the  an- 
cients who  had  cited  it.  It  has  since  been 
retouched  from  the  correction  of  St.  Jerom ; 
and  it  is  this  mixture  of  the  ancient  Italic  ver- 
sion, and  some  corrections  of  St.  Jerom,  that 
is  now  called  the  Vulgate,  and  which  the  coun- 
cil of  Trent  has  declared  to  be  authentic.  It 
is  this  Vulgate  alone  that  is  used  in  the  Romish 
church,  excepting  some  passages  of  the  ancient 
Vulgate,  which  were  left  in  the  Missal  and  the 
Psalms,  and  which  are  still  sung  according  to 
the  old  Italic  version.  St.  Jerom  declares  that, 
in  his  revisal  of  the  Italic  version,  he  used  great 
care  and  circumspection,  never  varying  from 
that  version  but  when  he  thought  it  misrepre- 
sented the  sense.  But  as  the  Greek  copies  to 
vvhicb  he  had  access  were  not  so  ancient  as 
those  from  which  the  Italic  version  had  been 
made,  some  learned  authors  have  been  of 
opinion  that  it  would  have  been  much  better 
if  he  had  collected  all  the  copies,  and,  by  coin- 
paring  them,  have  restored  that  translation  to 
its  original  purity.  It  is  plain  that  he  never 
completed  this  work,  and  that  he  even  left 
some  faults  in  it,  for  fear  of  varying  too  much 
from  the  ancient  version,  since  he  renders  in 
his  commentaries  some  words  otherwise  than 
he  has  done  in  his  translation.  This  version 
was  not  introduced  into  the  church  but  by 
degrees,  for  fear  of  offending  weak  persons. 
Rufinus,  notwithstanding  his  enmity  to  St. 
Jerom,  and  his  having  exclaimed  much  against 
this  performance,  was  one  of  the  first  to  prefer 
it  to  the  vulgar  or  Italian.  This  translation 
gained  at  last  so  great  an  authority,  by  the 
approbation  of  Pope  Gregory  I.,  and  his  de- 
clared preference  of  it  to  every  other,  that  it 
was  subsequently  brought  into  public  use 
through  all  the  western  churches.  Although 
it  was  not  regarded  as  authentic,  except  by  the 
council  of  Trent,  it  is  certainly  of  some  use, 
as  serving  to  illustrate  several  passages  .both 
of  the  Old  and  New  Testament. 

The  two  principal  popish  editions  of  the 
Vulgate  are  those  of  pope  Sixtus  V.  and  Cle- 
ment VIII.:  the  former  was  printed  in  1590, 
after  Pope  Sixtus  had  collected  the  most  an- 
cient MSS.  and  best  printed  copies,  summoned 
the  most  learned  men  out  of  all  the  nations  of 
the  Christian  world,  assembled  a  congregation 
of  cardinals  for  their  assistance  and  counsel, 
and  presided  over  the  whole  himself.  This 
edition  was  declared  to  be  corrected  in  the 
very  best  manner  possible,  and  published  with, 
a  tremendous  excommunication  against  every 
person  who  should  presume  ever  afterward  to 
alter  the  least  particle  of  the  edition  thus  au- 
thentically promulgated  by  his  holiness,  sitting 
in  that  chair,  in  qua  l'clri  vivit  potest  as,  el 
excellit  auct&ritas,  |m  which  the  power  of  Pe- 
ter lived,  and  his  authority  excelled.]  The 
other  edition  was  published  in  1592,  by  Pope 
61 


Clement  VIII. ;  which  was  so  different  from 
that  of  Sixtus,  as  to  contain  two  thousand  va- 
riations, some  of  whole  verses,  and  many 
others  clearly  and  designedly  contradictory  in 
sense  ;  and  yet  this  edition  is  also,  ex  cathedra, 
[from  the  chair,]  pronounced  as  the  only  au- 
thentic one,  and  enforced  by  the  same  sentence 
of  excommunication  with  the  former.  Clement 
suppressed  the  edition  of  his  predecessor ;  so 
that  copies  of  the  Sixtine  Vulgate  are  now 
very  scarce,  and  have  .  long  been  reckoned 
among  literary  rarities.  Our  learned  country- 
man, Dr.  James,  the  celebrated  correspondent 
and  able  coadjutor  of  Archbishop  Usher,  re- 
lates, with  all  the  ardour  of  a  hard  student, 
the  delight  which  he  experienced  on  unexpect- 
edly obtaining  a  Sixtine  copy  ;  and  he  used  it 
to  good  and  effective  purpose  in  his  very  clever 
book,  entitled  "  Bellum  Papale,"  in  which  he 
has  pointed  out  numerous  additions,  omis- 
sions, contradictions,  and  glaring  differences 
between  the  Sixtine  and  Clementine  editions. 
All  the  popish  champions  are  exceedingly  shy 
about  recognizing  this  irreconcilable  conflict 
between  the  productions  of  two  such  infallible 
personages ;  and  the  boldest  of  them  wish  to 
represent  it  as  a  thing  of  nought.  But  it  is  no 
light  matter  thus  to  tamper  with  the  word  of 
God. 

The  Romanists  generally  hold  the  Vulgate 
of  the  New  Testament  preferable  to  the  com- 
mon Greek  text ;  because  it  is  this  alone,  and 
not  the  Greek  text,  that  the  council  of  Trent 
has  declared  authentic :  accordingly  that 
church  has,  as  it  were,  adopted  this  edition, 
and  the  priests  read  no  other  at  the  altar,  the 
preachers  quote  no  other  in  the  pulpit,  nor  the 
divines  in  the  schools.  Yet  some  of  their  best 
authors,  F.  Bouhours  for  instance,  own,  that 
among  the  differences  that  are  found  between 
the  common  Greek  and  the  Vulgate,  there  are 
some  in  which  the  Greek  reading  appears  more 
clear  and  natural  than  that  of  the  Latin  ;  so 
that  the  second  might  be  corrected  from  the 
first,  if  the  holy  see  should  think  fit.  But  those 
differences,  taken  in  general,  only  consist  in  a 
few  syllables  or  words;  they  rarely  concern 
the  sense.  Beside,  in  some  of  the  most  con- 
siderable, the  Vulgate  is  authorized  by  several 
ancient  manuscripts.  Bouhours  spent  the  last 
years  of  his  life  in  giving  a  French  translation 
of  the  New  Testament  according  to  the  Vul- 
gate. It  is  probable  that  at  the  time  the  an- 
cient Italic  or  Vulgate  version  of  the  New 
Testament  was  made,  and  at  the  time  it  was 
afterward  compared  with  the  Greek  manu- 
scripts by  St.  Jerom,  as  they  were  then  nearer 
the  times  ef  the  Apostles,  they  had  more  accu- 
rate Greek  copies,  and  those  better  kept,  than 
any  of  those  used  when  printing  tfas  invented. 

"  Highly  as  the  Latin  Vulgate  is  extolled  by 
the  church  of  Rome,"  says.'Miehaclis,  "it  was 
depreciated  beyond  measure  at  the  beginning 
of  the  ^sixteenth  centwy  by  several  learned 
Protestants,':  whose  exam  pie  has  been  followed 
.by  men  of  inferior  abilities.'  At  the  restora- 
tion of  learning,  when  the  Faculty  of  writing 
e'lcgant  Latin  was  the  highest  accomplishment 
of  a  scholar,  the  Vulgate  was  regarded  with 


UAL 


916 


WAL 


,,j,i    u  BOl  written  with  classical  purity. 

:I,t  the  Greek  manuscripts  were  disco- 
their  readings  were  preferred  to  those 
of  the  Latin,  because  the  New  Testament,  was 
written  in  Greek,  and  the  Latin  was  only  a 
version  ;  but  it  was  not  considered  that  these 
(,r..k   manuscripts  were  modern   in  compnri- 

:  those  originals  from  which  the  Latin 
WSJ  taken;  nor  was  it  known  at  that  time, 
that  the  more  ancient  the  Greek  manuscripts 
iiid  the  other  versions  were,  the  closer  was 
their  agreement  with  the  Vulgate.  Our  ablest 
writers,  such  as  Mill  and  Bengel,  have  been 
induced  by  F.  Simon's  treatise  to  abandon  the 
opinion  of  their  predecessors,  and  have  as- 
cribed  to  the  Lathi  Vulgate  a  value  perhaps 
greater  than  it  deserves." 

VULTURE,  nx-t,  and  nNi,  Lev.  xi,  14;  Isa. 
xxxiv,  lf>;  a  large  bird  of  prey,  somewhat  re- 
sembling the  eagle.  Then  arc  several  birds 
of  the  vuliuriire  kind,  which,  though  they  dif- 
fer imieh  in  respect  to  colour  and  dimensions, 
yet  are  all  easily  distinguished  by  their  naked 
heads,  and  beaks  partly  straight  and  partly 
crooked.  They  are  frequent  in  Arabia,  Egypt, 
and  many  parts  of  Africa  and  Asia.  They 
have  a  most  indelicate  voracity,  preying  more 
upon  carrion  than  live  animals.  They  were 
declared  unclean  in  the  Levitical  constitution. 

WALDENSES,  WALLENSES,  or  ALM- 

GENSES,  the  Vaudois,  or  inhabitants  of  the 
beautiful  valleys  of  the  Alps,  between  Italy 
and  Provence.  Many  have  supposed  that  they 
derived  their  name  from  Peter  Waldo,  or  Val- 
do,  a  merchant  of  Lyons,  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, and  one  of  their  leaders  and  patrons  ;  but 
their  history  has  been  traced  considerably  far- 
ther back,  which  has  led  others  to  suppose 
that,  on  the  contrary,  he  derived  his  name 
from  them,  as  Peter  the  Waldensian,  or  Peter 
of  the  Valleys.  The  learned  Dr.  Allix,  in  his 
"  History  of  the  Churches  of  Piedmont,"  gives 
this  account:  For  three  hundred  years  or 
more,  the  bishop  of  Rome  attempted  to  subju- 
gate the  church  of  Milan  under  his  jurisdiction  ; 
and  at  last  the  interest  of  Koine  grew  too  po- 
tent for  the  church  of  Milan,  planted  by  one 
of  the  disciples;  insomuch  that  the  bishop  and 
the  people,  rather  than  own  their  jurisdiction, 
retired  to  the  valleys  of  Lucerne  and  Angrogne, 
and  thence  were  called  Vallcnses,  Wallenses, 
or,  The  People  in  the  Valleys.  From  a  con. 
fession  of  their  faith,  of  the  early  date,  A.  D. 
1190,    we   extract  tho    following    particulars: 

1.  That  the  Scriptures  teach  that  there  is  one 
bod,  almighty,  alLwiw,  and  all-good,  who 
made  all  things  by  his  goodness ;  for  he  formed 
Adam  m  oil  own  image  and  likeness;  but  that 
by  the  envy  bf  the  devil  sin  entered  into  the 
world,  and  that WA are  •mi,. -i„  I,,  and  by  Adam. 

2.  That  Christ  was  promised  to  our  fathers 
who  raeemd  the  law  :  thai  so  knowing  by"  the 
law    their   unrighteousness   and    inaitfficienCT, 

•  the  coming  of  Christ,  to  u 

For  their  sin;,  and  accomplish  the  law  i'v 

b.mselt.     3.  Thai  Chriat  was  born  in  the  time 

appointed  by  God  the  Father;  that  is  to  sav* 

in   th*  tin.*  when  all   iniquity  abounded,  that 


ho  might  show  us  grace  and  mercy,  as  being 
faithful.  4.  That  Christ  is  our  life,  truth, 
peace,  and  righteousness ;  as  also  our  pastor, 
advocate,  and  priest,  who  died  for  the  salvation 
of  all  who  believe,  and  is  risen  for  our  justifi- 
cation. 5.  That  there  is  no  mediator  and  ad- 
vocate with  God  the  Father,  save  Jesus  Christ. 
6.  That  after  this  life  there  are  only  two  places, 
the  one  for  the. saved,  and  the  other  for  the 
damned.  7.  That  the  feasts,  the  vigils  of 
saints,  the  water  which  they  call  holy,  as 
also  to  abstain  from  flesh  on  certain  days, 
and  the  like,  but  especially  the  masses,  are  the 
inventions  of  men,  and  ought  to  be  rejected. 
8.  That  the  sacraments  are  signs  of  the  holy 
thing,  visible  forms  of  the  invisible  grace  ;  and 
that  it  is  good  for  the  faithful  to  use  those 
signs  or  visible  forms ;  but  that  they  are  not 
essential  to  salvation.  9.  That  there  are  no 
other  sacraments  but  baptism  and  the  Lord's 
Supper.  10.  That  we  ought  to  honour  the 
secular  powers  by  subjection,  ready  obedience, 
and  paying  of  tribute.  On  the  subject  of  in- 
fant baptism,  they  held  different  opinions,  as 
Christians  do  in  the  present  day. 

For  bearing  this  noble  testimony  against  the 
church  of  Rome,  these  pious  people  were  for 
many  centuries  the  subjects  of  a  most  cruel 
persecution  ;  and  in  the  thirteenth  century  the 
pope  instituted  a  crusade  against  them,  and 
they  were  pursued  with  a  fury  perfectly  dia- 
bolical. Their  principles,  however,  continued 
unsubdued,  and  at  the  Reformation  their  de- 
scendants were  reckoned  among  the  Protest- 
tants,  with  whom  they  were  in  doctrine  so 
congenial ;  but  in  the  seventeenth  century  the 
flames  of  persecution  were  again  rekindled1 
against  them  by  the  cruelty  of  Louis  XIV.  At 
the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantz,  about  fif- 
teen thousand  perished  in  the  prisons  of  Pigne- 
rol,  beside  great  numbers  who  perished  among 
the  mountains.  They  received,  however,  the 
powerful  protection  and  support  of  England 
under  William  III.  But  still  the  house  of 
Saxony  continued  to  treat  them  as  heretics, 
and  they  were  oppressed  by  a  variety  of  cruel 
edicts. 

When  Piedmont  was  subjected  to  France  in 
1800,  the  French  government,  Buonaparte 
being  first  consul,  placed  them  on  the  same 
plan  of  toleration  with  the  rest  of  France;  but 
on  the  return  of  the  king  of  Sardinia  to  Genoa, 
notwithstanding  the  intercession  of  Lord  Wil- 
liam Bentinck,  the  old  persecuting  edicts  were 
revived  in  the  end  of  1814;  and  though  they 
have  not  been  subjected  to  fire  and  faggot  as 
aforetime,  their  worship  has  been  restrained, 
and  they  were  not  only  stripped  of  all  employ- 
ments, but,  by  a  most  providential  circum- 
stance only,  saved  from  a  general  massacre. 
S.ince  then  they  have  been  visited  by  sorno 
pious  and  benevolent  Englishmen ;  and  the 
number  of  Waldenses,  or  Vaudois,  has  been 
taken  at  nineteen  thousand  seven  hundred 
and  ten,  beside  about  fifty  families  residing  at 
Turin. 

Mr.  Milncr  very  properly  connects  this  peo- 
ple with  the  Cathari,  or  Paulicians,  of  the 
seventh  century,   who    resided  chiefly  in   the 


WAR 


947 


WAR 


valleys  of  Piedmont,  and  who,  in  the  twelfth 
century,  according  to  this  valuable  historian, 
received  a  great  accession  of  members  frum 
the  learned  labours  and  godly  zeal  of  Peter 
Waldo,  a  pious  man  of  unusual  learning  for  a 
layman  at  that  period.  His  thoughts  being 
turned  to  divine  things  by  the  sudden  death  of 
a  friend,  he  applied  himself  to  the  study  of  the 
Scriptures,  and  was,  according  to  Mr.  Milner, 
the  first  who,  in  the  west  of  Europe,  translated 
the  Bible  into  a  modern  language.  Waldo  was 
rich,  and  distributed  his  wealth  among  the 
poor,  and  with  it  the  bread  of  life,  which  en- 
deared him  to  the  lower  classes ;  and  it  was 
probably  the  great  increase  of  these  pious  peo- 
ple, in  consequence  of  his  exertions,  which 
brought  upon  them  the  horrible  crusade  in  the 
next  century.  This  was,  however,  wholly  on 
account  of  their  pretended  heresies, — their  bit- 
terest enemies  bearing  testimony  to  the  purity 
of  their  life  and  manners.  Thus  a  pontifical 
inquisitor,  quoted  by  Usher,  says,  "These  he- 
retics are  known  by  their  manners  and  con- 
versation ;  for  they  are  orderly  and  modest  in 
their  behaviour  and  deportment ;  they  avoid 
all  appearance  of  pride  in  their  dress;  they  are 
chaste,  temperate,  and  sober ;  they  seek  not  to 
amass  riches ;  they  abstain  from  anger ;  and, 
even  while  at  work,  arc  either  learning  or 
teaching."  Seysillius,  another  popish  writer, 
says  of  them,  "  Their  heresy  excepted,  they 
generally  live  a  purer  life  than  other  Chris- 
tians." Liclenstenius,  a  Dominican,  says,  "  In 
morals  and  life  they  are  good  ;  true  in  words ; 
unanimous  in  brotherly  love ;  but  their  faith  is 
incorrigible  and  vile,  as  I  have  shown  you  in 
my  treatise."  But  most  remarkable  is  the  tes- 
timony of  Reinerus,  an  inquisitor  of  the  thir- 
teenth century  :  "  Of  all  the  sects  which  have 
been,  or  now  exist,  none  is  more  injurious  to 
the  church,  (that  is,  of  Rome,)  for  three  rea- 
sons :  1.  Because  it  is  more  ancient.  Some 
say  it  has  continued  from  the  time  of  Silves- 
ter ;  others  from  the  time  of  the  Apostles.  2. 
Because  it  is  more  general.  There  is  scarcely 
any  country  into  which  this  sect  has  not  crept. 
3.  Because  all  other  heretics  excite  horror  by 
the  greatness  of  their  blasphemies  against  God  ; 
but  these  have  a  great  appearance  of  piety,  as 
they  live  justly  before  men,  and  believe  rightly 
all  things  concerning  God,  and  all  the  articles 
which  are  contained  in  the  creed." 

WAR,  or  WARFARE,  the  attempt  to  decide 
a  contest  or  difference  between  princes,  states, 
or  large  bodies  of  people,  by  resorting  to  ex- 
tensive acts  of  violence,  or,  as  the  phrase  is,  by 
an  appeal  to  arms.  The  Hebrews  were  for- 
merly a  very  warlike  nation.  The  books  that 
inform  us  of  their  wars  display  neither  igno- 
rance nor  flattery ;  but  are  writings  inspired 
by  the  Spirit  of  truth  and  wisdom.  Their 
warriors  were  none  of  those  fabulous  heroes  or 
professed  conquerors,  whose  business  it  was 
to  ravage  cities  and  provinces,  and  to  reduce 
foreign  nations  under  their  dominion,  merely 
for  the  sake  of  governing,  or  purchasing  a 
name  for  themselves.  They  were  commonly 
wise  and  valiant  generals,  raised  up  by  God 
"to  fight   the  battles  of  the   Lord,"   and  to 


exterminate  his  enemies.  Such  were  Joshua, 
Caleb,  Gideon,  Jephthah,  Sartison,  David, 
Josiah,  and  the  Maccabees,  whose  names  alone 
are  their  own  sufficient  encomiums.  Their 
wars  were  not  undertaken  upon  slight  occa- 
sions, or  performed  with  a  handful  of  people. 
Under  Joshua  the  affair  was  of  no  less  import- 
ance than  to  make  himself  master  of  a  vast 
country  which  God  had  given  up  to  him ;  and 
to  root  out  several  powerful  nations  that 
God  had  devoted  to  an  anathema  ;  and 
to  vindicate  an  offended  Deity,  and  human 
nature  which  had  been  debased  by  a  wicked 
and  corrupt  people,  who  had  filled  up  the 
measure  of  their  iniquities.  Under  the  Judges, 
the  matter  was  to  assert  their  liberty,  by  shaking 
oft' the  yoke  of  powerful  tyrants,  who  kept  them 
in  subjection.  Under  Saul  and  David  the  same 
motives  prevailed  to  undertake  war  ;  and  to 
these  were  added  a  farther  motive,  of  making 
a  conquest  of  such  provinces  as  God  had  pro- 
mised to  his  people.  Far  was  it  from  their 
intention  merely  to  reduce  the  power  of  the 
Philistines,  the  Ammonites,  the  Moabites,  the 
Idumeans,  the  Arabians,  the  Syrians,  and  the 
several  princes  that  were  in  possession  of  those 
countries.  In  the  later  times  of  the  kingdoms 
of  Israel  and  Judah,  we  observe  their  kings 
bearing  the  shock  of  the  greatest  powers  of 
Asia,  of  the  kings  of  Assyria  and  Chaldea, 
Shahnaneser,  Sennacherib*  Esarhaddon,  and 
Nebuchadnezzar,  who  made  the  whole  east 
tremble.  Under  the  Maccabees  a  handful  of 
men  opposed  the  whole  power  of  the  kings  of 
Syria,  and  against  them  maintained  the  religion 
of  their  fathers,  and  shook  off"  the  yoke  of  their 
oppressors,  who  had  a  design  both  against  their 
religion  and  liberty.  In  still  later  times,  with 
what  courage,  intrepidity,  and  constancy,  did 
they  sustain  the  war  against  the  Romans,  who 
were  then  masters  of  the  world! 

We  may  distinguish  two  kinds  of  wars 
among  the  Hebrews  :  some  were  of  obligation, 
as  being  expressly  commanded  by  the  Lord ; 
but  others  were  free  and  voluntary.  The  first 
were  such  as  God  appointed  them  to  undertake  : 
for  example,  against  the  Amalekites  and  the 
Oanaanites,  which  were  nations  devoted  to  an 
anathema.  The  others  were  undertaken  by 
the  captains  of  the  people,  to  revenge  some 
injuries  offered  to  the  nation,  to  punish  some 
insults  or  offences,  or  to  defend  their  allies. 
Such  was  that  which  the  Hebrews  made  against 
the  city  of  Gibeah,  and  against  the  tribe  of 
Benjamin,  which  would  support  them  in  their 
fault ;  that  which  David  made  against  the 
Ammonites,  whose  king  had  affronted  his 
ambassadors ;  and  that  of  Joshua  against  the 
kings  of  the  Canaanites,  to  protect  the  Gibe- 
onites.  Whatever  reasons  authorize  a  nation 
or  a  prince  to  make  war  against  another,  ob- 
tained, likewise,  among  the  Hebrews  ;  for  all 
the  laws  of  Moses  suppose  that  the  Israelites 
might  make  war,  and  might  defend  themselves, 
against  their  enemies.  When  a  war  was  re- 
solved upon,  all  the  people  that  were  capable 
of  bearing  arms  were  collected  together,  or 
only  part  of  them,  according  as  the  exigence 
of  the  existing  case  and  the  necessity  and  im- 


WAR 


948 


WAR 


poiuurr  of  the  enterprise  reouired).     Tor  it 

,.i  appear  that,  before  the  reign  ol  King 
there  were  inj  regular  troops  or  i 
I    .,, -i.     \   general   rendezvpue  was 
appointed,  .i  review  was  made  of  the  people  by 

and  bj  families,  and  then  tnay  marched 

f.     When  Saul,  at  the  begin- 

of  hia  reign,  waa  informed  of  the  cruel 

..,1  ihal  the  Ammonites  had  made  to  the 
men  of  the  *  it y  of  Jabeah-Gilead,  he  cut  in 

the  oxen  belonging  to  his  plough,  and 

•  „.,„  through  the  country,  saying,  "  Who- 

s.„  rer  cometh  not  forth  after"  Saul  and  Samuel, 

to  the  relief  of  Jabesh-Gilead,  so  shall  it  be 

tlone  unto  Ins  oxen,"  1  Bam.  xi,  V.     In  ancient 

tho  e  that  went  to  war  generally  carried 

own  provieiona  along  with  them,  or  they 

them  from  the  enemy.     Hence  these  wars 

were  gem  rally  of  short  continuance ;  because  it 

ible  l"  subsist  a  large  body  of 

for  a  Long  time  with  such  provisions  as 

.  one  carried  along  with  him.     W  hen  Da- 

\ni,  Jesse's  youngi  r  son,  stayed  behind  to  look 

after  his  father's  docks  while  his  ekier  brothers 

went  to  the  wars  along  with  Saul,.!  esse  scut  Da- 

vid  to  carry  provieiona  to  his  brothers,  1  Sam. 

wii,  13.     We  auppoee  that  this  way  of  making 

war  prevailed  also  under  Joshua,  the  Judges, 

Saul,  David  at  the  beginning  of  his  reign,  the 

kings  of  Judah  and  Israel  who  were  successors 

m  IvcIioIio.hu  and  Jeroboam,  and  under  the  Mac- 

.  till  the  lime,  of  Simon  Macraba-us\ 
prince  ami  high  priest  of  tho  Jews,  who  had 
mercenary  troops,  that  is,  soldiers  who  received 
pay,  I  Mac  xiv,  32.  Every  one  also  provided 
his  own  arms  for  the  war.     The  kings  of  the 

ws  went  to  the  wars  in  person,  and,  in 
earlier  times,  fought  on  foot,  as  well  as  the 
meanest  of  their  soldiers  ;  no  horses  being  Hi  ed 
in  the  armies  of  Israel  before  David.  The 
officers  of  war  among  the  Hebrews  were  the 
general  of  the  army,  and  the  princes  of  the 
tribes  or  of  the  families  of  Israel,  beside  other 
princes  or  caplains,  some  of  a  thousand,  some 
of  a  hundred,  some  of  fifty,  and  some  of  ten, 
men  They  had  also  I  heir  scribes,  who  were  a 
Kind  of  commissaries  that  kept  tho  muster  roll 
of  the  troops  ;  and  these  had  others  under 
them  vsli<>  acted  by  their  direction. 

Military  fortifications  were  at  first  nothing 
more  than  a  trench  or  ditch,  dug  round  a  few 
cottages  on  a  hill  or  mountain,  together  with 
the  mound,  w  Inch  was  formed  by  the  sand  dug 
out  of  it;  except,  perhaps,  there  might  have 
■ometimea  been  an  elevated  scaffolding  for  the 
purpose  of  throwing  stones  with  the  greater 

effect  BO  met  the  enemy.      In  the  ape  of  Moses 

U    lei  i,  the  walls  which  surrounded  cities 

'-d  to  no  inconsiderable  height,  and 

furnished  with  towers.    The  art,  of  forti- 

I  and  patronised  by  tho 

Hebrew  king  ,  and  Jerusalem  was  always  well 
iDy    Mount    /.ion.      \n   i,m.,- 

the    temple    Uself   was    ipcd    as    a,    castle. 

The  principal  parts  of  a  fortification  were,   1. 

'••ill,  which,  in  some  in   i  triple 

iiiH  doable,  2  Ohrou.  tsxxii,  .V      Wall 

aouly  made  lofty  and  baoad 
neither  readily  pa  oJ  en  through, 


Jer.  li,  58.     The  main  wall  terminated  at  the 
top  in  a  parapet  for  the  accommodation  of  the 
loldiers,  which  opened  at  intervals  in  a  sort  of 
embrasures,  so  as  to  give  them  an  opportunity 
of  fighting  with  missile  weapons.     2.  Towers, 
which  were  erected  at  certain  distances  from 
each  other  on  the  top  of  walls,  and  ascended 
to  a  great  height,  terminated  at  the  top  in  a 
(hit  roof,  and  were  surrounded  with  a  parapet, 
which  exhibited  openings  similar  to  those  in 
the  parapet  of  the  walls.     Towers  of  this  kind 
were  erected,  likewise,  over  the  gates  of  cities. 
In  these  towers  guards  were  kept  constantly 
stationed ;  at  least,   this  was  the  case  in  the 
time  of  the  kings.     It  was  their  business  to 
make  known  any  thing  that  they  discovered  at 
a   distance ;    and  whenever   they  noticed    an 
irruption  from  an  enemy,  they  blew  the  trumpet, 
to  arouse  the  citizens,  2  Sam.  xiii,  34 ;  xviii, 
26,  27  ;  2  Kings  ix,  17-19 ;  Nahum  ii,  1  ;  2 
Chron.  xvii,  2.     Towers,  likewise,  which  wero 
somewhat  larger  in  size,  were  erected  in  dif- 
ferent  parts    of  the   country,   particularly  on 
places  which  were  elevated ;  and   these  were 
guarded  by  a  military  force,  Judges  viii,  9,  17 ; 
ix,   46,    49,    51  ;    Isaiah    xxi,  6 ;    Hab.    ii,    1  ; 
Hosea  v,  8 ;  Jer.  x.xxi,   6.     Wo  find,  even  to- 
this  day,  that  the  circular  edifices  of  this  sort, 
which  arc  still  erected  in  the  solitudes  of  Arabia 
Felix,  bear  their  ancient  name  of  castles  or 
towers.     3.  The  walls  were  erected  in  such  a 
way  as  to  curve  inward ;  the  extremities  of 
them,  consequently,    projected    outward,   and 
formed    a   kind   of  bastions.     The   object   of 
forming  the  walls  so  as  to  present  such  pro 
jections,  was  to  enable  the  inhabitants  of  the 
besieged  city  to  attack  the  assailants  in  flank. 
We  learn  from  the  history  of  Tacitus,  that  the 
walls  of  Jerusalem,  at  the   time  of  its  being 
attacked    by  the  Romans,  were   built  in   this 
manner.     These   projections  were  introduced 
by  King  Uzziah,  B.C.  810,  and  are  subsequently 
mentioned  in  Zeph.  i,  16.     4.  The  digging  of 
a  fosse  put  it  in  the  power  of  the  inhabitants 
of  a  city  to  increase  the  elevation  of  Hie  walls, 
and   of  itself  threw  a  serious  difficulty  in  the 
way  of  an  enemy's  approach,  2  Sam.  xx,  15  ; 
Isaiah  xxvi,  1;  Neh.  iii,  8;  Psalm  xlviii,  13. 
The  fosse,  if  the  situation  of  the  place  admitted 
it,  was  filled  with  water.     This  was  the  case 
at  Babylon.     5.  The  gates  were  at  first  made 
of  wood,  and  were  small  in  size.     They  were 
constructed  in  the  manner  of  valve  doors,  and 
were  secured  by  means  of  wooden  bars.     Sub- 
sequently, they  wero  made  larger  and  stronger  ; 
and,  in  order  to  prevent  their  being  burned,  were 
covered  with    plates  of  brass   or    iron.     Tho 
bars   were    covered    in  the   same    manner,  in 
order  to  prevent  their  being  cut  asunder ;  but 
i!  was  sometimes  the  case  that  they  were  made 
wholly  of  iron.     The  bars  were  secured  by  a 
sort  of  lock,  Psalm  cvii,  16  ;  Isaiah  xlv,  9, 

Previously  to  commencing  war,  the  Hea- 
then nations  consulted  oracles,  soothsa)'ers, 
Miners,  and  also  the.  lot,  which  was 
lined  by  shooting  arrows  of  different 
colours,  1  Sam.  Jtxviii,  1-10  ;  Isaiah  xli,  21-24  : 
I'zek.  .wv,  II.  The  Hebrews,  to  whom  thine, 
of  thio  kind  were  interdicted,  were  in  the  habii 


WAR 


949 


WAT 


m  the  early  part  of  their  history,  of  inquiring 
of  God  by  means  of  Uriffl  and  Thumniim, 
Judges  i,  1 ;  xx,  27,  28  ;  1  Sam.  xxiii,  2  ;  xxviii, 
6  ;  xxx,  8.  After  the  time  of  David,  the  kings 
who  reigned  in  Palestine  consulted,  according 
to  the  different  characters  which  they  sustained, 
and  the  feelings  which  they  exercised,  some- 
times true  prophets,  and  sometimes  false,  in 
respect  to  the  issue  of  war,  1  Kings  xxii,  G-13  ; 

2  Kings  xix,  2,  &c.  Sacrifices  were  also  offered, 
in  reference  to  which  the  soldiers  were  said  to 
consecrate  themselves  to  the  war,  Isaiah  xiii, 

3  ;  Jer.  vi,  4  ;  li,  27 ;  Joel  iii,  9  ;  Obad.  1.  There 
are  instances  of  formal  declarations  of  war,  and 
somotiines  of  previous  negotiations,  2  Kings 
xiv,  8 ;  2  Chron.  xxv,  27 ;  Judges  xi,  12-28 ; 
but  ceremonies  of  this  kind  were  not  always 
observed,  2  Sam.  x,  1-12.  When  the  enemy 
made  a  sudden  incursion,  or  when  the  war  was 
unexpectedly  commenced,  the  alarm  was  given 
to  the  people  by  messengers  rapidly  sent  forth, 
by  the  sound  of  warlike  trumpets,  by  standards 
floating  on  the  loftiest  places,  by  the  clamour 
of  many  voices  on  the  mountains,  that  echoed 
from  summit  to  summit,  Judges  iii,  27  ;  vi,  34; 
vii,  22;  xix,  29,  30;  1  Sam.  xi,  7,  8;  Isaiah 
v,  26 ;  xiii,  2 ;  xviii,  3  ;  xxx,  17  ;  xlix,  2 ;  lxii,  10. 
Military  expeditions  commonly  commenced  in 
the  spring,  2  Sam.  xi,  1,  and  were  continued  in 
the  summer,  but  in  the  winter  the  soldiers  went 
into  quarters.  The  firm  persuasion  that  God 
fights  for  the  good  against  the  wicked,  discovers 
itself  in  the  Old  Testament,  and  accounts  for 
the  fact,  that,  not  only  in  the  Hebrew,  but  also 
in  the  Arabic,  Syriac,  and  Chaldaic  languages, 
words,  which  originally  signify  justice,  inno- 
cence, or  uprightness,  signify  likewise  victory ; 
and  that  words,  whose  usual  meaning  is  injus- 
tice or  wickedness,  also  mean  defeat  or  over- 
throw. The  same  may  be  said  in  respect  to 
words  which  signify  help  or  aid,  inasmuch  as 
the  nation  which  conquered  received  aid  from 
God,  and  God  was  its  helper,  Psalm  vii,  9 ;  ix, 
9  ;  xx,  6 ;  xxvi,  1  ;  xxxv,  24  ;  xliii,  1 ;  xliv,  5  ; 
Ixxv,  3  ;  lxxvi,  13  ;  lxxviii,  9  ;  Ixxxii,  8  ;  1  Sam. 
xiv,  45  ;  2  Kings  v,  1 ;  Isa.  lix,  17  ;  Hab.  iii,  8. 

The  attack  of  the  orientals  in  battle  has 
always  been,  and  is  to  this  day,  characterized 
by  vehemence  and  impetuosity.  In  case  the 
enemy  sustain  an  unaltered  front,  they  retreat, 
but  it  is  not  long  before  they  return  again  with 
renewed  ardour.  It  was  the-  practice  of  the 
Roman  armies  to  stand  still  in  the  order  of 
battle,  and  to  receive  the  shock  of  their  op- 
posers.  To  this  practice  there  are  allusions  in 
the  following  passages :  1  Cor.  xvi,  13 ;  Gal. 
v,  1 ;  Eph.  vi,  14 ;  Phil,  i,  27 ;  1  Thess.  iii,  8 ; 
2  Thess.  ii,  15.  The  Greeks,  while  they  were 
yet  three  or  four  furlongs  distant  from  the 
enemy,  commenced  the  song  of  war;  some- 
thing resembling  which  occurs  in  2  Chron.  xx, 
21.  They  then  raised  a  shout,  which  was  also 
done  among  the  Hebrews,  1  Sam.  xvii,  52 ; 
Joshua  vi,  6 ;  Isa.  v,  29,  30  ;  xvii,  12  ;  Jer.  iv, 
19  ;  xxv,  30.  The  war  shout  in  Judges  vii,  20, 
was  as  follows,  "  The  sword  of  the  Lord  and 
of  Gideon."  In  some  instances  it  seems  to  have 
been  a  mere  yell  or  inarticulate  cry.  The  mere 
inarch  of  armies  with  thoir  weapons,  chariots, 


and  trampling  coursers,  occasioned  a  great  and 
confused  noise,  which  is  compared  by  the  pro- 
phets to  the  roaring  of  the  ocean,  and  the  dash- 
ing of  the  mountain  torrents,  Isa.  xvii,  12,  13  ; 
xxvii,  2.  The  descriptions  of  battles  in  the 
Bible  are  very  brief;  but  although  there  is 
nothing  especially  said,  in  respect  to  the  order 
in  which  the  battle  commenced  and  was  con- 
ducted, there  is  hardly  a  doubt  that  the  light- 
armed  troops,  as  was  the  case  in  other  nations, 
were  the  first  in  the  engagement.  The  main 
body  followed  them,  and,  with  their  spears  ex- 
tended, made  a  rapid  and  impetuous  movement 
upon  the  enemy.  Hence  swiftness  of  foot  in 
a  soldier  is  mentioned  as  a  ground  of  great 
commendation,  not  only  in  Homer,  but  in  the 
Bible,  2  Sam.  ii,  19-24 ;  1  Chron.  xii,  8 ;  Psalm 
xviii,  33.  Those  who  obtained  the  victory 
were  intoxicated  with  joy ;  the  shout  of  tri- 
umph resounded  from  mountain  to  mountain, 
Isa.  xiii,  11 ;  Iii,  7,  8  ;  Jer.  1,  2 ;  Ezek.  vii,  7 ; 
Nahum  i,  15.  The  whole  of  the  people,  not 
excepting  the  women,  went  out  to  meet  the 
returning  conquerors  with  singing  and  with 
dancing,  Judges  xi,  34—37 ;  1  Sam.  xviii,  6,  7. 
Triumphal  songs  were  uttered  for  the  living, 
and  elegies  for  the  dead,  2  Sam.  i,  17,  18 ; 
2  Chron.  xxxv,  25 ;  Judges  v,  1-31 ;  Exod.  xv, 
1-21.  Monuments  in  honour  of  the  victory  were 
erected,  2  Sam.  viii,  13;  Psalm  lx,  1 ;  and  the 
arms  of  the  enemy  were  hung  up  as  trophies  in 
the  tabernacle,  1  Sam.  xxxi,  10  ;  2  Kings  xi,  10. 
The  soldiers  who  conducted  themselves  meri- 
toriously were  honoured  with  presents,  and 
had  the  opportunity  of  entering  into  honourable 
matrimonial  connections,  Joshua  xiv  ;  1  Sam. 
xvii,  25;  xxviii,  17;  2  Sam.  xviii,  11.  See 
Armies,  and  Arms. 

WATER.  In  the  sacred  Scriptures,  bread 
and  water  are  commonly  mentioned  as  the 
chief  supports  of  human  life  ;  and  to  provide 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  water,  to  prepare  it  for 
use,  and  to  deal  it  out  to  the  thirsty,  are  among 
the  principal  cares  of  an  oriental  householder. 
The  Moabites  and  Ammonites  are  reproached 
for  not  meeting  the  Israelites  with  bread  and 
water  ;  that  is,  with  proper  refreshments,  Deut. 
xxxiii,  4.  Nabal  says  in  an  insulting  manner 
to  David's  messengers,  "  Shall  I  then  take  my 
bread  and  my  water,  and  my  flesh  that  I  have 
killed  for  my  shearers,  and  give  it  unto  men 
whom  I  know  not  whence  they  be  ?"  I  Sam. 
xxv,  11.  To  furnish  travellers  with  water  is, 
even  in  present  times,  reckoned  of  so  great  im- 
portance, that  many  of  the  eastern  philanthro- 
pists have  been  at  considerable  expense  to 
procure  them  that  enjoyment.  The  nature  of 
the  climate,  and  the  general  aspect  of  the  ori 
ental  regions,  require  numerous  fountains  to 
excite  and  sustain  the  languid  powers  of  vege- 
tation ;  and  the  sun,  burning  with  intense  heat 
in  a  cloudless  sky,  demands  for  the  fainting 
inhabitants  the  verdure,  shade,  and  coolness 
which  vegetation  produces.  Hence  fountains 
of  living  water  are  met  with  in  the  towns  and 
villages,  in  the  fields  and  gardens,  and  by  the 
sides  of  the  roads  and  of  the  beaten  tracks  on 
the  mountains ;  and  a  cup  of  cold  water  from 
these  wells  is  no  contemptible  oresent.     "  Fa- 


WAT 


950 


WAY 


tifrucJ  with  heat  and  thirst,"  MJfl  Carno,  "we 

to  ■  Pew  cottages  in  a  palm  wood,  and 

■topped   to   drink    of  a    fountain    of  delicious 

In  tins  northern  climate  no  idea  can 

mad  of  the  luxury  of  drinking  in  Egypt: 
little  appetite  for  food  is  felt;  but  when,  after 
crowning  the  burning  sands,  you  reach  the  rich 
line  of  woods  on  the  brink  of  the  Nile,  and 
pluck  the  fresh  limes,  and,  mixing  their  juice 
with  Egyptian  sugar  and  the  soft  river  water, 
drink  repeated  bowls  of  lemonade,  you  feel 
that  every  other  pleasure  of  the  senses  must 
yield  to  this  One  then  perceives  the  beauty 
and  forco  of  thoso  similes  in  Scripture,  where 
the  sweetest  emotions  of  the  heart  are  com- 
pared to  the  assuaging  of  thirst  in  a  thirsty 
land."  In  Arabia,  equal  attention  is  paid,  by 
the  wealthy  and  benevolent,  to  the  refreshment 
of  the  traveller.  On  one  of  the  mountains  of 
Arabia,  Niebuhr  found  three  little  reservoirs, 
which  are  always  kept  full  of  line  water  for 
the  use  of  passengers.  These  reservoirs,  which 
are  about  two  feet  and  a  half  square,  and  from 
rive  to  seven  feet  high,  are  round,  or  pointed 
at  the  top,  of  mason's  work,  having  only  a 
email  opening  in  one  of  the  sides,  by  which 
they  pour  water  into  them.  Sometimes  he 
found,  near  these  places  of  Arab  refreshment, 
a  piece  of  a  ground  shell,  or  a  little  scoop  of 
wood,  for  lifting  the  water.  The  same  atten- 
tion to  the  comfort  of  travellers  is  manifested 
in  Egypt,  where  public  buildings  are  set  apart 
in  some  of  their  cities,  the  business  of  whose 
inhabitants  is  to  supply  the  passengers  with 
water  free  of  expense.  Some  of  these  houses 
make  a  very  handsome  appearance ;  and  the 
persons  appointed  to  wait  on  the  passengers 
are  required  to  have  some  vessels  of  copper, 
curiously  tinned  and  filled  with  water,  always 
ready  on  the  window  next  the  street.  Some 
of  the  Mohammedan  villages  in  Palestine,  not 
far  from  Nazareth,  brought  Mr.  Buckingham 
and  his  party  bread  and  water,  while  on  horse- 
back, without  even  being  solicited  to  do  so ; 
and  when  they  halted  to  accept  it,  both  com- 
pliments and  blessings  were  mutually  inter- 
changed. "Here,  as  in  every  other  part  of 
Nubia,"  says  Burckhardt,  "  the  thirsty  travel- 
ler finds,  at  short  distances,  water  jars  placed 
by  the  road  bide  under  a  low  roof.  Every  vil- 
lage pays  a  small  monthly  stipend  to  some 
person  to  fill  these  jars  in  the  morning,  and 
again  toward  evening.  The  same  custom  pre- 
vails in  Upper  Egypt,  but  on  a  larger  scale  : 
and  there  an  caravanserais  often  found  near 
the  wells  which  supply  travellers  with  water." 
In  India  the  Hindoos  go  sometimes  a  great 
way  to  fetch  water,  and  t li.-n  boil  it,  that  it. 
may  not  be  hurtful  to  travellers  that  arc  hot; 
and  after  this  stand  from  morning  till  night  in 
nome  great  road,  where  there  is  neither  pit  nor 
rivulet,  and  otter  it  in  honour  of  their  gods,  to 
be  drunk  by  the  passengers.  This  necessary 
work  of  charity  in  these  hot  countries  seems 
to  have  been  practised  among  the  more  pious 
and  humane  Jews;  and  our  Lord  assures  them, 
that  if  they  do  this  in  his  name,  they  shall  not 
lose  their  reward.  Hence  a  cup  of  water  is  a 
P"-MMit  ,n  tb  ca«t  of  great  value,  though  there 


are  some  other  refreshments  of  a  superior 
quality.  It  is  still  the  proper  business  of  the 
females  to  supply  the  family  with  water. 
From  this  drudgery,  however,  the  married 
women  are  exempted,  unless  when  single 
women  are  wanting.  The  proper  time  for 
drawing  water  in  those  burning  climates  is  in 
the  morning,  or  when  the  sun  is  going  down ; 
then  they  go  forth  to  perform  that  humble 
office  adorned  with  their  trinkets,  some  of 
which  arc  often  of  great  value.  Agreeably  to 
this  custom  Rebecca  went  instead  of  her  mother 
to  fetch  water  from  the  well,  and  the  servant 
of  Abraham  expected  to  meet  an  unmarried 
female  there  who  might  prove  a  suitable  match 
for  his  master's  son.  In  the  East  Indies,  the 
women  also  draw  water  at  the  public  wells,  as 
Rebecca  did,  on  that  occasion,  for  travellers, 
their  servants  and  their  cattle  ;  and  women  of 
no  mean  rank  literally  illustrate  the  conduct 
of  an  unfortunate  princess  in  the  Jewish  his- 
tory, by  performing  the  services  of  a  menial, 
2  Sam.  xiii,  8.  The  young  women  of  Guzerat 
daily  draw  water  from  the  wells,  and  carry  the 
jars  upon  the  head ;  but  those  of  high  rank 
carry  them  upon  the  shoulder.  In  the  same 
way  Rebecca  carried  her  pitcher ;  and  probably 
for  the  same  reason,  because  she  was  the  daugh- 
ter of  an  eastern  prince,  Gen.  xxiv,  45. 

Water  sometimes  signifies  the  element  of 
water,  Gen.  i,  10 ;  and  metaphorically,  trouble 
and  afflictions,  Psalm  lxix,  1.  In  the  language 
of  the  prophets,  waters  often  denote  a  great 
multitude  of  people,  Isa.  viii,  7  ;  Rev.  xvii,  15. 
Water  is  put  for  children  or  posterity,  Num. 
xxiv,  7  ;  Isa.  xlviii,  1 ;  for  the  clouds,  Psalm 
civ,  3.  Waters  sometimes  stand  for  tears,  Jer. 
ix,  1,  7  ;  for  the  ordinances  of  the  Gospel,  Isa. 
xii,  3 ;  xxxv,  6,  7 ;  lv,  1 ;  John  vii,  37,  38. 
"Stolen  waters"  denote  unlawful  pleasures 
with  strange  women,  Prov.  ix,  17.  The  Is- 
raelites are  reproached  with  having  forsaken 
the  fountain  of  living  water,  to  quench  their 
thirst  at  broken  cisterns,  Jer.  ii,  13 ;  that  is, 
with  having  quitted  the  worship  of  God  for  the 
worship  of  false  and  ridiculous  deities.  Waters 
of  Meribah,  or  the  waters  of  strife,  were  so 
called  because  of  the  quarrelling  or  contention 
and  murmuring  of  the  Israelites  against  Mo- 
ses and  against  God.  When  they  came  to 
Kadesh,  and  there  happened  to  be  in  want 
of  water,  they  made  a  sedition  against  him  and 
his  brother  Aaron,  Numbers  xx,  1,  &c.  Upon 
this  occasion  Moses  committed  that  great  sin 
with  which  God  was  so  much  displeased,  that 
he  deprived  him  of  the  honour  of  introducing 
his  people  into  the  land  of  promise. 

WAX,  Jjn,  Psalm  xxii,  14;  lxviii,  2;  xcvii, 
5 ;  Micah  i,  4.  Thus  the  LXX.  throughout, 
<c>jp<K,  and  vulgate  cera ;  so  there  is  no  room  to 
doubt  but  this  is  the  t  rue  meaning  of  the  word  : 
and  the  idea  of  the  root  appears  to  be  soft, 
melting,  yielding,  or  the  like,  which  properties 
are  not  only  well  known  to  belong  to  wax,  but 
are  also  intimated  in  all  the  passages  of  Scrip- 
ture in  which  this  word  occurs. 

WAYFARING  MEN.  In  the  primitive 
ages  of  the  world  there  were  no  public  inns  or 
taverns.      In  those   days   the  voluntary  exhi- 


WAY 


951 


WAY 


ijition  of  hospitality  to  one  who  (stood  in  need 
of  it  was  highly  honourable.  The  glory  of  an 
open-hearted  and  generous  hospitality  con- 
tinued  even  after  public  inns  or  caravanserais 
were  erected,  and  continues  to  this  day  in  the 
east,  Job  xxii,  7 ;  xxxi,  17 ;  Gen.  xviii,  3-9 ; 
xix,  2-10  ;  Exodus  ii,  20  ;  Judges  xix,  2-10  ; 
Acts  xvi,  15 ;  xvii,  7 ;  xxviii,  7 ;  Matt,  xxv, 
35;  Mark  ix,  41 ;  Rom.  xii,  13  ;  1  Tim.  iii,  2; 
v,  10  ;  Heb.  xiii,  2.  Buckingham  in  his  "  Tra- 
vels among  the  Arab  Tribes,"  says,  "  A  foot 
passenger  could  make  his  way  at  little  or  no 
expense,  as  travellers  and  wayfarers  of  every 
description  halt  at  the  sheikh's  dwelling,  where, 
whatever  may  be  the  rank  or  condition  of  the 
stranger,  before  any  questions  are  asked  him 
as  to  where  he  comes  from,  or  whither  he  is 
going,  coffee  is  served  to  him  from  a  large  pot 
always  on  the  fire ;  and  a  meal  of  bread,  milk, 
oil,  honey,  or  butter,  is  set  before  him,  for 
which  no  payment  is  ever  demanded  or  even 
expected  by  the  host,  who,  in  this  manner, 
feeds  at  least  twenty  persons  on  an  average 
every  day  in  the  year  from  his  own  purse ;  at 
least,  I  could  not  learn  that  he  was  remune- 
rated in  any  manner  for  this  expenditure, 
though  it  is  considered  as  a  necessary  conse- 
quence of  his  situation,  as  chief  of  the  com- 
munity, that  he  should  maintain  this  ancient 
practice  of  hospitality  to  strangers. — We  had 
been  directed  to  the  house  of  Eesa,  or  Jesus. 
Our  horses  were  taken  into  the  court  yard  of 
the  house,  and  unburdened  of  their  saddles, 
without  a  single  question  being  asked  on  either 
side  ;  and  it  was  not  until  we  had  seated  our- 
selves that  our  intention  to  remain  here  for  the 
night  was  communicated  to  the  master  of  the 
house  :  so  much  is  it  regarded  a  matter  of 
course,  that  those  who  have  a  house  to  shelter 
themselves  in,  and  food  to  partake  of,  should 
share  those  comforts  with  wayfarers."  The 
passage  in  Isa.  xxxv,  8,  "  The  wayfaring  men, 
though  fools,  shall  not  err  therein,"  receives 
elucidation  from  some  of  the  accounts  of  mo- 
dern travellers.  Irwin,  speaking  of  iiis  pass- 
ing through  the  deserts  on  the  eastern  side  of 
the  Nile,  in  his  going  from  Upper  Egypt  to 
Cairo,  tells  us,  that,  after  leaving  a  certain 
valley,  which  he  mentions,  their  road  lay  over 
level  ground.  "  As  it  would  be  next  to  an 
impossibility  to  find  the  way  over  these  stony 
flats,  where  the  heavy  foot  of  a  camel  leaves 
no  impression,  the  different  bands  of  robbers," 
wild  Arabs,  he  means,  who  frequent  that  de- 
sert, "  have  heaped  up  stones  at  unequal  dis- 
tances for  their  direction  through  this  desert. 
We  have  derived  great  assistance  from  the 
robbers  in  this  respect,  who  are  our  guides 
when  the  marks  either  fail,  or  are  unintelligi- 
ble to  us."  "  It  was  on  the  24th  of  March," 
says  Hoste,  "  that  I  departed  from  Alexandria 
for  Rosetta :  it  was  a  good  day's  journey 
thither,  over  a  level  country,  but  a  perfect  de- 
sert,  so  that  the  wind  plays  with  the  sand,  and 
there  is  no  trace  of  a  road.  We  travel  first 
six  leagues  along  the  sea  coast;  but  when 
we  leave  this,  it  is  about  six  leagues  more 
to  Rosetta,  and  from  thence  to  the  town 
there  are    high    stone   or    hark    pillars,   in    a 


line,  according  to  which  travellers  direct  their 
journey." 

WAYS,  in  Scripture,  means  conduct :  for 
example  :  "  Make  your  paths  straight."  The 
paths  of  the  wicked  are  crooked.  To  forsake 
the  ways  of  the  Lord,  is  to  forsake  his  laws. 
Ways  also  signifies  custom,  manners,  and  way 
of  life  :  "  All  flesh  had  corrupted  his  way  upon 
the  earth,"  Gen.  vi,  12  ;  xix,  31  ;  Jer.  xxxii,  19. 
The  way  of  the  Lord  expresses  his  conduct  to 
us :  "  My  thoughts  are  not  your  thoughts, 
neither  are  your  ways  my  ways,  saith  the 
Lord,"  Isa.  Iv,  8.  We  find  through  the  whole 
of  Scripture  this  kind  of  expressions  :  The  way 
of  peace,  of  justice,  of  iniquity,  of  truth,  of 
darkness.  To  go  the  way  of  all  the  earth, 
Joshua  xxiii,  14,  signifies  dying  and  the  grave. 
A  hard  way  represents  the  way  of  sinners,  a 
way  of  impiety,  Judges  ii,  19.  Jesus  Christ  is 
called  the  Way,  John  xiv,  6,  because  it  is  by 
him  alone  that  believers  obtain  eternal  life,  and 
an  entrance  into  heaven.  The  psalmist  says, 
"Thou  wilt  show  me  the  path  of  life,"  Psalm 
xvi,  11  ;  that  is,  Thou  wilt  raise  my  body  from 
death  to  life,  and  conduct  me  to  the  place  and 
state  of  everlasting  happiness.  When  a  great 
prince  in  the  east  sets  out  on  a  journey,  it  is 
usual  to  send  a  party  of  men  before  him,  to 
clear  the  way.  The  state  of  those  countries 
in  every  age,  where  roads  are  almost  unknown, 
and,  from  the  want  of  cultivation,  in  many 
parts  overgrown  with  brambles,  and  other 
thorny  plants,  which  renders  travelling,  espe- 
cially with  a  large  retinue,  very  incommodious, 
requires  this  precaution.  The  emperor  of  Hin- 
dostan,  in  his  progress  through  his  dominions, 
as  described  in  the  narrative  of  Sir  Thomas 
Roe's  embassy  to  the  court  of  Delhi,  was  pre- 
ceded by  a  very  great  company,  sent  before 
him  to  cut  up  the  trees  and  bushes,  to  level 
and  smooth  the  road,  and  prepare  their  place 
of  encampment.  Balin,  who  swayed  the  im- 
perial sceptre  of  India,  had  five  hundred  chosen 
men,  in  rich  livery,  with  their  drawn  sabres, 
who  ran  before  him,  proclaiming  his  approach, 
and  clearing  the  way.  Nor  was  this  honour 
reserved  exclusively  for  the  reigning  emperor ; 
it  was  often  shown  to  persons  of  royal  birth. 
When  an  Indian  princess  made  a  visit  to  her 
father,  the  roads  were  directed  to  be  repaired, 
and  made  clear  for  her  journey ;  fruit  trees 
were  planted,  water  vessels  placed  in  the  road 
side,  and  great  illuminations  prepared  for  the 
occasion.  Mr.  Bruce  gives  nearly  the  same 
account  of  a  journey,  which  the  king  of  Abys- 
sinia made  through  a  part  of  his  dominions. 
The  chief  magistrate  of  every  district  through 
which  he  had  to  pass  was,  by  his  office, 
obliged  to  have  the  roads  cleared,  levelled,  and 
smoothed  ;  and  he  mentions,  that  a  magistrate 
of  one  of  the  districts,  having  failed  in  this 
part  of  his  duty,  wTas,  together  with  his  son, 
immediately  put  to  death  on  the  spot,  where  a 
thorn  happened  to  catch  the  garment,  and  in- 
terrupt for  a  moment  the  progress  of  his  majes- 
ty. This  custom  is  easily  recognized  in  that 
beautiful  prediction  :  "  The  voice  of  him  that 
crieth  in  the  wilderness,  Prepare  ye  the  way 
of  the  Lord,  make   straight  in  the  desert  a 


952 


WEE 


i    . .  .       Every  valley  Bball  be 

!  every  mountain  and  hill  .shall  hn 
Ul  low  ;  and  the  crooked  shall  be  made 
hi,  and  ili'-  rougli  places  plain;  and  the 
I    i,l  shall  be  revealed,  and  all 
ihall  see  u  together,  for  the  mouth  of  the 
[«a.  .\l,  3  •"..     We  shall 
be  able,  perhaps,  to  form  a  more  clear  and 
i.  from  the  arc,, nut  which  Piodorus 
of  the    man  his  of  S<  minimis,  the   cele- 
brated   queen    of    Babylon,    into    Media    and 
In  her  march  to  Eebaiane,  says  the 
historian,  she  same  to  the  Zareean  mountain, 
which,  extending  many  furlongs,   and  being 
full  of  craggy   precipioes  and  deep  hollows, 
could   not   be   passed   without   taking  a  great 
comp.  B       _  therefore  desirous  of  leaving 

an  everlasting  memorial  of  herself,  as  well  as  of 
shortening  the  way,  she  ordered  the.  precipices 
.  u,,w  n,  and  the  hollows  to  he  filled 
up;  and   at  great    expense  she   made  a  shorter 
and  more  expeditious  road;   which  to  this  day 
lied,   from  her,   the  road  of  Semiramis. 
.ir,|  she  went  into  Persia,  and  all  the 
countries  of  Asia  subject  to  her  domi- 
nion :  and  wherever  she  went,  she  ordered  the 
mountains  and  the  precipices  to  be  levelled, 
and  raised  causeways  in  the  plain  country,  and 
real   expense  made  ti;e  ways  passable. 
Whatever  may  be  in  this  story,  the  following 
statemenl  is  entitled  to  the  fullest  credit :  "All 
i  potentates  have  their  precursors  and  a 
number  bf  pioneers  to  (dear  the  road,  by  re- 
moving  obstacles,  and  tilling  up  the  ravines 
and   the  hollow   ways   in   their   route.      In   the 
of  Mogul  splendour,  the  emperor  caused 
the  hills  and  mountains  to  be  levelled,  and  the 
to   be  tilled   up  for  his  convenience. 
leautifully  illustrates  the  figurative  lan- 
guage in  the  approach  of  the  Prince  of  Peace, 
when  every  valley  shall  be  exalted,  and   every 
mountain  and  hill  shall  be  made  low,   and  the 
i  d  shall  be  made  straight,  and  the  rough 
plain." 
WEAVING.     The  combined   arts  of  spin- 
ning and  weaving  are  among  the  first  essen- 
i  civilized  society,  and  we  find  both  to 
he  of  very  ancient  origin.    The  fabulous  story 
i     u  lope's  web,  and,  still  more,  the  frequent 

allusions  to  this  art  in  the  sacred  writings,  tend 
■■    thai   the   fabrication    of  cloth  from 

threads,  hair,  \c,  is  ;i  very  ancient  invention. 
however,  like, other  useful  arts,  under, 
vast  succession  of  improvements,  both 

the  preparation  of  the  materials  of  which 

tie,  and  the  apparatus  necessary  in 

•  11  as  in  the  particular 

of  operation  by  the  artist.     Weaving, 

reduced  to  its  original  principle,  is  no. 

thing  more  than  the  interlacing  of  the  weft  or 

■  the  parallel  threads  of  the 

o  u  to  tie  them  together,  and  form  a 

I  piece  of.elotb.     Tins  art  is  doubtless 

"""■"'  lb  '  pinning;  and  the 

hat  we  noW  (.,.tn  matting,  thai 

"■■  togethei  the  Bhreds  of  the 

plants,  oi  the  stalks 

Phis  i 

BU  rude  and  Ba- 


vage  nations.  When  they  have  advanced  a 
step  farther  in  civilization  than  the  state  of 
hunters,  the  skins  of  animals  become  8i 
and  they  require  some  more  artificial  substance 
for  clothing,  and  which  they  can  procure  in 
greater  quantities.  When  it  was  discovered 
that  the  delicate  and  short  fibres  which  ani- 
mals and  vegetables  afford  could  be  so  firmly 
united  together  by  twisting,  as  to  form  threads 
of  any  required  length  and  strength,  the  weay. 
ing  art  was  placed  on  a  very  permanent  foun- 
dation. By  the  process  of  spinning,  which 
was  very  simple  in  the  origin,  the  weaver  is 
furnished  with  threads  far  superior  to  any  na- 
tural vegetable  fibres  in  lightness,  strength,  and 
flexibility ;  and  he  has  only  to  combine  them 
together  in  the  most  advantageous  manner. 
In  the  beautiful  description  which  is  given,  in 
the  last  chapter  of  Solomon's  Proverbs,  of  the 
domestic  economy  of  the  virtuous  woman,  it 
is  said,  "  She  seeketh  wool  and  flax,  and  work- 
eth  willingly  with  her  hands :  she  layeth  her 
hands  to  the  spindle,  and  her  hands  hold  the 
distaff".  She  maketh  herself  coverings  of  tapes- 
try," &c.  Such  is  the  occupation  of  females 
in  the  east  in  the  present  day.  Not  only  do 
they  employ  themselves  in  working  rich  em- 
broideries, but  in  making  carpets  filled  with 
llowers  and  other  pleasing  figures.  Dr.  Shaw 
gives  us  an  account  of  the  last:  "Carpets, 
which  are  much  coarser  than  those  from  Tur- 
key, arc  made  here  in  great  numbers,  and  of 
all  sizes.  But  the  chief  branch  of  their  manu- 
factories is  the  making  of  hyJies,  or  blankets, 
as  we  should  call  them.  The  women  alone 
are  employed  in  this  work,  (as  Andromache 
and  Penelope  were  of  old,)  who  do  not  use  the 
shuttle,  but  conduct  every  thread  of  the  woof 
with  their  fingers."  Hezekiah  says,  "  I  have 
cut  off  like  a  weaver  my  life,"  Isa.  xxxviii,  12. 
Mr.  Harmer  suggests  whether  the  simile  here 
used  may  not  refer  to  the  weaving  of  a  carpet 
filled  with  flowers  and  other  ingenious  devices  ; 
and  that  the  meaning  may  be,  that,  just  as  a 
weaver,  after  having  wrought  many  decora- 
tions into  a  piece  of  carpeting,  suddenly  cuts 
it  off,  while  the  figures  were  rising  into  view 
fresh  and  beautiful,  and  the  spectator  expecting 
he  would  proceed  in  his  work  ;  so,  after  a  vari- 
ety of  pleasing  transactions  in  the  course  of  life, 
it  suddenly  and  unexpectedly  conies  to  its  end. 
WEEKS.  A  period  of  seven  days,  under 
the  usual  name  of  a  week,  njQtf,  is  mentioned 
as  far  back  as  the  time  of  the  deluge,  Gen.  vii, 
4,  10 ;  viii,  10, 12  ;  xxix,  27,  28.  It  must,  there- 
fore, be  considered  a  very  ancient  division  of 
time,  especially  as  the  varhuis  nations  among 
whom  it  has  been  noticed,  for  instance,  the 
A'igri  in  Africa,  appear  to  have  received  it 
from  the  sons  of  Noah.  The  enumeration  of 
the  days  of  the  week  commenced  at  Sunday. 
Saturday  was  the  last  or  seventh,  and  was  the 
Hebrew  Sabbath,  or  day  of  rest.  The  Egyp- 
tians gave  to  the  days  of  the  week  the  samo 
names  that  they  assigned  to  the  planets. 
From  tin;  circumstance  that  the  Sabbath  was 
the  principal  day  of  the  week,  the  whole  period 
of  seven  days  was  likewise  called  riDit',  in  Sy- 
riac  NrotP,  in  the  New  Testament  ciMaroi*  and 


WEL 


953 


WEL 


L,d66uTa.  The  Jews,  accordingly,  in  designat- 
ing the  successive  days  of  the  week,  were  ac- 
customed to  say,  the  lirst  day  of  the  Sabbath, 
that  is,  of  the  week ;  the  second  day  of  the 
•Sabbath,  that  is,  Sunday,  Monday,  &c,  Mark 
xvi,  2,  9 ;  Luke  xxiv,  1 ;  John  xx,  i,  19.  In 
addition  to  the  week  of  days,  the  Jews  had 
three  other  seasons,  denominated  weeks,  Lev. 
xxv,  1-17  ;  Deut.  xvi,  9-10  :  1.  The  week  of 
weeks.  It  was  a  period  of  seven  weeks  or 
forty-nine  days,  which  was  succeeded  on  the 
fiftieth  day  by  the  feast  of  pentccost,  zsEvrr/Ko^r), 
"fifty,"  Deut.  xvi,  9,  10.  2.  The  week  of 
years.  This  was  a  period  of  seven  years,  du- 
ring the  last  of  which  the  land  remained  un- 
titled, and  the  people  enjoyed  a  Sabbath  or 
season  of  rest.  3.  The  week  of  seven  sabba- 
tical years.  It  was  a  period  of  forty-nine 
years,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  year  of  jubi- 
lee, Lev.  xxv,  1-22 ;  xxvi,  34.     See  Year. 

WEIGHTS.  See  "  Table  of  Weights  and 
Measures"  at  the  end  of  the  volume. 

WELLS.  When  the  pool,  the  fountain,  and 
the  river  fail,  the  oriental  shepherd  is  reduced 
to  the  necessity  of  digging  wells ;  and,  in  the 
patriarchal  age,  the  discovery  of  water  was 
reckoned  of  sufficient  importance  to  be  the 
subject  of  a  formal  report  to  the  master  of  the 
flock,  who  commonly  distinguished  the  spot 
by  an  appropriate  name.  A  remarkable  in- 
stance of  this  kind  is  recorded  by  Moses  in 
these  terms :  "  And  Isaac  departed  thence, 
and  pitched  his  tent  in  the  valley  of  Gerar, 
and  dwelt  there.  And  Isaac  digged  again  the 
wells  of  water  which  they  had  digged  in  the 
days  of  Abraham  his  father ;  for  the  Philis- 
tines had  stopped  them  after  the  death  of 
Abraham ;  and  he  called  their  names  after  the 
names  by  which  his  father  had  called  them. 
And  Isaac's  servcints  digged  in  the  valley,  and 
found  there  a  well  of  springing  water.  And 
the  herdmen  of  Gerar  did  strive  with  Isaac's 
herdmen,  saying,  The  water  is  ours ;  and  he 
called  the  name  of  the  well  Ezek,  because  they 
strove  with  him.  And  they  digged  another 
well ;  and  they  strove  for  that  also,  and  he 
called  the  name  of  it  Sitnah,  (opposition  ;)  and 
he  removed  from  thence  and  digged  another 
well:  and  for  that  they  strove  not;  and  he 
called  the  name  of  it  Rehoboth,  (room ;)  and 
he  said,  For  now  the  Lord  hath  made  room  for 
us,  and  we  shall  be  fruitful  in  the  land,"  Gen. 
xxvi,  17,  &c.  "Strife,"  says  Dr.  Richardson, 
"  between  the  different  villagers  and  the  differ- 
ent herdsmen  here,  exists  still,  as  it  did  in  the 
days  of  Abraham  and  Lot :  the  country  has 
often  changed  masters ;  but  the  habits  of  the 
natives,  both  in  this  and  other  respects,  have 
been  nearly  stationary."  So  important  was 
the  successful  operation  of  sinking  a  well  in 
Canaan,  that  the  sacred  historian  remarks  in 
another  passage:  "And  it  came  to  pass  the 
same  day,  (that  Isaac  and  Abimelecli  had  con- 
cluded their  treaty,)  that  Isaac's  servants  came 
and  told  him  concerning  the  well  which  they 
had  digged,  and  said  unto  him,  We  have  found 
water;  and  he  called  it  Shebah,  (the  oath,) 
therefore  the  name  of  the  city  is  Beershebah 
unto  this  day,"  Gen.  xxvi,  33.   To  prevent  the 


sand,  which  is  raised  from  the  parched  surface 
of  the  ground  by  the  winds,  from  filling  up 
their  wells,  they  were  obliged  to  cover  them 
with  a  stone.  Jn  this  manner  the  well  was 
covered,  from  which  the  Hocks  of  Laban  were 
commonly  watered :  and  the  shepherds,  care- 
ful not  to  leave  them  open  at  any  time,  pa- 
tiently waited  till  all  the  flocks  were  gathered 
together,  before  they  removed  the  covering, 
and  then,  having  drawn  a  sufficient  quantity 
of  water,  they  replaced  the  stone  immediately. 
The  extreme  scarcity  of  water  in  these  arid 
regions,  entirely  justifies  such  vigilant  and 
parsimonious  care  in  the  management  of  this 
precious  fluid  ;  and  accounts  for  the  fierce  con- 
tentions about  the  possession  of  a  well,  which 
so  frequently  happened  between  the  shepherds 
of  different  masters.  But  after  the  question 
of  right,  or  of  possession,  was  decided,  it  would 
seem  the  shepherds  were  often  detected  in 
fraudulently  watering  their  flocks  and  herds 
from  their  neighbour's  well.  To  prevent  this, 
they  secured  the  cover  with  a  lock,  which 
continued  in  use  so  late  as  the  days  of  Char- 
din,  who  frequently  saw  such  precautions  used 
in  different  parts  of  Asia,  on  account  of  the 
real  scarcity  of  water  there.  According  to 
that  intelligent  traveller,  when  the  wells  and 
cisterns  were  not  locked  up,  some  person  was 
so  far  the  proprietor  that  no  one  dared  to  open 
a  well  or  cistern  but  in  his  presence.  This 
was  probably  the  reason  that  the  shepherds  of 
Padanaram  declined  the  invitation  of  Jacob 
to  water  the  flocks,  before  they  were  all  as- 
sembled ;  either  they  had  not  the  key  of  the 
lock  which  secured  the  stone,  or,  if  they  had, 
they  durst  not  open  it  but  in  the  presence  of 
Rachel,  to  whose  father  the  well  belonged.  It 
is  ridiculous  to  suppose  the  stone  was  so  heavy 
that  the  united  strength  of  several  Mesopota- 
mian  shepherds  could  not  roll  it  from  the 
mouth  of  the  well,  when  Jacob  had  strength 
or  address  to  remove  it  alone ;  or  that,  though 
a  stranger,  he  ventured  to  break  a  standing 
rule  for  watering  the  flocks,  which  the  natives 
did  not  dare  to  do,  and  that  without  opposition. 
The  oriental  shepherds  were  not  on  other  oc- 
casions so  passive,  as  the  violent  conduct  of 
the  men  of  Gerar  sufficiently  proves. 

Twice  in  the  day  they  led  their  flocks  to  the 
wells;  at  noon,  and  when  the  sun  was  going 
down.  To  water  the  flocks  was  an  operation 
of  much  labour,  and  occupied  a  considerable 
space  of  time.  It  was,  therefore,  an  office  of 
great  kindness  with  which  Jacob  introduced 
himself  to  the  notice  of  his  relations,  to  roll 
back  the  stone  which  lay  upon  the  mouth  of 
the  well,  and  draw  water  for  the  flocks  which 
Rachel  tended.  Some  of  these  wells  are  fur- 
nished with  troughs  and  flights  of  steps  down 
to  the  water,  and  other  contrivances  to  facili- 
tate the  labour  of  watering  the  cattle.  It  is 
evident  the  well  to  which  Rebekah  went  to 
draw  water,  near  the  city  of  Nahor,  had  some 
convenience  of  this  kind  ;  for  it  is  written, 
"  Rebekah  hasted  and  emptied  her  pitcher  into 
the  trough,  and  ran  again  unto  the  well  to 
draw  water,  and  drew  for  all  his  camels,"  Gen. 
xxiv,  20.     A  trough  was  also  placed  by  the 


WH.V 


9;54 


Will 


well,  from  which  On  daughters  of  Jethro  wa- 
Exod.  ii,  16 ;  atid,  il'  we  may 
judge  Bran  cireumstana  .  was  a  usual  contri- 
in  every  pari  of  the  east.  In  modern 
times,  Mr.  Bark  found  ■  trough  mar  the  well, 
from  which  the  Moon  watered  their  cattle,  in 
ndy  deserts  of  Sahara.  I>r.  Shaw,  speak, 
ing  of  the  occupation  of  the  Moorish  women 
in  Bnrbarv,  says,  '•  To  finish  the  day,  at  the 
time  of  the  evening,  even  at  the  time  that  the 
women  go  out  to  draw  water,  they  are  still  to 
fit  themselves  with  ■  pitcher  or  goat  skin,  and 
tying  their  sucking  children  behind  them, 
trudge  it  in  this  manner  two  or  three  miles  to 
.'.  rater."  "  The  women  in  Persia,"  says 
Rforier,  "go  in  troops  to  draw  water  for  the 
place.  I  have  seen  the  elder  ones  sitting  and 
chatting  at  the  well,  and  spinning  the  coarse 
cotton  of  the  country,  while  the  young  girls 
rilled  the  skins  which  contain  the  water,  and 
which  they  all  carry  on  their  backs  into  the 
town."  "A  public  well,"  says  Forbes,  "with- 
out the  gate  of  Diamonds,  in  the  city  Dhuboy, 
was  a  place  of  great  resort :  there,  most  travel- 
lers halted  for  shade  and  refreshment :  the  wo- 
men frequented  the  fountains  and  reservoirs 
morning  and  evening,  to  draw  water.  Many 
of  the  Gwzerai  wells  have  steps  leading  down 
to  the  surface  of  the  water;  others  have  not, 
nor  do  1  recollect  any  furnished  with  buckets 
and  ropes  for  the  convenience  of  a  stranger ; 
most  travellers  are  therefore  provided  with 
them,  and  halcarras  and  religious  pilgrims  fre- 
quently carry  a  small  brass  pot  affixed  to  a 
long  string  for  this  purpose." 

WHALE,  jrl  and  pin,  Gen.  i,  21;  Job  vii, 
IS;  Kz'jk.  xxxii,  2;  kTitos,  Matt,  xii,  40;  the 
largest  of  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  water.  A 
late  author,  in  a  dissertation  expressly  for  the 
purpose,  has  proved  that  the  crocodile,  and 
not  the  whale,  U  spoken  of  in  Gen.  i,  21.  The 
word  in  Job  vii,  12,  must  also  be  taken  for  the 
crocodile.  It  most  mean  some  terrible  ani- 
mal, which,  but  for  the  watchful  care  of  Di- 
vine Providence,  would  be  very  destructive. 
Our  translators  render  it  by  dragon  in  Isaiah 
xxvn,  1,  where  the  prophet  gives  this  name  to 
the  king  of  Egypl  :  "  He  shall  slay  the  dragon 
that  is  in  the  sea."  The  sea  there  is  the  river 
Nile,  and  the  dragon  the  crocodile,  Ezek. 
xxxii,  2.     On  this  passage  Bochart  remarks, 

I'lie  hjn  is  n,,t  a  whale,  as  people  imagine; 
tor  a  whale  has  neither  feet  nor  scales,  neither 
is  it  to  be  found  in  the  rivers  of  Egypt;  nei- 
ther does  it  ascend  therefrom  upon  the  land; 
neither  is  ,t  taken  in  the  meshes  of  a  net;  all 
"t  which  properties  are  bribed  by  EzakieJ  to 
the  pjn  of  Egypt.  Whence  it  is  plain  that  it 
i-  AOl   a  whale  that   is  here  spoken  of,  but  the 

hie.     Merrick  supposes  David,  in  Psalm 

1.1,  to  speak  of  I  lie  tannic,  a  kind  of 
Whale,  with  which  he  M  as  probably  acquainted  ; 
•ad  Bochart  thinks  it  has  its  Greek  name 
thunno*  Iron,  the  Hebrew  thanot.  The  last 
mentioned  fish  ,s  undoubtedly  that  spoken  of 
"'  Isal,.,  ,-,Vl  •>»;.  W,.  are  to),),  that,  in  order 
to  preserve  the  Prophet  Jonah  when  he  was 

thrown  overboard  bj  the  mariner.,  '■  th0  Lord 
prep.red    a    great   lihli    to   ■wallow    him   up" 


What  kind  of  fish  it  was,  is  not  specified;  but 
the  Greek  translators  take  the  liberty  to  give 
us  the  word  arijro;,  whale  ;  and  though  St.  Mat- 
thew, xii,  40,  makes  use  of  the  same  word,  we 
may  probably  conclude  that  he  did  so  in  a  gene- 
ral sense;  and  that  we  are  not  to  understand 
it  as  an  appropriated  term,  to  point  out  the 
particular  species  of  fish.  It  is  notorious  that 
sharks  are  common  in  the  Mediterranean. 

WHEAT,  non,  Gen.  xxx,  14 ;  Deut.  viii,  8 ; 
iriro?,  Matt,  xiii,  25 ;  Luke  xvi,  7  ;  1  Cor.  xv, 
37  ;  the  principal  and  the  most  valuable  kind 
of  grain  for  the  service  of  man.  (See  Barley, 
and  Fitches.)  In  Lev.  ii,  directions  are  given 
for  oblations,  which  in  our  translation  are 
called  meat-offerings ;  but  as  meat  means  flesh, 
and  all  kinds  of  offerings  there  specified,  were 
made  of  wheat,  it  had  been  better  to  render  it 
"  wheaten  offerings."  Calmet  has  observed, 
that  there  were  five  kinds  of  these,  simple 
flour,  oven  cakes,  cakes  of  the  fire  plate,  cakes 
of  the  frying  pan,  and  green  ears  of  corn. 
The  word  13,  translated  corn,  Gen.  xii,  35, 
and  wheat  in  Jer.  xxiii,  28 ;  Joel  ii,  24  ;  Amos 
v,  11,  &c,  is  undoubtedly  the  burr,  or  wild 
corn  of  the  Arabs,  mentioned  by  Forskal. 

WHIRLWIND,  a  wind  which  rises  sud- 
denly from  almost  every  point,  is  exceedingly 
impetuous  and  rapid,  and  imparts  a  whirling 
motion  to  dust,  sand,  water,  and  occasionally 
to  bodies  of  great  weight  and  bulk,  carrying 
them  either  upward  or  downward,  and  scat- 
tering them  about  in  different  directions. 
Whirlwinds  and  water  spouts  are  supposed  to 
proceed  from  the  same  cause ;  their  only  dif- 
ference being,  that  the  latter  pass  over  the 
water,  and  the  former  over  the  land.  Both  of 
them  have  a  progressive  as  well  as  a  circular 
motion,  generally  rise  after  calms  and  great 
heats,  and  occur  most  frequently  in  warm 
latitudes.  The  wind  blows  in  every  direction 
from  a  large  surrounding  space,  both  toward 
the  water  spout  and  the  whirlwind ;  and  a 
water  spout  has  been  known  to  pass,  in  its 
progressive  motion,  from  sea  to  land,  and, 
when  it  has  reached  the  latter,  to  produce  all 
the  phenomena  and  effects  of  a  whirlwind. 
There  is  no  doubt,  therefore,  of  their  arising 
from  a  similar  cause,  as  they  are  both  expli- 
cable on  the  same  general  principles.  In  the 
imagery  employed  by  the  sacred  writers,  these 
frightful  hurricanps  are  introduced  as  the 
immediate  instruments  of  the  divine  indigna- 
tion :  "  He  shall  take  them  away  as  with  a 
whirlwind,  both  living  and  in  his  wrath," 
Psalm  lviii,  9.  "  God  shall  rebuke  them,  and 
they  shall  flee  far  oft',  and  shall  be  chased  as 
the  chaff  of  the  mountains  before  the  wind, 
and  like  a  rolling  thing  before  the  whirlwind," 
Isaiah  xvii,  13.  "The  Lord  hath  his  way  in 
the  whirlwind  and  in  the  storm,  and  the  clouds 
are  the  dust  of  his  feet,"  Nahum  i,  3.  All 
these  are  familiar  images  to  the  inhabitants  of 
eastern  countries,  and  receive  some  elucidation 
from  the  subjoined  descriptions  of  English 
travellers.  "  On  the  25th,"  says  Bruce,  "  at 
four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  we  set  out  from 
the  villages  of  the  Nuba,  intending  to  arrive  at 
Basbock,  where    is   the    ferry  over  the  Nile ; 


WHI 


955 


WIL 


but  we  had  scarcely  advanced  two  miles  into 
the  plain,  when  we  were  enclosed  in  a  violent 
whirlwind,  or  what  is  called  at  sea  the  water 
spout.  The  plain  was  red  earth,  which  had 
been  plentifully  moistened  by  a  shower  in  the 
night  time.  The  unfortunate  camel  that  had 
been  taken  by  Cohala  seemed  to  be  nearly  in 
the  centre  of  its  vortex ;  it  was  lifted  and 
thrown  down  at  a  considerable  distance,  and 
several  of  its  ribs  broken  ;  although,  as  far  as  I 
could  guess,  I  was  not  near  the  centre,  it  whirled 
me  off  my  feet,  and  threw  me  down  upon  my 
face,  so  as  to  make  my  nose  gush  out  with 
blood :  two  of  the  servants,  likewise,  had  the 
same  fate.  It  plastered  us  all  over  with  mud, 
almost  as  smoothly  as  could  have  been  done 
with  a  trowel.  It  took  away  my  sense  and 
breathing  for  an  instant ;  and  my  mouth  and 
nose  were  full  of  mud  when  I  recovered.  I 
guess  the  sphere  of  its  action  to  be  about  two 
hundred  feet.  It  demolished  one  half  of  a 
small  hut,  as  if  it  had  been  cut  through  with 
a  knife,  and  dispersed  the  materials  all  over 
the  plain,  leaving  the  other  half  standing." 
"  When  there  was  a  perfect  calm,"  observes 
Morier,  "  partial  and  strong  currents  of  air 
would  arise,  and  form  whirlwinds,  which  pro- 
duced high  columns  of  sand  all  over  the  plain. 
Those  that  we  saw  at  Shiraz  were  formed  and 
dissipated  in  a  few  minutes  :  nor  is  it  the  nature 
of  this  phenomenon  to  travel  far ;  it  being  a 
current  of  air  that  takes  its  way  in  a  capricious 
and  sudden  manner,  and  is  dissolved  by  the 
very  nature  of  its  formation.  Whenever  one 
of  them  took  our  tents,  it  generally  disturbed 
them  very  materially,  and  frequently  threw 
them  down.  Their  appearance  was  that  of 
water  spouts  at  sea,  and  perhaps  they  are  pro- 
duced in  the  same  manner."  And  Burchell 
remarks :  "  The  hottest  days  are  often  the 
most  calm ;  and  at  such  times  the  stillness  of 
the  atmosphere  was  sometimes  suddenly  dis- 
turbed in  an  extraordinary  manner.  Whirl- 
winds, raising  up  columns  of  dust  to  a  great 
height  in  the  air,  and  sweeping  over  the  plains 
with  momentary  fury,  were  no  unusual  occur- 
rence. As  they  were  always  harmless,  it  was 
an  amusing  sight  to  watch  these  tall  pillars  of 
dust  as  they  rapidly  passed  by,  carrying  up 
every  light  substance  to  the  height  of  from  one 
to  even  three  or  four  hundred  feet.  The  rate 
at  which  they  travelled  varied  from  five  to  ten 
miles  in  the  hour :  their  form  was  seldom 
straight,  nor  were  they  quite  perpendicular, 
but  uncertain  and  changing.  Whenever  they 
happened  to  pass  over  our  fire,  all  the  ashes 
were  scattered  in  an  instant,  and  nothing  re- 
mained but  the  heavier  sticks  and  logs.  Some- 
times they  were  observed  to  disappear,  and  in 
a  minute  or  two  afterward  to  make  their  re- 
appearance at  a  distance  farther  on.  This 
occurred  whenever  they  passed  over  rocky 
ground,  or  a  surface  on  which  there  was  no 
dust,  nor  other  substances  sufficiently  light  to 
be  carried  up  in  the  vortex.  Sometimes  they 
changed  their  colour,  according  to  that  of  the 
soil  or  dust  which  lay  in  their  march ;  and 
when  they  crossed  a  tract  of  country  where 
the  grass  had  lately  been  burned,  they  assumed 


a  corresponding  blackness.  But  to-day  the 
calm  and  heat  of  the  air  was  only  the  prelude 
to  a  violent  wind,  which  commenced  as  soon 
as  the  sun  had  sunk,  and  continued  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  night.  The  great  heat  and 
long-protracted  drought  of  the  season  had 
evaporated  all  moisture  from  the  «earth,  and 
rendered  the  sandy  soil  excessively  light  and 
dusty.  Astonishing  quantities  of  the  finer 
particles  of  this  sand  were  carried  up  by  the 
wind,  and  filled  the  whole  atmosphere,  where, 
at  a  great  height,  they  were  borne  along  by 
the  tempest,  and  seemed  to  be  real  clouds, 
although  of  a  reddish  hue  ;  while  the  heavier 
particles,  descending  again,  presented,  at  a 
distance,  the  appearance  of  mist  or  driving 
rains." 

WHITE,  a  favourite  and  emblematical 
colour  in  Palestine.     See  Habits. 

WIDOW.  Among  the  Hebrews,  even  be- 
fore the  law,  a  widow  who  had  no  children  by 
her  husband  was  to  marry  the  brother  of  her 
deceased  spouse,  in  order  to  raise  up  children 
who  might  inherit  his  goods  and  perpetuate 
his  name  and  family.  We  find  the  practice  of 
this  custom  before  the  law  in  the  person  of 
Tamar,  who  married  successively  Er  and 
Onan,  the  sons  of  Judah,  and  who  was  like- 
wise to  have  married  Seiah,  the  third  son  of 
this  patriarch,  after  the  two  former  were  dead 
without  issue,  Gen.  xxxviii,  6-11.  The  law 
that  appoints  these  marriages  is  Deut.  xxv,  5, 
&c.  Two  motives  prevailed  to  the  enacting 
of  this  law.  The  first  was,  the  continuation 
of  estates  in  the  same  family  ;  and  the  other 
was  to  perpetuate  a  man's  name  in  Israel.  It 
was  looked  upon  as  a  great  misfortune  for  a 
man  to  die  without  an  heir,  or  to  see  his  in- 
heritance pass  into  another  family.  This  law 
was  not  confined  to  brothers-in-law  only,  but 
was  extended  to  more  distant  relations  of  the 
same  kind  ;  as  we  see  in  the  example  of  Ruth, 
who  married  Boaz  after  she  had  been  refused 
by  a  nearer  kinsman.     See  Sandals. 

WILL.  "  In  his  primitive  condition  as  he 
came  out  of  the  hands  of  his  Creator,  man 
was  endowed  with  such  a  portion  of  knowledge, 
holiness,  and  power,  as  enabled  him  to  under- 
stand, esteem,  consider,  will,  and  to  perform 
the  true  good,  according  to  the  commandment 
delivered  to  him  :  yet  none  of  these  acts  could 
he  do,  except  through  the  assistance  of  divine 
grace.  But  in  his  lapsed  and  sinful  state,  man 
is  not  capable,  of  and  by  himself,  cither  to 
think,  to  will,  or  to  do  that  which  is  really 
good  ;  but  it  is  necessary  for  him  to  be  re- 
generated and  renewed  in  his  intellect,  affec- 
tions or  will,  and  in  all  his  powers,  by  God  in 
Christ  through  the  Holy  Spirit,  that  he  may 
be  qualified  rightly  to  understand,  esteem, 
consider,  will,  and  perform  whatever  is  truly 
good.  When  he  is  made  a  partaker  of  this 
regeneration,  or  renovation,  since  he  is  de- 
livered from  sin,  he  is  capable  of  thinking, 
willing,  and  doing  that  which  is  good,  but  yet 
not  without  the  continued  aids  of  divine  grace." 
Such  were  the  sentiments  of  the  often  mis- 
represented Arminius  on  this  subject ;  to  which 
is  only  to  be  added,  to  complete  the  Scriptural 


nn. 


05G 


WIL 


ftgWt  ,!,,,  ■  I.,  consider  his 

m,l  i,.  return   to  God,  is  Lhrougfa  the 

,    „        i  .  n  |]   iTod    i"   every    man. 

one  m us)  bo  conscious  that  h«  possesses 

ill,  and  thai  he  is  o  free  agent  ;  that  is, 
that  he  is  capable  of  considering  and  reflecting 
upon  the  objects  which  are  presented  to  his 
mind,  and  ofacting,  in  Buch  Cases  .-is  are  possi- 
ble, according  to  the,  determination  of  his  will. 

indeed,  without  this  free  agency,  actions 

cannot  be  morally  good  or  bad;  nor  can  the 

for  their  conduct.     JJut 

irruption  introduced  into  our  nature  by 
the  fall  oi  Adam  has  so  weakened  our  mental 
powers,  has  given  such  force  to  our  passions, 
and  such  pCrverseness  to  our  wills,  that  a  man 
"cannot  turn  and  prepare  himself,  by  bis  own 
natural  strength  and  good  works  to  faith  and 
calling. upon  God."  The  most  pious  of  those 
who  lived  under  the  Mosaic  dispensation' often 
acknowledged  the  necessity  of  extraordinary 

ince  from  God:  David  prays  to  God  to 
open  his  eyes,  to  guide  and  direct  him  ;  to 
in  linn  a  clean  heart,  and  renew  a  right 
-.pint  within  bun,  Psalm  li,  10;  cxix,  18,  33, 
.'i.'>.  Bverj  we,  whose  minds  are  enlightened 
by  the  pure  precepts  of  the  Gospel,  and  urged 
b]  the  motives  which  it  suggests,  must  still  be 
convinced  of  our  weakness  and  depravity,  and 
confess,  in  the  words  of  the  tenth  article,  that 
"  we  have  do  power  to  do  good  works  pleasant 
and  acceptable  to  God)  Without  the  grace  of 
God  preventing  us,  that  we  may  have  a  good 
u  ill,  and  working  with  us  when  we  have  that 
ill."     The  necessity  of  divine  grace  to 

ihcn  and  regulate  our  wills,  and  to  co- 
operate  with  our  endeavours  after  righteous- 
ness, is  clearly  asserted  in  the  New  Testament : 
"Thej  that  are  iu  the  flesh  cannot  please 
God,"  Rom.  viii,  8.  "Abide  in  me,"  says  our 
Saviour,  "and  I  in  you.  As  the  branch  can. 
apt  bear  fruit  of  itself,  except  it  abide  in  the 
vine,  no  more  can  ye,  except  ye  abide  in  me. 
I  am  the  vine,  and'  ye  are  the  branches:  he 
thai  abideth  in  me,  and  I  in  him,  the  same 
bringeth  forth  much  fruit;  for  without  me  ye 
.■.in  do  nothing,"  John  w,    1,  f>.     "  No  nian 

onie  to  me,  except  the  rather,  which  hath 
sent  me,  draw  him."  -It  is  God  that  worketh 
in  you,  both  to  will  and  to  do  of  his  good 
pleasure,"  PhiL  ii,  13.  '<Not  thai  we  arc 
nt  of  nurse  Ives  to  think  any  tiling  as  of 
ourselves,  but  our  sufficiency  is  of  (rod,"  2 
i.  •">.    "We  know  not  what  to  pray  for 

At,    but    the  Spirit,  helpeth  our  in- 

firmities,"  Rom.  viii,  26.     We  are  said  to  be 

by  the   Spirit,"   and   to   -'walk   in  the 

Spirit,"  Rom-  viii,  14;  Gal.  v,  16,  25.     These 

ufficiently  prove  thai  wc  stand  in  need 

both   of  a   prevenient    and   of  a    cooperating 

I  ctrine  we  find  asserted  in  many 

ol   the   ancient   fathers,    and    particularly   in 

who,  in  speaking  of  the  effects  of 

ids:  "Thence  was  de. 

rived  mortality,  and   no   less  a  multitude  of 

'  »an   of  crimes.     Faith  being  lost 

'•'i'"    being    abandoned,    the    understanding 

Mmded,  and   the  will    made  captive,  no  one 

•ottBd  m  brmaelfthe  means  of  repairing  these 


things.  Without  the  worship  of  the  tine  God, 
even  that  which  seems  to  be  virtue  is  sin;  nor 
can  any  one  please  God  without  God.  But 
whom  does  lie  please  w  ho  does  not  please  God, 
except  himself  and  Satan  '!  The  nature  there- 
fore, which  was  good  is  made  bad  by  habit  : 
man  would  not  return  unless  God  turned  him." 
And  Cyprian  says,  "  We  pray  day  and  night 
that  the  sanctification  and  enlivening,  which 
springs  from  the  grace  of  God,  may  be  pre- 
served by  his  protection."  Dr.  Nicholls,  after 
quoting  many  authorities  to  show  that  the 
doctrine  of  divine  grace  always  prevailed  in  the 
catholic  church,  adds,  "  I  have  spent,  perhaps, 
more  time  in  these  testimonies  than  was 
absolutely  necessary ;  but  whatever  I  have  done 
is  to  show  that  the  doctrine  of  divine  grace  is 
so  essential  a  doctrine  of  Christianity,  that 
not  only  the  Holy  Scriptures  and  the  primitive 
fathers  assert  it,  but  likewise  that  the  Christians 
could  not  in  any  age  maintain  their  religion 
without  it, — it  being  necessary,  not  only  for 
the  discharge  of  Christian  duties,  but  for  the 
performance  of  our  ordinary  devotions."  And 
this  seems  to  have  been  the  opinion  of  the  com- 
pilers of  our  excellent  liturgy,  in  many  parts  of 
which  both  a  prevenient  and  a  cooperating 
grace  is  unequivocally  acknowledged  ;  parti- 
cularly in  the  second  collect  for  the  evening 
service  ;  in  the  fourth  collect  at  the  end  of 
the  communion  service ;  in  the  collect  for 
Easter  day ;  in  the  collect  for  the  fifth  Sunday 
after  Easter;  in  the  collects  for  the  third,  ninth, 
seventeenth,  nineteenth,  and  twenty-fifth  Sun- 
days after  Trinity.  This  assistance  of  divine 
grace  is  not  inconsistent  with  the  free  agency 
Of  men  :  it  does  not  place  them  under  an  irre- 
sistible restraint,  or  compel  them  to  act  con. 
trary  to  their  will.  Our  own  exertions  are 
necessary  to  enable  us  to  work  out  our  salva- 
tion ;  but  our  sufficiency  for  that  purpose  is 
from  God.  It  is,  however,  impossible  to 
ascertain  the  precise  boundary  between  our 
natural  efforts  and  the  divine  assistance, 
whether  that  assistance  be  considered  as  a  co- 
operating or  a  prevenient  grace.  jWithoul 
destroying  our  character  as  free  and  account- 
able beings,  God  may  be  mercifully  pleased  to 
counteract  the  depravity  of  our  hearts  by  the 
suggestions  of  his  Spirit ;  but  still  it  remains 
with  us  to  choose  whether  we  will  listen  to 
those  suggestions,  or  obey  the  lusts  of  the 
flesh.  We  may  rest  assured  that  he  will,  by 
the  communication  of  his  grace,  varied  often 
as  to  power  and  distinctness,  help  our  in- 
firmities, invigorate  our  resolutions,  and  supply 
our  defects.  The  promises  that  if  we  draw 
nigh  to  God,  God  will  draw  nigh  to  us,  and 
pour  out  his  Spirit,  upon  us,  James  iv,  8  ;  Acts 
ii,  17,  and  that  he  will  give  his  Holy  Spirit  to 
every  one  that  asketh  him,  Luko  xi,  13,  imply 
that  God  is  ever  ready  to  work  upon  our 
hearts,  and  to  aid  our  well-doing  through  the 
powerful,  though  invisible,  operation  of  his 
Spirit  :  "The  wind  bloweth  where  it  listeth, 
and  thou  hearcst  the  sound  thereof,  but  canst 
not  tell  whence  it  cometh  and  whither  it  goeth; 
so  is  every  one  that  is  born  of  the  Spirit," 
John  iii,  8.     The   joint  agency  of  God  and 


WIL 


957 


WIL 


man,  in  the  work  of  human  salvation,  is 
pointed  out  in  the  following  passage  :  "  Work 
out  your  own  salvation  with  fear  and  trem- 
bling ;  for  it  is  God  that  worketh  in  you  both 
to  will  and  to  do  of  his  good  pleasure,"  Phil, 
ii,  12,  13;  and  therefore  we  may  assure  our- 
selves that  free  will  and  grace  are  not  incom- 
patible, though  the  mode  and  degree  of  their 
cooperation  be  utterly  inexplicable,  and  though 
at  different  times  one  may  appear  for  a  season 
to  overwhelm  the  other.  This  doctrine  has, 
however,  been  the  subject  of  much  dispute 
among  Christians :  some  sects  contend  for  the 
irresistible  impulses  of  grace,  and  others  reject 
the  idea  of  any  influence  of  the  divine  Spirit 
upon  the  human  mind.  The  former  opinion 
seems  irreconcilable  with  the  free  agency  of 
man,  if  held  as  the  constant  unvarying  mode 
in  which  he  carries  on  his  work  in  the  soul  of 
man,  and  the  latter  contradicts  the  authority 
of  Scripture ;  "  and  therefore,"  says  Veneer, 
"  let  us  neither  ascribe  nothing  to  free  will, 
nor  too  much ;  let  us  not,  with  the  defenders 
of  irresistible  grace,  deny  free  will,  or  make  it 
of  no  effect,  not  only  before,  but  even  under, 
grace  ;  nor  let  us  suffer  the  efficacy  of  saving 
grace,  on  the  other  hand,  to  be  swallowed  up 
in  the  strength  and  freedom  of  our  wills  ;  but, 
allowing  the  government  or  superiority  to  the 
grace  of  God,  let  the  will  of  man  be  admitted 
to  be  its  handmaid,  but  such  a  one  as  is  free, 
and  freely  obeys  ;  by  which,  when  it  is  freely 
excited  by  the  admonitions  of  prevenient  grace, 
when  it  is  prepared  as  to  its  affections,  strength- 
ened and  assisted  as  to  its  powers  and  faculties, 
a  man  freely  and  willingly  cooperates  with 
God,  that  the  grace  of  God  be  not  received  in 
vain."  "  All  men  are  also  to  be  admonished," 
observes  Cranmer,  in  his  "  Necessary  Doc- 
trine," "and  chiefly  preachers,  that  in  this  high 
matter  they,  looking  on  both  sides,  so  temper 
and  moderate  themselvoe,  that  thoy  neither  so 
preach  the  grace  of  God  that  they  take  away 
thereby  free  will,  nor  on  the  other  side  so  extol 
free  will,  that  injury  be  done  to  the  grace  of 
God."  And  Jortin  remarks  :  "  Thus  do  the 
doctrine  of  divine  grace  and  the  doctrine  of 
free  will  or  human  liberty  unite  and  conspire, 
in  a  friendly  manner,  to  our  everlasting  good. 
The  first  is  adapted  to  excite  in  us  gratitude, 
faith,  and  humility ;  the  second,  to  awaken 
our  caution  and  quicken  our  diligence." 

Many,  indeed,  relying  on  mere  abstract  ar- 
guments, deny  free  will,  in  the  strict  meaning 
of  the  term,  altogether,  and  define  the  mental 
faculties  of  man  according  to  their  various 
fancies.  But  the  existence  and  nature  of  our 
moral  and  rational  powers  are  and  ought  to  be, 
m  true  philosophy,  the  subject  of  mental  ob- 
servation, not  the  sport  of  hypothesis.  Those 
who  love  metaphysical  abstractions  may  people 
the  worlds  of  their  imagination  with  beings  of 
whatsoever  character  they  prefer;  but  the  na- 
ture and  capabilities  of  man,  as  lie  really  is, 
must  be  determined  not  by  speculation  but  by 
experience.  It  is  true  that  this  experience  is 
the  object  of  consciousness,  not  of  the  senses  ; 
and,  accordingly,  each  man  is,  in  some  respect, 
'he  judge  in    Hie  own  case,  and   may,  if  he 


chooses,  deny  his  own  freedom  and  his  power 
of  self  control,  or  of  using  those  means  which 
God  hath  appointed  to  lead  to  this  result.  But 
this  is  seldom  done  in  ordinary  life,  except  by 
those  abandoned  individuals  who  seek,  in  such 
a  statement,  an  excuse  for  capricious  or  un- 
principled conduct, — an  excuse  which  is  never 
admitted  by  the  majority  of  reasoning  persons, 
much  less  by  the  truly  pious.  The  latter,  in- 
deed, will  always  be  found  attributing  any  thing 
good  they  achieve  to  the  cooperating  efficacy 
of  superior  assistance.  But  they  will,  with 
equal  sincerity,  blame  themselves  for  what 
they  have  done  amiss ;  or,  in  other  words,  ac- 
knowledge that  they  should  and  might  have 
willed  and  acted  otherwise  ;  and  this  is  exactly 
the  practical  question,  the  very  turning  point, 
on  which  the  whole  controversy  hinges.  The 
only  competent  judges  in  such  a  question,  says 
Dr.  R.  H.  Graves,  are  those  who  have  made  it 
the  subject  of  mental  observation,  exertion,  and 
pursuit ;  or,  in  other  words,  those  who  have 
sought  after  righteousness,  under  whatever 
dispensation,  Acts  x,  35 ;  Romans  ii,  7,  10. 
And  surely  the  confessions,  the  prayers,  the 
repentance,  and  the  sacrifices,  of  the  humble 
and  pious  of  all  ages  show  that  they  felt,  not 
only  that  they  were  themselves  to  blame  for 
their  actions,  and  therefore  that  they  might 
have  done  otherwise,  that  is,  they  had  a  free 
will,  but  that,  to  make  this  will  operative  in 
spiritual  matters,  they  required  an  aid  beyond 
the  reach  of  mere  human  attainment.  Some 
may  fancy  this  statement  inconsistent  in  itself; 
and  I  allow  that  it  cannot  satisfy  the  mere 
speculative  supporters  either  of  free  will  or  its 
opponents.  But  to  me  it  seems  the  testimony 
of  conscience  and  experience,  which,  in  natural 
religion,  must,  as  I  conceive,  be  preferred  to 
abstract  hypothesis.  The  inquiry  is  not  how 
the  mind  may  be,  but  how  it  is  actually,  con- 
stituted. This  surely  is  a  question  of  fact,  not 
of  conjecture,  and  must  therefore  be  decided 
by  an  appeal  to  common  sense  and  experience, 
not  by  random  speculation.  Again :  even 
those  who  in  theory  contend  for  the  doctrine 
of  necessity,  yet  in  all  the  affairs  of  life  where 
their  interests,  comforts,  or  gratifications  are 
concerned,  both  speak  and  act  as  if  they  dis- 
believed it,  and  as  if  they  really  imagined 
themselves  capable  of  such  self  determination 
and  self  control,  as  to  improve  their  talents, 
their  opportunities,  and  their  acquirements,  and 
so  to  exercise  a  material  influence  on  their 
worldly  fortunes.  But  suppose  the  assertions; 
of  individuals,  as  to  their  consciousness  in  this 
particular,  to  disagree.  It.  is  then  evident, that, 
the  question  being  as  to  the  nature  of  man  in 
general,  it  must  be  determined  by  the  voice  of 
preponderating  testimony.  But  how,  it  may 
be  asked,  arc  the  suffrages  to  be  collected? 
Since  the  judgment  of  cacli  individual  must  in 
this  scheme  be  considered  as  a  separate  fact, 
how  is  a  sufficiently  extensive  induction  to  be 
made  ?  In  answer,  it  may  be  asserted,  that  in 
every  civilized  nation  the  induction  has  been 
already  made,  tlie  suffrages  have  been  taken, 
the  case  has  been  tried,  and  the  decision  is  on 
record.     And  the  verdict  is  the  mo;  l  impartial 


Wil, 


958 


W1L 


took)  '1  foi  m  such  a  case,  because 
j.ni.n  u  ithoot  i>nv  reference  lo  the  controversy 
in  dispute.  All  human  laws,  forbidding,  con- 
ing,  and  punishing  vicious  actions,  are 
grounded  PC  the  acknowledged  supposition  that 
man  is  possessed  oi*  a  self  control,  a  self  deter- 
mining  power,  by  which  he  could, both  in  will 
uid  in  deed,  have  avoided  the  very  actions  for 
which  he  is  condemned,  and  in  the  very  cir- 
cumstances in  which  he  has  committed  them. 
cold  it  be  easy  to  find  a  case  where  the 
criminal  has  deceived  himself,  or  hoped  to  de- 
Ins  judges,  by  pleading  that  he  laboured 
under  ■  fatal  necessity,  which  rendered  his 
trimes  unavoidable,  and  therefore  excusable. 
The  justice  of  all  legislative  enactments  evi- 
dently and  essentially  depends  on  the  principle, 
lh.it  ihe  things  prohibited  can  be  avoided,  or, 
in  other  words,  might  have  been  done  other- 
wise than  they  were  done  ;  and  this  is  the  very 
turning  point  of  the  controversy.  Accordingly, 
in  whatever  instances  such  freedom  of  will  is 
not  presupposed,  (as  in  the  cases  of  idiots  and 
madmen,)  the  operation  of  such  enactments  is 
suspended.  All  nations,  therefore,  who  con- 
sent to  frame  and  abide  by  such  laws,  do  thereby 
testify  their  deliberate  and  solemn  assent  to  the 
truth  of  this  principle,  and,  consequently,  to 
the  existence  of  free  will  in  man  ;  and  do  certify 
the  sincerity  of  their  conviction  by  staking 
upon  it  their  properties,  their  liberties,  and  their 
lives.  Numberless  other  instances  might  be 
adduced  in  which  the  practice  of  mankind 
implies  their  belief  in  this  principle.  And  so 
conscious  of  this  are  the  opponents  of  free  will, 
tli at  they  generally  deprecate  appeals  to  com- 
mon sense  and  experience,  and  resort  to  meta- 
physical arguments  to  examine  what  is  in  truth 
a  matter  of  truth,  not  of  conjecture ;  or,  in 
other  words,  to  determine,  not  what  man  is, 
but  what  they  imagine  he  viust  be.  In  their 
reasonings  they  differ,  as  might  have  been 
expected,  as  much  from  each  other  as  they  do 
from  truth  and  reality.  But.  the.  experience  of 
common  sense  nnd  conscience  will  always 
decide,  that  no  man  can  conscientiously  make 
this  excuse  for  his  crimes,  that  he  could  not 
have  willed  or  acted  otherwise  than  he  did. 
The  existence  of  the  above  faculties  in  the 
human  mind  once  acknowledged  leads,  by 
laiy  inference,  to  the  admission,  that 
there  exists  in  the  great  First  Cause  a  power  to 
create  them.  Not,  indeed,  that  these  faculties 
themselves  exist  in  him  in  the  same  manner  as 
in  us,  but  Ihe  power  of  originating  and  pro- 
ducing them  in  all  possible  variety.     We  can 

'''  <■ I"de,  thai  having  created  all  these 

in  uit,  Ins  nature  must   be  so  perfect  that  we 

ol  attribute  t>>   him  any  line  of  conduct 

inconrisv  ol  «  ith  \\  hatevei  is  excellent  in  the 

■    faculties   in  ourselves.     And 

and   ascribe  to  him,  as  his 

thing  we  should  perceive  to  be 

unworthy  o  t  or  merciful,  any  wise  or 

upright,  being.     Hut    this   furnishes  no  clue 

■■■■■  ■  knowledge  of  the  real  constitu. 

Uon  oi  I,,.,  nature,  or  of  the  manner  in  which 

her.     In  truth 
we  no  more  .  ..,„,„,  |„  ,„|  llow  )|C  W1|j,  t)lujl  how 


he  acts,  and  therefore  we  have  no  better  right  to 
assert  that  he  wills  evil  than  that  he  does  evil. 
Again :  we  as  little  understand  how  he  knows 
as  how  he  sees,  and  therefore  might  as  well 
argue  that  all  things  exist  in  consequence  of 
his  beholding  them,  as  that  all  events  arise  in 
consequence  of  his  foreknowing  them.  In 
6hort,  all  that  can  be  inferred  by  reason  con. 
cerning  the  intrinsic  nature  of  the  invisible, 
unsearchable  Deity,  must  be  admitted  by  the 
candid  inquirer  to  be  no  better  than  conjecture. 
And  he  who  should  hope  from  such  doubtful 
support  as  his  fancied  insight  into  the  unknown 
operations  of  the  divine  mind  to  suspend  a  sys- 
tem of  irrespective  decrees,  embracing  the 
moral  government  of  the  world,  would  but  too 
much  resemble  him  who  should  imagine  the 
material  globe  adequately  sustained  if  upheld 
by  a  chain  whose  highest  links  were  wrapped 
in  clouds  and  darkness.  Thus  our  affirmative 
knowledge  of  the  Deity,  as  derived  from  this 
part  of  our  inquiry,  consists  in  the  certainty, 
(though  his  nature  is  unknown  to  us,)  that  he 
is  the  creative  source  of  all  that  is  great,  glo- 
rious, and  good  in  heaven  or  in  earth ;  while 
we  may  negatively  conclude,  that  his  moral 
government  shall,  on  the  whole,  be  conducted 
in  a  manner  not  inconsistent  with  whatever  is 
excellent  in  the  exercise  of  power  and  wisdom, 
justice  and  mercy,  goodness  and  truth.  Nor 
is  it  a  little  important,  as  connected  with  the 
present  inquiry,  to  keep  in  mind  this  dis- 
tinction between  our  affirmative  and  negative 
knowledge  in  this  matter.  For  it  shows  us 
that  as,  on  the  one  side,  we  cannot  pretend  to 
such  an  insight  into  the  nature  and  character 
of  the  divine  knowledge  as  to  deduce  therefrom 
a  system  of  eternal  and  irrespective  decrees ; 
so  neither,  on  the  other,  can  this  system  of 
moral  government  be  ascribed  to  the  Deity, 
because  it  would  be  manifestly  unworthy,  not 
merely  of  him  Who  has  created  all  moral  ex- 
cellence, but  of  any  of  those  beings  on  whom 
he  has  conferred  the  most  ordinary  degrees  of 
mercy  and  justice.  The  natural  benefits  or 
evils  arising  out  of  mcral  or  immoral  practices 
are,  in  fact,  so  many  rewards  or  punishments, 
exhibiting  the  Being  who  has  so  constituted 
our  nature  as  a  moral  governor.  This  part  of 
his  government  may  not  be  so  clearly  discern- 
ible in  individual  instances,  because  much  of 
the  happiness  and  unhappiness  attending  vir- 
tue and  vice  is  mental  and  invisible.  In  the 
case  of  nations,  however,  considered  merely  as 
bodies  politic,  the  internal  sanction  of  an  ap- 
proving or  reproaching  conscience,  of  subdued 
or  distracting  passions,  can  have  no  existence  ; 
and  therefore  the  external  sanctions  are  more 
uniformly  enforced.  Hence,  whoever  carefully 
examines  the  dealings  of  Providence  with  the 
human  race  will  admit,  that  national  prosperity 
has  ever  kept  pace  with  national  wisdom  and 
integrity  ;  whereas,  the  greatest  empires,  when 
once  corrupted,  have  soon  become  the  prey  of 
internal  strife  or  foreign  domination.  Again  : 
man  is  made  for  society,  and  cannot  exist  with- 
out it:  consequently,  all  the  regulations  which 
are  really  conducive  to  the  maintenance  of 
civil  policy  and  social  order  muyt  be  regarded 


WIN 


959 


WIN 


as  evident  consequences  of  our  nature,  when 
enlightened  to  the  rational  pursuit  of  its  own 
advantage  ;  and  therefore  should  be  considered 
as  intimations  of  a  moral  government,  carried 
on  through  their  intervention.  In  addition  to 
which,  it  ought  to  be  observed,  that  these  laws 
may  be  regarded  in  another  point  of  view, — as 
a  most  important  class  of  moral  phenomena  ; 
inasmuch  as  they  virtually  exhibit  the  most 
unexceptionable  declarations  of  reason  on  this 
subject,  because  they  are  collected  from  the 
common  consent  of  mankind,  and  therefore 
rendered,  in  a  great  measure,  independent  of 
the  obliquities  of  individual  intellect,  the  errors 
of  private  judgment,  and  the  partial  views  of 
self  interest,  prejudice,  or  passion.  But  all  the 
laws  of  civilized  nations,  both  in  their  enact- 
ment and  administration,  not  only  presuppose 
certain  notions  concerning  the  freedom  and 
accountableness  of  man,  the  merit  and  demerit 
of  human  actions,  and  the  inseparable  con- 
nection  of  virtue  and  vice  with  rewards  and 
punishments,  but  greatly  contribute  to  fix  and 
perpetuate  these  notions.  It  is  therefore  evi- 
dently the  intention  of  that  part  of  the  moral 
government  with  which  we  are  acquainted,  to 
impress  these  principles  deeply  on  the  human 
mind,  and  to  induce  the  human  race  to  regulate 
their  conduct  accordingly.  The  laws,  then,  of 
this  moral  government  under  which  we  find 
ourselves  placed,  and  from  which  we  cannot 
escape,  correspond  with  and  corroborate  the 
conclusions  deduced  from  the  observation  of 
mental  phenomena.  And  from  both  we  con- 
clude that  similar  principles  of  government 
will  be  adopted,  (so  far,  at  least,  as  man  is  con- 
cerned,) in  other  worlds  and  in  future  ages ; 
only  more  developed,  and  therefore  more  evi- 
dently free  from  its  present  apparent  imper- 
fections. Upon  this  account  we  look,  in  another 
life,  for  some  such  general  disclosure  and 
consummation  of  the  ways  and  wisdom  of 
Providence  as  shall  vindicate,  even  in  the 
minor  details,  the  grand  principles  upon  which, 
generally  speaking,  the  government  of  God  is 
at  present  obviously  conducted.  How  this  may 
be  done,  with  many  questions  connected  there- 
with, reason  without  revelation  could,  as  I 
conceive,  do  little  more  than  form  plausible 
conjectures.  Though  now  that  it  has  pleased 
God  in  Christ  to  bring  "  life  and  immortality 
to  light  through  the  Gospel,"  it  is  possible  for 
reason  to  estimate  the  beauty  and  the  mercy 
and  the  wisdom  of  the  dispensation  by  which 
it  has  been  effected. 

WIND.  The  Hebrews,  like  us,  acknowledge 
four  principal  winds,  Ezek.  xlii,  16-18  :  the  east 
wind,  the  north  wind,  the  south  wind,  and  the 
west  wind,  or  that  from  the  Mediterranean  sea. 
See  Whirlwind. 

WINDOWS.  The  method  of  building  both 
in  Barbary  and  the  Levant  seems  to  have  con- 
tinued the  same  from  the  earliest  ages.  All 
the  windows  open  into  private  courts,  if  we 
except  sometimes  a  latticed  window  or  balcony 
toward  the  street.  It  is  only  during  the  cele- 
bration of  some  zecnak,  or  public  festival,  that 
these  houses  and  their  latticed  windows  arc  left 
open  ;   for  this  being  a  time  of  great  liberty, 


revelling,  and  extravagance,  each  family  is 
ambitious  of  adorning  both  the  inside  and  out- 
side of  their  houses  with  the  richest  part  of 
their  furniture ;  while  crowds  of  both  sexes, 
dressed  out  in  their  best  apparel,  and  laying 
aside  all  ceremony  and  restraint,  go  in  and  out 
where  they  please.  The  account  we  have, 
2  Kings  ix,  30,  of  Jezebel's  painting  her  face, 
tiring  her  head,  and  looking  out  at  a  window 
upon  Jehu's  public  entry  into  Jezreel,  gives  us 
a  lively  idea  of  an  eastern  lady  at  one  of  those 
solemnities. 

WINE,  p,  Gen.  xix,  32,  oivos,  Matt,  ix,  17, 
a  liquor  expressed  from  grapes.  The  art  of 
refining  wine  upon  the  lees  was  known  to  the 
Jews.  The  particular  process,  as  it  is  now  prac- 
tised in  the  island  of  Cyprus,  is  described  in 
Mariti's  Travels.  The  wine  is  put  immediately 
from  the  vat  into  large  vases  of  potters'  ware, 
pointed  at  the  bottom,  till  they  are  nearly  full, 
when  they  are  covered  tight  and  buried.  At  the 
end  of  a  year  what  is  designed  for  sale  is  drawn 
into  wooden  casks.  The  dregs  in  the  vases  are 
put  into  wooden  casks  destined  to  receive  wine, 
with  as  much  of  the  liquor  as  is  necessary  to 
prevent  them  from  becoming  dry  before  use. 
Casks  thus  prepared  are  very  valuable.  When 
the  wine  a  year  old  is  put  in,  the  dregs  rise,  and 
make  it  appear  muddy,  but  afterward  they  sub- 
side and  carry  down  all  the  other  feculences. 
The  dregs  are  so  much  valued  that  they  are  not 
sold  with  the  wine  in  the  vase,  unless  particu- 
larly mentioned. 

The  "new  wine,"  or  "must,"  is  mentioned, 
lsa.  xlix,  26  ;  Joel  i,  5  ;  Hi,  18  ;  and  Amos  ix, 
13,  under  the  name  o-aj7.  The  "  mixed  wine," 
1DPD,  Prov.  xxiii,  30,  and  in  Isaiah  lxv,  11 
rendered  "  drink-offering,"  may  mean  wine 
made  stronger  and  more  inebriating  by  the  ad- 
dition of  higher  and  more  powerful  ingredients, 
such  as  honey,  spices,  defrutum,  or  wine  in- 
spissated by  boiling  it  down,  myrrh,  mandra- 
gora,  and  other  strong  drugs.  Thus  the  drunk- 
ard is  properly  described  as  one  that  seeketh 
"mixed  wine,"  Prov.  xxiii,  30,  and  is  mighty 
to  "  mingle  strong  drink,"  lsa.  v,  22  ;  and  hence 
the  psalmist  took  that  highly  poetical  and 
sublime  image  of  the  cup  of  God's  wrath,  called 
by  Isaiah,  li,  17,  "the  cup  of  trembling,"  con- 
taining, as  St.  John  expresses  it,  Rev.  xiv,  10, 
pure  wine  made  yet  stronger  by  a  mixture  of 
powerful  ingredients  :  "  In  the  hand  of  Jehovah 
is  a  cup,  and  the  wine  is  turbid ;  it  is  full  of  a 
mixed  liquor,  and  he  poureth  out  of  it,"  or 
rather,  "  he  poureth  it  out  of  one  vessel  into 
another,"  to  mix  it  perfectly  ;  "verily  the  dregs 
thereof,"  the  thickest  sediment  of  the  strong 
ingredients  mingled  with  it,  "all  the  ungodly 
of  the  earth  shall  wring  them  out,  and  d,  ink 
them."  "  Spiced  wine,"  Cant,  viii,  2,  was  wine 
rendered  more  p-latable  and  fragant  with  aro- 
matics.  This  was  considered  as  a  great  delicacy. 
Spiced  wines  were  not  peculiar  to  the  Jews  ; 
Hafiz  speaks  of  wines  "richly  bitter,  richly 
sweet."  The  Romans  lined  their  ves>selt\  am- 
phora, with  odorous  gums,  to  give  the  wine  a 
warm  bitter  flavour  :  and  the  orientals  now  use 
the  admixture  of  spice:)  to  give  their  wines  a 
favourite    relish.       The    "  wine    of    Helbon,"' 


WIN 


960 


WIS 


, ,  \(  client  kind  of  wine, 

.,  io  the  ancients  by  the  name  of  c./mli. 

•i  *  in" in.    It  was  made  at  Damascus;  the 

id   planted  vineyards  there  on  pur- 

I    quoted    by    Alhenoeus. 

i         uthoi  lays  that  the  kings  of  Persia  used 

thet  wine.     Hoses,  xiv,  7,  mentions  the 

I  ebanon.     The  wines  from  the  vine- 

..n  that  mount  "re  even  to  this  day  in 

ae  think  that  this  may  mean  a 

ted   wine,   or   wine  flavoured   with 

fragrant  gums. 

WINE  PRESS.      The    vintage    in    Syria 
commeBOSB   about    the  middle  of  September, 
ontinuee  till    the  middle  of  November. 
apes  m  Palestine,  we  are  informed,  were 
■  iin  linns  nvcii   in  June  or  July,  which 
perhaps  from  a  triple  pruning,  in  which 
there  was  also  a  third  vintage.     The  first 
vintage  was  in  August,  the  second  in  Septcm- 
and   the  third   in   October.     The   grapes 
when  not   gathered  were  sometimes  found  on 
the  vines  until  November  and  December.   The 
h  s  were  required  to  leave  gleanings  for 
the  poor,  Lav.  .\i\.  LQ.     The  season  of  vintage 
was  a  most   joyful  one,  Judges  ix,  27;    Isaiah 
wi,  10 j  Jer.  xxv,  .'Kl;  xlviii',  33.     With  shout- 
i  all  sides,  the  grapes  were  plucked  off" 
and  carried  to  the  wine  press,  mio,  mNB,  Ajjw, 
which  was  in  the  vineyard,  Isa.  liii,  3;  Zech. 
\iv,  Hi;    Haggaj  ii,  lt'i;    Matt,  xxi,  33;  Rev. 
\iv,    19,   '.'ii.     The    presses    consisted    of  two 
receptacles,  which  were  either  built  of  stones 
and  covered  with  plaster,  or  hewn  out  of  a  large 
nick.     The  upper  receptacle,  called  rU,  as  it  is 
constructed  at  the  present  time  in  Persia,  is 
nearly  eight  feci  square  and   four   feet  high. 
Into  this  the  grapes  are  thrown  and  trodden 
cm  by  live  men.     The  juice  flows  out  into  the 
lower  receptacle,  through  a  grated  aperture, 
which  is  made  in  the  side  near  the  bottom  of 
the  upper  one.     The  treading  of  the  wine  press 
wis  laborious,  and  not  very  favourable  to  clean- 
lin.-ss;   the  nannents  of  the  persons  thus  em- 
were  stained  with  the  red  juice,  and  yet 
the.  employment  was  a  joyful  one.     It  was 
performed    with    singing,    accompanied    with 
musical  instruments;  and  (be  treaders,  as  they 
jumped,  exclaimed,  -\vn,  Isa.  xvi,  9,  10;  Jer. 
30 j  ilviii,  33,  33.     Figuratively,  vintage, 
gleaning,  and  treading  the  wine  press,  signified 
battles  and  liters,  Isa.  xvii,  6;  lxiii, 

I    :i;  J.  i.  xli.x.  :>;  I .;.iii.  i,  I."..     The  must,  as  is 
nary  in  the  east  at  the  present  day,  was 
rved  in  targe  firkins,  which  were  buried  in 
'Hi-    The  wine  cellars  ware  not  Btrbter- 
in,  bin,  built  upon  the  earth.     When  de- 
ll iu  these,  the  lirkins,  as  is  done  at  the 
it  time  in  Persia,  were  sometimes  buried 
m  the  ground,  and  sometimes   left   standing 
upon   it.      formerly,  also,    new   wine,   or  must 
"■ ''    >n  leathern  bottles;   and,  lest 
be  broken  by  fermentation,  the 
'"■"I'  I  careful  that  the  bottles  should 

ix,l7;  Mark  ii,  22. 
Ihe  inn. I  was  boiled  and  made  int*o 

imprehsnded    under    the 
•      i  it  is  commonly  rendered 

Gen.    Aim.    11  ;    :.>   Cl.ron.   XI 


Sometimes  the  grapes  were  dried  in  the  sun 
and  preserved  in  masses,  which  were  called 
"  bunches  or  clusters  of  raisins,"  1  Sam.  xxv, 
18;  2  Sam.  xvi,  1;  1  Chron.  xii,  40;  Hosea 
iii,  1.  From  these  dried  grapes,  when  soaked 
in  wine  and  pressed  a  second  time,  was  manu- 
factured sweet  wine,  which  is  also  called  new 
wine,  y'XevKo;,  Acts  ii,  13. 

WISDOM  is  put  for  that  prudence  and 
discretion  which  enables  a  man  to  perceive 
that  which  is  fit  to  he  done,  according  to  the 
circumstances  of  time,  place,  persons,  man- 
ners, and  end  of  doing,  Eccles.  ii,  13,  14.  It 
was  this  sort  of  wisdom  that  Solomon  intreated 
of  God  with  so  much  earnestness,  and  which 
God  granted  him  with  such  divine  liberality, 

1  Kings  iii,  9,  12,  28.  It  also  signifies  quick- 
ness of  invention,  and  dexterity  in  the  execu- 
tion of  several  works,  which  require  not  so 
much  strength  of  body,  as  industry,  and  labour 
of  the  mind.  For  example,  God  told  Moses, 
Exod.  xxxi,  3,  that  he  had  filled  Bezaleel  and 
Aholiab  with  wisdom,  and  understanding,  and 
knowledge,  to  invent  and  perform  several  sorts 
of  work  for  completing  the  tabernacle.  It  is 
used  for  craft,  cunning,  and  stratagem,  and 
that  whether  good  or  evil.  Thus  it  is  said  by 
Moses,  that  Pharaoh  dealt  wisely  with  the 
Israelites,  when  he  opposed  them  in  Egypt, 
Exodus  i,  10 :  it  is  observed  of  Jonadab,  the 
friend  of  Amnion,  and  nephew  of  David,  that 
he  was  very  wise,  that  is,  very  subtle  and  crafty, 

2  Sam.  xiii,  3;  and  Job,  v,  13,  says,  that  God 
"takcth  tine  wise  in  their  own  craftiness."  Wis- 
dom means  also  doctrine,  learning,  and  expe- 
rience :  "With  the  ancient  is  wisdom,  and  in 
length  of  days  understanding,"  Job  xii,  12.  It 
is  put  for  true  piety,  or  the  fear  of  God,  which 
is  spiritual  wisdom  :  "  So  teach  us  to  number 
our  days,  that  wo  may  apply  our  hearts  unto 
wisdom,"  Psalm  xc,  12  ;  "  The  fear  of  the  Lord 
that  is  wisdom,"  Job  xxvii,  28.  Wisdom  is  put 
for  the  eternal  Wisdom,  the  Word  of  God. 
It  was  by  wisdom  that  God  estahlished  the 
heavens,  and  founded  the  earth,  Prov.  iii,  19. 
How  magnificently  does  Solomon  describe  the 
primeval  birth  of  the  eternal  Son  of  God,  under 
the  character  of  W'isdom  personified  ;  to  which 
so  many  references  and  allusions  arc  to  be 
found  in  the  Old  and  New  Testament !  "  The 
Lord  possessed  me  in  the  beginning  of  his  way, 
before  his  works  of  old.  I  was  set  up  from 
everlasting,  from  the  beginning,  or  ever  the 
earth  was.  When  there  were  no  depths,  I  was 
brought  forth  ;  when  there  were  no  fountains 
abounding  with  water.  Before  the  mountains 
were  settled,  before  the  hills  was  I  brought 
forth,"  Frov.  viii,  22-25.  The  apocryphal 
book  of  Wisdom  introduces,  by  a  reference  to 
ibis  passage,  the  following  admirable  invoca- 
tion, Wisdom  ix,  9,  10 : — 

"O  send  forth  wisdom,  ont  of  thy  holy  heavens, 

Kveu  from  the.  thro if  thy  glory; 

Thai  being  present  she  may  labour  with  me, 

'riiatlinayknowwli.il  ii  pleasing  in  tbj  si^ht !" 

And  our  Lord  assumes  the  title  of  Wisdom, 
Luke  xi,  49  ;  Matt,  xxiii,  31 ;  and  declares  that 
"  wisdom  shall  be  justified  of  all  her  children," 
Matt.  xi.  19;  Luke  vn,  35. 


WOL 


961 


WOR 


WISDOM,  Book  of,  an  apocryphal  book 
of  Scripture,  so  called  on  account  of  the  wise 
maxims  contained  in  it.  This  book  has  been 
commonly  ascribed  to  Solomon,  either  because 
the  author  imitated  that  king's  manner  of  writ- 
ing, or  because  he  sometimes  speaks  in  his 
name.  But  it  is  certain  Solomon  was  not  the 
author  of  it ;  for  it  was  not  written  in  Hebrew, 
nor  was  it  inserted  in  the  Jewish  canon,  nor 
is  the  style  like  that  of  Solomon  ;  and  there- 
fore St.  Jerom  observes  justly  that  it  smells 
strong  of  the  Grecian  eloquence ;  that  it  is 
composed  with  art  and  method,  after  the  man- 
ner of  the  Greek  philosophers,  very  different 
from  that  noble  simplicity  so  full  of  life  and 
energy  to  be  found  in  the  Hebrew  books.  It 
has  been  ascribed  by  many  of  the  ancients  to 
Philo. 

WOLF,  3Nt,  in  Arabic,  zeeb,  Gen.  xlix,  27 ; 
Isa.  xi,  6;  lxv,  25;  Jer.  v,  6;  Ezek.  xxii,  27; 
Zeph.  iii,  3 ;  Hab.  i,  8 ;  MkoS,  Matt,  vii,  15 ; 
x,  16;  Luke  x,  3;  John  x,  12;  Acts  xx,  29; 
Eccles.  xiii,  17.  M.  Majus  derives  it  from  the 
Arabic  word  zaab  or  daaba,  "  to  frighten ;" 
and  hence,  perhaps,  the  German  word  dieb, 
"a  thief."  The  wolf  is  a  fierce,  strong,  cun- 
ning, mischievous,  and  carnivorous  quadruped ; 
externally  and  internally  so  nearly  resembling 
the  dog,  that  they  seem  modelled  alike,  yet 
have  a  perfect  antipathy  to  each  other.  The 
Scripture  observes  of  the  wolf,  that  it  lives 
upon  rapine  ;  is  violent,  bloody,  cruel,  vora- 
cious, and  greedy  ;  goes  abroad  by  night  to 
seek  its  prey,  and  is  a  great  enemy  to  flocks 
of  sheep.  Indeed,  this  animal  is  fierce  without 
cause,  kills  without  remorse,  and  by  its  indis- 
criminate slaughter  seems  to  satisfy  its  ma- 
lignity rather  than  its  hunger.  The  wolf  is 
weaker  than  the  lion  or  the  bear,  and  less 
courageous  than  the  leopard ;  but  he  scarcely 
yields  to  them  in  cruelty  and  rapaciousness. 
His  ravenous  temper  prompts  him  to  destruc- 
tive and  sanguinary  depredations ;  and  these 
are  perpetrated  principally  in  the  night.  This 
circumstance  is  expressly  mentioned  in  several 
passages  of  Scripture.  "  The  great  men  have 
altogether  broken  the  yoke  and  burst  the 
bonds  ;  wherefore,  a  lion  out  of  the  forest 
shall  slay  them,  and  a  wolf  of  the  evenings 
shall  spoil  them,"  Jer.  v,  6.  The  rapacious 
and  cruel  conduct  of  the  princes  of  Israel  is 
compared  by  Ezekiel,  xxii,  27,  to  the  mis- 
chievous inroads  of  the  same  animal:  "Her 
princes  in  the  midst  thereof  are  like  wolves 
ravening  the  prey,  to  shed  blood,  to  destroy 
lives,  to  get  dishonest  gain ;"  and  Zephaniah, 
iii,  3,  says,  "  Her  princes  within  her  are  roar- 
ing lions,  her  judges  are  evening  wolves :  they 
gnaw  not  the  bones  till  the  morrow."  Instead 
of  protecting  the  innocent  and  restraining  the 
evil  doer,  or  punishing  him  according  to  the 
demerit  of  his  crimes,  they  delight  in  violence 
and  oppression,  in  blood  and  rapine;  and  so 
insatiable  is  their  cupidity,  that,  like  the  eve- 
ning wolf,  they  destroy  more  than  they  are 
able  to  possess.  The  dispositions  of  the  wolf 
to  attack  the  weaker  animals,  especially  those 
which  are  under  the  protection  of  man,  is 
alluded  to  by  our  Saviour  in  the  parable  of  the 
62 


hireling  shepherd:  "The  wolf  catcheth  them, 
and  scattereth  the  flock,"  Matt,  vii,  15.  And 
the  Apostle  Paul,  in  his  address  to  the  elders 
of  Ephesus,  gives  the  name  of  this  insidious 
and  cruel  animal  to  the  false  teachers  who 
disturbed  the  peace  and  perverted  the  faith  of 
their  people  :  "  I  know  this,  that  after  my 
departing  shall  grievous  wolves  enter  in  among 
you,  not  sparing  the  flock,"  Acts  xx,  29. 

WORD.     Sometimes  the  Scripture  ascribes 
to  the  word  of  God  certain  supernatural  effects, 
and  often  represents  it  as  animated  and  active : 
"  He  sent  his  word  and  healed  them,"  Psalm 
cvii,  20.     It  also  signifies  what  is  written  in 
the  sacred  books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa, 
ment,  Luke  xi,  28 ;  James  i,  22 ;  the  divine  law 
which  teaches  and  commands  good  things,  and 
forbids  evil,  Psalm  cxix,  101 ;  and  is  used  to 
express  every  promise  of  God,  Psalm  cxix,  25, 
&.c,  and  prophecy  or  vision,  Isaiah,  ii,  1.  This 
term  is  likewise  consecrated  and  appropriated 
to  signify  the  only  Son  of  the  Father,  the  un- 
created Wisdom,  the  second  Person  of  the 
most  holy  Trinity,  equal  to  and  consubstantial 
with  the  Father.  St.  John  the  evangelist,  more 
expressly  than  any  other,  has  opened  to  us  the 
mystery  of  the  Word  of  God,  when  he  tells  us, 
"  In  the  beginning  was  the  Word,  and  the 
Word  was  with  God,  and  the  Word  was  God. 
The   same  was  in   the  beginning  with  God. 
All  things  were  made  by  him,  and  without 
him  was  not  any  thing  made  that  was  made," 
John  i,  1-3.     The  Chaldee  paraphrasts,  the 
most  ancient  Jewish  writers  extant,  generally 
make  use  of  the  word  memra,  which  signifies 
"  the  Word,"  in  those  places  where  Moses  puts 
the  name  Jehovah.     They  say,  for  example, 
that  it  was  the  Memra,  or  the  Word,  which 
created  the  world,  which  appeared  to  Moses 
on  Mount  Sinai,  which  gave  him  the  law, 
which  spoke  to  him  face  to  face,  which  brought 
Israel  out  of  Egypt,  which  marched  before  the 
people,  and  which  wrought  all  those  miracles 
that  are  recorded  in  Exodus.     It  was  the  same 
Word  that  appeared  to  Abraham  in  the  plain 
of  Mamre,  that  was  seen  of  Jacob  at  Bethel, 
to  whom  Jacob  made  his  vow,  and  acknow- 
ledged as  God,  saying,  "  If  God  will  be  with 
me,  and  will  keep  me  in  this  way  that  I  go, 
then  shall  the  Lord  be  my  God,"  Gen.  xxviii, 
20,  21.     The  manner  in  which  St.  John  com- 
mences his  Gospel  is  strikingly  different  from 
the  introductions  to  the  histories  of  Christ  by 
the  other  evangelists ;  and  no  less  striking  and 
peculiar  is  the  title  under  which  he  announces 
him — "the  Word."     It  has  therefore  been  a 
subject  of  much  inquiry  and  discussion,  from 
whence  this  evangelist  drew  the  use  of  this 
appellation,   and   what  reasons   led   him,    as 
though  intending  to  solicit  particular  atten- 
tion, to  place  it  at  the  very  head  of  his  Gospel. 
That  it  was  for  the.  purpose  of  establishing  an 
express  opinion,  as  to  the  personal  character 
of  him  it  is  used  to  designate,  is  made  more 
than  probable  from  the  predominant  character 
of  the  whole  Gospel,  which  is  more  copiously 
doctrinal,  and  contains  a  record  more  full  of 
what  Jesus  "  said"  than  the  others.     As  to  the 
source  from  which  the  term  Logos  was  drawn 


WOR 


962 


WOR 


by  the  Apostle,  pome  have  held  it  to  be  taken 
from  the  Jewish  Scriptures;  others,  from  the 
Chaldee  paraphrases;  others,  from  Philo  and 
the  EfeUenizing  .lows.  The  most  natural  con- 
clusion certainly  appears  to  be,  that,  as  St. 
John  was  a  plain,  "  unlearned"  man,  chiefly 
conversant  in  the  Holy  Scriptures,  he  derived 
this  term,  from  the  sacred  books  of  his  own 
nation,  in  which  the  Hebrew  phrase,  Dalmr 
Jehovah,  "the  Word  of  Jehovah,"  frequently 
occurs  in  passages  which  must  be  understood 
to  speak  of  a  personal  Word,  and  which  phrase 
is  rendered  A6yos  Kvplov  [the  word  of  the  Lord] 
liv  the  Septuagint  interpreters.  Certainly,  there 
is  not  the  least  evidence  in  his  writings,  or  in 
his  traditional  history,  that  he  ever  acquainted 
himself  with  Philo  or  with  Plato  ;  ami  none, 
therefore,  that  he  borrowed  the  term  from 
them,  or  used  it  in  any  sense  approaching  to 
or  suggested  by  these  refinements  : — in  the 
writings  of  St.  Paul  there  are  allusions  to 
poets  and  philosophers ;  in  those  of  St.  John, 
none,  except  to  the  rising  sects  afterward 
known  under  the  appellation  of  Gnostics. 
The  Hebrew  Scriptures  contain  frequent  inti- 
mations of  a  distinction  of  Persons  in  the  God- 
head ;  one  of  these  Divine  Persons  is  called 
Jehovah  ;  and,  though  manifestly  represented 
as  existing  distinct  from  the  Father,  is  yet 
arrayed  with  attributes  of  divinity,  and  was 
acknowledged  by  the  ancient  Jews  to  be,  in 
the  highest  sense,  "their  God,"  the  God  with 
whom,  through  all  their  history,  they  chiefly 
"had  to  do."  This  Divine  Person  is  proved 
to  have  been  spoken  of  by  the  prophets  as  the 
future  Christ ;  the  evangelists  and  Apostles 
represent  Jesus  as  that  Divine  Person  of  the 
prophets  ;  and  if,  in  the  writings  of  the  Old 
Testament,  he  is  also  called  the  Word,  the 
application  of  this  term  to  our  Lord  is  natu- 
rally accounted  for.  It  will  then  appear  to  be 
a  theological,  not  a  philosophic  appellation, 
and  one  which,  previously  even  to  the  time  of 
the  Apostle,  had  been  stamped  with  the  au- 
thority of  inspiration. 

Celebrated  as  this  title  of  the  Logos  was  in 
the  Jewish  theology,  it  is  not,  however,  the 
appellation  by  which  the  Spirit  of  inspiration 
has  chosen  that  our  Saviour  should  be  princi- 
pally designated.  It  occurs  but  a  very  few 
limes,  and  principally  and  emphatically  in  the 
introduction  to  St.  John's  Gospel.  A  cogent 
reason  can  be  given  why  this  Apostle  adopts  it ; 
and  wo  are  not  without  a  probable  reason  why; 
in  the  New  Testament,  the  title  "  Son  of  God" 
should  have  been  preferred,  which  is  a  frequent 
title  of  the  Logos  in  the  writings  also  of  Philo. 
Originating  from  the  spiritual  principle  of  con- 
nection, between  the  first  and  the  second  Being 
in  the  Godhead;  marking  this,  by  a  spiritual 
<i  connection1;  and  considering  if.  to  he 

an  close  a,,, I  ,,s  i ssary  as  the  Word  is  to  the 

energetic  mind  of  God,  winch  cannot  borj  its 
intellectual  energies  in  silenoe,  hut,  must  pu] 
then  forth  in  speech;  it  is  too  spiritual  in  itself 
to  be  addressed  to  the  faith  of  the  multitude! 

If  with  so  full  a  reference  to  our  bodily  ideas, 

and  so  pot  ithre  a  filiation  of  tin-  second  Keing 

"rut,  we  have  seen  the  attempts  of  Arian 


criticism  endeavouring  to  resolve  the  doctrine 
into  the  mere  dust  of  a  figure  ;  how  much  more 
ready  would  it  have  been  to  do  so,  if  we  had 
only  such  a  spiritual  denomination  as  this  for 
the  second  !  This  would  certainly  have  been 
considered  by  it  as  too  unsubstantial  for  distinct 
personality,  and  therefore  too  evanescent  for 
equal  divinity.  One  of  the  first  teachers  of 
this  system  was  Ccrinthus.  We  have  not  any 
particular  account  of  all  the  branches  of  his 
system  ;  and  it  is  possible  that  we  may  ascribe 
to  him  some  of  those  tenets  by  which  later  sects 
of  Gnostics  were  discriminated.  But  we  have 
authority  for  saying,  that  the  general  principle 
of  the  Gnostic  scheme  was  openly  taught  by 
Cerinthus  before  the  publication  of  the  Gospel 
of  St.  John.  The  authority  is  that  of  Irenaeus, 
a  bishop  who  lived  in  the  second  century,  who 
in  his  youth  had  heard  Polycarp,  the  disciple  of 
the  Apostle  John,  and  who  retained  the  dis- 
courses of  Polycarp  in  his  memory  till  his 
death.  There  are  yet  extant  of  the  works  of 
Irenirus,  five  books  which  he  wrote  against 
heresies,  one  of  the  most  authentic  and  valu- 
able monuments  of  theological  erudition.  In 
one  place  of  that  work  he  says,  that  Cerinthus 
taught  in  Asia  that  the  world  was  not  made  by 
the  Supreme  God,  but  by  a  certain  power  very 
separate  and  far  removed  from  the  Sovereign 
of  the  universe,  and  ignorant  of  his  nature.  In 
another  place,  he  says  that  John  the  Apostle 
wished,  by  his  Gospel,  to  extirpate  the  error 
which  had  been  spread  among  men  by  Cerin- 
thus ;  and  Jerom,  who  lived  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, says  that  St.  John  wrote  his  Gospel,  at 
the  desire  of  the  bishops  of  Asia,  against  Ce- 
rinthus and  other  heretics,  and  chiefly  against, 
the  doctrines  of  the  Ebionites,  then  springing 
up,  who  said  that  Christ  did  not  exist  before  he 
was  born  of  Mary. 

"It  appears,"  says  Dr.  Hill,  "to  have  been 
the  tradition  of  the  Christian  church,  that  St. 
John,  who  lived  to  a  great  age,  and  who  resided 
at  Ephesus,  in  Proconsular  Asia,  was  moved 
by  the  growth  of  the  Gnostic  heresies,  and  by 
the  solicitations  of  the  Christian  teachers,  to 
bear  his  testimony  to  the  truth  in  writing,  and 
particularly  to  recollect  those  discourses  and 
actions  of  our  Lord,  which  might  furnish  the 
clearest  refutation  of  the  persons  who  denied 
his  preexistence.  This  tradition  is  a  key  to  a 
great  part  of  his  Gospel.  Matthew,  Mark,  and 
Luke  had  given  a  detail  of  those  actions  of 
Jesus  which  are  the  evidences  of  his  divine 
mission  ;  of  those  events  in  his  life  upon  earth 
which  are  most  interesting  to  the  human  race  ; 
and  of  those  moral  discourses  in  which  the 
wisdom,  the  grace,  and  the  sanctity  of  the 
Teacher  shine  with  united  lustre.  Their  whole 
narration  implies  that  Jesus  was  more  than 
man.  But  as  it  is  distinguished  by  a  beautiful 
simplicity,  which  adds  very  much  to  their  credit 
as  historians,  they  have  not,  with  the  exception 
of  a  few  incidental  expressions,  formally  stated 
the  conclusion  that  Jesus  was  more  than  man  ; 
but  have  left  the  Christian  world  to  draw  it  for 
themselves  from  the  facts  narrated,  or  to  re- 
ceive it  by  the  teaching  and  the  writings  of 
the  Apostles.    St.  John,  who  was  preserved  by 


WOR 


963 


WOR 


God  to  see  this  conclusion,  which  had  been 
drawn  by  the  great  body  of  Christians,  and  had 
been  established  in  the  epistles,  denied  by  dif- 
ferent heretics,  brings  forward,  in  the  form  of  a 
history  of  Jesus,  a  view  of  his  exalted  character, 
and  draws  our  attention  particularly  to  the  truth 
of  that  which  had  been  denied.  When  you 
come  to  analyze  the  Gospel  of  St.  John,  you 
will  find  that  the  first  eighteen  verses  contain 
the  positions  laid  down  by  the  Apostle,  in  order 
to  meet  the  errors  of  Cerinthus ;  that  these 
positions,  which  are  merely  affirmed  in  the 
introduction,  are  proved  in  the  progress  of  the 
Gospel,  by  the  testimony  of  John  the  Baptist, 
and  by  the  words  and  the  actions  of  our  Lord  ; 
and  that  after  the  proof  is  concluded  by  the 
declaration  of  Thomas,  who,  upon  being  con- 
vinced that  Jesus  had  risen,  said  to  him,  '  My 
Lord,  and  my  God,'  St.  John  sums  up  the 
amount  of  his  Gospel  in  these  few  words : 
'  These  are  written  that  ye  might  believe  that 
Jesus  is  the  Christ,  the  Son  of  God;'  that  is, 
that  Jesus  and  the  Christ  are  not  distinct  per- 
sons, and  that  Jesus  Christ  is  the  Son  of  God. 
The  Apostle  does  not  condescend  to  mention 
the  name  of  Cerinthus,  because  that  would 
have  preserved,  as  long  as  the  world  lasts,  the 
memory  of  a  name  which  might  otherwise  be 
forgotten.  But,  although  there  is  dignity  and 
propriety  in  omitting  the  mention  of  his  name, 
it  was  necessary,  in  laying  down  the  positions 
that  were  to  meet  his  errors,  to  adopt  some  of 
his  words,  because  the  Christians  of  those  days 
would  not  so  readily  have  applied  the  doctrine 
of  the  Apostle  to  the  refutation  of  those  heresies 
which  Cerinthus  was  spreading  among  them, 
if  they  had  not  found  in  the  exposition  of  that 
doctrine  some  of  the  terms  in  which  the  heresy 
was  delivered  ;  and  as  the  chief  of  these  terms, 
Logos,  which  Cerinthus  applied  to  an  inferior 
spirit,  was  equivalent  to  a  phrase  in  common 
use  among  the  Jews,  '  the  Word  of  Jehovah,' 
and  was  probably  borrowed  from  thence,  John 
by  his  use  of  Logos  rescues  it  from  the  de- 
graded use  of  Cerinthus,  and  restores  it  to  a 
sense  corresponding  to  the  dignity  of  the  Jewish 
phrase." 

The  Logos  was  no  fanciful  term,  merely  in- 
vented by  St.  John,  pro  re  naici,  [according  to 
circumstances,]  or  even  suggested  by  the  Holy 
Spirit,  as  a  suitable  title  for  a  prophet  by  whom 
God  chose  to  reveal  himself  or  his  Word.  It 
was  a  term  diversely  understood  in  the  world 
before  St.  John  began  his  Gospel.  Is  it  pos- 
sible, therefore,  that  he  should  have  used  the 
term  without  some  express  allusion  to  these 
prevailing  opinions  ?  Had  he  contradicted  them 
all,  it  would,  of  course,  have  been  a  plain  proof, 
that  they  were  all  equally  fabulous  and  fanciful ; 
but  by  adopting  the  term,  he  certainly  meant  to 
show,  that  the  error  did  not  consist  in  believing 
that  there  was  a  Logos;,  or  Word  of  God,  but 
in  thinking  amiss  of  it.  We  might,  indeed, 
have  wondered  much  had  he  decidedly  adopted 
the  Platonic  or  Gnostic  notions,  in  preference 
to  the  Jewish  ;  but  that  he  should  harmonize 
with  the  latter,  is  by  no  means  surprising ;  first, 
because  he  was  a  Jew  himself;  and,  secondly, 
becauoe  Christianity  was  plainly  to  be  shown 


to  be  connected  with,  and,  as  it  were,  regularly 
to  have  sprung  out  of,  Judaism.  It  is  certainly, 
then,  in  the  highest  degree  consistent  with  all 
we  could  reasonably  expect,  to  find  St.  John 
and  others  of  the  sacred  writers  expressing 
themselves  in  terms  not  only  familiar  to  the 
Jews  under  the  old  covenant,  but,  in  such  as 
might  tend,  by  a  perfect  revelation  of  the  truth, 
to  give  instruction  to  all  parties  ;  correcting 
the  errors  of  the  Platonic  and  oriental  systems, 
and  confirming,  in  the  clearest  manner,  the 
hopes  and  expectations  of  the  Jews. 

While  the  reasons  for  the  use  of  this  term 
by  St.  John  are  ohvious,  the  argument  from  it 
is  irresistible  ;  for,  first,  the  Logos  of  the  evan- 
gelist is  a  person,  not  an  attribute,  as  many 
Socinians  have  said,  who  have,  therefore,  some- 
times chosen  to  render  it  wisdom.  For  if  it  be 
an  attribute,  it  were  a  mere  truism  to  say,  that 
"  it  was  in  the  beginning  with  God  ;"  because 
God  could  never  be  without  his  attributes.  The 
Apostle  also  declares,  that  the  Logos  was  the 
Light ;  but  that  John  Baptist  was  not  the  light. 
Here  is  a  kind  of  parallel  supposed,  and  it  pre- 
sumes, also,  that  it  was  possible  that  the  same 
character  might  be  erroneously  ascribed  to  both. 
Between  person  and  person  this  may,  undoubt  • 
edly,  be  the  case  ;  but  what  species  of  parallel 
can  exist  between  man  and  an  attribute  ?  Nor 
will  the  difficulty  be  obviated  by  suggesting, 
that  wisdom  here  means  not  the  attribute  itself, 
but  him  whom  that  attribute  inspired,  the  man 
Jesus  Christ,  because  the  name  of  our  Saviour 
has  not  yet  been  mentioned  ;  because  that  rule 
of  interpretation  must  be  inadmissible,  which 
at  one  time  would  explain  the  term  Logos  by 
an  attribute,  at  another  by  a  man,  as  best  suits 
the  convenience  of  hypothesis ;  and  because, 
if  it  be,  in  this  instance,  conceived  to  indicate 
our  Saviour,  it  must  follow,  that  our  Saviour 
created  the  world,  (which  the  Unitarians  will 
by  no  means  admit,)  for  the  Logos,  who  was 
that  which  John  the  Baptist  was  not,  the  true 
Light,  is  expressly  declared  to  have  made  the 
world.  Again  :  the  Logos  was  made  flesh,  that 
is,  became  man  ;  but  in  what  possible  sense 
could  an  attribute  become  man  ?  The  Logos 
is  "the  only  begotten  of  the  Father  ;"  but  it 
would  be  uncouth  to  say  of  any  attribute,  that  it 
is  begotten  ;  and,  if  that  were  passed  over,  it 
would  follow,  from  this  notion,  either  that  God 
has  only  one  attribute,  or  that  wisdom  is  not 
his  only  begotten  attribute.  Farther  :  St.  John 
uses  terms  decisively  personal,  as  that  he  is 
God,  not  divine  as  an  attribute,  but  God  per- 
sonally ;  not  that  he  was  in  God,  which  would 
properly  have  been  said  of  an  attribute,  but  with 
God,  which  he  could  only  say  of  a  person  ;  that 
"all  things  were  made  by  him;"  that  he  was 
"  in  the  world  ;"  that  "  he  came  to  his  own  ; " 
that  he  was  "in  the  bosom  of  the  Father;" 
and  that  "  he  hath  declared  the  Father."  The 
absurdity  of  representing  the  Logos  of  St.  John 
as  an  attribute  seems,  at  length,  to  have  been 
perceived  by  the  Socinians  themselves,  and 
their  new  version  accordingly  regards  it  as  a 
personal  term. 

If  the  Logos  be  a  person,  then  is  he  Divine  ; 
for,  first,  eternity  is  ascribed  to  him :  "  In  the 


won 


964 


VVOR 


limning  was  the  Word."  The  Unitarian 
comment  is,  "  from  the  beginning  of  his  mi- 
nistry." "r  "the  commencement  of  the  Gospel 
dispensation  ;"  «  liich  makes  St.  John  use  ano- 
ther trifling  truism,  and  solemnly  tell  his  read- 
ers,  that  our  Saviour,  when  he  began  his 
ministry,  was  in  existence  !  "  in  the  beginning 
of  his  ministry  the  Word  iras  .'"  It  is  true,  that 
iptfl,  '•  the  beginning,"  is  used  for  the  begin- 
ning of  Christ's  ministry,  when  he  says  that 
the  Apostles  had  been  with  him  from  the  be- 
ginning; and  it  may  be  used  for  the  beginning 
of  any  thing  whatever.  It  is  a  term  which 
must  be  determined  in  its  meaning  by  the  eon- 
text  ;  and  the  question,  therefore,  is,  how  the 
connection  here  determines  it.  Almost  imme- 
diately it  is  added,  "  All  things  were  made  by 
him  ;"  which  can  only  mean  the  creation  of 
universal  nature.  He,  then,  who  made  all 
things  was  prior  to  all  created  things ;  he  was 
when  they  began  to  be,  and  before  they  began 
to  be;  and,  if  lie  existed  before  all  created 
things,  he  was  not  himself  created,  and  was, 
therefore,  eternal.  Secondly,  he  is  expressly 
called  God  ;  and,  thirdly,  he  is  as  explicitly 
paid  to  be  the  Creator  of  all  things.  The  two 
last  particulars  have  often  been  largely  esta- 
blished, and  nothing  need  be  added,  except,  as 
another  proof  that  the  Scriptures  can  only  be 
fairly  explained  by  the  doctrine  of  a  distinction 
of  divine  Persons  in  the  Godhead,  the  decla- 
ration of  St.  John  may  be  adduced,  that  "the 
Word  was  with  God,  and  the  Word  was  God." 
What  hypothesis  but  this  goes  a  single  step  to 
explain  this  wonderful  language?  Arianism, 
which  allows  the  preexistence  of  Christ  with 
God,  accords  with  the  first  clause,  but  contra- 
dicts the  second.  Sabcllianism,  which  reduces 
the  personal  to  an  official,  and  therefore  a  tem- 
poral, distinction,  accords  with  the  second 
clause,  but  contradicts  the  first ;  for  Christ, 
according  to  this  theory,  was  not  with  God  in 
the  beginning,  that  is  in  eternity.  Socinianism 
contradicts  both  clauses ;  for  on  that  scheme 
Christ  was  neither  with  God  in  the  beginning, 
nor  was  he  God.  "  The  faith  of  God's  elect" 
agrees  with  both  clauses,  and  by  both  it  is  es- 
tablished :  "The  Word  was  with  God,  and  tho 
Word  was  God."     See  Unitarians. 

WORM,  the  general  name  in  Scripture  for 
little  creeping  insects.  Several  kinds  are 
spoken  of:  1.  Those  that  breed  in  putrefied 
bodies,  rrtn,  Exod.  xvi,  20,  24;  Job  vii,  5; 
xvii,  14;  xxi,  26;  xxiv,  20;  xxv,  6;  Isa.  xiv, 
11  ;  imtityf,  Ecclus.  vii,  17;  x,  11 ;  1  Mac.  ii, 
62;  2  Mac.  ix,  !l  ;  Judith  xvi,  17;  Mark  ix,  44, 
46,  48;  Acts  xii,  2:$.  2.  That  which  eats 
woollen  garments.  Do,  Isa.  Ii,  8;  ens.  Matt,  vi 
19,  20;  Duke  .vii,  S3.  3.  That  which,  perfo- 
rating the  leaves  and  hark  of  trees,  causes  the 
little,  excrescences  called  kermeb.  whence  is 
made,  a  crimson  dye,  ySn,  Dent,  xxviii,  39; 
Job  xxv,  6;  l'salni  xxii,  fi ;  Isa.  xiv,  1 1  ;  xli,'  14; 
Ixvi,  21 ;  Exod.  xvi,  20;  Jonah  iv,  7.  4.  The 
WMiii  destructive  ef  the  vines,  referred  to  in 
!'•  ui.  wviii,  39  ;  which  was  the  pyralU  tttatue, 
oi  pyralitfasciano,  of  Forskal,  toe  vine  weevil 
!  insei  i  extremely  Kurtfhl  to  the  vines 
WORMWOOD,  ru»VDeut. xxix,  LB;  Prov. 


v,  4  ;  Jer.  ix,  15;  xxiii,  15;  Lam.  iii,  15,  19; 
Amos  v,  7;  vi,  12;  ZxpivBov,  Rev.  viii,  11.  In 
the  Scptuagint  the  original  word  is  variously 
rendered,  and  generally  by  terms  expressive  of 
its  figurative  sense,  for  what  is  offensive, 
odious,  or  deleterious ;  but  in  the  Syriac  and 
Arabic  versions,  and  in  the  Latin  Vulgate,  it 
is  rendered  "  wormwood  ;"  and  this  is  adopted 
by  Celsius,  who  names  it  the  absinthium  snn- 
tonicum  Judaicum,  [bitter  wormwood  of  Judea.] 
From  the  passages  of  Scripture,'  however, 
where  this  plant  is  mentioned,  something  more 
than  the  bitterness  of  its  qualities  seems  to  be 
intimated,  and  effects  are  attributed  to  it 
greater  than  can  be  produced  by  the  worm- 
wood of  Europe.  The  Chaldee  paraphrase 
gives  it  even  the  character  of  "  the  wormwood 
of  death."  It  may  therefore  mean  a  plant  al- 
lied, perhaps,  to  the  absinthium  in  appearance 
and  in  taste,  but  possessing  more  nauseous, 
hurtful,  and  formidable  properties. 

WORSHIP.  The  Scriptural  obligation  of 
public  worship  is  partly  founded  upon  example, 
and  partly  upon  precept ;  so  that  no  person 
who  admits  that  authority,  can  question  this 
great  duty  without  manifest  and  criminal  in- 
consistency. The  institution  of  public  wor- 
ship under  the  law,  and  the  practice  of  syna- 
gogue worship  among  the  Jews,  from  at  least 
the  time  of  Ezra,  cannot  be  questioned  ;  both 
of  which  were  sanctioned  by  the  practice  of 
our  Lord  and  his  Apostles.  The  preceptive 
authority  for  our  regular  attendance  upon  pub- 
lic worship,  is  either  inferential  or  direct. 
The  command  to  publish  the  Gospel  includes 
the  obligation  of  assembling  to  hear  it ;  the 
name  by  which  a  Christian  society  is  desig- 
nated in  Scripture  is  a  church  ;  which  signifies 
an  assembly  for  the  transaction  of  business ; 
and,  in  the  case  of  a  Christian  assembly,  that 
business  must  necessarily  be  spiritual,  and  in- 
clude the  sacred  exercises  of  prayer,  praise, 
and  hearing  the  Scriptures.  But  we  have  more 
direct  precepts,  although  the  practice  was 
obviously  continued  from  Judaism,  and  was 
therefore  consuetudinary.  Some  of  the  epis- 
tles of  St.  Paul  are  commanded  to  be  read  in 
the  churches.  The  singing  of  psalms,  hymns, 
and  spiritual  songs  is  enjoined  as  an  act  of 
solemn  worship  to  the  Lord;  and  St.  Paul 
cautions  the  Hebrews  that  they  "  forsake  not 
the  assembling  of  themselves  together."  The 
practice  of  the  primitive  age  is  also  manifest 
from  the  epistles  of  St.  Paul.  The  Lord's 
Supper  was  celebrated  by  the  body  of  believers 
collectively  ;  and  this  Apostle  prescribes  to  the 
Corinthians  regulations  for  the  exercises  of 
prayer  and  prophesyings,  "  when  they  came 
together  in  the  church," — the  assembly.  The 
statedness  and  order  of  these  holy  offices  in 
the  primitive  church,  appear  also  from  the 
apostolical  epistle  of  St.  Clement :  "  We  ought 
also,  looking  into  .the  depths  of  the  divine 
knowledge,  to  do  all  things  in  order,  whatso- 
ever the  Lord  hath  commanded  to  be  done. 
We  ought  to  make  our  oblations,  and  perforin 
our  holy  offices,  at  they-  appointed  seasons  ; 
for  these  he  hath  commanded  to  be  done,  not 
irregularly  or   by  chance,  but   at   determinate 


WOR 


96f> 


WOR 


times  and  hours  ;  as  lie  hath  likewise  ordained 
by  his  supreme  will,  where,  and  by  what  per- 
sons, they  shall  be  performed ;  that  so  all 
things  being  done  according  to  his  pleasure, 
may  be  acceptable  in  his  sight."  This  passage 
is  remarkable  for  urging  a  divine  authority  for 
the  public  services  of  the  church,  by  which 
St.  Clement,  no  doubt,  means  the  authority  of 
the  inspired  directions  of  the  Apostles.  The 
ends  of  the  institution  of  public  worship  are 
of  such  obvious  importance,  that  it  must  ever 
be  considered  as  one  of  the  most  condescend- 
ing and  gracious  dispensations  of  God  to  man. 
By  this  his  church  confesses  his  name  before 
the  world ;  by  this  the  public  teaching  of  his 
word  is  associated  with  acts  calculated  to  af- 
fect the  mind  with  that  solemnity  which  is  the 
best  preparation  for  hearing  it  to  edification. 
It  is  thus  that  the  ignorant  and  the  vicious  are 
collected  together,  and  instructed  and  warned  ; 
the  invitations  of  mercy  are  published  to  the 
guilty,  and  the  sorrowful  and  afflicted  are 
comforted.  In  these  assemblies  God,  by  his 
Holv  Spirit,  diffuses  his  vital  and  sanctifying 
influence,  and  takes  the  devout  into  a  fellow- 
ship with  himself,  from  which  they  derive 
strength  to  do  and  to  suffer  his  will  in  the 
various  scenes  of  life,  while  he  there  affords 
them  a  foretaste  of  the  deep  and  hallowed 
pleasures  which  are  reserved  for  them  at  his 
right  hand  for  evermore.  Prayers  and  inter- 
cessions are  offered  for  national  and  public 
interests ;  and  while  the  benefit  of  these  exer- 
cises descends  upon  a  country,  all  are  kept 
sensible  of  the  dependence  of  every  public  and 
personal  interest  upon  God.  Praise  calls  forth 
the  grateful  emotions,  and  gives  cheerfulness 
to  piety ;  and  that  instruction  in  righteousness 
which  is  so  perpetually  repeated,  diffuses  the 
principles  of  morality  and  religion  throughout 
society  ;  enlightens  and  gives  activity  to  con- 
science ;  raises  the  standard  of  morals ;  at- 
taches shame  to  vice,  and  praise  to  virtue  ;  and 
thus  exerts  a  powerfully  purifying  influence 
upon  mankind.  Laws  thus  receive  a  force, 
which,  in  other  circumstances,  they  could  not 
acquire,  even  were  they  enacted  in  as  great 
perfection  ;  and  the  administration  of  justice 
is  aided  by  the  strongest  possible  obligation 
and  sanction  being  given  to  legal  oaths.  The 
domestic  relations  are  rendered  more  strong 
and  interesting  by  the  very  habit  of  the  attend- 
ance of  families  upon  the  sacred  services  of  the 
sanctuary  of  the  Lord ;  and  the  rich  and  the 
poor  meeting  together,  and  standing  on  the 
same  common  ground  as  sinners  before  God, 
equally  dependent  upon  him,  and  equally  suing 
for  his  mercy,  has  a  powerful,  though  often  an 
insensible,  influence  in  humbling  the  pride 
which  is  nourished  by  superior  rank,  and  in 
raising  the  lower  classes  above  abjectness  of 
spirit,  without  injuring  their  humility.  Piety, 
benevolence,  and  patriotism  are  equally  de- 
pendent for  their  purity  and  vigour  upon  the 
regular  and  devout  worship  of  God  in  the  sim- 
plicity of  the  Christian  dispensation. 

The  following  is  an  abridgment  of  Dr. 
Neander's  account  of  the  mode  of  conducting 
public  worship  among  the  primitive  Christians, 


which,  though  questionable  on  some  points,  is 
upon  the  whole  just  and  interesting : — Since 
the  religion  of  the  New  Testament  did  not 
admit  of  any  peculiar  outward  priesthood, 
similar  to  that  of  the  Old,  the  same  outward 
kind  of  worship,  dependent  on  certain  places, 
times,  and  outward  actions  and  demeanours, 
would  also  have  no  place  in  its  composition. 
The  kingdom  of  God,  the  temple  of  the  Lord, 
were  to  be  present,  not  in  this  or  that  place, 
but  in  every  place  where  Christ  himself  is 
active  in  the  Spirit,  and  where  through  him  the 
worship  of  God  in  spirit  and  in  truth  is  esta- 
blished. Every  Christian  in  particular,  and 
every  church  in  general,  were  to  represent  a 
spiritual  temple  of  the  Lord;  the  true  worship 
of  God  was  to  be  only  in  the  inward  heart,  and 
the  whole  life  proceeding  from  such  inward 
disposition,  sanctified  by  faith,  was  to  be  a 
continued  spiritual  service ;  this  is  the  great 
fundamental  idea  of  the  Gospel,  which  prevails 
throughout  the  New  Testament,  by  which  the 
whole  outward  appearance  of  religion  was  to 
assume  a  different  form,  and  all  that  once  was 
carnal  was  to  be  converted  into  spiritual,  and 
ennobled.  This  notion  came  forward  most 
strongly  in  the  original  inward  life  of  the  first 
Christians,  particularly  when  contrasted  with 
Judaism,  and  still  more  so  when  contrasted 
with  Heathenism ;  a  contrast  which  taught  the 
Christians  to  avoid  all  pomp  that  caught  the 
eye,  and  all  multiplication  of  means  of  devo- 
tion addressed  to  the  senses,  while  it  made  them 
hold  fast  the  simple,  spiritual  character  of  the 
Christian  worship  of  God.  It  was  this  which 
always  struck  the  Heathen  so  much  in  the 
Christian  worship ;  namely,  that  nothing  was 
found  among  them  of  the  outward  pomp  of 
all  other  religions ;  no  temples,  no  altars,  no 
images.  This  reproach  was  made  to  the  Chris- 
tians by  Celsus,  and  answered  thus  by  Origen  : 
"  In  the  highest  sense  the  temple  and  image 
of  God  are  in  the  human  nature  of  Christ ;  and 
hence,  also,  in  all  the  faithful,  who  are  ani- 
mated by  the  Spirit  of  Christ, — living  images! 
with  which  no  statue  of  Jove  by  Phidias  is  fit 
to  be  compared."  Christianity  impelled  men 
frequently  to  seek  for  the  stillness  of  the  in- 
ward sanctuary,  and  here  to  pour  forth  their 
heart  to  God,  who  dwells  in  such  temples ;  but 
then  the  flames  of  love  were  also  lighted  in 
their  hearts,  which  sought  communion  in  order 
to  strengthen  each  other  mutually,  and  to  unite 
themselves  into  one  holy  flame  which  pointed 
toward  heaven.  The  communion  of  prayer 
and  devotion  was  thought  a  source  of  sanctifi- 
cation,  inasmuch  as  men  knew  that  the  Lord 
was  present  by  his  Spirit  among  those  who 
were  gathered  together  in  his  name ;  but  then 
they  were  far  from  ascribing  any  peculiar  sa- 
credness  and  sanctity  to  the  place  of  assembly. 
Such  an  idea  would  appear  to  partake  of  Hea- 
thenism ;  and  men  were  at  first  in  less  danger 
of  being  seduced  into  such  an  idea,  because 
the  first  general  places  of  assembly  of  the 
Christians  were  only  common  rooms  in  private 
houses,  just  according  as  it  happened  that  any 
member  of  the  church  had  sufficient  accom- 
modation for  the  purpose.    Thus  Gaius  of  Co- 


WOR 


966 


WOR 


nntli,  Rom.  xvi,  is  called  the  host  of  the  church, 
because  the  church  ma  in  the  habit  of  assem- 
bling in  a  room  of  his  house.  Origen  Bays, 
••  The  place  s^  h#re  believers  come  together  to 
pray  lias  something  agreeable  and  useful  about 
it;"  hut  then  he  only  says  this  m  respect  to 
that  spiritual  communion.  Man,  we  must 
avow,  is  very  easily  led  to  fall  away  from  the 
worship  of  God  in  spirit  and  in  truth,  and  to 
connect  the  religion  of  the  Spirit  with  out- 
ward and  earthly  things;  as  the  Apostle  says, 
"Having  begun  in  the  .Spirit,  to  wish  to  end 
in  the  flesh."  Watchfulness  on  this  point  was 
constantly  needed,  lest  the  Jewish  or  the  Hea- 
then notions  should  here  intrude  themselves 
on  those  of  the  Gospel,  which  was  likely 
enough  to  happen  as  soon  as  the  Old  and  the 
New  Testament  notions  of  the  priesthood  had 
been  confused.  Even  in  the  time  of  Clemens 
of  Alexandria  he  found  himself  obliged  to 
combat  the  notion,  which  allowed  the  essen- 
tials of  a  Christian  life  to  be  of  one  kind  in, 
and  of  another  out  of,  the  church.  "The  dis- 
ciples of  Christ,"  he  says,  "  must  form  the 
whole  course  of  their  life  and  conduct  on  the 
model  which  they  assume  in  the  churches,  for 
the  sake  of  propriety;  they  must  be  such,  and 
not  merely  seem  so;  as  mild,  as  pious,  and  as 
charitable.  But  now,  I  know  not  how  it  is, 
they  change  their  habits  and  their  manners 
with  the  change  of  place,  as  the  polypus,  they 
say,  changes  its  colour,  and  becomes  like  the 
rock  on  which  it  hangs.  They  lay  aside  the 
spiritual  habit  which  they  had  assumed  in  the 
church,  as  soon  as  they  have  left  the  church, 
and  assimilate  themselves  to  the  multitude 
among  whom  they  live.  I  should  rather  say, 
that  they  convict  themselves  of  hypocrisy,  and 
show  what  they  really  are  in  their  inward  na- 
ture, by  laying  aside  the  mask  of  piety  which 
they  had  assumed  ;  and  while  they  honour  the 
word  of  God,  they  leave  it  behind  them  in  the 
place  where  they  heard  it." 

The  Christian  places  of  assembly  were,  at 
first,  in  the  rooms  of  private  houses;  it  may 
perhaps  be  the  case,  that  in  large  towns,  where 
the  number  of  Christians  was  soon  considera- 
ble, and  no  member  of  the  church  had  any 
room  in  his;  hoe.se  sufficient  to  contain  all  his 
brethren,  or  in  places  where  men  did  not  fear 
any  prejudicial  consequences  from  large  as- 
semblies, the  church  divided  itself  into  differ- 
ent sections,  according  to  the  habitations  of 
its  members,  of  which  each  section  held  its 
assemblies  in  one  particular  chamber  of  the 
house  of  some  wealthy  member  of  the  church  ; 
or,  perhaps,  while  it  was  usual  to  unite  on 
Sundays  in  one  general  assembly,  yet  each 
individual  part  of  the  church  met  together 
daily  in  the  rooms  whirl,  lav  the  most  conve- 
nient to  it.  Perhaps  the  passages  in  St.  Paul's 
epistles,  which  speak  of  churches  in  the  houses 
of  particular  persons,  are  thustobeunder- 
Thc  answer  of  Justin  Martyr  to  the  question 
of  the  prefect,  "Where  do  you  assemble  1" 
exactly  corresponds  to  the  genuine  Christian 
"pint  on  this  point.  This  answer  was,  "Where 
each  one  ran  and  will.      You  I  .  .lonbt 

tnnt  we  all  meet  together  in  one  place;  hut  it 


i^  not  so,  for  the  God  of  the  Christians  is  not 
shut  up  in  a  room,  but,  being  invisible,  he  fills 
both  heaven  and  earth,  and  is  honoured  every 
where  by  the  faithful."  Justin  adds,  that  when 
he  came  to  Rome,  ho  was  accustomed  to  dwell 
in  one  particular  spot,  and  that  those  Chris- 
tians who  were  instructed  by  him,  and  wished 
to  hear  his  discourses,  assembled  at  his  house. 
He  had  not  visited  any  other  congregations  of 
the  church.  The  arrangements  which  the  pe- 
culiarities of  the  Christian  worship  required, 
were  gradually  made  in  these  places  of  assem- 
bly, such  as  an  elevated  seat  for  the  purpose 
of  reading  the  Scriptures  and  preaching,  a 
table  for  the  distribution  of  the  sacrament,  to 
which  as  early  as  the  time  of  Tertullian  the 
name  of  altar,  ara  or  altar e,  was  given,  and 
perhaps  not  without  some  mixture  of  the 
unevangelica]  Old  Testament  notion  of  a 
sacrifice ;  or  at  least  this  idea  might  easily 
attach  itself  to  this  name.  When  the  churches 
increased,  and  their  circumstances  improved, 
there  were,  during  the  course  of  the  third  cen- 
tury, already  separate  church  buildings  for  the 
Christians,  as  the  name  ^oxnV^oc  rovdi,  [reli- 
gious places,]  of  the  Christians  occurs  in  the 
edict  of  Gallienus.  In  the  time  of  the  external 
prosperity  of  the  church,  during  the  reign  of 
Diocletian,  many  handsome  churches  arose  in 
the  great  towns.  The  use  of  images  was  origi- 
nally quite  foreign  to  the  Christian  worship 
and  churches,  and  it  remained  so  during  this 
whole  period.  The  intermixture  of  art  and 
religion,  and  the  use  of  images  for  the  latter, 
appeared  to  the  first  Christians  a  Heathenish 
practice.  As  in  Heathenism  the  divine  be- 
comes desecrated  and  tarnished  by  intermix- 
ture with  the  natural ;  and  as  men  have  often 
paid  homage  to  the  beauties  of  nature,  with 
injury  to  the  cause  of  holiness,  the  first  warmth 
of  Christian  zeal,  which  opposed  the  idolatry 
of  nature,  so  common  to  Heathenism,  and 
sought  to  maintain  the  divine  in  all  its  purity 
and  elevation,  was  inclined  rather  to  set  holi. 
ness  in  the  strongest  contrast  with  what  is 
beautiful  by  nature,  than  to  endeavour  to 
grace  it  by  lending  it  a  beautiful  form.  Men 
were  more  inclined  in  general  to  carry  into 
extremes  the  idea  of  the  appearance  of  the 
Divinity  in  the  form  of  a  servant,  which  suited 
the  oppressed  condition  of  the  church  in  these 
centuries  than  to  throw  it  into  the  back  ground, 
and  overwhelm  it  under  the  predominance  of 
their  aesthetic  dispositions,  and  their  love  of  art. 
This  is  peculiarly  shown  by  the  general  belief 
of  the  early  church,  that  Christ  had  clothed 
his  inward  divine  glory  in  a  mean  outward 
form,  which  was  in  direct  contradiction  to  it  : 
a  conclusion  which  was  drawn  from  interpret- 
ing the  prophecy  of  the  Messiah  in  Isa.  liii,  2, 
too  literally.  Thus,  Clemens  of  Alexandria 
warns  the  Christians,  from  the  example  of 
Christ,  not  to  attribute  too  much  value  to  out- 
ward beauty :  "  The  Lord  himself  was  mean 
in  outward  form ;  and  who  is  better  than  the 
Lord  ?  But  he  revealed  himself  not  in  the 
beauty  of  the  body,  perceptible  to  our  senses, 
but  in  the  true  beauty  of  the  soul  as  well  as  of 
the  body;  the  beauty  of  the  soul  consisting  in 


WOR 


967 


WOR 


benevolence,  and  that  of  the  body  in  immor- 
tality!"    Fathers  of  entirely  opposite  habits  of 
mind,  the  adherents  of  two  different  systems 
of  conceiving  divine  things,  were  nevertheless 
united  on  this  point  by  their  common  opposi- 
tion  to  the  mixture   of  the    natural   and  the 
divine  in  Heathenism,  and  by  the  endeavour 
to  maintain  the  devotion  to  God,  in  spirit  and 
in    truth,    pure    and  undefiled.      Clemens    of 
Alexandria  is  as  little  favourable  as  Tertullian 
to  the  use   of  images.     Heathens,  who,  like 
Alexander  .Severus,  saw  something  divine  in 
Christ's  personal  form,  and  sects  which  mixed 
Heathenism   and  Christianity   together,   were 
the  first  who  made  use  of  images  of  Christ ; 
as,  for  instance,  the  Gnostic  sect  of  the  follow- 
ers of  Carpocratian,  who  put  his  image  beside 
those  of  Plato  and  Aristotle.     The  use  of  reli- 
gious images  among  the  Christians  did   not 
proceed  from  their  ecclesiastical  but  from  their 
domestic  life.     In  the  intercourse  of  daily  life, 
the   Christians   saw   themselves    every  where 
surrounded  by  objects  of  Heathen  mythology, 
or  by  such  as  shocked  their  moral  and  Chris- 
tian  feelings.       Similar    objects    adorned   the 
walls  of  chambers,   the  drinking  vessels,   and 
the  signet  rings,  (on  which  the  Heathen  had 
constantly  idolatrous  images,)  to  which,  when- 
ever they   pleased,    they  could    address  their 
devotions  ;    and  the   Christians    naturally  felt 
themselves  obliged   to    replace   these    objects, 
which  wounded  their  moral  and  religious  feel- 
ings, with  others  more  suited  to  those  feelings. 
Therefore,  they  gladly  put  the  likeness  of  a 
shepherd  carrying  a  lamb  upon  his  shoulders, 
on  their  cups,  as  a  symbol  of  the  Redeemer, 
who  saves  the  sinners  that  return  to  him,  ac- 
cording to  the   parable   in   the   Gospel.     And 
Clemens  of  Alexandria  says,  in  reference  to 
the  signet  rings  of  the  Christians,   "  Let  our 
signet  rings  consist  of  a  dove,"  the  emblem  of 
the  Holy  Ghost,  "  or  a  fish,  or  a  ship  sailing 
toward  heaven,"  the  emblem  of  the  Christian 
church,  or  of  individual  Christian  souls,  "  or  a 
lyre,"  the   emblem  of  Christian  joy,    "  or  an 
anchor,"  the  emblem  of  Christian  hope  ;  "and 
he  who  is  a  fisherman,  let  him  remember  the 
Apostle,  and  the  children  who  were  dragged 
out  from  the  water ;  for  those  men  ought  not 
to  engrave  idolatrous  forms,  to  whom  the  use 
of  them  is  forbidden  ;  those  can  engrave   no 
sword  and  no  bow,   who  seek  for  peace ;  the 
friends  of  temperance  cannot  engrave  drinking 
cups."      And  yet,   perhaps,    religious   images 
made  their  way  from   domestic   life   into  the 
churches  as  early  as  the  end  of  the  third  cen- 
tury, and  the  walls  of  the  churches  were  painted 
in  the  same  way.     The  council  of  Elvira  set 
itself  against  this  innovation  as  an  abuse,  for 
it  made  the  following  order  :  "  Objects  of  reve- 
rence and  worship  shall  not  be  painted  on  the 
walls."     It  is  probable  that  the  visible  repre- 
sentation of  the  cross  found  its  way  very  early 
into    domestic    and   ecclesiastical   life.      This 
token  was  remarkably  common  among  them  ; 
it  was  used  to  consecrate  their  rising  and  their 
going  to  bed,  their  going  out  and  their  coming 
in,  and  all  the  actions  of  daily  life  ;  it  was  the 


ever  any  thing  of  a  fearful  nature  surprised 
them.  This  was  a  mode  of  expressing,  by 
means  perceptible  to  the  senses,  the  purely 
Christian  idea,  that  all  the  actions  of  Chris- 
tians, as  well  as  the  whole  course  of  their  life, 
must  be  sanctified  by  faith  in  the  crucified 
Jesus,  and  by  dependence  upon  him  ;  and  that 
this  faith  is  the  most  powerful  means  of  con- 
quering all  evil,  and  preserving  oneself  against 
it.  But  here  also,  again,  men  were  too  apt  to 
confuse  the  idea  and  the  token  which  repre- 
sented it;  and  they  attributed  the  effects  of 
faith  in  the  crucified  Redeemer  to  the  outward 
sign,  to  which  they  ascribed  a  supernatural, 
sanctifying,  and  preservative  power ;  an  error 
of  which  we  find  traces  as  early  as  the  third 
century. 

We  now  pass  from  the  consideration  of  the 
places  of  public  worship,  to  that  of  the  seasons 
of  worship,  and  the  festivals  of  the  early  Chris- 
tians.    It  is  here  shown  again,  that  the  Gos- 
pel, as  it  remodelled  the  former  conceptions 
of  the  priesthood,  of  worship  in  general,  and 
of  holy  places,  also  entirely  changed  the  then 
views  of  sacred  seasons.    And  here  again,  also, 
the  character  of  the  theocracy  of  the  New 
Testament  revealed  itself,   a  theocracy  spirit- 
ualized, ennobled,  and  freed  from  its  outward 
garb   of  sense,    and    from    the   limits   which 
bounded  its  generalization.     The  Jewish  laws 
relating  to  their  festivals  were  not  merely  ab- 
rogated by  the  Gospel,  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
transfer  these  festivals  to  different  seasons  ;  but 
they  were  entirely  abolished,  as  far  as  fixing 
religious  worship  to  particular  times  is  con- 
cerned.    St.  Paul  expressly  declares  all  sancti- 
fying of  certain  seasons,  as  far  as  men  deduced 
this  from  the  divine  command,  to  be  Jewish 
and  unevangelical,  and  to  be  like  returning  to 
the  slavery  of  the  law,  and  to  captivity  to  out- 
ward precepts.     Such  was  the  opinion  of  the 
early  church.     At  first  the  churches  assembled 
every  day ;  as,  for  instance,  the  first  church  of 
Jerusalem,  which  assembled  daily  for  prayer 
in  common,  and  for  the  public  consideration 
of  the  divine  word,  for  the  common  celebration 
of  the  Lord's  Supper  and  the  agaptz,  as  well 
as  to  maintain  the   connection   between   the 
common   head    of  the    spiritual   body   of  the 
church  and  themselves,   and  between  one  an- 
other as  members  of  this  body.     Traces  of  this 
are  also  found  in  later  times  in  the  daily  as- 
sembling of  the  churches  for  the  purpose  of 
hearing  the  Scriptures  read,  and  of  celebrating 
the  communion.     Although,  in  order  to  meet 
the  wants  of  human  nature  generally,  consist- 
ing as  it  does  of  sense   as  well  as  soul,  and 
those  of  a  large  body  of  Christians  in  particular, 
who  were  only  in  a  state   of  education,  and 
were  to  be  brought  up  to  the  ripeness  of  Chris- 
tian manhood,  men  soon  selected  definite  times 
[beside  the  authorized  Christian  Sabbath,  the 
first  day  of  the  week]  for  religious  admonitions, 
and  toconsecrate  them  to  a  fuller  occupation 
with  religious  things,  as  well  as  to  public  de- 
votion, with  the  intention,  that  the  influence 
of  these   definite   times    should   animate    and 
sanctify  the    rest    of  their    lives,    and    that 


sign  which  Christians  made  involuntarilywhen- 1  Christians  who  withdrew  themselves  from  the 


WOR 


9C8 


VVOR 


distractions  of  business  on  these  days,  and 
collected  their  hearts  before  God  in  the  still- 
ness of  solitude,  as  well  as  in  public  devotion, 
might  make  these  seasons  of  service  to  the 
other  parts  of  their  life  ;  yet  this  was  in  itself, 
and  of  itself,  nothing  unevangelical.  It  was 
only  a  dropping  down  from  the  purely  spiritual 
point  of  view,  on  which  even  the  Christian,  as 
nc  still  carries  about  two  natures  in  himself, 
cannot  always  maintain  himself,  to  the  carnal ; 
a  dropping  down  which  became  constantly 
more  necessary,  the  more  the  fire  of  the  first 
animation  and  the  warmth  of  the  first  love  of 
the  Christians  died  away.  It  was  no  more 
unevangelic  than  the  gradual  limitation  of  the 
exercise  of  many  rights,  belonging  to  the  com- 
mon priesthood  of  all  Christians,  to  a  certain 
class  in  the  church,  which  circumstances  ren- 
dered necessary.  But  just  as  the  unevangelic 
made  its  appearance,  men  supposed  certain 
days  distinguished  from  others,  and  hallowed 
by  divine  right,  when  they  introduced  a  dis- 
tinction between  holy  and  common  days  into 
the  life  of  the  Christian,  and  in  this  distinction 
forgot  his  calling  to  sanctify  all  days  alike. 
When  the  Montanists  wished  to  introduce  and 
make  imperative  new  fasts,  which  were  fixed 
to  .certain  days,  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians 
was  very  properly  brought  to  oppose  them ; 
but  I'ertullian,  who  stood  on  the  boundary 
between  the  original  pure  evangelic  times  and 
those  when  the  intermixture  of  Jewish  and 
Christian  notions  first  took  place,  confuses 
here  the  views  of  the  two  religions,  because 
he  makes  the  evangelical  to  consist,  not  in  a 
wholly  different  method  of  considering  festi- 
vals altogether,  but  in  the  celebration  of  differ- 
ent particular  festivals ;  and  he  makes  the 
Judaizing,  which  the  Apostle  condemns,  to 
consist  only  in  the  observation  of  the  Jewish 
instead  of  the  peculiarly  Christian  festivals. 
The  weekly  and  the  yearly  festivals  originally 
arose  from  the  self-same  fundamental  idea, 
which  was  the  centre  point  of  the  whole  Chris- 
tian life  ;  the  idea  of  imitating  Christ,  the 
crucified  and  the  risen ;  to  follow  him  in  his 
death,  by  appropriating  to  ourselves,  in  peni- 
tence and  faith,  the  effects  of  his  death,  by 
dying  to  ourselves  and  to  the  world  ;  to  follow 
him  in  his  resurrection,  by  rising  again  with 
him,  by  faith  in  him  and  by  his  power,  to  a 
new  and  holy  life,  devoted  to  God,  which,  be- 
ginning here  below  in  the  seed,  is  matured  in 
heaven.  Hence  the  festival  of  joy  was  the 
festival  of  the  resurrection ;  and  the  prepara- 
tion for  it,  the  remembrance  of  the  sufferings 
of  Christ,  with  mortification  and  crucifixion 
of  the  flesh,  was  the  day  of  fasting  and  peni- 
tence. Thus  in  the  week  the  Sunday  was  the 
joyful  festival ;  and  the  preparation  for  it  was 
a  day  of  penitence  and  prayer,  consecrated  to 
remembrance  of  the  sufferings  of  Christ  and 
the  preparations  for  them,  and  this  was  cele- 
brated on  the  Friday  ;  and  thus  also  the  yearly 
festivals  were  to  celebrate  the  resurrection  of 
Christ,  and  the  operations  of  the  Redeemer 
after  lie  had  risen  again;  the  preparation  for 
this  day  was  in  commemoration  of  the  suffer- 
ings and  fastings  of  our  Saviour.     Allusion  is 


made  to  Sunday  under  the  character  of  a  festi- 
val, as  a  symbol  of  a  new  life,  consecrated  to 
the  Lord  in  opposition  to  the  old  Sabbath,  in 
the  epistle  of  Ignatius  to  the  Magnesians  :  "  If 
they  who  were  brought  up  under  the  Old  Tes- 
tament have  attained  to  a  new  hope,  and  no 
longer  keep  [Jewish]  Sabbaths  holy,  but  have 
consecrated  their  life  |p  the  day  of  the  Lord, 
on  which  also  our  life  rose  up  in  him,  how 
shall  we  be  able  to  live  without  him  ?"  Sunday 
was  distinguished  as  a  day  of  joy  by  the  cir- 
cumstances, that  men  did  not  fast  upon  it,  and 
that  they  prayed  standing  up  and  not  kneeling, 
as  Christ  had  raised  up  fallen  man  to  heaven 
again  through  his  resurrection.  And  farther : 
two  other  days  in  the  week,  Friday  and  Wed- 
nesday, particularly  the  former,  were  conse- 
crated to  the  remembrance  of  the  sufferings  of 
Christ,  and  of  the  circumstances  preparatory 
to  them  ;  congregations  were  held  on  them, 
and  a  fast  till  three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon, 
but  nothing  was  positively  appointed  concerning 
them  ;  in  respect  to  joining  in  these  solemni- 
ties every  one  consulted  his  own  convenience 
or  inclination.  Such  fasts,  joined  with  prayer, 
were  considered  as  the  watches  of  the  milites 
Christi  [soldiers  of  Christ]  on  their  post  by  the 
Christians,  who  compared  their  calling  to  a 
warfare,  the  militia  Christi,  and  they  were 
siationes,  and  the  days  on  which  they  took  place 
were  called  dies  stationum,  [day  of  their  sta- 
tions.] The  churches,  which  were  a  graft  of  a 
Christian  on  a  Jewish  spirit,  although  they 
received  the  Sunday,  retained  also  that  of  the 
Sabbath ;  and  from  them  the  custom  spread 
abroad  in  the  oriental  church,  of  distinguishing 
this  day,  as  well  as  the  Sunday,  by  not  fasting 
and  by  praying  in  an  erect  posture  ;  in  the 
western  churches,  particularly  the  Roman, 
where  opposition  to  Judaism  was  the  prevail- 
ing tendency,  this  very  opposition  produced 
the  custom  of  celebrating  the  Saturday  in  par- 
ticular as  a  fast  day.  This  difference  in  customs 
would  of  course  be  striking,  where  members 
of  the  oriental  church  spent  their  Sabbath  day 
in  the  western  church.  It  was  only  too  soon 
that  men  lost  sight  of  the  principle  of  the 
apostolic  church,  which  retained  the  unity  of 
faith  and  spirit  in  the  bond  of  love,  but  al- 
lowed all  kinds  of  difference  in  external  things  ; 
and  then  they  began  to  require  uniformity  in 
these  things.  The  first  yearly  festivals  of  the 
Christians  proceeded  from  similar  views  ;  and 
at  first  tho  contrast  which  had  in  early  times 
the  most  powerful  influence  on  the  develope- 
ment  as  well  of  the  churchly  life,  as  of  the 
doctrines  of  Christianity,  is  peculiarly  promi- 
nent ;  I  mean  the  contrast  between  the  Jewish 
churches  and  those  of  the  Gentile  converts. 
The  former  retained  all  the  Jewish  festivals  as 
well  as  the  whole  ceremonial  law ;  although 
by  degrees  they  introduced  into  them  a  Chris- 
tian meaning  which  spontaneously  offered 
itself.  On  the  contrary,  there  was  probably 
no  yearly  festival  at  all,  from  the  beginning, 
among  the  Heathen  converts ;  for  no  trace  of 
any  thing  of  the  sort  is  found  in  the  whole  of 
the  New  Testament.  The  passover  of  the  Old 
Testament  was  easily  ennobled  and  converted 


WOR 


969 


WOR 


to  a  passover  which  suited  the  New  Testament, 
by  merely  substituting  the  idea  of  deliverance 
from  spiritual  bondage,  that  is,  from  the 
slavery  of  sin,  for  that  of  deliverance  from 
earthly  bondage.  The  paschal  lamb  was  a 
type  of  Christ,  by  whom  that  deliverance  was 
wrought.  These  representations  went  on  the 
supposition,  that  Christ  had  partaken  his  last 
meal  with  his  disciples,  as  a  proper  passover, 
at  the  very  time  that  the  Jews  were  celebrating 
theirs.  This  passover  was,  therefore,  always 
celebrated  on  the  night  between  the  fourteenth 
and  fifteenth  of  the  Jewish  month  Nisan,  as  a 
remembrance  at  the  same  time  of  the  last  sup- 
per of  Christ.  This  was  the  fundamental 
notion  of  the  whole  Jewish  Christian  passover, 
on  which  all  the  rest  was  built.  The  day  fol- 
lowing this  passover  was  consecrated  to  the 
remembrance  of  the  sufferings  of  Christ,  and 
the  third  day  from  it  to  the  remembrance  of  his 
resurrection.  On  the  contrary,  in  the  greater 
number  of  Heathen  churches,  as  soon  as  men 
began  to  celebrate  yearly  festivals,  (a  time 
which  cannot  be  determined  very  precisely,) 
they  followed  the  method  observed  in  the 
weekly  festivals.  They  appointed  one  Sunday 
in  the  year  for  the  festival  of  the  resurrection, 
and  one  Friday  as  a  day  of  penitence  and  fast- 
ing preparatory  to  this  Sunday,  in  remembrance 
of  the  sufferings  of  Christ ;  and  they  gradually 
lengthened  this  time  of  penitence  and  fasting, 
as  a  preparation  for  that  high  and  joyful  festi- 
val. In  these  churches  they  were  more  inclined 
to  take  up  a  kind  of  antithetical  turn  against 
the  Jewish  festivals,  than  to  graft  Christian 
ones  upon  them.  It  was  far  from  their  no- 
tions to  think  of  observing  a  yearly  passover 
with  the  Jews.  The  following  was  the  view 
which  they  took  of  the  matter:  "  Every  typical 
feast  has  lost  its  true  meaning  by  the  realiza- 
tion of  that  which  is  typified  ;  in  the  sacrifice 
of  Christ,  the  Lord's  Supper,  as  the  new  cove- 
nant, has  taken  the  place  of  that  of  the  old 
covenant."  This  difference  of  outward  cus- 
toms between  the  Jewish  Christian  churches 
and  the  churches  allied  to  them  on  the  one 
hand,  and  the  Heathen  Christian  churches 
founded  by  St.  Paul  on  the  other,  existed  at 
first  without  its  being  supposed  that  external 
tilings  of  this  nature  were  of  importance  enough 
to  lead  to  a  controversy.  A  fast  formed  the 
introduction  to  the  passover;  and  this  was  the 
only  fast  formally  established  by  the  church. 
The  necessity  of  this  fast  was  deduced  from 
Matthew  ix,  15;  but  it  was  by  a  carnal  inter- 
pretation of  the  passage,  and  an  application  of 
it  quite  contrary  to  its  real  sense.  For  it  does 
not  relate  to  the  time  of  Christ's  suffering,  but 
to  the  time  when  he  should  be  with  his  disci- 
ples no  more.  As  long  as  they  enjoyed  his 
society  they  were  to  give  themselves  up  to  joy, 
and  to  be  disturbed  in  it  by  no  forced  asceti- 
cism. But  a  time  of  sorrow  was  to  follow  this 
time  of  joy,  although  only  for  a  season,  after 
which  a  lime  of  higher  and  imperishable  joy, 
in  invisible  communion  with  him,  was  to  fol- 
low, John  xvi,  22.  The  duration  of  this  fast, 
however,  was  not  determined ;  the  imitation 
of  the  temptation  of  our  Lord  for  forty  days 


introduced  the  custom  of  fasting  forty  hours 
in  some  places,  which  afterward  was  extended 
to  forty  days  ;  and  thus  the  fast  of  forty  days, 
the  quadrigesimal  fast,  arose.  The  festival  of 
pentecost,  Whitsuntide,  was  closely  connected 
with  that  of  the  resurrection;  and  this  was 
dedicated  to  commemorating  the  first  visible 
effects  of  the  operations  of  the  glorified  Christ 
upon  human  nature,  now  also  ennobled  by 
him,  the  lively  proofs  of  his  resurrection  and 
reception  into  glory ;  and  therefore  Origen 
joins  the  festivals  of  the  resurrection  and  of 
pentecost  together  as  one  whole.  The  means 
of  transition  from  an  Old  Testament  festival 
to  one  befitting  the  New  Testament,  were  here 
near  at  hand.  The  first  fruits  of  harvest  in  the 
kingdom  of  nature  ;  the  first  fruits  of  harvest  in 
the  kingdom  of  grace;  the  law  of  the  letter  from 
Mount  Sinai — the  law  of  the  Spirit  from  the 
heavenly  Jerusalem.  This  festival  originally 
embraced  the  whole  season  of  fifty  days  from 
Easter,  and  was  celebrated  like  a  Sunday,  that 
is  to  say,  no  fasts  were  kept  during  the  whole 
of  it,  and  men  prayed  standing,  and  not  kneel- 
ing ;  and  perhaps  also  in  some  places  assem- 
blies of  the  church  were  held,  and  the  com- 
munion was  celebrated  every  day.  Afterward, 
two  peculiar  points  of  time,  the  ascension  of 
Christ  and  the  effusion  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  were 
selected  from  this  whole  interval.  These  were 
the  only  festivals  generally  celebrated  at  that 
time,  as  the  passage  cited  from  Origen  proves. 
The  fundamental  notion  of  the  whole  Chris- 
tian life,  which  referred  every  thing  to  the 
suffering,  the  resurrection,  and  the  glorifica- 
tion of  Christ,  as  well  as  the  adherence,  or,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  opposition,  to  the  Jewish 
celebration  of  festivals,  were  the  cause  that 
these  were  the  only  general  festivals.  The 
notion  of  a  birth-day  festival  was  far  from  the 
ideas  of  the  Christians  of  this  period  in  gene- 
ral ;  they  looked  upon  the  second  birth  as  the 
true  birth  of  men.  The  case  must  have  been 
somewhat  different  with  the  birth  of  the  Re- 
deemer ;  human  nature  was  to  be  sanctified  by 
him  from  its  first  developeinent ;  but  then  this 
last  notion  could  not  at  first  come  so  promi- 
nently forward  among  the  early  Christians, 
because  so  many  of  them  were  first  converted 
to  Christianity  when  well  advanced  in  years, 
after  some  decisive  excitement  of  their  life ; 
but  then  it  may  have  entered  generally  into 
domestic  life,  though  at  first  gradually.  Never- 
theless, we  find  in  this  period  apparently  one 
trace  of  Christmas  as  a  festival.  Its  history  is 
intimately  connected  with  the  history  of  a 
kindred  festival ;  the  festival  of  the  manifesta- 
tion of  Jesus  in  his  character  of  Messiah,  his 
consecration  to  the  office  of  Messiah  by  the 
baptism  of  John,  and  the  beginning  of  his  pub- 
lic ministry  as  the  Messiah,  which  was  after- 
ward called  Epiphany,  the  ivprt)  twv  iiri<pavi<ov,  or 
rifc  ht<pavua<;  tou  Xpi^ov,  [the  festival  of  Epiphany, 
or  of  the  appearance  of  Christ.]  We  find  in  later 
times  that  these  festivals  extended  themselves  in 
opposite  directions,  that  of  Christmas  spreading 
from  west  to  east,  and  the  other  from  east  to 
west.  Clemens  of  Alexandria  merely  relates, 
that  the  Gnostic  sect  of  the  Basilidians  cele- 


WOK 


970 


WOR 


brated  i li*-  festival  of  the  Epiphany  at  Ale\. 
i  in  Ins  time.  We  can  hardly  suppose 
thai  toil  «eo1  invented  the  festival,  although 
they  may  have  had  some  dogmatical  reason  for 
celebrating  it  ;  tor  it  is  highly  improbable  that 
iirh  should  have  afterward 
received  a  feetival  from  the  Gnostics;  and 
theM  Gnostics  most  probably  received  it  from 
the  Jewish  Christian  churches  in  Palestine  or 
Syria.  For  this  time  of  our  Saviour's  life 
would  appear  the  most  important  to  the  no- 
tions of  the  Jewish  Christians;  and  the  Gnos- 
tics would  afterward  explain  it  according  to 
their  own  ideas. 

The  character  of  a  spiritual  worship  of  God 
distinguished  the  Christian  worship  from  that  of 
other  religions,  which  consisted  in  symbolical 
pageantry  and  lifeless  ceremonies.  As  a 
general  elevation  of  spirit  and  sanctification  of 
heart  was*the  object  of  every  thing  in  this  re- 
ligion,  instruction  and  edification,  through  a 
common  study  of  the  divine  word,  and  through 
prayer  in  common,  were  the  leading  features 
in  the  Christian  worship.  And  in  this  respect 
it  might  in  its  form  adhere  to  the  arrangements 
made  about  the  congregations  in  the  Jewish 
synagogues,  in  which  also  the  element  of  a 
spiritual  religious  worship  was  the  prevailing 
ingredient.  As  the  reading  of  portions  of  the 
Old  Testament  had  formed  the  ground  work  of 
religious  instruction  in  the  Jewish  synagogues, 
this  custom  also  passed  into  the  Christian  con- 
gregations. First  the  Old  Testament,  and  espe- 
cially the  prophetic  parts  of  it,  were  read  as 
things  that  pointed  to  the  Messiah;  then 
followed  the  Gospels,  and  after  that  the 
epistles  of  the  Apostles.  The  reading  of  the 
Scriptures  was  of  still  greater  consequence 
then,  because  it  was  desirable  that  every 
Christian  should  be  acquainted  with  them  ; 
and  yet,  by  reason  of  the  rarity  and  dearness 
of  manuscripts,  and  the  poverty  of  a  great  pro- 
portion of  the  Christians,  or  perhaps  also 
because  all  were  not  able  to  read,  the  Bible 
itself  could  not  be  put  into  the  hands  of  all. 
Frequent  hearing  was  therefore  with  many  to 
supply  the  place  of  their  own  reading.  The 
Scriptures  were  therefore  read  in  the  language 
which  all  could  understand,  and  that  was,  in 
most  parts  of  the  Roman  empire,  the  Greek  or 
the  Latin.  In  very  early  times  different  trans- 
lations of  the  Bible  into  Latin  were  in  ex- 
istence ;  as  every  one  who  knew  a  little  of 
Greek,  found  it  needful  to  have  his  own  Bible 
in  his  own  mother  tongue.  In  places  where 
the  Greek  or  the  Latin  language  was  under- 
stood only  by  a  put  of  the  church,  that  is  to 
say,  by  the  educated  classes,  while  the  rest 
understood  only  their  native  language,  as  was 
the  case  in  many  Egyptian  and  Syrian  towns, 
church  interpreters  were  appointed,  as  in  the 
roes,  and  they  immediately 
translated  whal  hail  been  read  into  the  language 
ofthe  country,  so  that  it  might  be  intelligible 
to  all.  Ai't.T  the  reading  of  the  Scripture 
there  followed,  as  there  had  previously  in  the 
Jewish  synagogues,  short,  ami  at  first  very 
lie,  addresses  hi  familiar  language,  the 
momentary  effusions  of  the  heart,  which  con- 


tained an  explanation  and  application  of  what 
had  just  been  read.  Justin  Martyr  expresses 
himself  thus  on  the  subject :  "  After  the  reading 
of  the  Scriptures,  tin;  president  instructs  the 
people  in  a  discourse,  and  incites  them  to  the 
imitation  of  these  good  examples."  Among 
the  Creeks,  where  the  taste  was  more  rhetorical, 
the  sermon  from  the  very  earliest  times  was  of 
a  more  lengthened  kind,  and  formed  a  very 
important  part  of  the  service.  Singing  also 
passed  from  the  Jewish  service  into  that  of 
the  Christian  church.  St.  Paul  exhorts  the 
early  churches  to  sing  spiritual  songs.  What 
was  used  for  this  purpose  were  partly  the 
Psalms  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  partly  songs 
composed  with  this  very  object,  especially 
songs  of  praise  and  thanks  to  God  and  Christ ; 
and  these,  we  know,  Pliny  found  to  be  cus- 
tomary among  the  Christians.  In  the  contro- 
versies with  the  Unitarians,  about  the  end  of 
the  second  century,  and  the  beginning  of  the 
third,  the  hymns,  in  which  from  early  times 
Christ  had  been  honoured  as  a  God,  were 
appealed  to.  The  power  of  church  singing 
over  the  heart  was  soon  recognized ;  and  hence 
those  who  wished  to  propagate  any  peculiar 
opinions,  like  Bardasanes,  or  Paul  of  Samosata, 
endeavoured  to  spread  them  by  means  of 
hymns.  In  compliance  with  the  infirmities 
of  human  nature,  composed  as  it  is  of  sense 
and  spirit,  the  divine  Founder  of  the  church, 
beside  his  word,  ordained  two  outward  signs, 
as  symbols  of  the  invisible  communion  which 
existed  between  him,  the  Head  of  the  spiritual 
body,  and  the  faithful,  its  members  ;  and  also 
of  the  connection  of  these  members,  as  with 
him,  so  also  with  one  another.  These  were 
visible  means  to  represent  the  invisible, 
heavenly  benefits  to  be  bestowed  on  the  mem- 
bers of  this  body  through  him ;  and  while  man 
received  in  faith  the  sign  presented  to  his 
senses,  the  enjoyment  of  that  heavenly  com- 
munion and  those  heavenly  advantages  was 
to  gladden  his  inward  heart.  As  nothing  in 
all  Christianity  and  in  the  whole  Christian  life 
stands  isolated,  but  all  forms  one  whole,  pro- 
ceeding from  one  centre,  therefore,  also,  that 
which  this  outward  sign  represented  must  be 
something  which  should  continue  through  the 
whole  of  the  inward  Christian  life,  something 
which,  spreading  itself  forth  from  this  one 
moment  over  the  whole  Christian  life,  should 
be  capable  of  being  especially  excited  again 
and  promoted  in  return,  by  the  influence  of 
isolated  moments.  Thus,  baptism  was  to  be 
the  sign  of  a  first  entrance  into  communion 
with  the  Redeemer,  and  with  the  church,  the 
first  appropriation  of  those  advantages  which 
Christ  has  bestowed  on  man,  namely,  of  the 
forgiveness  of  sins  and  the  inward  union  of 
life,  which  proceeds  from  it,  as  well  as  of  the 
participation  in  a  sanctifying  divine  Spirit  of 
life.  And  the  Lord's  Supper  was  to  be  the 
sign  of  a  constant  continuance  in  this  com- 
munion, in  the  appropriation  and  enjoyment 
of  these  advantages  ;  and  thus  were  represented 
the  essentials  of  the  whole  inward  Christian 
life,  in  its  earliest  rise  and  its  continued  pro- 
gress.   The  whole  peculiar  spirit  of  Christianity 


WRI 


971 


WRI 


was  particularly  stamped  in  the  mode  in  which 
these  external  things  were  administered;  aud 
the  mode  of  their  administration  in  return 
exerted  a  powerful  influence  on  the  whole 
nature  of  the  Christian  worship.  The  con- 
nection  of  the  moments,  represented  bjr  these 
signs,  with  the  whole  Christian  life,  the  con- 
nection of  inward  and  divine  things  with  the 
outward  act  was  present  to  the  lively  Christian 
feelings  of  the  first  Christians. 

WRITING.  In  regard  to  alphabetic  writ- 
ing, all  the  ancient  writers  attribute  the  in- 
vention of  it  to  some  very  early  age,  and  some 
country  of  the  east ;  but  they  do  not  pretend 
to  designate  precisely  cither  the  time  or  the 
'place.  They  say,  farther,  that  Cadmus  intro- 
duced letters  from  Phenicia  into  Greece,  if  we 
may  credit  the  Parisian  Chronicle,  B.  C.  1519, 
that  is,  forty-five  years  after  the  death  of 
Moses.  Antielides  asserts,  and  attempts  to 
prove,  that  letters  were  invented  in  Egypt  fifteen 
years  before  Phoroneus,  the  most  ancient  king 
of  Greece  ;  that  is,  four  hundred  and  nine 
years  after  the  deluge,  and  in  the  one  hundred 
and  seventeenth  year  of  Abraham.  On  this  it 
may  be  remarked  that  they  might  have  been 
introduced  into  Egypt  at  this  time,  but  they 
had  been  previously  invented  by  the  Pheni- 
cians.  Epigenes,  who,  in  the  estimation  of 
Pliny,  is  weighty  authority,  informs  us  that 
observations,  made  upon  the  heavenly  bodies 
for  seven  hundred  and  twenty  years  at  Babylon, 
were  written  down  upon  baked  tiles ;  but 
Berosus  and  Critodemus,  also  referred  to  by 
Pliny,  make  the  number  of  years  four  hundred 
and  eighty.  Pliny  from  these  statements 
draws  the  conclusion  that  the  use  of  letters,  as 
he  expresses  it,  must  have  been  eternal,  that 
is,  beyond  all  records.  Simplicius,  who  lived 
in  the  fifth  century,  states,  on  the  authority  of 
Porphyry,  an  acute  historian,  that  Callisthenes, 
the  companion  of  Alexander,  found  at  Babylon 
a  record  of  observations  on  the  heavenly  bodies 
for  one  thousand  nine  hundred  and  three 
years.  Of  course  the  record  must  have  been 
begun  B.  C.  2234,  that  is,  the  eighty-ninlh 
year  of  Abraham.  This  statement  receives 
some  confirmation  from  the  fact  that  the  month 
of  March  is  called  Adar  in  the  Chaldaic  dia- 
lect; and  at  the  time  mentioned,  namely,  the 
eighty-ninth  year  of  Abraham,  the  sun,  during 
the  whole  month  of  March,  was  in  the  sign  of 
the  zodiac  called  Aries,  or  the  Ram.  The  word 
Adar  means  the  same  with  Aries.  But,  as 
letters  would  be  unquestionably  first  used  for 
the  purposes  of  general  intercourse,  they  must 
have  been  known  long  before  they  were  em- 
ployed to  transmit,  the  motions  of  the  stars. 
Of  this  we  have  an  evidence  in  the  bill  of  sale, 
which,  as  we  have  reason  to  suppose  from  the 
expressions  used  in  Gen.  xxiii,  20,  was  given 
to  Abraham  by  the  sons  of  Heth.  Hence  it  is 
not  at  all  wonderful  that  Looks  and  writings 
are  spoken  of  in  the  lime  of  Moses,  as  if  well 
known,  Exodus  xvii,  14;  xxiv,  4 ;  xxviii,  9-11  ; 
xxxii,  32  ;  xxxiv,  27,  28 ;  Numbers  xxxiii,  2  ; 
Deut.  xxvii,  8.  Nor  is  it  a  matter  of  surprise 
that  long  before  his  time  there  had  been  public 
scribes,  who  kept  written  genealogies  :    they 


were  called  by  the  Hebrews  DnaiB>,  Exod.  v, 
14  ;  Deut.  xx,  5-9.  Even  in  the  time  of  Jacob, 
seals,  upon  which  names  are  engraved  in  the 
east,  were  in  use,  Gen.  xxxviii,  18;  xli,  42; 
which  is  another  probable  testimony  to  the 
great  antiquity  of  letters. 

Letters,  which  had  thus  become  known  at 
the  earliest  period,  were  communicated  by 
means  of  the  Phenician  merchants  and  colo- 
nies, and  subsequently  by  Egyptian  emigrants, 
through  all  the  east  and  the  west.  A  strong 
evidence  of  this  is  to  be  found  in  the  different 
alphabets  themselves,  which  betray  by  their 
resemblance  a  common  origin.  That  the  pos- 
terity of  the  Hebrew  patriarchs  preserved  a 
knowledge  of  alphabetical  writing  during  then- 
abode  in  Egypt,  where  essentially  the  same 
alphabet  was  in  use,  is  evident  from  the  fact, 
that  the  Hebrews  while  remaining  there  always 
had  public  genealogists.  The  law,  also,  was 
ordered  to  he  inscribed  on  stones  ;  a  fact  which 
implies  a  knowledge  of  alphabetical  writing. 
The  writing  thus  engraven  upon  stones  is 
designated  by  its  appropriate  name,  namely, 
nnn,  Exodus  xxxii,  16,  32.  Not  a  few  of  the 
Hebrews  might  be  unable  to  read  and  write, 
Judges  viii,  14;  but  those  who  were  capable 
of  writing  wrote  for  others,  when  necessarj'. 
Such  persons  wTere  commonly  priests,  who,  as 
they  do  to  this  day  in  the  east,  bear  an  inkhorn 
in  their  girdle,  Ezek.  x,  2,  3,  11.  In  the  ink- 
horn  were  the  materials  for  writing,  and  a  knife 
for  sharpening  the  pen,  Jer.  xxxvi,  23.  The 
rich  and  noble  had  scribes  of  their  own,  and 
readers  also ;  whence  there  is  more  frequent 
mention  made  of  hearing  than  of  reading, 
1  Kings  iv,  3 ;  2  Kings  xii,  10 ;  Isa.  xxix,  18  ; 
Jer.  xxxvi,  4;  Rom.  ii,  13;  James  v,  11 ;  Rev. 
i,  3.  The  scribes  took  youth  under  their  care, 
who  learned  from  them  the  art  of  writing.  Some 
of  the  scribes  seem  to  have,  held  public  schools 
for  instruction  ;  some  of  which,  under  the  care 
of  Samuel  and  other  prophets,  became  in  time 
quite  illustrious,  and  were  called  the  schools 
of  the  prophets,  1  Sam.  xix,  16,  &,c  ;  2  Kings 
ii,  3,  5 ;  iv,  38  ;  vi,  1 .  The  disciples  in  these 
schools  were  not  children  or  boys,  but  young 
men,  who  inhabited  separate  edifices,  as  is  the 
case  in  the  Persian  academies.  They  were 
taught  music  and  singing,  and  without  doubt 
writing  also,  the  Mosaic  law  and  poetry.  They 
were  denominated,  in  reference  to  their  in- 
structors, the  sons  of  the  prophets;  teachers  and 
prophets  being  sometimes  called  fathers.  After 
the  captivity  there  were  schools  for  instruction 
either  near  the  synagogues  or  in  them. 

The  materials  and  instruments  of  writing 
were,  1.  The  leaves  of  trees.  2.  The  bark  of 
trees,  from  which,  in  the  process  of  time,  a  sort 
of  paper  was  manufactured.  3.  A  table  of 
wocd,  nival-,  rvb,  Deut.  ix,  9 ;  Ezek.  xxxvii,  5 ; 
Luke  i,  63.  In  the  east,  these  tables  were  not 
covered  with  wax  as  they  were  in  the  west;  or 
at  any  rate  very  rarely  so.  4.  Linen  was  first 
used  for  the  object  in  question  at  Rdhie.  Linen 
books  are  mentioned  by  Livy.  Cotton  cloth 
also,  which  was  used  for  the  bandages  of 
Egyptian  mummies,  and  inscribed  with  hiero- 
glyphics, was  one  of  the  materials  for  writing 


Will 


972 


WKI 


upon.  5.  The  paper  made  from  the  reed  papy- 
ru.s,  Which,  as  Pliny  has  show  n,  was  used  before 
the  Trojan  war.  ii.  The  skins  of  various  ani- 
mals; but  they  were  poorly  prepared  for  the 
purpose,  until  some  improved  methods  of 
manufacture  were  invented  at  Pergamus, 
during  the  reign  of  Eumenes,  about  B.C.  300. 
[fence  the  skins  of  animals,  prepared  for  writ- 
ing, are  called  in  Latin  pergamena,  in  English 
parchment,  to  this  day,  from  the  city  Pergamus. 
They  are  sometimes  denominated  in  Greek, 
/it/j/Jponi,  2  Tim.  iv,  13.  7.  Tables  of  lead, 
ptDjs  Job  xix,  21.  8.  Tables  of  brass,  HXtol 
nAsoi.  Of  all  the  materials,  brass  was  con- 
sidered among  the  most  durable,  and  was 
employed  for  those  inscriptions  which  were 
designed  to  last  the  longest,  1  Mace,  viii,  22; 
xiv,  20-27.  9.  Stones  or  rocks,  upon  which 
public  laws,  &c,  were  written.  Sometimes  the 
letters  engraved  were  rilled  up  with  lime,  Exod. 
xxiv,  12;  xxxi,  16;  xxxii,  19;  xxxiv,  1;  Dent, 
xxvii,    1-9;    Joshua    viii,    32;    Job    xix,    24. 

10.  Tiles.  The  inscriptions  were  made  upon 
the  tiles  first,  and  afterward  they  were  baked 
in  the  fire.  They  are  yet  to  be  found  in  the 
ruins  of  Babylon;  o'lhers  of  later  origin  are 
to  be  found  in    many  countries    in    the  east. 

11.  The  sand  of  the  earth,  in  which  the  chil- 
dren in  India  to  this  day  learn  the  art  of  writing, 
and  in  which  Archimedes  himself  delineated 
his  mathematical  figures,  John  viii,  1-8.  If  in 
Ezekiel  iii,  1,  and  in  Revelation  x,  9,  we  are 
informed  that  books  were  eaten,  we  must  re- 
member that  the  descriptions  are  figurative, 
and  that  they  were  eaten  in  vision ;  and  con- 
sequently we  are  not  at  liberty  to  draw  the 
conclusion  from  these  passages,  that  any  sub- 
stance was  used  as  materials  for  writing  upon, 
which  was  at  the  same  time  used  for  food. 
The  representations  alluded  to  are  symbolic, 
introduced  to  denote  a  communication  or  reve- 
lation from  God. 

As  to  the  instruments  used  in  writing,  when 
it  was  necessary  to  write  upon  hard  materials, 
as  tables  of  stone  and  brass,  the  style  was  made 
of  iron,  and  sometimes  tipped  with  diamond, 
Jer.  xvii.  1.  The  letters  were  formed  upon 
tablets  of  wood,  (when  they  were  covered  with 
wax,)  with  a  style  sharpened  at  one  end,  broad 
and  smooth  at  the  other;  by  means  of  which 
the  letters,  when  badly  written,  might  be  rubbed 
out  and  the  wax  smoothed  down.  2.  Wax,  how- 
ever, was  but  rarely  used  for  the  purpose  of 
covering  writing  tables  in  warm  regions. 
W  ben  this  was  not  the  case,  the  letters  were 
punted  on  the  wood  with  black  tincture  or 
ink.  3.  On  linen,  cotton  cloth,  paper,  skins, 
and  parchment,  the  letters  were  painted  with  a 
very  small  brush,  afterward  with  a  reed,  which 
was  split.  The  orientals  use  this  elegant  in- 
strument to  the  present  day  instead  of  a  pen. 
Ink,  called  vh,  is  spoken  of  in  Num.  v,  23,  as 
well  known  and  common,  Jer.  xxxvi,  18,  and 
was  prepared  in  various  ways,  which  are  related 
by  Pliny.  The  most  simple,  and  consequently 
the  most  ancient,  method  of  preparation  was  a 
mixture  of  water  with  coals  broken  to  pieces, 
"r  with  soot,  with  an  addition  of  gum.  The 
•ncicms  used  other  tinctures  also  ;  particularly, 


if  we  may  credit  Cicero  and  Persius,  the  ink 
extracted  from  the  cuttle  fish,  although  their 
assertion  is  in  opposition  to  Pliny.  The  He- 
brews went  so  far  as  to  write  their  sacred  books 
in  gold,  as  we  may  learn  from  Josephus  com- 
pared with  Pliny. 

Hieroglyphics,  that  is,  sacred  sculptures  or 
engravings,  received  that  appellation,  because 
it  was  once,  and  indeed  till  very  lately,  thought, 
that  they  were  used  only  to  express,  in  a  man- 
ner hidden  from  the  vulgar,  what  was  exclu- 
sively religious;  and  which  it  was  thought 
proper  to  conceal  from  all  but  the  learned. 
The  fact,  however,  is,  that  the  hieroglyphic 
was  a  kind  of  picture  waiting,  which  passed 
through  various  modifications,  and  was  applied' 
alike  to  sacred  and  to  civil  purposes ;  to  the 
emblazonment  of  the  attributes  of  idols,  the 
exploits  of  warriors,  and  the  events  of  illustri- 
ous history.  Rudiments  of  the  same  art  have 
been  found  among  almost  all  savages.  Among 
the  semi-civilized  Mexicans  history  was  pic- 
torial ;  and  in  Ceylon  and  Continental  India 
the  same  vehicle  of  instruction  is  made  use  of 
on  the  walls  of  their  temples,  to  convey  moral 
lessons,  or  to  indicate  the  character  and  ex- 
ploits of  their  deities.  In  Egypt,  however,  the 
art  was  carried  into  a  more  perfect  system,  and 
was  more  ostensibly  set  before  the  public  eye 
on  the  massive  and  almost  eternal  monuments 
which  cover  the  country.  There,  too,  it 
ascends  to  ages  of  the  world  with  which  the 
Scriptures  have  made  us  familiar,  and  stands 
associated  with  royal  dynasties,  and  vicissitudes 
of  conquest,  more  intimately  blended  with  that 
stream  of  civil  history,  along  the  margin  of 
which  European  education  conducts  us.  These 
mystic  characters  have  acquired  an  adventitious 
interest  also,  from  the  circumstance  that  the  key 
to  them  was  for  so  many  ages  lost.  This  know- 
ledge perished  among  that  people  themselves, 
the  records  of  whose  kings  and  conquests  lay 
hid  under  the  inexplicable  symbol,  or  the  fan- 
ciful representation  of  letters  and  sounds  which 
were  still  familiar  to  the  lips  of  those  to  whom 
the  signs  had  become  wholly  unmeaning.  Age 
after  age  they  were  gazed  at  by  the  curious ; 
conjectures  respecting  their  nature  and  use 
were  offered  by  the  learned,  some  absurd  and 
some  approaching  the  truth,  but  all  failing  to 
throw  light  upon  a  mystery,  which  at  length 
was  surrendered,  by  common  consent,  to  the 
receptacle  of  lost  and  irrecoverable  knowledge. 
Whether  the  hieroglyphics  were  symbols  only, 
or  words,  or  picturesque  alphabetical  charac- 
ters, or  expressed  the  popular  tongue,  or  one 
known  only  to  the  priests,  were  questions 
answered  at  random  by  the  prompt  and  dog- 
matic ;  and  even  the  more  modest  and  probable 
solutions  of  the  cautious  had  so  little  collateral 
evidence  to  support  them,  that  they  led  to  no 
result.  As  to  their  intent,  one  thought  that 
they  involved  the  mysteries  of  magic  ;  another, 
that  they  were  a  form  of  the  Chinese  language  ; 
a  third,  that  they  veiled  the  doctrines  of  the 
true  patriarchal  religion;  a  fourth,  that  they 
enveloped  the  dogmatic  arcana  of  the  Egyptian 
priesthood.  The  great  point,  however,  to  be  de- 
termined was,  whether  the  hieroglyphics  were 


VVRI 


973 


WRI 


the  signs  of  a  language ;  that  is,  of  the  sounds 
of  any  language  ;  and,  if  so,  whether  the  lan- 
guage was  now  known,  or  knowable,  from 
books  still  extant.  Each  of  these  points  was 
of  equal  importance;  for  in  vain  would  it  have 
been  ascertained  that  these  signs  represented 
the  sounds  of  a  tongue  once  spoken,  if  that 
tongue  had  perished  from  the  earth.  Clement 
of  Alexandria,  who  lived  about  the  end  of  the 
second  century,  asserted  that  the  Egyptians 
had  three  modes  of  writing, — the  epistolo- 
graphic,  or  common  characters ;  the  hieratic, 
or  sacerdotal,  employed  chiefly  by  the  priest- 
hood in  writing  books;  and  the  hieroglyphic, 
used  on  public  monuments.  The  symbolical 
he  again  distributes  into  imitative,  which 
represent  the  plain  figure  of  an  object,  as  a 
circle  to  express  the  sun,  and  a  half  circle  the 
moon  ;  tropical, — which  have  recourse  to  ana- 
logy for  the  representation  of  the  object ;  and 
enigmatical, — as  "  a  serpent,  to  signify  the 
oblique  course  of  the  stars."  This  writer  could 
not  so  accurately  have  expressed  the  truth  of 
the  case,  unless  he  had  known  much  more  than 
he  has  written  ;  and  we  may  presume,  that  if 
he  had  been  more  liberal  in  his  communications, 
the  present  age  would  not  have  had  the  honour 
of  throwing  open  the  gate  to  this  branch  of 
ancient  learning.  The  notion  which  has 
generally  prevailed,  that  by  whatever  rule  the 
hieroglyphics  were  composed,  they  were  in- 
vented by  the  Egyptian  priests  to  conceal  their 
wisdom  from  the  vulgar,  was  combated  by 
Bishop  Warburton,  with  his  usual  acuteness. 
According  to  him,  the  first  kind  of  hierogly- 
phics were  mere  pictures ;  because  the  most 
natural  way  of  communicating  our  conceptions 
by  marks  or  figures  was,  to  trace  out  the  images 
of  things.  But  the  hieroglyphics  invented  by 
the  Egyptians  were  an  improvement  on  this 
rude  and  inconvenient  essay  toward  writing; 
for  they  contrived  to  make  them  both  pictures 
and  characters.  He  proceeds  to  other  obser- 
vations, which  have  lost  their  interest  in  con- 
sequence of  the  recent  discoveries ;  but  he 
argues  conclusively,  that  hieroglyphics  could 
not,  in  a  vast  number  of  cases,  have  been 
resorted  to  for  purposes  of  secresy,  since  they 
were  employed  to  record  openly  and  plainly 
their  laws,  history,  and  all  kinds  of  civil  mat- 
ters. This,  as  a  general  view,  has  been  proved 
to  be  correct ;  but  still  no  key  to  the  reading 
of  these  characters  was  found.  The  figures  of 
deities  might,  in  many  instances,  be  deciphered 
by  their  attributes;  other  symbols  were  not 
difficult  to  explain,  as  they  spoke  a  universal 
language.  Thus  two  hands,  one  holding  a 
bow,  and  another  a  shield,  suggested  a  battle  ; 
an  eye  and  a  sceptre,  a  monarch  of  intelligence 
and  vigilance  ;  a  ship  and  a  pilot,  the  governor 
of  a  state  if  associated  with  a  man,  the  ruler  of 
the  universe  if  associated  with  a  deity.  A  lion 
was  a  natural  emblem  of  strength  and  courage  ; 
a  bullock,  of  agriculture  ;  a  horse,  of  liberty; 
a  sphynx,  of  subtlety.  But  still  those  hiero- 
glyphics were  in  the  greatest  number  which 
appeared  to  represent  letters ;  and  many  might 
prove,  at  the  same  time,  both  emblematic  and 
alphabetical.     Approaches  to  the  truth  of  the 


case  had  been,  indeed,  made.  Warburton,  from 
an  attentive  perusal  of  what  Clemens  Alexan- 
drinus  had  said  on  the  subject,  had,  in  fact, 
concluded,  in  a  way  highly  creditable  to  his 
acuteness,  that  hieroglyphics  were  a  real  writ- 
ten language,  applicable  to  the  purposes  of 
history  and  common  life,  as  well  as  to  those  of 
religion ;  and  that,  among  the  different  sorts 
of  hieroglyphics,  the  Egyptians  possessed  those 
which  were  used  phonetically,  or  alphabetic- 
ally, as  letters ;  but,  till  recently,  the  means  of 
following  out  this  ingenious  and  correct  con- 
jecture were  wanting  to  the  learned.  The  first 
eifectual  step  was  taken  by  M.  Quattermere, 
who  proved,  in  his  work  Sur  la  Langue  et  Lit- 
erature de  VEgypte,  [Concerning  the  Language 
and  Literature  of  Egypt,]  that  the  Coptic,  a  lan- 
guage of  easy  attainment,  at  least  to  a  con- 
siderable extent,  was  the  language  of  the  an- 
cient Egyptians.  The  second  favouring  cir- 
cumstance of  modern  times  was,  the  publication 
of  the  researches  made  as  to  the  monuments  of 
Egypt  by  the  literary  men  and  artists  who 
accompanied  the  French  expedition  to  that 
country.  Previous  to  this,  the  specimens wrhich 
had  been  brought  to  Europe  were  few,  and  the 
impressions  and  the  fac  similes  of  them  incor- 
rect. Some,  too,  were  imitations,  and  others 
spurious.  In  the  works  published  in  France 
after  this  expedition,  the  representations  of 
Egyptian  monuments  were  numerous ;  and  the 
inscriptions  were  given  with  perfect  exactness 
and  fidelity.  Still,  however,  those  would  have 
remained  as  unintelligible  as  the  originals  but 
for  the  discovery  of  the  Rosetta  stone,  now 
among  the  Egyptian  antiquities  in  the  gallery 
of  the  British  museum.  This  stone  was  dug 
up  by  the  French,  near  Rosetta,  and  contained 
an  inscription  in  three  sets  of  characters  :  one 
in  hieroglyphics ;  a  second  in  a  sort  of  running 
hand,  called  enchorial,  that  is,  in  the  common 
characters  of  the  country ;  and  a  third  in  Greek. 
The  latter  appearing,  from  the  disposition  of 
the  whole,  to  be  a  translation  of  the  enchorial 
inscription,  as  that  was  of  the  hieroglyphic,  the 
importance  of  this  stone  was  at  once  seen  by 
the  French  savans  ;  but  by  the  fortune  of  war, 
it  was  taken,  with  other  valuables,  by  the 
British  troops,  and  was  sent  to  this  country. 
The  Antiquarian  Society  had  it  immediately 
engraved ;  and  the  fac  similes,  which  were 
circulated  through  Europe  attracted  great  at- 
tention. Dr.  Young  has,  however,  the  honour 
of  being  the  discoverer  of  the  nature  and  use 
of  the  hieroglyphical  inscription.  M.  de  Sacy, 
and  more  especially  Mr.  Ackerblad,  a  Danish 
gentleman,  made  some  progress  in  identifying 
the  sense  of  several  parts  of  the  second  inscrip- 
tion, or  that  in  demotic  or  enchorial  characters, 
but  made  no  progress  in  the  hieroglyphics  ;  and 
it  was  left  for  British  industry  to  convert  to 
permanent  profit  a  monument  which  had  been 
a  useless,  though  a  glorious,  monument  of 
British  valour.  The  inscription  upon  this 
celebrated  stone  proved  to  be  a  decree  of  the 
Egyptian  priests,  solemnly  assembled  in  the 
temple,  to  record  upon  a  monument,  as  a  pub- 
lic expression  oi'  their  gratitude,  all  the  events 
of  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Epiphanes ;  his  liber- 


\VR! 


974 


WRI 


,:iiv  i"  tli''  temples  and  lo  the  gods;  his  sue 
cess  against  his  rebellions  subjects  ;  his  clemen- 
rv  toward  Bome  of  the  traitors;  his  measures 
against  the  fatal  consequences  of  excessive  in- 
undations of  the  Nile;  and  his  munificence  to- 
ward the  college  of  the  priests,  by  remitting  the 
arrears  ofsei > •  r ; 1 1  years'  payment  of  taxes.     It 

m  important  circumstance,  thatthe whole 
concludes  by  ordering  that  this  decree  "shall  be 

>\ed  on  a  hard  stone  in  sacred  characters, 
in  common  characters,  and  in  Greek."  By  this 
it  was  ascertained  that  the  second  and  third 
inscriptions  were  translations  of  the  first;  and 
llial  the  second  inscription  was  in  the  common 
character  of  the  country.  It  was  this  that  led 
Ackerblad  to  the  investigation  of  the  enchorial 
text,  in  order  to  discover  its  alphabet ;  in  which 
he  partially  succeeded.  His  labours  were,  how- 
ever, for  some  time  unnoticed ;  but  in  1814, 
Dr.  Young  published,  in  the  Archasologia,  an 
improvement  on  the  alphabet  of  Ackerblad, 
and  a  translation  of  the  Egyptian  inscription. 
Difficulties  of  no  ordinary  kind,  beside  those 
arising  from  the  mutilated  state  of  the  stone, 
presented  themselves  to  all  who  had  applied 
to  make  out  even  the  second,  or  enchorial 
inscription. 

"  The  method,"  says  the  Marquis  Spineto, 
"  pursued  by  our  learned  men  in  this  Herculean 
task  of  deciphering  the  Rosetta  stone,  deserves 
to  be  noticed ;  it  may  serve  to  give  you  a  pro- 
per idea  of  the  infinite  labour  to  which  they 
have  been  obliged  to  submit ;  a  labour  which 
at  first  seemed  calculated  to  deter  the  most 
indefatigable  scholar.  Figure  to  yourself,  for 
a  moment,  the  fashion  introduced  of  writing 
the  English  language  with  the  omission  of  most 
of  its  vowels,  and  then  suppose  our  alphabet,  to 
be  entirely  lost  or  forgotten,  a  new  mode  of 
writing  introduced,  letters  totally  different  from 
those  we  use,  and  then  conceive  what  our  la- 
bour would  be,  if,  after  the  lapse  of  fifteen 
hundred  years,  when  the  English  language,  by 
the  operation  of  ages,  and  the  intercourse  with 
foreigners,  was  much  altered  from  what  it  now 
is  we  should  be  required,  by  the  help  of  a  Greek 
translation;  to  decipher  a  bill  of  parliament 
written  in  this  old,  forgotten,  and  persecuted 
alphabet,  in  (very  word  of  which  we  should 
find,  and  even  tiiis  not.  always,  the  regular 
number  of  consonants,  but  most  of  the  vowels 

>ut.      Ami  yet  this  is  precisely  what  our 

learned  antiquarians  have  been  obliged  to  do. 

-us.  Iikr  most  of  the  orientals,  left 

any  of  Uw  vowels  in  writing.     The  cn- 

ohorial',  or  demotic  Alphabet,  which  they  used, 

has  been  laid  aside  shim  the  second  or  third 

our  era.      From   thai   time  to  this, 

that   is.  for  Dearly  sixteen    hundred    years,  the 

alphabet   |,;,s  been  used;   and  yet  in  this 

<  optic  language,  and  in  these  very  enchorial 

or  demotic   anaracters,  was  engraved  on  the 

I  Stone  the  inscription  which  they  have 

deciphered." 

of  this  interesting  process  are  given 

Supplement  to  the  En- 

cyclopaedia   Britannic*.     The  sabstance  is  as 

follows  :     '•  A     the  demoin    ,  haraelcrs  showed 

thing    like    the    shape   of   letters,  it  was 


shrewdly  suspected  that  they  might  have  been 
used  as  an  alphabet.  By  comparing,  therefore, 
its  different  parts  with  each  other,  and  with  the 
Greek,  it  was  observed  that  the  two  groups  in 
the  fourth  and  seventeenth  lines  of  the  Greek 
inscription,  in  which  Alexander  and  Alexandria 
occur,  corresponded  with  two  other  groups  in 
the  second  and  the  tenth  line  of  the  demotic 
inscription.  These  two  groups,  therefore,  were 
considered  as  representing  these  two  names, 
and  thus  not  less  than  seven  characters,  or  let- 
ters, were  ascertained.  Again  :  it  was  observed 
that  a  small  group  of  character  occurs  very 
often  in  almost  every  line.  At  first  it  was  sup- 
posed that  this  group  was  either  a  termination, 
or  some  very  common  particle  ;  and  after  some 
words  had  been  identified,  it  was  found  to  mean 
the  conjunction  and.  It  was  then  observed, 
that  the  next  remarkable  collection  of  charac- 
ters was  repeated  twenty-nine  or  thirty  times 
in  the  enchorial  inscription  ;  and  nothing  found 
to  occur  so  often  in  the  Greek,  except  the  word 
king,  which  with  its  compounds,  is  repeated 
about  thirty-seven  times.  A  fourth  assemblage 
of  characters  was  found  fourteen  times  in  the 
enchorial  inscription,  agreeing  sufficiently  well 
in  frequency  with  the  name  of  Ptolemy,  which 
occurs  eleven  times  in  the  Greek,  and  generally 
in  passages  corresponding  to  those  of  the  en- 
chorial text,  in  their  relative  situation  ;  and,  by 
a  similar  comparison,  the  name  of  Egypt  was 
identified.  Having  thus  obtained  a  sufficient 
number  of  common  points  of  subdivision,  the 
next  step  was  to  write  the  Greek  text  over  the 
enchorial,  in  such  a  manner  that  the  passages 
ascertained  should  coincide  as  nearly  as  pos- 
sible ;  taking,  however,  a  proper  care  to  observe 
that  the  lines  of  the  demotic  or  enchorial 
inscription  are  written  from  right  to  left,  while 
those  of  the  Greek  run  in  a  contrary  direction 
from  left  to  right.  At  first  sight  this  difficulty 
seemed  very  great ;  but  it  was  conquered  by 
proper  attention  and  practice ;  because,  after 
some  trouble,  (he  division  of  the  several  words 
and  phrases  plainly  indicated  the  direction  in 
which  they  were  to  be  read.  Thus  it  was 
obvious  that  the  intermediate  parts  of  each 
inscription  stood  then  very  near  to  the  corres- 
ponding passages  of  the  other." 

By  means  of  the  process  above  mentioned, 
Ackerblad,  De  Sacy,  and  Dr.  Young,  among 
whom  a  correspondence  had  been  carried  on, 
obtained  a  sort  of  alphabet  from  the  enchorial 
characters,  which  might  aid  them  in  future. 
researches.  This  result  was  published  by  Dr. 
Young  in  1814.  The  examination  of  another 
stone  at  ftfenonp,  containing  an  inscription  in 
enchorial  and  in  Greek  characters,  enabled  Dr. 
Young  to  confirm  the  accuracy  of  former  dis- 
coveries, and  to  add  several  new  characters  to 
the  enchorial  or  demotic  alphabet.  Dr.  Young 
next  turned  his  attention  to  the  hieroglyphics; 
and,  though  not  with  equal  success,  yet  so  as  to 
demonstrate  thai,  they  were  phonetic  or  alpha- 
betical, and  to  spell  several  proper  names.  The 
difficulty  here,  indeed,  was  how  to  begin  ;  but 
his  success  opened  a  certain  way  to  future  pro- 
gress ;  and  it.  was  upon  Dr.  Y'oung's  discovery 
that  Champollion  afterward  engrafted  his  sys. 


WRI 


975 


YEA 


tem,  and  was  enabled  to  carry  his  researches 
into  Egyptian  antiquities  and  Egyptian  hiero- 
glyphics, to  an  extent  which  is  now  deeply 
engaging  the  attention  of  the  literary  world. 

Two  practical  ends  appear  to  have  been 
answered  already  by  the  deciphering  of  the 
mystic  monuments  of  Egypt.  The  first  is, 
that  the  inscriptions  which  have  been  read  by 
Champollion,  afford  assistance  in  settling  some 
questions  of  ancient  chronology  ;  the  other  is, 
that  important  collateral  proof  has  been  afforded 
of  the  historical  accuracy  of  the  Old  Testament, 
and  the  antiquity  of  its  books.  It  is  presumptive 
in  favour  of  the  genuineness  and  antiquity  of 
the  writings  of  Moses,  that  such  proper  Egyp- 
tian names  as  are  found  in  no  other  ancient 
writings  beside  his  own,  such  as  On,  and  Ra- 
meses,  and  Potipherah,  and  Asenath,  should 
now  be  read  in  hieroglyphic  characters  on 
monuments  still  standing  in  the  same  country. 
But  the  confirmatory  evidence  goes  still  farther. 
In  one  inscription  the  names  of  two  of  the 
Pharaohs,  Osorgon  and  Scheschonk,  are  exhi- 
bited. Of  the  characters  which  compose  this 
legend  some  are  phonetic,  some  figurative,  and 
some  symbolic.  The  whole  reading  in  Coptic, 
is,  "  Ouab  an  Amon-re  soten  annenoute  Osorchon 
pri  (or  pre)  ce  or  ci  an  ouab  an  Amon-re  Souten 
Scheschonk-re  Soten  Nebto,  (Amomnai  Osor- 
chon,)'1'' &c.  The  meaning  of  which  is,  "  The 
pure  by  Amon-re,  king  of  the  gods,  Osorchon 
deceased,  son  of  the  pure,  by  Amon-re,  king  of 
the  gods,  Scheschonk  deceased,  son  of  king  of 
the  world,  (beloved  by  Amon-re,  Osorchon,) 
imparting  life,  like  the  sun,  for  ever."  This 
Osorchon  seems  to  have  been  the  Zarah,  or 
Zarach,  the  king  of  Ethiopia,  recorded  in  the 
Second  Book  of  Chronicles,  who,  with  a  host 
of  a  thousand  thousand  and  three  hundred 
chariots,  came  to  make  war  against  Asa,  the 
grandson  of  Jeroboam,  and  was  defeated  at 
Mareshah.  Although  the  Greek  historians  have 
never  mentioned  either  the  name  or  exploits  of 
Osorchon,  this  fact  is  attested  by  an  hierogly- 
phical  manuscript,  published  by  Denon.  It  is 
a  funeral  legend,  loaded  with  figures,  on  and 
round  which  there  are  several  hieroglyphical 
inscriptions.  With  respect  to  the  other  Pha- 
raoh, Champollion,  speaking  of  the  temple  of 
Karnac,  says,  "  In  this  marvellous  place  I  saw 
the  portraits  of  most  of  the  ancient  Pharaohs, 
known  by  their  great  actions.  They  are  real 
portraits,  represented  a  hundred  times  on  the 
basso-relievos  of  the  outer  and  inner  walls. 
Each  of  them  has  his  peculiar  physiognomy, 
different  from  that  of  his  predecessors  and  suc- 
cessors. Thus,  in  colossal  representations,  the 
sculpture  of  which  is  lively,  grand,  and  heroic, 
more  perfect  than  can  be  believed  in  Europe, 
we  see  the  Pharaoh  Mandouei  combating  the 
nations  hostile  to  Egypt,  and  returning  tri- 
umphant to  his  country.  Farther  on,  the 
campaigns  of  Rhamses  Sesostris ;  elsewhere 
Sesonchis,  or  Shishak,  dragging  to  the  feet 
of  the  Theban  Trinity,  Amnion,  Mouth,  and 
Khous,  the  chiefs  of  thirty  conquered  nations, 
imong  which  is  found,  written  in  letters  at 
full  length,  the  word  Joudahamalek,  that  is,  the 
kingdom  of  the  Jews,  or  the  kingdom  of  Judah. 


This  is  a  commentary  on  the  fourteenth  chapter 
of  the  First  Book  of  Kings,  which  relates  the 
arrival  of  Shishak  at  Jerusalem,  and  his  success 
there.  Thus  the  identity  between  the  Egyptian 
Sheschonk,  the  Sesonchis  of  Manetho,  and  the 
Sesac,  or  Schischak  of  the  Bible,  is  confirmed 
in  the  most  satisfactory  manner." 

YEAR.  The  Hebrews  had  always  years, 
of  twelve  months  each.  But  at  the  beginning, 
and  in  the  time  of  Moses,  these  were  solar 
years,  of  twelve  months  ;  each  having  thirty 
days,  except  the  twelfth  which  had  thirty-five. 
We  see,  by  the  reckoning  that  Moses  gives  us 
of  the  days  of  the  deluge,  Gen.  vii,  that  the 
Hebrew  year  consisted  of  three  hundred  and 
sixty-five  days.  It  is  supposed  that  they  had 
an  intercalary  month  at  the  end  of  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty  years ;  at  which  time  the 
beginning  of  their  year  would  be  out  of  its 
place  full  thirty  days.  But  it  must  be  owned, 
that  no  mention  is  made  in  Scripture  of  the 
thirteenth  month,  or  of  any  intercalation.  It 
is  not  improbable  that  Moses  retained  the  order 
of  the  Egyptian  year,  since  he  himself  came 
out  of  Egypt,  was  born  in  that  country,  had 
been  instructed  and  brought  up  there,  and 
since  the  people  of  Israel,  whose  chief  he  was, 
had  been  for  a  long  time  accustomed  to  this 
kind  of  year.  But  the  Egyptian  year  was 
solar,  and  consisted  of  twelve  months  of  thirty 
days  each,  and  that  for  a  very  long  time  before. 
After  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  and 
the  reign  of  the  Grecians  in  Asia,  the  Jews 
reckoned  by  lunar  months,  chiefly  in  what 
related  to  religion,  and  the  order  of  the  festivals. 
St.  John,  in  his  Revelation,  xi,  2,  3  ;  xii,  6,  14  ; 
xiii,  5,  assigns  but  twelve  hundred  and  sixty 
days  to  three  years  and  a  half,  and  conse- 
quently just  thirty  days  to  every  month,  and 
just  three  hundred  and  sixty  days  to  every 
year.  Maimonides  tells  us,  that  the  years  of 
the  Jews  were  solar,  and  their  months  lunar. 
Since  the  completing  of  the  Talmud,  they  have 
made  use  of  years  that  arc  purely  lunar,  having 
alternately  a  full  month  of  thirty  days,  and 
then  a  defective  month  of  twenty-nine  days. 
And  to  accommodate  this  lunar  year  to  the 
course  of  the  sun,  at  the  end  of  three  years 
they  intercalate  a  whole  month  after  Adar  ; 
which  intercalated  month  they  call  Ve-adar, 
or  the  second  Adar. 

The  beginning  of  the  year  was  various 
among  different  nations:  the  ancient  Chal- 
deans, Babylonians,  Medes,  Persians,  Arme- 
nians, and  Syrians,  began  their  year  about  the 
vernal  equinox  ;  and  the  Chinese  in  the  east, 
and  Latins  and  Romans  in  the  west,  originally 
followed  the  same  usage.  The  Egyptians,  and 
from  them  the  Jews,  began  their  civil  year 
about  the  autumnal  equinox.  The  Athenians 
and  Greeks  in  general  began  theirs  about  the 
summer  solstice  ;  and  the  Chinese,  and  the 
Romans  after  Numa's  correction,  about  the 
winter  solstice.  At  which  of  these  the  prim- 
eval year,  instituted  at  the  creation,  began,  has 
been  long  contested  among  astronomers  and 
chronologers.  Philo,  Eusebius,  Cyril,  Augus- 
tine, Abulfaragi,   Kepler,  Capellus,   Simpson, 


YEA 


976 


YEA 


Lange,  and  Jackson,  contend  for  the  vernal 
r.|iiinox  ;  and  Josephus,  Scaliger,  Petavius, 
( 'shcr,  Bedford,  Kennedy,  &c,  for  the  autum- 
nal. The  weight  of  ancient  authorities,  and 
also  of  argument,  seems  to  preponderate  in 
favour  of  the  former  opinion.  1.  All  the 
ancient  nations,  except  the  Egyptians,  began 
their  civil  year  about  the  vernal  equinox  :  but 
the  deviation  of  the  Egyptians  from  the  general 
usage  may  easily  be  accounted  for,  from  a 
local  circumstance  peculiar  to  their  country ; 
namely,  that  the  annual  inundation  of  the 
Nile  rises  to  its  greatest  height  at  the  autumnal 
equinox.  2.  Josephus,  the  only  ancient  autho- 
rity of  any  weight  on  the  other  side  seems  to 
be  inconsistent  with  himself,  in  supposing  that 
the  deluge  began  in  the  second  civil  month, 
Dime,  or  Marheshvan,  rather  than  in  the  second 
sacred  month ;  because  Moses,  throughout  the 
Pentateuch,  uniformly  adopts  the  sacred  year  ; 
and  fixes  its  first  month  by  an  indelible  and 
unequivocal  character,  calling  it  Abib,  as 
ushering  in  the  season  of  green  corn.  And  as 
Josephus  calls  the  second  month  elsewhere 
Artemisius,  or  Iar,  in  conformity  with  Scrip- 
ture, there  is  no  reason  why  he  should  deviate 
from  the  same  usage  in  the  case  of  the  deluge. 

3.  To  the  authority  of  Josephus,  we  may  oppose 
that  of  the  great  Jewish  antiquary,  Philo,  in 
the  generation  before  him  ;  who  thus  accounts 
for  the  institution  of  the  sacred  year  by 
Moses  : — "  This  month,  Abib,  being  the  seventh 
in  number  and  order  according  to  the  sun's 
course,  or  civil  year,  reckoned  from  the 
autumnal  equinox,  is  virtually  the  first,  and  is 
therefore  called  '  the  first  month'  in  the  sacred 
books.  And  the  reason,  I  think,  is  this  :  be- 
cause the  vernal  equinox  is  the  image  and 
representative  of  the  original  epoch  of  the 
creation  of  the  world.  Thereby  God  noti- 
fied the  6pring,  in  which  all  things  bloom 
and  blossom,  to  be  an  annual  memorial  of 
the  world's  creation.  Wherefore  this  month 
is  properly  called  the  first  in  the  law,  as  being 
the  image  of  the  first  original  month,  stamped 
upon  it,  as  it  were,  by  that   archetypal  seal." 

4.  The  first  sacrifice  on  record  seems  to  decide 
the  question.  The  time  of  the  sacrifice  of 
Cain  and  Abel  appears  to  have  been  spring; 
when  Cain,  who  was  a  "tiller  of  the  ground," 
brought  the  first  fruits  of  his  tillage,  or  a  sheaf 
of  in iw  corn  ;  and  Abel,  who  was  "  a  feeder  of 
sheep,"  "the  firstlings  of  his  flock,"  lambs: 
;md  lliis  was  done  "  at  the  end  of  days,"  or  "at 
the  end  of  the  year  ;"  which  is  the  correct 
meaning  of  the  phrase  q'D>  fpo,  and  not  the 
indefinite  expression,  "  in  process  of  time," 
Gen.  iv,  S.  It  is  a  remarkable  proof  of  the  ac- 
ooracy  of  Moses,  and  a  confirmation  of  this 
expression,  that  he  expresses  tho  end  of  the 
cm]  year,  or  "ingathering  of  the  harvest,"  by 
different  phrases,  n:cn  nma,  "at  the  going  out 
of  the  year,"  Exod.  xxiii,  16;  and  ruon  noipr, 
"  at  the  revolution  of  the  year,"  Exod.  xxxiv, 

those    phrases   may  mere  critically  be 

red.      But,    in    process   of  time,    it    was 

round  thai  the  primeval  year  of  three  hundred 

and   tix.ly  days  wm  shorter  than  the  tropical 

Bid  the  first  discovery  was,  that  it  was 


deficient  five  entire  days,  which  therefore  it 
was  necessary  to  intercalate,  in  order  to  keep 
up  the  correspondence  of  the  civil  year  to  the 
stated  seasons  of  the  principal  festivals.  How 
early  this  discovery  and  intercalation  was 
made,  is  nowhere  recorded.  It  might  have 
been  known  and  practised  before  the  deluge. 
The  apocryphal  book  of  Enoch,  which  proba- 
bly was  as  old  as  the  Septuagint  translation  of 
the  Pentateuch,  stated  that  "the  archangel 
Ariel,  president  of  the  stars,  discovered  the 
nature  of  the  month  and  of  the  year  to  Enoch, 
in  the  one  hundred  and  sixty-fifth  year  of  his 
age,  and  A.  M.  1286."  And  it  is  remarkable, 
that  Enoch's  age  at  his  translation,  three  hun- 
dred and  sixty-five  years,  expressed  the  number 
of  entire  days  in  a  tropical  year.  This  know- 
ledge might  have  been  handed  down  to  Noah 
and  his  descendants  ;  and  that  it  was  early 
communicated  indeed  to  the  primitive  Egyp- 
tians, Chaldeans,  and  Chinese,  we  learn  from 
ancient  tradition. 

This  article  would  be  rendered  too  prolix 
were  we  to  notice  the  various  inventions  of 
eminent  men  in  different  ages  to  rectify  the 
calendar  by  adjusting  the  difference  between 
lunar  and  tropical  years  ;  which  at  length  was 
effected  by  Gregory  XIII.  in  1583.  This 
Gregorian,  or  reformed  Julian  year,  was  not 
adopted  in  England  until  A.  D.  1751,  when, 
the  deficiency  from  the  time  of  the  council  of 
Nice  then  amounting  to  eleven  days,  this 
number  was  struck  out  of  the  month  of  Sep- 
tember, by  act  of  parliament ;  and  the  third 
day  was  counted  the  fourteenth,  in  that  year 
of  confusion.  The  next  year,  A.  D.  1752, 
was  the  first  of  the  new  style.  Russia  is  the 
only  country  in  Europe  which  retains  the  old 
style. 

The  civil  year  of  the  Hebrews  has  always 
begun  at  autumn,  at  the  month  they  now  call 
Tisri,  which  answers  to  our  September,  and 
sometimes  enters  into  October,  according  as 
the  lunations  happen.  But  their  sacred  years, 
by  which  the  festivals,  assemblies,  and  all  other 
religious  acts,  were  regulated,  begin  in  the 
spring,  at  the  month  Nisan,  which  answers  to 
March,  and  sometimes  takes  up  a  part  of 
April,  according  to  the  course  of  the  moon. 
See  Months. 

Nothing  is  more  equivocal  among  the 
ancients,  than  the  term  year.  It  always  has 
been,  and  still  is,  a  source  of  disputes  among 
the  learned,  whether  on  account  of  its  dura- 
tion, its  beginning,  or  its  end.  Some  people 
heretofore  made  their  year  consist  only  of  one 
month,  others  of  four,  others  of  six,  others  of 
ten,  and  others  of  twelve.  Some  have  divided 
one  of  our  years  into  two,  and  have  made  one 
year  of  winter,  another  of  summer.  The  be- 
ginning of  the  year  was  fixed  sometimes  at 
autumn,  sometimes  at  the  spring,  and  some- 
times at  midwinter.  Some  people  have  used 
lunar  months,  others  solar.  Even  the  days 
have  been  differently  divided :  some  people 
beginning  them  at  evening,  others  at  morning, 
others  at  noon,  and  others  at  midnight.  With 
some  the  hours  were  equal,  both  in  winter  and 
summer ;    with    others,   they   were    unequal. 


YEA 


977 


YEA 


They  counted  twelve  hours  to  the  day,  and  as 
many  to  the  night.  In  summer  the  hours  of 
the  day  were  longer  than  those  of  the  night; 
but,  on  the  contrary,  in  winter  the  hours  of  the 
night  were  longer  than  those  of  the  day. 

While  the  Jews  continued  in  the  land  of 
Canaan,  the  beginnings  of  their  months  and 
years  were  not  settled  by  any  astronomical 
rules  or  calculations,  but  by  the  phasis,  or 
actual  appearance  of  the  new  moon.  When 
they  saw  the  new  moon,  they  began  the  month. 
Persons  were  therefore  appointed  to  watch  on 
the  tops  of  the  mountain  for  the  first  appear- 
ance of  the  moon  after  the  change.  As  soon 
as  they  saw  it,  they  informed  the  sanhedrim, 
and  public  notice  was  given  by  lighting  beacons 
throughout  the  land  ;  though  after  they  had 
been  often  deceived  by  the  Samaritans,  who 
kindled  false  fires,  they  used,  say  the  Mishnical 
rabbins,  to  proclaim  its  appearance  by  sending 
messengers.  Yet  as  they  had  no  months 
longer  than  thirty  days,  if  they  did  not  see  the 
new  moon  the  night  following  the  thirtieth 
day,  they  concluded  the  appearance  was  ob- 
structed by  the  clouds,  and,  without  watching 
any  longer,  made  the  next  day  the  first  of  the 
following  month.  But  after  the  Jews  became 
dispersed  through  all  nations,  where  they  had 
no  opportunity  of  being  informed  of  the  first 
appearance  of  the  new  moon,  as  they  formerly 
had,  they  were  forced  to  make  use  of  astrono- 
mical calculations  and  cycles  for  fixing  the 
beginning  of  their  months  and  years.  The 
first  cycle  they  made  use  of  for  this  purpose 
was  of  eighty-four  years.  But  that  being  dis- 
covered to  be  faulty,  tffey  came  afterward  into 
the  use  of  Meto's  cycle  of  nineteen  years, 
which  was  established  by  the  authority  of 
Rabbi  Hillel  Hannasi,  or  prince  of  the  sanhe- 
drim, about  A.  D.  360.  This  they  still  use, 
and  say  it  is  to  be  observed  till  the  coming  of 
the  Messiah.  In  the  compass  of  this  cycle 
there  are  twelve  common  years,  consisting  of 
twelve  months,  and  seven  intercalary  years, 
consisting  of  thirteen  months.  We  find  the 
Jews  and  their  ancestors  computing  their  years 
from  different  eras,  in  different  parts  of  the 
Old  Testament ;  as  from  the  birth  of  the 
patriarchs,  for  instance,  of  Noah,  Gen.  vii,  11 ; 
viii,  13 ;  afterward  from  their  exit  out  of 
Egypt,  Num.  xxxiii,  38  ;  1  Kings  vi,  1  ;  then 
from  the  building  of  Solomon's  temple,  2 
Chron.  viii,  1 ;  and  from  the  reigns  of  the  kings 
of  Judah  and  Israel.  In  latter  times  the 
Babylonish  captivity  furnished  them  with  a 
new  epocha,  from  whence  they  computed  their 
years,  Ezek.  xxxiii,  21  ;  xl,  1.  But  since  the 
times  of  the  Talmudical  rabbins,  they  have 
constantly  used  the  era  of  the  creation. 

There  is  not  a  more  prolific  source  of  confu- 
sion and  embarrassment  in  ancient  chronology, 
tlian  the  substitution  of  the  cardinal  numbers, 
one,  two,  three,  for  the  ordinals,  first,  second, 
third,  &c,  which  frequently  occurs  in  the  sacred 
and  profane  historians.  Thus  Noah  was  six 
hundred  years  old  when  the  deluge  began,  Gen. 
vii,  6  ;  and  presently  after,  in  his  six  hundredth 
year  :  confounding  complete  and  current  years. 
And  the  dispute  whether  A.  D.  1800,  or  A.  D. 
63 


1801,  was  the  first  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
should  be  decided  in  favour  of  the  latter  ;  the 
former  being  in  reality  the  last  of  the  eighteenth 
century ;  which  is  usually,  but  improperly, 
called  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred, 
complete ;  whereas  it  is  really  the  one  thou- 
sandth, eight  hundredth  ;  as  in  Latin  we  say, 
Anno  Domini  millesimo  octingentesimo.  There 
is  also  another  and  a  prevailing  error,  arising 
from  mistranslation  of  the  current  phrases, 
f(£0'  rjjicQai  iicTu>,  pcra  rpui  fj/iipai,  &,c,  usually  ren- 
dered, "  after  eight  days,"  "  after  three  days," 
&c  ;  but  which  ought  to  be  rendered  "eight 
days  after,"  "three  days  after,"  as  in  other 
places,  fieri  tivus  fi/xepaSf  jxtr'  oh  7roXAus  tiftipas, 
which  are  correctly  rendered  "  some  days  after," 
"  not  many  days  after,"  in  our  English  Bible, 
Acts  xv,  36 ;  Luke  xv,  13,  the  extreme  days 
being  included.  Such  phrases  seem  to  be  ellip- 
tical, and  the  ellipsis  is  supplied,  Luke  ix,  28, 
speaking  of  our  Lord's  transfiguration,  pera  rob; 
Xo'yous  roirovs,  tocel  tifiipai  Sktoj  :  "After  these 
sayings,  about  eight  days,"  or  rather  about  the 
eighth  day,  counted  inclusively ;  for  in  the  pa- 
rallel passages,  Matt,  xvii,  1,  Mark  ix,  2,  there 
are  only  "  six  days,"  counted  exclusively,  or 
omitting  the  extremes.  Thus,  circumcision  is 
prescribed,  Gen.  xvii,  11,  when  the  child  is 
"  eight  days  old  ;"  but  in  Lev.  xii,  3,  "  on  the 
eighth  day."  And  Jesus  accordingly  was  cir- 
cumcised, ort  iii\fia6r)<rav  l'mipai  6kt£>,  "  when  eight 
days  were  accomplished,"  Luke  ii,  21 ;  whereas 
John  the  Baptist,  7#  oy&nrj  >?/«p«,  "  on  the  eighth 
day."  The  last,  which  was  the  constant  usage, 
explains  the  meaning  of  the  former.  This 
critically  reconciles  our  Lord's  resurrection, 
fierd  rpus  fyiipas,  "three  days  after,"  according 
to  Matt,  xxvii,  63  ;  Mark  viii,  31 ;  with  his  re- 
surrection, ti)  rpiTj;  fipipa,  "  on  the  third  day," 
according  to  Matt,  xvi,  21  ;  Luke  ix,  22 ;  and 
according  to  fact :  for  our  Lord  was  crucified 
on  Good  Friday,  about  the  third  hour ;  and  he 
arose  before  sunrise,  -xpm,  "  early,"  on  Sunday  ; 
so  that  the  interval,  though  extending  through 
three  calendar  days  current,  did  not  in  reality 
amount  to  two  entire  days,  or  forty-eight  hours. 
This  phraseology  is  frequent  among  the  most 
correct  classic  writers.  Some  learned  com- 
mentators, Beza,  Grotius,  Campbell,  Newcome, 
render  such  phrases,  "  within  eight  days," 
"  within  three  days;"  which  certainly  conveys 
the  meaning,  but  not  the  literal  translation,  of 
the  preposition  jierh,  "  after."  In  memory  of 
the  primeval  week  of  creation,  revived  among 
the  Jews,  after  their  departure  from  Egypt, 
their  principal  festivals,  the  passover,  pente- 
cost,  and  tabernacles,  lasted  a  week  each. 
They  had  weeks  of  seven  years  a  piece,  at  the 
term  of  which  was  the  sabbatical  year  ;  as  also 
weeks  of  seven  times  seven  years,  that  were 
terminated  by  the  year  of  jubilee  ;  and  finally 
weeks  of  seven  days.  And  it  is  remarkable 
that,  from  the  earliest  times,  sacrifices  were 
offered  by  sevens.  Thus,  in  the  patriarch  Job's 
days,  "seven  bullocks  and  seven  rams  were 
offered  up  for  a  burnt  offering"  of  atonement, 
by  the  divine  command,  Jobxlii,  8.'  The  Chal- 
d(5an  diviner,  Balaam,  built  seven  altars,  and 
prepared  seven  bullocks  and  seven  rame,  Nam , 


YEA 


978 


ZAB 


urn,  I.  And  the  Cumaean  sibyl,  who  came 
from  Chaldea,  or  Babylonia,  gives  the  same 
directions  to  jEneas,  that  Balaam  did  to  Balak  : 

S'unc  grege  de  intaclo  septan  viaclare  juvencos 
Preestiterit,  totidcm  leclas,  de  more,  bidenies. 
"  Seven  bullocks,  yet  unyoked,  for  Phoebus  choose, 
And  for  Diana  seven  unspotted  ewes." 

Drypen. 

And  when  the  ark  was  brought  home  by  David, 
the  Levitos  offered  seven  bullocks  and  seven 
rams,  1  Chronicles  xv,  26.  And  hence  v;e  may 
account  for  the  peculiar  sanctity  of  the  seventh 
day,  among  the  older  Heathen  writers,  even 
after  the  institution  of  the  Sabbath  fell  into 
disuse,  and  was  lost  among  them. 

The  Fallow  or  Sabbatic  Year.  Agricultu- 
ral labour  among  the  Jews  ceased  every  seventh 
year.  Nothing  was  sown  and  nothing  reaped  ; 
the  vines  and  the  olives  were  not  pruned  ;  there 
was  no  vintage  and  no  gathering  of  fruits,  even 
of  what  grew  wild  ;  but  whatever  spontaneous 
productions  there  were,  were  left  to  the  poor, 
the  traveller,  and  the  wild  beast,  Lev.  xxv,  1-7 ; 
Deut.  xv,  1-10.  The  object  of  this  regulation 
seems  to  have  been,  among  others,  to  let  the 
ground  recover  its  strength,  and  to  teach  the 
Hebrews  to  be  provident  of  their  income  and  to 
look  out  for  the  future.  It  is  true,  that  extra- 
ordinary fruitfulness  was  promised  on  the  sixth 
year,  but  in  such  a  way  as  not  to  exclude  care 
and  foresight,  Lev.  xxv,  20-24.  We  are  not  to 
suppose,  however,  that  the  Hebrews  spent  the 
seventh  year  in  absolute  idleness  :  they  could 
fish,  hunt,  take  care  of  their  bees  and  flocks, 
repair  their  buildings  and  furniture,  manufac- 
ture cloths  of  wool,  linen,  and  of  the  hair  of 
goats  and  camels,  and  carry  on  commerce. 
Finally,  they  were  obliged  to  remain  longer  in 
the  tabernacle  or  temple  this  year,  during  which 
the  whole  Mosaic  law  was  read,  in  order  to  be 
instructed  in  religious  and  moral  duties,  and 
the  history  of  their  nation,  and  the  wonderful 
works  and  blessings  of  God,  Deut.  xxxi,  10-13. 
This  seventh  year's  rest,  as  Moses  predicted, 
Lev.  xxvi,  34, 35,  was  for  a  long  time  neglected, 
2  Chron.  xxxvi,  21 ;  after  the  captivity  it  was 
more  scrupulously  observed. 

As  a  period  of  seven  days  was  every  week 
completed  by  the  Sabbath,  so  was  a  period  of 
Kcven  years  completed  by  the  sabbatic  year. 
It  seems  to  have  beon  the  design  of  this  institu- 
tion,  to  afford  a  longer  opportunity  than  would 
otherwise  have  been  enjoyed  for  impressing  on 
the  memory  the  great  truth,  that  God  the  Cre- 
ator is  alone  to  be  worshipped.  The  com- 
mencement of  this  year  was  on  the  first  day  of 
the  seventh  month  Tishri,  or  October.  During 
the.  continuance  of  the  feast  of  tabernacles  this 
year,  the  law  was  to  be  publicly  read  for  eight 
days  together,  cither  in  the  tabernacle  or  tem- 
ple, Deut.  wxi,  10-13.  Debts,  on  account  of 
there  being  no  income  from  the  soil,  were  not 
ted,  Pent,  xv,  1,2;  Ihey  were  not,  how- 
ever, canoelled,  :.s  was  imagined  by  the  Tal- 
'-.  foY  we  find  in  Deut.  xv,  9,  that  the 
'•  admonished  not  to  deny  money 
,n  the  •  count  of  the  approach  of  the 

■I  vi,  daring  which  it  could  not  be 
e lae.tcd  j  hut  nothing  farther  than  this  can  bo 


educed  from  that  passage.  Nor  were  servant 
manumitted  on  this  year,  but  on  the  seventh 
year  of  their  service,  Exodus  xxi,  2 ;  Deut 
xv,  12 ;  Jer.  xxxiv,  14. 

The  Year  of  Jubilee  followed  seven  sabbatic 
years  ;  it  was  on  the  fiftieth  year,  Lev.  xxv, 
8—11.  To  this  statement  agree  the  Jews  gene- 
rally, their  rabbins,  and  the  Caraites  ;  and  6ay 
farther,  that  the  argument  of  those  who  main- 
tain that  it  was  on  the  forty-ninth,  for  the  reason 
that  the  omission  to  till  the  ground  for  two 
years  in  succession,  namely,  the  forty-ninth 
and  fiftieth,  would  produce  a  famine,  is  not  to 
be  attended  to.  It  is  not  to  be  attended  to, 
simply  because  these  years  of  rest  being  known 
long  beforehand,  the  people  would  of  course  lay 
up  provision  for  them.  It  may  be  remarked 
farther  in  reference  to  this  point,  that  certain 
trees  produced  their  fruits  spontaneously,  par- 
ticularly the  fig  and  sycamore,  which  yield  half 
the  year  round,  and  that  those  fruits  could  be 
preserved  for  some  months  ;  which  explains  at 
once  how  a  considerable  number  of  the  people 
might  have  obtained  no  inconsiderable  portion 
of  their  support.  The  return  of  the  year  of 
jubilee  was  announced  on  the  tenth  day  of  the 
seventh  month,  or  Tishri,  October,  being  tho 
day  of  propitiation  or  atonement,  by  the  sound 
of  trumpet,  Lev.  xxv,  8-13;  xxvii,  24;  Num. 
xxxvi,  4 ;  Isa.  lxi,  1,  2.  Beside  the  regulations 
which  obtained  on  the  sabbatic  year,  there  were 
others  which  concerned  the  year  of  jubilee 
exclusively:  1.  All  the  servants  of  Hebrew 
origin  on  the  year  of  jubilee  obtained  their 
freedom,  Lev.  xxv,  39-16 ;  Jer.  xxxiv,  7,  &e. 
2.  All  the  fields  throughout  the  country,  and 
the  houses  in  the  cities  and  villages  of  the 
Levites  and  priests  which  had  been  sold  on  the 
preceding  years,  were  returned  on  the  year  of 
jubilee  to  the  sellers,  with  the  exception  of 
those  which  had  been  consecrated  to  God,  and" 
had  not  been  redeemed  before  the  return  of  the 
said  year,  Lev.  xxv,  10,  13-17,  24-28  ;  xxvii, 
16-21.  3.  Debtors,  for  the  most  part,  pledged 
or  mortgaged  their  lands  to  the  creditor,  and 
left  it  to  his  use  till  the  time  of  payment,  so 
that  it  was  in  effect  sold  to  the  creditor,  and 
was,  accordingly,  restored  to  the  debtor  on  the 
year  of  jubilee.  In  other  words,  the  debts  for 
which  land  was  pledged  were  cancelled;  the 
same  as  those  of  persons  who  had  recovered 
their  freedom  after  having  been  sold  into  sla- 
very, on  account  of  not  being  able  to  pay. 
Hence  it  usually  happened  in  the  later  periods 
of  Jewish  history,  as  we  learn  from  Josephus, 
that,  at  the  return  of  jubilee,  there  was  a  ge- 
neral cancelling  of  debts. 

ZABII,  or  ZAB.EANS,  or  ZABIANS,  or 
SABIANS.  The  Sabians  mentioned  in  Scrip- 
ture were  evidently  a  nation,  or  perhaps  a 
wandering  horde,  such  as  fell  upon  Job's  cat- 
tle, Job  i,  15;  men  of  stature,  Isa.  xlv,  14;  a 
people  afar  off",  Joel  iii,  8.  But  we  speak  here 
of  the.  Zabians  as  a  sect,  probably  the  first  cor- 
rupters of  the  patriarchal  religion ;  and  so 
called,  as  is  bolieved,  from  tsubihn,  the  "hosts," 
that  is,  of  heaven  ;  namely,  the  sun,  moon, 
and  stars,  to  whom   they  rendered  worship ; 


ZAB 


979 


ZAB 


first  immediately,  and  afterward  through  the 
medium  of  images ;  this  particularly  distin- 
guished them  from  the  magi,  whose  idolatry 
was  confined  to  the  solar  orb,  and  its  earthly 
representative,  the  fire.  If  the  above  deriva- 
tion be  right,  the  Zabians  were  originally 
Chaldeans,  though  afterward  the  same  sect 
arose  in  Arabia.  Their  study  of  the  heavenly 
bodies  led  them,  not  only  to  astronomy,  but  to 
astrology,  its  degenerate  daughter,  which  was 
for  many  ages  the  favourite  pursuit  of  the 
oriental  nations. 

The  following  account  is  abridged  from  Dr. 
Townley's  "  Essays  :" — The  Zabii,  or  Zabians, 
were  a  sect  of  idolaters  who  flourished  in  the 
early  ages  of  the  world,  considerable  in  their 
numbers,  and  extensive  in  their  influence. 
The  denomination  of  Zabii,  given  to  these 
idolaters,  appears  to  have  been  derived  from 
the  Hebrew  N3x,  a  host;  with  reference  to  the 
D^DETi  *OX,  or,  host  of  heaven,  which  they  wor- 
shipped ;  though  others  have  derived  it  from 
the  Arabic  tsaba  "to  apostatize,"  "  to  turn 
from  one  religion  to  another ;"  or  from  D^3S, 
or  the  Arabic  Tsahin,  "  Chaldeans,"  or  "  in- 
habitants of  the  east."  Lactantius  considers 
Ham,  the  son  of  Noah,  as  the  first  seceder 
from  the  true  religion  after  the  flood ;  and  sup- 
poses Egypt,  which  was  peopled  by  his  de- 
scendants, to  have  been  the  country  in  which 
Zabaism,  or  the  worship  of  the  stars,  first  pre- 
vailed. That  the  worship  of  the  heavenly  bo- 
dies prevailed  in  the  east  at  a  very  early  period, 
is  certain  from  the  words  of  Job,  who  thus 
exculpates  himself  from  the  charge  of  idolatry  : 
"  If  I  beheld  the  sun  when  it  shined,  or  the 
moon  walking  in  brightness,  and  my  heart 
hath  been  secretly  enticed,  or  my  mouth  hath 
kissed  my  hand ;  this  also  were  an  iniquity  to 
be  punished  by  the  judge :  for  I  should  have 
denied  the  God  that  is  above,"  Job  xxii,  26-28. 
It  would  appear  that  the  idolatrous  opinions 
of  the  Zabii  originated  with  the  posterity  of 
Ham,  at  a  very  early  period  after  the  flood,  in 
Egypt  or  Chaldea;  but  spread  so  rapidly  and 
extensively,  that  in  a  very  short  time  nearly 
the  whole  of  the  descendants  of  Noah  were 
infected  with  their  pestiferous  sentiments  and 
practices.  Maimonides  says,  "  This  people," 
that  is,  the  Zabii,  "had  filled  the  whole  world." 
Their  first  and  principal  adoration  was  directed 
to  the  host  of  heaven,  or  the  stars.  They  were 
ignicolcr,  or  "worshippers  of  lire."  The  city 
of  Ur,  in  Chaldea,  seems  to  have  had  its  name 
from  the  inhabitants  being  devoted  to  the  wor- 
ship of  fire.  They  dedicated  images  to  the 
sun  and  the  other  celestial  orbs,  supposing  that, 
by  a  formal  consecration  of  them  to  those  lu- 
minaries, a  divine  virtue  was  infused  into  them, 
by  which  they  acquired  the  faculty  of  under- 
standing, and  the  power  of  conferring  pro- 
phecy and  other  gifts  upon  their  worshippers. 
These  images  were  formed  of  various  metals, 
according  to  the  particular  star  to  which  any 
of  them  was  dedicated.  They  also  regarded 
certain  trees  as  being  appropriated  to  particu- 
lar stars,  and,  when  idolatrously  dedicated,  as 
being  possessed  of  very  singular  virtues.  From 
these  opinions  sprang  the  adoption  of  astrolo- 


gy by  them,  in  all  its  various  forms.  They 
maintained  the  doctrine  of  the  eternity  of  the 
world.  "All  the  Zabii,"  says  Maimonides, 
"believe  in  the  eternity  of  the  world;  for,  ac- 
cording to  them,  the  heavens  are  God."  Hold- 
ing the  eternity  of  the  world,  they  easily 
became  Pre-Adamites,  affirming  that  Adam 
was  not  the  first  man.  They  also  fabled  con- 
cerning him,  that  he  was  the  apostle  of  the 
moon,  and  the  author  of  several  works  on  hus- 
bandry. Of  Noah,  they  taught,  that  he  was  a 
husbandman,  and  was  imprisoned  for  dissenting 
from  their  opinions.  They  add,  that  Seth  was 
another  of  those  who  forsook  the  worship  of  the 
moon.  They  held  agriculture  in  the  highest  es- 
timation, regarding  it  as  intimately  connected 
with  the  worship  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  On 
this  account,  it  was  deemed  criminal,  by  the 
major  part  of  them,  to  slay  or  feed  upon  cattle. 
Goats  were  also  reputed  to  be  sacred  animals,  be- 
cause the  demons  whom  they  worshipped  were 
said  to  appear  in  the  woods  and  deserts  in  the 
forms  of  goats  or  of  satyrs.  Of  their  supersti- 
tious practices,  some  were  dangerous,  as  the 
sacrifices  of  lions,  tigers,  and  other  wild  beasts. 
Certain  of  their  rites  were  cruel,  as  the  passing 
of  their  children  through  the  fire,  and  branding 
themselves  also  with  fire.  Some  of  their  prac- 
tices were  loathsome  and  disgustful ;  such  as 
eating  blood,  believing  it  to  be  the  food  of 
demons,  &c.  Others  were  frivolous  and  te- 
dious; as  offering  bats  and  mice  to  the  sun, 
various  and  frequent  ablutions,  lustrations,  &c. 
Some  of  them  were  obscene  and  beastly,  as 
the  rites  practised  on  engrafting  a  tree,  or  to 
obtain  rain.  Many  of  the  rites  were  magical. 
These  Maimonides  divides  into  three  kinds: — 
"  The  first  is  that  which  respects  plants,  ani- 
mals, and  metals.  The  second  consists  in  the 
limitation  and  determination  of  the  times  in 
which  certain  works  ought  to  be  performed. 
The  third  consists  in  human  gestures  and  ac- 
tions, as  leaping,  clapping  the  hands,  shouting, 
laughing,  lying  down,  or  stretching  at  full 
length  upon  the  ground,  burning  particular 
things,  raising  a  smoke,  and,  lastly,  repeating 
certain  intelligible  or  unintelligible  words. 
Some  things  cannot  be  completed  without  the 
use  of  all  these  rites."  It  is  generally  acknow- 
ledged that  some  traces  of  Zabianism  are  still 
to  be  found  both  among  the  Hindoos  and  Chi- 
nese in  the  east,  and  the  Mexicans  and  other 
nations  in  the  south.  The  Guebres,  or  Par- 
sees,  who  inhabit  Persia,  and  are  scattered 
through  various  parts  of  Hindostan,  are  the 
acknowledged  worshippers  of  fire,  or  the  su- 
preme Deity  under  that  symbol.  "  That  the 
Persians,"  says  Hyde,  "were  formerly  Sabians 
or  Zabii,  is  rendered  probable  by  Ibn  Phacred- 
din  Angjou,  a  Persian,  who,  in  his  book 
1  Pharhangh  Gjihanghiri,''  treating  of  the  Per- 
sians descended  from  Shem,  says  in  the  preface, 
'  Their  religion,  at  that  time,  was  Zabianism ; 
but  at  length  they  became  magi,  and  built  fire 
temples.'  And  the  author  of  the  book  '  Mu'gji. 
zat  Pharsi,''  adopts  the  same  opinion:  'In 
ancient  times,  the  Persians  were  of  the  Zabian 
religion,  worshipping  the  atari,  until  the  time 
oi'Gushtasp,  &o»  of  Lohra&p.'    lor  then  Zoro- 


ZEA 


980 


ZEB 


aster  reformed  their  religion."  The  modern 
Snl'i.ins,  who  inhahit  the  country  round  about 
Mount  I, i!>  urns,  believe  the  unity  of  God,  but 
pal  .hi  adoration  to  the  stars,  or  the  angels 
and  intelligences  which  thoy  suppose  reside  in 
them,  and  govern  the  world  under  the  supreme 
Deity.  Tiny  are  obliged  to  pray  three  times 
a  day,  and  they  fast  three  times  a  year.  They 
offer  many  sacrifices,  but  cat  no  part  of  them  ; 
and  abstain  from  beans,  garlic,  and  some 
other  pulse  and  vegetables.  They  greatly 
respect  the  temple  of  Mecca  and  the  pyramids 
of  Egypt,  fancying  these  last  to  be  the  sepul- 
chres of  Scth,  and  of  Enoch  and  Sabi,  his  two 
sons,  whom  they  look  on  as  the  first  propa- 
jailors  of  their  religion.  At  these  structures, 
they  sacrifice  a  cock  and  a  black  calf,  and 
offer  up  incense.  Their  principal  pilgrimage, 
however,  is  to  Ilaran,  the  supposed  birth  place 
of  Abraham.  Such  is  the  account  of  this  sect 
given  by  Sale,  D'Herbelot,  and  Hyde. 

ZACCIIEUS,  chief  of  the  publicans;  that 
is,  farmer  general  of  the  revenues,  Luke  xix, 
1,  &c.  This  is  all  that  is  known  concerning 
this  person.     See  Publicans  and  Sycamore. 

ZADOK,  son  of  Ahitub,  high  priest  of  the 
Jews,  of  the  race  of  Eleazar.  At  the  death 
of  Ahimclech,  or  Abiathar,  he  came  to  the 
pontificate,  A.  M.  2944.  For  some  time  there 
were  two  high  priests  in  Israel,  2  Sam.  viii,  17 ; 
xv,  24,  &c;  xix,  11,  12;  1  Kings  i,  8,  &c. 
After  the  death  of  David,  1  Kings  ii,  35,  Solo- 
mon excluded  Abiathar  from  the  high  priest- 
hood, because  he  espoused  the  party  of  Ado- 
nijah,  and  made  Zadok  high  priest  alone. 

ZAMZUMMIM,  or  ZUZIM,  a  gigantic 
race  of  people,  who,  together  with  the  Re- 
phaini  and  Emim,  men  of  like  stature,  occu- 
pied, in  the  time  of  Abraham,  the  country  east 
of  Jordan  and  the  Dead  Sea,  where  they  were 
routed  by  ( 'hedorlaomer,  and  from  which  they 
were  afterward  expelled  by  the  Ammonites, 
Deut.  ii,  20,  21.  These,  together  with  the 
Anakim,  another  family  of  giants,  were  all 
evidently  of  a  race  foreign  to  the  original  in- 
habitants of  the  countries  where  they  were 
found ;  they  wore  probably  tribes  of  invading 
Cushitcs.  The  Vulgate  and  the  Septuagint  say, 
they  were  conquered  with  the  Rephaim  in 
oth-Karnaim.  The  Chaldee  interpret- 
ers have  taken  Zuzim  in  the  sense  of  an  appel- 
lative, for  stout'  and  valiant  men;  and  the 
Septuagint  have  rendered  the  word  Zuzim, 
iBini  <V_v'u,  nibtut  nations.  Wo  meet  with  the 
word  Zuzim  only  in  Gen.  xiv,  5. 

ZEAL.  The  original  word,  in  its  primary 
-imiilicatic.il,  means  beat;  such  as  the  heat  of 
boiling  water.  When  it  is  figuratively  applied 
to  the  mind,  it  moans  any  warm  emotion  or 
on.  Sometimes  it  is  taken  for  envy:  so 
w«rei  |       7, 17,  where  we1  read,  "The 

high  priest,  and  all  that  were  with  him,  were 
Idled  with  envy,"  raftftrOaa-av  £}Ao«  :  although  it 
might  ■  rendered,  "  were  filled  with 

Sometimes  it.  is  taken  tor  anger  and 
indignation  ;  sometimeff,  for  vehi  i 

And   when    any  of  our   paeons    are   si 

inovrd  on  a  religious  account,  whether  fi 

ihniK  cood.   or  against  any  thing  which   we 


conceive  to  be  evil,  this  we  term  religious  zeal, 
But  it  is  not  all  that  is  called  religious  zeal 
which  is  worthy  of  that  name.  It  is  not  pro- 
perly religious  or  Christian  zeal,  if  it  be  not 
joined  with  charity.  A  fine  writer  (Bishop 
Sprat)  carries  the  matter  farther  still.  "  It 
has  been  affirmed,"  says  he,  "  no  zeal  is  right, 
which  is  not  charitable,  but  is  mostly  so. 
Charity,  or  love,  is  not  only  one  ingredient, 
but  the  chief  ingredient,  in  its  composition." 
May  we  not  go  farther  still  ?  May  we  not 
say,  that  true  zeal  is  not  mostly  charitable,  but 
wholly  so  ?  that  is,  if  we  take  charity,  in  St. 
Paul's  sense,  for  love  ;  the  love  of  God  and 
our  neighbour.  For  it  is  a  certain  truth, 
although  little  understood  in  the  world,  that 
Christian  zeal  is  all  love.  It  is  nothing  else. 
The  love  of  God  and  man  fills  up  its  whole 
nature.  Yet  it  is  not  every  degree  of 
that  love  to  which  this  appellation  is  given. 
There  may  be  some  love,  a  small  degree  of  it, 
where  there  is  no  zeal.  But  it  is,  properly, 
love  in  a  higher  degree.  It  is  fervent  love. 
True  Christian  zeal  is  no  other  than  the  flame 
of  love.  This  is  the  nature,  the  inmost  essence 
of  it.  Phinehas  is  commended  for  having  ex- 
pressed much  zeal  against  those  wicked  per- 
sons that  violated  the  law  of  the  Lord,  Num. 
xxv,  11,  13;  and  in  Psalm  Ixix,  9,  the  psalmist 
says,  "  The  zeal  of  thine  house  hath  eaten  me 
up ;"  my  earnest  desire  to  have  all  things  duly 
ordered  about  thy  worship,  and  my  just  dis- 
pleasure and  indignation  at  all  abuses  in  it, 
have  wasted  my  natural  moisture  and  vital 
spirits. 

ZEBOIM,  one  of  the  four  cities  of  the  Pen- 
tapolis,  consumed  by  fire  from  heaven,  Gen. 
xiv,  2;  xix,  24.  Eusebius  and  St.  Jerom  speak 
of  Zeboim  as  of  a  city  remaining  in  their  time, 
upon  the  western  shores  of  the  Dead  Sea.  Con- 
sequently, after  the  time  of  Lot  this  city  must 
have  been  rebuilt  near  the  place  where  it  had 
stood  before.  Mention  is  made  of  the  valley 
of  Zeboim,  1  Sam.  xiii,  18,  and  of  a  city  of 
the  same  name  in  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  Neh. 
xi,  34. 

ZEBULUN,  the  sixth  son  of  Jacob  and 
Leah,  Gen.  xxx,  20.  He  was  born  in  Meso- 
potamia, about  A.  M.  2256.  His  sons  were 
Sered,  Elon,  and  Jahleel,  Gen.  xlvi,  14.  Mo- 
ses acquaints  us  with  no  particulars  of  his  life  ; 
but  Jacob,  in  his  last  blessing,  said  of  Zebulun, 
"  Zebulun  shall  dwell  at  the  haven  of  the  sea; 
and  he  shall  be  for  a  haven  of  ships  ;  and  his 
border  shall  be  unto  Zidon,"  Gen.  xlix,  13. 
His  portion  extended  along  the  coast  of  the 
Mediterranean  Soa,  one  end  of  it  bordering  on 
this  sea,  and  the  other  on  the  sea  of  Tiberias, 
Joshua  xix,  10,  &c.  In  the  last  words  of  Mo- 
ses, he  joins  Zebulun  and  Issachar  together, 
saying,  "  Rejoice  Zebulun,  in  thy  going  out, 
fend  Issachar  in  thy  tents.  They  shall  call  the 
people  unto  the  mountain,  there  shall  they  offer 
sacrifices  of  righteousness.  For  they  shall  suck 
of  the  abundance  of  the  seas,  and  of  treasures 
hid  in  the  sand,"  Dent,  xxxiii,  18;  meaning, 
that  these  two  tribes  being  at  the  greatest  dis- 
tance north,  should  come  together  to  the  tem- 
ple at  Jerusalem,  to  the  holy  mountain,  and 


ZEC 


981 


ZED 


should  bring  with  them  such  of  the  other  tribes 
as  dwelt  in  their  way  ;  and  that  being  situated 
on  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  they 
should  apply  themselves  to  trade  and  navi- 
gation, and  to  the  melting  of  metals  and  glass, 
denoted  by  those  words,  "  treasures  hid  in  the 
sand."  The  river  Belus,  whose  sand  was  very 
fit  for  making  glass,  was  in  this  tribe.  When 
the  tribe  of  Zebulun  left  Egypt,  it  had  for  its 
chief  Eliab  the  son  of  Elon,  and  comprehended 
fifty-seven  thousand  four  hundred  men  able  to 
bear  arms,  Num.  i,  9-30.  In  another  review 
thirty-nine  years  afterward,  this  tribe  amounted 
to  sixty  thousand  five  hundred  men  of  age  to 
bear  arms,  Num.  xxvi,  26,  27.  The  tribes  of 
Zebulun  and  Naphtali  distinguished  them- 
selves in  the  war  of  Barak  and  Deborah  against 
Sisera,  the  general  of  the  armies  of  Jabin, 
Judges  iv,  5,  6,  10 ;  v,  14,  18.  It  is  thought 
these  tribes  were  the  first  carried  into  captivity 
beyond  the  Euphrates  by  Pul  and  Tiglath  Pile- 
ser,  kings  of  Assyria,  1  Chron.  v,  26.  They 
had  also  the  advantage  of  hearing  and  seeing 
Jesus  Christ  in  their  country,  oftener  and 
longer  than  any  other  of  the  twelve  tribes, 
Isa.  ix,  1 ;  Matthew  iv,  13,  15. 

ZECHARIAH,  king  of  Israel,  2  Kings 
xiv,  29.  He  succeeded  his  father  Jeroboam 
Ik  A.  M.  3220.  He  reigned  but  six  months, 
and  was  murdered. 

2.  Zechariah,  son  of  Jehoiada,  high  priest 
of  the  Jews ;  probably  the  same  as  Azariah, 
1  Chron.  vi,  10,  11.  He  was  put  to  death  by 
the  order  of  Joash,  A.  M.  3164,  2  Chron.  xxiv, 
20-22.  Some  think  this  is  the  Zacharias  men- 
tioned Matt,  xxiii,  35. 

3.  Zechariah,  the  eleventh  of  the  twelve 
lesser  prophets,  was  the  son  of  Barachiah,  and 
the  grandson  of  Iddo.  He  was  born  during 
the  captivity,  and  came  to  Jerusalem  when  the 
Jews  were  permitted  by  Cyrus  to  return  to 
their  own  country.  He  began  to  prophesy  two 
months  later  than  Haggai,  and  continued  to 
exercise  his  office  about  two  years.  Like  his 
contemporary  Haggai,  Zechariah  begins  with 
exhorting  the  Jews  to  proceed  in  the  rebuild- 
ing of  the  temple ;  he  promises  them  the  aid 
and  protection  of  God,  and  assures  them  of  the 
speedy  increase  and  prosperity  of  Jerusalem  ; 
he  then  emblematically  describes  the  four  great 
empires,  and  foretels  the  glory  of  the  Christian 
church  when  Jews  and  Gentiles  shall  be  united 
under  their  great  High  Priest  and  Governor, 
Jesus  Christ,  of  whom  Joshua  the  high  priest, 
and  Zerubbabel  the  governor,  were  types ;  he 
predicts  many  particulars  relative  to  our  Sa- 
viour and  his  kingdom,  and  to  the  future  con- 
dition of  the  Jews.  Many  moral  instructions 
and  admonitions  are  interspersed  throughout 
tho  work.  Several  learned  men  have  been  of 
opinion  that  the  last  six  chapters  were  not 
written  by  Zechariah ;  but  whoever  wrote  them, 
their  inspired  authority  is  established  by  their 
being  quoted  in  three  of  the  Gospels,  Matt. 
xxvi,  31;  Mark  xiv,  27;  John  xix,  37.  The 
style  of  Zechariah  is  so  remarkably  similar  to 
that  o§  Jeremiah,  that  the  Jews  were  accus- 
tomed to  observe,  that  the  spirit  of  Jeremiah 
had  passed  into  him.     By  far  the  greater  part 


of  this  book  is  prosaic ;  but  toward  the  conclu- 
sion there  are  some  poetical  passages  which 
are  highly  ornamented.  The  diction  is  in 
general  perspicuous,  and  the  transitions  to  the 
different  subjects  are  easily  discerned. 

ZEDEKIAH,  or  MATTANIAH,  was  the 
last  king  of  Judah  before  the  captivity  of 
Babylon.  He  was  the  son  of  Josiah,  and 
uncle  to  Jehoiachin  his  predecessor,  2  Kings 
xxiv,  17,  19.  When  Nebuchadnezzar  took 
Jerusalem,  he  carried  Jehoiachin  to  Babylon, 
with  his  wives,  children,  officers,  and  the  best 
artificers  in  Judea,  and  put  in  his  place  his 
uncle  Mattaniah,  whose  name  he  changed  into 
Zedekiah,  and  made  him  promise,  with  an  oath, 
that  he  would  continue  in  fidelity  to  him,  A.  M. 
3405,  2  Chron.  xxxvi,  13  ;  Ezek.xvii,  12, 14, 18. 
He  was  twenty-one  years  old  when  he  began 
to  reign  at  Jerusalem,  and  he  reigned  there 
eleven  years.  He  did  evil  in  the  sight  of  the 
Lord,  committing  the  same  crimes  as  Jehoia- 
kim,  2  Kings  xxiv,  18-20;  2  Chron.  xxxvi, 
11-13;  and  regarded  not  the  menaces  of  the 
Prophet  Jeremiah,  from  the  Lord;  but  hardened 
his  heart.  The  princes  of  the  people,  and  the 
inhabitants  of  Jerusalem,  imitated  his  impiety, 
and  abandoned  themselves  to  all  the  abomina- 
tions of  the  Gentiles.  In  the  first  year  of  his 
reign,  Zedekiah  sent  to  Babylon  Elasah,  the 
son  of  Shaphan,  and  Gemariah,  the  son  of 
Hilkiah,  probably  to  carry  his  tribute  to  Nebu- 
chadnezzar. By  these  messengers  Jeremiah 
sent  a  letter  to  the  captives  at  Babylon,  Jer. 
xxix,  1-23.  Four  years  afterward,  either 
Zedekiah  went  thither  himself,  or  at  least  he 
sent  thither;  for  the  Hebrew  text  may  admit 
either  of  these  interpretations,  Jer.  li,  59  ;  Ba- 
ruch  i,  1 ;  Jer.  xxxii,  12.  The  chief  design  of 
this  deputation  was  to  entreat  Nebuchadnezzar 
to  return  the  sacred  vessels  of  the  temple, 
Baruch  i,  8.  In  the  ninth  year  of  his  reign, 
he  revolted  against  Nebuchadnezzar,  2  Kings 
xxv.  It  was  a  sabbatical  year,  in  which  the 
people  should  set  their  slaves  at  liberty, 
according  to  the  law,  Exod.  xxi,  2 ;  Deut. 
xv,  1,  2,  12;  Jer.  xxxiv,  8-10.  Then  King 
Nebuchadnezzar  marched  his  army  against 
Zedekiah,  and  took  all  the  fortified  places  of 
his  kingdom,  except  Lachish,  Azekah,  and 
Jerusalem.  He  sat  down  before  the  last- 
mentioned  city  on  the  tenth  day  of  the  tenth 
month  of  the  holy  year,  which  answers  to  our 
January.  Some  time  afterward,  Pharaoh 
Hophrah,  king  of  Egypt,  marched  to  assist 
Zedekiah,  Jer.  xxxvii,  3-5,  10.  Nebuchad- 
nezzar left  Jerusalem,  and  went  to  meet  him, 
defeated  him,  and  obliged  him  to  return  into 
Egypt ;  after  which  he  resumed  the  siege  of 
Jerusalem.  In  the  mean  while,  the  people  of 
Jerusalem,  as  if  freed  from  the  fear  of  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, retook  the  slaves  whom  they  had 
set  at  liberty,  which  drew  upon  them  great 
reproaches  and  threatenings  from  Jeremiah, 
xxxiv,  11,  22.  During  the  siege  Zedekiah 
often  consulted  Jeremiah,  who  advised  him  to 
surrender,  and  pronounced  the  greatest  woes 
against  him  if  he  should  persist  in  his  rebellion, 
Jer.  xxxvii,  3,  10;  xxi.  But  this  unfortunate 
prince  had  neither  patience  to  hear,  nor  reso 


ZEP 


982 


ZUZ 


lution  to  follow,  good  counsels.  In  the  eleventh 
year  of  Zedekiah,  on  the  ninth  day  of  the  fourth 
month,  (July,)  Jerusalem  was  taken,  2  Kings 
xxv,  2-1  ;  Jer.  xxxix,  2,  3;  lii,  5-7.  Zedekiah 
and  his  people  endeavoured  to  escape  by  favour 
of  the  night ;  but  the  Chaldean  troops  pursuing 
them,  they  were  overtaken  in  the  plains  of 
Jericho.  He  was  seized  and  carried  to  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, then  at  Riblah,  a  city  of  Syria. 
The  king  of  Chaldea,  reproaching  him  with  his 
perfidy,  caused  all  his  children  to  be  slain  be- 
fore his  face,  and  his  eyes  to  be  put  out ;  th&n 
loading  him  with  chains  of  brass,  he  ordered 
him  to  be  sent  to  Babylon,  2  Kings  xxv,  4-7 ; 
Jer.  xxxii,  4-7;  lii,  4-11.  Thus  were  accom- 
plished two  prophecies  which  seemed  contradic- 
tory :  one  of  Jeremiah,  who  said  that  Zedekiah 
should  see  and  yet  not  see,  Nebuchadnezzar 
with  his  eyes,  Jer.  xxxii,  4,  5 ;  x.xxiv,  3  ;  and  the 
other  of  Ezek.  xii,  13,  which  intimated  that  he 
should  not  see  Babylon,  though  he  should  die 
there.  The  year  of  his  death  is  not  known. 
Jeremiah  had  assured  him  that  he  should  die 
in  peace ;  that  his  body  should  be  burned,  as 
those pf  the  kings  of  Judah  usually  were;  and 
that  they  should  mourn  for  him,  saying,  "  Ah, 
lord !"  Jer.  xxxiv,  4,  5. 

ZEPHANIAII  was  the  son  of  Cushi,  and 
was  probably  of  a  noble  family  of  the  tribe  of 
Simeon.  He  prophesied  in  the  reign  of  Josiah, 
about  B.  C.  630.  He  denounces  the  judgments 
of  God  against  the  idolatry  and  sins  of  his 
countrymen,  and  exhorts  them  to  repentance  ; 
he  predicts  the  punishment  of  the  Philistines, 
Moabites,  Ammonites,  and  Ethiopians,  and 
foietels  the  destruction  of  Nineveh;  he  again 
inveighs  against  the  corruptions  of  Jerusalem, 
and  with  his  threats  mixes  promises  of  future 
favour  and  prosperity  to  his  people ;  whose 
recall  from  their  dispersion  shall  glorify  the 
name  of  God  throughout  the  world.  The 
style  of  Zephaniah  is  poetical ;  but  it  is  not 
distinguished  by  any  peculiar  elegance  or 
beauty,  though  generally  animated  and  im- 
pressive. 


ZERUBBABEL,  or  ZEROBABEL,  was 

son  of  Salathiel,  of  the  royal  race  of  David. 
St.  Matthew,  i  12,  and  1  Chron.  iii,  17,  19, 
make  Jeconiah  king  of  Judah  to  be  father  to 
Salathiel ;  but  they  do  not  agree  as  to  the  father 
of  Zerubbabel.  The  Chronicles  say  Pedaiah 
was  father  of  Zerubbabel ;  but  St.  Matthew, 
St.  Luke,  Ezra,  and  Haggai,  constantly  make 
Salathiel  his  father.  We  must  therefore  take 
the  name  of  son  in  the  sense  of  grandson,  and 
say  that  Salathiel  having  educated  Zerubbabel, 
he  was  always  afterward  looked  upon  as  his 
father.  Some  think  that  Zerubbabel  had  also 
the  name  of  Sheshbazzar,  and  that  he  has  this 
name  in  Ezra  i,  8.  Zerubbabel  returned  to 
Jerusalem  long  before  the  reign  of  Darius,  son 
of  Hystaspes.  He  returned  at  the  beginning 
of  the  reign  of  Cyrus,  A.M.  3468,  fifteen  years 
before  Darius.  Cyrus  committed  to  his  care 
the  sacred  vessels  of  the  temple  with  which  he 
returned  to  Jerusalem,  Ezra  i,  11.  He  is 
always  named  first,  as  being  the  chief  of  the 
Jews  that  returned  to  their  own  country,  Ezn 
ii,  2 ;  iii,  8 ;  v,  2 ;  he  laid  the  foundations  of 
the  temple,  Ezra  iii,  8,  9  ;  Zech.  iv,  9,  &c  ;  and 
restored  the  worship  of  the  Lord,  and  the  usual 
sacrifices.  When  the  Samaritans  offered  to 
assist  in  rebuilding  the  temple,  Zerubbabel  and 
the  principal  men  of  Judah  refused  them  tMs 
honour,  since  Cyrus  had  granted  his  commis- 
sion to  the  Jews  only,  Ezra  iv,  2,  3. 

ZIKLAG,  a  city  of  the  Philistines,  first  as- 
signed to  the  tribe  of  Judah,  and  afterward  to 
that  of  Simeon,  Joshua  xv,  31 ;  xix,  5 ;  but  it 
does  not  appear  that  the  Philistines  were  ever 
driven  out ;  as,  when  David  fled  into  their 
country  from  Saul,  Achish  gave  the  city  to 
him,  1  Sam.  xxvii,  5,  6.  It  was  afterward 
burned  by  the  Amalekites,  1  Sam.  xxx,  1.  But 
it  appears  to  have  been  rebuilt,  as  the  author 
of  the  First  Book  of  Samuel,  when  relating  its 
being  given  to  David,  adds,  that  it  pertained 
to  the  kings  of  Judah  in  his  time. 

ZION.     See  Sion. 

ZUZIM.     See  Zamzummiai. 


AN  ALPHABETICAL 

TABLE  OF  THE  PROPER  NAMES 

IN 

THE  OLD  AND  NEW  TESTAMENTS; 

WITH 

THEIR    PRONUNCIATION, 


THE  CHIEF  MEANING  OR  LEADING  SIGNIFICATION  OF  EACH  WORD  IN 
ITS  ORIGINAL  LANGUAGE. 


In  those  words  whose  pronunciation  cannot  be  mistaken  by  any  one,  such  as  Abner,  Addon,  Assos,  &c,  only 
the  accentuation  is  marked. 

In  the  explanation  of  the  different  names,  attention  has  been  given  to  the  leading  meaning,  whether  simple  or 
metaphorical ;  and  the  reader  is  not  here  presented  with  the  converse  of  each  signification,  such  as  "  Abi ah, 
the  Lord  is  my  Father,  or  the  Father  of  the  Lord ;"  "  Eli  am,  the  people  of  God,  or  the  God  of  the  people;" 
liecause  in  the  Hebrew,  as  in  most  of  the  oriental  languages,  the  choice  of  these  meanings  is  determinable 
principally  by  the  juxtaposition  of  the  words  as  they  stand  in  different  sentences,  and  by  other  circumstances 
of  a  similar  kind. 


ABI 

AARON,  Ay'. ran,  lofty,  mountainous. 

Abad'uon,  the  destroyer. 

Abagtha,  Ab-ag'.tha,  father  of  the  wine  press. 

Abana,  Ab-aif' -nah,  stony. 

Abarim,  Ab'-a-rim,  passages. 

Ab'aron,  strength. 

Ab'ba,  father. 

Ab'da,  a  servant. 

Ab'di,  my  servant. 

Abdiel,  Ab'-de-el,  a  servant  of  God. 

Ab'don,  a  servant. 

Abed-nego,  A-bed'-ne-go,  servant  of  light. 

A'bel,  vanity,  vapour,  mourning. 

Abel-beth-maachah,      Ay'-bel-beth-ma-ay'-kah, 

mourning  of  the  house  of  Maachah. 
A'bel-ma'im,  the  mourning  of  the  waters. 
Abel-meholah,  Ay' -bel-me-ho' -lah,  mourning  of 

weakness,  of  sickness. 
Abel-mizraim,  Ay'-bel-miz.ra'-im,  the  mourning 

of  the  Egyptians. 
A'bel-shit'tim,  mourning  of  the  thorns. 
A'bez,  an  egg,  muddy. 
Abi,  A'-be,  my  father. 
Abiah,  Ab-i'-ah,  the  Lord  is  my  father. 
Abi'ahil,  the  father  of  light  or  praise. 
Abi-albon,  Ab-e-al'.bon,  intelligent  father. 
Ab'iam,  the  father  of  the  sea. 
Abi-as'aph,  a  gathering  or  consuming  father. 
Abiathar,  Ab-i' -a.th.ar ,  excellent  father. 
A'bib,  green  fruits,  ears  of  corn. 
Abi'dah,  father  of  knowledge. 
Abi'dan,  father  of  judgment. 
Abiel,  Ab'-e-el,  God  my  father. 
Abiezer,  Ab-e-e'-zer,  father  of  help. 
Abi-ezrite,  Ab-e-ez'-rite. 
Abigail,  Ab'-e-gal,  the  joy  of  the  father. 
Abi'-gibeon,  the  father  of"  the  cup,   father  of 

Gibeon. 
Abihail,  Ab-e-hay'-il,  the  father  of  strength. 
Abi'hu,  he  is  my  father,  or  his  father. 


ACH 

Abi'hud,  the  father  of  praise  or  confession. 
Abijah,  Ab-i'-jah,  the  will  of  the  Lord. 
Abi' jam,  father  of  the  sea. 
Abilene,  Ab-e-le'.ne,  the  father  of  the  apart- 
ment, or  of  mourning. 
Abimael,  Ab-be-may'-el,  a  father  sent  from  God, 

my  father  comes  from  God, 
Abimelech,  Ab-im' -me-lek,  father  of  the  king. 
Abinadab,  Ab-in'-na-dab,  father  of  willingness, 

my  father  is  a  prince. 
Abinoam,   Ab-in'-no-am,    father    of  beauty  or 

comeliness,  my  father  is  beautiful. 
Abiram,   Ab-i'-ram,  a  high  father,  father   of 

fraud. 
Abishag,  Ab'-be-shag,  ignorance  of  the  father. 
Abishai,  Ab-bish'-a-i,  the  present  of  my  father, 

the  father  of  the  sacrifice. 
Abishalom,  Ab-bish' -a-lam,  the  father  of  peace, 

the  recompence  of  the  father. 
Abishua,  Ab-bish'-u.a,  father  of  salvation  or  of 

magnificence. 
Abishur,  Ab'-be-shur,  the  father  of  the  wall  or 

of  uprightness. 
Abital,  Ab'-be-tal,  the  father  of  the  dew. 
Abitub,  Ab' -be-tub,  father  of  goodness. 
Abiud,  Ab'-be-ud,  father  of  praise. 
Ab'ner,  father  of  light,  the  son  of  the  father. 
A'braham,  the  father  of  a  great  multitude. 
A'bram,  a  high  father,  the  father  of  elevation. 
Ab'salom,  father  of  peace. 
Accad,  Ak'-ad,  a  pitcher,  a  sparkle. 
Accho,  Ak'.ko,  close,  pressed  together. 
Aceldama,  A-kel'-da-mah,  the  field  of  blood. 
Achaia,  A-kay'-yah,  grief,  trouble. 
Achaicus,  A-kay'-e-kus,  a  native  of  Achaia. 
Achan,  Achar,  A'-kan,  A'-kar,  he  that  troubles 

and  bruises. 
Achbor,  AV-bor,  a  rat,  bruising. 
Achim,  A'.kim,  preparing,  confirming,  revong- 

ing. 


AHA 


9S4 


ALE 


Aciiir,  -I  -l"i,  t he  brother's  light. 

Acbisb,  A'-hah,  thus  it  is,  how  is  this  > 

ACHMETHA,     1/.'  mc-tlmli 

Aciiok,  .1   km .  trouble. 

Ai  hj  mi,  Ali'-sii/i,  adorned,  bursting  of  thfl  veil. 

Aciisii.M'ii,  Ak -sliii/i/i,  poison,  i  ricks,  one  tliat 

breaks,  the  brim  of  any  tiling. 
Achzib,  Ak'.zib,  liar,  one  that  runs. 
Adadaii,  Ad'-a-dah,  the  testimony  of  the   as- 

sernbly. 
Auaii,  Ai/'-ihih,  an  assembly. 
Ahaiaii,  Ad-a'-yah,  the  witness  of  the  Lord. 
Adaliaii,  Ail-n-lij'-ah,    one  that  draws  water, 

poverty,  cloud,  death. 
Aj/am,  earthy,  taken  out  of  red  earth. 
Adamaii,  Ad-da-mah,  red  earth. 
Aim.mi,  Ad'-da-my,  my  man,  red,  earthy. 
A'dar,  high,  eminent. 
Adbf.ki.,  Ad'-be-el,  a  vapour,  a  cloud  of  God,  a 

vexer  of  Gvod. 
Ad'di,  my  witness,  adorned,  passage,  prey. 
Ad'po.v,  basis,  foundation)  the  Lord. 
A  IMF.  i.,  Ad'-i-tl,  the  witness  of  the  Lord. 
A  din,  Ad'-din,  adorned,  dainty. 
Aditii  aim,.  ■ld-e-t/ifii/'-im,  assemblies,  testimonies 
Adlai,  Ad-lay1 -i,  my  witness,  my  ornament. 
Ad'maii,  eurfiiv,  red  earth. 
Admatha,    Ad'-ma-tha/i,  a   cloud   of  death,    a 

mortal  vapour. 
Ad'nah,  rest,  testimony,  eternal. 
Adona'i,  my  Lord. 
Adoni-bezkk,   Ad'-o-ne-bee'-zek,   the   lightning 

of  the  Lord,  the  Lord  of Bezek. 
Adomjaii,  Aii-u-iiy'-ja/i,  the  Lord  is  my  master. 
Adonikam,  AiLo-ni/.kam,  the  Lord  is  raised,  my 

Lord  hath  raised  me. 
Adonira.m,  Ail-o-nij'-inm,  my  Lord  is  most  high, 

the  Lord  of  might  and  elevation. 
Aponi-zei/ek,  Ad'-o-ne-zee'-dek,  justice  of  the 

Lord. 
Adoraim,  Ailo-ray'-im,  strength  or  power  of 

the  sea. 
Adoram,  Ad-o'-ram,  their  beauty,  their  power, 

their  praise. 
Adrammei.fch,   Ad-ram'-me-lek,  the  cloak   or 

glory  of  the  king. 
Adramvtth-m,   Ad-ra-mit'-te-utn,  the  court   of 

death. 
Adria,   Ay'-drr-ah,  the  name  of  a  city,  which 

gives  name   to  the.  Adriatic    Sea,   now  the 

Gulf  of  Venice. 
A'driei.,  the  flock  of  God. 
AociXAH,    Ad-ul'-him,    their    testimony,   their 

prey,  their  ornament. 
Adii.m'mim,  earthly  or  bloody  things. 
jE'neas,  praised. 
A.,  wins,  Ag'-ga-bns,  a  locust,  (he  feast  of  the 

fatter. 
Acao,  Ay'. gag,  roof,  floor. 
A'om.i  if,  (,|  ihe  race  of  Agag. 

Aua'i'.v,   love  feasts. 
Agar,  see  Hagar. 
I  llley,  deepness. 

Agrippa,    A  i' rip'. pah,    one   who    at    his    birth 
COT  .in. 

"  ithering. 
A'rab,  the  brother  of  the  father. 

mi,   i  sweet  liiolber,  an  odoriferous  mee 
dow. 


Ahar'iif.i.,  another  host,   another  sorrow,  the 

sleep  of  the  brother. 
Aiiasba'i,  trusting  in  me,  brother  compassing 

In  Syriac,  a  brother  of  age. 
Ahasuerus,  A-has-u-e'-rus,  prince,  chief. 
Aiiava,  A-huy' -vah,  essence,  generation. 
A'iiaz,  one  that  takes  and  possesses. 
Aiiaziah,  A-ha-zy'-ah,  possession,  vision  of  the 

Lord. 
Am,  my  brother,  my  brethren. 
Ahiah,  A-hy'-ah,  brother  of  the  Lord. 
Ahiam,  A-hy'am,  brother  of  the  mother,  bro- 

ther  of  the  nation. 
Aiiian,  A-hy'-an,  brother  of  wine. 
Aiiie'zeu,  brother  of  assistance. 
Aiii'iiun,  brother  of  vanity,  a  brother  of  praise. 
Aiiijah,  the  same  as  Ahiah. 
Ahikam,  A-hy'-kam,  a  brother  that  raises  up, 
Ahi'lud,  a  brother  born. 
Ahim'aaz,  brother  of  the  council. 
Aiii'man,  a  brother  prepared. 
Aiiimelecii,  A-him'-me-lck,  myhrother  is  a  king. 
Ahimotii,  A' -he-moth,  brother  of  death. 
Ahin'adab,  a  willing  brother,   a  brother  of  a 

vow,  brother  of  the  prince. 
Aiiinoam,  A-hin' -no-am,  the  beauty  and  come- 
liness of  the  brother. 
Am'o,  his  brother,  his  brethren. 
Aiiior.     See  Achior. 
Ahira,  A-hy'-rah,  brother  of  iniquity  or  of  the 

shepherd. 
Ahiram,  A-hy'-ram,  brother  of  craft,  protection. 
Aiiisamach,  A-his'-sa-7nak,  brother  of  strength 

or  of  support. 
Ahishabak,  A-his'-sa-bar,  brother  of  the  morn- 

ing  or  dew,  brother  of  blackness. 
Ahi'shar,  brother  of  a  prince. 
AniTnopHEL,A-Ai7'-<o-/VZ,brotherofruin  or  folly. 
Ahi'tub,  brother  of  goodness. 
Ah'lab,  which  is  of  milk,  is  fat. 
Ah'lai,  beseeching,  sorrowing,  beginning,  bro. 

ther  to  me. 
Aho'ah,  a  thistle,  a  thorn,  a  fish  hook,  bro 

therhood. 
Aho'hi,  a  living  brother,  my  thistle  or  thorn. 
Aho'laii,  his  tabernacle,  his  tent. 
Auoi.iab,  A-ho'-lr-ab,  the  tent  or  tabernacle  of 

the  father. 
Aholibah,  A-ho'-le-bah,  my  tent  and  my  taher 

nacle  in  her. 
Aholibamaii,  A-ho'-lr-hay'-mah,  my  tabernacle 

is  exalted. 
Ahran.     See  Charan. 

Aiiu'mar,  a  meadow  of  waters, brotherof  waters. 
Aiiu'zam,  their  taking  possession,  vision. 
Ahuz'zah,  possession,  apprehension,  vision. 
A i,  or  IIai,  Ay'-i,  mass,  heap. 
Ai'au,  a  raven,  a  vulture,  alas,  where  is  it  ? 
Ai'atit,  an  hour. 
Ai'n,  an  eye,  a  fountain. 
Aiotii,  the  same  as  Ai. 

A.iai.on,  Ad'-ja-lon,  a  chain,  strength,  a  slag. 
AkVib,  the  print  of  the  foot  where  any  crea- 
ture hath  gone,  supplantation. 
\i  kUHEliBOH,  Al-am'-mc-lek,  God  is  king. 
\i ,'OIMDS,  strong,  of  strength. 
Al'kmkth,  a  hiding,  youth,  worlds,  upon  the 

dead. 
Ai.'i  mis,  strength. 


ANT 


985 


ASH 


Alexan'der,  one  that  assists  men,  one  that 
turns  away  evil. 

Alexandria,  Al-ex-an'-dre-a,  the  city  of  Alex- 
ander. 

Alleluia,  Al-le-lu'-yah,  praise  the  Lord. 

A'lian,  high. 

Al'lon,  an  oak. 

Allon-bachuth,  AV -lon-bak' -kuth,  the  oak  of 
weeping. 

Almo'dad,  measure  of  God. 

Al'mon,  hidden. 

Al'mon-dib'lathaim,  a  hiding,  a  heap  of  fig  trees. 

Alpha,  Al'-fah,  the  first  letter  of  the  Greek  al- 
phabet, marked  A. 

Alpheus,  Al-fe'-us,  a  thousand,  chief. 

A'mad,  a  people  of  witness,  people  everlasting. 

Am'alek.  a  people  that  licks  up  or  uses  ill. 

Amal'ekites,  people  descended  from  Amalek. 

A'mam,  mother,  fear  of  them,  people. 

Amana,  Am-ay'-nah,  integrity  and  truth. 

Amariah,  Am-a-ry'-ah,  the  Lord  says,  the  ex- 
cellency of  the  Lord. 

Amasa,  Am-ay'-sah,  a  forgiving  people,  the  bur- 
den of  the  people. 

Amaziah,  Am-a-zy'-ah,  the  strength  of  the  Lord. 

A 'mi.     See  Amain. 

Am'mah,  my  people. 

Ammi,  the  same  as  Ammah. 

Ammihud,  Am' -me -hud,  people  of  praise. 

Amminadab,  Am-min'-na-dab,  prince  of  the  peo- 
ple, a  people  that  vows. 

Ammishaddai,  Am-me-shad'-day-i,  the  people 
of  the  Almighty. 

Am'mon,  the  son  of  my  people. 

Am'momtes,  a  people  descended  from  Benam- 
mi,  son  of  Lot. 

Am'non,  faithful  and  true,  foster  father. 

Amon,  Ay'-mon,  faithful,  true. 

Am'orite,  bitter,  a  rebel,  a  babbler. 

Amos,  Ay'-mos,  loading,  weighty. 

Amoz,  Ay'-moz,  strong,  robust. 

Amphipolis,  Am-fip'-po-lis,  a  city  encompass- 
ed by  the  sea. 

Amplias,  Am'-ple-as,  large,  extensive. 

Am'ram,  an  exalted  people,  handfnls  of  corn. 

Amraphel,  Am'-ra-fel,  one  that  speaks  of  hid- 
den tilings  or  of  ruin. 

Am'zi,  strong,  mighty. 

A'nab,  a  grape,  a  knot. 

Anah,  Ay'-nah,  one  who  answers  or  sings, 
poor,  afflicted. 

Anak,  Ay'-nah,  a  collar,  an  ornament. 

Anakims,  An'-ak-ims.     See  Anak. 

Anammelech,  An-am'-mc-lek,  answer,  song  of 
the  king. 

A'nan,  a  cloud,  a  prophecy. 

Ananias,  An-a-ny'-as,  the  cloud  of  the  Lord. 

Anathotii,  An' -a-thoth,  answer,  affliction. 

Andrew,  An'drue,  a  stout  and  strong  man. 

Andronicus,  An-dron'  -ne-kus,  a  man  excelling 
others. 

Aner,  Ay'-ner,  answer,  song,  affliction. 

An'na,  gracious,  merciful. 

An'nas,  one  that  answers,  that,  afflicts. 

An'tichrist,  an  adversary  to  Christ. 

Antioch,  An'-te-ok,  instead  of  a  chariot. 

An'tipas,  against  all. 

Antipatris,  An  ■  tr-pau'-tris,  sgajnst  his  own 
father. 


Apeldes,  A-pel'-lees,  to  exclude,  to  separate. 

Aphek,  Ay'-J'ek,  a  stream,  vigour. 

Apollonia,  Ap-po-lu'-nr-ah,  perdition. 

Apol'los,  one  that  destroys  and  lays  waste. 

Apollyon,  A-pol'-le-on,  one  that  exterminates 
or  destroys. 

Apphia,  Af'-e-ah,  that  is  fruitful. 

Appii-forum,  Ap'-pe-i-fo'-rum,  a  town  so  called 
from  Appius  Claudius,  whose  statue  was 
erected  there. 

Aquila,  Ak'-we-lah,  an  eagle. 

Ar,  awraking,  uncovering. 

Ara'bia,  evening,  a  place  wild  and  desert ;  mix- 
tures, because  this  country  was  inhabited  by 
different  kinds  of  people. 

Ara'bian,  an  inhabitant  of  Arabia. 

A'rad,  a  wild  ass,  a  dragon. 

A'ram,  magnificence,  one  that  deceives. 

Ararat,  Ar'-ra-rat,  the  curse  of  trembling. 

Araunah,  A-raw'-nah,  ark,  song,  curse. 

Ar'ba,  the  city  of  the  four. 

Archelaus,  Ar-ke' -lay-us,  the  prince  of  the 
people. 

Archippus,  Ar-kip'-pus,  governor  of  horses. 

Arcturus,  Ark-tew'-rus,  a  gathering  together. 

Ard,  one  that  commands. 

Areli,  Ar-e'-lie,  the  light  or  vision  of  God. 

Areopagite,  A-re-op'-a-gyte,  belonging  to  the 
council  called  Areopagus. 

Areopagus,  A-re-op'-a-gus,  the  hill  of  Mars ;  a 
place  where  the  magistrates  of  Athens  held 
their  supreme  council ;  from  apsios,  "  of 
Mars,"  and  zudyos,  "  a  hill." 

Aretas,  A-re'-tas,  one  that  is  agreeable  or  vir- 
tuous. 

Ar'gob,  a  turf  of  earth,  curse  of  the  well. 

Ariel,  Ay' -re-el,  the  altar,  light,  lion  of  God. 

Arimathea,  Ar-re-ma-the'-ah,  a  lion  dead  to  the 
Lord.  Ramath,  or  Ramah,  a  city  where 
Samuel  dwelt. 

Ariocii,  Ar'-e-ok,  long,  your  drunkenness,  your 
lion. 

Aristarciius,  A-ris-lar'-kus,  the  best  prince. 

Aristobulus,  A-ris-tob'-bu-lus,  a  good  eoun 
sellor. 

Armageddon,  Ar-ma-ged'-don,  the  mountain  of 
Megiddo,  of  the  gospel,  of  fruits. 

Armenia,  Ar-me' -ne-ah,  a  province  which  is 
supposed  to  take  its  name  from  Aram. 

Ar'non,  rejoicing,  their  ark. 

Ar'oer,  heath,  tamarisk,  the  nakedness  of  tho 
skin  or  of  the  enemy. 

Ar'pad,  the  light  of  redemption,  that  lies  down. 

Arphaxad,  Ar-fak's-ad,  one  that  heals  or  re- 
leases. 

Artaxerxes,  Ar-taks-erk's-es,  in  Hebrew,  Ar- 
tachsasta,  the  silence  of  light. 

Artemas,  Ar'-te-mas,  whole,  sound. 

Asa,  Ay'.sah,  physician,  cure. 

Asahel,  As'-a-el,  the  work  or  creature  of  God. 

Asaiaii,  As'-a-i-ah,  the  Lord  hath  wrought. 

Asaph,  Ay'-saf,  one  that  assembles  together. 

Asenath,  As'-e-nath,  peril,  misfortune. 

A'shan,  vapour,  smoke. 

Ash'dod,  inclination,  a  wild  open  place. 

Ash'f.r,  blessedness. 

As'hiel,  the  work  of  God. 

Ashima,  Ash'-p-mah,  crime,  position,  fire  of  the 
sea. 


BAG 


9SG 


BET 


\. v(/,    .\  h   heiKiz,    a   lire   that  distils  or 

pl'l'uds. 

Ashtarotb,  As/i'-lii-rot/i,  flocks,  riches. 

a,  one  thai  is  happy. 
AsnVvni,  making  vestments. 
\   ■  \.    !.      ■-    ■,  muddy,  boggy. 
As'CBXON,  freight,  balance,  fire  of  infamy. 
\sn.u1  'rj.-u,  unhappiness,  fruitless; 
Assnt,  prisoner,  fettered. 
As'sos,  approaching. 
Assyria,  As-sir'-re.a. 
Assyrian,  As-sir'-re-an. 
Asvncriti :s,  A-sin'-kir-ti/s,  incomparable. 
A'tad,  a  thorn. 

Ata'roth,  crowns,  counsel  of  making  full. 
Athaliaii,  Ath-a-ly'-ah,  the  time  of  the  Lord. 
Athenians,     Alh-ee'-ne-ans,     inhabitants     of 

Athens. 
Ath'e.ns,  so  called  from  Athene,  Minerva. 
Attai.ia,  At-ln-li/'-a/i,  that,  increases  or  sends. 
A'vf.n,  iniquity,  force,  riches. 
Aucr.s'rrs,  increased,  majestic. 
Azariah,  Az-a-ry'-ah,  assistance,  he  that  hears 

the  Lord. 
AzEKAU,Az-ee'-kak,  strength  of  walls. 
Az'gad,  a  strong  army,  a  gang  of  robbers. 
Aznotii-tabor,  Az'-noth-tay'-bor,  the   ears   of 

Tabor,  of  choice,  purity,  contrition. 
Azo'tus,  the  same  as  Ashdod. 
A'zur,  he  that  assists,  that  is  assisted. 

Baal,  Bay'-al,  he  that  rules  and  subdues. 
Baalaji,  Bay'-ul-ah,  her  idol,   a  spouse ;  the 

name  of  a  city. 
Baai.-berith,  Bay'-al-be'-rith,  idol  of  the  cove- 

nant. 
Baal-gad,  Bay'-al-gad',  the  idol  of  the  troop, 

the  Lord  is  master  of  the  troop. 
Baal-hamo.v,   Bay'  -al-hay'  -mon,  one  that  rules 

a  multitude,  a  populous  place. 
Baal-hazek,    Bay'-al-hay'-zer,    lord  of  court, 

possessor  of  grace. 
Ba'al-Hkr'mon,  the  possessor  of  destruction,  of 

a  thing  devoted  to  God. 
Ba'ali,  my  idol,  or  master. 
Ba'alim,  idols,  masters. 
Ba'alis,  a  rejoicing,  proud  lord. 
Baal-meon,  Bay'-al-me'-on,  the  idol,  the  master 

of  the  house. 
Baal-peor,  Bay' -al-jie' -or,  master  of  the  open- 
ing. 
B\al-i-ehazim,   Bay'-at l-per' '-a-zitn,    master,    or 

god  of  divisions. 
Baal-siialisha,    Bay'-iil-sl,nl'-e-s1iah,  the  third 

idol,  the  third  husband. 
Baaj  -ta.mar,    Buy'-al-tay'-mar,   master   of  the 

palm  tree 
Baal-zkbub,  Hin/'-ul-zi'-bub,  the  master  of  flies. 
Hvai./kihon,    Ilai/'-al-ze'-fon,   the   idol   of  the 

north,  secret. 
Ba  wui,  Hdi/.a-iiah,  in  the  answer,  in  affliction. 
B  \  I'li.ui,  a  flame,  purging. 
Baashah,  Ba-m/^hah,  in  the  Yvork,  he  that  de- 
mands, who  lays  waste. 
Ba'bei.,  confusion,  mixture. 
Babylon,  Bab'-be-lon.     See  Babel. 

BaBTLOIOANB,   lSiib.l„'.li,'.,,r.fiiis. 
Babylonish,  Bub-be  lo'-nish. 
Baca,  Bay1. hah,  mulberry  tree. 


Baiiijrim,  Ba-hew'-rrm,  choice,  warlike. 

Ba'jith,  a  house. 

Balaam,  Bay' -lam,  the  old  age  or  ancient  of  the 
people,  without  the  people. 

Bala'dan,  one  without  rule  or  judgment,  an- 
cient in  judgment. 

Ba'lak,  who  lays  waste,  who  laps. 

Ba'mah,  an  eminence. 

Barabbas,  Bar-ab'-bas,  son  of  the  father  or  of 
confusion. 

Barachel,  Bar'-a-kel,  who  blesses  God. 

Barachias,  Bar' -a-ky-as,  the  same  as  Barachel. 

Ba'rak,  thunder,  in  vain. 

Bar-je'sus,  son  of  Jesus. 

Bar-jo'na,  son  of  Jona  or  of  a  dove. 

Bar'nabas,  the  son  of  the  prophet  or  of  oon- 
solation. 

Bar'sabas,  son  of  return,  of  rest,  of  swearing. 

Bartholomew,  a  son  that  suspends  the  waters. 

Bartimeus,  Bar-te-me'-us,  the  son  of  Timeus  or 
of  the  honourable. 

Baruch,  Bay'-ruk,  who  is  blessed,  who  bends 
the  knee. 

Barzillai,  Bar-zil'-la-i,  made  of  iron,  son  of 
contempt. 

Ba'shan,  in  the  tooth,  in  the  change  or  sleep. 

Bashemath,  Bash'-e-math,  perfumed,  in  desola- 
tion. 

Bath-sheba,  Bath-she'-bah  or  Bath'-she-bah,  the 
seventh  daughter,  the  daughter  of  an  oath 

Bathshu'a,  the  daughter  of  salvation. 

Be'dad,  alone,  in  friendship. 

Be'dan,  only,  in  the  judgment. 

Beel-zebub,  Be-el'-ze-bub.     See  Baal-zebub. 

Beer,  Be'-er,  a  well,  the  name  of  a  city. 

Beer-lahai-roi,  Be'-er-la-hay'-e-roy,  the  well  of 
him  that  liveth  and  seeth  me. 

Beer-sheba,  Be'-er -she' -bah,  the  well  of  an 
oath,  of  satiety,  the  seventh  well- 

Be'kah,  half  a  shekel. 

Bel,  ancient,  nothing,  subject  to  change. 

Belial,  Bee'-le-al,  wicked,  the  devil. 

Belshaz'zar,  master  of  the  treasure. 

Belteshaz'zar,  who  lays  up  treasures  in  se- 
cret, secretly  endures  pain  and  pressure. 

Benaiah,  Ben-ay' -yah,  son  of  the  Lord,  the 
Lord's  building. 

Ben-am'mi,  the  son  of  my  people. 

Benha'dad,  the  son  of  Hadad,  of  noise. 

Be.n'jamin,  the  son  of  the  right  hand. 

Ben'jamite,  a  descendant  of  Benjamin. 

Benoni,  Bcn-o'-ny,  son  of  my  grief. 

Be'or,  burning,  mad,  beast. 

Berachah,  Ber'-a-kah,  blessing. 

Ber^-.a,  Be-ree'-ah,  heavy,  from  fidpos. 

Be'rith,  covenant. 

Bernice,  Ber-ny'-se,  one  that  brings  victory. 

Be'sor,  glad  news,  incarnation. 

Be'tah,  confidence. 

Betiiabara,  Beth-ub'-ba-rah,  the  house  of  pas- 
sage, of  anger. 

Beth'anv,  the  house  of  song,  of  affliction,  of 
obedience,  the  grace  of  the  Lord. 

Beth-a'ven,  the  house  of  vanity,  of  strength. 

Betii-birei,  Beth-bir'-re-i,  the  house  of  my 
Creator. 

Beth'-car,  the  house  of  the  lamb,  of  knowledge. 

Beth-da'gon,  the  house  of  corn,  of  the  fish,  of; 
the  god  Dagon. 


CAL 


987 


CIL 


Beth-dibi.athaim,      Betk-dib-lathay'-im,      the 

house  of  dry  figd. 
Beth'ei.,  the  house  of  God. 
Bethei.ite,  Beth'-el-ite,  an  inhabitant  of  Bethel. 

Be'tiier,  division,  in  the  turtle,  in  the  trial. 
Bethes'da,  the  house  of  effusion,  of  pity. 
Beth-e'zel,  a  neighbour's  house. 

Beth-gamul,  Beth-gay' -mid,  the  house  of  re- 
compense, of  the  weaned,  of  the  camel. 

Beth-haccerem,  Belh-hak'-ke-rem,  the  house  of 
the  vineyard. 

Beth-ho'ron,  the  house  of  wrath,  of  the  hole, 
of  liberty. 

Bethjesh'imoth,  the  house  of  desolation. 

Beth'-lehem,  the  house  of  bread,  of  war. 

Beth-lehem-ephratah,  Beth' -le-hem-eff-ray'-f  ah 
or  eff'-ra-tah. 

Beth'-lehem-ju'dah. 

Beth'-lehemite,  an  inhabitant  of  Bethlehem. 

Beth-pe'or,  the  house  of  gaping. 

Bethphage,  Beth' -fa-je,  the  house  of  the  mouth, 
of  early  figs. 

Bethsaida,  Beth-say' -dah,  the  house  of  fruits, 
of  hunters. 

Beth'-shan,  the  house  of  the  tooth,  of  change, 
of  sleep. 

Beth-she'mesk,  the  house  of  the  sun. 

Bethuel,  Beth-ew'-el,  filiation  of  God. 

Beulah,  Bew'-lah,  married. 

Bezaleel,  Bez-a-lee'-el,  in  the  shadow  of  God. 

Be'zek,  lightning,  in  chains. 

Bichri,  Bick'-ry,  first-born,  in  the  ram. 

Bid'kar,  in  compunction,  in  sharp  pain. 

Big'than,  giving  meat. 

Bil'dad,  old  friendship. 

Bil'hah,  who  is  old,  troubled,  confused. 

Bir'sha,  in  evil,  son  that  beholds. 

Bithiah,  Be-thy'-ah,  daughter  of  the  Lord. 

Bith'ron,  division,  in  his  examination,  daugh- 
ter of  the  song,  of  anger,  of  liberty. 

Bithynia,  Be-thin'-e-ah,  violent  precipitation. 

Blas'tus,  one  that  sprouts  and  brings  forth. 

Boanerges,  Bo-a-ner'-jes,  the  sons  of  thunder  ; 
James  and  John,  the  sons  of  Zebedee. 

Bo'az,  or  Bo'oz,  in  strength,  in  the  goat. 

Bochim,  Bo'-kim,  the  place  of  weeping,  of  mul- 
berry trees. 

Bo'zez,  mud,  in  the  flower. 

Boz'rah,  in  tribulation  or  distress. 

Bul,  changeable,  perishing. 

Buz,  despised,  plundered. 

Buzi,  Bew'-zye,  my  contempt. 

Buzite,  Bew'-zytc,  a  descendant  from  Buz. 

Cabul,  Kay'-bul,  displeasing,  dirt. 

C/Esar,  See'-sar,  one  cut  out. 

Cesarea,  Ses-a-ree.' -a,  a  bush  of  hair. 

CaiapHas,  Kay'-a-fas,  a  searcher. 

Cain,  Kay'n,  possession. 

Cainan,  Kay'-nan,  possessor,  one  that  laments. 

Ca'lah,  good  opportunity,  as  the  verdure. 

Ca'leb,  a  dog,  a  crow,  a  basket. 

Caleb-ephratah,  Kay'-leb-ef-ray'-tah  or  ef'-ra- 
tah,  a  place  so  called  by  a  conjunction  of 
the  names  of  Caleb  and  his  wife  Ephratah. 

Calneh,  Kal'-nay,  our  consummation,  all  we, 
as  murmuring. 

Gal'no,  our  consummation,  quite  himself. 

Cal'varv,  the  place  of  a  skull. 


Ca'mon,  his  resurrection. 

Ca'na,  zeal,  possession,  nest,  cane. 

Canaan,  Kay'-nan,  a  merchant,  a  trader.  The 
son  of  Ham,  who  gave  name  to  the  land  of 
Canaan. 

Canaanite,  Kay'-nan-ite,  an  inhabitant  of  Ca- 
naan. 

Candace,  Kan-day'-se,  who  possesses  contri- 
tion. 

Capernaum,  Ka-per'-na-um,  the  field  of  repent- 
ance, city  of  comfort. 

Caphtor,  Kaf'-tor,  a  sphere,  a  buckle,  a  hand, 
doves,  those  that  seek  and  inquire. 

Cappadocia, Kap-pa-do'  -she-a,  in  Hebrew,  Caph- 
tor. 

Carcas,  Kar'-kas,  the  covering  of  a  lamb. 

Carchemish,  Kar'-ke-mish,  a  lamb,  as  taken 
away. 

Car'mel,  a  circumcised  lamb,  harvest,  vineyard 
of  God. 

Carmelite,  Kar'-me-lyte,  an  inhabitant  of 
Mount  Carmel. 

Car'mi,  my  vineyard,  the  knowledge  or  the 
lamb  of  the  waters. 

Car'pus,  fruit,  fruitful. 

Casiphia,  Kase-fy'-a,  money,  covetousness. 

Cas'tor,  a  beaver. 

Cedron,  See'-dron  or  Kee'-dron,  black,  sad. 

Cenchrea,  Senk'-re-a,  millet,  small  pulse. 

Cephas,  See'-fas  or  Kee'-fas,  a  rock  or  stone. 

Ce'sar.    See  Caesar. 

Cesarea,  Ses-a-ree'-a.     See  Caesarea. 

Chalcol,  Kal'-kol,  who  nourishes,  sustains  the 
whole. 

Chaldea,  Kal-dee'-a,  as  demons,  as  robbers. 

Chaldean,  Kal-dee'-an,  an  inhabitant  of  Chal- 
dea. 

Chaldees,  Kal-deez',  the  same  as  Chaldeans. 

Charran,  Kar'-ran,  a  singing,  the  heat  of  wrath. 

Chebar,  Ke'-bar,  strength  or  power. 

Chedorlaomer,  Ke' -dor-la -o'-mer,  as  a  genera- 
tion of  servitude. 

Chemarims,  Kem'-a-rims,  the  name  of  Baal's 
priests. 

Chemosh,  Ke'-mosh,  ashandling,  as  takingaway. 

Chenania,  Ke-na-ny'-ah,  preparation,  rectitude 
of  the  Lord. 

Cherethims,  Kcr'-eth-ims,  who  cuts,  tears  away. 

Cherethites,  Ker'-eth-ites.     See  Cherethims". 

Cherith,  Ke'-rith,  cutting,  piercing,  slaying. 

Chesed,  Ke'-sed,  as  a  devil,  a  destroyer. 

Chileab,  Kil'-le-ab,  totality  or  perfection  of 
the  father. 

Chilion,  Kil'-le-on,  finished,  complete. 

Chilmad,  Kil'-mad,  as  teaching  or  learning. 

Chimham,  Kim'-ham,  as  they,  like  to  them. 

Chios,  Ky'-os,  open,  opening. 

Chisleu,  Kis'-lu,  rashness,  confidence. 

Chittim,  Chit'-tim,  those  that  bruise,  gold, 
staining. 

Chiun,  Ky'-un,  an  Egyptian  god,  whom  some 
think  to  be  Saturn. 

Chloe,  Klo'-e,  green  herb. 

Chorazin,  Ko-ray1 -z'm,  the  secret,  here  is  A 
mystery. 

Chushan-rishathaim,  Kew'  -shan-rish-a-thay'  -hn, 
Ethiopian,  blackness  of  iniquities. 

Chuza,  Kew'-zah,  the  prophet,  Ethiopian. 

Cilicia.  Sil-ish'-r-a,  which  rolls  or  overturns. 


DIO 


988 


ELI 


ia,  Klaw'-dah,  a  broken  voice,  a  lamrnt. 

able   eOlCO. 

( " i . m  di  \,  Kl,ur'.</c-,i/i,  lame. 
I       bent,  mild,  good,  merciful. 

phas,  KUe'-o-faa,  the  whole  glory. 
ie,  Ko-loa'see,  punishment,  correction. 
Coniah,  ho-ui/'-nh,  the  strength  or  stability  of 

the  Lord. 
Co'kimth,  which  is  satisfied,  beauty, 
t  '..kin  i  hians,  inhabitants  of  Corinth. 

(  IorNb'lius,  a  horn. 

Coz'bi,  a  liar,  as  sliding-  away. 

Crksckns,  Krcs'.sens,  growing,  increasing. 

C'kkti:,  Kiri't,  carnal,  tleshly. 

Crbtes,  Kre&'ta,  inhabitants  of  Crete. 

Cretianb,  Kree'she-ans,  the  same  as  Cretes. 

Crisfus,  Krix'-pus,  curled. 

Cusu,  Ethiopian,  black. 

Cush'an,  Ethiopia,  blackness,  heat. 

Ci  bh'i,  the  same  as  Cushan. 

('virus,  Sy'-prus,  fair,  fairness. 

Cyeenb,  ay-re'-ne,  a  wall,  coldness,  meeting, 

a  floor. 
Cyrexeans,  S  y-rc' -ne-ans,  people  of  Cyrene. 
Ctrenius,  Sy-re'-nr-us,  wlio  governs. 
Cyrus,  Sy'-rus,  as  miserable,  as  heir,  the  belly. 

Dabbasheth,  Dub'-ba-shcth,  flowing  with  honey, 
causing  infamy. 

Daberath,  Dub' -be -rath,  word,  thing,  bee,  sub- 
missive. 

Da'gox,  corn,  a  fish. 

Dalmaxutha,  Dal-ma-new'  -thah,  a  bucket,  lean- 
ness, branch. 

Dalmatia,  Dal-may'-she-a,  deceitful  lamps,  vain 
brightness. 

Damaris,  Dam'-d.iis,  a  little  woman. 

Damascus,  a  sack  full  of  blood,  similitude  of 
burning. 

Dan,  judgment,  he  that  judges. 

Dan'ibl,  judgment  of  God. 

Da'ha,  generation,  house  of  the  shepherd,  com- 
panion, race  of  wickedness. 

Darius,  Da-ry'-us,  he  that  inquires  and  informs 
himself. 

Da'than,  laws,  rites. 

Da'vid,  beloved,  dear. 

Deb'orah,  a  word,  a  bee. 

Deoasoub,  De-kup'-po-lis,  a  Greek  word  com- 
pounded of  5(Ktx,  ten,  and  sj<5a<?,  a  city,  be- 
cause this  country  contained  ten  cities. 

De'dan,  their  breasts,  friendship,  uncle. 

i>ki>amm,  Ded'-an-im,  descendants  of  Dedan. 

IHi.'ii.ui,  poor,  head  of  hair,  bucket. 
-,  popular. 

UD8,  De-me'-tre-U8,  belonging  to  Ceres, 
to  corn. 

Dl  i;  rBB,  a  stin^. 

.  Dr-nr'.i-l,  the  knowledge  of  God, 
Hiwv,  Dy-ay'-nah,  luminous,  perfect. 
Di'bon,  understanding,  abundance  of  building. 
•  mi,    abundance    of  sons,    happy   and 
powerful. 
Damn  s,  Did'-e^nm,  a  twin. 
Di'hon,  where  ii  is  red. 
Di'nmi,  judgment,  who  radges. 
Dm'harab,  the  gives  judgment. 

DlOMTBIQS,    />//..  ni.tli'.r.iis,    divinely    touched; 

truni  jj0<1  ,/,,,,„_  and  vtiui,  1  move. 


Diotrf.pifes,  Di-ot'-re-fcez,  nourished  by  Jupi- 
ter; from  (ftof,  of  Jupiter,  and  rptyoi,  a  foster- 
child. 

Do'eg,  who  acts  with  uneasiness,  a  fisherman. 

Dor,  generation,  habitation. 

Doii'cas,  the  female  of  a  roe-buck. 

Do'than,  the  law,  custom. 

Drusilla,  Drcw-sil'-lah,  watered  by  the  dew ; 
from  Spdaoi,  the  dew. 

Dumah,  Deio'.muh,  silence,  resemblance. 

Dura,  Dew'-rah,  generation,  habitation. 

Easter,  Ee's-ter,  the  passover,  a  feast  of  the 
Jews. 

E'bal,  a  heap,  collection  of  old  age. 

E'bed,  *a  servant  or  labourer. 

Ebed-melech,  Ee'-bed-me'-lek,  the  king's  serv- 
ant. 

Eben-ezer,  Eb-en-ee'-zer,  the  stone  of  help. 

E'ber,  one  that  passes,  anger,  wrath. 

EniASArn,  E-by'-a-saf,  a  father  that  gathers  to- 
gether. 

Ed,  witness. 

E'dex,  pleasure,  delight. 

E'dom,  red,  earthy,  red  earth. 

E'domite,  a  descendant  of  Esau,  of  Edom. 

Edhei,  Ed'-re-i,  a  very  great  mass,  cloud,  death 
of  the  wicked. 

Eg'lah,  heifer,  chariot,  round. 

Eglaim,  Eg-lay'-im,  drops  of  the  sea 

Eg'lon,  the  same  as  Eglah. 

E'gypt,  in  Hebrew,  Mizraim ;  that  binds  or 
straitens,  that  troubles  or  oppresses. 

Egyp'tian,  an  inhabitant  of  Egypt. 

E'hud,  he  that  praises. 

Ek'ron,  barrenness,  torn  away. 

Ek'ronites,  inhabitants  of  Ekron. 

E'lah,  an  oak,  oath,  imprecation. 

E'la.m,  a  young  man,  a  virgin,  secret,  an  age. 

E'lamites,  descendants  of  Elam. 

E'lath,  a  hind,  strength,  an  oak. 

El-beth'el,  the  God  of  Bethel. 

El'dad,  loved  or  favoured  of  God. 

Elealeh,  El-e-ay'-leh  ascension  or  burnt-offer- 
ing of  God. 

Eleazar,  El-e-ay'-zar,  the  help  or  court  of  God. 

El-elohe-israel,  El-cl-ho' -he-is' -ra-el,  God,  the 
God  of  Israel. 

Elha'nan,  grace,  gift,  or  mercy  of  God. 

E'li,  E'li,  my  God,  my  God. 

E'li,  the  offering  or  lifting  up. 

Eli'ab,  God  my  father. 

Eliada,  E-ly'-a-da  or  E-le-ay'-du,  the  know- 
ledge of  God. 

Euakim,  E-ly'-a-kim,  the  resurrection  of  God, 
God  the  avenger. 

Eli'am,  the  people  of  God. 

Eli'as.     Sec  Elijah. 

Emasiiib,  E-ly'-u.shib,  the  God  of  conversion. 

Eliathah,  E-ly'-a-thah,  thou  art  my  God,  my 
God  comes. 

Eliezer,  E-lc-ee'.xer,  help  or  court  of  my  God. 

Elihoreph,  E-le-ho' -ref,  the  God  of  winter,  of 
youth. 

Eu'iin,  he  is  my  God  himself. 

Eli'jah,  God  the  Lord,  the  strong  Lord. 

Eli'ka,  pelican  of  God. 

E'lim,  the  rams,  the  strong,  the  stags,  the  val- 
leys. 


ESA 


9S9 


CAT 


Elimelech,  E-lim'-me-lek,  my  God  is  king. 

Elioenai,  El-e-o'-en-a-i,  toward  hiin  are  my 
eyes,  my  fountains,  toward  him  is  my  pover- 
ty or  misery. 

Eliphalet,  E-lif'-fa-lel,  the  God  of  deliverance. 

Eliphaz,  E-li/'-faz,  the  endeavour  of  God. 

Elisabeth,  E-liz'-a-bcth,  God  hath  sworn,  the 
fulness  of  God. 

Eli'sha,  salvation  of  God. 

Eli'shah,  son  of  Javan;  it  is  God,  God  that 
gives  help. 

Elishamah,  E-lish'-a-mah,  God  hearing. 

Elisheba,  E-lish'-e-ba.     See  Elisabeth. 

Eushua,  El-e-shew'-ah,  God  is  my  salvation. 

Eliud,  E-ly'-ud,  God  is  my  praise. 

Eli'zur,  God  is  my  strength,  my  rock. 

Elka'nah,  God  the  jealous,  the  reed  of  God. 

Elmo'dam,  the  God  of  measure,  of  the  garment. 

Elna'than,  God  has  given. 

E'lon,  oak,  grove,  strong. 

E'lul,  cry,  outcry. 

Eluzai,  E-lu'-za.-i,  God  is  my  strength. 

Elymas,  El'-e-mas,  in  Arabic,  a  magician. 

E'mims,  fears  of  terrors,  people. 

Emmaus,  Em-may'-us  or  Em'-ma-us,  people  de- 
spised. 

Em'mor,  an  ass. 

E'nam,  a  fountain  or  well,  the  eyes  of  them. 

En'dor,  fountain  or  eye  of  generation. 

Ene'as,  laudable;  fromdufw,  "I  praise." 

En-eglaim,  En-cg-lai/'-im,  the  eye  of  the  calves, 
of  the  chariots,  of  roundness. 

En-gedi,  En-gc'-dy,  fountain  of  the  goat,  of 
happiness. 

Kx-Misn'r-AT,  fountain  of  judgment. 

Enoch,  Ee'-nok,  dedicated,  disciplined,  well  re- 
gulated. 

Enon,  Ec'-non,  cloud,  his  fountain. 

Enos,  Ee'-nos,  fallen  man,  subject  to  all  kind 
of  evil. 

En-rogel,  En-ro'-gel,  the  fuller's  fountain. 

En-shemesh,  En-she' -mesh,  fountain  of  the  sun. 

Er-APHRAS,  Ep'-pa-fras,  covered  with  foam. 

EpAPHRomTUS,.E-p(//-ro-(/y'-ZMs,  agreeable,  hand- 
some. 

Epenetus,  E-pe-nce'-tus,  laudable,  worthy  of 
praise. 

Ephah,  Ee'-fah,  weary,  to  fly  as  a  bird. 

Ephes-dammim,  E' -fez-dam' -mim,  the  effusion  or 
drop  of  blood. 

Ephesians,  E-fee' -scans,  the  people  of  Ephesus. 

Epiiesus,  Ef'-fe-sus,  desirable ;  chief  city  of 
Asia  Minor. 

Ephphatha,  Ef'-fa-tha,  be  opened. 

Ephraim,  Ee'-fra-im,  that  brings  forth  fruit  or 
grows. 

E'phraimite,  a  descendant  of  Ephraim. 

Ephratah,  Eff-ray'-tah,  abundance,  bearing 
fruit. 

Ephrath,  Eff'-rath.     See  Ephratah. 

Ephrathite,  Eff-rath-itr,  an  inhabitant  of  Eph- 
ratah, or  a  descendant  from  Ephraim. 
Epiiron,  Ef'-rou,  dust. 

Epicureans,  Ep-e.kew.re'<-ans,  who  gives  assist- 
ance ;  from  the  Greek  iTnKvpiu),  I  help. 
Er,  watch,  enemy. 
Eras'tus,  lovely,  amiable. 
E'rech,  length,  health. 
Esaias,  E-zay'-c-as.     Sec  Isaiah. 


Esar-haddon,  E'-sar-had-'don,  that  binds,  joy, 

or  closes  the  point. 
E'sau,  he  that  does  or  finishes. 
E'sek,  contention. 
Esh-ba'al,  the  fire  of  the  idol. 
Esh'col,  a  bunch  of  grapes. 
Eshtaol,  Esh'-ta-ol,  stout,  strong  woman. 
Eshtemoa,  Esh-tc-mo'-a,  which  is  heard,  the 

bosom  of  a  woman. 
Es'li,  near  me,  he  that  separates. 
Es'rom,  the  dart  of  joy,  division  of  the  song 
Esther,  Ess'-ter,  secret,  hidden. 
E'tam,  their  bird  or  covering. 
E'tham,  their  strength  or  sign. 
E'than,  strong,  the  gift  of  the  island. 
Ethanim,  Eth'-an-im,  strong,  valiant. 
Ethbaal,  Eth-bay'-al,  toward  the  idol,  he  that 

rules. 
Ethiopia,    Ec-the-o'-pc-a,    in    Hebrew,    Cush, 

blackness ;  in  Greek  it  signifies  heat,  from 

ni8(>>,  I  burn,  and  Sipts,  face. 
Ethiopians,  Ec-the-o'-pe-ans,  Africans. 
Eubulus,  Yew'-bu-lus,  a  prudent  counsellor. 
Eunice,  Ycw-ny'-se,  good  victory. 
Euodias,  Yew-o'-dc-as,  sweet  scent. 
Euphrates,  Yew-fray' Acs,  that  makes  fruitful. 
Euroc'lydon,  the  north-east  wind. 
Eutychus,  Yew'-te-kus,  happy,  fortunate. 
Eve,  living,  enlivening. 
Evil-merodach,  Ee'-vil-me-ro'-dak,    or   mer'-o- 

dak,  the  fool   of  Mer'odach,    despising  the 

bitterness  of  the  fool. 
Ezekiel,  E-zee'-ke-el,  the  strength  of  God. 
E'zel,  going  abroad,  distillation. 
Ezion-Geber,  E'-zc-on-ge'-ber,  the  wood  of  the 

man,  counsel  of  the  man,  of  the  strong. 
Ez'ra,  a  helper. 

Fe'lix,  happy,  prosperous. 
Fes'tus,  festival,  joyful. 
Fortuna'tus,  happy,  prosperous. 

Gaal,  Gay'al,  contempt,  abomination. 

Gaash,  Gay' -ash,  tempest,  overthrow. 

Gabbatha,  Gab'-ba-tha,  high,  elevated.  In 
Greek,  lithostrotos,  paved  with  stones. 

Ga'briel,  God  is  my  strength. 

Gad,  a  band,  happy,  armed  and  prepared. 

Gadarenes,  Gad-a-rec'ns,  surrounded,  walled. 

Gad'di,  my  happiness,  my  troop,  a  kid. 

Gadhiel,  Gad'-de-el,  goat  of  God,  the  Lord  is 
my  army. 

Gadites,  Gad'-dites,  descendants  of  Gad. 

Gaius,  Gay'-e-us,  lord,  an  earthly  man. 

Galatia,  Gal-ay' -she-a,  white,  of  the  colour  of 
milk. 

Galatians,  Gal-ay' -shc-ans,  horn  in  Galatia. 

Galbanum,  Gal'-ba-num,  a  gum,  sweet  spice. 

Galeed,  Gal'-c-ed,  the  heap  of  witness. 

Galilee,  GaV-le-lcc,  wheel,  revolution,  heap. 

Galileans,  Gal-le-lec'-ans,  inhabitants  of  Ga- 
lilee. 

Gal'lim,  who  heap  up,  cover,  roll. 

Gal'lio,  he  that  sucks  or  lives  upon  milk. 

Gama'liel,  recompense,  camel,  weaned  of  God. 

Gam'maijims,  soldiers  placed  in  the  towers  of 
Tyrus ;  men  who  came  from  Gammade,  a 
town  of  Phenicia. 

Ga'tam,  their  lowing,  their  touch. 


II  \< 


990 


II  KM 


(.Mil,  n  press. 

< .'  k  in  rjm'mon,  the  press  of  the  granite,  exalted 

_uat. 

(.1  n\,  a  bill,  a  cup. 

Gb'bal,  bound,  limit. 

Ge'bim,  grasshoppers,  height. 

i  ui,  (•'<  il-ii-  ly'-ah,  God  is  my  greatness, 
fringe  of  the  Lord. 

y'tv.\\.v/.\t(li:linii'.zyi',  valley  of  sight,  of  the  breast. 

Gemari'ab,  accomplishment  of  the  Lord. 

Gl  n\i  BARET,  Gi  n-ncsa'-a-rrl,  or  Jen-ness'-a-rct, 
the  garden  or  protection  of  the  prince 

Genubath,  Gcn'-n-balli,   theft,  garden  or  pro- 
tection of  the  daughter. 

Ge'ra,  pilgrimage,  dispute. 

i,  the  twentieth  part  of  a  shekel. 

Ge'rab.     .See  Gera. 

Gergesenes,    Ger'-gr.-scens,    those   who    come 
from  pilgrimage  or  from  fight. 

GERIZIM,  Grr'-re-zim,  cutters. 

Ger'SHOM,  a  stranger  there,  a  traveller  of  re- 
putation. 

Ger'bhon,  his  banishment,  the  change  of  pil- 
grimage. 

<ii  sin  k,  the  sight  of  the  valley,  the  vale  of  the 
ox  or  the  wall. 

kites,     Gcsh'-u-rytcs,     inhabitants     of 
Geshor. 

Ge't^ER,  the  vale   of  trial,  of  searching,   the 
press  of  inquiry. 

Gethsemane,  Gethsem'-a-ne,  a  very  fat  valley. 

GiAB,  Gy'-ah,  to  guide,  draw  out,  a  sigh. 

Gibeaii,  Gih'.r-ah,  a  hill. 

Gib'eon,  hill,  cup,  that  which  is  without. 

Gib'eonites,  people  of  Gibeon. 

Gid'eon,  he  that  bruises,  cutting  off  iniquity. 

Gihon,  Gi/.hon,  valley  of  grace,  impetuous. 

GlLBOAH,  Gil'-bo-ah,  revolution  of  inquiry. 

Gilxao,  Gil'-le-ad,  the  mass  of  testimony. 

Gileadites,  Gil'-le-ad-ites,  the  inhabitants  of 
Gilead. 

Gil/gal,  wheel,  revolution,  heap. 

Gnx>B,  Gy'-loh,  he  that  rejoices,  overturns,  or 
discovers. 

GiLONrTE,  Gy'-lo-nite. 

GmoASHiTE,   Gir'-ga-shitc,  who   arrives    from 
pilgrimage. 

GrmTE,  Git'. tile,  a  wine  press. 

(Job,  cistern,  grasshopper,  eminence. 

( roa,  roof,  covering. 

Go'liAN,  passage,  revolution. 

<ioi.'noTi!A,  a  heap  of  skulls. 

Goli'ath,  revolution,  discovery,  heap. 

Go'mer,  to  finish,  accomplish,  a  consumer. 

GoMOR'RAH,  b  rebellious  people. 

Go'shen,  approaching,  drawing  near. 

«.o/w,  fleece,  pasture,  nourishing  the  body. 

Grecia,  Gree'-she-a,  Greece,  the  country  of  the 
k>. 
LANs,  Gree'^h  ana,  Greeks,   the  inhabit- 
ants  of  Greece. 

Gi  a,  the  young  of  a  beast,  dwelling,  fear. 

Gobba'al,  the  whelp  of  the  governor. 

Habaks.uk,  Hob?.a.kuk,  he  that    embraces,    a 
wrestler. 

Hachauah,   Hak-a-ly'.ah,  who  waits  for  the 


IIachilah,  Hak'.e-lah,  my  trust  is  in  her. 
Ha'dad,  joy,  noise. 

Hadadezer,  Hay' -dad-ee'-zer,  the  beauty  of  as- 
sistance. 
Hadad-rimmon,   Hay'-dad-rim'-mon,  the   voice 

of  height,  the  invocation  of  Rimmon,  a  god 

of  the  Syrians. 
Hadas'sah,  a  myrtle,  joy. 
IIado'ram,  their  beauty,  power,  praise. 
Hadrach,  Hay'-drak,  point,  joy  of  tenderness, 

your  chamber. 
IIa'gar,  a  stranger,  that  fears. 
Hagarenes,   Hay'-gar-eens,  of  the    family  of 

Hagar. 
Hagarites,  Hay'-gar-ites.     See  Hagarenes. 
Haggai,  Hag'-ga-i,  feast,  solemnity. 
Hag'gith,  rejoicing. 
Hak'katan,  little. 

Halleluiah,  Hal-le-lu'-yah,  praise  the  Lord. 
Ham,  hot,  brown. 

Ha'.man,  noise,  tumult,  he  that  prepares. 
Ha'math,  anger,  heat,  a  wall. 
IIammedatha,   Ham-med'-a-thah,   or   Ham-mc- 

day'-thah,  he  that  troubles  the  law. 
Ha'mon-gog,  the  multitude  of  Gog. 
Ha'sior,  an  ass,  clay,  wine. 
Ha'mul,  godly,  merciful. 
Hamu'tal,  the  shadow  of  his  heat,  the  heat  of 

the  dew. 
Hanameel,  Han-am'-e-el,  or  Han-am-ce'-el,  grace 

or  pity  from  God. 
Hananeel,  Han-an-ee'-cl,  mercy  of  God. 
Hanani,  Han-ay' -ny,  niy  grace  or  mercy. 
Hanani'ah,  grace  or  mercy  of  the  Lord. 
Han'nah,  gracious,  merciful,  taking  rest. 
Ha'noch,  dedicated. 

Ha'nvn,  gracious,  merciful,  he  that  rests. 
Ha'ran,  mountainous  country,  which    is  en- 
closed. 
Harbo'nah,  his  destruction  or  dryness. 
Ha'rod,  astonishment,  fear. 
Harosheth,  Har-o'.shetfi,  agriculture,  silence, 

vessel  of  earth,  forest. 
HashxMo'nah,  diligence,  enumeration,  embassy, 

present. 
Ha'tach,  he  that  strikes. 
Havilah,  Hav'-e-lah,  that  suffers  pain,  brings 

forth,  declares  to  her. 
Havoth-jair,    Hay'-voth-jay'-h,    villages    that 

enlighten. 
Hazael,  Haz'-a-el,  that  sees  God. 
Hazarmaveth,    Hay'-zar-may'-veth,    court    or 

dwelling  of  death. 
Hazelelponi,  Hay'-zel-el-po'  -ny,  shade,  sorrow 

of  the  face. 
Hazeroth,  Haz-ee'-roth,  villages,  court. 
Ha'zor,  court,  hay. 
He'ber,  one  that  passes,  anger. 
He'brf.ws,  descended  from  Heber. 
He'bron,  societj7,  friendship,  enchantment. 
Hegai,   or  Hege,  Heg'-a-i,  meditation,  word, 

separation. 
Be'lah,  their  army,  trouble,  or  expectation. 
Hel'bon,  milk,  fatness. 

IIii.dai,  Hel'-da-i,  or  Hel-dny'.i,  the  world. 
He'li,  ascending,  climbing  up. 
II  iji.'k  \th.iiazVkim,  the  field  of  strong  men,  of 

rocks. 
IIe'.man,  their  trouble,  then  tumult,  much. 


IRA 


991 


JED 


Hen,  grace,  quiet. 

Hepher,  Hee'.fer,  a  digger  or  delver. 

Hefhzi-bah,  Hef'-zc-bah,  my  pleasure. 

Her/mes,  Mercury,  gain,  refuge. 

Herjiogenes,  Her-moj'.e-nes,  begotten  of  Mer- 
cury, of  lucre. 

IIer'mon,  anathema,  destruction. 

Her'monites,  the  inhabitants  of  Hermon. 

Herod,  Her' -rod,  the  glory  of  the  skin. 

Herodjans,  He-ro'-de-ans. 

Hero'dias,  the  wife  of  Herod. 

Hkrodion,  He-ro'-de-on,  song  of  Juno. 

Hesh'bon,  invention,  industry,  thought,  he  that 
hastens  to  understand. 

Heth,  trembling,  fear. 

Heth'lon,  fearful  dwelling,  his  covering. 

Hezeki'ah,  strong  in  the  Lord. 

Hez'ron,  the  dart  of  joy,  division  of  the  song. 

Hiddai,  Hid'-da-i,  praise,  cry. 

Hiddekel,  Hid'-de-kel,    a  sharp  voice. 

Hi'el,  the  life  of  God. 

Hierapolis,  Hy-er-ap'-po-lis,  holy  city. 

Higgaion,  Hig-gay'-e-on,  meditation. 

Hilki'ah,  God  is  my  portion,  the  Lord's  gentle- 
ness. 

Hil'lel,  praising  folly,  Lucifer. 

Hin'nom,  there  they  are,  their  riches. 

Hi'ram,  exaltation  of  life,  their  whiteness,  he 
that  destroys. 

Hit'tites,  who  are  broken  or  fear. 

Hi'vites,  wicked,  bad,  wickedness. 

Ho'bab,  favoured  and  beloved. 

Ho'baii,  love,  friendship,  secrecy. 

Hog'lah,  his  festival,  his  dance. 

Hophni,  Hoff'-ni,  he  that  covers,  my  fist. 

Hok,  who  conceives,  shows. 

Ho'reb,  desert,  destruction,  dryness. 

Hor-uagidgad,  Hor-ha-gidd'  -gad,  hill  of  feli- 
city. 

Hor'mah,  devoted  to  God,  destruction. 

Horonaim,  Hor-o-nay'-im,  anger,  raging. 

Horonite,  Hor'-o-nyte,  anger,  fury,  liberty. 

Hosea,  and  Hosuea,  Ho-zee'-a,  and  Ho-shee'-a, 
Saviour. 

Hul,  infirmity,  bringing  forth  children. 

Hul'dau,  the  world,  a  prophetess. 

Hur,  liberty,  whiteness,  cavern. 

IIusiiai,  Hew'-sha-i,  their  haste,  sensuality,  or 
silence. 

Huz'zab,  molten. 

Hymeneus,  Hy-men-ee'-us,  nuptial,  marriage. 

Ib'har,  election,  he  that  is  chosen. 

Ichabod,  Ik'-a-bod,  where  is  the  glory  ? 

Iconium,  I-ko'-ne-um,  from  boo,  "  1  come." 

Id'do,  his  hand,  power,  praise,  witness. 

Idumea,  Id-ew-mee'-a,  red,  earthy. 

Igdali'a,  the  greatness  of  the  Lord. 

I'jon,  look,  eye,  fountain. 

Illyricum,  Il-lir'-re-kum,  joy,  rejoicing. 

Im'lah,  plenitude,  repletion,  circumcision. 

Imman'uel,  a  name  given  to  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  signifying,  God  with  us. 

I.m'rah,  a  rebel,  changing. 

India,  In'-de-a,  praise,  law. 

Ithedeiah,  lf-fe-dy'.ah,  or  I/.fc-dee'-ah,  the  re- 
demption of  the  Lord. 

L'ra,  city,  watch,  spoil,  heap  of  vision. 

Irad,  wild  asr;,  heap  of  descents,  of  empire. 


Iri.i ah,  I-ry'-jah,  the  fear,  vision,  or  protection 

of  the  Lord. 
Isaac,  I'-zak,  laughter. 
Isaiah,  I-zay'-yah,  or  I-zay'.e-ah,  the  salvation 

of  the  Lord. 
Iscah,  Is'-kah,  he  that  anoints,  or  covers. 
Iscariot,  Is-kar'-re-ot,  is  thought  to  signify  a 

native  of  the  town  of  Iscarioth. 
Ish'bak,  empty,  forsaken,  abandoned. 
Ishbi-benob,  Ish'-by-bee'-nob,  he  that  sits  in  the 

prophecy,  conversion. 
Ish-bosiieth,  Ish'-bo-sheth,  a  man  of  shame. 
Ishmael,  Ish' -ma-el,  God  who  hears. 
Ishmaelites,  Ish'-ma-el-ites,  the   posterity  of 

Ishmael. 
Israel,  Is'-ra-el,  a  prince  with  God,  prevailing 

with  God,  that  wrestleth  with  God. 
Israelites,  Is'-ru-el-ites,  the  posterity  of  Israel, 

or  Jacob. 
Issachar,  Is'-sa-kar,  price,  reward. 
Italian,  I-tal'-c-an,  belonging  to  Italy. 
Italy,  It'-ta-le,  a  Latin  word  that  has  its  origi- 
nal from  vilulus,  or  vitula,  "  a  calf,"  or  from 

a  king  called  Itulus. 
Ith'amar,  island  of  the  palm  tree,  wo  to   the 

palm  or  change. 
Ithiel,  Ith'-e-el,  God  with  me,  sign. 
Itiiream,  Ilh'-re-am,  excellence  of  the  people. 
Iturea,  It-u-ree'-a,  which  is  guarded,  a  country 

of  mountains. 
I'vah,  iniquity. 

Jaalam,  Ja-ay'-lam,  hidden,  young  man,  kids. 
Jaazania,  Ja-az-a-ny'-ah,  whom  the  Lord  will 

hear,  the  balances,  the  arms. 
Ja'bal,  which  glides  away,  produces. 
.Tab'bok,  evacuation,  dissipation. 
Ja'besh,  dryness,  confusion,  shame. 
Jabesh-gilead,  Jay'-besh-gil'-e-ad. 
Ja'bez,  sorrow,  trouble. 
Ja'bin,  he  that  understands,  he  that  builds. 
Jabneel,  Jab'-ne-el,  building,  or  understanding 

of  God. 
Jachin,  Jay'-kin,  that  strengthens. 
Ja'cob,  he  that  supplants,  the  heel. 
Ja'el,  he  that  ascends,  a  kid. 
Jah,  the  everlasting  God. 
Ja'haz,  dispute,  going  out  of  the  Lord. 
Jahaza,  Ja-hay'-za,  the  same  as  Jahaz. 
Jair,  Jay'-er,  my  light,  who  diffuses  light. 
Jairus,  Jay'-e-rus  or  Ja-i'-rus,  is  enlightened 
Jaw'bres,  the  sea  with  poverty. 
James,  the  same  as  Jacob. 
Jan'na,  who  speaks,  who  answers,  affliction. 
Jannes,  Jan'-nez,  the  same  as  Janna. 
Japheth,  Jay'-feth,  persuades,  handsome. 
Japiiia,  Ja-fy'-ah,  which  enlightens,  groans. 
Ja'reb,  a  revenger. 

Ja'red,  he  that  descends  or  commands. 
Ja'sher,  righteous. 

Ja'son,  he  that  cures,  that  gives  mediciney. 
Ja'van,  that  deceives,  clay. 
Ja'zer,  assistance,  he  that  helps. 
Je'bus,  treads  under  foot,  contemns. 
Jeb'usites,  inhabitants  of  Jebus. 
Jeconi'ah,  preparation  or  steadfast nesu  of  the 

Lord. 
Jeddi'el,  the  knowledge  or  joy  of  God. 
Jedidah,  Jed-dy'.dah,  well-beloved,  amiable. 


'Il» 


992 


KJR 


Jbdioj  m",  ./"/  >,i  if' ah,  beloved  of  the  Lord. 

hon,  Jed-eto'-thun  or  Jrd'-cw-tluni,   his 

law,  ■■ 
Ji ..  tR.sAHADi  i'ma,  .1,  '-gor^ay-ho-di  u>'~thtt,  the 

heap  of  witnessing. 
Jeiioahaz,  Je-ho-ay'-haz,  tlic  prize  or  possession 

of  the  Lord. 
Ji  ho' ash,  the  fire  or  victim  of  the  Lord. 
JehoiachiN,      JrJiiii/'-'i-kiii,      preparation     or 

strength  of  the  Lord, 
Jehoi  ida,  Je-hoy'-a-dah,  knowledge  of  the  Lord. 
.1 1  it.ii  \kem.  Jit-hoy' -a-kim,  the  resurrection  of 

the  Lord. 
Jbhon'adab.     See  Jonadab. 
Jeho'ram,  exaltation,  rejected  of  the  Lord. 
Jehobh'afb  vt,  God  judges. 
Jbho'vah,  tlio  incommunicable  name  of  God, 

sell-existing. 
Jehovah-jirsh,  Je-ho^-vah-jy'-rey,  the  Lord  will 

see  or  provide,  will  be  manifested. 
.1 1  ii. i'\ Aii-Ms'si,  the  Lord  my  banner. 
Jeuo\ aii.ii Ai.ii.ii,  Je-ho'-vah-snay'-lom  or  shal1- 

hui,  (he  Lord  send  peace. 
J'uni  \n-sii  v.m'maii,  the  Lord  is  there. 
Jbuo'vaH-tsid'kenu,  the   Lord    our    righteous- 
ness. 
Jehu,  Je'-Jiew,  he  that  is  or  exists. 
Jehudijah,  Je-hew-di'-jah,  praise  of  the  Lord. 
Jehi'ha,  handsome  as  the  day. 
Jbphthah,  Jef-thah,  he  that  opens. 
Jkphunneh,  Je-fun'-neh,  he  that  beholds. 
Jb'rah,  l  In;  moon,  to  scent  or  smell'. 
.1 BRAITMEEL,  Jr-rnni'-inr-rl ,  mercy  or  love  of  God. 

ii'ah,  grandeur  of  the  Lord. 
Jericho,  Jer'-re-ko,  his  moon,  sweet  smell. 
.If.u'i.moth,  eminences,  lie  that  fears  or  rejects 

death. 
Jerobo'ah,    fighting    against,    increasing    the 

people. 
Jerobbaal,  Jer.ub-bay'-al,  he  that  revenges  the 

idol,  let  Kaal  defend  his  cause. 
Jerubbkshbth,  Jt-riilt'.lw-shcth,  let  the  idol  of 

confusion  defend  itself. 
Jxri  'saleh,  the  vision  or  possession  of  peace. 
Jerd'sha,   he  that  possesses  the  inheritance, 

exiled. 

.1f.siii.mon,  Jt-sh'-c-mon,    solitude,  desolation. 
h    in  \,  Jc.sh'-ii.a,  a  .Saviour. 
Ieshuri  \.  Jtoh-ew'-rvn,  upright. 
Jes'bk,  to  be,  my  present. 
1  Irs'. a. i,  who  is  equal,  flat  country. 

1  J(  a'-" -i'rs.  the  posterity  of  Jesui. 

.    the    holy    name    Jesus,    Saviour,    who 

b  Ins  | pie  from  their  sins. 

Je'tber,  he  that  excels,  remains,  searches. 

Jktii'i;o,  bis  excellence  or  posterity. 

Ji   rUR,  lu;  that  keeps,  succession,  mountainous. 

J  i  i    ii,  devoured,  gnawed  by  the  moth. 

Ji  w,  J  lied  from  Judah. 

Jj  «  '■       J  bw'i  ii,  Ji  n  'ry. 

land  of  the  habitation,  wo  to  the 
habitation,  isle  of  the  dunghill. 

IIAH,  ./>  .-ra-liij'-uh,  the  Lord  is  the  east, 
the  Lord  ai 

-  I  or  ./'  -z-iri'.i  /,   seed    of  God, 

dropping  of  the  friendship  of  God. 

/.  iliii   or    /,.,,.    el  </< .  an 
inhabitant  of  Jezreel. 

JiuLArn,  .!„!'  laf,  be  that  distils,  hando  joined. 


.To'ab,  paternity,  having  a  father,  voluntary 
Jo'AH,  who  has  a  brother,  brother  of  the  Lord. 
Joan'na,  the  grace  or  mercy  of  the  Lord. 
Jo'asii,  who  despairs,  burns,  is  on  fire. 
Job,  he  that   weeps,   cries,  or  speaks  out  of  a 

hollow  place. 
Jochebed,  Jok'-ke-bed,  glorious,  honourable,  a 

person  of  merit,  the  glory  of  the  Lord. 
Jo'el,  that  wills,  commands,  or  swears. 
.Toezer,  Jo-ee'-zer,  he  that  aids. 
Jo'ha,  who  enlivens  and  gives  life. 
Joha'nan,  who  is  liberal  and  grants  favour 
John,  the  gift  or  mercy  of  the  Lord. 
Joiv'shan,  hard,  difficult,  scandalous. 
Jok'tan,  small,  disgust,  weariness,  dispute. 
Jon'adab,  who  acts  in  good  earnest. 
Jo'nah,  or  Jo'nas,  a  dove,  he  that  oppresses. 
Jon'athan,  given  of  God. 
Jop'pa,  beauty,  comeliness. 
Jo'ram,  to  cast,  elevated. 
Jor'dan,  the  river   of  judgment,  that   rejects 

judgment,  descent. 
Jo'rim,  he  that  exalts  the  Lord. 
Jo'se,  raised,  who  exists,  or  pardons,  Saviour. 
Joseph,  Jo'-scf,  increase,  addition. 
Joses,  Jo'-sez.     See  Jose. 
Josh'ua,  the  Lord,  the  Saviour. 
Josi'ah,  the  fire  of  the  Lord. 
Jo'tham,  perfection  of  the  Lord. 
Jubal,  Jew'-bal,  he  that  runs,  he  that  produces, 

a  trumpet. 
Jubilee,  Jew' -be -Ice,  a  feast  of  the  Jews,  every 

fiftieth  year ;  in  Hebrew,  Jobel,  a  ram's  horn, 

or  a  trumpet  by  which  the  jubilee  year  was 

proclaimed. 
Ju'dah,  the  praise  of  the  Lord. 
Ju'das,  the  same  as  Judah. 
Judea,  Jew-dee'-a,  a  country. 
Ju'lia,  downy ;  from  iov\os,  "  down." 
Ju'lius,  the  same  as  Julia. 
Ju'nia,  from  Juno,  or  from  juventus,  youth. 
Jupiter,  Jew'-pe-ter,  as  if  it  were  juvans  pater, 

the  father  that  helpeth. 
Jus'tus,  just,  upright. 

Kabzeel,  Kah'-ze-el,  the  congregation  of  God. 

Iva'desh,  holiness. 

Kadksii-barnea,  Kay'-drsh-har'-ne-a  or  bar-nee'. 

ah,  holiness  of  an  inconstant  son,  of  the  corn, 

of  purity. 
Kad'miel,  God  of  rising. 
Ke'dar,  blackness,  sorrow. 
Kedemah,  Ked'-de-mah,  oriental. 
Kedemoth,  Kcd'- de-moth,  old  age,  orientals. 
Keii.aii,  Ky'-lah,  she  that  divides  or  cuts. 
Kemuel,  Kem'-u-el,  God  is  risen. 
Ke'naz,  this  nest,  lamentation,  possession. 
Ke'nites,  possession,  lamentation,  nest. 
Keren-happuch,  Kee'-ren-kap'-puk,  the  horn  or 

child  of  beauty. 
Ki.iuoTii,  Kcr'-rr-nth,  the  cities,  the  callings. 
Keturah,  Ki:-lrir'-rali,  he  that  burns  or  makes 

the  incense  to  fume,  odoriferous. 
Ki/.iah,  Ke-zy'-ah,  superficies,  angle,  cassia. 
Ke'ziz,  end,  extremity. 
Kibroth-hattaavah,     Rib' '.roth-hat-tay'.a-vah, 

the  graves  of  lust. 
Kid'ron,  obscurity,  obscure. 
Kik,  a  city,  a  wall,  a  meeting. 


MAA 


993 


MEM 


Kir-Wraseth,  Kir-har'-ra-seth,  the  city  of  the 

sun. 
Kiriathaim,  Kir'-e-ath-ay'-im,  the  two  cities, 

the  callings. 
Kir'-jath,  city,  vocation,  lesson,  meeting. 
Kir'-jath.ar'ba,  the  city  of  four. 
Kir'jath-a'rim,  city  of  cities,  the  city  of  those 

that  watch. 
Kir'jath-ba'al,  the  city  of  Baal,  of  those  that 

command,  of  those  that  possess. 
Kirjath-jearim,  Kir'-jath-je'-a-rim,  the  city  of 

woods. 
Kir'jath-san'nah,  the  city  of  the  bush,  of  en- 
mity. 
Kirjath-sepher,  Kir'-jath-see'-fer,  the  city  of 

letters,  of  the  book. 
Kish,  hard,  difficult,  straw. 
Kis'ron,  making  sweet,  perfuming. 
Kit'tim,  they  that  bruise,  gold,  colouring. 
Ko'hath,   congregation,   obedience,    to    make 

blunt. 
Kohathites,  Ko' -hath-ites,  the  posterity  of  Ko- 

hath. 
Ko'rah,  bald,  frozen. 

La'ban,  white,  shining,  gentle. 

Lachish,  Lay'.kish,  she  walks,  who  exists  of 
himself. 

La'el,  to  God,  to  the  Almighty. 

Lah'mi,  my  bread,  my  war. 

La'ish,  a  lion. 

La'mech,  poor,  made  low,  who  is  struck. 

Laodicea,  Lay-o-de-see'-a,  just  people. 

Laodiceans,  Lay-o-de-see'-ans,  inhabitants  of 
Laodicea. 

Lapidoth,  Lap'-pe-doth,  enlightened,  lamps. 

Lazarus,  Laz'-za-rus,  the  help  of  God. 

Le'ah,  weary,  tired. 

Leb'anon,  white,  incense. 

Lebbeus,  Leb-bee'-us,  a  man  of  heart. 

Lehabim,  Le'-ha.bim  or  Le-hay'-bim,  flames,  the 
points  of  a  sword. 

Le'hi,  jaw  bone. 

Lem'uel,  God  with  them. 

Le'vi,  who  is  held  and  associated 

Le'vites,  the  posterity  of  Levi. 

Lib'nah,  Lib'ni,  white,  whiteness. 

Libya,  Lib'-e-a,  in  Hebrew,  Lubim,  the  heart 
of  the  sea. 

Libyans,  Lib'-e-ans,  the  people  of  Libya. 

Li'nus,  nets. 

Lo-am'mi,  not  my  people. 

Lo'is,  better. 

Lo.ruhamah,  Lo-ru-hay'-mah,  not  having  ob- 
tained mercy,  not  pitied. 

Lot,  wrapt  up,  myrrh,  rosin. 

Lu'cas,  luminous. 

Lu'cifer,  Lu'-se-fer,  bringing  light. 

Lucius,  Lu'-she-us.    See  Lucas. 

Lud,  maturity,  generation. 

Luke.    See  Lucas. 

Luz,  separation,  departure. 

Lycaonia,  Ly-ka-o'-ne-a,  she-wolf. 

Lyd'da,  the  name  of  a  city. 

Lysa'nias,  that  drives  away  sorrow. 

Lys'tra,  that  dissolves  or  disperses. 

Maachah,  May'.a-kah,  to  squeeze. 
Maaseiah,  Ma-a.sy'-ah,  the  work  of  the  Lord. 
64 


Macedonia,  Mas-se-do'-ne-a,  adoration,  prostra- 
tion. 
Machir,  May'-kir,  he  that  sells  or  knows. 
Machpelah,  Mak-pee'-lah,  double. 
Magdala,  Mag'-da-lah,  tower,  greatness. 
Magdalene,  Mag'-da-le'-ne,  tower,  grand,  ele- 
vated. 
Ma'gog,  roof,  that  dissolves. 
Magor-missabib,      May'-gor-7nis'-sa-bib,      fear, 
round  about. 

Mahalaleel,  Ma-ha-la-lee'.el,  he  that  praises 
God. 

Mahalath,  Ma-hay' -lath,  melodious  song,  in- 
firmity. 

Mahanaim,    Ma-ha-nay'-im,   the   two   fields  or 
armies. 

Maher-shalal-hash-baz,  May'-er-shal'-al-kash'- 
baz,  making  speed  to  the  spoil. 

Mah'lah,  the  same  as  Mahalath. 

Mah'lon,  song,  infirmity. 

Makkedah,    Mak'.ke-dah,    adoration,    prostra- 
tion. 

Malcham,  Mal'-kam,  theif  king. 

Malchi-shua,  Mal'ke-shew'-ah,  my  king  is  a 
saviour. 

Malchus,  Mal'-kua,  king  or  kingdom. 

Mam'mon,  riches. 

Mam're,  rebellious,  bitter,  that  changes. 

Manaen,  Man'-a-en,  or  Ma-nay'-en,  a  comforter, 
he  that  conducts  them. 

Manas'seh,  forgetfulness,  he  that  is  forgotten, 

Maneh,  May'-neh,  a  species  of  money. 

Manoah,  Ma-no'-ah,  rest,  a  present. 

Ma'on,  house,  crime. 

Ma'ra,  bitterness. 

Ma'rah,  the  same  as  Mara. 

Mar'cus,  polite,  shining. 

Mark,  the  same  as  Marcus. 

Mars-hill',  the    place  where  the  judges  of 
Athens  held  their  supreme  council. 

Mar'tha,  who  becomes  bitter. 

Ma'ry,  exalted,  bitterness  of  the  sea,  mistresa 
of  the  sea. 

Masrekah,  Mas'-re-kah,  whistling,  hissing. 

Mas'saH,  temptation. 

Ma'tri,  rain,  prison. 

Mat'tan,  the  reins,  the  death  of  them. 

Mattathias,    Mat-ta-thy'-as.  the   gift   of  the 
Lord. 

Mat'that,  gift,  he  that  gives. 

Matth'ew,  given,  a  reward. 

Matthias,  Ma-thy'-as.     See  Mattathias. 

Maz'zaroth,  the  twelve  signs. 

Me'dad,  he  that  measures,  the  water  of  love. 

Me'dan,  judgment,  process,  measure,  covering, 

Medes,  Mee'ds,  people  of  Media. 

Media,  Mee'-de-a,  measure,  covering,  abund- 
ance. 

MEQmi)0,Mc-gid'-do,  that  declares,  his  precious 
fruit. 

Megiddon,  Me-gid'-don,  the  same  as  Megiddo. 

Mehetabel,  Me-het'-ta-ble,  how  good  is  God  ! 

Mehujael,  Mc-hu-jay'-cl,  who  proclaims  God, 
God  that  blots  out. 

Melchi,  Mel'-ky,  my  king,  my  counsel. 

Melchizedek,  Mel-kiz'-ze-dek,  king  "of  right- 
eousness. 

Melita,  Me-ly'-ta  or  Me-lee'-ta,  affording  honey. 

Memphis,  Meml-fis,  by  the  mouth. 


MIS 


994 


NEH 


MUuiUCAN,  Mi-mtw'-kau,  impoverished,  to  pre- 
pare,  certain,  true. 

Minaiihm,  Mi  n'-un-lirm,  comforter,  who  con- 
ducts t  hem. 

Mi.ne,  Mil' in ,  who  reckons,  wlio  is  counted. 

RiiraiBQSHETH,  Mc-Jib'.ho-sheth,  out  of  my 
mouth  proceeds  reproach. 

Me'rab,  he  that  tights,  lie  that  multiplies. 

Meraiu,  Mi-rm/'-ry,  bitter,  to  provoke. 

Mercu'rius,  a  false  god  ;  from  the  Latin  word 
mercari,  "  to  buy  or  sell,"  because  he  pre- 
sided over  merchandise  ;  in  Greek,  hemtes, 
"orator"  or  "interpreter." 

Merie-baal,  Mer-ib'-ba-al  or  Mir'-ib-bay'-al,  re- 
bellion, he  that  resists  Baal,  and  strives 
against  the  idol. 

Mekibah,  Mii'-rr-bah,  dispute,  quarrel. 

RIkbodaCH,  Mi  r'-ru-dak,  bitter,  contrition;  in 
Sj  riac,  the  little  lord. 

\1 1 .i:h|)acii-baladan,  Mi  r' '-ro-du  k-bal '-ia-ila n  or 
li.i-laij'-diin,  who  creates  contrition,  the  son 
of  death,  of  thy  vapour. 

BIe'rom,  eminences,  •elevations. 

Me'roz,  secret,  leanness. 

Meshach,  Ma 'shah,  that  draws  with  force, 
that  surrounds  the  waters. 

Mksiiech,  Mee'sheh;  who  is  drawn  by  force, 
shut  up,  surrounded. 

Meshelemiah,  Mesh-el-r.my'-ah,  peace,  perfec- 
tion, retribution  of  the  Lord. 

Mesopotamia,  Mrn-o-jw-tay'-me-a,  in  Hebrew, 
Aramiiaharaim,  that  is,  "  Syria  of  the  two 
rivers."  In  Greek  it  also  signifies  "  between 
two  rivers;"  from  [xiaos,  "middle,"  and  rsdra- 
yios,  "river." 

Messiah,  Messy1. ah,  anointed. 

Me'theu-am'mah,  the  bridle  of  bondage. 

Mkthusael,  Mc-thew'sa-el,  who  demands  his 
death. 

Methuselah,  Me-tkew'se-lah,  he  has  sent  his 
death. 

Mi'cah,  poor,  humble,  who  strikes,  is  there. 

Micaiaii,  My-kay'-e-ah,  who  is  like  to  God  ?  the 
lowliness  of  God. 

Michaiah,  My-kay'-e-ah,  Michael,  My'-ka-cl, 
the  same  as  Micaiah. 

MlCHAL,  My'-kal,  who  is  it  that  has  all  ?  who 
is  perfect  ? 

MiciiMASH,  Mik'-mash,  he  that  strikes,  the  poor 
taken  away. 

Midian,  Mid'-de-an,  judgment,  measure,  cover- 
ing. 

Mii.iAMrK.s,  Mnl'-de-an-ites,  people  of  Midian. 

Mio'noii,  a  tower,  greatness. 

Mh.'hon,  fear,  a  barn,  from  the  throat. 
Mn.Vwi,  qu 

Mil'com,  their  king. 

Mi!  kti'm.  My  Ire'-tiun,  red,  scarlet. 

Mu.'i.o,  fulness,  repletion, 

Min'ni,  disposed,  reckoned. 

Min'mtii,  counted,  prepared. 

Mimwi,  Mn'-n-iim,  exalted,  bitterness  of  the 

Nh  of  the  sea. 
Mi-  eat,  the  high  fori  or  rock. 
Mimiui.,  Htsh'.n-il,  uked  for,  lent,  God  takes 
away. 

a  wain,      »/-..'  ,.  foth  may'.im,     the 
v,,Jr '  waters,  furnaces  where  me- 


Mitvlenio,  Mit-e-lec'-nv,  purity,  press. 

Mi'zar,  little. 

Miz'paii,  a  sentinel,  speculation,  that  waits  for 

Miz'pEH,  the  same  as  Mizpah. 

Mizraiji,  Miz-ray'-im,  tribulations,  in  straits. 

Mnason,  Nay' son,  a  diligent  seeker,  betroth- 
ing, an  exhorter. 

Mo'ab,  of  the  father. 

Mo'abites,  Mo'-ab-ites,  the  descendants  of  Moab. 

Moladah,  Mol'-a-dah,  or  Mo-lay' -dah,  birth,  ge- 
neration. 

Molech,  Mo'-lek,  king. 

Moloch,  Mo'-lok,  the  same  as  Molech. 

Mordecai,  Mor'-de-kay,  contrition,  bitter  bruis- 
ing; in  Syriac,  pure  myrrh. 

Mori'ah,  bitterness  or  fear  of  the  Lord. 

Mosera,  Mosee'-ra,  Moseroth,  Mosee'-roth, 
erudition,  discipline,  bond. 

Mo'ses,  taken  out  of  the  water. 

Mu'shi,  he  that  touches,  withdraws  himself. 

My'ra,  from  ppu>,  I  flow,  pour  out,  weep. 

Mysia,  Mish'-e-a,  criminal,  abominable. 

Naaman,  Na-ay'-man,  beautiful,  agreeable,  that 
prepares  himself  to  motion. 

Naamathite,  Na-ay'  -ma-thite,  of  Naamath. 

Naashon,  Na-ash'-on,  that  foretels,  serpent. 

Na'bal,  a  fool,  senseless. 

Na'both,  words,  prophecies,  fruits. 

Na'dab,  free  and  voluntary  gift,  prince. 

Nagge,  Nag'-gee,  brightness. 

Naharai,  Na-har'-ra-i  or  Na-ha-ray'-i,  my  nos- 
trils, hoarse,  hot. 

Nahash,  Nay' -hash,  snake,  one  that  foretels, 
brass. 

Na'hor,  hoarse,  hot,  angry. 

JNahshon,  Nay'shon.     See  Naashon. 

Na'hum,  comforter,  penitent,  their  guide. 

Na'in,  beauty,  pleasantness. 

Naioth,  Nay'-e-oth,  beauties,  habitations. 

Naomi,  Na-o'-my,  beautiful,  agreeable. 

Naphish,  Nay' -fish,  the  soul,  he  that  refreshes 
himself,  that  respires  ;  in  Syriac,  that  mul- 
tiplies. » 

Naphtali,  Naf'-ta-ly,  comparison,  likeness,  that 
fights. 

Narcissus,  Narsis'sus,  astonishment. 

Na'than,  who  gives,  or  is  given. 

Nathanael,  Na-than'-yel,  the  gift  of  God. 

Natha.n-melech,  Nay'-than-me'-lek,  gift  of  the 
king. 

Na'om.     See  Nahum. 

Na/.akene,  Naz-a-rce'n,  kept,  flower. 

Nazareth,  Naz'-a-rrth,  separated,  sanctified. 

Neapolis,  Ne-ap' -po-lis,  new  city. 

Nebaioth,  Nc-bay'-yoth,  prophecies,  fruits. 

Ne'bat,  that  beholds. 

Ne'bo,  that  speaks,  prophesies,  or  fructifies. 

Nebuchadnezzar,  Neb-ew-kad-nez'-zar,  tears 
and  groans  of  judgment. 

Nebuzar-adan,  Neh-ew-zar'  -ra-dan,  fruits  or 
prophecies  of  judgment,  winnowed,  spread. 

Neciio,  Nee'-ko,  lame,  who  was  beaten. 

Nehelamite,    Ne-hel'-a-myte,    dreamer,    vale, 

brook. 
Nehemiah,   Ne -he -my' -ah,  consolation,  repent- 
ance, or  rest  of  the  Lord. 
Nehiloth,  Ne-hei'-lbth,  (lute,  hautboy,  cornet. 
Nehushta,  Ni-hush'-tah,  snake,  soothsayer. 


OZI 


995 


PHI 


Nehush'tan,  which  is  of  brass  or  copper,   a 

trifle  of  brass. 
Ner,  lamp,  brightness,  land  new  tilled. 
Nereus,  Nee'-re-us.     See  Ner. 
Neri,  Nee'-ry,  my  light. 
Neri'ah,  light  and  lamp  of  the  Lord. 
Nethaneel,  Ne-than'-ne-el.     See  Nathauael. 
Nethania,  Neth-a-ny'-ah,  the  gift  of  the  Lord. 
Nethinims,  Neth'-e-nims,  given,  offered. 
Nib'haz,  that  fructifies,  to  prophesy,  to  speak. 
Nicanor,  Ny-kay'-nor,  a  conqueror,  victorious. 
Nicodemus,  Nik-o-dee'-mvs,  innocent  blood ;  in 

Greek,  the  victory  of  the  people. 
Nicolaitans,   Nik-o-lay' -c-tanz,  the  followers 

of  Nicolas. 
Nicolas,  Nik'-o-las,  victor  of  the  people  ;  from 

viKdo),  I  overcome,  and  Xaos,  the  people. 
Nicopolis,  Ny-kop'-po-lis,  the  city  of  victory. 
Niger,  Ny'-jer,  black. 
Niw'rim,  leopard,  rebellion,  change. 
Nim'rod,  rebellious,  sleep  of  descent. 
Nim'shi,  rescued  from  danger,  that  touches. 
Nineveh,  Nin'-ne-veh,  agreeable  dwelling. 
Ninevites,  Nin' -ne-vites,  people  of  Nineveh. 
Ni'san,  banner  ;  in  Syriac,  a  miracle. 
Nis'roch,  flight,  standard,  proof. 
No,  stirring  up,  a  forbidding. 
Noadi'ah,  witness  of  the  Lord. 
No'ah,  repose,  rest,  consolation. 
Nob,  discourse,  prophecy. 
No'bah,  that  barks  or  yelps. 
Nod,  vagabond. 

Noph,  Noff,  honey  comb,  a  sieve,  that  drops. 
Nun,  son,  posterity,  durable. 
Nymphas,  Nim'-fas,  spouse,  bridegroom. 

Obadi'ah,  servant  of  the  Lord. 

O'bal,  inconvenience  of  old  age,  of  the  flux. 

O'bed,  a  servant. 

O'bed-e'dom,  the  servant  of  Edom,  the  Idume- 
an,  labourer  of  the  man. 

O'bil,  that  weeps,  deserves  to  be  bewailed,  an- 
cient. 

Oo'ran,  disturber. 

O'ded,  to  sustain,  to  lift  up. 

Og,  a  cake,  bread  baked  in  the  ashes. 

O'hel,  tent,  tabernacle,  brightness. 

Olympas,  O-lim'-pas,  heavenly. 

Omar,  he  that  speaks,  bitter. 

Omega,  O-mee'-ga,  the  last  letter  of  the  Greek 
alphabet. 

Om'ri,  a  sheaf  of  corn,  rebellion,  bitter. 

On,  pain,  force,  iniquity. 

O'nan,  pain,  strength,  iniquity. 

Onesimus,  O-nes'-se-mus,  profitable,  useful. 

Onesiphorus,  On-ne-sif'-fo-rus,  who  brings 
profit. 

Ophel,  O'-fel,  tower,  obscurity. 

Ophir,  O'-fir,  ashes. 

Ophrah,  Off'-rah,  dust,  fawn,  lead. 

O'reb,  a  raven,  caution,  evening. 

Orion,  O-ry'-on,  the  name  of  a  constellation. 

Or'nan,  that  rejoices,  their  bow  or  ark. 

Or'pah,  the  neck,  skull,  nakedness  of  the 
mouth. 

Oth'ni,  my  time,  my  hour. 

Othniel,  Oth'-ne-el,  the  hour  of  God. 

O'zem,  that  fasts,  their  eagerness. 

Ozias,  O-zy'-as,  strength  from  the  Lord. 


Paarai,  Pay'-a-ray  or  Pay-a'-ry,  opening. 
Padan-aram,  Pay' -dan-ay' -ram,  Padau  of  the 

field,  and  Aram  Syria. 
Pagiel,  Pay'-je-el,  prevention  or  prayer  of  God. 
Palestina,  Pal-es-ty'-na,  which  is  covered. 
Pal'ti,  deliverance,  flight. 
Pamphylia,  Pam-fd'-le-a,  a  nation  made  up  of 

every  tribe  ;  from  -«s,  all,  and  ^.uXij,  a  tribe. 
Paphos,  Pay'-fos,  which  boils,  is  very  hot. 
Pa'ran,  beauty,  glory,  ornament. 
Par'bar,  a  gate  or  building  belonging  to  the 

temple. 
Par'menas,  that  abides  and  is  permanent. 
Parosh,  Pay'-rotsh,  a  flea,  fruit  of  the  moth. 
Parshandatiia,  Par-shan' -da-tha,  revelation  of 

corporeal  impurities,  of  his  trouble. 
Partiiians,  Par'-the-ans,  horsemen. 
Paruah,    Pa-rew'-ah,    flourishing,    that    flies 

away. 
Parva'im,  supposed  to  be  Peru  or  Ceylon. 
Pash'ur,  that  extends  the  hole,  whiteness. 
Patara,  Pa-tay'-rah,  which  is  trodden  under 

foot ;  from  xsari u>,  I  tread  under  foot. 
Pathros,  Palh'-ros  or  Pay'-thros,  mouthful  of 

dew. 
Pat'mos,  mortal. 
Patrobas,  Pat'-ro-bas,  paternal,  that  pursues 

the  steps  of  his  father. 
Pau,  Pay'-ew,  that  cries  aloud,  appears. 
Paul,  Paul'us,  a  worker.     His  former  name 

was  Saul,  a  sepulchre,  a  destroyer. 
Pedahzur,    Ped-ah'-zur,    saviour,    strong  and 

powerful,  stone  of  redemption. 
Pedaiah,  Ped-ay'-e-ah,  redemption  of  the  Lord. 
Pe'kah,  he  that  opens,  or  is  at  liberty. 
Pekahiah,  Pek-a-hy1  -ah,   it  is   the    Lord  that 

opens. 
Pe'kod,  noble,  rulers. 
Pelati'ah,  let  the  Lord  deliver. 
Pe'leg,  division. 

Pelethites,  Pel'-eth-ites,  judges,  destroyers. 
Peniel,  Pe-ny'-el,  face  or  vision  of  God. 
Penin'nah,  precious  stone,  his  face. 
Penu'el.     See  Peniel. 
Peor,  Pee'-or,  hold,  opening. 
Per'ga,  very  earthy. 
Per'gamos,  height,  elevation. 
Perizzites,  Per'-iz-zytes,  the  name  of  a  people 

who  dwell  in  villages. 
Per'sia,  Per'sis,  that  cuts,  nail,  horseman. 
Pe'ter,  a  rock,  a  stone. 
Pethu'el,  mouth  or  persuasion  of  God. 
Phalec,  Fay'-lek.     See  Peleg. 
Phallu,  Fal'-lu,  admirable,  hidden. 
Phalti,  Fal'-ty,  deliverance,  flight. 
Phanu'el,  Fa-new' -el,  face  or  vision  of  God. 
Pharaoh,  Fay'-ro,  that  disperses,  that  disco- 
vers ;  according  to  the  Syriac,  the  revenger, 

the  king,  the  crocodile. 
Pharez,  Fay'-rez,  division,  rupture. 
Pharpar,  Far'-par,  that  produces  fruits,  fall  of 

the  bull. 
Phebe,  Fee'-be,  shining,  pure. 
Phenice,  Fe-ny'-se,  red,  purple. 
Phichol,  Fy'-kol,  the  mouth  of  all,  perfection. 
Philadelphia,  Fil-a-deV -fe-a,  the  love  of  a  bro- 
ther ;  from  (piXla,  love,  and  a5i\<pos,  a  brother. 
Philemon,  Fil-ec'-mon,  or  Fy-lee'-mon,  that  is 

affectionate. 


RAM 


996 


SAL 


Phii.kti's,  Fil-ev'-lim  nr  Fg-lee'-ttU,  amiable,  be- 
loved. 

Pun.  ir,  warlike,  a  lover  of  horses. 

Piiu.im,  l-'il-lip'-jnj,  the  same  as  Philip. 

I'liii.isriA,  l'i/-!i.s'-t'-u  or  Fij-lis'.ir-a,  the  coun- 
try of  the  Philistines, 

Philistines,  FiUix'-tincx  or  Fil-l'm'-this,  those 
that  dwell  in  tillages, 

Philologls,  Fil-lol'-lu-giis,  lover  of  learning. 

Phineius,  l'lii-m-liiis,  a  hold  countenance. 

Phi.egon,  Fle'-gon,  zealous,  burning. 

Piirygia,  Fiij'-i.a,  dry,  barren. 

Phurah,  Few' -rah,  that  bears  fruit,  that  grows. 

Phygellus,  Fy-jel'-lus,  fugitive. 

Pi-be'seth,  the  mouth  of  despite. 

Pi-hahiroth,  Py-ha-hy'-roth,  the  mouth,  the 
pass  of  Iliroth,  the  opening  of  liberty. 

Pi'late,  who  is  armed  with  a  dart. 

Pi'non,  gem,  that  beholds. 

Piratiion,  Fir'-a-thon,  his  dissipation,  depriva- 
tion ;  in  Syriac,  his  vengeance. 

Pis'gah,  hill,  eminence,  fortress. 

PisnuA,  PysitV-e-a,  pitch,  pitchy. 

Pi'son,  changing,  doubling,  extended. 

Pi'tiiom,  their  mouthful,  bit,  consummation. 

Pi'thon,  his  mouth,  his  persuasion. 

Pol'lux,  a  boxer. 

Pontius,  Pon'-she-us,  marine,  belonging  tolhe 
sea. 

Pon'tus,  the  sea  ;  from  is6vtqs. 

Poratha,  Por'-a.tha,  fruitful. 

Porcius,  For' -she-us. 

Potiphar,  Pot'-te-far,  bull  of  Africa,  fat.  bull. 

Poti-pherah,  Poi-if'-fe-rah  or  Pot-e-fee'-rah, 
that  scatters  or  demolishes  the  fat. 

Prisca,  Pris'-kah,  ancient. 

Priscilla,  Pris-sil'-lah,  the  same  as  Prisca. 

Prochorus,  Prok'-o-rius,  he  that  presides  over 
the  choirs. 

Publics,  Pub'-le-us,  common. 

Pudens,  Pew'-Jms,  shamefaced. 

Pul,  bean,  destruction. 

Pu'non,  precious  stone,  that  beholds. 

Pur,  lot. 

Puteoli,  Pew-tee'-o-ly,  a  city  in  Campania. 

Putiel,  Pew'-te-el,  God  is  my  fatness. 

Quar'tus,  the  fourth. 

Raamah,  Ray'-a-mah  or  Ra-ay'-mah,  greatness, 
thunder,  evil,  bruising. 

Raamses,  Ra-am'-ses.     See  Rameses. 

Rab'baii,  powerful,  contentious. 

Rab'-mag,  who  overthrows  a  multitude,  chief 
of  the  magicians. 

Rab'-saris,  grand  master  of  the  eunuchs. 

Kau'-siiakeh,  cup-bearer  of  the  prince,  cham- 
berlain. 

Km  hah,  Rny'-knh,  proud,  strong,  enlarged. 

K\'iiu.,  Jiiu/'.kdl,  injurious,  perfumer. 
,  Riiif-tshel,  a  sheep. 

KAQAU,  luii/.gaw,  a  friend,  a  neighbour. 

Kv.i  i  , ,  Rag.euif.el,  shepherd  or  friend  of  God. 

Ra'iiab,  proud,  strong,  quarrelsome. 

tLt'HAB,  large,  extended,  public  place. 

Bm  i;  a  .ji,  empty,  spittle. 

I>'\k'kon,  vain,  mountain  of  lamentations. 

Ram,  iterated,  who  rejects. 

R*mam,  Hiit/.iiHih,  Hie  sajne  us  Ram. 


Ramatii,  Ray'-math,  raised,  lofty. 

Ramatjiaim-zoi'Him,  Ra-math-ay'-im-zo'-fim,  the 
same  as  Ramah. 

Ra'math-le'hi,  elevation  of  the  jaw  bone. 

Rameses,  Ram'-e-ses,  thunder,  he  that  destroys 
evil. 

Ramiah,  Ram-i'-ah,  exaltation  of  the  Lord. 

Ra'moth,  high  places. 

Rapha,  Raff-fa,  relaxation,  physic. 

Raphael,  Ray-fay'-el.     See  Rephael. 

Raphu,  Ray'-few,  cured,  comforted. 

Re'ba,  the  fourth,  a  square,  that  stoops. 

Rebek'ah,  fat,  quarrel  appeased. 

Rechab,  Rc'-kab,  square,  chariot,  rider. 

Rechabites,  Re'-kab-ites,  the  posterity  of  Re- 
chab. 

Re'gem,  Re'-jem,  that  stones,  purple. 

Regem-melech,  Re-jem'-me-lek,  he  that  stones 
the  king,  the  purple  of  the  king. 

Rehabi'ah,  breadth,  place  of  the  Lord. 

Re'hob,  breadth,  extent. 

Rehobo'am,  who  sets  the  people  at  liberty, 
space  of  the  people. 

Reho'both,  spaces,  places. 

Re'hum,  compassionate,  friendly. 

Re'i,  my  shepherd,  companion,  my  evil. 

Remalj'ah,  the  exaltation  of  the  Lord. 

Rem'mon,  greatness,  a  pomegranate  tree. 

Remphan,  Rem' -fan,  the  name  of  an  idol,  which 
some  think  to  be  Saturn. 

Rephael,  Re' -fa-el,  the  medicine  of  God. 

Rephaim,  Rephaims,  Re-fay '-im,  giant,  physi- 
cian, relaxed. 

Rephidim,  Ref'-e-dim,  beds,  places  of  rest. 

Resin,  Ree'-sen,  a  bridle  or  bit. 

Reu,  Ree'-ew,  his  friend,  his  shepherd. 

Reuben,  Rew'-ben,  who  sees  the  son,  vision  oi 
the  son. 

Reu'benites,  the  posterity  of  Reuben. 

Reuel,  Re-yew' -el,  shepherd  or  friend  of  God. 

Reumah,  Re-yew' -mah,  lofty,  sublime. 

Rezeph,  Ree'-zeff,  a  pavement,  burning  coal. 

Re'zin,  voluntary,  runner. 

Re'zon,  lean,  secret,  prince. 

Rhegium,  Ree'-je-um,  rupture,  fracture. 

Rhesa,  Ree'-sah,  will,  course. 

Rhoda,  Ro'-dah,  a  rose. 

Rhodes,  Ro'des,  the  same  as  Rhoda. 

Rib'lah,  quarrel  that  increases  or  spreads. 

Rim'mon,  exalted,  pomegranate. 

Riphath,  Ry'-fath,  remedy,  release. 

Ris'sah,  watering,  distillation,  dew. 

Riz'pah,  bed,  extension,  coal. 

Rogel,  Ro'-jel,  a  foot ;  in  Syriac,  custom. 

Romamti-ezer,  Ro-mam-te-ee' -zer,  exultation  of 
help. 

Ro'man,  strong,  powerful. 

Rome,  strength,  power ;  from  [mpti. 

Rosh,  the  head,  the  beginning. 

Ru'fus,  red. 

Ruhamah,  Ru-hay'-mah,  having  obtained  mercy. 

Ru'mah,  exalted,  rejected. 

Ruth,  filled,  satisfied. 

Sare'ans,  captivity,  conversion,  old  age. 
Sabtecha,  Sab'-te-kah,  that  surrounds. 
Sa'doc,  just,  justified. 

Sa'lah,  mission,  dart;  according  to  the  Syriac, 
that  spoils. 


SUA 


997 


SHE 


Sai.amis,  Sal'-la-mis,  shaken,  los9ed,  beaten. 

Salathiel,  Sal-ay'-the-el,  I  have  asked  of  God. 

Sa'lem,  complete,  peace. 

Sa'lim.     See  Shalim. 

Sal'mon,  peaceable,  perfect,  that  rewards. 

Salmone,  Sal-mo'-ne,  peaceable. 

Salome,  Sa-lo'-me.     See  Salmon. 

Samaria,   Sa-ma.y'-re-a,  his   guard,    prison,   or 

diamond  ;  in  Hebrew,  Shomeron. 
Samar'itans,  people  of  Samaria. 
Sam'lah,  raiment,  his  left  hand,  his  name. 
Sa'mos,  full  of  gravel. 
Samothracia,  Sam-o-thray'-she-a,  an  island  so 

called  because  it  was   peopled  by  Samians 

and  Thracians. 
Sam'son,  his  sun ;  according  to  the  Syriac,  his 

service,  here  the  second  time. 
Sam'uel,  heard  or  asked  of  God. 
Sanbal'lat,  bush  or  enemy  in  secret. 
Saph,  Saff,  rushes,  end,  threshold. 
Saphir,  Saf'fir  or  Say' -fir,  a  city. 
Sapphira,   Saf-fy'-rak,   that   tells,  that  writes 

books. 
Sa'rah,  lady,  princess  of  the  nfultitude. 
Sarai,  Say'-ray,  my  lady,  my  princess. 
Sar'dis,  prince  or  song  of  joy,  what  remains  ; 

in  Syriac,  a  pot  or  kettle. 
Sarep'ta,   a  goldsmith's    shop,   where    metals 

used  to  be  melted  and  tried. 
Sar'gon,  who  takes  away  protection,  who  takes 

away  the  garden  ;  according  to  the  Syriac, 

nets,  snares. 
Sa'ron.     See  Sharon. 

Sarsechim,  Sar-see'-kim,  master  of  the  ward- 
robe, of  the  perfumes. 
Saruch,  Say'-ruk,  branch,  layer,  twining. 
Sa'tan,  contrary,  adversary,  an  accuser. 
Saul,  demanded,  sepulchre,  destroyer. 
Sceva,  See'-vah,  disposed,  prepared. 
Scythian,  Sith'-e-an,  tanner,  leather-dresser. 
Se'ba,  drunkard,  that  surrounds ;  according  to 

the  Syriac,  old  man. 
Se'bat,  twig,  sceptre,  tribe. 
Se'cundus,  the  second. 
Se'gub,  fortified,  raised. 

Seir,  See'-er,  hairy,  demon,  tempest,  barley. 
Se'lah,  a  rock. 
Seleucia,  Se -lew' -she -a,  beaten  by  waves,  runs 

as  a  river. 
Semei,  Sem'-me-i,  or  Se-mee'-i,  hearing,  obeying. 
Se'neh,  bush. 

Se'nir,  a  sleeping  candle,  a  changing. 
Sennacherib,  Sen-nak' '.ke-rib,  bush  of  the  de- 
struction of  the  sword,  of  drought. 
Sephar,  See'-far,  a  book,  scribe;  in  Syriac,  a 

haven. 
Sepharad,  See-fay'-rad,    a  book,  descending, 

ruling. 
Sepharvaim,    Sef-ar-vay'-im,    two   books,  two 

scribes.. 
Se'rah,  lady  of  scent,  song,  the  morning. 
Seraiah,  Se-ra-i'-ah  or  Se-ray'-yah,  prince  of 

the  Lord. 
Sergius,  Ser'-je-vs,  a  net. 
Se'rug.     See  Saruch. 
Seth,  put,  who  puts. 

Shaalbim,  Shay-alb'-im,  that  beholds  the  heart. 
Shaaraim,    Shay-a-ray'-im,    gates,    valuation, 

hairs,  barley,  tempests,  demons. 


Shaashgaz,  Shay-ash1 -gaz,  lie  that  presses  the 
fleece. 

Shadrach,  Shay'-drak,  tender  nipple,  tender 
field. 

Siia'lim,  fox,  fist,  path. 

Shalisha,  Shal'-e-shah,  three,  the  third,  prince. 

Shal'lecheth,  a  casting  out. 

Shal'lum,  perfect,  peaceable. 

Shal'man,  peaceable,  perfect,  that  rewards. 

Shalmanezer,  Shal-ma-nee'-zer,  peace  tied,  per- 
fection and  retribution. 

Sham'gar,*  named  a  stranger,  he  is  here  a  stran- 
ger, surprise  of  the  stranger. 

Sham'huth,  desolation,  astonishment. 

Sha'mir,  prison,  bush,  lees. 

Sham'mah,  loss,  desolation,  astonishment. 

Shammuah,  Sham' -mew -ah,  that  is  heard  or 
obeyed. 

Shaphan,  Shay'-fan,  a  rabbit,  wild  rat,  their  lip. 

Shaphat,  Shay'-fat,  a  judge. 

Sharai,  Shar'-a-i  or  Sha-ray'-i,  my  lord,  my 
song. 

Sharezer,  Shar-ee'-zer,  overseer  of  the  trea- 
sury. 

Sha'ron,  his  plain,  field,  song. 

Sha'shak,  a  bag  of  linen,  the  sixth  bag. 

Sha'veh,  the  plain,  that  makes  equality. 

Shealtiel,  She-al'-te-el,  I  have  asked  of  God. 

Sheariah,  She-a-ry'-ah,  gate  or  tempest  of  the 
Lord. 

She'ar-ja'shub,  the  remnant  shall  return. 

She'ba,  captivity,  compassing  about,  repose, 
old  age. 

Shebaniah,  Sheb-a-ny'-ah,  the  Lord  that  con . 
verts,  that  recals  from  captivity,  that  under- 
stands. 

Sheb'na,  who  rests  himself,  who  is  now  cap- 
tive. 

Shechem,  Shee'-kem,  portion,  the  back,  shoul- 
ders. 

Shedeur,  Shee'-de-ur  or  Shed'-e-ur,  field,  de- 
stroyer of  fire. 

She'lah,  that  breaks,  that  undresses. 

Shelemiah,  Shel-le-my'.ah,  God  is  my  perfec- 
tion, my  happiness. 

Sheleph,  Shee'-lef,  who  draws  out. 

Shel/omith,  my  happiness,  my  recompense. 

Shelumiel,  Shel-ew-my'-el,  happiness,  retribu 
tion  of  God. 

Shem,  name,  renown,  he  that  places. 

Shemaiah,  She-ma-i'-ah  or  Shem-ay'-yah,  that 
obeys  the  Lord. 

Shemariah,  Shem-a-ry'-ah,  God  is  my  guard, 
diamond. 

Shemeber,  Shem'-me-ber,  name  of  force,  fame 
of  the  strong. 

Shemer,  Shee'-mer,  guardian,  thorn. 

Shemida,  She-my'-dah,  name  of  knowledge, 
that  puts  knowledge,  the  science  of  the 
heavens. 

Sheminith,  Shem'-me-nith,  the  eighth. 

Shemiramoth,  She-mir' -ra-moth,  the  height  of 
the  heavens,  the  elevation  of  the  name. 

Shen,  tooth,  change,  he  that  sleeps. 

Shenir,  Shee'-nir,  lantern,  light  that  sleeps,  he 
that  shows. 

Shephatiah,  Shef-a-ty'-ah,  the  Lord  that  judges. 

Sheshach,  Shee'-shak,  bag  of  flax,  the  sixth 
bag. 


SOD 


908 


TEK 


ihbaJkzas,  Sheah-baz'-xar,  joy  In  tribulation, 
or  of  vintage. 

Shkim.     See  Setb. 

Shether-BOZN  U,        S/irr'-tl<cr-boz'-na-i,       that 
makes  to  rot  and  corrupt. 

Sm:'v\,  vanity,  elevation,  fame,  tumult 

Shibboleth,  Shib'.bo-letA,  burden,  ear  of  corn. 

SmCRON,  S/ii/'-krun,  drunkenness,  his  wages. 

SiiKiGMON,  Shig-gay'-yon,  a  song  of  trouble. 

Sbogiomoth,  Shig-gyt-oiMtth,  mournfcd  music. 

Shiloah,  Shy-io'-ah.     See  Siloah. 

Shi'loB,  sent,  Uie  Apostle. 

Shi'loh,  peace,  abundance. 

Siiii.omtk,  Shy'-lo-nyte,  of  the  city  of  Shiloh. 

Shimkah,  Shim'-me-ah,  that  hears,  that  obeys. 

Siii.MF.i,   S/iim'-me-i,  that  hears,   name  of  the 
heap,  my  reputation. 

Siiimsk-.i,  Shim'- shay,  my  sun. 

Suisar,    S/iy'-nar,  the   watching  of  him  that 
sleeps,  change  of  the  city. 

Shipiirah,  Shif'-rah,  handsome,  trumpet,  that 
does  good. 

Sm'siiAK,  present  of  the  bag,  of  the  pot,  of  the 
thigh. 

Shit'tim,  that  turn  away,  scourges,  rods. 

Sho'a,  tyrants. 

Sho'bab,  returned,  turned  back. 

Sho'bach,  your  bonds,  your  nets,  his  captivity; 
according  to  the  Syriac,  a  dove  house. 

Shochoh,  Sho'-koh,  defence,  a  bough. 

Shoshan'nim,  lilies  of  the  testimony. 

Snn'Aii,  pit,  humiliation,  meditation. 

Suij'ai,,  fox,  hand,  fist,  traces,  way. 

Shc'hite,  a  descendant  of  .Shuah. 

Shu'lamite,    peaceable,    perfect,    that    recom- 
penses. 

Shu'namite,  a  native  of  Shunem. 

Shu'm.m,  their  change,  their  sleep. 

Shub,  wall,  ox. 

Shu'shan,  lily,  rose,  joy. 

Shu'thelah,  plant,  verdure,  moist  pot. 

Sib'mah,  conversion,  captivity,  old  age,  rest. 

Siciikm,  Sy'-kem.     See  Shechem. 

Si'don,  hunting,  fisliing,  venison. 

Sigionoth,  Sig-gy'-o-noth,  according  to  variable 
tunes. 

Si'iion,  rooting  out,  conclusion. 

Si'hor,  black,  trouble,  early  in  the  morn. 

Si'las,  three,  the  third. 

Sh.oas,  Sil'^i-as  or  Sy-lo'-as,  Sijloam,  Sil'-o-atn 
or  Sy-lo'-am,  sent,  dart,  branch. 

Siloe,  Sil'-o-e  or  Sy-lo'-e,  the  same  as  Siloas. 

Silva'nus,  one  who  loves  the  woods. 

Sim'kon,  that  hears  or  obeys. 

Sl'itON,  that  hears  or  obeys. 

^in,  bush. 

Sinai,  Sy'-nay  or  St/.nay.i,  bush,  according  to 
the  Syriac,  enmity. 

Si'mm,  the  south  country. 

Si'oif,  noise,  tumult. 

Si'kah,  turning  aside,  rebellion. 

Siimijn,  Sii'-rc-on,  a  breastplate,  deliverance. 

SlSKftA,  Sis'-se-rali,  that  sees  a  horse   or  swal- 
low. 
IN,  bush,  thorn. 
S.mvr'na,  myrrh. 

So,  a  measure  for  grain  or  dry  matters. 
So'coh,  tents,  tabernacles. 
So'di,  my  secret. 


Sodom,  Sod'-dom,  their  secret,  their  lime,  their 
cement. 

Sodomites,  Sod'-dom-ites,  inhabitants  of  So- 
dom. 

Sol'omon,  peaceable,  perfect,  one  who  recom- 
penses. 

Sopater,  So-pay'-ter,  who  defends  or  saves  his 
father. 

So'kf.k,  hissing,  a  colour  inclining  to  yellow. 

Sosipater,  So-se-pay'-ter.     See  Sopater. 

Sosthenes,  Sos'-the-7ies,  a  strong  and  power- 
ful saviour. 

Spain,  rare,  precious. 

Stachys,  Stay'-kis,  spike  ;  from  rovuj. 

Stephanas,  Stef'-fa-nas,  a  crown,  crowned. 

Ste'phen,  the  same  as  Stephanas. 

Sup'coTH,  tents,  tabernacles. 

Suc'coth-be'noth,  the  tabernacles  of  young 
women. 

Suk'kiims,  covered,  shadowed. 

Sur,  that  withdraws  or  departs. 

Susan'na,  a  lily,  a  rose,  joy. 

Susi,  Su'-sy,  horse,  swallow,  moth. 

Sychar,  Sy'-kar,  the  name  of  a  city. 

Syene,  Sy-ee'-ne,  bush ;  according  to  the  Sy- 
riac, enmity. 

Syntyche,  Sin'-tcke,  that  speaks  or  discourses. 

Syracuse,  Sir'-ra-ketcse,  that  draws  violently. 

Syria,  Sir'-rc-a,  in  Hebrew,  Aram,  sublime,  de- 
ceiving. 

Syriac,  Syrian-,  Sir'-re-ak,  Sir'-re-an,  of  Syria. 

Syrians,  Sir'-re-ans,  inhabitants  of  Syria. 

Syro-phenician,  Sy'-ro-fe-nish'-e-an,  purple, 
drawn  to  ;  from  jtipw,  I  draw,  and  Qoiivi!;,  red 
palm  tree. 

Taanach,  Tay'-a-nak,  or  Ta-ay'-nak,  who  hum- 
bles or  answers  thee. 

Tab'bath,  good,  goodness. 

Tabeal,  Tay'-be-al  or  Tab-ee'-al,  good  God. 

Tabeel,  Tay'-be-el  or  Tab-ee'-el,  the  same  as 
Tabeal. 

Taberah,  Tab'-e-rah  or  Tab.ee'-rah,  burning. 

Tabitha,  Tah'-e-tha,  in  Syriac,  clear  sighted ; 
she  is  also  called  Dorcas,  wild  goat. 

Ta'bor,  choice ;  in  Syriac,  contrition. 

Tabrimon,  Tab'-re-mon,  good  promegranate. 

Tad'mor,  palm  tree,  change. 

Tahapanes,  Ta-hap'-pa-nes,  secret  temptation. 

Tahpenes,  Tah'-pe-nes,  standard,  flight. 

Talitha-cumi,  Tal'-le-tha-kew'-my,  young  wo- 
man, arise. 

Talmai,  Tal'-may,  my  furrow,  heap  of  waters. 

Ta'mar,  a  palm,  palm  tree. 

Tam'muz,  abstruse,  concealed. 

Tanhumeth,  Tan-hew' -meth  or  Tan'-hu-meth, 
consolation,  repentance. 

Tapiiath,  Tay'-fath,  little  girl. 

Tar'pelites,  ravishers,  wearied. 

Tar'siiisii,  contemplation  of  the  marble 

Tar'sus,  winged,  feathered. 

Tar'tak,  chained,  bound,  shut  up. 

Tar'tan,  that  searches  the  gift  of  the  turtle. 

Tatnai,  Tat'-nay,  that  gives. 

Te'bah,  murder,  a  cook. 

Te'beth,  the  Babylonish  name  of  the  tenth 
month  of  the  Hebrews. 

Te'kel,  weight. 

Tekoa,  Te.ko'-ah,  sound  of  the  trumpet. 


TRO 


099 


ZEL 


Tei/abid,  a  heap  of  new  grain. 

Tel-harsa,    Tel-kar'-sak,  heap,  suspension  of 

the  plough  or  of  the  head. 
Te'lieth,  goodness. 
Tel-melah,   Tel'-me-lah  or  Tcl-mec'-lah,  heap 

of  salt  or  of  mariners. 
Te'ma,  admiration,  perfection. 
Te'ma.v,  the  south,  Africa. 
Te'aianite,  an  inhabitant  of  Teman. 
Te'rah,  to  breathe,  to  scent,  to  blow 
Teraphim,  Ter'-rafim,  an  image,  an  idol. 
Tertius,  Ter'-she-us,  the  third. 
Tertul'lus,  a  liar,  an  impostor. 
Tetrarch,    Tet'-rark  or  Tee'-trarck,  governor 

of  a  fourth  part  of  a  kingdom. 
Thaddeus,  Thad-dee'-us,  that  praises. 
Tha'hash,  that  makes  haste,  or  keeps  silence. 
Tha'mah,  that  blots  out  or  suppresses. 
Tha'mar.     See  Tamar. 
Tham'muz.     See  Tammuz. 
The'bez,  muddy,  silk. 
Thelasar,  The-lass'-ar,  that  unbinds  and  grants 

the  suspension  or  heap. 
Theophilus,  The-of'-fe-lus,  a  friend  of  God. 
Thessalonica,       Thes-sa-lo-ny'-kah,      victory 

against  the  Thessalians. 
Theudas,  Thew'-das,  a  false  teacher. 
Thomas,  Tom' -mas,  a  twin. 
Thum'mim,  truth,  perfection. 
Thyatira,  Thy-a-ty'-rah,  a  sweet  savour  of  la- 
bour or  sacrifice  of  contrition. 
Tiberias,  Ti-bee'  -re-as,  good  vision. 
Tiberius,  Ti-bee' -re-us,  son  of  Tiber. 
Tib'ni,  straw,  understanding. 
Ti'dal,  that  breaks  the  yoke. 
Tiglath-pileser,       Tig'  -lath-pi-lee'  -zer,      that 

takes  away  captivity,  miraculous. 
Tik'vah,  hope,  a  congregation. 
Timeus,  Ti-mee'-us,  in  Greek,  perfect,  honour- 
able ;  in  Hebrew,  admirable. 
Tlm'-Nath,  image,  enumeration. 
Timnath-heres,    Tim'-iiath-hee'-res,  image  of 

the  dumb. 
Ti'mon,  honourable. 

Timo'theus,  honour  of  God,  valued  of  God. 
Tiphsah,  Tif'-sah,  passage,  passover. 
Tirhakah,    Tir-hay'-kah    or    Tir'-ha-kah,     in- 
quirer, law  made  dull. 
Tirsiiatha,    Tir-sha'y-tha,  that  overturns  the 
foundation;    in    Syriac,    that    beholds    the 
time. 

Tir'zah,  benevolent,  pleasant. 

Tish'bite,  that  makes  captives,  that  dwells. 

Ti'tus,  honourable  ;  from  r/co,  /  honour. 

To'ah,  a  weapon. 

Tob,  good,  goodness. 

Tob-adonijah,  Tob'-ad-o-ny'-jah,  my  good  God. 

Tobi'ah,  the  Lord  is  good. 

Togar'mah,  which  is  all  bone,  strong. 

To'hu,  that  lives  or  declares. 

Toi,  To'-i,  who  wanders. 

To'la,  worm,  scarlet. 

To'ead,  nativity. 

Tophel,  To'-fel,  ruin,  folly,  insipid. 

Tophet,  To'-fet,  a  drum,  betraying. 

Tro'as,  penetrated. 

Trogyllium,  Tro-jiV -le-um,  a  city  in  the  isle  of 
Samoa. 

TiiorHiMus,  Tro/'-fe-mus,  well  educated. 


Tryphena,  Try-fcc'-nah,  delicate. 

Trypho'sa,  thrice  shining. 

Tu'bal,  the  earth,  confusion. 

Tu'bal-cai'n,  worldly  possession,  jealous  of  con- 
fusion. 

Tychicus,  Tik'-e-kus,  casual,  happening. 

Tyran'nds,  a  prince,  one  that  reigns. 

Tyre,  Ty'rus,  in  Hebrew,  Sor  or  Tzur, 
strength. 

Ucal,  Yew'-kal,  power,  prevalency. 

Ulai,  Yeiv'-la-i  or  Yew-lay',  strength. 

Ulam,  Yew' -lam,  the  porch,  their  strength. 

Ul'la,  elevation,  holocaust,  leaf. 

Un'ni,  poor,  afflicted. 

Uphaz,  Yew'-faz,  gold  of  Phasis  or  Pison. 

Ur,  fire,  light. 

Urba'nus,  civil,  courteous. 

Uri,  Yew'-ry,  my  light  or  fire. 

Uriah,   Urijah,   Yew-ry'-ah,   Yew-ry'-jah,   the 

Lord  is  my  light  or  fire. 
Uri'el,  God  is  my  light  or  fire. 
Urim  and  Thummim,  Yew'-rim  and  Thum'-mim, 

lights  and  perfection. 
Uz,  counsel ;  in  Syriac,  to  fix. 
Uz'zah,  strength,  a  goat. 
Uzzen-sherah,    Uz'-zen-shee'-rah,    ear  of  the 

flesh  or  of  the  parent. 
Uz'zi,  my  strength,  my  kid. 
Uzzi'aii,  the  strength  of  the  Lord. 
Uzzi'ee,  the  strength  of  God. 
Uzzielites,  Uz-zy'-el-ites,  the  posterity  of  Uz- 

ziel. 

Vash'ni,  the  second. 

Vash'ti,  that  drinks,  thread. 

Vophsi,  Vof'-sy,  fragment,  diminution. 

Zaana'nim,  movings. 

Za'bad,  a  dowry. 

Zab'di,  portion,  dowry.  •• 

Zaccheus,  Zak-kee'-us,  pure,  justified. 

Zachari'ah,  memory  of  the  Lord. 

Za'dok,  just,  justified. 

Za'ham,  crime,  impurity. 

Zair,  Zay'-ir,  little,  afflicted. 

Zal'mon,  his  shade,  obscurity. 

Zalmo'nah,  the  shade,  your  image. 

Zalmun'na,  shadow,  image. 

Zamzum'mims,  thinking,  wickedness. 

Zano'ah,  forgetfulness,  this  rest. 

Zaphnatii-paaneah,  Zaf'-nath-pay-a-nee'-ah, 
one  that  discovers  hidden  things;  in  the 
Egyptian  tongue,  a  saviour  of  the  world. 

Za'rah,  east,  brightness. 

Zarephath,  Zar'-re-fath,  ambush  of  the  mouth. 

Zare'tan,  tribulation,  perplexity. 

Za'za,  belonging  to  all;  in  Syriac,  going  back. 

Zebadi'ah,  portion  of  the  Lord. 

Ze'bah,  victim,  immolation. 

Zeb'edee,  abundant  portion. 

Zebo'im,  deer,  goats. 

Ze'bul,  a  habitation. 

Zeb'ulun,  dwelling,  habitation. 

Zechari'ah.     See  Zachariah. 

Ze'dad,  his  side,  his  hunting. 

Zedeki'ah,  the  Lord  is  my  justice. 

Zeeb,  Zee'-eb,  wolf. 

Ze'lek,  the  noise  of  him  that  licks  or  laps 


•III. 


1000 


zuz 


.  iKHAi.,  Ze-lo'-fe-ad,  the  shade  or  tingling 
of  tear. 

Zelotes,  Ze-lo'-tea,  jealous,  full  of  zeal. 

Zi  i '/  mi,  noontide. 

Ze'nas,  living. 

'/umivm'.mi,  the  Lord  is  my  secret,  the  mouth 
of  tho  Lord. 

'/i'ihatii,  Zrr'.fath,  which  beholds,  attends. 

'/'.'iii",  that  sees  and  observes. 

Zkr,  perplexity,  tribulation,  a  rock. 

Zb'rab.     See  Zarah. 

Zkridah,  Zer'-e-dah  or  Ze.ree'-dak,  ambush. 

Ze'resii,  misery,  stranger. 

Ze'ror,  root,  that  straitens,  a  stone. 

Zeru'aii,  leprous,  hornet. 

Zerubbabei.,  Ze-rub'-ba.bel,  banished,  a  stran- 
ger at  Babylon,  dispersion  of  confusion. 

Zeruiau,  Zer-ew-i'-ah,  pain,  tribulation. 

Ze'than,  their  olive. 

Zk'tiiak,  he  that  examines  or  beholds. 

Zi'ba,  army,  figlit,  strength,  stag. 

Zib'eon,  iniquity  that  dwells,  the  seventh. 

Zik'iah,  deer,  goat,  honourable  and  fine. 

Zichri,  Zic'-ry,  that  remembers,  a  male. 

Zid'dim,  huntings  ;  in  Syriac,  destructions. 

Zi'don,  hunting,  fishing,  venison. 

Zido'nians,  inhabitants  of  Zidon. 

Zif,  this,  that ;  according  to  the  Syriac,  bright- 
ness. 

Zik'lag,  measure  pressed  down. 

Zil'lah,  shadow,  which  is  roasted,  the  tingling 
of  the  ear. 


Zil'pah,  distillation,  contempt  of  the  mouth. 

Zim'ran,  song,  singer,  vine. 

Zim'ri,  my  field,  my  vine,  my  branch. 

Zin,  buckler,  coldness. 

Zi'on,  a  monument,  sepulchre,  turret. 

Zi'or,  ship  of  him  that  watches,  ship  of  the 
enemy. 

Ziph,  Ziff,  this  mouth,  mouthful. 

Zip'por,  bird,  crown  ;  according  to  the  Syriac, 
early  in  the  morning,  goat. 

Zip'porah,  beauty,  trumpet. 

Zith'ri,  to  hide,  overturned. 

Ziz,  flower,  a  lock  of  hair;  according  to  the 
Syriac,  wing,  feather. 

Zi'za.     Sec  Zaza. 

Zo'an,  motion. 

Zo'ar,  little,  small. 

Zo'bah,  an  army,  a  swelling. 

Zo'har,  white,  shining,  dryness. 

Zohe'leth,  that  creeps  or  draws. 

Zophar,  Zo'-far,  rising  early,  crown  ;  in  Syriac, 
sparrow,  goat. 

Zo'rah,  leprosy,  scab. 

Zorobabel,  Zo-rob'-ba-bel.     See  Zerubbabel. 

Zuar,  Zew'-ar,  small. 

Zuph,  that  observes,  roof. 

Zur,  stone,  plan,  form. 

Zuri'el,  the  rock  or  strength  of  God. 

Zurishaddai,  Zew'-ry-shad'-da-i,  the  Almighty 
is  my  rock,  splendour,  beauty. 

Zu'zims,  the  posts  of  a  door,  splendour ;  in  Sy- 
riac, departing,  money ;  in  Chaldee,  strong. 


TABLES 

OF 

THE    WEIGHTS,    MEASURES,    AND    MONEY, 

MENTIONED  IN   THE   BIBLE. 


JEWISH  WEIGHTS,   REDUCED  TO  ENGLISH  TROY  WEIGHT. 

lbs.  ozs.  pen.  gr. 

The  Gerah,  the  twentieth  part  of  a  Shekel 0     0     0  12 

The  Bekah,  half  a  Shekel 0     0     5     0 

The  Shekel 0     0  10     0 

The  Maneh,  sixty  Shekels 2600 

The  Talent,  fifty  Maneh,  or  three  thousand  Shekels 125     0     0     0 

According  to  the  bishop  of  Peterborough's  calculations,  the  Gerah  is  nearly  equal  to  11  grains 
Troy;  the  Bekah,  to  about  4|  pennyweights;  and  the  Shekel,  to  about  9*  pennyweights. 


TABLES  OF  SCRIPTURE  MEASURES  OF  LENGTH,  REDUCED  TO 
ENGLISH  MEASURE. 


"Dio-it 

SHORT  MEASURES. 

English  feet. 
0 

Inches. 
0.912 

Palm 

0 

4  | 

3.684 

Span 

0 

12  | 

3| 

10.944 

1 

24  | 

6| 

3 

9.888 

7 

96  | 

24  | 

6 

3.552 

10 

144  | 

36  | 

12 

11.328 

14 

s  meas'ng  line  145 

English  miles.  Paces. 
...      0        0 

192  | 

48  | 

16 

8  |        2  |     1.3  |  Arabian  pole. 

7.104 

1920  | 

480  | 

160 

80  |      20  |  13.3  |   10J  Schcsnus' 

11.04 

[Cubit    . 

LONG  MEASURES. 

Feet. 
1.824 

Stadii 

im  or 
Sabt 

...      0     729 

400 

4.6 

2000 

1        5 

3.0 

...      1    403 

4000 

10 

2 

1.0 

...      4    153 
...    33    172 

12000 

|      30 

6 

3.0 

96000 

|    240 

48 

4.0 

V6  5  Feet=l  Pace;   1056=1  mile. 
According  to  the  bishop  of  Peterborough,  a  Parasang  is  equal  to  4  miles,  116  paces. 

FOR  TABLES  OF  TIME  SEE   THE  ARTICLES  "MONTHS"  AND  "  DAT." 


Caph 
L3~ 


5.3 


16 


32 


96 


960 


TABLES    OF   SCRIPTURE   MEASURES   OF  CAPACITY. 

MEASURES  FOR  LIQUIDS,  REDUCED  TO  ENGLISH  WINE  MEASURE. 

Gallons.  Pints. 
0    0.625 

Log 0    0.833 

~T|  Cab 0    3.3? 

12  |      3  |  Hin 1     ? 

24  |      6  |    2  |  Seah 9* 

~72  |    18  |    6  |    3  |  Bath  or  Epha .„ 

T20  |  180  |  60  |  20  J  10  "|  Chomer,  Homer,  Kor,  or  Coros  .     . 

— — — — — — -  65 


1002 

The  Omer  was  one-tcnth  of  an  Epha,  and  contained  6  pints ;  the  Metretes  of  Syria,  trans 
lated  in  John  ii,  6,  "firkins,"  7y  pints;  and  the  eastern  Cotyla,  half  a  pint.  This  Cotyla, 
Bays  the  bishop  of  Peterborough,  contains  just  10  ounces  Averdupois  of  rain  water;  the 
Omer,  100  ounces;  the  Epha,  1000;  and  the  Chomer,  10,000  ounces.  So  by  these  weights 
all  theM  measures  of  capacity  may  be  expeditiously  recovered  to  a  near  exactness. 

MEASURES  FOR  THINGS  DRY,    REDUCED  TO    ENGLISH  CORN  MEASURE. 

Pecks.  Gala.    Pints. 
Gachal 0     0     0.1416 


20  |  Cab 0     0    2.8333 


36  |       1.8  |  Omer  or  Gomer .     0     0     5.1 


120  J        6     |       3.3  |  Seah 101 


360  |     18  10     |    3  |  Epha 303 


1800  |     90     |     50     |  15  |     5  |  Letech 16     0     0 

3600  |    180     |    100     |  30  |  10  |  2  |  Chomer,  Homer,  &c.      ...  32     0     0 


TABLES  OF  MONEY. 

JEWISH  MONET,   REDUCED  TO  THE  ENGLISH  STANDARD. 


■Gerah 


10  |  Bekah 


20  |        2  |  Shekel 


1200  |    120  |      50  |  Maneh,  or  Mina  Hebraica 


60,000  |  6000  |  3000  |  60  |  Talent 342 


£. 

0 
0 

B. 

0 

1 

d. 

1.3687 
1.6875 

0 
5 

2 
14 

3.375 
0.75 

IS 

3 

9 

Solidus  Aureus,  or  Sextula,  was  worth 0  12     0.5 

Siclus  Aureus,  or  Gold  Shekel 1  16     6 

Talent  of  Gold 5475     0     0 

The  bishop  of  Peterborough  makes  the  Mina  Hebraica  to  contain  60  Shekels,  and  to  weigh 
27  oz.  7  A  dwts. ;  which,  at  5s.  per  ounce,  will  amount  to  61.  16s.  lOirf. ;  and  the  Talent  of 
Silver  to  contain  50  Mince,  which,  at  5s.,  will  equal  the  amount  in  this  table,  342Z.  3s.  9d 

ROMAN   MONET,  MENTIONED  IN   THE  NEW   TESTAMENT,  REDUCED  TO  THE 
ENGLISH  STANDARD. 

£.    s.    d.    far. 

Mite  (Assarium) 000       £ 

Farthing,  (Quadrans,)  about 0     0     0     1£ 

Penny,  or  Denarius  (Silver) 0073 

Pound,  or  Mina 3260 

According  to  the  bishop  of  Peterborough,  the  Roman  Mite  is  one-third  of  our  farthing;  Quad- 
rans, three-fourths  of  a  farthing ;  the  Assarium,  a  farthing  and  a  half;  and  the  Assis  three 
farthings. 

***  In  the  preceding  Tables,  Silver  is  valued  at  5s.,  and  Gold  at  £i.  per  ounce. 

Since  the  publication,  in  1727,  of  Dr.  Arbuthnot's  "Tables  of  Ancient  Coins,  Weights,  and 
Measures,"  that  celebrated  work  has  been  regarded  by  the  best  divines  as  the  general  standard 
on  these  difficult  subjects.     More  recently  the  bishop  of  Peterborough  has  rendered  good 
service  to  this  part  of  Biblical  antiquity  by  entering  into  several  nice  and  extensive  calcula- 
tions on  the  weights  and  measures  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  which  have,  with  very  few 
exceptions,  confirmed  the  previous  investigations  of  Dr.  Arbuthnot :   and  as  the  axiom, 
What  is  new  in  theology  is  false,"  holds  good  only  in  regard  to  the  doctrines  of  Scripture, 
un  not  to  its  statics  and  numismatics,  no  hesitation  has  been  felt  in  presenting  the  reader, 
the  beach  of  the  preceding  Tables,  with  some  of  the  most  important  of  the  results  which 
In  the  ntf!'  has  thus  ohtained. 

ably  dcrrJse  department  of  mensuration  of  superficies,  the  same  learned  prelate  has  also 

cubit  in  leifyated'  tnat  l^e  ^tar  °f  incense,  described  in  Exodus  xxx,  2,  as  consisting  of  a 

cubit,  that  is','  anc*  a  cub'1  m  breadth,  and  yet  "  four-square,"  contained  exactly  one  square 

-oc  English  square  feet,  and  about  forty-seven  square  inches ;— that  the  table  of 


1003 

shew  bread,  described  in  Exodus  xxv,  23,  as  being  two  cuUts  long  and  one  broad,  and  rec- 
tangular, contained  above  six  English  square  feet; — that  the  boards  of  the  tabernacle,  described 
in  Exodus  xxvi,  16,  as  ten  cubits  in  length  and  a  cubit  and  a  half  in  breadth,  and  rectangular, 
contained  nearly  fifty  square  feet  of  English  measure  ; — that  the  mercy  seat,  which  Moses  is 
directed  to  make  "  two  cubits  and  a  half  the  length  thereof,  and  a  cubit  and  a  half  the  breadth 
thereof,"  Exodus  xxv,  17,  contained  twelve  and  a  half  square  feet ; — that  the  altar  of  incense, 
which  was  directed  to  be  "a  cubit  the  length  thereof  and  a  cubit  the  breadth  thereof,'  and 
four  square,"  Exodus  xxx,  2,  contained  upward  of  three  square  feet ; — that  the  court  of  the 
tabernacle,  the  orders  concerning  which  were,  "The  length  of  the  court  shall  be  a  hundred 
cubits,  and  the  breadth  fifty  every  where,"  Exodus  xxvii,  18,  comprised  upward  of  sixteen 
thousand  six  hundred  and  thirty-four  square  feet,  or  in  English  land  measure  one  rood, 
twenty-one  perches,  and  twenty-seven  and  a  half  feet ; — and  that  the  Levites1  glebe,  which 
is  thus  described  in  Numbers  xxxv,  3-5  :  "  The  cities  they  shall  have  to  dwell  in :  and  the 
suburbs  of  them  shall  be  for  their  cattle,  and  for  their  goods,  and  for  all  their  beasts.  And 
the  suburbs  of  the  cities,  which  ye  shall  give  unto  the  Levites,  shall  reach  from  the  wall  of 
the  city  and  outward  a  thousand  cubits  round  about.  And  ye  shall  measure  from  without 
the  city  on  the  east  side  two  thousand  cubits,  and  on  the  south  side  two  thousand  cubits," 
&c ;  "  and  the  city  shall  be  in  the  midst ;"  contained  three  hundred  and  five  acres,  two  roods, 
and  one  perch,  which  was,  for  each  of  the  four  sides,  seventy-six  acres,  one  rood,  twenty 
perches,  and  eighty  square  feet. 
Respecting  the  Egyptian  aroura,  which  is  sometimes  mistranslated  "  acre,"  the  bishop  remarks, 
"Reflecting  upon  Moses'  measure  by  cubits,  and,"  in  the  case  of  the  court  of  the  tabernacle, 
"  finding  them  to  be  precisely  five  thousand  square  cubits,  I  observed  that  they  were  just 
liajf  ten  thousand,  which  I  had  observed  from  Herodotus  to  be  the  area  of  the  Egyptian 
aroura,  by  which  their  land  was  as  generally  measured  as  ours  is  by  acres  and  roods.  J 
called  also  to  mind  a  passage  in  Manetho,  an  Egyptian  priest,  cited  by  Josephus,  in  his  first 
book  against  Apion,  where  he  affirms,  that  Manetho,  in  his  history  of  the  reign,  wars,  and 
expulsion  of  the  Pastors,  (whom  Africanus  affirms  to  be  Phenicians  or  Canaanites,  and 
Josephus  vainly  believed  to  be  Jews,)  wrote  out  of  the  public  records  of  Egypt,  that  these 
Pastors  made  at  Abaris  a  very  large  and  strong  encampment,  that  encompassed  ten  thousand 
aroura,  sufficient  to  contain  two  hundred  and  forty  thousand  men,  and  long  to  maintain 
their  cattle.  Hence  it  appears,  tha*  not  only  the  Egyptians,  but  also  the  Phenicians  or 
Canaanites,  that  had  dwelt  among  them,  and  had  reigned  there  during  the  time  of  six  kings 
successively,  used  this  measure  of  land  called  aroura.  Now  this  was  long  before  the  time 
of  Moses  ;  for  the  beginning  of  Amosis  or  Tethmosis,  who  expelled  them  out  of  Egypt,  was 
very  near  the  time  of  Abraham's  death.  Wherefore  I  believe  that  Moses,  who  was  skilled 
in  all  Egyptian  learning,  especially  in  surveying,  did  of  choice  make  the  court  of  the  taber- 
nacle to  be  just  half  an  aroura,  which  was  a  known  measure  to  him  and  his  people,  and  that 
divine  authority  directed  him  so  to  do."  In  another  part  of  his  work  he  reduces  the  Egyp- 
tian aroura  into  English  measure,  and  finds  it  to  be  three  roods,  two  perches,  and  fifty-five 
and  a  quarter  square  feet. 


THE  END. 


UNDER  THE  ARTICLE 

Apostles'  Creed,  for  Creed,  read  Confessions  of  Faith. 


Princeton  Theological  Seminary-Spee.  Lib 


1    1012  01124  3500 


mm 


si 


■ 


Br 


VaiH 


■HnH 


